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Programs -------- ### ProCURE ProCURE is the name of the project in which PROJECT C.U.R.E. collects new and overstock medical supplies and working equipment from manufacturers, wholesale suppliers, hospitals, clinics and individuals. The goods obtained from ProCURE are then sorted and inventoried at PROJECT C.U.R.E. distribution centers before being sent to hospitals and clinics in developing counties. ### Corps The C.U.R.E. Corps is the volunteer member group for PROJECT C.U.R.E. made up of individuals, families, civic and church groups. Volunteer tasks include contacting hospitals and doctors for donations, collecting donations, sorting supplies, packing boxes, and loading supplies onto cargo containers to be shipped. ### Cargo Cargo containers for PROJECT C.U.R.E. are the size of a semi\-truck trailer. Each container holds an average of $400,000 in medical supplies and equipment. On average, PROJECT C.U.R.E. delivers two cargo containers a week to developing nations. ### Kits C.U.R.E. Kits are boxes which contain essential medical supplies and equipment to be carried as luggage on an international flight. C.U.R.E. Kits are designed to meet the needs for short\-term medical missions abroad and can be shipped directly to the traveler's home. ### Clinics C.U.R.E. Clinics prove an avenue for volunteer medical professionals to travel to developing countries where they are able to offer medical services. Location in which PROJECT C.U.R.E. Clinics have operated include: Guatemala, Kenya, Rwanda, Ghana, Bolivia, China, and Togo. ### Kits for Kids C.U.R.E. Kits for Kids is a program where drawstring backpacks are filled with personal hygiene and basic "medicine cabinet" items that are scarce in the third world. Kits for Kids gives parents the supplies they need to care for their children at home. Each bag has a tag, which allows for tracking as it makes its way across the world and into the hands of a family in need.{{cite web\|url\=https://projectcure.org/programs/kidskits\|title\=Kits for Kids\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|website\=Project C.U.R.E.\|publisher\=HandsomeDogStudio\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|accessdate\=}}
[ "Programs\n--------", "### ProCURE", "ProCURE is the name of the project in which PROJECT C.U.R.E. collects new and overstock medical supplies and working equipment from manufacturers, wholesale suppliers, hospitals, clinics and individuals. The goods obtained from ProCURE are then sorted and inventoried at PROJECT C.U.R.E. distribution centers before being sent to hospitals and clinics in developing counties.", "### Corps", "The C.U.R.E. Corps is the volunteer member group for PROJECT C.U.R.E. made up of individuals, families, civic and church groups. Volunteer tasks include contacting hospitals and doctors for donations, collecting donations, sorting supplies, packing boxes, and loading supplies onto cargo containers to be shipped.", "### Cargo", "Cargo containers for PROJECT C.U.R.E. are the size of a semi\\-truck trailer. Each container holds an average of $400,000 in medical supplies and equipment. On average, PROJECT C.U.R.E. delivers two cargo containers a week to developing nations.", "### Kits", "C.U.R.E. Kits are boxes which contain essential medical supplies and equipment to be carried as luggage on an international flight. C.U.R.E. Kits are designed to meet the needs for short\\-term medical missions abroad and can be shipped directly to the traveler's home.", "### Clinics", "C.U.R.E. Clinics prove an avenue for volunteer medical professionals to travel to developing countries where they are able to offer medical services. Location in which PROJECT C.U.R.E. Clinics have operated include: Guatemala, Kenya, Rwanda, Ghana, Bolivia, China, and Togo.", "### Kits for Kids", "C.U.R.E. Kits for Kids is a program where drawstring backpacks are filled with personal hygiene and basic \"medicine cabinet\" items that are scarce in the third world. Kits for Kids gives parents the supplies they need to care for their children at home. Each bag has a tag, which allows for tracking as it makes its way across the world and into the hands of a family in need.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://projectcure.org/programs/kidskits\\|title\\=Kits for Kids\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|website\\=Project C.U.R.E.\\|publisher\\=HandsomeDogStudio\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|accessdate\\=}}", "" ]
History of the concept in African written sources ------------------------------------------------- Ubuntu has been in existence in [orature (oral literature)](/wiki/Oral_literature "Oral literature") and in the culture of Bantu peoples. It appeared in South African written sources from as early as the mid\-19th century. Reported translations covered the [semantic field](/wiki/Semantic_field "Semantic field") of "human nature, humanness, humanity; virtue, goodness, kindness". Grammatically, the word combines the root *[\-ntʊ̀](/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Bantu/m%CA%8A%CC%80nt%CA%8A%CC%80 "Proto-Bantu/mʊ̀ntʊ̀")* "person, human being" with the [class 14](/wiki/Zulu_grammar%23Nouns "Zulu grammar#Nouns") *[ubu\-](/wiki/Ubu- "Ubu-")* prefix forming [abstract nouns](/wiki/Abstract_noun "Abstract noun"),see also [Zulu noun classes](/wiki/Appendix:Zulu_nouns%23Noun_classes "Zulu nouns#Noun classes") on [Wiktionary](/wiki/Wiktionary "Wiktionary"). so that the term is exactly parallel in formation to the abstract noun *[humanity](/wiki/Humanity "Humanity")*.in the sense of an abstract quality. The sense "mankind" is taken by the class 7 collective noun *[isintu](/wiki/Isintu "Isintu")*. The concept was popularised in terms of a "[philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy")" or "[world view](/wiki/World_view "World view")" (as opposed to a quality attributed to an individual) beginning in the 1950s, notably in the writings of [Jordan Kush Ngubane](/wiki/Jordan_Kush_Ngubane "Jordan Kush Ngubane") published in the *[African Drum](/wiki/Drum_%28South_African_magazine%29 "Drum (South African magazine)")* magazine. From the 1970s, the *ubuntu* began to be described as a specific kind of "African humanism". Based on the context of [Africanisation](/wiki/Pan-Africanism "Pan-Africanism") propagated by the political thinkers in the 1960s period of [decolonisation](/wiki/Decolonization "Decolonization"), *ubuntu* was used as a term for a specifically African (or Southern African) kind of humanism found in the context of the transition to majority rule in [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe "Zimbabwe") and [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa"). The first publication dedicated to *ubuntu* as a philosophical concept appeared in 1980, *Hunhuism or Ubuntuism: A Zimbabwe Indigenous Political Philosophy* (*hunhu* being the [Shona](/wiki/Shona_languages "Shona languages") equivalent of Nguni *ubuntu*) by [Stanlake J. W. T. Samkange](/wiki/Stanlake_J._W._T._Samkange "Stanlake J. W. T. Samkange"). Hunhuism or Ubuntuism is presented as political ideology for the new Zimbabwe, as [Southern Rhodesia](/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia "Southern Rhodesia") attained independence from the United Kingdom. The concept was used in South Africa in the 1990s as a guiding ideal for the [transition from apartheid to majority rule](/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa "Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa"). The term appears in the Epilogue of the Interim Constitution of South Africa (1993\): "there is a need for understanding but not for vengeance, a need for reparation but not for retaliation, a need for *ubuntu* but not for victimisation".{{cite journal\|author\=Christian B. N. Gade\|url\=http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/40165256/The\_Historical\_Development\_of\_the\_Written\_Discourses\_on\_Ubuntu.pdf \|title\=The Historical Development of the Written Discourses on Ubuntu\|journal\=South African Journal of Philosophy\|volume\= 30\|issue\=3\|pages\= 303–329\|doi\=10\.4314/sajpem.v30i3\.69578 \|year\=2011 \|s2cid\=143928483 }} In South Africa, it has come to be used as a contested{{cite journal \|last1\=Mboti \|first1\=Nyasha \|title\=May the Real Ubuntu Please Stand Up? \|journal\=Journal of Media Ethics \|date\=3 April 2015 \|volume\=30 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=125–147 \|doi\=10\.1080/23736992\.2015\.1020380 \|s2cid\=53519937 \|issn\=2373\-6992\|url\=http://osf.io/mgzw6/ }} term for a kind of [humanist](/wiki/Humanism "Humanism") philosophy, ethic, or ideology, also known as **Ubuntuism** propagated in the [Africanisation](/wiki/Africanization "Africanization") (transition to majority rule) process of these countries during the 1980s and 1990s. New research has begun to question the exclusive "humanism" framing, and thus to suggest that *ubuntu* can have a "militaristic" angle – an *ubuntu* for warriors.{{cite book \|last1\=Chasi \|first1\=Colin \|title\=Ubuntu for Warriors \|date\=2021 \|publisher\=Africa World Press \|location\=Trenton, NJ \|url\=https://africaworldpressbooks.com/ubuntu\-for\-warriors\-by\-colin\-chasi/}} In Uganda the term is used in people's everyday language as a way to relate to one another and call for community. The term can also be used to criticize another's actions if one states that they have lost "Obuuntu" (their humanity). Since the transition to democracy in South Africa with the [Nelson Mandela](/wiki/Nelson_Mandela "Nelson Mandela") presidency [in 1994](/wiki/South_African_general_election%2C_1994 "South African general election, 1994"), the term has become more widely known outside of Southern Africa, notably popularised to English\-language readers through the [ubuntu theology](/wiki/Ubuntu_theology "Ubuntu theology") of [Desmond Tutu](/wiki/Desmond_Tutu "Desmond Tutu").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.thoughtco.com/the\-meaning\-of\-ubuntu\-43307\|title\=Get the Definition of Ubuntu, a Nguni Word with Several Meanings\|work\=ThoughtCo\|access\-date\=2017\-08\-28}} Tutu was the chairman of the South African [Truth and Reconciliation Commission](/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_%28South_Africa%29 "Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)") (TRC), and many have argued that *ubuntu* was a formative influence on the TRC.
[ "History of the concept in African written sources\n-------------------------------------------------", "Ubuntu has been in existence in [orature (oral literature)](/wiki/Oral_literature \"Oral literature\") and in the culture of Bantu peoples. It appeared in South African written sources from as early as the mid\\-19th century. Reported translations covered the [semantic field](/wiki/Semantic_field \"Semantic field\") of \"human nature, humanness, humanity; virtue, goodness, kindness\". Grammatically, the word combines the root *[\\-ntʊ̀](/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Bantu/m%CA%8A%CC%80nt%CA%8A%CC%80 \"Proto-Bantu/mʊ̀ntʊ̀\")* \"person, human being\" with the [class 14](/wiki/Zulu_grammar%23Nouns \"Zulu grammar#Nouns\") *[ubu\\-](/wiki/Ubu- \"Ubu-\")* prefix forming [abstract nouns](/wiki/Abstract_noun \"Abstract noun\"),see also [Zulu noun classes](/wiki/Appendix:Zulu_nouns%23Noun_classes \"Zulu nouns#Noun classes\") on [Wiktionary](/wiki/Wiktionary \"Wiktionary\"). so that the term is exactly parallel in formation to the abstract noun *[humanity](/wiki/Humanity \"Humanity\")*.in the sense of an abstract quality. The sense \"mankind\" is taken by the class 7 collective noun *[isintu](/wiki/Isintu \"Isintu\")*.", "The concept was popularised in terms of a \"[philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\")\" or \"[world view](/wiki/World_view \"World view\")\" (as opposed to a quality attributed to an individual) beginning in the 1950s, notably in the writings of [Jordan Kush Ngubane](/wiki/Jordan_Kush_Ngubane \"Jordan Kush Ngubane\") published in the *[African Drum](/wiki/Drum_%28South_African_magazine%29 \"Drum (South African magazine)\")* magazine. From the 1970s, the *ubuntu* began to be described as a specific kind of \"African humanism\". Based on the context of [Africanisation](/wiki/Pan-Africanism \"Pan-Africanism\") propagated by the political thinkers in the 1960s period of [decolonisation](/wiki/Decolonization \"Decolonization\"), *ubuntu* was used as a term for a specifically African (or Southern African) kind of humanism found in the context of the transition to majority rule in [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\") and [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\").", "The first publication dedicated to *ubuntu* as a philosophical concept appeared in 1980, *Hunhuism or Ubuntuism: A Zimbabwe Indigenous Political Philosophy* (*hunhu* being the [Shona](/wiki/Shona_languages \"Shona languages\") equivalent of Nguni *ubuntu*) by [Stanlake J. W. T. Samkange](/wiki/Stanlake_J._W._T._Samkange \"Stanlake J. W. T. Samkange\"). Hunhuism or Ubuntuism is presented as political ideology for the new Zimbabwe, as [Southern Rhodesia](/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia \"Southern Rhodesia\") attained independence from the United Kingdom.", "The concept was used in South Africa in the 1990s as a guiding ideal for the [transition from apartheid to majority rule](/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa \"Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa\"). The term appears in the Epilogue of the Interim Constitution of South Africa (1993\\): \"there is a need for understanding but not for vengeance, a need for reparation but not for retaliation, a need for *ubuntu* but not for victimisation\".{{cite journal\\|author\\=Christian B. N. Gade\\|url\\=http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/40165256/The\\_Historical\\_Development\\_of\\_the\\_Written\\_Discourses\\_on\\_Ubuntu.pdf \\|title\\=The Historical Development of the Written Discourses on Ubuntu\\|journal\\=South African Journal of Philosophy\\|volume\\= 30\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\= 303–329\\|doi\\=10\\.4314/sajpem.v30i3\\.69578 \\|year\\=2011 \\|s2cid\\=143928483 }}", "In South Africa, it has come to be used as a contested{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Mboti \\|first1\\=Nyasha \\|title\\=May the Real Ubuntu Please Stand Up? \\|journal\\=Journal of Media Ethics \\|date\\=3 April 2015 \\|volume\\=30 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=125–147 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/23736992\\.2015\\.1020380 \\|s2cid\\=53519937 \\|issn\\=2373\\-6992\\|url\\=http://osf.io/mgzw6/ }} term for a kind of [humanist](/wiki/Humanism \"Humanism\") philosophy, ethic, or ideology, also known as **Ubuntuism** propagated in the [Africanisation](/wiki/Africanization \"Africanization\") (transition to majority rule) process of these countries during the 1980s and 1990s. New research has begun to question the exclusive \"humanism\" framing, and thus to suggest that *ubuntu* can have a \"militaristic\" angle – an *ubuntu* for warriors.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Chasi \\|first1\\=Colin \\|title\\=Ubuntu for Warriors \\|date\\=2021 \\|publisher\\=Africa World Press \\|location\\=Trenton, NJ \\|url\\=https://africaworldpressbooks.com/ubuntu\\-for\\-warriors\\-by\\-colin\\-chasi/}}", "In Uganda the term is used in people's everyday language as a way to relate to one another and call for community. The term can also be used to criticize another's actions if one states that they have lost \"Obuuntu\" (their humanity).", "Since the transition to democracy in South Africa with the [Nelson Mandela](/wiki/Nelson_Mandela \"Nelson Mandela\") presidency [in 1994](/wiki/South_African_general_election%2C_1994 \"South African general election, 1994\"), the term has become more widely known outside of Southern Africa, notably popularised to English\\-language readers through the [ubuntu theology](/wiki/Ubuntu_theology \"Ubuntu theology\") of [Desmond Tutu](/wiki/Desmond_Tutu \"Desmond Tutu\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.thoughtco.com/the\\-meaning\\-of\\-ubuntu\\-43307\\|title\\=Get the Definition of Ubuntu, a Nguni Word with Several Meanings\\|work\\=ThoughtCo\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-28}} Tutu was the chairman of the South African [Truth and Reconciliation Commission](/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_%28South_Africa%29 \"Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)\") (TRC), and many have argued that *ubuntu* was a formative influence on the TRC.", "" ]
Applications ------------ ### In diplomacy In June 2009, in her swearing\-in remarks as [US Department of State](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State "U.S. Department of State") Special Representative for Global Partnerships, Global Partnership Initiative, Office of the Secretary of State, [Elizabeth Frawley Bagley](/wiki/Elizabeth_Frawley_Bagley "Elizabeth Frawley Bagley") discussed ubuntu in the context of American [foreign policy](/wiki/Foreign_policy "Foreign policy"), stating: "In understanding the responsibilities that come with our interconnectedness, we realize that we must rely on each other to lift our World from where it is now to where we want it to be in our lifetime, while casting aside our worn out preconceptions, and our outdated modes of statecraft." She then introduced the notion of "Ubuntu Diplomacy" with the following words: {{Blockquote\|In 21st\-century diplomacy, the Department of State will be a convener, bringing people together from across regions and sectors to work together on issues of common interest. Our work no longer depends on the least common denominator; but rather, we will seek the highest possible multiplier effect for the results we can achieve together. We will also act as a catalyst, with our Foreign Service Officers launching new projects in tandem with those NGOs, philanthropies, and corporations at the front lines of foreign affairs to discover untapped potential, inspire fresh ideas, and create new solutions. And we will act as a collaborator, leading interagency coordination here in Washington and cross\-sector collaboration in the field, with our Ambassadors working closely with our non\-governmental partners to plan and implement projects for maximum impact and sustainability. It takes a shared, global response to meet the shared, global challenges we face. This is the truth taught to us in an old South African principle, ubuntu, or 'A person is a person through other persons.' As Archbishop \[\[Desmond Tutu]] describes this perspective, ubuntu 'is not, "I think therefore I am." It says rather: "I am a human because I belong. I participate. I share.{{"'}} In essence, I am because you are. We are truly all in this together, and we will only succeed by building mutually beneficial partnerships among civil society, the private sector, and the public sector, in order to empower the men and women executing our foreign policy to advance their work through partnerships. The truth and reconciliation council believed in the philosophy of Ubuntu because they believed that Ubuntu was going to help to reform and reconnect the already broken country of South Africa. This is Ubuntu Diplomacy: where all sectors belong as partners, where we all participate as stakeholders, and where we all succeed together, not incrementally but exponentially.U.S. Department of State. \[https://web.archive.org/web/20090715073339/http://www.state.gov/s/partnerships/ubuntu/index.htm Ubuntu Diplomacy.]}} ### In education In education, Ubuntu has been used to guide and promote African education, and to decolonise it from Western educational philosophies.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hapanyengwi\-Chemhuru \|first1\=Oswell \|last2\=Makuvaza \|first2\=Ngoni \|title\=Hunhu: In Search of an Indigenous Philosophy for the Zimbabwean Education System Practice without thought is blind: thought without practice is empty \|journal\=Journal of Indigenous Social Development \|date\=1 August 2014 \|volume\=3 \|issue\=1 \|url\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/32298369\.pdf \|language\=en \|issn\=2164\-9170}} Ubuntu education uses the family, community, society, environment and spirituality as sources of knowledge but also as teaching and learning media. The essence of education is family, community, societal and environmental well\-being. Ubuntu education is about learners becoming critical about their social conditions. Interaction, participation, recognition, respect and inclusion are important aspects of ubuntu education. Methods of teaching and learning include groups and community approaches. The objectives, content, methodology and outcomes of education are shaped by Ubuntu. ### In social work, welfare and development This refers to Afrocentric ways of providing a social safety net to vulnerable members of society. Common elements include collectivity. The approach helps to "validate worldview and traditions suppressed by Western Eurocentric cultural hegemony".{{cite journal \|last1\=Schiele \|first1\=Jerome \|title\=An Afrocentric Perspective on Social Welfare Philosophy and Policy \|journal\=The Journal of Sociology \& Social Welfare \|date\=1 June 1997 \|volume\=24 \|issue\=2 \|doi\=10\.15453/0191\-5096\.2414 \|s2cid\=142897928 \|url\=https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw/vol24/iss2/3/ \|issn\=0191\-5096\|doi\-access\=free }} It is against materialism and individualism. It looks at an individual person as holistically. The social interventions done by social workers, welfare workers and development workers should strengthen, not weaken families, communities, society, the environment and peoples's spirituality. These are the five pillars of ubuntu intervention: family, community, society, environment and spirituality. Ubuntu is the current theme for the Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development and represents the highest level of global messaging within social work profession for the years 2020–2030\.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Mayaka\|first1\=Bernard\|last2\=Truell\|first2\=Rory\|date\=2021\-07\-20\|title\=Ubuntu and its potential impact on the international social work profession\|journal\=International Social Work\|volume\=64\|issue\=5\|pages\=649–662\|doi\=10\.1177/00208728211022787\|issn\=0020\-8728\|doi\-access\=\|s2cid\=237433849 }} Utilising the biopsychosocial and ecological system approaches, ubuntu is a philosophy that is applicable in clinical social work in mental health.{{Cite journal\|last\=Chigangaidze\|first\=Robert K.\|date\=2021\-07\-04\|title\=Defending the African philosophy of ubuntu and its place in clinical social work practice in mental health: The biopsychosocial and ecological systems perspectives\|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/15332985\.2021\.1910894\|journal\=Social Work in Mental Health\|volume\=19\|issue\=4\|pages\=276–288\|doi\=10\.1080/15332985\.2021\.1910894\|s2cid\=235172607\|issn\=1533\-2985}} ### In research Ubuntu can guide research objectives, ethics and methodology.{{cite journal \|last1\=Seehawer \|first1\=Maren Kristin \|title\=Decolonising research in a Sub\-Saharan African context: exploring Ubuntu as a foundation for research methodology, ethics and agenda \|journal\=International Journal of Social Research Methodology \|date\=4 July 2018 \|volume\=21 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=453–466 \|doi\=10\.1080/13645579\.2018\.1432404 \|s2cid\=149213225 \|language\=en \|issn\=1364\-5579}}{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajsw/article/view/192200\|title\=Reframing social work research for Africa's consumers of research products: a guiding tool\|first1\=Jacob\|last1\=Mugumbate\|first2\=Edmoss\|last2\=Mtetwa\|date\=January 12, 2019\|journal\=African Journal of Social Work\|volume\=9\|issue\=2\|pages\=52–58}} Using ubuntu research approach provides researchers with an African oriented tool that decolonises research agenda and methodology. The objectives of ubuntu research are to empower families, communities and society at large. In doing ubuntu research, the position of the researcher is important because it helps create research relationships. The agenda of the research belongs to the community, and true participation is highly valued. *[Ujamaa](/wiki/wikt:Ujamaa%23Swahili "Ujamaa#Swahili")* is valued, it means pulling together or collaboration.{{cite journal \|last1\=Muwanga\-Zake \|first1\=J.W.F. \|title\=Building bridges across knowledge systems: Ubuntu and participative research paradigms in Bantu communities \|journal\=Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education \|date\=December 2009 \|volume\=30 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=413–426 \|doi\=10\.1080/01596300903237198\|s2cid\=144633541 }} ### In moral philosophy According to this philosophy, "actions are right roughly insofar as they are a matter of living harmoniously with others or honouring communal relationships", "One's ultimate goal should be to become a full person, a real self or a genuine human being". *[Ukama](/wiki/wikt:Ukama%23Shona "Ukama#Shona")*, i.e. relationships are important.{{cite journal \|last1\=Metz \|first1\=Thaddeus \|last2\=Gaie \|first2\=Joseph B.R. \|title\=The African ethic of Ubuntu/Botho : implications for research on morality \|journal\=Journal of Moral Education \|date\=September 2010 \|volume\=39 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=273–290 \|doi\=10\.1080/03057240\.2010\.497609\|s2cid\=143660998 }} Among the Shona people, for example, when a person dies, his or her property is shared amongst relatives and there are culturally approved ways of doing this. The practice is called *[kugova](/wiki/wikt:Kugova%23Shona "Kugova#Shona")*. Samkange (1980\)'s maxim on morality says "If and when one is faced with a decisive choice between wealth and the preservation of the life of another human being, then one should opt for the preservation of life". ### In politics and leadership Samkange (1980\) said no foreign political philosophy can be useful in a country more than the indigenous philosophies.Samkange, S., \& T. M. Samkange (1980\). Hunhuism or ubuntuism: A Zimbabwe Indigenous Political Philosophy. Salisbury \[Harare]: Graham Publishing, {{ISBN\|0\-86921\-015\-7}}. 106pp. Paperback "Is there a philosophy or ideology indigenous to (a) country that can serve its people just as well, if not better than, foreign ideologies?", asked Samkange in the book *Hunhuism or Ubuntuism*. His maxim for leadership is "The king owes his status, including all the powers associated with it, to the will of the people under him".{{rp\|7}} ### In social justice, criminal justice and jurisprudence Ubuntu justice has elements different from western societies: it values repairing relationships. Ubuntu justice emphasises these elements: 1. Deterrence which can be done socially, physically, economically or spiritually 2. Returning and Replacement – meaning bring back what has been stolen, replacing it or compensating. In Shona language this is called *[kudzora](/wiki/wikt:Kudzora%23Shona "Kudzora#Shona")* and *[kuripa](/wiki/wikt:Kuripa%23Shona "Kuripa#Shona")* 3. Apology, Forgiveness and Reconciliation (restoration of *[ukama](/wiki/wikt:Ukama%23Shona "Ukama#Shona")* or relations) after meeting the above 4. Warnings and Punishments (retribution) from leaders and elders if the above have not been achieved or ignored 5. Warnings and Punishments from spiritual beings if the above have not been met. In Shona culture, these are called *[jambwa](/wiki/wikt:Jambwa%23Shona "Jambwa#Shona")* and *[ngozi](/wiki/wikt:Ngozi%23Shona "Ngozi#Shona")* Families, and at times community are involved in the process of justice. African scholars have noted that while some elements of Ubuntu are liberating to women, others "marginalize and disempower" them, and "can be seen as engendering [patriarchy](/wiki/Patriarchy "Patriarchy")".{{Cite journal\|last\=Manyonganise\|first\=Molly\|date\=2015\|title\=Oppressive and liberative: A Zimbabwean woman's reflections on ubuntu\|journal\=Verbum et Ecclesia\|volume\=36\|issue\=2\|pages\=1–7\|doi\=10\.4102/VE.V36I2\.1438\|issn\=2074\-7705\|doi\-access\=free}} Ubuntu has also been associated with [restorative justice.](/wiki/Restorative_justice. "Restorative justice.") Some scholars have argued that restorative justice practices are embedded in the Ubuntu philosophy which shares similarities with their philosophy, values and practices.{{Cite web \|title\=Arguments for Following a Restorative Approach to Act in the Best Interest of At\-Risk Youth: An Interpretative Review – RJ4ALL PUBLICATIONS \|url\=https://www.rj4allpublications.com/product/arguments\-for\-following\-a\-restorative\-approach/ \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-09 \|language\=en\-US}} Within the restorative justice context, ubuntu is understood as African humanism, a philosophy, an ethic, and as a worldview.{{Cite journal \|last\=Gade \|first\=Christian B.N. \|date\=January 2011 \|title\=The Historical Development of the Written Discourses on Ubuntu \|url\=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\.4314/sajpem.v30i3\.69578 \|journal\=South African Journal of Philosophy \|language\=en \|volume\=30 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=303–329 \|doi\=10\.4314/sajpem.v30i3\.69578 \|issn\=0258\-0136}} The underlying restorative justice value of power sharing is very much aligned with the Ubuntu philosophy which "sees" the other through their humanity.
[ "Applications\n------------", "### In diplomacy", "In June 2009, in her swearing\\-in remarks as [US Department of State](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State \"U.S. Department of State\") Special Representative for Global Partnerships, Global Partnership Initiative, Office of the Secretary of State, [Elizabeth Frawley Bagley](/wiki/Elizabeth_Frawley_Bagley \"Elizabeth Frawley Bagley\") discussed ubuntu in the context of American [foreign policy](/wiki/Foreign_policy \"Foreign policy\"), stating: \"In understanding the responsibilities that come with our interconnectedness, we realize that we must rely on each other to lift our World from where it is now to where we want it to be in our lifetime, while casting aside our worn out preconceptions, and our outdated modes of statecraft.\" She then introduced the notion of \"Ubuntu Diplomacy\" with the following words:", "{{Blockquote\\|In 21st\\-century diplomacy, the Department of State will be a convener, bringing people together from across regions and sectors to work together on issues of common interest. Our work no longer depends on the least common denominator; but rather, we will seek the highest possible multiplier effect for the results we can achieve together.", "We will also act as a catalyst, with our Foreign Service Officers launching new projects in tandem with those NGOs, philanthropies, and corporations at the front lines of foreign affairs to discover untapped potential, inspire fresh ideas, and create new solutions.", "And we will act as a collaborator, leading interagency coordination here in Washington and cross\\-sector collaboration in the field, with our Ambassadors working closely with our non\\-governmental partners to plan and implement projects for maximum impact and sustainability.", "It takes a shared, global response to meet the shared, global challenges we face. This is the truth taught to us in an old South African principle, ubuntu, or 'A person is a person through other persons.' As Archbishop \\[\\[Desmond Tutu]] describes this perspective, ubuntu 'is not, \"I think therefore I am.\" It says rather: \"I am a human because I belong. I participate. I share.{{\"'}} In essence, I am because you are.", "We are truly all in this together, and we will only succeed by building mutually beneficial partnerships among civil society, the private sector, and the public sector, in order to empower the men and women executing our foreign policy to advance their work through partnerships.", "The truth and reconciliation council believed in the philosophy of Ubuntu because they believed that Ubuntu was going to help to reform and reconnect the already broken country of South Africa.", "This is Ubuntu Diplomacy: where all sectors belong as partners, where we all participate as stakeholders, and where we all succeed together, not incrementally but exponentially.U.S. Department of State. \\[https://web.archive.org/web/20090715073339/http://www.state.gov/s/partnerships/ubuntu/index.htm Ubuntu Diplomacy.]}}", "### In education", "In education, Ubuntu has been used to guide and promote African education, and to decolonise it from Western educational philosophies.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hapanyengwi\\-Chemhuru \\|first1\\=Oswell \\|last2\\=Makuvaza \\|first2\\=Ngoni \\|title\\=Hunhu: In Search of an Indigenous Philosophy for the Zimbabwean Education System Practice without thought is blind: thought without practice is empty \\|journal\\=Journal of Indigenous Social Development \\|date\\=1 August 2014 \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\=1 \\|url\\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/32298369\\.pdf \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=2164\\-9170}} Ubuntu education uses the family, community, society, environment and spirituality as sources of knowledge but also as teaching and learning media. The essence of education is family, community, societal and environmental well\\-being. Ubuntu education is about learners becoming critical about their social conditions. Interaction, participation, recognition, respect and inclusion are important aspects of ubuntu education. Methods of teaching and learning include groups and community approaches. The objectives, content, methodology and outcomes of education are shaped by Ubuntu.", "### In social work, welfare and development", "This refers to Afrocentric ways of providing a social safety net to vulnerable members of society. Common elements include collectivity. The approach helps to \"validate worldview and traditions suppressed by Western Eurocentric cultural hegemony\".{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Schiele \\|first1\\=Jerome \\|title\\=An Afrocentric Perspective on Social Welfare Philosophy and Policy \\|journal\\=The Journal of Sociology \\& Social Welfare \\|date\\=1 June 1997 \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=2 \\|doi\\=10\\.15453/0191\\-5096\\.2414 \\|s2cid\\=142897928 \\|url\\=https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw/vol24/iss2/3/ \\|issn\\=0191\\-5096\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} It is against materialism and individualism. It looks at an individual person as holistically. The social interventions done by social workers, welfare workers and development workers should strengthen, not weaken families, communities, society, the environment and peoples's spirituality. These are the five pillars of ubuntu intervention: family, community, society, environment and spirituality. Ubuntu is the current theme for the Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development and represents the highest level of global messaging within social work profession for the years 2020–2030\\.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Mayaka\\|first1\\=Bernard\\|last2\\=Truell\\|first2\\=Rory\\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-20\\|title\\=Ubuntu and its potential impact on the international social work profession\\|journal\\=International Social Work\\|volume\\=64\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=649–662\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/00208728211022787\\|issn\\=0020\\-8728\\|doi\\-access\\=\\|s2cid\\=237433849 }} Utilising the biopsychosocial and ecological system approaches, ubuntu is a philosophy that is applicable in clinical social work in mental health.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Chigangaidze\\|first\\=Robert K.\\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-04\\|title\\=Defending the African philosophy of ubuntu and its place in clinical social work practice in mental health: The biopsychosocial and ecological systems perspectives\\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/15332985\\.2021\\.1910894\\|journal\\=Social Work in Mental Health\\|volume\\=19\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=276–288\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/15332985\\.2021\\.1910894\\|s2cid\\=235172607\\|issn\\=1533\\-2985}}", "### In research", "Ubuntu can guide research objectives, ethics and methodology.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Seehawer \\|first1\\=Maren Kristin \\|title\\=Decolonising research in a Sub\\-Saharan African context: exploring Ubuntu as a foundation for research methodology, ethics and agenda \\|journal\\=International Journal of Social Research Methodology \\|date\\=4 July 2018 \\|volume\\=21 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=453–466 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13645579\\.2018\\.1432404 \\|s2cid\\=149213225 \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=1364\\-5579}}{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajsw/article/view/192200\\|title\\=Reframing social work research for Africa's consumers of research products: a guiding tool\\|first1\\=Jacob\\|last1\\=Mugumbate\\|first2\\=Edmoss\\|last2\\=Mtetwa\\|date\\=January 12, 2019\\|journal\\=African Journal of Social Work\\|volume\\=9\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=52–58}} Using ubuntu research approach provides researchers with an African oriented tool that decolonises research agenda and methodology. The objectives of ubuntu research are to empower families, communities and society at large. In doing ubuntu research, the position of the researcher is important because it helps create research relationships. The agenda of the research belongs to the community, and true participation is highly valued. *[Ujamaa](/wiki/wikt:Ujamaa%23Swahili \"Ujamaa#Swahili\")* is valued, it means pulling together or collaboration.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Muwanga\\-Zake \\|first1\\=J.W.F. \\|title\\=Building bridges across knowledge systems: Ubuntu and participative research paradigms in Bantu communities \\|journal\\=Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education \\|date\\=December 2009 \\|volume\\=30 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=413–426 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/01596300903237198\\|s2cid\\=144633541 }}", "### In moral philosophy", "According to this philosophy, \"actions are right roughly insofar as they are a matter of living harmoniously with others or honouring communal relationships\", \"One's ultimate goal should be to become a full person, a real self or a genuine human being\". *[Ukama](/wiki/wikt:Ukama%23Shona \"Ukama#Shona\")*, i.e. relationships are important.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Metz \\|first1\\=Thaddeus \\|last2\\=Gaie \\|first2\\=Joseph B.R. \\|title\\=The African ethic of Ubuntu/Botho : implications for research on morality \\|journal\\=Journal of Moral Education \\|date\\=September 2010 \\|volume\\=39 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=273–290 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/03057240\\.2010\\.497609\\|s2cid\\=143660998 }} Among the Shona people, for example, when a person dies, his or her property is shared amongst relatives and there are culturally approved ways of doing this. The practice is called *[kugova](/wiki/wikt:Kugova%23Shona \"Kugova#Shona\")*. Samkange (1980\\)'s maxim on morality says \"If and when one is faced with a decisive choice between wealth and the preservation of the life of another human being, then one should opt for the preservation of life\".", "### In politics and leadership", "Samkange (1980\\) said no foreign political philosophy can be useful in a country more than the indigenous philosophies.Samkange, S., \\& T. M. Samkange (1980\\). Hunhuism or ubuntuism: A Zimbabwe Indigenous Political Philosophy. Salisbury \\[Harare]: Graham Publishing, {{ISBN\\|0\\-86921\\-015\\-7}}. 106pp. Paperback \"Is there a philosophy or ideology indigenous to (a) country that can serve its people just as well, if not better than, foreign ideologies?\", asked Samkange in the book *Hunhuism or Ubuntuism*. His maxim for leadership is \"The king owes his status, including all the powers associated with it, to the will of the people under him\".{{rp\\|7}}", "### In social justice, criminal justice and jurisprudence", "Ubuntu justice has elements different from western societies: it values repairing relationships. Ubuntu justice emphasises these elements:\n1. Deterrence which can be done socially, physically, economically or spiritually\n2. Returning and Replacement – meaning bring back what has been stolen, replacing it or compensating. In Shona language this is called *[kudzora](/wiki/wikt:Kudzora%23Shona \"Kudzora#Shona\")* and *[kuripa](/wiki/wikt:Kuripa%23Shona \"Kuripa#Shona\")*\n3. Apology, Forgiveness and Reconciliation (restoration of *[ukama](/wiki/wikt:Ukama%23Shona \"Ukama#Shona\")* or relations) after meeting the above\n4. Warnings and Punishments (retribution) from leaders and elders if the above have not been achieved or ignored\n5. Warnings and Punishments from spiritual beings if the above have not been met. In Shona culture, these are called *[jambwa](/wiki/wikt:Jambwa%23Shona \"Jambwa#Shona\")* and *[ngozi](/wiki/wikt:Ngozi%23Shona \"Ngozi#Shona\")*", "Families, and at times community are involved in the process of justice.", "African scholars have noted that while some elements of Ubuntu are liberating to women, others \"marginalize and disempower\" them, and \"can be seen as engendering [patriarchy](/wiki/Patriarchy \"Patriarchy\")\".{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Manyonganise\\|first\\=Molly\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=Oppressive and liberative: A Zimbabwean woman's reflections on ubuntu\\|journal\\=Verbum et Ecclesia\\|volume\\=36\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=1–7\\|doi\\=10\\.4102/VE.V36I2\\.1438\\|issn\\=2074\\-7705\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "Ubuntu has also been associated with [restorative justice.](/wiki/Restorative_justice. \"Restorative justice.\") Some scholars have argued that restorative justice practices are embedded in the Ubuntu philosophy which shares similarities with their philosophy, values and practices.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Arguments for Following a Restorative Approach to Act in the Best Interest of At\\-Risk Youth: An Interpretative Review – RJ4ALL PUBLICATIONS \\|url\\=https://www.rj4allpublications.com/product/arguments\\-for\\-following\\-a\\-restorative\\-approach/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-09 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Within the restorative justice context, ubuntu is understood as African humanism, a philosophy, an ethic, and as a worldview.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Gade \\|first\\=Christian B.N. \\|date\\=January 2011 \\|title\\=The Historical Development of the Written Discourses on Ubuntu \\|url\\=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\\.4314/sajpem.v30i3\\.69578 \\|journal\\=South African Journal of Philosophy \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=30 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=303–329 \\|doi\\=10\\.4314/sajpem.v30i3\\.69578 \\|issn\\=0258\\-0136}} The underlying restorative justice value of power sharing is very much aligned with the Ubuntu philosophy which \"sees\" the other through their humanity.", "" ]
### In diplomacy In June 2009, in her swearing\-in remarks as [US Department of State](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State "U.S. Department of State") Special Representative for Global Partnerships, Global Partnership Initiative, Office of the Secretary of State, [Elizabeth Frawley Bagley](/wiki/Elizabeth_Frawley_Bagley "Elizabeth Frawley Bagley") discussed ubuntu in the context of American [foreign policy](/wiki/Foreign_policy "Foreign policy"), stating: "In understanding the responsibilities that come with our interconnectedness, we realize that we must rely on each other to lift our World from where it is now to where we want it to be in our lifetime, while casting aside our worn out preconceptions, and our outdated modes of statecraft." She then introduced the notion of "Ubuntu Diplomacy" with the following words: {{Blockquote\|In 21st\-century diplomacy, the Department of State will be a convener, bringing people together from across regions and sectors to work together on issues of common interest. Our work no longer depends on the least common denominator; but rather, we will seek the highest possible multiplier effect for the results we can achieve together. We will also act as a catalyst, with our Foreign Service Officers launching new projects in tandem with those NGOs, philanthropies, and corporations at the front lines of foreign affairs to discover untapped potential, inspire fresh ideas, and create new solutions. And we will act as a collaborator, leading interagency coordination here in Washington and cross\-sector collaboration in the field, with our Ambassadors working closely with our non\-governmental partners to plan and implement projects for maximum impact and sustainability. It takes a shared, global response to meet the shared, global challenges we face. This is the truth taught to us in an old South African principle, ubuntu, or 'A person is a person through other persons.' As Archbishop \[\[Desmond Tutu]] describes this perspective, ubuntu 'is not, "I think therefore I am." It says rather: "I am a human because I belong. I participate. I share.{{"'}} In essence, I am because you are. We are truly all in this together, and we will only succeed by building mutually beneficial partnerships among civil society, the private sector, and the public sector, in order to empower the men and women executing our foreign policy to advance their work through partnerships. The truth and reconciliation council believed in the philosophy of Ubuntu because they believed that Ubuntu was going to help to reform and reconnect the already broken country of South Africa. This is Ubuntu Diplomacy: where all sectors belong as partners, where we all participate as stakeholders, and where we all succeed together, not incrementally but exponentially.U.S. Department of State. \[https://web.archive.org/web/20090715073339/http://www.state.gov/s/partnerships/ubuntu/index.htm Ubuntu Diplomacy.]}}
[ "### In diplomacy", "In June 2009, in her swearing\\-in remarks as [US Department of State](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State \"U.S. Department of State\") Special Representative for Global Partnerships, Global Partnership Initiative, Office of the Secretary of State, [Elizabeth Frawley Bagley](/wiki/Elizabeth_Frawley_Bagley \"Elizabeth Frawley Bagley\") discussed ubuntu in the context of American [foreign policy](/wiki/Foreign_policy \"Foreign policy\"), stating: \"In understanding the responsibilities that come with our interconnectedness, we realize that we must rely on each other to lift our World from where it is now to where we want it to be in our lifetime, while casting aside our worn out preconceptions, and our outdated modes of statecraft.\" She then introduced the notion of \"Ubuntu Diplomacy\" with the following words:", "{{Blockquote\\|In 21st\\-century diplomacy, the Department of State will be a convener, bringing people together from across regions and sectors to work together on issues of common interest. Our work no longer depends on the least common denominator; but rather, we will seek the highest possible multiplier effect for the results we can achieve together.", "We will also act as a catalyst, with our Foreign Service Officers launching new projects in tandem with those NGOs, philanthropies, and corporations at the front lines of foreign affairs to discover untapped potential, inspire fresh ideas, and create new solutions.", "And we will act as a collaborator, leading interagency coordination here in Washington and cross\\-sector collaboration in the field, with our Ambassadors working closely with our non\\-governmental partners to plan and implement projects for maximum impact and sustainability.", "It takes a shared, global response to meet the shared, global challenges we face. This is the truth taught to us in an old South African principle, ubuntu, or 'A person is a person through other persons.' As Archbishop \\[\\[Desmond Tutu]] describes this perspective, ubuntu 'is not, \"I think therefore I am.\" It says rather: \"I am a human because I belong. I participate. I share.{{\"'}} In essence, I am because you are.", "We are truly all in this together, and we will only succeed by building mutually beneficial partnerships among civil society, the private sector, and the public sector, in order to empower the men and women executing our foreign policy to advance their work through partnerships.", "The truth and reconciliation council believed in the philosophy of Ubuntu because they believed that Ubuntu was going to help to reform and reconnect the already broken country of South Africa.", "This is Ubuntu Diplomacy: where all sectors belong as partners, where we all participate as stakeholders, and where we all succeed together, not incrementally but exponentially.U.S. Department of State. \\[https://web.archive.org/web/20090715073339/http://www.state.gov/s/partnerships/ubuntu/index.htm Ubuntu Diplomacy.]}}", "" ]
History ------- {{Main articles\|History of France's civil nuclear program}} France has a long relationship with nuclear power, starting with [Henri Becquerel](/wiki/Henri_Becquerel "Henri Becquerel")'s discovery of natural radioactivity in the 1890s and continued by famous nuclear scientists such as [Pierre](/wiki/Pierre_Curie "Pierre Curie") and [Marie Skłodowska Curie](/wiki/Marie_Sk%C5%82odowska_Curie "Marie Skłodowska Curie"). Before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), France had been mainly involved in nuclear research through the work of the [Joliot](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie "Frédéric Joliot-Curie")\-[Curies](/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie "Irène Joliot-Curie"). In 1945 the [Provisional Government of the French Republic](/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic "Provisional Government of the French Republic") (GPRF) created the {{lang\|fr\|\[\[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique]]}} (CEA) governmental agency, and [Nobel prize](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry "Nobel Prize in Chemistry") winner [Frédéric Joliot\-Curie](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie "Frédéric Joliot-Curie"), member of the [French Communist Party](/wiki/French_Communist_Party "French Communist Party") (PCF) since 1942, was appointed high commissioner. He was relieved of his duties in 1950 for political reasons contingent upon the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), and later was one of the 11 signatories to the [Russell\-Einstein Manifesto](/wiki/Russell-Einstein_Manifesto "Russell-Einstein Manifesto") in 1955\. The CEA was created by [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle") on 18 October 1945\. Its mandate is to conduct [fundamental](/wiki/Fundamental_research "Fundamental research") and [applied research](/wiki/Applied_research "Applied research") into many areas, including the design of [nuclear reactors](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor "Nuclear reactor"), the manufacturing of [integrated circuits](/wiki/Integrated_circuits "Integrated circuits"), the use of [radionuclides](/wiki/Radionuclide "Radionuclide") for medical treatments, [seismology](/wiki/Seismology "Seismology") and [tsunami](/wiki/Tsunami "Tsunami") propagation, and the safety of [computerized systems](/wiki/Computer "Computer").{{citation needed\|date\=August 2015}} Nuclear research was discontinued for a time after the war, owing to the instability of the [Fourth Republic](/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic "French Fourth Republic") and the lack of finances available.["French Nuclear Weapons"](http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/france/nuke.htm). *[Global Security](/wiki/Global_Security "Global Security")* {{in lang\|en}}. Accessed 5 September 2024\.{{verification failed\|reason\=Page doesn't say anything about the Fourth Republic era\|date\=September 2024}} However, in the 1950s a civil nuclear research program was started, a by\-product of which was [plutonium](/wiki/Plutonium "Plutonium"). A secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy was formed in 1956, and a development program for delivery vehicles started. In 1957, soon after the [Suez Crisis](/wiki/Suez_Crisis "Suez Crisis") and the diplomatic tension with both the [USSR](/wiki/USSR "USSR") and the United States, French president [René Coty](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Coty "René Coty") decided on the creation of the C.S.E.M. in what was then [French Sahara](/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria "French rule in Algeria"), a new nuclear testing facility replacing the [CIEES](/wiki/CIEES "CIEES") testing facility.[Sahara](http://www.defense.gouv.fr/content/download/60823/571529/file/SAHARA.pdf) on the website of the [French Minister of Defence](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28France%29 "Minister of Defence (France)") {{in lang\|fr}}{{dead link\|date\=September 2024}} See [France and nuclear weapons](/wiki/France_and_nuclear_weapons "France and nuclear weapons"). The first nuclear power plants in France were three [UNGG reactors](/wiki/UNGG_reactor "UNGG reactor") at the [Marcoule Nuclear Site](/wiki/Marcoule_Nuclear_Site "Marcoule Nuclear Site") between 1956 and 1960, followed by the [Chinon reactors](/wiki/Chinon_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Chinon Nuclear Power Plant") in Avoine from 1962\. ### Messmer Plan As a direct result of the [1973 oil crisis](/wiki/1973_oil_crisis "1973 oil crisis"), on 6 March 1974 Prime Minister [Pierre Messmer](/wiki/Pierre_Messmer "Pierre Messmer") announced what became known as the 'Messmer Plan', a hugely ambitious nuclear power program aimed at generating most of France's electricity from nuclear power.["Electricité de France History"](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Electriciteacute;-de-France-Company-History.html). *Funding Universe*. Accessed 5 September 2024\.{{cite web \| url\=https://energytransition.org/2015/03/french\-nuclear\-power\-history/ \| title\=French nuclear power history – the unknown story \| date\=3 March 2015 \|first\=Craig \|last\=Morris \|website\=Energy Transition \|access\-date\=5 September 2024}} At the time of the oil crisis most of France's electricity came from foreign oil. Nuclear power allowed France to compensate for its lack of indigenous energy resources by applying its strengths in heavy engineering.{{cite web \|publisher\=World Nuclear Association \|title\=Nuclear Power in France \|access\-date\=25 August 2007 \|date\=August 2007 \|url\=http://www.world\-nuclear.org/info/Country\-Profiles/Countries\-A\-F/France/}}{{cite AV media \|series\=Frontline \|title\=Nuclear Reaction \|date\=24 April 1997 \|url\=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/reaction/etc/script.html \|quote\=Jean\-Pierre Chausaude, Electricité de France: In France we have no oil, no gas, no coal, no choice. And for the French people, it was very positive to develop national energy with nuclear energy.}} The situation was summarized in a slogan: "In France, we do not have oil, but we have ideas."{{cite book \|first1\=Valérie \|last1\=Lehmann \|first2\=Valérie \|last2\=Colomb \|first3\=Bernard \|last3\=Motulsky \|title\=Communication et grands projets: les nouveaux défis \|language\=fr \|date\=2013 \|publisher\=PUQ \|isbn\=9782760536777 \|page\=141 \|quote\=En France, on a toutes sortes de choses, on a la meilleure cuisine du monde, une industrie puissante, la pétanque, une histoire glorieuse, on a aussi une situation géographique privilégiée, la Tour Eiffel et la pêche à la ligne, oui en France on a tout ça et bien plus encore, pourtant une chose nous manque, une chose essentielle, le pétrole, le pétrole nous sommes obligés de l’acheter à d’autres, cher, trop cher. En France, on n’a pas de pétrole, mais on a des idées.}} The announcement of the Messmer Plan was enacted without public or parliamentary debate.Nelkin, Dorothy and Michael Pollak. "Ideology as Strategy: The Discourse of the Anti\-Nuclear Movement in France and Germany". *Science, Technology, \& Human Values*, Vol. 5, No. 30 (Winter 1980\), p. 3\. Concern over the government's action spread among the scientific community of France. The lack of consultation outside of political realms regarding the plan led to the formation of the {{lang\|fr\|\[\[Groupement des scientifiques pour l'information sur l'énergie nucléaire]]}} (Association of Scientists for Information on Nuclear Energy). 4,000 scientists signed a [petition](/wiki/Petition "Petition") as a response, known as the *Appeal of the 400* after the 400 scientists who initially signed it. The reason that the Messmer Plan was enacted without public or parliamentary debate was that there was no tradition to do that with highly\-technological and strategically\-important decisions in the governments of France and the parliament did not have a scientific commission with sufficient technical means to handle such scientific and strategic decisions, just like the public does not have such means. France does not have any procedure of public inquiries to allow the assessment of major technological programmes.{{cite journal \|first\=Pierre \|last\=Papon \|title\=Why France has had no public nuclear debate \|journal\=Nature \|date\=September 1979 \|volume\=281 \|issue\=5727 \|pages\=94–95 \|doi\=10\.1038/281094a0 \|bibcode\=1979Natur.281\...94P \|s2cid\=28375362 \|url\=https://www.nature.com/articles/281094a0}} The plan envisaged the construction of around 80 nuclear plants by 1985 and a total of 170 plants by 2000\.["Les physiciens dans le mouvement antinucléaire: entre science, expertise et politique"](http://chrhc.revues.org/index214.html). *Cahiers d'histoire*. 2007\. Accessed 11 April 2011\. Work on the first three plants, at [Tricastin](/wiki/Tricastin_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Tricastin Nuclear Power Plant"), [Gravelines](/wiki/Gravelines_Nuclear_Power_Station "Gravelines Nuclear Power Station"), and [Dampierre](/wiki/Dampierre_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Dampierre Nuclear Power Plant"), started the same year and France installed 56 reactors over the next 15 years. However by the mid 1980s it became clear that the Messmer plan had been overambitious. Nuclear power plants achieve their optimum economic value when run flat out, and the projected demand had not materialized. By 1988 France's nuclear power plants had a capacity factor of only around 60%, whereas other countries that had not invested in nuclear power so heavily were nearer 80–90%. Still, the goal of replacing imported fossil fuels in electricity generation was mostly met (France noawadays uses only minuscule amounts of oil to produce electricity and its last two coal power plants [Cordemais Power Station](/wiki/Cordemais_Power_Station "Cordemais Power Station") and Saint\-Avold are to be shut down when the 1600 MW net electric [EPR](/wiki/EPR_%28nuclear_power_plant%29 "EPR (nuclear power plant)") at [Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Flamanville_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant") comes online{{cite web \| url\=https://www.power\-technology.com/news/france\-to\-extend\-life\-of\-coal\-plants\-2024/ \| title\=France to extend life of its final coal plants ahead of winter \| date\=29 August 2023 }}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/live\-news/20220626\-ukraine\-war\-pushes\-france\-to\-rethink\-coal\-power\-station\-closure \| title\=Ukraine war pushes France to rethink coal power station closure \| date\=26 June 2022 }}). ### Developments 2011–2022 Following the 2011 [Fukushima I nuclear accidents](/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents "Fukushima I nuclear accidents"), the head of France's nuclear safety agency said that France needed to upgrade the protection of vital functions in all its nuclear reactors to avoid a disaster in the event of a natural calamity, adding there was no need to close any plants. "There is a need to add a layer to protect safety mechanisms in reactors that are vital for the protection of the reactor such as cooling functions and electric powering", Jacques Repussard, head of the IRSN, said. Opinion polls showed support for atomic energy had dropped since Fukushima. Forty percent of the French "are 'hesitant' about nuclear energy while a third are in favor and 17 percent are against, according to a survey by pollster Ifop published November 13".{{cite web \|first\=Tara \|last\=Patel \|title\=Atomic Spat Rocks French Election as Sarkozy Rival Backs Halts \|work\=Bloomberg \|date\=1 December 2011 \|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011\-12\-01/atomic\-spat\-rocks\-french\-election\-as\-sarkozy\-rival\-backs\-halts.html}} In February 2012, President Sarkozy decided to extend the life of existing nuclear reactors beyond 40 years, following the [Court of Audit](/wiki/Court_of_Audit_of_France "Court of Audit of France") decision that that would be the best option, for new nuclear capacity or other forms of energy would be more costly and available too late. Within ten years 22 out of the 58 reactors will have been operating for over 40 years.{{cite news \|title\=France to extend life of nuclear plants – minister \|date\=12 February 2012 \|publisher\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/france\-nuclear\-idUSL5E8DC2UU20120212 \|access\-date\=10 March 2012}} The court expects EDF's projected investment programme in existing plant, including post [Fukushima](/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster "Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster") safety improvements, will add between 9\.5% and 14\.5% to generation costs, taking costs to between 37\.9 and {{nowrap\|54\.2 EUR/MWh}}. Generation costs from the new Flamanville [European Pressurized Reactor](/wiki/EPR_%28nuclear_reactor%29 "EPR (nuclear reactor)") (EPR) are estimated to be at least in the 70\-to\-90 EUR/MWh range, depending on construction outcome.{{cite report \|title\=The costs of the nuclear power sector – Summary in English \|publisher\=Cour des Comptes \|date\=January 2012 \|url\=http://www.ccomptes.fr/en/JF/documents/divers/Costs\_nuclear\_power\_sector\_summary.pdf \|access\-date\=11 March 2012}} {{dead link \|date\=April 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes}} Academics at [Paris Dauphine University](/wiki/Paris_Dauphine_University "Paris Dauphine University") forecast that domestic electricity prices would rise by about 30% by 2020\.{{cite news \|first\=Rob \|last\=Broomby \|title\= France struggles to cut down on nuclear power \|publisher\=BBC News \|date\=11 January 2014 \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine\-25674581 \|access\-date\=14 January 2014}} Following [François Hollande](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hollande "François Hollande")'s victory in the [2012 presidential election](/wiki/2012_French_presidential_election "2012 French presidential election"), it was thought that there might be a partial nuclear phaseout in France. This followed a national debate in the run\-up to the election, with President [Nicolas Sarkozy](/wiki/Nicolas_Sarkozy "Nicolas Sarkozy") backing nuclear power and François Hollande proposing a cut in nuclear power's electricity contribution by more than a third by 2025\.{{cite web \|first\=Henry \|last\=Sokolski \|author\-link\=Henry Sokolski \|title\=Nuclear Power Goes Rogue \|date\=28 November 2011 \|work\=Newsweek \|url\=http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/11/27/post\-fukushima\-nuclear\-power\-changes\-latitudes.html \|access\-date\=4 December 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121218012428/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/11/27/post\-fukushima\-nuclear\-power\-changes\-latitudes.html \|archive\-date\=18 December 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} It seemed certain that Hollande would at least order the closure of the [Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Fessenheim_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant") by 2017{{cite news \|title\=Présidentielle : Hollande confirme sa volonté de fermer Fessenheim \|language\=fr \|work\=France Soir \|date\=2 May 2012 \|url\=http://www.francesoir.fr/actualite/politique/presidentielle\-hollande\-confirme\-sa\-volonte\-de\-fermer\-fessenheim\-219201\.html \|access\-date\=8 May 2012}} where there has been an ongoing closure campaign due to concerns about seismic activity and flooding. Active efforts by the French government to market the EPR have been hampered by cost overruns, delays, and competition from other nations, such as [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"), which offer simpler, cheaper reactors.{{cite news \|first\=David \|last\=Jolly \|title\=France Went All Out for Nuclear Energy \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=7 May 2015 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/business/energy\-environment/france\-went\-all\-out\-for\-nuclear\-energy.html \|access\-date\=8 May 2015}}{{cite news \|first1\=David \|last1\=Jolly \|first2\=Stanley \|last2\=Reed \|title\=French Nuclear Dynamo Stalls \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=7 May 2015 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/business/energy\-environment/french\-nuclear\-dynamo\-stalls.html \|access\-date\=8 May 2015 \|quote\=New plants that were meant to showcase the industry’s most advanced technology are years behind schedule and billions of euros over budget.}} [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|Age in 2020 of French nuclear reactors relative to the beginning of commercial operation{{cite book \|author\= \|title\=Nuclear Power Reactors in the World \|url\=https://www.iaea.org/publications/13552/nuclear\-power\-reactors\-in\-the\-world \|publisher\=IAEA \|page\=30 \|date\=2020\-08\-11 \|isbn\=978\-92\-0\-102719\-1}}.{{cite web \|url\=https://actu.orange.fr/societe/videos/la\-centrale\-nucleaire\-de\-fessenheim\-est\-definitivement\-debranchee\-du\-reseau\-electrique\-national\-CNT000001re5qL.html \|title\=La centrale nucléaire de Fessenheim est définitivement débranchée du réseau électrique national \|author\= \|language\=fr \|date\=2019 \|website\=actu.orange.fr \|publisher\=\[\[BFM TV]] \|access\-date\=2020\-08\-11}}](/wiki/File:Histogramme_des_%C3%A2ges_des_r%C3%A9acteurs_nucl%C3%A9aires_fran%C3%A7ais_en_service_en_2020.svg "Histogramme des âges des réacteurs nucléaires français en service en 2020.svg") In 2015, the [National Assembly](/wiki/French_National_Assembly "French National Assembly") voted that by 2025 only 50% of France's energy will be produced by nuclear plants.{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.world\-nuclear\-news.org/NP\-French\-energy\-transition\-bill\-adopted\-2307155\.html \| title\=French energy transition bill adopted \|website\=World Nuclear News}} Environment Minister [Nicolas Hulot](/wiki/Nicolas_Hulot "Nicolas Hulot") noted in November 2017 that this goal is unrealistic, postponing the reduction to 2030 or 2035\.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-france\-nuclearpower/france\-postpones\-target\-for\-cutting\-nuclear\-share\-of\-power\-production\-idUSKBN1D71TM \| title\=France postpones target for cutting nuclear share of power production\| newspaper\=Reuters\| date\=7 November 2017}} In 2016, following a discovery at [Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Flamanville_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant"), about 400 large steel forgings manufactured by Le Creusot Forge since 1965 were found to have carbon\-content irregularities that weakened the steel. A widespread programme of reactor checks was started involving a progressive programme of reactor shutdowns, continued over the winter high electricity demand period into 2017\. This caused power price increases in Europe as France increased electricity imports, especially from Germany, to augment supply.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/f86a3c6c\-9c60\-11e6\-a6e4\-8b8e77dd083a \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/f86a3c6c\-9c60\-11e6\-a6e4\-8b8e77dd083a \|archive\-date\=11 December 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|title\=French nuclear outages threaten higher UK power bills \|first\=Andrew \|last\=Ward \|newspaper\=Financial Times \|date\=28 October 2016 \|access\-date\=2 November 2016}}{{cite report \|url\=http://www.greenpeace.org/france/PageFiles/266171/Note\_LargeAndAssociates\_EN\_26092016\.pdf \|title\=Irregularities and Anomalies Relating to the Forged Components of Le Creusot Forge \|first\=John \|last\=Large \|publisher\=Greenpeace France \|date\=26 September 2016 \|access\-date\=27 October 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027192609/https://www.greenpeace.org/france/PageFiles/266171/Note\_LargeAndAssociates\_EN\_26092016\.pdf \|archive\-date\=27 October 2016}} As of late October 2016, 20 of France's 58 reactors were offline.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.powermag.com/frances\-nuclear\-storm\-many\-power\-plants\-down\-due\-to\-quality\-concerns/?printmode\=1 \|title\=France's Nuclear Storm: Many Power Plants Down Due to Quality Concerns \|first\=Lee \|last\=Buchsbaum \|newspaper\=POWER \|date\=1 November 2016 \|access\-date\=2 November 2016}}{{cite news \|url\=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-france\-power\-winteroutlook\-idUKKBN1332C6 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109164038/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-france\-power\-winteroutlook\-idUKKBN1332C6 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=9 November 2016 \|title\=France could face winter power cuts, hit by nuclear dependence \|first1\=Bate \|last1\=Felix \|first2\=Geert \|last2\=De Clercq \|publisher\=Reuters \|date\=8 November 2016 \|access\-date\=11 November 2016}} These steel quality concerns may prevent the regulator giving the life extensions from 40 to 50 years, that had been assumed by energy planners, for many reactors.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.economist.com/news/business/21711087\-electricit\-de\-france\-has\-had\-shut\-down\-18\-its\-58\-nuclear\-reactors\-frances\-nuclear\-energy \|title\=France's nuclear\-energy champion is in turmoil \|magazine\=The Economist \|date\=3 December 2016 \|access\-date\=3 December 2016}} In December 2016 the *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal "Wall Street Journal")* characterised the problem as a "decades long coverup of manufacturing problems", with Areva executives acknowledging that Le Creusot had been falsifying documents.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/problems\-at\-nuclear\-components\-supplier\-spark\-global\-reviews\-1481625005 \|title\=Coverup at French Nuclear Supplier Sparks Global Review \|first1\=Matthew \|last1\=Dalton \|first2\=Inti \|last2\=Landauro \|first3\=Rebecca \|last3\=Smith \|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal \|date\=13 December 2016 \|access\-date\=15 December 2016}} The Le Creusot forge was out of operation from December 2015 to January 2018 while improvements to process controls, the quality management system, organisation and safety culture were made.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.world\-nuclear\-news.org/Articles/Framatome\-forge\-raises\-replacement\-parts\-productio \|title\=Framatome forge raises replacement parts production \|work\=World Nuclear News \|date\=17 November 2020 \|access\-date\=18 November 2020}} In November 2018, [President Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron "Emmanuel Macron") announced the 50% nuclear power reduction target is being delayed to 2035, and would involve closing fourteen {{nowrap\|900 MWe}} reactors. The two oldest reactors, units 1 and 2 at [Fessenheim](/wiki/Fessenheim_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant"), were closed in 2020\.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.world\-nuclear\-news.org/Articles/Macron\-clarifies\-French\-energy\-plans \|title\=Macron clarifies French energy plans \|work\=World Nuclear News \|date\=27 November 2018 \|access\-date\=29 November 2018}} EDF is planning an investment programme, called {{lang\|fr\|Grand Carénage}}, to extend reactor lifespans to 50 years, to be largely completed by 2025\.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.world\-nuclear\-news.org/Articles/Viewpoint\-A\-long\-future\-for\-Frances\-nuclear\-fleet \|title\=Viewpoint: A long future for France's nuclear fleet? \|work\=World Nuclear News \|date\=23 April 2019 \|access\-date\=4 May 2019}} In 2020, Energy Minister [Élisabeth Borne](/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Borne "Élisabeth Borne") announced the government would not decide on the construction of any new reactors until [Flamanville 3](/wiki/Flamanville_3 "Flamanville 3") started operation after 2022\.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsfrance\-to\-decide\-on\-new\-nuclear\-build\-after\-2022\-7598148 \|title\=France to decide on new nuclear build after 2022 \|magazine\=Nuclear Engineering International \|date\=14 January 2020 \|access\-date\=19 February 2020}} In October 2021 Macron announced plans for France to become a leader in low\-carbon energy production using [small modular reactors](/wiki/Small_modular_reactor "Small modular reactor") and [green hydrogen](/wiki/Green_hydrogen "Green hydrogen").{{Cite web\|title\=France / Macron Announces Plans For First SMR And Green Hydrogen From Nuclear Plants By 2030 \|publisher\=NucNet \|url\=https://www.nucnet.org/news/macron\-announces\-plans\-for\-first\-smr\-and\-green\-hydrogen\-from\-nuclear\-plants\-by\-2030\-10\-2\-2021 \|access\-date\=2021\-10\-12\|date\=4 October 2021 }} In October 2021 French grid operator RTE plans for construction of six new EPR reactors so that by 2050 France maintains 50 GW in low\-carbon nuclear power. This has been described as the fastest and most certain path to achieve [carbon neutrality](/wiki/Carbon_neutrality "Carbon neutrality") by 2050\.{{Cite web\|title\=New nuclear reactors can help France become carbon neutral by 2050, says grid operator\|url\=https://www.breakingnews.ie/climate/new\-nuclear\-reactors\-can\-help\-france\-become\-carbon\-neutral\-by\-2050\-says\-grid\-operator\-1204437\.html \|access\-date\=2021\-10\-27\|website\=BreakingNews.ie\|date\=25 October 2021 \|language\=en}} In January 2022, junior environment minister [Bérangère Abba](/wiki/B%C3%A9rang%C3%A8re_Abba "Bérangère Abba") said that plans for new nuclear EPR 2 reactors, to be operational between 2035 and 2037, should be submitted around 2023\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/france\-sees\-new\-nuclear\-reactors\-going\-online\-by\-2035\-37\-minister\-2022\-01\-06/ \|title\=France sees new nuclear reactors going online by 2035\-37 – minister \|first\=G. V. \|last\=De Clercq \|work\=Reuters \|date\=6 January 2022 \|access\-date\=10 January 2022}} The decision was accelerated by the impact of [2021 global energy crisis](/wiki/2021_global_energy_crisis "2021 global energy crisis").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/macron\-says\-france\-will\-build\-more\-nuclear\-energy\-reactors\-2021\-11\-09/ \|title\=Macron says France will build new nuclear energy reactors \|last\=Kar\-Gupta \|first\=Sudip \|work\=Reuters \|date\=9 November 2021 \|access\-date\=10 January 2022}} In February 2022 Macron added that the plan includes construction of 14 new large nuclear reactors and extension of life of existing reactors deemed safe and suitable beyond 50 years.{{Cite news\|title\=Macron Pledges New Nuclear Reactors – if He's Re\-Elected\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022\-02\-10/macron\-pledges\-new\-nuclear\-reactors\-if\-he\-s\-re\-elected \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-14\|work\=Bloomberg}} On the 3 September 2022, amid energy uncertainties arising from the [2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine"), the Energy Transition Minister, Agnes Pannier\-Runacher, announced that EDF was committed to restarting all reactors in the coming winter. In 2023, during a [presidential visit to China](/wiki/2023_France-China_Summit "2023 France-China Summit"), France renewed a nuclear co\-operation agreement with China, and EDF renewed its 2007 partnership contract with [China General Nuclear Power Group](/wiki/China_General_Nuclear_Power_Group "China General Nuclear Power Group") which includes development, construction and operation of nuclear plants.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsfrance\-renews\-nuclear\-co\-operation\-with\-china\-10750359 \|title\=France renews nuclear co\-operation with China \|magazine\=Nuclear Engineering International \|date\=12 April 2023 \|access\-date\=16 April 2023}} ### Crisis since late 2021 After scheduled maintenance during the summer of 2021, some power plants were not back in service in late 2021\. In October, [stress corrosion cracking](/wiki/Stress_corrosion_cracking "Stress corrosion cracking") at [Civaux Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Civaux_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Civaux Nuclear Power Plant") led to the decision to shut down both blocks for long term repair.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featurecounting\-the\-cost\-of\-cracking\-9919744/ \|title\=Counting the cost of cracking \|magazine\=Nuclear Engineering International \|date\=11 August 2022 \|access\-date\=23 August 2022}} In December 2021, this was extended to both blocks of [Chooz Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Chooz_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Chooz Nuclear Power Plant"), as all four plants use the same type of reactor, N4, the most modern in operation, with grid connection in the late 1990s, commercial operation since early 2000s. By end of April 2022 it was reported that 28 of France's 56 nuclear reactors were offline.{{cite web \| url\=https://news.sky.com/story/nearly\-half\-of\-frances\-nuclear\-reactors\-taken\-offline\-adding\-to\-electricity\-demand\-on\-european\-grid\-12600662 \| title\=Half of France's nuclear reactors taken offline, adding to electricity demand on European grid \|work\=Sky News \|first\=Victoria \|last\=Seabrook \|date\=29 April 2022 \|access\-date\=5 September 2024}}{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featuredealing\-with\-cracking\-in\-french\-nuclear\-fleet\-10988297/ \|title\=Dealing with cracking in the French nuclear fleet \|last\=MacLachlan \|first\=Ann \|magazine\=Nuclear Engineering International \|date\=5 July 2023 \|access\-date\=13 July 2023}} French nuclear energy production has fallen to the lowest level since 1993 and it is expected to fall short by at least 25% compared to usual production levels in the winter of 2022/2023\.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/18/business/france\-nuclear\-power\-russia.html \| title\=French Nuclear Power Crisis Frustrates Europe's Push to Quit Russian Energy \| newspaper\=The New York Times \| date\=18 June 2022 \| last1\=Alderman \| first1\=Liz }} On 19 May 2022, EDF adjusted its French nuclear output estimate for 2022 between 280 and 300 TWh,{{Cite web \|title\=Point d'actualité sur le phénomène de corrosion sous contrainte et ajustement de l'estimation de production nucléaire en France pour 2022 \|language\=fr \|trans\-title\=Update on the stress corrosion phenomenon and adjustment of the estimate of nuclear production in France for 2022 \|date\=18 May 2022\|url\=https://presse\-edf.fr/download?n\=CP\-EDF1\-PDF\&picid\=3043 \|website\=\[\[Électricité de France\|EDF]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103041421/https://presse\-edf.fr/download?n\=CP\-EDF1\-PDF\&picid\=3043 \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-03 \|access\-date\=5 September 2024}} and with the expectation of checks and repairs to be completed, the 2023 French nuclear output estimate was not changed (300–330 TWh). Considering the overall control and repair program, nuclear generation for 2024 may be impacted. Electricity production in 2022 was 279 TWh, with 300–330 TWh still forecast for 2023 as of June 2023\. On 21 February 2022, [S\&P Global Ratings](/wiki/S%26P_Global_Ratings "S&P Global Ratings") and [Moody's](/wiki/Moody%27s_Investors_Service "Moody's Investors Service") downgraded the credit rating of EDF citing the technical issues at its nuclear power plants.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news\-insights/latest\-news\-headlines/s\-p\-moody\-s\-downgrade\-edf\-on\-troubled\-finances\-nuclear\-fleet\-69013165 \| title\=S\&P, Moody's downgrade EDF on troubled finances, nuclear fleet \|date\= 22 February 2022 \|website\=S\&P Global Market Intelligence \|first1\= Selene \|last1\=Balasta \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102225033/https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news\-insights/latest\-news\-headlines/s\-p\-moody\-s\-downgrade\-edf\-on\-troubled\-finances\-nuclear\-fleet\-69013165 \|archive\-date\= November 2, 2023 }} In July 2022 the French government announced its plans to fully nationalize EDF.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/06/frances\-edf\-to\-be\-fully\-nationalised\-borne\-.html \| title\=France's EDF to be fully nationalized, prime minister says \| website\=\[\[CNBC]] \| date\=6 July 2022 }} To meet demand, EDF had to buy electricity on the European market at high prices, costing an estimated [€](/wiki/Euro "Euro")29 billion by June 2023\. As of early September 2022, 32 of France's 56 nuclear reactors were shut down due to maintenance or technical problems.{{cite news \|title\=France's EDF plans to restart nation's entire nuclear fleet by early next year \|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2022/09/04/frances\-edf\-plans\-to\-restart\-nations\-entire\-nuclear\-fleet\-by\-early\-next\-year \|work\=Euronews \|date\=4 September 2022}}{{cite news \|title\=EDF to restart all its nuclear reactors this winter – minister \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/edf\-restart\-all\-its\-nuclear\-reactors\-by\-this\-winter\-minister\-says\-2022\-09\-02/ \|work\=Reuters \|date\=2 September 2022}} In 2022, Europe's [driest summer in 500 years](/wiki/2022_European_drought "2022 European drought") had serious consequences for power plant cooling systems, as the drought reduced the amount of river water available for cooling.{{cite news \|title\=Heat and Drought in Europe Strain Energy Supply \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/18/world/europe/drought\-heat\-energy.html \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=18 August 2022}}{{cite news \|title\=Europe's driest summer in 500 years threatens crops, energy production \|url\=https://graphics.reuters.com/EUROPE\-WEATHER/DROUGHT/jnvwenznyvw/ \|work\=Reuters \|date\=22 August 2022}} During 2023, stress corrosion cracking was found in some straight pipe sections; previously it had only been found in pipe with bends so subject to additional stress form thermal stratification as fluids flowed through bends. One crack was to a depth of 23 mm in a wall thickness of 27 mm.{{Cite web \|last\=Simon \|first\=Flavien \|date\=21 February 2024 \|title\=Stress Corrosion Cracking in French Reactors \|url\=https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML2405/ML24051A082\.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[Autorité de sûreté nucléaire]] \|page\=6}}
[ "History\n-------", "{{Main articles\\|History of France's civil nuclear program}}\nFrance has a long relationship with nuclear power, starting with [Henri Becquerel](/wiki/Henri_Becquerel \"Henri Becquerel\")'s discovery of natural radioactivity in the 1890s and continued by famous nuclear scientists such as [Pierre](/wiki/Pierre_Curie \"Pierre Curie\") and [Marie Skłodowska Curie](/wiki/Marie_Sk%C5%82odowska_Curie \"Marie Skłodowska Curie\").", "Before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), France had been mainly involved in nuclear research through the work of the [Joliot](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie \"Frédéric Joliot-Curie\")\\-[Curies](/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie \"Irène Joliot-Curie\"). In 1945 the [Provisional Government of the French Republic](/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic \"Provisional Government of the French Republic\") (GPRF) created the {{lang\\|fr\\|\\[\\[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique]]}} (CEA) governmental agency, and [Nobel prize](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry \"Nobel Prize in Chemistry\") winner [Frédéric Joliot\\-Curie](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie \"Frédéric Joliot-Curie\"), member of the [French Communist Party](/wiki/French_Communist_Party \"French Communist Party\") (PCF) since 1942, was appointed high commissioner. He was relieved of his duties in 1950 for political reasons contingent upon the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), and later was one of the 11 signatories to the [Russell\\-Einstein Manifesto](/wiki/Russell-Einstein_Manifesto \"Russell-Einstein Manifesto\") in 1955\\. The CEA was created by [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle \"Charles de Gaulle\") on 18 October 1945\\. Its mandate is to conduct [fundamental](/wiki/Fundamental_research \"Fundamental research\") and [applied research](/wiki/Applied_research \"Applied research\") into many areas, including the design of [nuclear reactors](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor \"Nuclear reactor\"), the manufacturing of [integrated circuits](/wiki/Integrated_circuits \"Integrated circuits\"), the use of [radionuclides](/wiki/Radionuclide \"Radionuclide\") for medical treatments, [seismology](/wiki/Seismology \"Seismology\") and [tsunami](/wiki/Tsunami \"Tsunami\") propagation, and the safety of [computerized systems](/wiki/Computer \"Computer\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2015}}", "Nuclear research was discontinued for a time after the war, owing to the instability of the [Fourth Republic](/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic \"French Fourth Republic\") and the lack of finances available.[\"French Nuclear Weapons\"](http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/france/nuke.htm). *[Global Security](/wiki/Global_Security \"Global Security\")* {{in lang\\|en}}. Accessed 5 September 2024\\.{{verification failed\\|reason\\=Page doesn't say anything about the Fourth Republic era\\|date\\=September 2024}} However, in the 1950s a civil nuclear research program was started, a by\\-product of which was [plutonium](/wiki/Plutonium \"Plutonium\"). A secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy was formed in 1956, and a development program for delivery vehicles started. In 1957, soon after the [Suez Crisis](/wiki/Suez_Crisis \"Suez Crisis\") and the diplomatic tension with both the [USSR](/wiki/USSR \"USSR\") and the United States, French president [René Coty](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Coty \"René Coty\") decided on the creation of the C.S.E.M. in what was then [French Sahara](/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria \"French rule in Algeria\"), a new nuclear testing facility replacing the [CIEES](/wiki/CIEES \"CIEES\") testing facility.[Sahara](http://www.defense.gouv.fr/content/download/60823/571529/file/SAHARA.pdf) on the website of the [French Minister of Defence](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28France%29 \"Minister of Defence (France)\") {{in lang\\|fr}}{{dead link\\|date\\=September 2024}} See [France and nuclear weapons](/wiki/France_and_nuclear_weapons \"France and nuclear weapons\").", "The first nuclear power plants in France were three [UNGG reactors](/wiki/UNGG_reactor \"UNGG reactor\") at the [Marcoule Nuclear Site](/wiki/Marcoule_Nuclear_Site \"Marcoule Nuclear Site\") between 1956 and 1960, followed by the [Chinon reactors](/wiki/Chinon_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Chinon Nuclear Power Plant\") in Avoine from 1962\\.", "### Messmer Plan", "As a direct result of the [1973 oil crisis](/wiki/1973_oil_crisis \"1973 oil crisis\"), on 6 March 1974 Prime Minister [Pierre Messmer](/wiki/Pierre_Messmer \"Pierre Messmer\") announced what became known as the 'Messmer Plan', a hugely ambitious nuclear power program aimed at generating most of France's electricity from nuclear power.[\"Electricité de France History\"](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Electriciteacute;-de-France-Company-History.html). *Funding Universe*. Accessed 5 September 2024\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://energytransition.org/2015/03/french\\-nuclear\\-power\\-history/ \\| title\\=French nuclear power history – the unknown story \\| date\\=3 March 2015 \\|first\\=Craig \\|last\\=Morris \\|website\\=Energy Transition \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2024}} At the time of the oil crisis most of France's electricity came from foreign oil. Nuclear power allowed France to compensate for its lack of indigenous energy resources by applying its strengths in heavy engineering.{{cite web \\|publisher\\=World Nuclear Association \\|title\\=Nuclear Power in France \\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2007 \\|date\\=August 2007 \\|url\\=http://www.world\\-nuclear.org/info/Country\\-Profiles/Countries\\-A\\-F/France/}}{{cite AV media \\|series\\=Frontline \\|title\\=Nuclear Reaction \\|date\\=24 April 1997 \\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/reaction/etc/script.html \\|quote\\=Jean\\-Pierre Chausaude, Electricité de France: In France we have no oil, no gas, no coal, no choice. And for the French people, it was very positive to develop national energy with nuclear energy.}} The situation was summarized in a slogan: \"In France, we do not have oil, but we have ideas.\"{{cite book \\|first1\\=Valérie \\|last1\\=Lehmann \\|first2\\=Valérie \\|last2\\=Colomb \\|first3\\=Bernard \\|last3\\=Motulsky \\|title\\=Communication et grands projets: les nouveaux défis \\|language\\=fr \\|date\\=2013 \\|publisher\\=PUQ \\|isbn\\=9782760536777 \\|page\\=141 \\|quote\\=En France, on a toutes sortes de choses, on a la meilleure cuisine du monde, une industrie puissante, la pétanque, une histoire glorieuse, on a aussi une situation géographique privilégiée, la Tour Eiffel et la pêche à la ligne, oui en France on a tout ça et bien plus encore, pourtant une chose nous manque, une chose essentielle, le pétrole, le pétrole nous sommes obligés de l’acheter à d’autres, cher, trop cher. En France, on n’a pas de pétrole, mais on a des idées.}}", "The announcement of the Messmer Plan was enacted without public or parliamentary debate.Nelkin, Dorothy and Michael Pollak. \"Ideology as Strategy: The Discourse of the Anti\\-Nuclear Movement in France and Germany\". *Science, Technology, \\& Human Values*, Vol. 5, No. 30 (Winter 1980\\), p. 3\\. Concern over the government's action spread among the scientific community of France. The lack of consultation outside of political realms regarding the plan led to the formation of the {{lang\\|fr\\|\\[\\[Groupement des scientifiques pour l'information sur l'énergie nucléaire]]}} (Association of Scientists for Information on Nuclear Energy). 4,000 scientists signed a [petition](/wiki/Petition \"Petition\") as a response, known as the *Appeal of the 400* after the 400 scientists who initially signed it.", "The reason that the Messmer Plan was enacted without public or parliamentary debate was that there was no tradition to do that with highly\\-technological and strategically\\-important decisions in the governments of France and the parliament did not have a scientific commission with sufficient technical means to handle such scientific and strategic decisions, just like the public does not have such means. France does not have any procedure of public inquiries to allow the assessment of major technological programmes.{{cite journal \\|first\\=Pierre \\|last\\=Papon \\|title\\=Why France has had no public nuclear debate \\|journal\\=Nature \\|date\\=September 1979 \\|volume\\=281 \\|issue\\=5727 \\|pages\\=94–95 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/281094a0 \\|bibcode\\=1979Natur.281\\...94P \\|s2cid\\=28375362 \\|url\\=https://www.nature.com/articles/281094a0}} The plan envisaged the construction of around 80 nuclear plants by 1985 and a total of 170 plants by 2000\\.[\"Les physiciens dans le mouvement antinucléaire: entre science, expertise et politique\"](http://chrhc.revues.org/index214.html). *Cahiers d'histoire*. 2007\\. Accessed 11 April 2011\\. Work on the first three plants, at [Tricastin](/wiki/Tricastin_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Tricastin Nuclear Power Plant\"), [Gravelines](/wiki/Gravelines_Nuclear_Power_Station \"Gravelines Nuclear Power Station\"), and [Dampierre](/wiki/Dampierre_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Dampierre Nuclear Power Plant\"), started the same year and France installed 56 reactors over the next 15 years.", "However by the mid 1980s it became clear that the Messmer plan had been overambitious. Nuclear power plants achieve their optimum economic value when run flat out, and the projected demand had not materialized. By 1988 France's nuclear power plants had a capacity factor of only around 60%, whereas other countries that had not invested in nuclear power so heavily were nearer 80–90%. Still, the goal of replacing imported fossil fuels in electricity generation was mostly met (France noawadays uses only minuscule amounts of oil to produce electricity and its last two coal power plants [Cordemais Power Station](/wiki/Cordemais_Power_Station \"Cordemais Power Station\") and Saint\\-Avold are to be shut down when the 1600 MW net electric [EPR](/wiki/EPR_%28nuclear_power_plant%29 \"EPR (nuclear power plant)\") at [Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Flamanville_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant\") comes online{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.power\\-technology.com/news/france\\-to\\-extend\\-life\\-of\\-coal\\-plants\\-2024/ \\| title\\=France to extend life of its final coal plants ahead of winter \\| date\\=29 August 2023 }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/live\\-news/20220626\\-ukraine\\-war\\-pushes\\-france\\-to\\-rethink\\-coal\\-power\\-station\\-closure \\| title\\=Ukraine war pushes France to rethink coal power station closure \\| date\\=26 June 2022 }}).", "### Developments 2011–2022", "Following the 2011 [Fukushima I nuclear accidents](/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents \"Fukushima I nuclear accidents\"), the head of France's nuclear safety agency said that France needed to upgrade the protection of vital functions in all its nuclear reactors to avoid a disaster in the event of a natural calamity, adding there was no need to close any plants. \"There is a need to add a layer to protect safety mechanisms in reactors that are vital for the protection of the reactor such as cooling functions and electric powering\", Jacques Repussard, head of the IRSN, said. Opinion polls showed support for atomic energy had dropped since Fukushima. Forty percent of the French \"are 'hesitant' about nuclear energy while a third are in favor and 17 percent are against, according to a survey by pollster Ifop published November 13\".{{cite web \\|first\\=Tara \\|last\\=Patel \\|title\\=Atomic Spat Rocks French Election as Sarkozy Rival Backs Halts \\|work\\=Bloomberg \\|date\\=1 December 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011\\-12\\-01/atomic\\-spat\\-rocks\\-french\\-election\\-as\\-sarkozy\\-rival\\-backs\\-halts.html}}", "In February 2012, President Sarkozy decided to extend the life of existing nuclear reactors beyond 40 years, following the [Court of Audit](/wiki/Court_of_Audit_of_France \"Court of Audit of France\") decision that that would be the best option, for new nuclear capacity or other forms of energy would be more costly and available too late. Within ten years 22 out of the 58 reactors will have been operating for over 40 years.{{cite news \\|title\\=France to extend life of nuclear plants – minister \\|date\\=12 February 2012 \\|publisher\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/france\\-nuclear\\-idUSL5E8DC2UU20120212 \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2012}} The court expects EDF's projected investment programme in existing plant, including post [Fukushima](/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster \"Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster\") safety improvements, will add between 9\\.5% and 14\\.5% to generation costs, taking costs to between 37\\.9 and {{nowrap\\|54\\.2 EUR/MWh}}. Generation costs from the new Flamanville [European Pressurized Reactor](/wiki/EPR_%28nuclear_reactor%29 \"EPR (nuclear reactor)\") (EPR) are estimated to be at least in the 70\\-to\\-90 EUR/MWh range, depending on construction outcome.{{cite report \\|title\\=The costs of the nuclear power sector – Summary in English \\|publisher\\=Cour des Comptes \\|date\\=January 2012 \\|url\\=http://www.ccomptes.fr/en/JF/documents/divers/Costs\\_nuclear\\_power\\_sector\\_summary.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2012}} {{dead link \\|date\\=April 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes}} Academics at [Paris Dauphine University](/wiki/Paris_Dauphine_University \"Paris Dauphine University\") forecast that domestic electricity prices would rise by about 30% by 2020\\.{{cite news \\|first\\=Rob \\|last\\=Broomby \\|title\\= France struggles to cut down on nuclear power \\|publisher\\=BBC News \\|date\\=11 January 2014 \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine\\-25674581 \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2014}}", "Following [François Hollande](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hollande \"François Hollande\")'s victory in the [2012 presidential election](/wiki/2012_French_presidential_election \"2012 French presidential election\"), it was thought that there might be a partial nuclear phaseout in France. This followed a national debate in the run\\-up to the election, with President [Nicolas Sarkozy](/wiki/Nicolas_Sarkozy \"Nicolas Sarkozy\") backing nuclear power and François Hollande proposing a cut in nuclear power's electricity contribution by more than a third by 2025\\.{{cite web \\|first\\=Henry \\|last\\=Sokolski \\|author\\-link\\=Henry Sokolski \\|title\\=Nuclear Power Goes Rogue \\|date\\=28 November 2011 \\|work\\=Newsweek \\|url\\=http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/11/27/post\\-fukushima\\-nuclear\\-power\\-changes\\-latitudes.html \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121218012428/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/11/27/post\\-fukushima\\-nuclear\\-power\\-changes\\-latitudes.html \\|archive\\-date\\=18 December 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} It seemed certain that Hollande would at least order the closure of the [Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Fessenheim_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant\") by 2017{{cite news \\|title\\=Présidentielle : Hollande confirme sa volonté de fermer Fessenheim \\|language\\=fr \\|work\\=France Soir \\|date\\=2 May 2012 \\|url\\=http://www.francesoir.fr/actualite/politique/presidentielle\\-hollande\\-confirme\\-sa\\-volonte\\-de\\-fermer\\-fessenheim\\-219201\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2012}} where there has been an ongoing closure campaign due to concerns about seismic activity and flooding.", "Active efforts by the French government to market the EPR have been hampered by cost overruns, delays, and competition from other nations, such as [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\"), which offer simpler, cheaper reactors.{{cite news \\|first\\=David \\|last\\=Jolly \\|title\\=France Went All Out for Nuclear Energy \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=7 May 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/business/energy\\-environment/france\\-went\\-all\\-out\\-for\\-nuclear\\-energy.html \\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2015}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Jolly \\|first2\\=Stanley \\|last2\\=Reed \\|title\\=French Nuclear Dynamo Stalls \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=7 May 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/business/energy\\-environment/french\\-nuclear\\-dynamo\\-stalls.html \\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2015 \\|quote\\=New plants that were meant to showcase the industry’s most advanced technology are years behind schedule and billions of euros over budget.}}", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Age in 2020 of French nuclear reactors relative to the beginning of commercial operation{{cite book \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Nuclear Power Reactors in the World \\|url\\=https://www.iaea.org/publications/13552/nuclear\\-power\\-reactors\\-in\\-the\\-world \\|publisher\\=IAEA \\|page\\=30 \\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-11 \\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-0\\-102719\\-1}}.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://actu.orange.fr/societe/videos/la\\-centrale\\-nucleaire\\-de\\-fessenheim\\-est\\-definitivement\\-debranchee\\-du\\-reseau\\-electrique\\-national\\-CNT000001re5qL.html \\|title\\=La centrale nucléaire de Fessenheim est définitivement débranchée du réseau électrique national \\|author\\= \\|language\\=fr \\|date\\=2019 \\|website\\=actu.orange.fr \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BFM TV]] \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-11}}](/wiki/File:Histogramme_des_%C3%A2ges_des_r%C3%A9acteurs_nucl%C3%A9aires_fran%C3%A7ais_en_service_en_2020.svg \"Histogramme des âges des réacteurs nucléaires français en service en 2020.svg\")", "In 2015, the [National Assembly](/wiki/French_National_Assembly \"French National Assembly\") voted that by 2025 only 50% of France's energy will be produced by nuclear plants.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.world\\-nuclear\\-news.org/NP\\-French\\-energy\\-transition\\-bill\\-adopted\\-2307155\\.html \\| title\\=French energy transition bill adopted \\|website\\=World Nuclear News}} Environment Minister [Nicolas Hulot](/wiki/Nicolas_Hulot \"Nicolas Hulot\") noted in November 2017 that this goal is unrealistic, postponing the reduction to 2030 or 2035\\.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-france\\-nuclearpower/france\\-postpones\\-target\\-for\\-cutting\\-nuclear\\-share\\-of\\-power\\-production\\-idUSKBN1D71TM \\| title\\=France postpones target for cutting nuclear share of power production\\| newspaper\\=Reuters\\| date\\=7 November 2017}}", "In 2016, following a discovery at [Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Flamanville_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant\"), about 400 large steel forgings manufactured by Le Creusot Forge since 1965 were found to have carbon\\-content irregularities that weakened the steel. A widespread programme of reactor checks was started involving a progressive programme of reactor shutdowns, continued over the winter high electricity demand period into 2017\\. This caused power price increases in Europe as France increased electricity imports, especially from Germany, to augment supply.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/f86a3c6c\\-9c60\\-11e6\\-a6e4\\-8b8e77dd083a \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/f86a3c6c\\-9c60\\-11e6\\-a6e4\\-8b8e77dd083a \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=French nuclear outages threaten higher UK power bills \\|first\\=Andrew \\|last\\=Ward \\|newspaper\\=Financial Times \\|date\\=28 October 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2016}}{{cite report \\|url\\=http://www.greenpeace.org/france/PageFiles/266171/Note\\_LargeAndAssociates\\_EN\\_26092016\\.pdf \\|title\\=Irregularities and Anomalies Relating to the Forged Components of Le Creusot Forge \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Large \\|publisher\\=Greenpeace France \\|date\\=26 September 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027192609/https://www.greenpeace.org/france/PageFiles/266171/Note\\_LargeAndAssociates\\_EN\\_26092016\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2016}} As of late October 2016, 20 of France's 58 reactors were offline.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.powermag.com/frances\\-nuclear\\-storm\\-many\\-power\\-plants\\-down\\-due\\-to\\-quality\\-concerns/?printmode\\=1 \\|title\\=France's Nuclear Storm: Many Power Plants Down Due to Quality Concerns \\|first\\=Lee \\|last\\=Buchsbaum \\|newspaper\\=POWER \\|date\\=1 November 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2016}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-france\\-power\\-winteroutlook\\-idUKKBN1332C6 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109164038/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-france\\-power\\-winteroutlook\\-idUKKBN1332C6 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=9 November 2016 \\|title\\=France could face winter power cuts, hit by nuclear dependence \\|first1\\=Bate \\|last1\\=Felix \\|first2\\=Geert \\|last2\\=De Clercq \\|publisher\\=Reuters \\|date\\=8 November 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2016}} These steel quality concerns may prevent the regulator giving the life extensions from 40 to 50 years, that had been assumed by energy planners, for many reactors.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/news/business/21711087\\-electricit\\-de\\-france\\-has\\-had\\-shut\\-down\\-18\\-its\\-58\\-nuclear\\-reactors\\-frances\\-nuclear\\-energy \\|title\\=France's nuclear\\-energy champion is in turmoil \\|magazine\\=The Economist \\|date\\=3 December 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=3 December 2016}} In December 2016 the *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal \"Wall Street Journal\")* characterised the problem as a \"decades long coverup of manufacturing problems\", with Areva executives acknowledging that Le Creusot had been falsifying documents.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/problems\\-at\\-nuclear\\-components\\-supplier\\-spark\\-global\\-reviews\\-1481625005 \\|title\\=Coverup at French Nuclear Supplier Sparks Global Review \\|first1\\=Matthew \\|last1\\=Dalton \\|first2\\=Inti \\|last2\\=Landauro \\|first3\\=Rebecca \\|last3\\=Smith \\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal \\|date\\=13 December 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2016}} The Le Creusot forge was out of operation from December 2015 to January 2018 while improvements to process controls, the quality management system, organisation and safety culture were made.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.world\\-nuclear\\-news.org/Articles/Framatome\\-forge\\-raises\\-replacement\\-parts\\-productio \\|title\\=Framatome forge raises replacement parts production \\|work\\=World Nuclear News \\|date\\=17 November 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2020}}", "In November 2018, [President Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron \"Emmanuel Macron\") announced the 50% nuclear power reduction target is being delayed to 2035, and would involve closing fourteen {{nowrap\\|900 MWe}} reactors. The two oldest reactors, units 1 and 2 at [Fessenheim](/wiki/Fessenheim_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant\"), were closed in 2020\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.world\\-nuclear\\-news.org/Articles/Macron\\-clarifies\\-French\\-energy\\-plans \\|title\\=Macron clarifies French energy plans \\|work\\=World Nuclear News \\|date\\=27 November 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=29 November 2018}} EDF is planning an investment programme, called {{lang\\|fr\\|Grand Carénage}}, to extend reactor lifespans to 50 years, to be largely completed by 2025\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.world\\-nuclear\\-news.org/Articles/Viewpoint\\-A\\-long\\-future\\-for\\-Frances\\-nuclear\\-fleet \\|title\\=Viewpoint: A long future for France's nuclear fleet? \\|work\\=World Nuclear News \\|date\\=23 April 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2019}}", "In 2020, Energy Minister [Élisabeth Borne](/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Borne \"Élisabeth Borne\") announced the government would not decide on the construction of any new reactors until [Flamanville 3](/wiki/Flamanville_3 \"Flamanville 3\") started operation after 2022\\.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsfrance\\-to\\-decide\\-on\\-new\\-nuclear\\-build\\-after\\-2022\\-7598148 \\|title\\=France to decide on new nuclear build after 2022 \\|magazine\\=Nuclear Engineering International \\|date\\=14 January 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2020}} In October 2021 Macron announced plans for France to become a leader in low\\-carbon energy production using [small modular reactors](/wiki/Small_modular_reactor \"Small modular reactor\") and [green hydrogen](/wiki/Green_hydrogen \"Green hydrogen\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=France / Macron Announces Plans For First SMR And Green Hydrogen From Nuclear Plants By 2030 \\|publisher\\=NucNet \\|url\\=https://www.nucnet.org/news/macron\\-announces\\-plans\\-for\\-first\\-smr\\-and\\-green\\-hydrogen\\-from\\-nuclear\\-plants\\-by\\-2030\\-10\\-2\\-2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-12\\|date\\=4 October 2021 }} In October 2021 French grid operator RTE plans for construction of six new EPR reactors so that by 2050 France maintains 50 GW in low\\-carbon nuclear power. This has been described as the fastest and most certain path to achieve [carbon neutrality](/wiki/Carbon_neutrality \"Carbon neutrality\") by 2050\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=New nuclear reactors can help France become carbon neutral by 2050, says grid operator\\|url\\=https://www.breakingnews.ie/climate/new\\-nuclear\\-reactors\\-can\\-help\\-france\\-become\\-carbon\\-neutral\\-by\\-2050\\-says\\-grid\\-operator\\-1204437\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-27\\|website\\=BreakingNews.ie\\|date\\=25 October 2021 \\|language\\=en}}", "In January 2022, junior environment minister [Bérangère Abba](/wiki/B%C3%A9rang%C3%A8re_Abba \"Bérangère Abba\") said that plans for new nuclear EPR 2 reactors, to be operational between 2035 and 2037, should be submitted around 2023\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/france\\-sees\\-new\\-nuclear\\-reactors\\-going\\-online\\-by\\-2035\\-37\\-minister\\-2022\\-01\\-06/ \\|title\\=France sees new nuclear reactors going online by 2035\\-37 – minister \\|first\\=G. V. \\|last\\=De Clercq \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=6 January 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2022}} The decision was accelerated by the impact of [2021 global energy crisis](/wiki/2021_global_energy_crisis \"2021 global energy crisis\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/macron\\-says\\-france\\-will\\-build\\-more\\-nuclear\\-energy\\-reactors\\-2021\\-11\\-09/ \\|title\\=Macron says France will build new nuclear energy reactors \\|last\\=Kar\\-Gupta \\|first\\=Sudip \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=9 November 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2022}} In February 2022 Macron added that the plan includes construction of 14 new large nuclear reactors and extension of life of existing reactors deemed safe and suitable beyond 50 years.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Macron Pledges New Nuclear Reactors – if He's Re\\-Elected\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022\\-02\\-10/macron\\-pledges\\-new\\-nuclear\\-reactors\\-if\\-he\\-s\\-re\\-elected \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-14\\|work\\=Bloomberg}}", "On the 3 September 2022, amid energy uncertainties arising from the [2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\"), the Energy Transition Minister, Agnes Pannier\\-Runacher, announced that EDF was committed to restarting all reactors in the coming winter.", "In 2023, during a [presidential visit to China](/wiki/2023_France-China_Summit \"2023 France-China Summit\"), France renewed a nuclear co\\-operation agreement with China, and EDF renewed its 2007 partnership contract with [China General Nuclear Power Group](/wiki/China_General_Nuclear_Power_Group \"China General Nuclear Power Group\") which includes development, construction and operation of nuclear plants.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsfrance\\-renews\\-nuclear\\-co\\-operation\\-with\\-china\\-10750359 \\|title\\=France renews nuclear co\\-operation with China \\|magazine\\=Nuclear Engineering International \\|date\\=12 April 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2023}}", "### Crisis since late 2021", "After scheduled maintenance during the summer of 2021, some power plants were not back in service in late 2021\\. In October, [stress corrosion cracking](/wiki/Stress_corrosion_cracking \"Stress corrosion cracking\") at [Civaux Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Civaux_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Civaux Nuclear Power Plant\") led to the decision to shut down both blocks for long term repair.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featurecounting\\-the\\-cost\\-of\\-cracking\\-9919744/ \\|title\\=Counting the cost of cracking \\|magazine\\=Nuclear Engineering International \\|date\\=11 August 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=23 August 2022}} In December 2021, this was extended to both blocks of [Chooz Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Chooz_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Chooz Nuclear Power Plant\"), as all four plants use the same type of reactor, N4, the most modern in operation, with grid connection in the late 1990s, commercial operation since early 2000s. By end of April 2022 it was reported that 28 of France's 56 nuclear reactors were offline.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://news.sky.com/story/nearly\\-half\\-of\\-frances\\-nuclear\\-reactors\\-taken\\-offline\\-adding\\-to\\-electricity\\-demand\\-on\\-european\\-grid\\-12600662 \\| title\\=Half of France's nuclear reactors taken offline, adding to electricity demand on European grid \\|work\\=Sky News \\|first\\=Victoria \\|last\\=Seabrook \\|date\\=29 April 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2024}}{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featuredealing\\-with\\-cracking\\-in\\-french\\-nuclear\\-fleet\\-10988297/ \\|title\\=Dealing with cracking in the French nuclear fleet \\|last\\=MacLachlan \\|first\\=Ann \\|magazine\\=Nuclear Engineering International \\|date\\=5 July 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2023}} French nuclear energy production has fallen to the lowest level since 1993 and it is expected to fall short by at least 25% compared to usual production levels in the winter of 2022/2023\\.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/18/business/france\\-nuclear\\-power\\-russia.html \\| title\\=French Nuclear Power Crisis Frustrates Europe's Push to Quit Russian Energy \\| newspaper\\=The New York Times \\| date\\=18 June 2022 \\| last1\\=Alderman \\| first1\\=Liz }}", "On 19 May 2022, EDF adjusted its French nuclear output estimate for 2022 between 280 and 300 TWh,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Point d'actualité sur le phénomène de corrosion sous contrainte et ajustement de l'estimation de production nucléaire en France pour 2022 \\|language\\=fr \\|trans\\-title\\=Update on the stress corrosion phenomenon and adjustment of the estimate of nuclear production in France for 2022 \\|date\\=18 May 2022\\|url\\=https://presse\\-edf.fr/download?n\\=CP\\-EDF1\\-PDF\\&picid\\=3043 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Électricité de France\\|EDF]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103041421/https://presse\\-edf.fr/download?n\\=CP\\-EDF1\\-PDF\\&picid\\=3043 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2024}} and with the expectation of checks and repairs to be completed, the 2023 French nuclear output estimate was not changed (300–330 TWh). Considering the overall control and repair program, nuclear generation for 2024 may be impacted.", "Electricity production in 2022 was 279 TWh, with 300–330 TWh still forecast for 2023 as of June 2023\\.", "On 21 February 2022, [S\\&P Global Ratings](/wiki/S%26P_Global_Ratings \"S&P Global Ratings\") and [Moody's](/wiki/Moody%27s_Investors_Service \"Moody's Investors Service\") downgraded the credit rating of EDF citing the technical issues at its nuclear power plants.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news\\-insights/latest\\-news\\-headlines/s\\-p\\-moody\\-s\\-downgrade\\-edf\\-on\\-troubled\\-finances\\-nuclear\\-fleet\\-69013165 \\| title\\=S\\&P, Moody's downgrade EDF on troubled finances, nuclear fleet \\|date\\= 22 February 2022 \\|website\\=S\\&P Global Market Intelligence \\|first1\\= Selene \\|last1\\=Balasta \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102225033/https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news\\-insights/latest\\-news\\-headlines/s\\-p\\-moody\\-s\\-downgrade\\-edf\\-on\\-troubled\\-finances\\-nuclear\\-fleet\\-69013165 \\|archive\\-date\\= November 2, 2023 }} In July 2022 the French government announced its plans to fully nationalize EDF.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/06/frances\\-edf\\-to\\-be\\-fully\\-nationalised\\-borne\\-.html \\| title\\=France's EDF to be fully nationalized, prime minister says \\| website\\=\\[\\[CNBC]] \\| date\\=6 July 2022 }} To meet demand, EDF had to buy electricity on the European market at high prices, costing an estimated [€](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\")29 billion by June 2023\\.", "As of early September 2022, 32 of France's 56 nuclear reactors were shut down due to maintenance or technical problems.{{cite news \\|title\\=France's EDF plans to restart nation's entire nuclear fleet by early next year \\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2022/09/04/frances\\-edf\\-plans\\-to\\-restart\\-nations\\-entire\\-nuclear\\-fleet\\-by\\-early\\-next\\-year \\|work\\=Euronews \\|date\\=4 September 2022}}{{cite news \\|title\\=EDF to restart all its nuclear reactors this winter – minister \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/edf\\-restart\\-all\\-its\\-nuclear\\-reactors\\-by\\-this\\-winter\\-minister\\-says\\-2022\\-09\\-02/ \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=2 September 2022}} In 2022, Europe's [driest summer in 500 years](/wiki/2022_European_drought \"2022 European drought\") had serious consequences for power plant cooling systems, as the drought reduced the amount of river water available for cooling.{{cite news \\|title\\=Heat and Drought in Europe Strain Energy Supply \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/18/world/europe/drought\\-heat\\-energy.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=18 August 2022}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Europe's driest summer in 500 years threatens crops, energy production \\|url\\=https://graphics.reuters.com/EUROPE\\-WEATHER/DROUGHT/jnvwenznyvw/ \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=22 August 2022}}", "During 2023, stress corrosion cracking was found in some straight pipe sections; previously it had only been found in pipe with bends so subject to additional stress form thermal stratification as fluids flowed through bends. One crack was to a depth of 23 mm in a wall thickness of 27 mm.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Simon \\|first\\=Flavien \\|date\\=21 February 2024 \\|title\\=Stress Corrosion Cracking in French Reactors \\|url\\=https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML2405/ML24051A082\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Autorité de sûreté nucléaire]] \\|page\\=6}}", "" ]
Technical overview ------------------ [thumb\|Map of operating French nuclear power reactors, by class](/wiki/File:Nuclear_power_plants_map_France-en_2.svg "Nuclear power plants map France-en 2.svg") Drawing such a large percentage of overall electrical production from nuclear power is unique to France. This reliance has resulted in certain necessary deviations from the standard design and function of other nuclear power programs. For instance, in order to meet changing demand throughout the day, some plants must work as [peaking power plants](/wiki/Peaking_power_plant "Peaking power plant"), whereas most nuclear plants in the world operate as [base\-load plants](/wiki/Base_load_power_plant "Base load power plant"), and allow other fossil or hydro units to adjust to demand. Nuclear power in France has a total [capacity factor](/wiki/Capacity_factor "Capacity factor") of around 77%, which is low compared to nuclear power plants in other countries due to load following. Fleet availability has been declining in recent years, averaging approximately 72% over the 2020\-2021 operating years.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.edf.fr/sites/groupe/files/2022\-05/edf\-facts\-and\-figures\-2021\-vdef.pdf \|title\=EdF Facts \& Figures 2021 slide 95}} This is quite low compared to other, less dominant nuclear plant fleets and suggests the operating regime has had adverse long\-term impacts on the operability of the fleet. The first eight power reactors in the nation were gas cooled reactor types ([UNGG reactor](/wiki/UNGG_reactor "UNGG reactor")), whose development was pioneered by CEA. Coinciding with a [uranium enrichment](/wiki/Uranium_enrichment "Uranium enrichment") program, EDF developed [pressurized water reactor](/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor "Pressurized water reactor") (PWR) technology which eventually became the dominant type. The gas\-cooled reactors located at [Brennilis](/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant"), [Bugey](/wiki/Bugey_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Bugey Nuclear Power Plant"), [Chinon](/wiki/Chinon_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Chinon Nuclear Power Plant"), and [Marcoule](/wiki/Marcoule_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Marcoule Nuclear Power Plant") have all been shut down. All operating plants today are PWRs. The sodium\-cooled fast [breeder reactor](/wiki/Breeder_reactor "Breeder reactor") technology development reactors, [Phénix](/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix "Phénix") and [Superphénix](/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix "Superphénix"), have been shut down. Work on a more advanced design in the form of the [ASTRID](/wiki/ASTRID_%28reactor%29 "ASTRID (reactor)") reactor was finally abandoned in September 2019\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsfrance\-cancels\-astrid\-fast\-reactor\-project\-7394432 \|title\=France cancels ASTRID fast reactor project \|author\= \|date\=2 September 2019 \|website\=Nuclear Engineering International \|publisher\=Global Trade Media \|access\-date\=28 December 2019}} The PWR plants were all developed by [Framatome](/wiki/Framatome "Framatome") (now [Areva](/wiki/Areva "Areva")) from the initial [Westinghouse](/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Company "Westinghouse Electric Company") design.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/01/24/business/france\-set\-to\-build\-reactors.html \|title\=France Set to Build Reactors \|first\=Paul \|last\=Lewis \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|date\=24 January 1981 \|access\-date\=21 April 2017}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company\-histories/framatome\-sa\-history/ \|title\=Framatome SA History \|work\=International Directory of Company Histories \|publisher\=FundingUniverse \|year\=1998 \|access\-date\=21 April 2017}}{{cite journal \|title\=Westinghouse sells French nuclear stake \|journal\=Chemical \& Engineering News \|year\=1976 \|volume\=54 \|issue\=2 \|pages \= 5\|doi\=10\.1021/cen\-v054n002\.p005 \|quote\=Westinghouse will continue to receive license royalties at present rates on the existing and planned nuclear reactors designed around its pressurized\-water reactor system.}} All currently operating PWR plants are of three design variations, having output powers of 900 [MWe](/wiki/MWe "MWe"), 1300 MWe, and 1450 MWe. The repeated use of these standard variants of a design has afforded France the greatest degree of nuclear plant standardization in the world. ### 900 MWe class (CP0, CP1 and CP2 designs) [thumb\|The [Saint\-Laurent](/wiki/Saint-Laurent_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant") site, showing two CP2, 900 MWe class reactors and the cooling tower on the right](/wiki/File:Saint-laurent-nouan.JPG "Saint-laurent-nouan.JPG") There are a total of 34 of these reactors in operation; most were constructed in the 1970s and the early 1980s. In 2002, they had a uniform review and all were granted a 10\-year life extension. With the CP0 and CP1 designs, two reactors share the same machine and command room. With the CP2 design, each reactor has its own machine and command room. Apart from this difference, CP1 and CP2 use the same technologies, and the two types are frequently referred to as *CPY*. Compared to CP0 they have an additional cooling circuit between the emergency system that in case of an accident allows to spray water into the containment and the circuit which contains river water, a more flexible control system and some minor difference in the layout of the building.{{cite web \|title \= Cinquième rapport national \|publisher \= French Nuclear Safety Authority \|date \= July 2010 \|url \= http://www.asn.fr/index.php/content/download/27162/163363/file/CNS\_5e\-rapport\_fran%C3%A7ais.pdf \|access\-date \= 18 March 2011 \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175639/http://www.asn.fr/index.php/content/download/27162/163363/file/CNS\_5e\-rapport\_fran%C3%A7ais.pdf \|archive\-date \= 22 July 2011 \|df \= dmy\-all }} This three loop design (three steam generators and three primary circulation pumps) was also exported to a number of other countries, including: * South Africa – two units at the [Koeberg nuclear power station](/wiki/Koeberg_nuclear_power_station "Koeberg nuclear power station") * [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") – two units at the [Ulchin Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Ulchin_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Ulchin Nuclear Power Plant") * [China](/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_China "Nuclear power in China"), also designated as M310:{{cite web \|title\=Nuclear Power in China \|url\=https://www.world\-nuclear.org/information\-library/country\-profiles/countries\-a\-f/china\-nuclear\-power.aspx \|website\=www.world\-nuclear.org \|publisher\=\[\[World Nuclear Association]]\|access\-date\=30 December 2019}} + Two units at the [Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Daya_Bay_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant") + Two units at the [Ling Ao Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Ling_Ao_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Ling Ao Nuclear Power Plant") + Further development led into the 1000 MW [CPR\-1000](/wiki/CPR-1000 "CPR-1000") design. In February 2021, [Autorité de sûreté nucléaire](/wiki/Autorit%C3%A9_de_s%C3%BBret%C3%A9_nucl%C3%A9aire "Autorité de sûreté nucléaire") gave generic authorisation, subject to conditions, for a ten\-year life extension beyond the design life of 40 years of the French 900 MWe reactors. Specific reviews of each reactor are still required.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.world\-nuclear\-news.org/Articles/French\-regulator\-approves\-50\-year\-operation\-of\-900 \|title\=French regulator approves 50\-year operation of 900 MWe reactors \|publisher\=World Nuclear News \|date\=25 February 2021 \|access\-date\=1 March 2021}} ### 1300 MWe class (P4 and P'4 designs) [thumb\|left\|The [Cattenom](/wiki/Cattenom_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Cattenom Nuclear Power Plant") site houses four 1300 MWe class reactors](/wiki/File:Nuclear_Power_Plant_Cattenom.jpg "Nuclear Power Plant Cattenom.jpg") There are 20 reactors of this design (four steam generators and four primary circulation pumps) operating in France. The P4 and P'4 type have some minor difference in the layout of the building, especially for the structure which contain the fuel rods and the circuitry. ### 1500 MWe class (N4 design) [thumb\|The [Civaux](/wiki/Civaux_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Civaux Nuclear Power Plant") site houses two 1500 MWe class reactors, the most recent design operating today](/wiki/File:Centrale-nucleaire-civaux.jpg "Centrale-nucleaire-civaux.jpg") There are only four of these reactors, housed at two separate sites: [Civaux](/wiki/Civaux_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Civaux Nuclear Power Plant") and [Chooz](/wiki/Chooz_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Chooz Nuclear Power Plant"). Construction of these reactors started between 1984 and 1991, but full commercial operation did not begin until between 2000 and 2002 because of thermal fatigue flaws in the heat removal system requiring the redesign and replacement of parts in each N4 power station.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.olkiluoto.info/en/13/3/74/\|title\=Facts about Olkiluoto 3 financing\|publisher\=olkiluoto.info\|access\-date\=10 July 2009}}{{cite journal \|url\=https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/memagazineselect/article/120/08/68/369660/A\-Next\-Generation\-ReactorElectricite\-de\-France\-s \|title\=A Next\-Generation Reactor \|last\=Valenti \|first\=Michael \|journal\=Mechanical Engineering \|volume\=120 \|issue\=8 \|doi\=10\.1115/1\.1998\-AUG\-5 \|date\=August 1998 \|pages\=68–71 \|access\-date\=25 August 2022\|doi\-access\=free }} By 2002 the reactors had been uprated from 1450 MWe to 1500 MWe.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featurefeedback\-on\-the\-n4\-series/ \|title\=Feedback on the N4 series \|publisher\=Nuclear Engineering International \|date\=3 April 2002 \|access\-date\=25 August 2022}} Serious [stress corrosion cracking](/wiki/Stress_corrosion_cracking "Stress corrosion cracking") in the stainless steel safety system piping was discovered to 2021, requiring shutdowns for inspections and repair. ### 1650 MWe class (EPR design) The next generation design for French reactors is the [EPR](/wiki/EPR_%28nuclear_reactor%29 "EPR (nuclear reactor)"), which is also intended for foreign markets. The EPR was originally developed as a German\-French joint project to incorporate the advantages of the highly reliable German [Konvoi](/wiki/Konvoi_%28Kernkraftwerk%29 "Konvoi (Kernkraftwerk)") design as well as French experience at mass construction of relatively "standardized" nuclear facilities. The design was intended to be built in both Germany and France as well as various export markets. However, the German nuclear phase\-out precluded any construction of EPRs in Germany and ultimately led to Siemens selling its shares in the joint venture (see below). Two EPR units are in operation at the [Taishan Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Taishan_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Taishan Nuclear Power Plant") in China. Operational units include one at the [Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Olkiluoto_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant") in Finland. Under construction units include two at the [Hinkley Point C nuclear power station](/wiki/Hinkley_Point_C_nuclear_power_station "Hinkley Point C nuclear power station") in the United Kingdom. Construction of the first French EPR started at the [Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Flamanville_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant") in 2007\. The completion date was set for 2012, but the reactor suffered delays and cost overruns. {{As of\|2019}}, completion was scheduled for late 2022, ten years behind schedule.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsflamanville\-3\-delayed\-until\-2022\-7341187/ \|title\=Flamanville 3 delayed until 2022 \|author\= \|date\=30 July 2019 \|website\=Nuclear Engineering International \|publisher\=Global Trade Media \|access\-date\=28 December 2019 }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/adc90b3e\-6f67\-11e4\-8d86\-00144feabdc0\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/adc90b3e\-6f67\-11e4\-8d86\-00144feabdc0\.html \|archive\-date\=11 December 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|title\=EDF in fresh delay for flagship nuclear plant \|author\=Michael Stothard \|newspaper\=Financial Times \|date\=18 November 2014 \|access\-date\=21 November 2014}} In June 2023, EDF announced it was starting the authorisation process to build two EPR 2 reactors at the [Penly Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Penly_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Penly Nuclear Power Plant"), anticipating that site preparatory work would begin in summer 2024 and construction would begin about 2027\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.world\-nuclear\-news.org/Articles/EDF\-begins\-permitting\-process\-for\-two\-new\-reactors \|title\=EDF begins permitting process for two new reactors at Penly \|website\=World Nuclear News \|date\=30 June 2023 \|access\-date\=1 January 2024}} The reactor design was developed by [Areva](/wiki/Areva "Areva") contributing its N4 reactor technology and the German company [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens "Siemens") contributing its Konvoi reactor technology. In keeping with the French approach of highly standardized plants and proven technology, it uses more traditional active safety systems and is more similar to current plant designs than international competitors such as the [AP1000](/wiki/AP1000 "AP1000") or the [ESBWR](/wiki/ESBWR "ESBWR"). In 2013, EDF acknowledged the difficulties it was having building the EPR design.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/edf\-reactors\-idUSL6N0CD1J820130321 \|title\=EDF eyes development of new, smaller reactors – papers \|publisher\=Reuters \|date\=21 March 2013 \|access\-date\=18 April 2013}} In September 2015, EDF's chief executive, [Jean\-Bernard Lévy](/wiki/Jean-Bernard_L%C3%A9vy "Jean-Bernard Lévy"), stated that the design of a "New Model" EPR was being worked on, which will be easier and cheaper to build, which would be ready for orders from about 2020\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/only\-china\-wants\-to\-invest\-in\-britains\-new\-2bn\-hinkley\-point\-nuclear\-plant\-because\-no\-one\-else\-10513752\.html \|title\=Only China wants to invest in Britain's new££2bn Hinkley Point nuclear plant because no one else thinks it will work, EDF admits \|author\=Geert De Clercq \|newspaper\=The Independent \|date\=23 September 2015 \|access\-date\=24 September 2015}} In 2016 EDF planned to build two New Model EPR reactors in France by 2030 to prepare for renewing its fleet of older reactors.{{cite news \|url\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/edf\-nuclear\-epr/edf\-plans\-two\-new\-nuclear\-reactors\-in\-france\-by\-2030\-document\-idUKL8N1554S4 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208125004/https://uk.reuters.com/article/edf\-nuclear\-epr/edf\-plans\-two\-new\-nuclear\-reactors\-in\-france\-by\-2030\-document\-idUKL8N1554S4 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=8 February 2018 \|title\=EDF plans two new nuclear reactors in France by 2030\-document \|publisher\=Reuters \|date\=21 January 2016 \|access\-date\=7 February 2018}} However following financial difficulties at Areva, and its merger with EDF, French Energy Minister [Nicolas Hulot](/wiki/Nicolas_Hulot "Nicolas Hulot") said in January 2018 "for now \[building a New Model EPR] is neither a priority or a plan. Right now the priority is to develop renewable energy and to reduce the share of nuclear."{{cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/france\-nuclear/update\-1\-separate\-unit\-for\-edf\-nuclear\-arm\-has\-been\-discussed\-says\-minister\-hulot\-idUSL8N1PH4D6 \|title\=UPDATE 1\-Separate unit for EDF nuclear arm has been discussed, says minister Hulot \|publisher\=Reuters \|date\=22 January 2018 \|access\-date\=7 February 2018}} ### Cooling [thumb\|The [Gravelines](/wiki/Gravelines_Nuclear_Power_Station "Gravelines Nuclear Power Station") site on the [North Sea](/wiki/North_Sea "North Sea") between [Calais](/wiki/Calais "Calais") and [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk "Dunkirk")](/wiki/File:Gravelines_nuclear_power_plant.jpg "Gravelines nuclear power plant.jpg") The majority of nuclear plants in France are located away from the coasts and obtain their cooling water from rivers. These plants employ [cooling towers](/wiki/Cooling_towers "Cooling towers") to reduce their impact on the environment. The temperature of emitted water carrying the waste heat is strictly limited by the French government, and this has proved to be problematic during recent heat waves.{{cite news\|url\=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry\_sectors/utilities/article6626811\.ece\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009054301/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry\_sectors/utilities/article6626811\.ece\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=9 October 2009\|title\=France imports UK electricity as plants shut\|author\=Robin Pagnamenta\|date\=3 July 2009\|work\=The Times\|access\-date\=10 July 2009 \| location\=London}} Five plants, equaling 18 reactors are located on the coast: * [Gravelines Nuclear Power Station](/wiki/Gravelines_Nuclear_Power_Station "Gravelines Nuclear Power Station") * [Penly Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Penly_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Penly Nuclear Power Plant") * [Paluel Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Paluel_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Paluel Nuclear Power Plant") * [Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Flamanville_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant") * [Blayais Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Blayais_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Blayais Nuclear Power Plant") These five get their cooling water directly from the ocean and can thus dump their waste heat directly back into the sea, which is slightly more economical. ### Fuel cycle [thumb\|right\|Active work going on for the ultimate underground repository](/wiki/File:LSMHM-03.jpg "LSMHM-03.jpg") France is one of the few countries in the world with an active civilian [nuclear reprocessing](/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing "Nuclear reprocessing") program, with the [COGEMA La Hague site](/wiki/COGEMA_La_Hague_site "COGEMA La Hague site"). Enrichment work, some [MOX fuel](/wiki/MOX_fuel "MOX fuel") fabrication, and other activities take place at the [Tricastin Nuclear Power Centre](/wiki/Tricastin_Nuclear_Power_Centre "Tricastin Nuclear Power Centre"). Enrichment is completely domestic and was powered by 2/3 of the output of the nuclear plant at Tricastin before the switch from [gaseous diffusion](/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion "Gaseous diffusion") to [gas centrifugation](/wiki/Gas_centrifugation "Gas centrifugation") in the early 2010s increased efficiency thirty\-fold.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.debatpublic.fr/sites/default/files/2023\-01/orano\-gb2\_dossier\-de\-concertation\-vf.pdf\|title\=Projet d'extension de l'usine d'enrichissement d'uranium Georges Besse 2 \- Dossier du responsable de projet\|date\=2022\|lang\=fr}} Reprocessing of fuel from other countries has been done for the United States and Japan, who have expressed the desire to develop a more closed fuel cycle similar to what France has achieved. MOX fuel fabrication services have also been sold to other countries, notably to the [US](/wiki/United_States "United States") for the [Megatons to Megawatts Program](/wiki/Megatons_to_Megawatts_Program "Megatons to Megawatts Program"), using [plutonium](/wiki/Plutonium "Plutonium") from dismantled [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons "Nuclear weapons"). After the cancellation of German plans to build a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant at [Wackersdorf](/wiki/Wackersdorf "Wackersdorf"), Germany, also relied on the La Hague facility for its civilian reprocessing before switching to the once through fuel cycle in 2005\.{{cite web \| url\=https://rueckfuehrung.gns.de/de/warum\-rueckfuehrung/historie\-und\-verantwortung \| title\=Historie und Verantwortung \- Rückführung von deutschen Wiederaufarbeitungsabfällen \| lang\=de}} While France does not mine [uranium](/wiki/Uranium "Uranium") for the front end of the fuel cycle domestically, French companies have various holdings in the [uranium market](/wiki/Uranium_market "Uranium market"). Uranium for the French program totalled 8000 tonnes annually as of 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.oecd\-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2016/7301\-uranium\-2016\.pdf \|title\=Uranium 2016: Resources, Production and Demand \|publisher\=Nuclear Energy Agency \|orig\-year\=2016 \|date\=March 2017 \|access\-date\=27 February 2019}}{{rp\|79}} Areva is involved in uranium mining operations in Canada, Kazakhstan, Namibia, and Niger.{{rp\|236}} Several French former colonies have significant uranium reserves and French companies have stayed active in many of them even after those countries became independent. Due to the [CFA Franc](/wiki/CFA_Franc "CFA Franc") countries having a [currency peg](/wiki/Currency_peg "Currency peg") first to the [French Franc](/wiki/French_Franc "French Franc") and now to its successor, the euro, economic relations between these former French colonies and their former metropole remain strong. Final disposal of the high level nuclear waste is planned to be done at the [Meuse/Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory](/wiki/Meuse/Haute_Marne_Underground_Research_Laboratory "Meuse/Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory") [deep geological repository](/wiki/Deep_geological_repository "Deep geological repository").
[ "Technical overview\n------------------", "[thumb\\|Map of operating French nuclear power reactors, by class](/wiki/File:Nuclear_power_plants_map_France-en_2.svg \"Nuclear power plants map France-en 2.svg\")\nDrawing such a large percentage of overall electrical production from nuclear power is unique to France. This reliance has resulted in certain necessary deviations from the standard design and function of other nuclear power programs. For instance, in order to meet changing demand throughout the day, some plants must work as [peaking power plants](/wiki/Peaking_power_plant \"Peaking power plant\"), whereas most nuclear plants in the world operate as [base\\-load plants](/wiki/Base_load_power_plant \"Base load power plant\"), and allow other fossil or hydro units to adjust to demand. Nuclear power in France has a total [capacity factor](/wiki/Capacity_factor \"Capacity factor\") of around 77%, which is low compared to nuclear power plants in other countries due to load following. Fleet availability has been declining in recent years, averaging approximately 72% over the 2020\\-2021 operating years.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.edf.fr/sites/groupe/files/2022\\-05/edf\\-facts\\-and\\-figures\\-2021\\-vdef.pdf \\|title\\=EdF Facts \\& Figures 2021 slide 95}} This is quite low compared to other, less dominant nuclear plant fleets and suggests the operating regime has had adverse long\\-term impacts on the operability of the fleet.", "The first eight power reactors in the nation were gas cooled reactor types ([UNGG reactor](/wiki/UNGG_reactor \"UNGG reactor\")), whose development was pioneered by CEA. Coinciding with a [uranium enrichment](/wiki/Uranium_enrichment \"Uranium enrichment\") program, EDF developed [pressurized water reactor](/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor \"Pressurized water reactor\") (PWR) technology which eventually became the dominant type. The gas\\-cooled reactors located at [Brennilis](/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant\"), [Bugey](/wiki/Bugey_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Bugey Nuclear Power Plant\"), [Chinon](/wiki/Chinon_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Chinon Nuclear Power Plant\"), and [Marcoule](/wiki/Marcoule_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Marcoule Nuclear Power Plant\") have all been shut down.", "All operating plants today are PWRs. The sodium\\-cooled fast [breeder reactor](/wiki/Breeder_reactor \"Breeder reactor\") technology development reactors, [Phénix](/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix \"Phénix\") and [Superphénix](/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix \"Superphénix\"), have been shut down. Work on a more advanced design in the form of the [ASTRID](/wiki/ASTRID_%28reactor%29 \"ASTRID (reactor)\") reactor was finally abandoned in September 2019\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsfrance\\-cancels\\-astrid\\-fast\\-reactor\\-project\\-7394432 \\|title\\=France cancels ASTRID fast reactor project \\|author\\= \\|date\\=2 September 2019 \\|website\\=Nuclear Engineering International \\|publisher\\=Global Trade Media \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2019}}", "The PWR plants were all developed by [Framatome](/wiki/Framatome \"Framatome\") (now [Areva](/wiki/Areva \"Areva\")) from the initial [Westinghouse](/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Company \"Westinghouse Electric Company\") design.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/01/24/business/france\\-set\\-to\\-build\\-reactors.html \\|title\\=France Set to Build Reactors \\|first\\=Paul \\|last\\=Lewis \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=24 January 1981 \\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2017}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company\\-histories/framatome\\-sa\\-history/ \\|title\\=Framatome SA History \\|work\\=International Directory of Company Histories \\|publisher\\=FundingUniverse \\|year\\=1998 \\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2017}}{{cite journal \\|title\\=Westinghouse sells French nuclear stake \\|journal\\=Chemical \\& Engineering News \\|year\\=1976 \\|volume\\=54 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages \\= 5\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/cen\\-v054n002\\.p005 \\|quote\\=Westinghouse will continue to receive license royalties at present rates on the existing and planned nuclear reactors designed around its pressurized\\-water reactor system.}} All currently operating PWR plants are of three design variations, having output powers of 900 [MWe](/wiki/MWe \"MWe\"), 1300 MWe, and 1450 MWe. The repeated use of these standard variants of a design has afforded France the greatest degree of nuclear plant standardization in the world.", "### 900 MWe class (CP0, CP1 and CP2 designs)", "[thumb\\|The [Saint\\-Laurent](/wiki/Saint-Laurent_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant\") site, showing two CP2, 900 MWe class reactors and the cooling tower on the right](/wiki/File:Saint-laurent-nouan.JPG \"Saint-laurent-nouan.JPG\")", "There are a total of 34 of these reactors in operation; most were constructed in the 1970s and the early 1980s. In 2002, they had a uniform review and all were granted a 10\\-year life extension.", "With the CP0 and CP1 designs, two reactors share the same machine and command room. With the CP2 design, each reactor has its own machine and command room. Apart from this difference, CP1 and CP2 use the same technologies, and the two types are frequently referred to as *CPY*. Compared to CP0 they have an additional cooling circuit between the emergency system that in case of an accident allows to spray water into the containment and the circuit which contains river water, a more flexible control system and some minor difference in the layout of the building.{{cite web\n \\|title \\= Cinquième rapport national\n \\|publisher \\= French Nuclear Safety Authority\n \\|date \\= July 2010\n \\|url \\= http://www.asn.fr/index.php/content/download/27162/163363/file/CNS\\_5e\\-rapport\\_fran%C3%A7ais.pdf\n \\|access\\-date \\= 18 March 2011\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175639/http://www.asn.fr/index.php/content/download/27162/163363/file/CNS\\_5e\\-rapport\\_fran%C3%A7ais.pdf\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 22 July 2011\n \\|df \\= dmy\\-all\n}}", "", "This three loop design (three steam generators and three primary circulation pumps) was also exported to a number of other countries, including:", "* South Africa – two units at the [Koeberg nuclear power station](/wiki/Koeberg_nuclear_power_station \"Koeberg nuclear power station\")\n* [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\") – two units at the [Ulchin Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Ulchin_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Ulchin Nuclear Power Plant\")\n* [China](/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_China \"Nuclear power in China\"), also designated as M310:{{cite web \\|title\\=Nuclear Power in China \\|url\\=https://www.world\\-nuclear.org/information\\-library/country\\-profiles/countries\\-a\\-f/china\\-nuclear\\-power.aspx \\|website\\=www.world\\-nuclear.org \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Nuclear Association]]\\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2019}}\n\t+ Two units at the [Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Daya_Bay_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant\")\n\t+ Two units at the [Ling Ao Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Ling_Ao_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Ling Ao Nuclear Power Plant\")\n\t+ Further development led into the 1000 MW [CPR\\-1000](/wiki/CPR-1000 \"CPR-1000\") design.", "In February 2021, [Autorité de sûreté nucléaire](/wiki/Autorit%C3%A9_de_s%C3%BBret%C3%A9_nucl%C3%A9aire \"Autorité de sûreté nucléaire\") gave generic authorisation, subject to conditions, for a ten\\-year life extension beyond the design life of 40 years of the French 900 MWe reactors. Specific reviews of each reactor are still required.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.world\\-nuclear\\-news.org/Articles/French\\-regulator\\-approves\\-50\\-year\\-operation\\-of\\-900 \\|title\\=French regulator approves 50\\-year operation of 900 MWe reactors \\|publisher\\=World Nuclear News \\|date\\=25 February 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2021}}", "### 1300 MWe class (P4 and P'4 designs)", "[thumb\\|left\\|The [Cattenom](/wiki/Cattenom_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Cattenom Nuclear Power Plant\") site houses four 1300 MWe class reactors](/wiki/File:Nuclear_Power_Plant_Cattenom.jpg \"Nuclear Power Plant Cattenom.jpg\")\nThere are 20 reactors of this design (four steam generators and four primary circulation pumps) operating in France. The P4 and P'4 type have some minor difference in the layout of the building, especially for the structure which contain the fuel rods and the circuitry.", "### 1500 MWe class (N4 design)", "[thumb\\|The [Civaux](/wiki/Civaux_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Civaux Nuclear Power Plant\") site houses two 1500 MWe class reactors, the most recent design operating today](/wiki/File:Centrale-nucleaire-civaux.jpg \"Centrale-nucleaire-civaux.jpg\")\nThere are only four of these reactors, housed at two separate sites: [Civaux](/wiki/Civaux_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Civaux Nuclear Power Plant\") and [Chooz](/wiki/Chooz_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Chooz Nuclear Power Plant\"). Construction of these reactors started between 1984 and 1991, but full commercial operation did not begin until between 2000 and 2002 because of thermal fatigue flaws in the heat removal system requiring the redesign and replacement of parts in each N4 power station.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.olkiluoto.info/en/13/3/74/\\|title\\=Facts about Olkiluoto 3 financing\\|publisher\\=olkiluoto.info\\|access\\-date\\=10 July 2009}}{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/memagazineselect/article/120/08/68/369660/A\\-Next\\-Generation\\-ReactorElectricite\\-de\\-France\\-s \\|title\\=A Next\\-Generation Reactor \\|last\\=Valenti \\|first\\=Michael \\|journal\\=Mechanical Engineering \\|volume\\=120 \\|issue\\=8 \\|doi\\=10\\.1115/1\\.1998\\-AUG\\-5 \\|date\\=August 1998 \\|pages\\=68–71 \\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2022\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} By 2002 the reactors had been uprated from 1450 MWe to 1500 MWe.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featurefeedback\\-on\\-the\\-n4\\-series/ \\|title\\=Feedback on the N4 series \\|publisher\\=Nuclear Engineering International \\|date\\=3 April 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2022}} Serious [stress corrosion cracking](/wiki/Stress_corrosion_cracking \"Stress corrosion cracking\") in the stainless steel safety system piping was discovered to 2021, requiring shutdowns for inspections and repair.", "### 1650 MWe class (EPR design)", "The next generation design for French reactors is the [EPR](/wiki/EPR_%28nuclear_reactor%29 \"EPR (nuclear reactor)\"), which is also intended for foreign markets. The EPR was originally developed as a German\\-French joint project to incorporate the advantages of the highly reliable German [Konvoi](/wiki/Konvoi_%28Kernkraftwerk%29 \"Konvoi (Kernkraftwerk)\") design as well as French experience at mass construction of relatively \"standardized\" nuclear facilities. The design was intended to be built in both Germany and France as well as various export markets. However, the German nuclear phase\\-out precluded any construction of EPRs in Germany and ultimately led to Siemens selling its shares in the joint venture (see below). Two EPR units are in operation at the [Taishan Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Taishan_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Taishan Nuclear Power Plant\") in China. Operational units include one at the [Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Olkiluoto_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant\") in Finland. Under construction units include two at the [Hinkley Point C nuclear power station](/wiki/Hinkley_Point_C_nuclear_power_station \"Hinkley Point C nuclear power station\") in the United Kingdom. Construction of the first French EPR started at the [Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Flamanville_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant\") in 2007\\. The completion date was set for 2012, but the reactor suffered delays and cost overruns. {{As of\\|2019}}, completion was scheduled for late 2022, ten years behind schedule.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsflamanville\\-3\\-delayed\\-until\\-2022\\-7341187/ \\|title\\=Flamanville 3 delayed until 2022 \\|author\\= \\|date\\=30 July 2019 \\|website\\=Nuclear Engineering International \\|publisher\\=Global Trade Media \\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2019 }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/adc90b3e\\-6f67\\-11e4\\-8d86\\-00144feabdc0\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/adc90b3e\\-6f67\\-11e4\\-8d86\\-00144feabdc0\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=EDF in fresh delay for flagship nuclear plant \\|author\\=Michael Stothard \\|newspaper\\=Financial Times \\|date\\=18 November 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2014}} \nIn June 2023, EDF announced it was starting the authorisation process to build two EPR 2 reactors at the [Penly Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Penly_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Penly Nuclear Power Plant\"), anticipating that site preparatory work would begin in summer 2024 and construction would begin about 2027\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.world\\-nuclear\\-news.org/Articles/EDF\\-begins\\-permitting\\-process\\-for\\-two\\-new\\-reactors \\|title\\=EDF begins permitting process for two new reactors at Penly \\|website\\=World Nuclear News \\|date\\=30 June 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=1 January 2024}}", "The reactor design was developed by [Areva](/wiki/Areva \"Areva\") contributing its N4 reactor technology and the German company [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens \"Siemens\") contributing its Konvoi reactor technology. In keeping with the French approach of highly standardized plants and proven technology, it uses more traditional active safety systems and is more similar to current plant designs than international competitors such as the [AP1000](/wiki/AP1000 \"AP1000\") or the [ESBWR](/wiki/ESBWR \"ESBWR\").", "In 2013, EDF acknowledged the difficulties it was having building the EPR design.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/edf\\-reactors\\-idUSL6N0CD1J820130321 \\|title\\=EDF eyes development of new, smaller reactors – papers \\|publisher\\=Reuters \\|date\\=21 March 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2013}} In September 2015, EDF's chief executive, [Jean\\-Bernard Lévy](/wiki/Jean-Bernard_L%C3%A9vy \"Jean-Bernard Lévy\"), stated that the design of a \"New Model\" EPR was being worked on, which will be easier and cheaper to build, which would be ready for orders from about 2020\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/only\\-china\\-wants\\-to\\-invest\\-in\\-britains\\-new\\-2bn\\-hinkley\\-point\\-nuclear\\-plant\\-because\\-no\\-one\\-else\\-10513752\\.html \\|title\\=Only China wants to invest in Britain's new££2bn Hinkley Point nuclear plant because no one else thinks it will work, EDF admits \\|author\\=Geert De Clercq \\|newspaper\\=The Independent \\|date\\=23 September 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=24 September 2015}} In 2016 EDF planned to build two New Model EPR reactors in France by 2030 to prepare for renewing its fleet of older reactors.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/edf\\-nuclear\\-epr/edf\\-plans\\-two\\-new\\-nuclear\\-reactors\\-in\\-france\\-by\\-2030\\-document\\-idUKL8N1554S4 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208125004/https://uk.reuters.com/article/edf\\-nuclear\\-epr/edf\\-plans\\-two\\-new\\-nuclear\\-reactors\\-in\\-france\\-by\\-2030\\-document\\-idUKL8N1554S4 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=8 February 2018 \\|title\\=EDF plans two new nuclear reactors in France by 2030\\-document \\|publisher\\=Reuters \\|date\\=21 January 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2018}} However following financial difficulties at Areva, and its merger with EDF, French Energy Minister [Nicolas Hulot](/wiki/Nicolas_Hulot \"Nicolas Hulot\") said in January 2018 \"for now \\[building a New Model EPR] is neither a priority or a plan. Right now the priority is to develop renewable energy and to reduce the share of nuclear.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/france\\-nuclear/update\\-1\\-separate\\-unit\\-for\\-edf\\-nuclear\\-arm\\-has\\-been\\-discussed\\-says\\-minister\\-hulot\\-idUSL8N1PH4D6 \\|title\\=UPDATE 1\\-Separate unit for EDF nuclear arm has been discussed, says minister Hulot \\|publisher\\=Reuters \\|date\\=22 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2018}}", "### Cooling", "[thumb\\|The [Gravelines](/wiki/Gravelines_Nuclear_Power_Station \"Gravelines Nuclear Power Station\") site on the [North Sea](/wiki/North_Sea \"North Sea\") between [Calais](/wiki/Calais \"Calais\") and [Dunkirk](/wiki/Dunkirk \"Dunkirk\")](/wiki/File:Gravelines_nuclear_power_plant.jpg \"Gravelines nuclear power plant.jpg\") \nThe majority of nuclear plants in France are located away from the coasts and obtain their cooling water from rivers. These plants employ [cooling towers](/wiki/Cooling_towers \"Cooling towers\") to reduce their impact on the environment. The temperature of emitted water carrying the waste heat is strictly limited by the French government, and this has proved to be problematic during recent heat waves.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry\\_sectors/utilities/article6626811\\.ece\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009054301/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry\\_sectors/utilities/article6626811\\.ece\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2009\\|title\\=France imports UK electricity as plants shut\\|author\\=Robin Pagnamenta\\|date\\=3 July 2009\\|work\\=The Times\\|access\\-date\\=10 July 2009 \\| location\\=London}}", "Five plants, equaling 18 reactors are located on the coast:", "* [Gravelines Nuclear Power Station](/wiki/Gravelines_Nuclear_Power_Station \"Gravelines Nuclear Power Station\")\n* [Penly Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Penly_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Penly Nuclear Power Plant\")\n* [Paluel Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Paluel_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Paluel Nuclear Power Plant\")\n* [Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Flamanville_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant\")\n* [Blayais Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Blayais_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Blayais Nuclear Power Plant\")", "These five get their cooling water directly from the ocean and can thus dump their waste heat directly back into the sea, which is slightly more economical.", "### Fuel cycle", "[thumb\\|right\\|Active work going on for the ultimate underground repository](/wiki/File:LSMHM-03.jpg \"LSMHM-03.jpg\")\nFrance is one of the few countries in the world with an active civilian [nuclear reprocessing](/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing \"Nuclear reprocessing\") program, with the [COGEMA La Hague site](/wiki/COGEMA_La_Hague_site \"COGEMA La Hague site\"). Enrichment work, some [MOX fuel](/wiki/MOX_fuel \"MOX fuel\") fabrication, and other activities take place at the [Tricastin Nuclear Power Centre](/wiki/Tricastin_Nuclear_Power_Centre \"Tricastin Nuclear Power Centre\"). Enrichment is completely domestic and was powered by 2/3 of the output of the nuclear plant at Tricastin before the switch from [gaseous diffusion](/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion \"Gaseous diffusion\") to [gas centrifugation](/wiki/Gas_centrifugation \"Gas centrifugation\") in the early 2010s increased efficiency thirty\\-fold.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.debatpublic.fr/sites/default/files/2023\\-01/orano\\-gb2\\_dossier\\-de\\-concertation\\-vf.pdf\\|title\\=Projet d'extension de l'usine d'enrichissement d'uranium Georges Besse 2 \\- Dossier du responsable de projet\\|date\\=2022\\|lang\\=fr}} Reprocessing of fuel from other countries has been done for the United States and Japan, who have expressed the desire to develop a more closed fuel cycle similar to what France has achieved. MOX fuel fabrication services have also been sold to other countries, notably to the [US](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") for the [Megatons to Megawatts Program](/wiki/Megatons_to_Megawatts_Program \"Megatons to Megawatts Program\"), using [plutonium](/wiki/Plutonium \"Plutonium\") from dismantled [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons \"Nuclear weapons\"). After the cancellation of German plans to build a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant at [Wackersdorf](/wiki/Wackersdorf \"Wackersdorf\"), Germany, also relied on the La Hague facility for its civilian reprocessing before switching to the once through fuel cycle in 2005\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://rueckfuehrung.gns.de/de/warum\\-rueckfuehrung/historie\\-und\\-verantwortung \\| title\\=Historie und Verantwortung \\- Rückführung von deutschen Wiederaufarbeitungsabfällen \\| lang\\=de}}", "While France does not mine [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\") for the front end of the fuel cycle domestically, French companies have various holdings in the [uranium market](/wiki/Uranium_market \"Uranium market\"). Uranium for the French program totalled 8000 tonnes annually as of 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.oecd\\-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2016/7301\\-uranium\\-2016\\.pdf \\|title\\=Uranium 2016: Resources, Production and Demand \\|publisher\\=Nuclear Energy Agency \\|orig\\-year\\=2016 \\|date\\=March 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=27 February 2019}}{{rp\\|79}} Areva is involved in uranium mining operations in Canada, Kazakhstan, Namibia, and Niger.{{rp\\|236}} Several French former colonies have significant uranium reserves and French companies have stayed active in many of them even after those countries became independent. Due to the [CFA Franc](/wiki/CFA_Franc \"CFA Franc\") countries having a [currency peg](/wiki/Currency_peg \"Currency peg\") first to the [French Franc](/wiki/French_Franc \"French Franc\") and now to its successor, the euro, economic relations between these former French colonies and their former metropole remain strong.", "Final disposal of the high level nuclear waste is planned to be done at the [Meuse/Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory](/wiki/Meuse/Haute_Marne_Underground_Research_Laboratory \"Meuse/Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory\") [deep geological repository](/wiki/Deep_geological_repository \"Deep geological repository\").", "" ]
Discussion ---------- Legal discourse took place on three main issues: whether Morris had to have intended to cause damage, whether Morris really had gained unauthorized access, and whether the District Court had properly informed the [jury](/wiki/Federal_jury "Federal jury") of the subtleties of the case. ### Intent to cause damage As it read in 1991, {{usc\|18\|1030(a)(5\)(A)}}, part of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, covered anyone who: (5\) intentionally accesses a Federal interest computer without authorization, and by means of one or more instances of such conduct alters, damages, or destroys information in any such Federal interest computer, or prevents authorized use of any such computer or information, and thereby (A) causes loss to one or more others of a value aggregating $1,000 or more during any one\-year period; Morris argued that this did not apply to him, as the Government could not conclusively prove that he had intended to cause damage to a Federal interest computer. Federal interest computers are defined as any that participate in national or international commerce, or that are used in a federal or governmental institution.[*Prosecuting Computer Crimes Manual*](https://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/ccmanual/01ccma.html#A.1.) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100801072016/http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/ccmanual/01ccma.html\#A.1\. \|date\=2010\-08\-01 }}. U.S. Department of Justice. The Government disagreed, stating that since a comma separated the "intentionally" phrase from the rest of the section, it did not necessarily apply. This use of punctuation to separate adverbs has precedents in [Burlington No. R. Co. v. Okla. Tax Comm'n](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1266776369000173352&hl=en&as_sdt=2,5) and [Consumer Product Safety Comm'n v. GTE Sylvania, Inc](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14859805279510686052&hl=en&as_sdt=2,5).{{cite court \|litigants\=United States v. Morris (1991\) \|vol\=928 \|reporter\=F.2d \|opinion\=504 \|pinpoint\=507 \|court\=2d Cir. \|date\=1991 \|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=551386241451639668}} The court also took into consideration the language used in previous versions of the law to determine the intent of Congress. In the 1986 amendment to the law, section 1030(a)(2\) had its mental state requirement changed from "knowingly" to "intentionally." This was done in order to disallow purposeful unauthorized access, not "mistaken, inadvertent, or careless" acts.S.Rep. No. 99\-432, 99th Cong., 2d Sess. 5 (1986\), reprinted in 1986 U.S.Code Cong. \& Admin.News 2479, 2483 The court reasoned that since this "intentionally" phrase was inserted into the law in order to avoid punishing users that had accidentally accessed a computer they did not have authorization to, it applied strictly to the "accesses" clause, not the "damages" one. There is no evidence that Congress intended to make it legal to accidentally damage another computer, therefore the "intentionally" specification was not made there. Additionally, the Government suggested that many other subsections of 1030, specifically (a)(1\), continue to repeat the mental state requirement before each clause, indicating that the lack of such repetition in (a)(5\)(A) is indicative of the short reach of the "intentionally" adverb.{{cite court \|litigants\=United States v. Morris (1991\) \|vol\=928 \|reporter\=F.2d \|opinion\=504 \|pinpoint\=508 \|court\=2d Cir. \|date\=1991 \|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=551386241451639668}} To contest this claim, Morris cited a different section of the Senate Report: "\[t]he new subsection 1030(a)(5\) to be created by the bill is designed to penalize those who intentionally alter, damage, or destroy certain computerized data belonging to another."Senate Report at 10, U.S.Code Cong. \& Admin.News at 2488 The court however, found the Government's evidence of the changing language of the statute to be more convincing. ### Unauthorized access Morris argued that, since he was given access to computers at [Cornell](/wiki/Cornell_University "Cornell University"), [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), and [Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California_at_Berkeley "University of California at Berkeley"), by releasing the worm he had simply exceeded authorized access, not gained unauthorized access. For this reason, he theorized that section (a)(3\), not (a)(5\)(A), properly covered him.{{cite court \|litigants\=United States v. Morris (1991\) \|vol\=928 \|reporter\=F.2d \|opinion\=504 \|pinpoint\=510 \|court\=2d Cir. \|date\=1991 \|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=551386241451639668}} This defense is based in another section of the Senate report, which stated that the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act would be aimed at "outsiders" (people not authorized to use federal interest computers). Because Morris did have access to computers of this nature, he stated that his actions were not completely unauthorized. However, the aforementioned Senate report also states that the law applies "where the offender's act of trespass is interdepartmental in nature." The court reasoned that since Morris' worm reached computers spanning U.S. government departments, including military ones, 18 U.S.C. 1030 properly applied to him. The court also pointed out that since Morris used the sendmail and finger programs in a way they were not intended to be used, his "exceeded authorization" defense was further weakened. Since Morris only used these programs because they had security holes he could exploit to gain access to computers he could not otherwise access, this use exemplifies "unauthorized access". The fact that the worm guessed passwords to break into other systems further highlights this point. ### Proper instruction of the jury Morris claimed that the District Court improperly [educated](/wiki/Jury_instructions "Jury instructions") the jury on the specifics of his case. First, he complained that the District Court had not provided a definition of "authorization" to the jury. The Court had stated that "authorization" was of common usage and not required to be defined. The Appellate Court in this case agreed, citing precedent.{{cite court \|litigants\=United States v. Chenault \|vol\=844 \|reporter\=F.2d \|opinion\=1124 \|pinpoint\=1131 \|court\=5th Cir. \|date\=1988 \|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=278576476916518289}} Morris also contended that the District Court wrongly did not instruct the jury on "exceeding authorized access" using his proposed definition. Again, the Appellate Court agreed with the District Court's decision, stating that extra definition would be potentially confusing, and that Morris's proposed instruction was incorrect. Additionally, the term "exceeding authorized access" implies that it is less serious than "unauthorized access," but even if this was the case, Morris was liable under many parts of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.
[ "Discussion\n----------", "Legal discourse took place on three main issues: whether Morris had to have intended to cause damage, whether Morris really had gained unauthorized access, and whether the District Court had properly informed the [jury](/wiki/Federal_jury \"Federal jury\") of the subtleties of the case.", "### Intent to cause damage", "As it read in 1991, {{usc\\|18\\|1030(a)(5\\)(A)}}, part of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, covered anyone who:", "(5\\) intentionally accesses a Federal interest computer without authorization, and by means of one or more instances of such conduct alters, damages, or destroys information in any such Federal interest computer, or prevents authorized use of any such computer or information, and thereby", "(A) causes loss to one or more others of a value aggregating $1,000 or more during any one\\-year period;", "Morris argued that this did not apply to him, as the Government could not conclusively prove that he had intended to cause damage to a Federal interest computer. Federal interest computers are defined as any that participate in national or international commerce, or that are used in a federal or governmental institution.[*Prosecuting Computer Crimes Manual*](https://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/ccmanual/01ccma.html#A.1.) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100801072016/http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/ccmanual/01ccma.html\\#A.1\\. \\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-01 }}. U.S. Department of Justice. The Government disagreed, stating that since a comma separated the \"intentionally\" phrase from the rest of the section, it did not necessarily apply. This use of punctuation to separate adverbs has precedents in [Burlington No. R. Co. v. Okla. Tax Comm'n](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1266776369000173352&hl=en&as_sdt=2,5) and [Consumer Product Safety Comm'n v. GTE Sylvania, Inc](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14859805279510686052&hl=en&as_sdt=2,5).{{cite court \\|litigants\\=United States v. Morris (1991\\) \\|vol\\=928 \\|reporter\\=F.2d \\|opinion\\=504 \\|pinpoint\\=507 \\|court\\=2d Cir. \\|date\\=1991 \\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=551386241451639668}}", "The court also took into consideration the language used in previous versions of the law to determine the intent of Congress. In the 1986 amendment to the law, section 1030(a)(2\\) had its mental state requirement changed from \"knowingly\" to \"intentionally.\" This was done in order to disallow purposeful unauthorized access, not \"mistaken, inadvertent, or careless\" acts.S.Rep. No. 99\\-432, 99th Cong., 2d Sess. 5 (1986\\), reprinted in 1986 U.S.Code Cong. \\& Admin.News 2479, 2483 The court reasoned that since this \"intentionally\" phrase was inserted into the law in order to avoid punishing users that had accidentally accessed a computer they did not have authorization to, it applied strictly to the \"accesses\" clause, not the \"damages\" one. There is no evidence that Congress intended to make it legal to accidentally damage another computer, therefore the \"intentionally\" specification was not made there. Additionally, the Government suggested that many other subsections of 1030, specifically (a)(1\\), continue to repeat the mental state requirement before each clause, indicating that the lack of such repetition in (a)(5\\)(A) is indicative of the short reach of the \"intentionally\" adverb.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=United States v. Morris (1991\\) \\|vol\\=928 \\|reporter\\=F.2d \\|opinion\\=504 \\|pinpoint\\=508 \\|court\\=2d Cir. \\|date\\=1991 \\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=551386241451639668}}", "To contest this claim, Morris cited a different section of the Senate Report: \"\\[t]he new subsection 1030(a)(5\\) to be created by the bill is designed to penalize those who intentionally alter, damage, or destroy certain computerized data belonging to another.\"Senate Report at 10, U.S.Code Cong. \\& Admin.News at 2488 The court however, found the Government's evidence of the changing language of the statute to be more convincing.", "### Unauthorized access", "Morris argued that, since he was given access to computers at [Cornell](/wiki/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\"), [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), and [Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California_at_Berkeley \"University of California at Berkeley\"), by releasing the worm he had simply exceeded authorized access, not gained unauthorized access. For this reason, he theorized that section (a)(3\\), not (a)(5\\)(A), properly covered him.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=United States v. Morris (1991\\) \\|vol\\=928 \\|reporter\\=F.2d \\|opinion\\=504 \\|pinpoint\\=510 \\|court\\=2d Cir. \\|date\\=1991 \\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=551386241451639668}} This defense is based in another section of the Senate report, which stated that the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act would be aimed at \"outsiders\" (people not authorized to use federal interest computers). Because Morris did have access to computers of this nature, he stated that his actions were not completely unauthorized. However, the aforementioned Senate report also states that the law applies \"where the offender's act of trespass is interdepartmental in nature.\" The court reasoned that since Morris' worm reached computers spanning U.S. government departments, including military ones, 18 U.S.C. 1030 properly applied to him.", "The court also pointed out that since Morris used the sendmail and finger programs in a way they were not intended to be used, his \"exceeded authorization\" defense was further weakened. Since Morris only used these programs because they had security holes he could exploit to gain access to computers he could not otherwise access, this use exemplifies \"unauthorized access\". The fact that the worm guessed passwords to break into other systems further highlights this point.", "### Proper instruction of the jury", "Morris claimed that the District Court improperly [educated](/wiki/Jury_instructions \"Jury instructions\") the jury on the specifics of his case. First, he complained that the District Court had not provided a definition of \"authorization\" to the jury. The Court had stated that \"authorization\" was of common usage and not required to be defined. The Appellate Court in this case agreed, citing precedent.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=United States v. Chenault \\|vol\\=844 \\|reporter\\=F.2d \\|opinion\\=1124 \\|pinpoint\\=1131 \\|court\\=5th Cir. \\|date\\=1988 \\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=278576476916518289}} Morris also contended that the District Court wrongly did not instruct the jury on \"exceeding authorized access\" using his proposed definition. Again, the Appellate Court agreed with the District Court's decision, stating that extra definition would be potentially confusing, and that Morris's proposed instruction was incorrect. Additionally, the term \"exceeding authorized access\" implies that it is less serious than \"unauthorized access,\" but even if this was the case, Morris was liable under many parts of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ [thumb\|left\|Celebrations at the annual Orange Blossom Festival.](/wiki/File:Orange_Blossom-70_%2833725894048%29.jpg "Orange Blossom-70 (33725894048).jpg") {{US Census population \| 1910 \= 1814 \| 1920 \= 2576 \| 1930 \= 3878 \| 1940 \= 4397 \| 1950 \= 5060 \| 1960 \= 5397 \| 1970 \= 5206 \| 1980 \= 6936 \| 1990 \= 8338 \| 2000 \= 10297 \| 2010 \= 11768 \| 2020 \= 12659 \| footnote \= U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} **2020** At the 2020{{Cite web\|title\=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Lindsay city, California\|url\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/lindsaycitycalifornia\|access\-date\=November 11, 2021\|website\=www.census.gov\|language\=en}} census, Lindsay had a population of 12,659\. The population density was {{convert\|4,647\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of Lindsay was Hispanic or Latino 88\.4%, White 83%, Black or African American alone 0\.4%, American Indian or Alaska Native 0\.9%, Asian alone 0\.6%, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander alone 0\.0%, two or more races 13\.7% and White alone, not Hispanic or Latino, 10\.7%. There were 161 veterans and 38\.3% of residents were born outside of the United States. The census reported 3,763 households, with 3\.31 persons per household. 74\.6% of households have a language other than English spoken at home. There are 88% of homes with a computer in the household and 70\.2% of households have a broadband internet subscription. The median household income was $31,489 and 29\.5% of people were living below the poverty line identified by the U.S. government.{{Cite web\|title\=2019 Poverty Guidelines\|url\=https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty\-economic\-mobility/poverty\-guidelines/prior\-hhs\-poverty\-guidelines\-federal\-register\-references/2019\-poverty\-guidelines\|access\-date\=November 11, 2021\|website\=ASPE\|language\=en}} ### 2010 At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census") Lindsay had a population of 11,768\. The population density was {{convert\|4,509\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of Lindsay was 6,480 (55\.1%) White, 85 (0\.7%) African American, 128 (1\.1%) Native American, 267 (2\.3%) Asian, 4 (0\.0%) Pacific Islander, 4,367 (37\.1%) from other races, and 437 (3\.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10,056 persons (85\.5%).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0641712\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140715075745/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0641712\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2014\|title\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \- Lindsay city\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=July 12, 2014}} The census reported that 11,672 people (99\.2% of the population) lived in households, no one lived in non\-institutionalized group quarters and 96 (0\.8%) were institutionalized. There were 3,014 households, 1,890 (62\.7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,719 (57\.0%) were [opposite\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 578 (19\.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 233 (7\.7%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 242 (8\.0%) [unmarried opposite\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ "POSSLQ"), and 19 (0\.6%) [same\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships "Same-sex partnerships"). 401 households (13\.3%) were one person and 210 (7\.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3\.87\. There were 2,530 families (83\.9% of households); the average family size was 4\.21\. The age distribution was 4,523 people (38\.4%) under the age of 18, 1,439 people (12\.2%) aged 18 to 24, 3,079 people (26\.2%) aged 25 to 44, 1,848 people (15\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 879 people (7\.5%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 24\.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96\.8 males. There were 3,193 housing units at an average density of 1,223\.5 per square mile, of the occupied units 1,526 (50\.6%) were owner\-occupied and 1,488 (49\.4%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2\.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 6\.2%. 5,909 people (50\.2% of the population) lived in owner\-occupied housing units and 5,763 people (49\.0%) lived in rental housing units. ### 2000 At the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census "2000 United States Census") there were 10,297 people in 2,717 households, including 2,208 families, in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,649\.7\|/km2\|/mi2\|abbr\=on}}. There were 2,865 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|459\.0\|/km2\|/mi2\|abbr\=on}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232000_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2000 census") of the city was 44\.83% White, 0\.57% African American, 1\.51% Native American, 1\.06% Asian, 0\.15% Pacific Islander, 48\.27% from other races, and 3\.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 77\.97%.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} Of the 2,717 households 53\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\.2% were married couples living together, 17\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18\.7% were non\-families. 15\.9% of households were one person and 8\.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3\.74 and the average family size was 4\.16\. The age distribution was 38\.0% under the age of 18, 11\.4% from 18 to 24, 27\.3% from 25 to 44, 14\.2% from 45 to 64, and 9\.1% 65 or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 102\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101\.0 males. The [median income](/wiki/Median_household_income "Median household income") for a household in the city was $24,305, and the median family income was $24,934\. Males had a median income of $23,645 versus $18,992 for females. The per capita income for the city was $8,230\. About 33\.3% of families and 39\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 49\.3% of those under age 18 and 12\.3% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "[thumb\\|left\\|Celebrations at the annual Orange Blossom Festival.](/wiki/File:Orange_Blossom-70_%2833725894048%29.jpg \"Orange Blossom-70 (33725894048).jpg\")\n{{US Census population\n\\| 1910 \\= 1814\n\\| 1920 \\= 2576\n\\| 1930 \\= 3878\n\\| 1940 \\= 4397\n\\| 1950 \\= 5060\n\\| 1960 \\= 5397\n\\| 1970 \\= 5206\n\\| 1980 \\= 6936\n\\| 1990 \\= 8338\n\\| 2000 \\= 10297\n\\| 2010 \\= 11768\n\\| 2020 \\= 12659\n\\| footnote \\= U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}\n**2020**", "At the 2020{{Cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Lindsay city, California\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/lindsaycitycalifornia\\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2021\\|website\\=www.census.gov\\|language\\=en}} census, Lindsay had a population of 12,659\\. The population density was {{convert\\|4,647\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of Lindsay was Hispanic or Latino 88\\.4%, White 83%, Black or African American alone 0\\.4%, American Indian or Alaska Native 0\\.9%, Asian alone 0\\.6%, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander alone 0\\.0%, two or more races 13\\.7% and White alone, not Hispanic or Latino, 10\\.7%.", "There were 161 veterans and 38\\.3% of residents were born outside of the United States.", "The census reported 3,763 households, with 3\\.31 persons per household. 74\\.6% of households have a language other than English spoken at home.", "There are 88% of homes with a computer in the household and 70\\.2% of households have a broadband internet subscription.", "The median household income was $31,489 and 29\\.5% of people were living below the poverty line identified by the U.S. government.{{Cite web\\|title\\=2019 Poverty Guidelines\\|url\\=https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty\\-economic\\-mobility/poverty\\-guidelines/prior\\-hhs\\-poverty\\-guidelines\\-federal\\-register\\-references/2019\\-poverty\\-guidelines\\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2021\\|website\\=ASPE\\|language\\=en}}", "### 2010", "At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\") Lindsay had a population of 11,768\\. The population density was {{convert\\|4,509\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of Lindsay was 6,480 (55\\.1%) White, 85 (0\\.7%) African American, 128 (1\\.1%) Native American, 267 (2\\.3%) Asian, 4 (0\\.0%) Pacific Islander, 4,367 (37\\.1%) from other races, and 437 (3\\.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10,056 persons (85\\.5%).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0641712\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140715075745/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0641712\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2014\\|title\\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA \\- Lindsay city\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2014}}", "The census reported that 11,672 people (99\\.2% of the population) lived in households, no one lived in non\\-institutionalized group quarters and 96 (0\\.8%) were institutionalized.", "There were 3,014 households, 1,890 (62\\.7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,719 (57\\.0%) were [opposite\\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 578 (19\\.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 233 (7\\.7%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 242 (8\\.0%) [unmarried opposite\\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ \"POSSLQ\"), and 19 (0\\.6%) [same\\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships \"Same-sex partnerships\"). 401 households (13\\.3%) were one person and 210 (7\\.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3\\.87\\. There were 2,530 families (83\\.9% of households); the average family size was 4\\.21\\.", "The age distribution was 4,523 people (38\\.4%) under the age of 18, 1,439 people (12\\.2%) aged 18 to 24, 3,079 people (26\\.2%) aged 25 to 44, 1,848 people (15\\.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 879 people (7\\.5%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 24\\.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96\\.8 males.", "There were 3,193 housing units at an average density of 1,223\\.5 per square mile, of the occupied units 1,526 (50\\.6%) were owner\\-occupied and 1,488 (49\\.4%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2\\.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 6\\.2%. 5,909 people (50\\.2% of the population) lived in owner\\-occupied housing units and 5,763 people (49\\.0%) lived in rental housing units.", "### 2000", "At the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census \"2000 United States Census\") there were 10,297 people in 2,717 households, including 2,208 families, in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,649\\.7\\|/km2\\|/mi2\\|abbr\\=on}}. There were 2,865 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|459\\.0\\|/km2\\|/mi2\\|abbr\\=on}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232000_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2000 census\") of the city was 44\\.83% White, 0\\.57% African American, 1\\.51% Native American, 1\\.06% Asian, 0\\.15% Pacific Islander, 48\\.27% from other races, and 3\\.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 77\\.97%.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}}", "Of the 2,717 households 53\\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\\.2% were married couples living together, 17\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18\\.7% were non\\-families. 15\\.9% of households were one person and 8\\.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3\\.74 and the average family size was 4\\.16\\.", "The age distribution was 38\\.0% under the age of 18, 11\\.4% from 18 to 24, 27\\.3% from 25 to 44, 14\\.2% from 45 to 64, and 9\\.1% 65 or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 102\\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101\\.0 males.", "The [median income](/wiki/Median_household_income \"Median household income\") for a household in the city was $24,305, and the median family income was $24,934\\. Males had a median income of $23,645 versus $18,992 for females. The per capita income for the city was $8,230\\. About 33\\.3% of families and 39\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 49\\.3% of those under age 18 and 12\\.3% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Character history ----------------- ### *The Matrix* In the first film, Smith is one of the three Agents sent to deal with Morpheus. After Neo is successfully removed from the Matrix, Smith arranges Morpheus' capture by bribing [Cypher](/wiki/Cypher_%28The_Matrix%29 "Cypher (The Matrix)"), a disillusioned member of Morpheus' crew, with reintegration into The Matrix. Upon his capture of Morpheus, he then attempts, to no avail, to get Morpheus to supply the codes to Zion's mainframe, eventually being forced to admit to Morpheus his personal motives of wishing to get away from the Matrix regarding his accessing its mainframe. However, he briefly removes his earpiece and thus misses key intel about Neo and Trinity's entry into Morpheus's holding area. When Neo manages to free Morpheus, Smith orders the dispatch of Sentinels to the *Nebuchadnezzar* and then interferes with Neo's escape. Neo manages to put up a fight against Smith, and narrowly escapes after Smith attempts to have Neo run over by a train. Smith survives and, alongside his fellow Agents, engages in a lengthy cross\-town chase. Ultimately, Smith anticipates Neo’s final destination and guns him down. Neo revives, realizes his power as the One, and subsequently defeats Smith by entering his body and destroying the code from within. ### *The Matrix Reloaded* As a result of his contact with Neo from the first film, Smith is "unplugged" in the second film, no longer an Agent of the system but a "free man". This is signified by the lack of an earpiece, which he sends to Neo in an envelope as a message early in the film. His appearance has changed in the second film as well; his sunglasses now have an angular shape different from the Agents' oblong lenses, approximating the shape of the ones Neo wears. His suit and tie are now jet black, as opposed to the dark green tint from the first film. He still possesses the abilities of an Agent, but instead of being able to jump from one human to another, he is able to copy himself over any human or program in the Matrix through direct contact; this includes humans wired into the Matrix, non\-Agent programs with human forms, [redpills](/wiki/Redpill "Redpill"), and other Agents. Smith retains the memories and abilities, if any, of the one over which he copies himself. This ability is much like how a virus replicates, creating an ironic contrast with the first film, where Smith likens humanity to a virus. He also implies after Neo defeated his replacement agents – Thompson, Jackson, and Johnson, that Smith had existed during and was familiar with at least the fifth iteration of the Matrix and the events therein.*[The Matrix Reloaded](/wiki/The_Matrix_Reloaded "The Matrix Reloaded")* Voice (Agent Smith): That went as expected. \[referring to Neo easily defeating Thompson, Johnson, and Jackson] // Agent Smith: Yes. It's happening exactly as before. // (the camera pans to reveal there's two Smiths) // Agent Smith 2: Well, not exactly. (smiles) He makes the claim that Neo has set him free. However, he believes there is an unseen purpose that still binds him to Neo. He tries to copy his programming onto Neo, but when this fails, he and dozens of his clones attack him, forcing Neo to flee. Later, he and his clones try to stop Neo from reaching the machine mainframe, without success, although he nonetheless was successful in mortally wounding the Keymaker. Smith copies himself onto Bane ([Ian Bliss](/wiki/Ian_Bliss "Ian Bliss")), a crew member of the [Zion](/wiki/Zion_%28The_Matrix%29 "Zion (The Matrix)") hovercraft *Caduceus*. While waiting to leave the Matrix with a message from [The Oracle](/wiki/Oracle_%28The_Matrix%29 "Oracle (The Matrix)"), Bane is attacked and overwritten by Smith, who then takes control of his body in the real world. Smith tests his control over the body by making Bane cut his own left hand palm, in preparation for an assassination attempt on Neo that he quickly abandons. He later sabotages the Zion fleet's defense of the city by triggering one ship's [electromagnetic pulse](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse "Electromagnetic pulse") weapon too early, knocking out the other ships and allowing the Sentinels to overrun them. ### *The Matrix Revolutions* [thumb\|upright\|Movie poster for *[The Matrix Revolutions](/wiki/The_Matrix_Revolutions "The Matrix Revolutions")*, featuring some of the numerous copies of Smith](/wiki/File:Smithposter.jpg "Smithposter.jpg") By the start of the third film, Smith has managed to copy himself over nearly every humanoid in the Matrix, giving him complete control over the "Core Network" (the underlying foundation of the inner workings of the Matrix), thus rendering him unstoppable even for the Machines themselves. The Oracle explains to Neo that he and Smith have become equal in power and that Smith is Neo's negative, a result of the Matrix's equation trying to balance itself. She tells Neo that Smith will destroy both the Matrix and the real world unless he is stopped. Smith soon assimilates the Oracle, gaining her power of [foresight](/wiki/Foresight_%28psychology%29 "Foresight (psychology)"), and later manifests reality\-bending powers equivalent to Neo's, such as the ability to fly. Meanwhile, in the real world, Bane (now under Smith's control) stows away on a ship being used by Neo and Trinity and tries to kill them both. Neo is blinded in the fight, but discovers that his new awareness of Machine technology allows him to perceive Smith's essence despite his destroyed eyes, allowing him to take Smith by surprise and kill him. Near the climax of the film, Neo offers a deal with the Machines to get rid of Smith in exchange for Zion's safety, warning them that Smith is beyond their control and will eventually spread to the machine city, which will result in destruction of both mankind and machines. Knowing that Neo is right, the Machines agree to his terms and command all Sentinels attacking Zion to stand down and wait for orders. They later give Neo a connection to enter the Matrix to stop Smith on their behalf. Although the Matrix is now populated exclusively by Smith and his clones, the Smith that has obtained the Oracle's powers battles Neo alone; as he explains, he has foreseen his victory, and has no need for the help of his copies. The two are almost evenly matched as the fight begins, though Neo's combat abilities seem arguably superior to that of Smith, the latter attacking more out of brute force, rather than the technical skill he displayed in the first film. This lasts, until Neo is able to punch Smith strongly enough to slam him into the street at least 20 ft away. As the fight continues, however, it becomes clear that Neo cannot win with his finite stamina against the tireless Smith, who begins to dominate Neo in the fight; by the end of the fight, he is able to brutally beat Neo into near defeat. In the midst of this battle, Smith explains to Neo his final [nihilistic](/wiki/Nihilism "Nihilism") revelation: "It was your life that taught me the purpose of all life. The purpose of life is to end." When Neo is near defeat, Smith demands to know why he continues to fight despite knowing he cannot win. Neo calmly responds, "Because I choose to" and is viciously pummeled by the enraged Smith as a result. Suddenly recognizing the scene from his [prophecy](/wiki/Prophecy "Prophecy"), Smith is compelled to deliver the line he said in it: "I say.... Everything that has a beginning has an end, Neo." His own words confuse and frighten him and Neo realizes that he cannot overpower Smith and allows himself to be assimilated. Because Agent Smith has assimilated the anomaly (Neo), he is now directly connected to the Source through Neo and the machines are able to destroy all copies of his programming and reboot the Matrix without errors. The process apparently kills Neo, but it also purges the Matrix of Smith's infection, restoring all who had been infected to their original forms. Neo's body is carried away by the machines, and an uncertain peace is established between Zion and the machine world. ### *The Matrix Resurrections* Smith returns in *The Matrix Resurrections*, portrayed by Jonathan Groff. Despite his defeat at the end of *The Matrix Revolutions*, Smith survived destruction because Neo survived, though he lost the ability to copy himself over others, instead retaining only the abilities he possessed when he was an Agent. When the Analyst created the new version of the Matrix in order to keep Neo subdued so that the Machines' energy crisis could be solved, Smith took on a new shell in order to remain hidden. The Analyst, the creator of the new Matrix, found that Neo and Smith were bonded, and he chose to turn that bond into a 'chain': as Neo was suppressed, Smith was similarly suppressed, taking the role of Thomas Anderson's business partner, with an eye for the bottom line. Neo, in his original persona of Thomas Anderson, created a video game series based on his suppressed memories. After Neo reawakens to the Matrix, Smith regained his memories and attacked Neo, stating that he had come to like the freedom that he had been granted, and that Neo's potential return to unawareness threatened that freedom.{{Cite web\|last\=Romano\|first\=Nick\|title\=Jonathan Groff was 'there to throw it down' in 'The Matrix Resurrections'\|url\=https://ew.com/movies/jonathan\-groff\-the\-matrix\-resurrections/\|date\=2021\-09\-20\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-06\|website\=EW.com\|language\=en}} Smith then appears at Simulatte, during Neo and Trinity's confrontation with the Analyst, saving them and aids them in fighting the Analyst's forces. Smith shoots the Analyst, causing him to vanish. Addressing Neo as Tom, Smith declares their unexpected alliance to be over, and states that the difference between the two of them is that "anyone could've been you whereas I've always been anyone." Smith then departs from his host body, leaving the man confused by the experience. Neo also subconsciously created a version of Agent Smith in a modal influenced by his suppressed memories. This version of Agent Smith (portrayed by [Yahya Abdul\-Mateen II](/wiki/Yahya_Abdul-Mateen_II "Yahya Abdul-Mateen II")) was based upon Neo's memories of Morpheus amalgamated with his memories of the original Agent Smith, and was set free by Bugs, and became the new **[Morpheus](/wiki/Morpheus_%28The_Matrix%29%23The_Matrix_Resurrections "Morpheus (The Matrix)#The Matrix Resurrections")**.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.thewrap.com/the\-matrix\-resurrections\-morpheus\-explained/ \| title\=The Matrix Resurrections Morpheus Explained: Why He's Different \| date\=23 December 2021 }}
[ "Character history\n-----------------", "### *The Matrix*", "In the first film, Smith is one of the three Agents sent to deal with Morpheus. After Neo is successfully removed from the Matrix, Smith arranges Morpheus' capture by bribing [Cypher](/wiki/Cypher_%28The_Matrix%29 \"Cypher (The Matrix)\"), a disillusioned member of Morpheus' crew, with reintegration into The Matrix. Upon his capture of Morpheus, he then attempts, to no avail, to get Morpheus to supply the codes to Zion's mainframe, eventually being forced to admit to Morpheus his personal motives of wishing to get away from the Matrix regarding his accessing its mainframe. However, he briefly removes his earpiece and thus misses key intel about Neo and Trinity's entry into Morpheus's holding area. When Neo manages to free Morpheus, Smith orders the dispatch of Sentinels to the *Nebuchadnezzar* and then interferes with Neo's escape. Neo manages to put up a fight against Smith, and narrowly escapes after Smith attempts to have Neo run over by a train. Smith survives and, alongside his fellow Agents, engages in a lengthy cross\\-town chase. Ultimately, Smith anticipates Neo’s final destination and guns him down. Neo revives, realizes his power as the One, and subsequently defeats Smith by entering his body and destroying the code from within.", "### *The Matrix Reloaded*", "As a result of his contact with Neo from the first film, Smith is \"unplugged\" in the second film, no longer an Agent of the system but a \"free man\". This is signified by the lack of an earpiece, which he sends to Neo in an envelope as a message early in the film. His appearance has changed in the second film as well; his sunglasses now have an angular shape different from the Agents' oblong lenses, approximating the shape of the ones Neo wears. His suit and tie are now jet black, as opposed to the dark green tint from the first film. He still possesses the abilities of an Agent, but instead of being able to jump from one human to another, he is able to copy himself over any human or program in the Matrix through direct contact; this includes humans wired into the Matrix, non\\-Agent programs with human forms, [redpills](/wiki/Redpill \"Redpill\"), and other Agents. Smith retains the memories and abilities, if any, of the one over which he copies himself. This ability is much like how a virus replicates, creating an ironic contrast with the first film, where Smith likens humanity to a virus. He also implies after Neo defeated his replacement agents – Thompson, Jackson, and Johnson, that Smith had existed during and was familiar with at least the fifth iteration of the Matrix and the events therein.*[The Matrix Reloaded](/wiki/The_Matrix_Reloaded \"The Matrix Reloaded\")* \nVoice (Agent Smith): That went as expected. \\[referring to Neo easily defeating Thompson, Johnson, and Jackson] // Agent Smith: Yes. It's happening exactly as before. // (the camera pans to reveal there's two Smiths) // Agent Smith 2: Well, not exactly. (smiles)", "He makes the claim that Neo has set him free. However, he believes there is an unseen purpose that still binds him to Neo. He tries to copy his programming onto Neo, but when this fails, he and dozens of his clones attack him, forcing Neo to flee. Later, he and his clones try to stop Neo from reaching the machine mainframe, without success, although he nonetheless was successful in mortally wounding the Keymaker.", "Smith copies himself onto Bane ([Ian Bliss](/wiki/Ian_Bliss \"Ian Bliss\")), a crew member of the [Zion](/wiki/Zion_%28The_Matrix%29 \"Zion (The Matrix)\") hovercraft *Caduceus*. While waiting to leave the Matrix with a message from [The Oracle](/wiki/Oracle_%28The_Matrix%29 \"Oracle (The Matrix)\"), Bane is attacked and overwritten by Smith, who then takes control of his body in the real world. Smith tests his control over the body by making Bane cut his own left hand palm, in preparation for an assassination attempt on Neo that he quickly abandons. He later sabotages the Zion fleet's defense of the city by triggering one ship's [electromagnetic pulse](/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse \"Electromagnetic pulse\") weapon too early, knocking out the other ships and allowing the Sentinels to overrun them.", "### *The Matrix Revolutions*", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Movie poster for *[The Matrix Revolutions](/wiki/The_Matrix_Revolutions \"The Matrix Revolutions\")*, featuring some of the numerous copies of Smith](/wiki/File:Smithposter.jpg \"Smithposter.jpg\")", "By the start of the third film, Smith has managed to copy himself over nearly every humanoid in the Matrix, giving him complete control over the \"Core Network\" (the underlying foundation of the inner workings of the Matrix), thus rendering him unstoppable even for the Machines themselves. The Oracle explains to Neo that he and Smith have become equal in power and that Smith is Neo's negative, a result of the Matrix's equation trying to balance itself. She tells Neo that Smith will destroy both the Matrix and the real world unless he is stopped. Smith soon assimilates the Oracle, gaining her power of [foresight](/wiki/Foresight_%28psychology%29 \"Foresight (psychology)\"), and later manifests reality\\-bending powers equivalent to Neo's, such as the ability to fly. Meanwhile, in the real world, Bane (now under Smith's control) stows away on a ship being used by Neo and Trinity and tries to kill them both. Neo is blinded in the fight, but discovers that his new awareness of Machine technology allows him to perceive Smith's essence despite his destroyed eyes, allowing him to take Smith by surprise and kill him.", "Near the climax of the film, Neo offers a deal with the Machines to get rid of Smith in exchange for Zion's safety, warning them that Smith is beyond their control and will eventually spread to the machine city, which will result in destruction of both mankind and machines. Knowing that Neo is right, the Machines agree to his terms and command all Sentinels attacking Zion to stand down and wait for orders. They later give Neo a connection to enter the Matrix to stop Smith on their behalf. Although the Matrix is now populated exclusively by Smith and his clones, the Smith that has obtained the Oracle's powers battles Neo alone; as he explains, he has foreseen his victory, and has no need for the help of his copies. The two are almost evenly matched as the fight begins, though Neo's combat abilities seem arguably superior to that of Smith, the latter attacking more out of brute force, rather than the technical skill he displayed in the first film. This lasts, until Neo is able to punch Smith strongly enough to slam him into the street at least 20 ft away. As the fight continues, however, it becomes clear that Neo cannot win with his finite stamina against the tireless Smith, who begins to dominate Neo in the fight; by the end of the fight, he is able to brutally beat Neo into near defeat. In the midst of this battle, Smith explains to Neo his final [nihilistic](/wiki/Nihilism \"Nihilism\") revelation: \"It was your life that taught me the purpose of all life. The purpose of life is to end.\"", "When Neo is near defeat, Smith demands to know why he continues to fight despite knowing he cannot win. Neo calmly responds, \"Because I choose to\" and is viciously pummeled by the enraged Smith as a result. Suddenly recognizing the scene from his [prophecy](/wiki/Prophecy \"Prophecy\"), Smith is compelled to deliver the line he said in it: \"I say.... Everything that has a beginning has an end, Neo.\" His own words confuse and frighten him and Neo realizes that he cannot overpower Smith and allows himself to be assimilated. Because Agent Smith has assimilated the anomaly (Neo), he is now directly connected to the Source through Neo and the machines are able to destroy all copies of his programming and reboot the Matrix without errors. The process apparently kills Neo, but it also purges the Matrix of Smith's infection, restoring all who had been infected to their original forms. Neo's body is carried away by the machines, and an uncertain peace is established between Zion and the machine world.", "### *The Matrix Resurrections*", "Smith returns in *The Matrix Resurrections*, portrayed by Jonathan Groff. Despite his defeat at the end of *The Matrix Revolutions*, Smith survived destruction because Neo survived, though he lost the ability to copy himself over others, instead retaining only the abilities he possessed when he was an Agent. When the Analyst created the new version of the Matrix in order to keep Neo subdued so that the Machines' energy crisis could be solved, Smith took on a new shell in order to remain hidden. The Analyst, the creator of the new Matrix, found that Neo and Smith were bonded, and he chose to turn that bond into a 'chain': as Neo was suppressed, Smith was similarly suppressed, taking the role of Thomas Anderson's business partner, with an eye for the bottom line. Neo, in his original persona of Thomas Anderson, created a video game series based on his suppressed memories. After Neo reawakens to the Matrix, Smith regained his memories and attacked Neo, stating that he had come to like the freedom that he had been granted, and that Neo's potential return to unawareness threatened that freedom.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Romano\\|first\\=Nick\\|title\\=Jonathan Groff was 'there to throw it down' in 'The Matrix Resurrections'\\|url\\=https://ew.com/movies/jonathan\\-groff\\-the\\-matrix\\-resurrections/\\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-20\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-06\\|website\\=EW.com\\|language\\=en}} Smith then appears at Simulatte, during Neo and Trinity's confrontation with the Analyst, saving them and aids them in fighting the Analyst's forces. Smith shoots the Analyst, causing him to vanish. Addressing Neo as Tom, Smith declares their unexpected alliance to be over, and states that the difference between the two of them is that \"anyone could've been you whereas I've always been anyone.\" Smith then departs from his host body, leaving the man confused by the experience.", "Neo also subconsciously created a version of Agent Smith in a modal influenced by his suppressed memories. This version of Agent Smith (portrayed by [Yahya Abdul\\-Mateen II](/wiki/Yahya_Abdul-Mateen_II \"Yahya Abdul-Mateen II\")) was based upon Neo's memories of Morpheus amalgamated with his memories of the original Agent Smith, and was set free by Bugs, and became the new **[Morpheus](/wiki/Morpheus_%28The_Matrix%29%23The_Matrix_Resurrections \"Morpheus (The Matrix)#The Matrix Resurrections\")**.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.thewrap.com/the\\-matrix\\-resurrections\\-morpheus\\-explained/ \\| title\\=The Matrix Resurrections Morpheus Explained: Why He's Different \\| date\\=23 December 2021 }}", "" ]
In other media -------------- ### *The Animatrix* While it is unknown if it is actually him or merely just another Agent, as he was not directly named, an Agent with a heavy resemblance to Smith appears in *The Animatrix* film "Beyond", ordering a group of exterminators to capture Yoko and a group of kids and destroy a programming glitch in the form of an abandoned building that was causing whoever entered there to achieve complex athletic stunts without danger of serious injury or death. Earlier, he and the Agents perceived the abandoned building as an instability to the Matrix programming, and were already planning to eliminate it. Another Agent appears in "World Record," again resembling Smith, but wearing a trench coat over his usual suit and tie, where he and his fellow Agents attempt to stop a marathon runner named Dan from breaking a world record and disrupting his "signal," or connection to the Matrix, which means being able to escape from the Matrix. The Agents possess Dan's competitors and try to stop him from reaching the finish line and break his record. He appears in the end, reporting that Dan is a wheelchair user and thus unable to run or walk again, until he notices him trying to get up and repeatedly whisper "free," enraging him. However, when Dan instead falls on the floor and is helped up, the Agent is nowhere to be seen. ### *The Matrix Online* Despite his destruction at the end of the film series, Agent Smith (or at least the remnants of his programming) managed to return and made several appearances inside the movie's official continuation, the [MMORPG](/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing_game "Massively multiplayer online role-playing game") *[The Matrix Online](/wiki/The_Matrix_Online "The Matrix Online")*. The first infection was noted in Machine mission controller Agent Gray, whose background information confirms that he was overwritten by Smith at some point during the timeline of the second and third films. This infection had somehow survived the reboot at the end of the third film and rose to the surface once again during chapter 1\.2, The Hunt For Morpheus. The Agent, in both a storyline related mission and live event, showed signs of uncharacteristic speech and emotion and eventually led an assault against Zionist redpills declaring 'their stench unbearable any longer'. As a result of his actions the agent was apprehended by his fellow system representatives and scheduled for a 'thorough code cleansing'. He has shown no signs of direct infection since. Machine liaison officer DifferenceEngine, following a similar scenario to that of the previous Agent Gray infection, also took on the dialect and emotional characteristics of the famous exile agent. Instead of attacking redpills, this instance insisted on finding 'Mr. Anderson'. In the end, the human/machine head relations liaison, Agent Pace, was made aware of the program's infection and subsequent crusade; she proceeded to lock down his RSI and return his program to the Source for analysis. His subsequent fate is unknown. The third victim of infection was the notorious bluepill Shane Black. This man was an unfortunate victim of the Smith Virus who, once infected, gained the ability to spread the code to others. This quickly led to a small scale outbreak, with several more bluepills becoming infected and joining forces in their hunt for power. He and the other infected were eventually cleansed and returned to their bluepill lives. Shane Black's troubles continued, as he was one of the bluepills recorded to have first witnessed Unlimited redpills practicing their newfound powers at the Uriah wharf. This triggered a resurgence of the memories formed during his Smith infection and he soon became volatile and insane. He is reported to have been mercifully killed shortly afterwards. The most recent appearance of the Smith virus was during the third anniversary events. The virus manifested itself in the form of black\-suited men (although they lacked the distinct likeness of Smith). As redpills began to fight back using specialist code from the Oracle, the virus vanished suddenly, stating that he had obtained a new and more dangerous form. The nature of this form was never revealed. ### *The Matrix: Path of Neo* *[The Matrix: Path of Neo](/wiki/The_Matrix:Path_of_Neo "Path of Neo")*, a video game covering the events of the entire film trilogy, features a different ending than that shown in *The Matrix Revolutions*, with a new final boss: the *MegaSmith*. The MegaSmith was used for gameplay reasons, because though the Wachowskis thought the [martyr](/wiki/Martyr "Martyr") approach suitable for film, they also believed that in an interactive medium such as a video game (based upon the successful completion of goals), this would not work. So, this character was created to be the more appropriate "final boss" of *Path of Neo*, with the final battle described by the siblings as "A little [Hulk](/wiki/Hulk "Hulk") versus [Galactus](/wiki/Galactus "Galactus") action". The MegaSmith is composed of destroyed buildings, cars, and parts of the road, with the "spectator Smiths" standing around the crater and in the streets acting as the MegaSmith's muscles, resulting in Smith not only becoming the city's people, but the city itself. After Neo knocks Smith into the crater in the level "Aerial Battle", Smith is sent flying through the ground and up through the street. As Neo relaxes, the surrounding Smiths walk away from the crater and begin assembling a gigantic, thirty\-storey tall version of Smith from debris and vehicles. Neo flies up to face MegaSmith. After the fight, in which Neo significantly damages MegaSmith, Neo flies straight into MegaSmith's mouth, causing the Smiths throughout the Matrix to overload and explode. The player is then shown a short scene from *The Matrix: Revolutions* of the streets shining with light emanating from the destroyed Smiths. ### *The Lego Batman Movie* (2017\) Agent Smith briefly appears in *[The Lego Batman Movie](/wiki/The_Lego_Batman_Movie "The Lego Batman Movie")*. He appears as one of the inmates of the [Phantom Zone](/wiki/Phantom_Zone "Phantom Zone"). Agent Smith and his clones appear surveilling [Joker](/wiki/Joker_%28comics%29 "Joker (comics)")'s vandalized Wayne Island, and later appear as one of the multiple enemies attacking the heroes. Smith's clones also appear as enemies in the *Lego Batman Movie* story pack for *[Lego Dimensions](/wiki/Lego_Dimensions "Lego Dimensions")*, adapting their role in the film. His voice actor was uncredited. ### *Space Jam: A New Legacy* (2021\) Agent Smith also appeared in the live\-action/animated film *[Space Jam: A New Legacy](/wiki/Space_Jam:A_New_Legacy "A New Legacy")*, which was also distributed by Warner Bros. He is among the Warner Bros. Serververse inhabitants that watch the basketball game between the Tune Squad and the Goon Squad. ### *MultiVersus* (2024\) Smith appears as a Bruiser fighter in the fighting game *[MultiVersus](/wiki/MultiVersus "MultiVersus")*, voiced by Sky Soleil.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ign.com/articles/multiversus\-trailer\-reveals\-first\-look\-at\-jason\-voorhees\-from\-friday\-the\-13th\-and\-agent\-smith\-from\-the\-matrix\|title\=MultiVersus Trailer Reveals First Look at Jason Voorhees From Friday the 13th and Agent Smith From the Matrix\|date\=May 20, 2024\|accessdate\=May 20, 2024}}
[ "In other media\n--------------", "### *The Animatrix*", "While it is unknown if it is actually him or merely just another Agent, as he was not directly named, an Agent with a heavy resemblance to Smith appears in *The Animatrix* film \"Beyond\", ordering a group of exterminators to capture Yoko and a group of kids and destroy a programming glitch in the form of an abandoned building that was causing whoever entered there to achieve complex athletic stunts without danger of serious injury or death. Earlier, he and the Agents perceived the abandoned building as an instability to the Matrix programming, and were already planning to eliminate it. Another Agent appears in \"World Record,\" again resembling Smith, but wearing a trench coat over his usual suit and tie, where he and his fellow Agents attempt to stop a marathon runner named Dan from breaking a world record and disrupting his \"signal,\" or connection to the Matrix, which means being able to escape from the Matrix. The Agents possess Dan's competitors and try to stop him from reaching the finish line and break his record. He appears in the end, reporting that Dan is a wheelchair user and thus unable to run or walk again, until he notices him trying to get up and repeatedly whisper \"free,\" enraging him. However, when Dan instead falls on the floor and is helped up, the Agent is nowhere to be seen.", "### *The Matrix Online*", "Despite his destruction at the end of the film series, Agent Smith (or at least the remnants of his programming) managed to return and made several appearances inside the movie's official continuation, the [MMORPG](/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing_game \"Massively multiplayer online role-playing game\") *[The Matrix Online](/wiki/The_Matrix_Online \"The Matrix Online\")*.\nThe first infection was noted in Machine mission controller Agent Gray, whose background information confirms that he was overwritten by Smith at some point during the timeline of the second and third films. This infection had somehow survived the reboot at the end of the third film and rose to the surface once again during chapter 1\\.2, The Hunt For Morpheus. The Agent, in both a storyline related mission and live event, showed signs of uncharacteristic speech and emotion and eventually led an assault against Zionist redpills declaring 'their stench unbearable any longer'. As a result of his actions the agent was apprehended by his fellow system representatives and scheduled for a 'thorough code cleansing'. He has shown no signs of direct infection since.", "Machine liaison officer DifferenceEngine, following a similar scenario to that of the previous Agent Gray infection, also took on the dialect and emotional characteristics of the famous exile agent. Instead of attacking redpills, this instance insisted on finding 'Mr. Anderson'. In the end, the human/machine head relations liaison, Agent Pace, was made aware of the program's infection and subsequent crusade; she proceeded to lock down his RSI and return his program to the Source for analysis. His subsequent fate is unknown.", "The third victim of infection was the notorious bluepill Shane Black. This man was an unfortunate victim of the Smith Virus who, once infected, gained the ability to spread the code to others. This quickly led to a small scale outbreak, with several more bluepills becoming infected and joining forces in their hunt for power. He and the other infected were eventually cleansed and returned to their bluepill lives. Shane Black's troubles continued, as he was one of the bluepills recorded to have first witnessed Unlimited redpills practicing their newfound powers at the Uriah wharf. This triggered a resurgence of the memories formed during his Smith infection and he soon became volatile and insane. He is reported to have been mercifully killed shortly afterwards.", "The most recent appearance of the Smith virus was during the third anniversary events. The virus manifested itself in the form of black\\-suited men (although they lacked the distinct likeness of Smith). As redpills began to fight back using specialist code from the Oracle, the virus vanished suddenly, stating that he had obtained a new and more dangerous form. The nature of this form was never revealed.", "### *The Matrix: Path of Neo*", "*[The Matrix: Path of Neo](/wiki/The_Matrix:Path_of_Neo \"Path of Neo\")*, a video game covering the events of the entire film trilogy, features a different ending than that shown in *The Matrix Revolutions*, with a new final boss: the *MegaSmith*. The MegaSmith was used for gameplay reasons, because though the Wachowskis thought the [martyr](/wiki/Martyr \"Martyr\") approach suitable for film, they also believed that in an interactive medium such as a video game (based upon the successful completion of goals), this would not work. So, this character was created to be the more appropriate \"final boss\" of *Path of Neo*, with the final battle described by the siblings as \"A little [Hulk](/wiki/Hulk \"Hulk\") versus [Galactus](/wiki/Galactus \"Galactus\") action\". The MegaSmith is composed of destroyed buildings, cars, and parts of the road, with the \"spectator Smiths\" standing around the crater and in the streets acting as the MegaSmith's muscles, resulting in Smith not only becoming the city's people, but the city itself.", "After Neo knocks Smith into the crater in the level \"Aerial Battle\", Smith is sent flying through the ground and up through the street. As Neo relaxes, the surrounding Smiths walk away from the crater and begin assembling a gigantic, thirty\\-storey tall version of Smith from debris and vehicles. Neo flies up to face MegaSmith. After the fight, in which Neo significantly damages MegaSmith, Neo flies straight into MegaSmith's mouth, causing the Smiths throughout the Matrix to overload and explode. The player is then shown a short scene from *The Matrix: Revolutions* of the streets shining with light emanating from the destroyed Smiths.", "### *The Lego Batman Movie* (2017\\)", "Agent Smith briefly appears in *[The Lego Batman Movie](/wiki/The_Lego_Batman_Movie \"The Lego Batman Movie\")*. He appears as one of the inmates of the [Phantom Zone](/wiki/Phantom_Zone \"Phantom Zone\"). Agent Smith and his clones appear surveilling [Joker](/wiki/Joker_%28comics%29 \"Joker (comics)\")'s vandalized Wayne Island, and later appear as one of the multiple enemies attacking the heroes. Smith's clones also appear as enemies in the *Lego Batman Movie* story pack for *[Lego Dimensions](/wiki/Lego_Dimensions \"Lego Dimensions\")*, adapting their role in the film.", "His voice actor was uncredited.", "### *Space Jam: A New Legacy* (2021\\)", "Agent Smith also appeared in the live\\-action/animated film *[Space Jam: A New Legacy](/wiki/Space_Jam:A_New_Legacy \"A New Legacy\")*, which was also distributed by Warner Bros. He is among the Warner Bros. Serververse inhabitants that watch the basketball game between the Tune Squad and the Goon Squad.", "### *MultiVersus* (2024\\)", "Smith appears as a Bruiser fighter in the fighting game *[MultiVersus](/wiki/MultiVersus \"MultiVersus\")*, voiced by Sky Soleil.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ign.com/articles/multiversus\\-trailer\\-reveals\\-first\\-look\\-at\\-jason\\-voorhees\\-from\\-friday\\-the\\-13th\\-and\\-agent\\-smith\\-from\\-the\\-matrix\\|title\\=MultiVersus Trailer Reveals First Look at Jason Voorhees From Friday the 13th and Agent Smith From the Matrix\\|date\\=May 20, 2024\\|accessdate\\=May 20, 2024}}", "" ]
Personality ----------- From the start, it is evident that Agent Smith is significantly stronger, smarter, and more individualistic than the other Agents. While the other agents rarely act without consulting each other via their earpieces, to the point where they often finish each other's sentences, Smith is usually the one giving orders or using his earpiece to gather information for his own ends. Smith also appears to be the leader of other Agents in the first film, as he has the authority to launch Sentinel attacks in the real world. As with other Agents, Smith generally approaches problems through a [pragmatic](/wiki/Pragmatism "Pragmatism") point of view but, if necessary, will also act with brute force and apparent rage, especially when provoked by Neo. The earpieces represent some form of control mechanism by the machines. It is notable that when he is interrogating Morpheus, he sends the other agents from the room, then removes his earpiece, releasing himself from the link to the machines before expressing his opinion of humanity. Early in the second film, Smith's earpiece is sent to Neo in an envelope as a message from Smith, representing Smith's newfound freedom. Agent Smith complains to Morpheus that the Matrix and its inhabitants smell disgusting, "if there is such a thing \[as smell]". Smith has an open hatred of humans and their weakness of the flesh. He compares humanity to a [virus](/wiki/Virus "Virus"); a disease organism that uncontrollably replicates and would inevitably destroy their environment were it not for the machine intelligences keeping them in check (however, viruses are not organisms). Ironically, Smith eventually becomes a computer virus, multiplying until he has overrun the entire Matrix. At the same time, Smith develops an animosity towards the Matrix itself, feeling that he is as much a prisoner of it as the humans he is tasked with controlling. He later develops an immense and increasingly open desire for the destruction of both mankind and machines. He was also shown to be a [nihilist](/wiki/Nihilism "Nihilism"), which eventually culminates in his statement that the purpose of life is to end, and crediting Neo's life for his determining this.*[The Matrix Revolutions](/wiki/The_Matrix_Revolutions "The Matrix Revolutions")* **Agent Smith:** I must thank you \[Neo]. After all, it was your life that taught me the purpose of all life. The purpose of life is to *end.* During his final showdown with Neo, Smith angrily dismisses causes such as freedom, truth, peace, and love as simply human attempts to justify a meaningless and purposeless existence, and is completely unable to comprehend why Neo continues to fight him despite the knowledge that he cannot win.*[The Matrix Revolutions](/wiki/The_Matrix_Revolutions "The Matrix Revolutions")* **Agent Smith:** Why, Mr. Anderson? Why, why? Why do you do it? Why? Why get up? Why keep fighting? Do you believe you're fighting for something, for more than your survival? Can you tell me what it is, do you even know? Is it freedom or truth, perhaps peace \- could it be for love? Illusions, Mr. Anderson, vagaries of perception. Temporary constructs of a feeble human intellect trying desperately to justify an existence that is without meaning or purpose! And all of them as artificial as the Matrix itself. Although, only a human mind could invent something as insipid as love. You must be able to see it, Mr. Anderson, you must know it by now! You can't win, it's pointless to keep fighting! Why, Mr. Anderson, why?! why do you persist?! / **Neo:** Because I choose to. [The Wachowskis](/wiki/The_Wachowskis "The Wachowskis") have commented that Smith's gradual humanization throughout *The Matrix* is a process intended to mirror and balance Neo's own increasing power and understanding of the machine world.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2007}}
[ "Personality\n-----------", "From the start, it is evident that Agent Smith is significantly stronger, smarter, and more individualistic than the other Agents. While the other agents rarely act without consulting each other via their earpieces, to the point where they often finish each other's sentences, Smith is usually the one giving orders or using his earpiece to gather information for his own ends. Smith also appears to be the leader of other Agents in the first film, as he has the authority to launch Sentinel attacks in the real world. As with other Agents, Smith generally approaches problems through a [pragmatic](/wiki/Pragmatism \"Pragmatism\") point of view but, if necessary, will also act with brute force and apparent rage, especially when provoked by Neo.", "The earpieces represent some form of control mechanism by the machines. It is notable that when he is interrogating Morpheus, he sends the other agents from the room, then removes his earpiece, releasing himself from the link to the machines before expressing his opinion of humanity. Early in the second film, Smith's earpiece is sent to Neo in an envelope as a message from Smith, representing Smith's newfound freedom.", "Agent Smith complains to Morpheus that the Matrix and its inhabitants smell disgusting, \"if there is such a thing \\[as smell]\". Smith has an open hatred of humans and their weakness of the flesh. He compares humanity to a [virus](/wiki/Virus \"Virus\"); a disease organism that uncontrollably replicates and would inevitably destroy their environment were it not for the machine intelligences keeping them in check (however, viruses are not organisms). Ironically, Smith eventually becomes a computer virus, multiplying until he has overrun the entire Matrix.", "At the same time, Smith develops an animosity towards the Matrix itself, feeling that he is as much a prisoner of it as the humans he is tasked with controlling. He later develops an immense and increasingly open desire for the destruction of both mankind and machines.", "He was also shown to be a [nihilist](/wiki/Nihilism \"Nihilism\"), which eventually culminates in his statement that the purpose of life is to end, and crediting Neo's life for his determining this.*[The Matrix Revolutions](/wiki/The_Matrix_Revolutions \"The Matrix Revolutions\")* \n**Agent Smith:** I must thank you \\[Neo]. After all, it was your life that taught me the purpose of all life. The purpose of life is to *end.* During his final showdown with Neo, Smith angrily dismisses causes such as freedom, truth, peace, and love as simply human attempts to justify a meaningless and purposeless existence, and is completely unable to comprehend why Neo continues to fight him despite the knowledge that he cannot win.*[The Matrix Revolutions](/wiki/The_Matrix_Revolutions \"The Matrix Revolutions\")* \n**Agent Smith:** Why, Mr. Anderson? Why, why? Why do you do it? Why? Why get up? Why keep fighting? Do you believe you're fighting for something, for more than your survival? Can you tell me what it is, do you even know? Is it freedom or truth, perhaps peace \\- could it be for love? Illusions, Mr. Anderson, vagaries of perception. Temporary constructs of a feeble human intellect trying desperately to justify an existence that is without meaning or purpose! And all of them as artificial as the Matrix itself. Although, only a human mind could invent something as insipid as love. You must be able to see it, Mr. Anderson, you must know it by now! You can't win, it's pointless to keep fighting! Why, Mr. Anderson, why?! why do you persist?! / **Neo:** Because I choose to.", "[The Wachowskis](/wiki/The_Wachowskis \"The Wachowskis\") have commented that Smith's gradual humanization throughout *The Matrix* is a process intended to mirror and balance Neo's own increasing power and understanding of the machine world.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2007}}", "" ]
Career ------ ### EIC voyage \#1 (1819\-1820\) Captain James Thomas Lamb sailed from [the Downs](/wiki/The_Downs_%28ship_anchorage%29 "The Downs (ship anchorage)") on 27 May 1819, bound for [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal "Bengal"). *Hooghly* then reached [Calcutta](/wiki/Kolkatta "Kolkatta") on 23 September. Homeward bound, she passed [Kedgeree](/wiki/Khejuri_II%23Khijri "Khejuri II#Khijri") on 1 January 1820\. She then reached the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope "Cape of Good Hope") on 3 March and [St Helena](/wiki/Saint_Helena "Saint Helena") on 5 April, before arriving back at the Downs on 30 May. ### Convict voyage \#1 (1825\) Under the command of Peter Reeves and surgeon Robert Tainsh, she left [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 "Cork (city)"), Ireland on 5 January 1825, arriving in [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales "New South Wales") on 22 April.{{sfnp\|Bateson\|1959\|pp\=296\-7}} She embarked 195 male convicts, of whom two died en route.{{sfnp\|Bateson\|1959\|p\=330}} *Hooghly* departed [Port Jackson](/wiki/Port_Jackson "Port Jackson") on 21 May bound for [Bombay](/wiki/Bombay "Bombay").{{cite web \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article2184076 \|title\=Shipping Intelligence \|last1\= \|first1\= \|last2\= \|first2\= \|date\= \|work\=The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, Thursday 26 May 1825, p.2 \|publisher\= \|access\-date\=10 February 2016}} ### Convict voyage \#2 (1827\) On her second convict voyage under the command of Peter Reeves and surgeon Alexander Nisbet, she left London, England on 5 November 1827, arriving in Sydney on 24 February 1828\.{{sfnp\|Bateson\|1959\|pp\=296\-7}} She embarked 99 male convicts, all of whom arrived.{{sfnp\|Bateson\|1959\|p\=331}} *Hooghly* departed Port Jackson on 4 April, bound for [Batavia](/wiki/Jakarta "Jakarta").{{cite web \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article37071966 \|title\=Ship News \|last1\= \|first1\= \|last2\= \|first2\= \|date\= \|work\=The Australian (Sydney), Wednesday 9 April 1828, p.3 \|publisher\= \|access\-date\=10 February 2016}} ### Emigrant voyage (1830\) *Hooghly* arrived in Clarence, off [Garden Island, Western Australia](/wiki/Garden_Island_%28Western_Australia%29 "Garden Island (Western Australia)") on 13 February 1830, bringing 173 settlers to the [Swan River Colony](/wiki/Swan_River_Colony "Swan River Colony"). She was one of three ships that [Thomas Peel](/wiki/Thomas_Peel "Thomas Peel") had chartered to deliver 400 settlers. The other two vessels were {{ship\|\|Gilmore\|1824 ship\|2}} and {{ship\|\|Rockingham\|1818 ship\|2}}. *Gilmore*, the first to leave, had arrived on 15 December 1829 in the Swan River Colony with Thomas Peel and 182 settlers in all. *Rockingham* (180 passengers), arrived in mid\-May 1830\. She was wrecked shortly after landing her passengers, but all survived. *Hooghly* left Perth in March 1830 bound for London via Singapore, with steerage passengers. ### Convict voyage \#3 (1831\) Her next convict voyage was under the command of Peter John Reeves and surgeon James Ellis. *Hooghly* left Cork, Ireland on 24 June 1831 and arrived in Sydney on 27 September.{{sfnp\|Bateson\|1959\|pp\=300\-1}} She embarked 184 female convicts and had no convict deaths en route.{{sfnp\|Bateson\|1959\|p\=333}} *Hooghly* departed Port Jackson on 22 October, bound for China and London.{{cite web \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article32076256 \|title\=Ship News \|last1\= \|first1\= \|last2\= \|first2\= \|date\= \|work\=The Sydney Monitor (NSW), Wednesday 26 October 1831, p.2 \|publisher\= \|access\-date\=10 February 2016}} The departing former [Governor of New South Wales](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales "Governor of New South Wales"), Sir [Ralph Darling](/wiki/Ralph_Darling "Ralph Darling"), was a passenger on the vessel. ### EIC voyage \#2 (1832\) Captain Reeves and *Hooghly* left China on 16 January 1832\. They reached St Helena on 8 April, and arrived at the Downs on 31 May. ### Convict voyage \#4 (1834\) On her fourth convict voyage under the command of George Bayly and surgeon James Rutherford, she left [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth "Portsmouth"), England on 28 July 1834, arriving in Sydney on 18 November.{{sfnp\|Bateson\|1959\|pp\=302\-3}} She disembarked her full complement of 260 male convicts.{{sfnp\|Bateson\|1959\|p\=334}} ### later voyages *Hooghly* made numerous voyages to South Australia. On one voyage she sailed from London on 19 February 1839 and arrived at Port Adelaide on 17 June. There she landed 290 migrants. On her next voyage she left Plymouth and arrived at Port Adelaide on 25 July 1840\. In 1842 she sailed from Calcutta to [Van Diemen's Land](/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land "Van Diemen's Land") with prisoners and a cargo of horses. She made five voyages bringing immigrants to Port Adelaide between 1846 and 1859\. **1st voyage:** She sailed from London on 19 June 1846 and arrived on 23 October. **2nd voyage:** She sailed from London on 3 August 1847 and arrived on 22 November. **3rd voyage:** She sailed from London on 13 August 1848 and arrived on 4 December. **4th voyage:** She sailed from Plymouth on 2 January 1855 and arrived on 18 April. **5th voyage:** She sailed from Plymouth on 12 April 1856 and arrived on 26 July. In 1859 *Hooghly* left London on 10 September and arrived in Hobart on 21 December. She transported 131 immigrants, including many single women. At some point *Hooghly* also sailed from Cork, Ireland to Port Jackson, New South Wales, with Irish migrants.
[ "Career\n------", "### EIC voyage \\#1 (1819\\-1820\\)", "Captain James Thomas Lamb sailed from [the Downs](/wiki/The_Downs_%28ship_anchorage%29 \"The Downs (ship anchorage)\") on 27 May 1819, bound for [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal \"Bengal\"). *Hooghly* then reached [Calcutta](/wiki/Kolkatta \"Kolkatta\") on 23 September. Homeward bound, she passed [Kedgeree](/wiki/Khejuri_II%23Khijri \"Khejuri II#Khijri\") on 1 January 1820\\. She then reached the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope \"Cape of Good Hope\") on 3 March and [St Helena](/wiki/Saint_Helena \"Saint Helena\") on 5 April, before arriving back at the Downs on 30 May.", "### Convict voyage \\#1 (1825\\)", "Under the command of Peter Reeves and surgeon Robert Tainsh, she left [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 \"Cork (city)\"), Ireland on 5 January 1825, arriving in [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\") on 22 April.{{sfnp\\|Bateson\\|1959\\|pp\\=296\\-7}} She embarked 195 male convicts, of whom two died en route.{{sfnp\\|Bateson\\|1959\\|p\\=330}} *Hooghly* departed [Port Jackson](/wiki/Port_Jackson \"Port Jackson\") on 21 May bound for [Bombay](/wiki/Bombay \"Bombay\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article2184076 \\|title\\=Shipping Intelligence \\|last1\\= \\|first1\\= \\|last2\\= \\|first2\\= \\|date\\= \\|work\\=The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, Thursday 26 May 1825, p.2 \\|publisher\\= \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2016}}", "### Convict voyage \\#2 (1827\\)", "On her second convict voyage under the command of Peter Reeves and surgeon Alexander Nisbet, she left London, England on 5 November 1827, arriving in Sydney on 24 February 1828\\.{{sfnp\\|Bateson\\|1959\\|pp\\=296\\-7}} She embarked 99 male convicts, all of whom arrived.{{sfnp\\|Bateson\\|1959\\|p\\=331}} *Hooghly* departed Port Jackson on 4 April, bound for [Batavia](/wiki/Jakarta \"Jakarta\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article37071966 \\|title\\=Ship News \\|last1\\= \\|first1\\= \\|last2\\= \\|first2\\= \\|date\\= \\|work\\=The Australian (Sydney), Wednesday 9 April 1828, p.3 \\|publisher\\= \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2016}}", "### Emigrant voyage (1830\\)", "*Hooghly* arrived in Clarence, off [Garden Island, Western Australia](/wiki/Garden_Island_%28Western_Australia%29 \"Garden Island (Western Australia)\") on 13 February 1830, bringing 173 settlers to the [Swan River Colony](/wiki/Swan_River_Colony \"Swan River Colony\"). She was one of three ships that [Thomas Peel](/wiki/Thomas_Peel \"Thomas Peel\") had chartered to deliver 400 settlers. The other two vessels were \n{{ship\\|\\|Gilmore\\|1824 ship\\|2}} and {{ship\\|\\|Rockingham\\|1818 ship\\|2}}.", "*Gilmore*, the first to leave, had arrived on 15 December 1829 in the Swan River Colony with Thomas Peel and 182 settlers in all. *Rockingham* (180 passengers), arrived in mid\\-May 1830\\. She was wrecked shortly after landing her passengers, but all survived.", "*Hooghly* left Perth in March 1830 bound for London via Singapore, with steerage passengers.", "### Convict voyage \\#3 (1831\\)", "Her next convict voyage was under the command of Peter John Reeves and surgeon James Ellis. *Hooghly* left Cork, Ireland on 24 June 1831 and arrived in Sydney on 27 September.{{sfnp\\|Bateson\\|1959\\|pp\\=300\\-1}} She embarked 184 female convicts and had no convict deaths en route.{{sfnp\\|Bateson\\|1959\\|p\\=333}} *Hooghly* departed Port Jackson on 22 October, bound for China and London.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article32076256 \\|title\\=Ship News \\|last1\\= \\|first1\\= \\|last2\\= \\|first2\\= \\|date\\= \\|work\\=The Sydney Monitor (NSW), Wednesday 26 October 1831, p.2 \\|publisher\\= \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2016}} The departing former [Governor of New South Wales](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales \"Governor of New South Wales\"), Sir [Ralph Darling](/wiki/Ralph_Darling \"Ralph Darling\"), was a passenger on the vessel.", "### EIC voyage \\#2 (1832\\)", "Captain Reeves and *Hooghly* left China on 16 January 1832\\. They reached St Helena on 8 April, and arrived at the Downs on 31 May.", "### Convict voyage \\#4 (1834\\)", "On her fourth convict voyage under the command of George Bayly and surgeon James Rutherford, she left [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth \"Portsmouth\"), England on 28 July 1834, arriving in Sydney on 18 November.{{sfnp\\|Bateson\\|1959\\|pp\\=302\\-3}} She disembarked her full complement of 260 male convicts.{{sfnp\\|Bateson\\|1959\\|p\\=334}}", "### later voyages", "*Hooghly* made numerous voyages to South Australia.", "On one voyage she sailed from London on 19 February 1839 and arrived at Port Adelaide on 17 June. There she landed 290 migrants.", "On her next voyage she left Plymouth and arrived at Port Adelaide on 25 July 1840\\.", "In 1842 she sailed from Calcutta to [Van Diemen's Land](/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land \"Van Diemen's Land\") with prisoners and a cargo of horses.", "She made five voyages bringing immigrants to Port Adelaide between 1846 and 1859\\.", "**1st voyage:** She sailed from London on 19 June 1846 and arrived on 23 October.", "**2nd voyage:** She sailed from London on 3 August 1847 and arrived on 22 November.", "**3rd voyage:** She sailed from London on 13 August 1848 and arrived on 4 December.", "**4th voyage:** She sailed from Plymouth on 2 January 1855 and arrived on 18 April.", "**5th voyage:** She sailed from Plymouth on 12 April 1856 and arrived on 26 July.", "In 1859 *Hooghly* left London on 10 September and arrived in Hobart on 21 December. She transported 131 immigrants, including many single women.", "At some point *Hooghly* also sailed from Cork, Ireland to Port Jackson, New South Wales, with Irish migrants.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- ### Setting *Heroes VI* takes place on the continent of Thallan in the fictional world of Ashan, a setting developed by Ubisoft between 2004 and 2008 for use in all of its *Might and Magic*\-related projects, starting with *[Heroes of Might and Magic V](/wiki/Heroes_of_Might_and_Magic_V "Heroes of Might and Magic V")* in 2006\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.planetds.de/artikel/mightandmagicclashofheroesinterview/seite2\.html \|title\=Interview with Ubisoft on Might \& Magic: Clash of Heroes \|last\=Jensen \|first\=Kevin \|date\=August 9, 2009 \|website\=PlanetDS.de \|access\-date\=November 17, 2011 \|archive\-date\=February 27, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227133255/http://www.planetds.de/artikel/mightandmagicclashofheroesinterview/seite2\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Ashan is populated by approximately eleven factions inspired by those appearing in previous *Heroes* games and real\-life cultures, five of which are showcased in *Heroes VI*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mightandmagicgame.com/teaser/uk/archives.php?mois\=8\&annee\=2005\#11832 \|title\=DEVELOPMENT DIARY \#1: REVAMPING THE M\&M UNIVERSE \|date\=August 9, 2005 \|website\=Heroes V Teaser \|publisher\=Ubisoft \|access\-date\=November 17, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060111045107/http://www.mightandmagicgame.com/teaser/uk/archives.php?mois\=8\&annee\=2005\#11832 \|archive\-date\=January 11, 2006 \|url\-status\=dead}} Many of those factions have deified dragons, with their worship system centralized around one or more dragon gods linked to the [classical elements](/wiki/Classical_element "Classical element") (however, some factions like Orcs and the Spider Cult of Necromancers, do not worship dragons, while the Wizards of the Seven Cities are alluded to be atheist and rather regard the dragons as some magical creation); the conflict between the followers of Elrath, the Dragon of Light, and Malassa, the Dragon of Darkness, provides the background for the events of the game.{{cite web \|url\=http://might\-and\-magic.ubi.com/heroes\-6/en\-gb/news/details.aspx?c\=tcm:21\-20629\&ct\=tcm:6\-231\-32 \|title\=Special week of Dragon Gods (1\) \|date\=August 1, 2011 \|website\=Might \& Magic Heroes VI \|publisher\=Ubisoft \|access\-date\=July 2, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821233335/http://might\-and\-magic.ubi.com/heroes\-6/en\-gb/news/details.aspx?c\=tcm:21\-20629\&ct\=tcm:6\-231\-32 \|archive\-date\=August 21, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead}} Demon invaders periodically invade and terrorize Ashan during eclipses, which weaken the magical barrier trapping them in Sheogh, an otherworldly prison.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mightandmagicgame.com/teaser/uk/archives.php?mois\=8\&annee\=2005\#11883 \|title\=INFERNO: The Lords of Chaos \|date\=August 15, 2005 \|website\=Heroes V Teaser \|publisher\=Ubisoft \|access\-date\=November 17, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060111045107/http://www.mightandmagicgame.com/teaser/uk/archives.php?mois\=8\&annee\=2005\#11883 \|archive\-date\=January 11, 2006 \|url\-status\=dead}} *Heroes VI* also re\-introduces passing references to the Ancients, a super advanced society of beings which narratively connected previous worlds featured in the *Might and Magic* franchise.{{cite video game \|title\=Might \& Magic Heroes VI \|developer\=Black Hole Entertainment \|publisher\=Ubisoft \|date\=October 13, 2011 \|platform\=\[\[Microsoft Windows]] \|quote\=Week of the Ancients: ''A week where strange lights can be spotted in Ashan's night sky.''}} ### Plot In the everlasting war between the Orcs and the Griffin Empire, led by duke Pavel Griffin, Toghrul, an Orc shaman, summons the demons in order to help him and his tribe get rid of Pavel. The demons then overpower Pavel and slay him, but his sister, Sveltana (a necromancer) is able to trap Pavel's soul in the Griffin familial sword with which he has fought. However, before she can intervene, an Angel descends and steals the sword. Counseled by Angels in the impending war against the demons, Emperor Liam Falcon posts a decree enabling Duke Gerhart of the Wolf duchy to exterminate Orcs in the Empire. Duke Slava, Pavel's son, retaliates in solidarity with the Orcs, and the Dukes' bickering forces cause the Archangel Uriel \- Michael's brother \- to intervene. Uriel decides that Slava's eldest daughter, Irina, is to be betrothed to Gerhart to force a lasting peace. A decade passes, and Sandor, Slava's [bastard](/wiki/Legitimacy_%28family_law%29 "Legitimacy (family law)") son, learns that Irina has been imprisoned in the Wolf Duchy's jails for injuring Gerhart. He rouses an army of Orcs to free her, and the renegades flee to the Jade Ocean, where Sandor leaves Irina in Hashima and departs. Irina quickly befriends the native Naga and assists them in destroying a Wolf trading port, before discovering she is pregnant with Gerhart's child. Gerhart accuses Slava of orchestrating Sandor's attack, and the two dukes are called before the Emperor, where Slava's youngest daughter Anastasya \- Uriel's pupil and lover \- kills Slava with a concealed knife before the court. Slava's eldest son, Anton is crowned Duke, but the inquisition tries to force a confession from Anastasya, fearing she is in league with the Faceless; Anton elects to euthanize his sister before she can be tortured. He learns that Jorgen \- one of Slava's former advisers \- is an undercover Faceless, but not Slava's killer, while Anastasya is resurrected by Sveltana as an undead. Resolving to learn who manipulated her into slaying her father, she frees Jorgen from the inquisition before travelling onward to Heresh with her aunt. Meanwhile, her twin brother Kiril finds himself abandoned in Sheogh by his mentor, the Archangel Sarah, with the soul of a demon prince sharing his body. Desperate to expunge the demon, he pursues Sarah as a renewed demon invasion begins. Sveltana is kidnapped by Anastasya's rival, Miranda. Suspecting her of Slava's murder, Anastasya kills Miranda, and she explains that Anastasya was controlled with a comb empowered by Faceless magic. Irina ransacks the Wolf duchy, slaughtering Gerhart, and both she and Sandor devote their resources to the eradication of the demons. Michael dispatches Anton to assist Gerhart against the Naga, but Anton soon learns the Duke has already been killed. Using the comb, Anastasya enters the mind of her betrayer: Uriel, who had sought to use her soul to reincarnate his mother. Enraged, Anastasya destroys Uriel's mind, and both he and Emperor Liam are slain in battle, leaving Anton to eliminate the remaining demons. Kiril finally apprehends Sarah, who reveals she sold Kiril's soul to the demons in order to cripple the Faceless by destroying their repository of knowledge; Kiril usurps the repository and frees himself of possession, while Sveltana discovers that Pavel's soul was used to resurrect Michael. With the demons overcome, Michael appeals to the Griffin heirs to assist him in ending his war against darkness. If the alignment of the player's chosen heir is Tears, the heir rejects Michael's calls to arms and leads armies against the Angels, alongside Cate. Michael is killed in battle and Cate succeeds in sending the remaining deceased Angels' souls to Elrath, but the ritual ultimately results in her death. Alternatively, if the heir's alignment is Blood, they launch an offensive against Cate, sponsored by Michael, and succeed in slaying her to apparently prevent the impending conflict. In both instances, the Griffins lament Cate's death and bury her with Slava, while Jorgen conspires with the Dark Elf Raelag to instigate the war against Elrath in the wake of her absence.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "### Setting", "*Heroes VI* takes place on the continent of Thallan in the fictional world of Ashan, a setting developed by Ubisoft between 2004 and 2008 for use in all of its *Might and Magic*\\-related projects, starting with *[Heroes of Might and Magic V](/wiki/Heroes_of_Might_and_Magic_V \"Heroes of Might and Magic V\")* in 2006\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.planetds.de/artikel/mightandmagicclashofheroesinterview/seite2\\.html \\|title\\=Interview with Ubisoft on Might \\& Magic: Clash of Heroes \\|last\\=Jensen \\|first\\=Kevin \\|date\\=August 9, 2009 \\|website\\=PlanetDS.de \\|access\\-date\\=November 17, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 27, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227133255/http://www.planetds.de/artikel/mightandmagicclashofheroesinterview/seite2\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Ashan is populated by approximately eleven factions inspired by those appearing in previous *Heroes* games and real\\-life cultures, five of which are showcased in *Heroes VI*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mightandmagicgame.com/teaser/uk/archives.php?mois\\=8\\&annee\\=2005\\#11832 \\|title\\=DEVELOPMENT DIARY \\#1: REVAMPING THE M\\&M UNIVERSE \\|date\\=August 9, 2005 \\|website\\=Heroes V Teaser \\|publisher\\=Ubisoft \\|access\\-date\\=November 17, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060111045107/http://www.mightandmagicgame.com/teaser/uk/archives.php?mois\\=8\\&annee\\=2005\\#11832 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 11, 2006 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Many of those factions have deified dragons, with their worship system centralized around one or more dragon gods linked to the [classical elements](/wiki/Classical_element \"Classical element\") (however, some factions like Orcs and the Spider Cult of Necromancers, do not worship dragons, while the Wizards of the Seven Cities are alluded to be atheist and rather regard the dragons as some magical creation); the conflict between the followers of Elrath, the Dragon of Light, and Malassa, the Dragon of Darkness, provides the background for the events of the game.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://might\\-and\\-magic.ubi.com/heroes\\-6/en\\-gb/news/details.aspx?c\\=tcm:21\\-20629\\&ct\\=tcm:6\\-231\\-32 \\|title\\=Special week of Dragon Gods (1\\) \\|date\\=August 1, 2011 \\|website\\=Might \\& Magic Heroes VI \\|publisher\\=Ubisoft \\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821233335/http://might\\-and\\-magic.ubi.com/heroes\\-6/en\\-gb/news/details.aspx?c\\=tcm:21\\-20629\\&ct\\=tcm:6\\-231\\-32 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 21, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Demon invaders periodically invade and terrorize Ashan during eclipses, which weaken the magical barrier trapping them in Sheogh, an otherworldly prison.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mightandmagicgame.com/teaser/uk/archives.php?mois\\=8\\&annee\\=2005\\#11883 \\|title\\=INFERNO: The Lords of Chaos \\|date\\=August 15, 2005 \\|website\\=Heroes V Teaser \\|publisher\\=Ubisoft \\|access\\-date\\=November 17, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060111045107/http://www.mightandmagicgame.com/teaser/uk/archives.php?mois\\=8\\&annee\\=2005\\#11883 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 11, 2006 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} *Heroes VI* also re\\-introduces passing references to the Ancients, a super advanced society of beings which narratively connected previous worlds featured in the *Might and Magic* franchise.{{cite video game \\|title\\=Might \\& Magic Heroes VI \\|developer\\=Black Hole Entertainment \\|publisher\\=Ubisoft \\|date\\=October 13, 2011 \\|platform\\=\\[\\[Microsoft Windows]] \\|quote\\=Week of the Ancients: ''A week where strange lights can be spotted in Ashan's night sky.''}}", "### Plot", "In the everlasting war between the Orcs and the Griffin Empire, led by duke Pavel Griffin, Toghrul, an Orc shaman, summons the demons in order to help him and his tribe get rid of Pavel. The demons then overpower Pavel and slay him, but his sister, Sveltana (a necromancer) is able to trap Pavel's soul in the Griffin familial sword with which he has fought. However, before she can intervene, an Angel descends and steals the sword.", "Counseled by Angels in the impending war against the demons, Emperor Liam Falcon posts a decree enabling Duke Gerhart of the Wolf duchy to exterminate Orcs in the Empire. Duke Slava, Pavel's son, retaliates in solidarity with the Orcs, and the Dukes' bickering forces cause the Archangel Uriel \\- Michael's brother \\- to intervene. Uriel decides that Slava's eldest daughter, Irina, is to be betrothed to Gerhart to force a lasting peace. A decade passes, and Sandor, Slava's [bastard](/wiki/Legitimacy_%28family_law%29 \"Legitimacy (family law)\") son, learns that Irina has been imprisoned in the Wolf Duchy's jails for injuring Gerhart. He rouses an army of Orcs to free her, and the renegades flee to the Jade Ocean, where Sandor leaves Irina in Hashima and departs. Irina quickly befriends the native Naga and assists them in destroying a Wolf trading port, before discovering she is pregnant with Gerhart's child.", "Gerhart accuses Slava of orchestrating Sandor's attack, and the two dukes are called before the Emperor, where Slava's youngest daughter Anastasya \\- Uriel's pupil and lover \\- kills Slava with a concealed knife before the court. Slava's eldest son, Anton is crowned Duke, but the inquisition tries to force a confession from Anastasya, fearing she is in league with the Faceless; Anton elects to euthanize his sister before she can be tortured. He learns that Jorgen \\- one of Slava's former advisers \\- is an undercover Faceless, but not Slava's killer, while Anastasya is resurrected by Sveltana as an undead. Resolving to learn who manipulated her into slaying her father, she frees Jorgen from the inquisition before travelling onward to Heresh with her aunt. Meanwhile, her twin brother Kiril finds himself abandoned in Sheogh by his mentor, the Archangel Sarah, with the soul of a demon prince sharing his body. Desperate to expunge the demon, he pursues Sarah as a renewed demon invasion begins.", "Sveltana is kidnapped by Anastasya's rival, Miranda. Suspecting her of Slava's murder, Anastasya kills Miranda, and she explains that Anastasya was controlled with a comb empowered by Faceless magic. Irina ransacks the Wolf duchy, slaughtering Gerhart, and both she and Sandor devote their resources to the eradication of the demons. Michael dispatches Anton to assist Gerhart against the Naga, but Anton soon learns the Duke has already been killed. Using the comb, Anastasya enters the mind of her betrayer: Uriel, who had sought to use her soul to reincarnate his mother. Enraged, Anastasya destroys Uriel's mind, and both he and Emperor Liam are slain in battle, leaving Anton to eliminate the remaining demons. Kiril finally apprehends Sarah, who reveals she sold Kiril's soul to the demons in order to cripple the Faceless by destroying their repository of knowledge; Kiril usurps the repository and frees himself of possession, while Sveltana discovers that Pavel's soul was used to resurrect Michael.", "With the demons overcome, Michael appeals to the Griffin heirs to assist him in ending his war against darkness. If the alignment of the player's chosen heir is Tears, the heir rejects Michael's calls to arms and leads armies against the Angels, alongside Cate. Michael is killed in battle and Cate succeeds in sending the remaining deceased Angels' souls to Elrath, but the ritual ultimately results in her death. Alternatively, if the heir's alignment is Blood, they launch an offensive against Cate, sponsored by Michael, and succeed in slaying her to apparently prevent the impending conflict.", "In both instances, the Griffins lament Cate's death and bury her with Slava, while Jorgen conspires with the Dark Elf Raelag to instigate the war against Elrath in the wake of her absence.", "" ]
### Plot In the everlasting war between the Orcs and the Griffin Empire, led by duke Pavel Griffin, Toghrul, an Orc shaman, summons the demons in order to help him and his tribe get rid of Pavel. The demons then overpower Pavel and slay him, but his sister, Sveltana (a necromancer) is able to trap Pavel's soul in the Griffin familial sword with which he has fought. However, before she can intervene, an Angel descends and steals the sword. Counseled by Angels in the impending war against the demons, Emperor Liam Falcon posts a decree enabling Duke Gerhart of the Wolf duchy to exterminate Orcs in the Empire. Duke Slava, Pavel's son, retaliates in solidarity with the Orcs, and the Dukes' bickering forces cause the Archangel Uriel \- Michael's brother \- to intervene. Uriel decides that Slava's eldest daughter, Irina, is to be betrothed to Gerhart to force a lasting peace. A decade passes, and Sandor, Slava's [bastard](/wiki/Legitimacy_%28family_law%29 "Legitimacy (family law)") son, learns that Irina has been imprisoned in the Wolf Duchy's jails for injuring Gerhart. He rouses an army of Orcs to free her, and the renegades flee to the Jade Ocean, where Sandor leaves Irina in Hashima and departs. Irina quickly befriends the native Naga and assists them in destroying a Wolf trading port, before discovering she is pregnant with Gerhart's child. Gerhart accuses Slava of orchestrating Sandor's attack, and the two dukes are called before the Emperor, where Slava's youngest daughter Anastasya \- Uriel's pupil and lover \- kills Slava with a concealed knife before the court. Slava's eldest son, Anton is crowned Duke, but the inquisition tries to force a confession from Anastasya, fearing she is in league with the Faceless; Anton elects to euthanize his sister before she can be tortured. He learns that Jorgen \- one of Slava's former advisers \- is an undercover Faceless, but not Slava's killer, while Anastasya is resurrected by Sveltana as an undead. Resolving to learn who manipulated her into slaying her father, she frees Jorgen from the inquisition before travelling onward to Heresh with her aunt. Meanwhile, her twin brother Kiril finds himself abandoned in Sheogh by his mentor, the Archangel Sarah, with the soul of a demon prince sharing his body. Desperate to expunge the demon, he pursues Sarah as a renewed demon invasion begins. Sveltana is kidnapped by Anastasya's rival, Miranda. Suspecting her of Slava's murder, Anastasya kills Miranda, and she explains that Anastasya was controlled with a comb empowered by Faceless magic. Irina ransacks the Wolf duchy, slaughtering Gerhart, and both she and Sandor devote their resources to the eradication of the demons. Michael dispatches Anton to assist Gerhart against the Naga, but Anton soon learns the Duke has already been killed. Using the comb, Anastasya enters the mind of her betrayer: Uriel, who had sought to use her soul to reincarnate his mother. Enraged, Anastasya destroys Uriel's mind, and both he and Emperor Liam are slain in battle, leaving Anton to eliminate the remaining demons. Kiril finally apprehends Sarah, who reveals she sold Kiril's soul to the demons in order to cripple the Faceless by destroying their repository of knowledge; Kiril usurps the repository and frees himself of possession, while Sveltana discovers that Pavel's soul was used to resurrect Michael. With the demons overcome, Michael appeals to the Griffin heirs to assist him in ending his war against darkness. If the alignment of the player's chosen heir is Tears, the heir rejects Michael's calls to arms and leads armies against the Angels, alongside Cate. Michael is killed in battle and Cate succeeds in sending the remaining deceased Angels' souls to Elrath, but the ritual ultimately results in her death. Alternatively, if the heir's alignment is Blood, they launch an offensive against Cate, sponsored by Michael, and succeed in slaying her to apparently prevent the impending conflict. In both instances, the Griffins lament Cate's death and bury her with Slava, while Jorgen conspires with the Dark Elf Raelag to instigate the war against Elrath in the wake of her absence.
[ "### Plot", "In the everlasting war between the Orcs and the Griffin Empire, led by duke Pavel Griffin, Toghrul, an Orc shaman, summons the demons in order to help him and his tribe get rid of Pavel. The demons then overpower Pavel and slay him, but his sister, Sveltana (a necromancer) is able to trap Pavel's soul in the Griffin familial sword with which he has fought. However, before she can intervene, an Angel descends and steals the sword.", "Counseled by Angels in the impending war against the demons, Emperor Liam Falcon posts a decree enabling Duke Gerhart of the Wolf duchy to exterminate Orcs in the Empire. Duke Slava, Pavel's son, retaliates in solidarity with the Orcs, and the Dukes' bickering forces cause the Archangel Uriel \\- Michael's brother \\- to intervene. Uriel decides that Slava's eldest daughter, Irina, is to be betrothed to Gerhart to force a lasting peace. A decade passes, and Sandor, Slava's [bastard](/wiki/Legitimacy_%28family_law%29 \"Legitimacy (family law)\") son, learns that Irina has been imprisoned in the Wolf Duchy's jails for injuring Gerhart. He rouses an army of Orcs to free her, and the renegades flee to the Jade Ocean, where Sandor leaves Irina in Hashima and departs. Irina quickly befriends the native Naga and assists them in destroying a Wolf trading port, before discovering she is pregnant with Gerhart's child.", "Gerhart accuses Slava of orchestrating Sandor's attack, and the two dukes are called before the Emperor, where Slava's youngest daughter Anastasya \\- Uriel's pupil and lover \\- kills Slava with a concealed knife before the court. Slava's eldest son, Anton is crowned Duke, but the inquisition tries to force a confession from Anastasya, fearing she is in league with the Faceless; Anton elects to euthanize his sister before she can be tortured. He learns that Jorgen \\- one of Slava's former advisers \\- is an undercover Faceless, but not Slava's killer, while Anastasya is resurrected by Sveltana as an undead. Resolving to learn who manipulated her into slaying her father, she frees Jorgen from the inquisition before travelling onward to Heresh with her aunt. Meanwhile, her twin brother Kiril finds himself abandoned in Sheogh by his mentor, the Archangel Sarah, with the soul of a demon prince sharing his body. Desperate to expunge the demon, he pursues Sarah as a renewed demon invasion begins.", "Sveltana is kidnapped by Anastasya's rival, Miranda. Suspecting her of Slava's murder, Anastasya kills Miranda, and she explains that Anastasya was controlled with a comb empowered by Faceless magic. Irina ransacks the Wolf duchy, slaughtering Gerhart, and both she and Sandor devote their resources to the eradication of the demons. Michael dispatches Anton to assist Gerhart against the Naga, but Anton soon learns the Duke has already been killed. Using the comb, Anastasya enters the mind of her betrayer: Uriel, who had sought to use her soul to reincarnate his mother. Enraged, Anastasya destroys Uriel's mind, and both he and Emperor Liam are slain in battle, leaving Anton to eliminate the remaining demons. Kiril finally apprehends Sarah, who reveals she sold Kiril's soul to the demons in order to cripple the Faceless by destroying their repository of knowledge; Kiril usurps the repository and frees himself of possession, while Sveltana discovers that Pavel's soul was used to resurrect Michael.", "With the demons overcome, Michael appeals to the Griffin heirs to assist him in ending his war against darkness. If the alignment of the player's chosen heir is Tears, the heir rejects Michael's calls to arms and leads armies against the Angels, alongside Cate. Michael is killed in battle and Cate succeeds in sending the remaining deceased Angels' souls to Elrath, but the ritual ultimately results in her death. Alternatively, if the heir's alignment is Blood, they launch an offensive against Cate, sponsored by Michael, and succeed in slaying her to apparently prevent the impending conflict.", "In both instances, the Griffins lament Cate's death and bury her with Slava, while Jorgen conspires with the Dark Elf Raelag to instigate the war against Elrath in the wake of her absence.", "" ]
Background ---------- The [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") planned an Anglo\-American invasion of [French North Africa](/wiki/French_North_Africa "French North Africa"), the territories of [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco "Morocco"), [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria "Algeria") and [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia"), nominally in the hands of the Vichy French government. With [British forces advancing](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein "Second Battle of El Alamein") from Egypt, this would eventually allow the Allies to carry out a [pincer operation](/wiki/Pincer_movement "Pincer movement") against Axis forces in North Africa. The Vichy French had around 125,000 soldiers in the territories as well as coastal artillery, 210 operational but out\-of\-date tanks and about 500 aircraft, half of which were [Dewoitine D.520](/wiki/Dewoitine_D.520 "Dewoitine D.520") fighters—equal to many British and U.S. fighters.{{sfn\|Watson\|2007\|p\=50}} These forces included 60,000 troops in Morocco, 15,000 in Tunisia, and 50,000 in Algeria.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.stamfordhistory.org/ww2\_torch.htm \|title\="The Stamford Historical Society Presents: Operation Torch and the Invasion of North Africa" \|access\-date\=5 October 2015 \|archive\-date\=4 September 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904022301/http://www.stamfordhistory.org/ww2\_torch.htm \|url\-status\=live }} In addition, there were 10 or so warships and 11 submarines at [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca "Casablanca"). ### Political situation The Allies believed that the Vichy French [Armistice Army](/wiki/Armistice_Army "Armistice Army") would not fight, partly because of information supplied by the American [Consul](/wiki/Consul_%28representative%29 "Consul (representative)") [Robert Daniel Murphy](/wiki/Robert_Daniel_Murphy "Robert Daniel Murphy") in [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers "Algiers"). The French were former members of the Allies and the American troops were instructed not to fire unless they were fired upon.{{sfn\|Playfair\|Molony\|Flynn\|Gleave\|2004\|pp\=126, 141–42}} Suspicions were harbored that the [Vichy French Navy](/wiki/Vichy_French_Navy "Vichy French Navy") would bear a grudge over the British [Attack on Mers\-el\-Kébir](/wiki/Attack_on_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir "Attack on Mers-el-Kébir") near Oran in June 1940, to prevent French ships being taken by the Germans, which killed almost 1,300 French sailors. An assessment of the sympathies of the French forces in North Africa was essential, and plans were made to secure their cooperation, rather than resistance. German support for the Vichy French came in the shape of air support. Several *[Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe")* bomber wings undertook anti\-shipping strikes against Allied ports in [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers "Algiers") and along the North African coast. ### Command The operation was originally scheduled to be led by General [Joseph Stilwell](/wiki/Joseph_Stilwell "Joseph Stilwell"), but he was reassigned after the [Arcadia Conference](/wiki/Arcadia_Conference "Arcadia Conference") revealed his vitriolic [Anglophobia](/wiki/Anti-British_sentiment "Anti-British sentiment") and skepticism over the operation.{{Cite book \|last\=Roberts \|first\=Andrew \|url\=https://archive.org/details/masterscommander0000robe\_g9v1 \|title\=Masters and Commanders: The Military Geniuses Who Led the West to Victory in World War II \|publisher\=\[\[Penguin Books]] \|year\=2009 \|isbn\=978\-0\-141\-02926\-9 \|edition\=1 \|location\=London \|pages\=82–84 \|language\=en \|ref\=None \|via\=Archive Foundation}} Lt. General [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower") was given command of the operation, and he set up his headquarters in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar"). ### Allied strategy Senior U.S. commanders remained strongly opposed to the landings and after the western Allied [Combined Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Combined_Chiefs_of_Staff "Combined Chiefs of Staff") (CCS) met in London on 30 July 1942, General [George Marshall](/wiki/George_Marshall "George Marshall") and Admiral [Ernest King](/wiki/Ernest_King "Ernest King") declined to approve the plan. Marshall and other U.S. generals advocated the [invasion of northern Europe](/wiki/Operation_Sledgehammer "Operation Sledgehammer") later that year, which the British rejected.{{cite book \|last1\=Husen \|editor\-first1\=David T. \|editor\-last1\=Zabecki \|editor\-first2\=Carl O. \|editor\-last2\=Schuster \|editor\-first3\=Paul J. \|editor\-last3\=Rose \|editor\-first4\=William H. \|editor\-last4\=Van \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gYDN\-UfehEEC\&pg\=PA1270 \|title\=World War II in Europe : an encyclopedia \|date\=1999 \|publisher\=Garland Pub. \|isbn\=9780824070298 \|page\=1270 \|access\-date\=7 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=3 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050303/https://books.google.com/books?id\=gYDN\-UfehEEC\&pg\=PA1270 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last1\=Mackenzie \|first1\=S.P. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GsUFBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA55 \|title\=The Second World War in Europe: Second Edition \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1317864714 \|pages\=54–55 \|access\-date\=7 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=3 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050302/https://books.google.com/books?id\=GsUFBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA55 \|url\-status\=live }} After Prime Minister [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill") pressed for a landing in French North Africa in 1942, Marshall suggested instead to President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") that the U.S. abandon the [Germany first](/wiki/Germany_first "Germany first") strategy and take the offensive in the Pacific. Roosevelt said it would do nothing to help the Soviets.{{cite book \|last1\=Ward \|first1\=Geoffrey C. \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=V73CAwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA402 \|title\=The Roosevelts: An Intimate History \|last2\=Burns \|first2\=Ken \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group \|isbn\=978\-0385353069 \|pages\=402 \|chapter\=The Common Cause: 1939–1944 \|access\-date\=7 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=3 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050303/https://books.google.com/books?id\=V73CAwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA402 \|url\-status\=live }} In conducting their planning, Allied military strategists needed to consider the political situation on the ground in North Africa, which was complex, as well as external diplomatic political aspects. The Americans had recognized [Pétain](/wiki/P%C3%A9tain "Pétain") and the Vichy government in 1940, whereas the British did not and had recognized General [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle")'s [French National Committee](/wiki/French_National_Committee "French National Committee") as a government\-in\-exile instead, and agreed to fund them. North Africa was part of [France's colonial empire](/wiki/French_Colonial_Empire "French Colonial Empire") and nominally in support of Vichy, but that support was far from universal among the population. Political events on the ground contributed to, and in some cases were even primary over, military aspects. The French population in North Africa were divided into three groups:{{cite book \|author\=United States Military Academy. Department of Military Art and Engineering \|title\=The War in North Africa Part 2 – The Allied Invasion \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KThNAQAAMAAJ\&pg\=RA1\-PA5 \|year\=1947 \|publisher\=Department of Military Art and Engineering, United States Military Academy \|location\=West Point, NY \|pages\=4–5 \|access\-date\=12 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=3 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050305/https://books.google.com/books?id\=KThNAQAAMAAJ\&pg\=RA1\-PA5 \|url\-status\=live }} 1. [Gaullists](/wiki/Gaullism "Gaullism"){{snd}}De Gaulle was the rallying point for the French National Committee{{efn\|also known as the "Free French", later, per {{nowrap\|de Gaulle's}} appellation, the "Fighting French").}} This comprised French refugees who escaped [metropolitan France](/wiki/Metropolitan_France "Metropolitan France") rather than succumb to the [German occupation](/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II "German military administration in occupied France during World War II"), or those who stayed and joined the [French Resistance](/wiki/French_Resistance "French Resistance"). One acolyte, General [Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque](/wiki/Philippe_Leclerc_de_Hauteclocque "Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque"), organized a fighting force and conducted raids in 1943 along a {{convert\|1600\|mile}} path from [Lake Chad](/wiki/Lake_Chad "Lake Chad") to Tripoli and joined with General [Bernard Montgomery](/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery "Bernard Montgomery")'s [British Eighth Army](/wiki/Eighth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Eighth Army (United Kingdom)") on 25 January 1943\. 2. French Liberation Movement{{snd}} some Frenchmen living in North Africa and operating in secret under German surveillance organized an underground "French Liberation Movement", whose aim was to liberate France. General [Henri Giraud](/wiki/Henri_Giraud "Henri Giraud"), recently escaped from Germany, later became its leader. The personal clash between {{nowrap\|de Gaulle}} and Giraud prevented the [Free French Forces](/wiki/Free_French_Forces "Free French Forces") and the French Liberation Movement groups from unifying during the North African campaign (Torch). 3. Loyal pro\-Vichy French{{snd}} there were those who remained loyal to Marshal [Philippe Pétain](/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain "Philippe Pétain") and believed [collaboration with the Axis powers](/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy "Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy") was the best method of ensuring the future of France. [François Darlan](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan "François Darlan") was Pétain's designated successor. American strategy in planning the attack had to take into account these complexities on the ground. The planners assumed that if the leaders were given Allied military support they would take steps to liberate themselves, and the U.S. embarked on detailed negotiations under American Consul General Robert Murphy in [Rabat](/wiki/Rabat "Rabat") with the French Liberation Movement. Since Britain was already diplomatically and financially committed to {{nowrap\|de Gaulle}}, it was clear that negotiations with the French Liberation Movement would have to be conducted by the Americans, and the invasion as well. Because of divided loyalties among the groups on the ground their support was uncertain, and due to the need to maintain secrecy, detailed plans could not be shared with the French. ### Allied plans [thumb\|Allied convoys heading from the British Isles to North Africa](/wiki/File:Operation_Torch.jpg "Operation Torch.jpg") Planners identified Oran, Algiers and Casablanca as key targets. Ideally there would also be a landing at Tunis to secure Tunisia and facilitate the rapid interdiction of supplies traveling via Tripoli to [Erwin Rommel](/wiki/Erwin_Rommel "Erwin Rommel")'s [Afrika Korps](/wiki/Afrika_Korps "Afrika Korps") forces in [Italian Libya](/wiki/Italian_Libya "Italian Libya"). However, Tunis was much too close to the Axis airfields in Sicily and Sardinia for any hope of success. A compromise would be to land at [Bône](/wiki/B%C3%B4ne "Bône") in eastern Algeria, some {{convert\|300\|mi\|km}} closer to Tunis than Algiers. Limited resources dictated that the Allies could only make three landings and Eisenhower—who believed that any plan must include landings at Oran and Algiers—had two main options: either the western option, to land at Casablanca, Oran and Algiers and then make as rapid a move as possible to Tunis some {{convert\|500\|mi\|km}} east of Algiers once the Vichy opposition was suppressed; or the eastern option, to land at Oran, Algiers and Bône and then advance overland to Casablanca some {{convert\|500\|mi\|km}} west of Oran. He favored the eastern option because of the advantages it gave to an early capture of Tunis and also because the Atlantic swells off Casablanca presented considerably greater risks to an amphibious landing there than would be encountered in the Mediterranean. The Combined Chiefs of Staff, however, were concerned that should Operation Torch precipitate [Spain](/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II "Spain during World War II") to abandon neutrality and join the Axis, the Straits of Gibraltar could be closed cutting the entire Allied force's lines of communication. They therefore chose the Casablanca option as the less risky since the forces in Algeria and Tunisia could be supplied overland from Casablanca (albeit with considerable difficulty) in the event of closure of the straits.{{sfn\|Eisenhower\|1948\|pp\=88–89}} The Morocco landings ruled out the early occupation of Tunisia. Marshall did convince the Allies to abandon the planned invasions of [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira "Madeira") and [Tangier](/wiki/Tangier_International_Zone "Tangier International Zone") in preparation for the landings, which he maintained would lose the element of surprise and draw large Spanish military contingents in [Spanish Morocco](/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco "Spanish protectorate in Morocco") and the [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands") into the war. However, [Harry Hopkins](/wiki/Harry_Hopkins "Harry Hopkins") convinced President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") to agree to the general plan.{{Cite book \|last\=Roberts \|first\=Andrew \|url\=https://archive.org/details/masterscommander0000robe\_g9v1 \|title\=Masters and Commanders: The Military Geniuses Who Led the West to Victory in World War II \|publisher\=\[\[Penguin Books]] \|year\=2009 \|isbn\=978\-0\-141\-02926\-9 \|edition\=1 \|location\=London \|pages\=84–86 \|language\=en \|ref\=None \|via\=Archive Foundation}} Eisenhower told Patton that *the past six weeks were the most trying of his life*.{{cite book \|last\=Smith \|first\=Jean Edward \|title\=Eisenhower in War and Peace \|publisher\=Random House \|date\=2012 \|location\=New York \|pages\=214–15 \|isbn\=9780679644293}} In Eisenhower's acceptance of landings in Algeria and Morocco, he pointed out that the decision removed the early capture of Tunis from the probable to only the remotely possible because of the extra time it would afford the Axis to move forces into Tunisia.{{sfn\|Eisenhower\|1948\|p\=90}} ### Intelligence In July 1941, [Mieczysław Słowikowski](/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Zygfryd_S%C5%82owikowski "Mieczysław Zygfryd Słowikowski") (using the codename "*Rygor*"—Polish for "Rigor") set up "[Agency Africa](/wiki/Agency_Africa "Agency Africa")", one of the Second World War's most successful intelligence organizations.{{cite book \|first\=Tessa \|last\=Stirling \|display\-authors\=etal \|title\=Intelligence Co\-operation between Poland and Great Britain during World War II \|volume\=I: ''The Report of the Anglo\-Polish Historical Committee'' \|location\=London \|publisher\=\[\[Vallentine Mitchell]] \|year\=2005}} His Polish allies in these endeavors included Lt. Col. [Gwido Langer](/wiki/Gwido_Langer "Gwido Langer") and Major [Maksymilian Ciężki](/wiki/Maksymilian_Ci%C4%99%C5%BCki "Maksymilian Ciężki"). The information gathered by the Agency was used by the Americans and British in planning the amphibious November 1942 Operation Torch{{sfn\|Churchill\|1951b\|p\=643}}{{cite book \|first\=Rygor \|last\=Slowikowski \|title\=In the Secret Service: The Lightning of the Torch \|publisher\=The Windrush Press \|location\=London \|year\=1988 \|page\=285}} landings in North Africa. Information gathering continued during the operation, the British and Americans sent teams who competed to collect intelligence information, an [Abwehr](/wiki/Abwehr "Abwehr") coding machine, a different version of Enigma machines was captured in Algiers, it was found to have no plug board however the three rotors had been changed to rotate 11, 15 and 19 times rather than once every 26 letters, plus a plate on the left acted as a fourth rotor. It was sent to the UK with 2 tons of paperwork for analysis.{{cite book \|title\=Ian Fleming's Commandos: The Story of 30 Assault Unit in WWII \|last\=Rankin \|first\=Nicholas \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0199782826 \|date\=2011}} ### Intrigues with Vichy commanders {{Further\|Operation Kingpin (World War II)\|Henri Giraud}} {{See also\|French Civil and Military High Command}} {{more citations needed section\|find\=none\|date\=February 2021}} To gauge the feeling of the Vichy French forces, Murphy was appointed to the American consulate in Algeria. His covert mission was to determine the mood of the French forces and to make contact with elements that might support an Allied invasion. He succeeded in contacting several French officers, including [General](/wiki/General "General") [Charles Mast](/wiki/Charles_Mast "Charles Mast"), the French commander\-in\-chief in Algiers. These officers were willing to support the Allies but asked for a clandestine conference with a senior Allied General in Algeria. Major General [Mark W. Clark](/wiki/Mark_W._Clark "Mark W. Clark")—one of Eisenhower's senior commanders—was dispatched to [Cherchell](/wiki/Cherchell "Cherchell") in Algeria aboard the British submarine {{HMS\|Seraph\|P219\|6}} and met with these Vichy French officers on 21 October 1942\. With help from the Resistance, the Allies also [succeeded in slipping](/wiki/Operation_Kingpin_%28World_War_II%29 "Operation Kingpin (World War II)") French General [Henri Giraud](/wiki/Henri_Giraud "Henri Giraud") out of Vichy France on HMS *Seraph*—passing itself off as an American submarine{{sfn\|Churchill\|1951a\|p\=544}}—to Gibraltar, where Eisenhower had his headquarters, intending to offer him the post of commander in chief of French forces in North Africa after the invasion. However, Giraud would take no position lower than commander in chief of all the invading forces, a job already given to Eisenhower.{{sfn\|Groom\|2006\|p\=354}} When he was refused, he decided to remain "a spectator in this affair".{{sfn\|Atkinson\|2002\|p\=66}}
[ "Background\n----------", "The [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") planned an Anglo\\-American invasion of [French North Africa](/wiki/French_North_Africa \"French North Africa\"), the territories of [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco \"Morocco\"), [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria \"Algeria\") and [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"), nominally in the hands of the Vichy French government. With [British forces advancing](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein \"Second Battle of El Alamein\") from Egypt, this would eventually allow the Allies to carry out a [pincer operation](/wiki/Pincer_movement \"Pincer movement\") against Axis forces in North Africa. The Vichy French had around 125,000 soldiers in the territories as well as coastal artillery, 210 operational but out\\-of\\-date tanks and about 500 aircraft, half of which were [Dewoitine D.520](/wiki/Dewoitine_D.520 \"Dewoitine D.520\") fighters—equal to many British and U.S. fighters.{{sfn\\|Watson\\|2007\\|p\\=50}} These forces included 60,000 troops in Morocco, 15,000 in Tunisia, and 50,000 in Algeria.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.stamfordhistory.org/ww2\\_torch.htm \\|title\\=\"The Stamford Historical Society Presents: Operation Torch and the Invasion of North Africa\" \\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 September 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904022301/http://www.stamfordhistory.org/ww2\\_torch.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In addition, there were 10 or so warships and 11 submarines at [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca \"Casablanca\").", "### Political situation", "The Allies believed that the Vichy French [Armistice Army](/wiki/Armistice_Army \"Armistice Army\") would not fight, partly because of information supplied by the American [Consul](/wiki/Consul_%28representative%29 \"Consul (representative)\") [Robert Daniel Murphy](/wiki/Robert_Daniel_Murphy \"Robert Daniel Murphy\") in [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers \"Algiers\"). The French were former members of the Allies and the American troops were instructed not to fire unless they were fired upon.{{sfn\\|Playfair\\|Molony\\|Flynn\\|Gleave\\|2004\\|pp\\=126, 141–42}} Suspicions were harbored that the [Vichy French Navy](/wiki/Vichy_French_Navy \"Vichy French Navy\") would bear a grudge over the British [Attack on Mers\\-el\\-Kébir](/wiki/Attack_on_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir \"Attack on Mers-el-Kébir\") near Oran in June 1940, to prevent French ships being taken by the Germans, which killed almost 1,300 French sailors. An assessment of the sympathies of the French forces in North Africa was essential, and plans were made to secure their cooperation, rather than resistance. German support for the Vichy French came in the shape of air support. Several *[Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\")* bomber wings undertook anti\\-shipping strikes against Allied ports in [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers \"Algiers\") and along the North African coast.", "### Command", "The operation was originally scheduled to be led by General [Joseph Stilwell](/wiki/Joseph_Stilwell \"Joseph Stilwell\"), but he was reassigned after the [Arcadia Conference](/wiki/Arcadia_Conference \"Arcadia Conference\") revealed his vitriolic [Anglophobia](/wiki/Anti-British_sentiment \"Anti-British sentiment\") and skepticism over the operation.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=Andrew \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/masterscommander0000robe\\_g9v1 \\|title\\=Masters and Commanders: The Military Geniuses Who Led the West to Victory in World War II \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Penguin Books]] \\|year\\=2009 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-141\\-02926\\-9 \\|edition\\=1 \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=82–84 \\|language\\=en \\|ref\\=None \\|via\\=Archive Foundation}} Lt. General [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") was given command of the operation, and he set up his headquarters in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\").", "### Allied strategy", "Senior U.S. commanders remained strongly opposed to the landings and after the western Allied [Combined Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Combined_Chiefs_of_Staff \"Combined Chiefs of Staff\") (CCS) met in London on 30 July 1942, General [George Marshall](/wiki/George_Marshall \"George Marshall\") and Admiral [Ernest King](/wiki/Ernest_King \"Ernest King\") declined to approve the plan. Marshall and other U.S. generals advocated the [invasion of northern Europe](/wiki/Operation_Sledgehammer \"Operation Sledgehammer\") later that year, which the British rejected.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Husen \\|editor\\-first1\\=David T. \\|editor\\-last1\\=Zabecki \\|editor\\-first2\\=Carl O. \\|editor\\-last2\\=Schuster \\|editor\\-first3\\=Paul J. \\|editor\\-last3\\=Rose \\|editor\\-first4\\=William H. \\|editor\\-last4\\=Van \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gYDN\\-UfehEEC\\&pg\\=PA1270 \\|title\\=World War II in Europe : an encyclopedia \\|date\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Garland Pub. \\|isbn\\=9780824070298 \\|page\\=1270 \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050303/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gYDN\\-UfehEEC\\&pg\\=PA1270 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Mackenzie \\|first1\\=S.P. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GsUFBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA55 \\|title\\=The Second World War in Europe: Second Edition \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1317864714 \\|pages\\=54–55 \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050302/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GsUFBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA55 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} After Prime Minister [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill \"Winston Churchill\") pressed for a landing in French North Africa in 1942, Marshall suggested instead to President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") that the U.S. abandon the [Germany first](/wiki/Germany_first \"Germany first\") strategy and take the offensive in the Pacific. Roosevelt said it would do nothing to help the Soviets.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ward \\|first1\\=Geoffrey C. \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=V73CAwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA402 \\|title\\=The Roosevelts: An Intimate History \\|last2\\=Burns \\|first2\\=Ken \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group \\|isbn\\=978\\-0385353069 \\|pages\\=402 \\|chapter\\=The Common Cause: 1939–1944 \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050303/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=V73CAwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA402 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In conducting their planning, Allied military strategists needed to consider the political situation on the ground in North Africa, which was complex, as well as external diplomatic political aspects. The Americans had recognized [Pétain](/wiki/P%C3%A9tain \"Pétain\") and the Vichy government in 1940, whereas the British did not and had recognized General [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle \"Charles de Gaulle\")'s [French National Committee](/wiki/French_National_Committee \"French National Committee\") as a government\\-in\\-exile instead, and agreed to fund them. North Africa was part of [France's colonial empire](/wiki/French_Colonial_Empire \"French Colonial Empire\") and nominally in support of Vichy, but that support was far from universal among the population.", "Political events on the ground contributed to, and in some cases were even primary over, military aspects. The French population in North Africa were divided into three groups:{{cite book \\|author\\=United States Military Academy. Department of Military Art and Engineering \\|title\\=The War in North Africa Part 2 – The Allied Invasion \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KThNAQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA5 \\|year\\=1947 \\|publisher\\=Department of Military Art and Engineering, United States Military Academy \\|location\\=West Point, NY \\|pages\\=4–5 \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050305/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KThNAQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA5 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n1. [Gaullists](/wiki/Gaullism \"Gaullism\"){{snd}}De Gaulle was the rallying point for the French National Committee{{efn\\|also known as the \"Free French\", later, per {{nowrap\\|de Gaulle's}} appellation, the \"Fighting French\").}} This comprised French refugees who escaped [metropolitan France](/wiki/Metropolitan_France \"Metropolitan France\") rather than succumb to the [German occupation](/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II \"German military administration in occupied France during World War II\"), or those who stayed and joined the [French Resistance](/wiki/French_Resistance \"French Resistance\"). One acolyte, General [Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque](/wiki/Philippe_Leclerc_de_Hauteclocque \"Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque\"), organized a fighting force and conducted raids in 1943 along a {{convert\\|1600\\|mile}} path from [Lake Chad](/wiki/Lake_Chad \"Lake Chad\") to Tripoli and joined with General [Bernard Montgomery](/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery \"Bernard Montgomery\")'s [British Eighth Army](/wiki/Eighth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Eighth Army (United Kingdom)\") on 25 January 1943\\.\n2. French Liberation Movement{{snd}} some Frenchmen living in North Africa and operating in secret under German surveillance organized an underground \"French Liberation Movement\", whose aim was to liberate France. General [Henri Giraud](/wiki/Henri_Giraud \"Henri Giraud\"), recently escaped from Germany, later became its leader. The personal clash between {{nowrap\\|de Gaulle}} and Giraud prevented the [Free French Forces](/wiki/Free_French_Forces \"Free French Forces\") and the French Liberation Movement groups from unifying during the North African campaign (Torch).\n3. Loyal pro\\-Vichy French{{snd}} there were those who remained loyal to Marshal [Philippe Pétain](/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain \"Philippe Pétain\") and believed [collaboration with the Axis powers](/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy \"Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy\") was the best method of ensuring the future of France. [François Darlan](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan \"François Darlan\") was Pétain's designated successor.", "American strategy in planning the attack had to take into account these complexities on the ground. The planners assumed that if the leaders were given Allied military support they would take steps to liberate themselves, and the U.S. embarked on detailed negotiations under American Consul General Robert Murphy in [Rabat](/wiki/Rabat \"Rabat\") with the French Liberation Movement. Since Britain was already diplomatically and financially committed to {{nowrap\\|de Gaulle}}, it was clear that negotiations with the French Liberation Movement would have to be conducted by the Americans, and the invasion as well. Because of divided loyalties among the groups on the ground their support was uncertain, and due to the need to maintain secrecy, detailed plans could not be shared with the French.", "### Allied plans", "[thumb\\|Allied convoys heading from the British Isles to North Africa](/wiki/File:Operation_Torch.jpg \"Operation Torch.jpg\")\nPlanners identified Oran, Algiers and Casablanca as key targets. Ideally there would also be a landing at Tunis to secure Tunisia and facilitate the rapid interdiction of supplies traveling via Tripoli to [Erwin Rommel](/wiki/Erwin_Rommel \"Erwin Rommel\")'s [Afrika Korps](/wiki/Afrika_Korps \"Afrika Korps\") forces in [Italian Libya](/wiki/Italian_Libya \"Italian Libya\"). However, Tunis was much too close to the Axis airfields in Sicily and Sardinia for any hope of success. A compromise would be to land at [Bône](/wiki/B%C3%B4ne \"Bône\") in eastern Algeria, some {{convert\\|300\\|mi\\|km}} closer to Tunis than Algiers. Limited resources dictated that the Allies could only make three landings and Eisenhower—who believed that any plan must include landings at Oran and Algiers—had two main options: either the western option, to land at Casablanca, Oran and Algiers and then make as rapid a move as possible to Tunis some {{convert\\|500\\|mi\\|km}} east of Algiers once the Vichy opposition was suppressed; or the eastern option, to land at Oran, Algiers and Bône and then advance overland to Casablanca some {{convert\\|500\\|mi\\|km}} west of Oran. He favored the eastern option because of the advantages it gave to an early capture of Tunis and also because the Atlantic swells off Casablanca presented considerably greater risks to an amphibious landing there than would be encountered in the Mediterranean.", "The Combined Chiefs of Staff, however, were concerned that should Operation Torch precipitate [Spain](/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II \"Spain during World War II\") to abandon neutrality and join the Axis, the Straits of Gibraltar could be closed cutting the entire Allied force's lines of communication. They therefore chose the Casablanca option as the less risky since the forces in Algeria and Tunisia could be supplied overland from Casablanca (albeit with considerable difficulty) in the event of closure of the straits.{{sfn\\|Eisenhower\\|1948\\|pp\\=88–89}}", "The Morocco landings ruled out the early occupation of Tunisia. Marshall did convince the Allies to abandon the planned invasions of [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira \"Madeira\") and [Tangier](/wiki/Tangier_International_Zone \"Tangier International Zone\") in preparation for the landings, which he maintained would lose the element of surprise and draw large Spanish military contingents in [Spanish Morocco](/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco \"Spanish protectorate in Morocco\") and the [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\") into the war. However, [Harry Hopkins](/wiki/Harry_Hopkins \"Harry Hopkins\") convinced President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") to agree to the general plan.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=Andrew \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/masterscommander0000robe\\_g9v1 \\|title\\=Masters and Commanders: The Military Geniuses Who Led the West to Victory in World War II \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Penguin Books]] \\|year\\=2009 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-141\\-02926\\-9 \\|edition\\=1 \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=84–86 \\|language\\=en \\|ref\\=None \\|via\\=Archive Foundation}} Eisenhower told Patton that *the past six weeks were the most trying of his life*.{{cite book \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Jean Edward \\|title\\=Eisenhower in War and Peace \\|publisher\\=Random House \\|date\\=2012 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=214–15 \\|isbn\\=9780679644293}} In Eisenhower's acceptance of landings in Algeria and Morocco, he pointed out that the decision removed the early capture of Tunis from the probable to only the remotely possible because of the extra time it would afford the Axis to move forces into Tunisia.{{sfn\\|Eisenhower\\|1948\\|p\\=90}}", "### Intelligence", "In July 1941, [Mieczysław Słowikowski](/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Zygfryd_S%C5%82owikowski \"Mieczysław Zygfryd Słowikowski\") (using the codename \"*Rygor*\"—Polish for \"Rigor\") set up \"[Agency Africa](/wiki/Agency_Africa \"Agency Africa\")\", one of the Second World War's most successful intelligence organizations.{{cite book \\|first\\=Tessa \\|last\\=Stirling \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|title\\=Intelligence Co\\-operation between Poland and Great Britain during World War II \\|volume\\=I: ''The Report of the Anglo\\-Polish Historical Committee'' \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Vallentine Mitchell]] \\|year\\=2005}} His Polish allies in these endeavors included Lt. Col. [Gwido Langer](/wiki/Gwido_Langer \"Gwido Langer\") and Major [Maksymilian Ciężki](/wiki/Maksymilian_Ci%C4%99%C5%BCki \"Maksymilian Ciężki\"). The information gathered by the Agency was used by the Americans and British in planning the amphibious November 1942 Operation Torch{{sfn\\|Churchill\\|1951b\\|p\\=643}}{{cite book \\|first\\=Rygor \\|last\\=Slowikowski \\|title\\=In the Secret Service: The Lightning of the Torch \\|publisher\\=The Windrush Press \\|location\\=London \\|year\\=1988 \\|page\\=285}} landings in North Africa.", "Information gathering continued during the operation, the British and Americans sent teams who competed to collect intelligence information, an [Abwehr](/wiki/Abwehr \"Abwehr\") coding machine, a different version of Enigma machines was captured in Algiers, it was found to have no plug board however the three rotors had been changed to rotate 11, 15 and 19 times rather than once every 26 letters, plus a plate on the left acted as a fourth rotor. It was sent to the UK with 2 tons of paperwork for analysis.{{cite book \\|title\\=Ian Fleming's Commandos: The Story of 30 Assault Unit in WWII \\|last\\=Rankin \\|first\\=Nicholas \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0199782826 \\|date\\=2011}}", "### Intrigues with Vichy commanders", "{{Further\\|Operation Kingpin (World War II)\\|Henri Giraud}}\n{{See also\\|French Civil and Military High Command}}\n{{more citations needed section\\|find\\=none\\|date\\=February 2021}}\nTo gauge the feeling of the Vichy French forces, Murphy was appointed to the American consulate in Algeria. His covert mission was to determine the mood of the French forces and to make contact with elements that might support an Allied invasion. He succeeded in contacting several French officers, including [General](/wiki/General \"General\") [Charles Mast](/wiki/Charles_Mast \"Charles Mast\"), the French commander\\-in\\-chief in Algiers.", "These officers were willing to support the Allies but asked for a clandestine conference with a senior Allied General in Algeria. Major General [Mark W. Clark](/wiki/Mark_W._Clark \"Mark W. Clark\")—one of Eisenhower's senior commanders—was dispatched to [Cherchell](/wiki/Cherchell \"Cherchell\") in Algeria aboard the British submarine {{HMS\\|Seraph\\|P219\\|6}} and met with these Vichy French officers on 21 October 1942\\.", "With help from the Resistance, the Allies also [succeeded in slipping](/wiki/Operation_Kingpin_%28World_War_II%29 \"Operation Kingpin (World War II)\") French General [Henri Giraud](/wiki/Henri_Giraud \"Henri Giraud\") out of Vichy France on HMS *Seraph*—passing itself off as an American submarine{{sfn\\|Churchill\\|1951a\\|p\\=544}}—to Gibraltar, where Eisenhower had his headquarters, intending to offer him the post of commander in chief of French forces in North Africa after the invasion. However, Giraud would take no position lower than commander in chief of all the invading forces, a job already given to Eisenhower.{{sfn\\|Groom\\|2006\\|p\\=354}} When he was refused, he decided to remain \"a spectator in this affair\".{{sfn\\|Atkinson\\|2002\\|p\\=66}}", "" ]
Aftermath --------- ### Political results [thumb\|A plaque commemorating Operation Torch at the [American War Memorial](/wiki/American_War_Memorial%2C_Gibraltar "American War Memorial, Gibraltar") in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar")](/wiki/File:Operation_Torch_plaque_persp.png "Operation Torch plaque persp.png") {{See also\|François Darlan\#Darlan's deal in North Africa}} It quickly became clear that Giraud lacked the authority to take command of the French forces. He preferred to wait in Gibraltar for the results of the landing. However, Darlan in Algiers had such authority. Eisenhower, with the support of Roosevelt and Churchill, made an agreement with Darlan, recognizing him as French "High Commissioner" in North Africa. In return, Darlan ordered all French forces in North Africa to cease resistance to the Allies and to cooperate instead. The deal was made on 10 November, and French resistance ceased almost at once. The French troops in North Africa who were not already captured submitted to and eventually joined the Allied forces.{{sfn\|Eisenhower\|1948\|pp\=99–105, 107–10}} Men from French North Africa would see much combat under the Allied banner as part of the [French Expeditionary Corps](/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_%281943%E2%80%9344%29 "French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)") (consisting of 112,000 troops in April 1944\) in the [Italian campaign](/wiki/Italian_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 "Italian Campaign (World War II)"), where Maghrebis (mostly Moroccans) made up over 60% of the unit's soldiers.{{cite book \|first\=Paul \|last\=Gaujac \|title\=Le Corps expéditionnaire français en Italie \|publisher\=Histoire et collections \|year\=2003 \|page\=31 \|language\=fr}} When [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") learned of Darlan's deal with the Allies, he immediately ordered [the occupation of Vichy France](/wiki/Case_Anton "Case Anton") and sent [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") troops to [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia"). The American press protested, immediately dubbing it the "Darlan Deal", pointing out that Roosevelt had made a brazen bargain with Hitler's puppets in France. If a main goal of Torch had originally been the liberation of North Africa, hours later that had been jettisoned in favor of safe passage through North Africa. Giraud ended up taking over the post when Darlan was assassinated six weeks later.{{cite web \|authorlink\=Robert Satloff \|last\=Satloff \|first\=Robert \|title\=Operation Torch and the Birth of American Middle East Policy, 75 Years On \|date\=9 October 2017 \|publisher\=\[\[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] \|location\=Washington D.C. \|url\=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy\-analysis/operation\-torch\-and\-birth\-american\-middle\-east\-policy\-75\-years \|accessdate\=2020\-02\-12}} The Eisenhower/Darlan agreement meant that the officials appointed by the Vichy regime would remain in power in North Africa. No role was provided for [Free France](/wiki/Free_France "Free France"), which was supposed to be France's government\-in\-exile and had taken charge in other French colonies. That deeply offended [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle"), the head of Free France. It also offended much of the British and American public, who regarded all Vichy French as Nazi collaborators and Darlan as one of the worst. Eisenhower insisted, however, that he had no real choice if his forces were to move on against the Axis in Tunisia, rather than fight the French in Algeria and Morocco. Though de Gaulle had no official power in Vichy North Africa, much of its population now publicly declared Free French allegiance, putting pressure on Darlan. On 24 December, [Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle](/wiki/Fernand_Bonnier_de_La_Chapelle "Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle"), a French resistance fighter and anti\-fascist monarchist, assassinated Darlan. (Bonnier de La Chapelle was arrested on the spot and executed two days later.) Giraud succeeded Darlan but, like him, replaced few of the Vichy officials. He even ordered the arrest of the leaders of the Algiers coup of 8 November, with no opposition from Murphy. The French North African government gradually became active in the Allied war effort. The limited French troops in Tunisia did not resist German troops arriving by air; [Admiral Esteva](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Esteva "Jean-Pierre Esteva"), the commander, obeyed orders to that effect from Vichy. The Germans took the airfields there and brought in more troops. The French troops withdrew to the west and, within a few days, began to skirmish against the Germans, encouraged by small American and British detachments who had reached the area. While that was of minimal military effect, it committed the French to the Allied side. Later, all French forces were withdrawn from action and properly reequipped by the Allies. Giraud supported that but also preferred to maintain the old Vichy administration in North Africa. Under pressure from the Allies and de Gaulle's supporters, the French régime shifted, with Vichy officials gradually replaced and its more offensive decrees rescinded. In June 1943, Giraud and de Gaulle agreed to form the [French Committee of National Liberation](/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation "French Committee of National Liberation") (CFLN), with members from both the North African government and from de Gaulle's [French National Committee](/wiki/French_National_Committee "French National Committee"). In November 1943, de Gaulle became head of the CFLN and *de jure* head of government of France and was recognized by the U.S. and Britain. In another political outcome of Torch (and at Darlan's orders), the previously\-Vichyite government of [French West Africa](/wiki/French_West_Africa "French West Africa") joined the Allies. ### Military consequences #### Toulon {{main\|Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon}} One of the terms of the [Second Armistice at Compiègne](/wiki/Second_Armistice_at_Compi%C3%A8gne "Second Armistice at Compiègne") agreed to by the Germans was that the "[zone libre](/wiki/Zone_libre "Zone libre")" of [southern France](/wiki/Southern_France "Southern France") would remain free of German occupation and governed by Vichy. The lack of determined resistance by the Vichy French to the Allied invasions of North Africa and the new policies of de Gaulle in North Africa convinced the Germans that France could not be trusted. Moreover, the Anglo\-American presence in French North Africa invalidated the only real rationale for not occupying the whole of France since it was the only practical means to deny the Allies use of the French colonies. The Germans and the Italians [immediately occupied southern France](/wiki/Case_Anton "Case Anton"), and the [German Army](/wiki/German_Army_%281935%E2%80%931945%29 "German Army (1935–1945)") moved to seize the French fleet in the port of Toulon from 10 November. The naval strength of the Axis in the Mediterranean would have been greatly increased if the Germans had succeeded in seizing the French ships, but every important ship was [scuttled at dock](/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_in_Toulon "Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon") by the French Navy before the Germans could capture them. #### Tunisia {{Main\|Tunisia Campaign\|Run for Tunis}} [thumb\|Italian prisoners of war in [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia")](/wiki/File:Axis_prisoners_of_war_are_herded_out_of_the_city_as_Allied_armies_enter_Tunis._-_NARA_-_195472.jpg "Axis prisoners of war are herded out of the city as Allied armies enter Tunis. - NARA - 195472.jpg") After the German and Italian occupation of Vichy France and their failed attempt to capture the French fleet at Toulon (Operation Lila), the French {{lang\|fr\|\[\[Army of Africa (France)\|Armée d'Afrique]]}} sided with the Allies, providing a third corps ([XIX Corps](/wiki/XIX_Army_Corps_%28France%29 "XIX Army Corps (France)")) for Anderson. Elsewhere, French warships, such as the battleship {{Ship\|French battleship\|Richelieu\|\|2}}, rejoined the Allies. On 9 November, Axis forces started to build up in French Tunisia, unopposed by the local French forces under General Barré. Wracked with indecision, Barré moved his troops into the hills and formed a defensive line from [Teboursouk](/wiki/T%C3%A9boursouk "Téboursouk") through [Medjez el Bab](/wiki/Majaz_al_Bab "Majaz al Bab") and ordered that anyone trying to pass through the line would be shot. On 19 November, the German commander, [Walter Nehring](/wiki/Walter_Nehring "Walter Nehring"), demanded passage for his troops across the bridge at Medjez and was refused. The Germans attacked the poorly\-equipped French units twice and were driven back. The French had suffered many casualties and lacking artillery and armour, Barré was forced to withdraw.{{sfn\|Watson\|2007\|p\=60}} After consolidating in Algeria, the Allies began the [Tunisia Campaign](/wiki/Tunisia_Campaign "Tunisia Campaign"). Elements of the [First Army](/wiki/First_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "First Army (United Kingdom)") (Lieutenant\-General Kenneth Anderson), came to within {{cvt\|40\|mi\|km\|0}} of [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis "Tunis") before a [counterattack](/wiki/Counterattack "Counterattack") at [Djedeida](/wiki/Djedeida "Djedeida") thrust them back. In January 1943, German and Italian troops under {{lang\|de\|\[\[Generalfeldmarschall]]}} [Erwin Rommel](/wiki/Erwin_Rommel "Erwin Rommel"), retreating westward from [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"), reached Tunisia. [thumb\|[Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill") salutes allied troops in the [Roman](/wiki/Africa_%28Roman_province%29 "Africa (Roman province)") amphitheatre at [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage "Carthage"), during a visit to troops near [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis "Tunis"), June 1943\.](/wiki/File:Winston_Churchill_As_Prime_Minister_1940-1945_NA3252.jpg "Winston Churchill As Prime Minister 1940-1945 NA3252.jpg") The [Eighth Army](/wiki/Eighth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Eighth Army (United Kingdom)") (Lieutenant\-General [Bernard Montgomery](/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery "Bernard Montgomery")) advancing from the east, stopped around [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya "Tripoli, Libya") while the port was repaired to disembark reinforcements and build up the Allied advantage. In the west, the forces of the First Army came under attack at the end of January, were forced back from the Faïd Pass and suffered a reversal at the [Battle of Sidi Bou Zid](/wiki/Battle_of_Sidi_Bou_Zid "Battle of Sidi Bou Zid") on 14–15 February. Axis forces pushed on to Sbeitla and then fought the [Battle of Kasserine Pass](/wiki/Battle_of_Kasserine_Pass "Battle of Kasserine Pass") on 19 February, where the [US II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28United_States%29 "II Corps (United States)") retreated in disarray until Allied reinforcements halted the Axis advance on 22 February. Fredendall was sacked and replaced by [George Patton](/wiki/George_Patton "George Patton"). [General](/wiki/General_%28United_Kingdom%29 "General (United Kingdom)") Sir [Harold Alexander](/wiki/Harold_Alexander%2C_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis "Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis") arrived in Tunisia in late February to take charge of the new [18th Army Group](/wiki/18th_Army_Group "18th Army Group") headquarters, which had been created to command the Eighth Army and the Allied forces already fighting in Tunisia. The Axis forces attacked eastward at the [Battle of Medenine](/wiki/Battle_of_Medenine "Battle of Medenine") on 6 March but were easily repulsed by the Eighth Army. Rommel advised Hitler to allow a full retreat to a defensible line but was denied and on 9 March, Rommel left Tunisia to be replaced by [Jürgen von Arnim](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_von_Arnim "Jürgen von Arnim"), who had to spread his forces over {{cvt\|100\|mi\|km}} of northern Tunisia. The setbacks at Kasserine forced the Allies to consolidate their forces, develop their [lines of communication](/wiki/Line_of_communication "Line of communication") and administration before another offensive. The First and Eighth Armies attacked again in April. Hard fighting followed but the Allies cut off the Germans and Italians from support by naval and air forces between Tunisia and [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily"). On 6 May, as the culmination of [Operation Vulcan](/wiki/Operation_Vulcan "Operation Vulcan"), the British took Tunis and American forces reached [Bizerte](/wiki/Bizerte "Bizerte"). By 13 May, the Axis forces in Tunisia had surrendered, opening the way for the [Allied invasion of Sicily](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily "Allied invasion of Sicily") in July.
[ "Aftermath\n---------", "### Political results", "[thumb\\|A plaque commemorating Operation Torch at the [American War Memorial](/wiki/American_War_Memorial%2C_Gibraltar \"American War Memorial, Gibraltar\") in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\")](/wiki/File:Operation_Torch_plaque_persp.png \"Operation Torch plaque persp.png\")\n{{See also\\|François Darlan\\#Darlan's deal in North Africa}}\nIt quickly became clear that Giraud lacked the authority to take command of the French forces. He preferred to wait in Gibraltar for the results of the landing. However, Darlan in Algiers had such authority. Eisenhower, with the support of Roosevelt and Churchill, made an agreement with Darlan, recognizing him as French \"High Commissioner\" in North Africa. In return, Darlan ordered all French forces in North Africa to cease resistance to the Allies and to cooperate instead. The deal was made on 10 November, and French resistance ceased almost at once. The French troops in North Africa who were not already captured submitted to and eventually joined the Allied forces.{{sfn\\|Eisenhower\\|1948\\|pp\\=99–105, 107–10}} Men from French North Africa would see much combat under the Allied banner as part of the [French Expeditionary Corps](/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_%281943%E2%80%9344%29 \"French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)\") (consisting of 112,000 troops in April 1944\\) in the [Italian campaign](/wiki/Italian_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 \"Italian Campaign (World War II)\"), where Maghrebis (mostly Moroccans) made up over 60% of the unit's soldiers.{{cite book \\|first\\=Paul \\|last\\=Gaujac \\|title\\=Le Corps expéditionnaire français en Italie \\|publisher\\=Histoire et collections \\|year\\=2003 \\|page\\=31 \\|language\\=fr}}", "When [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") learned of Darlan's deal with the Allies, he immediately ordered [the occupation of Vichy France](/wiki/Case_Anton \"Case Anton\") and sent [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") troops to [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"). \nThe American press protested, immediately dubbing it the \"Darlan Deal\", pointing out that Roosevelt had made a brazen bargain with Hitler's puppets in France. If a main goal of Torch had originally been the liberation of North Africa, hours later that had been jettisoned in favor of safe passage through North Africa. Giraud ended up taking over the post when Darlan was assassinated six weeks later.{{cite web \\|authorlink\\=Robert Satloff \\|last\\=Satloff \\|first\\=Robert \\|title\\=Operation Torch and the Birth of American Middle East Policy, 75 Years On \\|date\\=9 October 2017 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] \\|location\\=Washington D.C. \\|url\\=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy\\-analysis/operation\\-torch\\-and\\-birth\\-american\\-middle\\-east\\-policy\\-75\\-years \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-02\\-12}}", "The Eisenhower/Darlan agreement meant that the officials appointed by the Vichy regime would remain in power in North Africa. No role was provided for [Free France](/wiki/Free_France \"Free France\"), which was supposed to be France's government\\-in\\-exile and had taken charge in other French colonies. That deeply offended [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle \"Charles de Gaulle\"), the head of Free France. It also offended much of the British and American public, who regarded all Vichy French as Nazi collaborators and Darlan as one of the worst. Eisenhower insisted, however, that he had no real choice if his forces were to move on against the Axis in Tunisia, rather than fight the French in Algeria and Morocco.", "Though de Gaulle had no official power in Vichy North Africa, much of its population now publicly declared Free French allegiance, putting pressure on Darlan. On 24 December, [Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle](/wiki/Fernand_Bonnier_de_La_Chapelle \"Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle\"), a French resistance fighter and anti\\-fascist monarchist, assassinated Darlan. (Bonnier de La Chapelle was arrested on the spot and executed two days later.)", "Giraud succeeded Darlan but, like him, replaced few of the Vichy officials. He even ordered the arrest of the leaders of the Algiers coup of 8 November, with no opposition from Murphy.", "The French North African government gradually became active in the Allied war effort. The limited French troops in Tunisia did not resist German troops arriving by air; [Admiral Esteva](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Esteva \"Jean-Pierre Esteva\"), the commander, obeyed orders to that effect from Vichy. The Germans took the airfields there and brought in more troops. The French troops withdrew to the west and, within a few days, began to skirmish against the Germans, encouraged by small American and British detachments who had reached the area. While that was of minimal military effect, it committed the French to the Allied side. Later, all French forces were withdrawn from action and properly reequipped by the Allies.", "Giraud supported that but also preferred to maintain the old Vichy administration in North Africa. Under pressure from the Allies and de Gaulle's supporters, the French régime shifted, with Vichy officials gradually replaced and its more offensive decrees rescinded. In June 1943, Giraud and de Gaulle agreed to form the [French Committee of National Liberation](/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation \"French Committee of National Liberation\") (CFLN), with members from both the North African government and from de Gaulle's [French National Committee](/wiki/French_National_Committee \"French National Committee\"). In November 1943, de Gaulle became head of the CFLN and *de jure* head of government of France and was recognized by the U.S. and Britain.", "In another political outcome of Torch (and at Darlan's orders), the previously\\-Vichyite government of [French West Africa](/wiki/French_West_Africa \"French West Africa\") joined the Allies.", "### Military consequences", "#### Toulon", "{{main\\|Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon}}\nOne of the terms of the [Second Armistice at Compiègne](/wiki/Second_Armistice_at_Compi%C3%A8gne \"Second Armistice at Compiègne\") agreed to by the Germans was that the \"[zone libre](/wiki/Zone_libre \"Zone libre\")\" of [southern France](/wiki/Southern_France \"Southern France\") would remain free of German occupation and governed by Vichy. The lack of determined resistance by the Vichy French to the Allied invasions of North Africa and the new policies of de Gaulle in North Africa convinced the Germans that France could not be trusted. Moreover, the Anglo\\-American presence in French North Africa invalidated the only real rationale for not occupying the whole of France since it was the only practical means to deny the Allies use of the French colonies. The Germans and the Italians [immediately occupied southern France](/wiki/Case_Anton \"Case Anton\"), and the [German Army](/wiki/German_Army_%281935%E2%80%931945%29 \"German Army (1935–1945)\") moved to seize the French fleet in the port of Toulon from 10 November. The naval strength of the Axis in the Mediterranean would have been greatly increased if the Germans had succeeded in seizing the French ships, but every important ship was [scuttled at dock](/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_in_Toulon \"Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon\") by the French Navy before the Germans could capture them.", "#### Tunisia", "{{Main\\|Tunisia Campaign\\|Run for Tunis}}\n[thumb\\|Italian prisoners of war in [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\")](/wiki/File:Axis_prisoners_of_war_are_herded_out_of_the_city_as_Allied_armies_enter_Tunis._-_NARA_-_195472.jpg \"Axis prisoners of war are herded out of the city as Allied armies enter Tunis. - NARA - 195472.jpg\")\nAfter the German and Italian occupation of Vichy France and their failed attempt to capture the French fleet at Toulon (Operation Lila), the French {{lang\\|fr\\|\\[\\[Army of Africa (France)\\|Armée d'Afrique]]}} sided with the Allies, providing a third corps ([XIX Corps](/wiki/XIX_Army_Corps_%28France%29 \"XIX Army Corps (France)\")) for Anderson. Elsewhere, French warships, such as the battleship {{Ship\\|French battleship\\|Richelieu\\|\\|2}}, rejoined the Allies.", "On 9 November, Axis forces started to build up in French Tunisia, unopposed by the local French forces under General Barré. Wracked with indecision, Barré moved his troops into the hills and formed a defensive line from [Teboursouk](/wiki/T%C3%A9boursouk \"Téboursouk\") through [Medjez el Bab](/wiki/Majaz_al_Bab \"Majaz al Bab\") and ordered that anyone trying to pass through the line would be shot. On 19 November, the German commander, [Walter Nehring](/wiki/Walter_Nehring \"Walter Nehring\"), demanded passage for his troops across the bridge at Medjez and was refused. The Germans attacked the poorly\\-equipped French units twice and were driven back. The French had suffered many casualties and lacking artillery and armour, Barré was forced to withdraw.{{sfn\\|Watson\\|2007\\|p\\=60}}", "After consolidating in Algeria, the Allies began the [Tunisia Campaign](/wiki/Tunisia_Campaign \"Tunisia Campaign\"). Elements of the [First Army](/wiki/First_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"First Army (United Kingdom)\") (Lieutenant\\-General Kenneth Anderson), came to within {{cvt\\|40\\|mi\\|km\\|0}} of [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis \"Tunis\") before a [counterattack](/wiki/Counterattack \"Counterattack\") at [Djedeida](/wiki/Djedeida \"Djedeida\") thrust them back. In January 1943, German and Italian troops under {{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Generalfeldmarschall]]}} [Erwin Rommel](/wiki/Erwin_Rommel \"Erwin Rommel\"), retreating westward from [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"), reached Tunisia.", "[thumb\\|[Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill \"Winston Churchill\") salutes allied troops in the [Roman](/wiki/Africa_%28Roman_province%29 \"Africa (Roman province)\") amphitheatre at [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage \"Carthage\"), during a visit to troops near [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis \"Tunis\"), June 1943\\.](/wiki/File:Winston_Churchill_As_Prime_Minister_1940-1945_NA3252.jpg \"Winston Churchill As Prime Minister 1940-1945 NA3252.jpg\")\nThe [Eighth Army](/wiki/Eighth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Eighth Army (United Kingdom)\") (Lieutenant\\-General [Bernard Montgomery](/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery \"Bernard Montgomery\")) advancing from the east, stopped around [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya \"Tripoli, Libya\") while the port was repaired to disembark reinforcements and build up the Allied advantage. In the west, the forces of the First Army came under attack at the end of January, were forced back from the Faïd Pass and suffered a reversal at the [Battle of Sidi Bou Zid](/wiki/Battle_of_Sidi_Bou_Zid \"Battle of Sidi Bou Zid\") on 14–15 February. Axis forces pushed on to Sbeitla and then fought the [Battle of Kasserine Pass](/wiki/Battle_of_Kasserine_Pass \"Battle of Kasserine Pass\") on 19 February, where the [US II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"II Corps (United States)\") retreated in disarray until Allied reinforcements halted the Axis advance on 22 February. Fredendall was sacked and replaced by [George Patton](/wiki/George_Patton \"George Patton\").", "[General](/wiki/General_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"General (United Kingdom)\") Sir [Harold Alexander](/wiki/Harold_Alexander%2C_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis \"Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis\") arrived in Tunisia in late February to take charge of the new [18th Army Group](/wiki/18th_Army_Group \"18th Army Group\") headquarters, which had been created to command the Eighth Army and the Allied forces already fighting in Tunisia. The Axis forces attacked eastward at the [Battle of Medenine](/wiki/Battle_of_Medenine \"Battle of Medenine\") on 6 March but were easily repulsed by the Eighth Army. Rommel advised Hitler to allow a full retreat to a defensible line but was denied and on 9 March, Rommel left Tunisia to be replaced by [Jürgen von Arnim](/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_von_Arnim \"Jürgen von Arnim\"), who had to spread his forces over {{cvt\\|100\\|mi\\|km}} of northern Tunisia.", "The setbacks at Kasserine forced the Allies to consolidate their forces, develop their [lines of communication](/wiki/Line_of_communication \"Line of communication\") and administration before another offensive. The First and Eighth Armies attacked again in April. Hard fighting followed but the Allies cut off the Germans and Italians from support by naval and air forces between Tunisia and [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\"). On 6 May, as the culmination of [Operation Vulcan](/wiki/Operation_Vulcan \"Operation Vulcan\"), the British took Tunis and American forces reached [Bizerte](/wiki/Bizerte \"Bizerte\"). By 13 May, the Axis forces in Tunisia had surrendered, opening the way for the [Allied invasion of Sicily](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily \"Allied invasion of Sicily\") in July.", "" ]
### Political results [thumb\|A plaque commemorating Operation Torch at the [American War Memorial](/wiki/American_War_Memorial%2C_Gibraltar "American War Memorial, Gibraltar") in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar")](/wiki/File:Operation_Torch_plaque_persp.png "Operation Torch plaque persp.png") {{See also\|François Darlan\#Darlan's deal in North Africa}} It quickly became clear that Giraud lacked the authority to take command of the French forces. He preferred to wait in Gibraltar for the results of the landing. However, Darlan in Algiers had such authority. Eisenhower, with the support of Roosevelt and Churchill, made an agreement with Darlan, recognizing him as French "High Commissioner" in North Africa. In return, Darlan ordered all French forces in North Africa to cease resistance to the Allies and to cooperate instead. The deal was made on 10 November, and French resistance ceased almost at once. The French troops in North Africa who were not already captured submitted to and eventually joined the Allied forces.{{sfn\|Eisenhower\|1948\|pp\=99–105, 107–10}} Men from French North Africa would see much combat under the Allied banner as part of the [French Expeditionary Corps](/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_%281943%E2%80%9344%29 "French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)") (consisting of 112,000 troops in April 1944\) in the [Italian campaign](/wiki/Italian_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 "Italian Campaign (World War II)"), where Maghrebis (mostly Moroccans) made up over 60% of the unit's soldiers.{{cite book \|first\=Paul \|last\=Gaujac \|title\=Le Corps expéditionnaire français en Italie \|publisher\=Histoire et collections \|year\=2003 \|page\=31 \|language\=fr}} When [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") learned of Darlan's deal with the Allies, he immediately ordered [the occupation of Vichy France](/wiki/Case_Anton "Case Anton") and sent [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") troops to [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia"). The American press protested, immediately dubbing it the "Darlan Deal", pointing out that Roosevelt had made a brazen bargain with Hitler's puppets in France. If a main goal of Torch had originally been the liberation of North Africa, hours later that had been jettisoned in favor of safe passage through North Africa. Giraud ended up taking over the post when Darlan was assassinated six weeks later.{{cite web \|authorlink\=Robert Satloff \|last\=Satloff \|first\=Robert \|title\=Operation Torch and the Birth of American Middle East Policy, 75 Years On \|date\=9 October 2017 \|publisher\=\[\[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] \|location\=Washington D.C. \|url\=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy\-analysis/operation\-torch\-and\-birth\-american\-middle\-east\-policy\-75\-years \|accessdate\=2020\-02\-12}} The Eisenhower/Darlan agreement meant that the officials appointed by the Vichy regime would remain in power in North Africa. No role was provided for [Free France](/wiki/Free_France "Free France"), which was supposed to be France's government\-in\-exile and had taken charge in other French colonies. That deeply offended [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle"), the head of Free France. It also offended much of the British and American public, who regarded all Vichy French as Nazi collaborators and Darlan as one of the worst. Eisenhower insisted, however, that he had no real choice if his forces were to move on against the Axis in Tunisia, rather than fight the French in Algeria and Morocco. Though de Gaulle had no official power in Vichy North Africa, much of its population now publicly declared Free French allegiance, putting pressure on Darlan. On 24 December, [Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle](/wiki/Fernand_Bonnier_de_La_Chapelle "Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle"), a French resistance fighter and anti\-fascist monarchist, assassinated Darlan. (Bonnier de La Chapelle was arrested on the spot and executed two days later.) Giraud succeeded Darlan but, like him, replaced few of the Vichy officials. He even ordered the arrest of the leaders of the Algiers coup of 8 November, with no opposition from Murphy. The French North African government gradually became active in the Allied war effort. The limited French troops in Tunisia did not resist German troops arriving by air; [Admiral Esteva](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Esteva "Jean-Pierre Esteva"), the commander, obeyed orders to that effect from Vichy. The Germans took the airfields there and brought in more troops. The French troops withdrew to the west and, within a few days, began to skirmish against the Germans, encouraged by small American and British detachments who had reached the area. While that was of minimal military effect, it committed the French to the Allied side. Later, all French forces were withdrawn from action and properly reequipped by the Allies. Giraud supported that but also preferred to maintain the old Vichy administration in North Africa. Under pressure from the Allies and de Gaulle's supporters, the French régime shifted, with Vichy officials gradually replaced and its more offensive decrees rescinded. In June 1943, Giraud and de Gaulle agreed to form the [French Committee of National Liberation](/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation "French Committee of National Liberation") (CFLN), with members from both the North African government and from de Gaulle's [French National Committee](/wiki/French_National_Committee "French National Committee"). In November 1943, de Gaulle became head of the CFLN and *de jure* head of government of France and was recognized by the U.S. and Britain. In another political outcome of Torch (and at Darlan's orders), the previously\-Vichyite government of [French West Africa](/wiki/French_West_Africa "French West Africa") joined the Allies.
[ "### Political results", "[thumb\\|A plaque commemorating Operation Torch at the [American War Memorial](/wiki/American_War_Memorial%2C_Gibraltar \"American War Memorial, Gibraltar\") in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\")](/wiki/File:Operation_Torch_plaque_persp.png \"Operation Torch plaque persp.png\")\n{{See also\\|François Darlan\\#Darlan's deal in North Africa}}\nIt quickly became clear that Giraud lacked the authority to take command of the French forces. He preferred to wait in Gibraltar for the results of the landing. However, Darlan in Algiers had such authority. Eisenhower, with the support of Roosevelt and Churchill, made an agreement with Darlan, recognizing him as French \"High Commissioner\" in North Africa. In return, Darlan ordered all French forces in North Africa to cease resistance to the Allies and to cooperate instead. The deal was made on 10 November, and French resistance ceased almost at once. The French troops in North Africa who were not already captured submitted to and eventually joined the Allied forces.{{sfn\\|Eisenhower\\|1948\\|pp\\=99–105, 107–10}} Men from French North Africa would see much combat under the Allied banner as part of the [French Expeditionary Corps](/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_%281943%E2%80%9344%29 \"French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)\") (consisting of 112,000 troops in April 1944\\) in the [Italian campaign](/wiki/Italian_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 \"Italian Campaign (World War II)\"), where Maghrebis (mostly Moroccans) made up over 60% of the unit's soldiers.{{cite book \\|first\\=Paul \\|last\\=Gaujac \\|title\\=Le Corps expéditionnaire français en Italie \\|publisher\\=Histoire et collections \\|year\\=2003 \\|page\\=31 \\|language\\=fr}}", "When [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") learned of Darlan's deal with the Allies, he immediately ordered [the occupation of Vichy France](/wiki/Case_Anton \"Case Anton\") and sent [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") troops to [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"). \nThe American press protested, immediately dubbing it the \"Darlan Deal\", pointing out that Roosevelt had made a brazen bargain with Hitler's puppets in France. If a main goal of Torch had originally been the liberation of North Africa, hours later that had been jettisoned in favor of safe passage through North Africa. Giraud ended up taking over the post when Darlan was assassinated six weeks later.{{cite web \\|authorlink\\=Robert Satloff \\|last\\=Satloff \\|first\\=Robert \\|title\\=Operation Torch and the Birth of American Middle East Policy, 75 Years On \\|date\\=9 October 2017 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] \\|location\\=Washington D.C. \\|url\\=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy\\-analysis/operation\\-torch\\-and\\-birth\\-american\\-middle\\-east\\-policy\\-75\\-years \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-02\\-12}}", "The Eisenhower/Darlan agreement meant that the officials appointed by the Vichy regime would remain in power in North Africa. No role was provided for [Free France](/wiki/Free_France \"Free France\"), which was supposed to be France's government\\-in\\-exile and had taken charge in other French colonies. That deeply offended [Charles de Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle \"Charles de Gaulle\"), the head of Free France. It also offended much of the British and American public, who regarded all Vichy French as Nazi collaborators and Darlan as one of the worst. Eisenhower insisted, however, that he had no real choice if his forces were to move on against the Axis in Tunisia, rather than fight the French in Algeria and Morocco.", "Though de Gaulle had no official power in Vichy North Africa, much of its population now publicly declared Free French allegiance, putting pressure on Darlan. On 24 December, [Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle](/wiki/Fernand_Bonnier_de_La_Chapelle \"Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle\"), a French resistance fighter and anti\\-fascist monarchist, assassinated Darlan. (Bonnier de La Chapelle was arrested on the spot and executed two days later.)", "Giraud succeeded Darlan but, like him, replaced few of the Vichy officials. He even ordered the arrest of the leaders of the Algiers coup of 8 November, with no opposition from Murphy.", "The French North African government gradually became active in the Allied war effort. The limited French troops in Tunisia did not resist German troops arriving by air; [Admiral Esteva](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Esteva \"Jean-Pierre Esteva\"), the commander, obeyed orders to that effect from Vichy. The Germans took the airfields there and brought in more troops. The French troops withdrew to the west and, within a few days, began to skirmish against the Germans, encouraged by small American and British detachments who had reached the area. While that was of minimal military effect, it committed the French to the Allied side. Later, all French forces were withdrawn from action and properly reequipped by the Allies.", "Giraud supported that but also preferred to maintain the old Vichy administration in North Africa. Under pressure from the Allies and de Gaulle's supporters, the French régime shifted, with Vichy officials gradually replaced and its more offensive decrees rescinded. In June 1943, Giraud and de Gaulle agreed to form the [French Committee of National Liberation](/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation \"French Committee of National Liberation\") (CFLN), with members from both the North African government and from de Gaulle's [French National Committee](/wiki/French_National_Committee \"French National Committee\"). In November 1943, de Gaulle became head of the CFLN and *de jure* head of government of France and was recognized by the U.S. and Britain.", "In another political outcome of Torch (and at Darlan's orders), the previously\\-Vichyite government of [French West Africa](/wiki/French_West_Africa \"French West Africa\") joined the Allies.", "" ]
Formation history of the Kuban Cossack Host ------------------------------------------- Although Cossacks lived in the region prior to the late 18th century See [Nekrasov Cossacks](/wiki/Nekrasov_Cossacks "Nekrasov Cossacks") (one theory of Cossack origin traces their lineage to the ancient Kasog peoples who populated the Kuban in 9th\-13th centuries{{Cite web\|url\=http://annales.info/life/5minaev/5minaev.htm\#43\|title\=Северный Кавказ и кочевой мир степей Евразии: V Минаевские чтения по археологии, этнографии и краеведению Северного Кавказа\|website\=annales.info}}), the landscape prevented permanent habitation. Modern Kuban Cossacks claim 1696 as their foundation year, when the Don Cossacks from the Khopyor took part in [Peter's](/wiki/Peter_I_of_Russia "Peter I of Russia") [Azov campaigns](/wiki/Azov_campaigns_%281695%E2%80%931696%29 "Azov campaigns (1695–1696)"). Sporadic raids reached out into the land, which was partially populated by the [Nogay](/wiki/Nogais "Nogais"), though territorially part of the [Crimean khanate](/wiki/Crimean_khanate "Crimean khanate"). In 1784 the lower Kuban passed to Russia, after which its colonisation became an important step in the Empire's expansion.{{Cite web\|url\=http://slavakubani.ru/read.php?id\=4544\|title\=Новости\|website\=slavakubani.ru\|access\-date\=1 February 2013\|archive\-date\=11 January 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111030401/http://slavakubani.ru/read.php?id\=4544\|url\-status\=dead}} ### Black Sea Cossacks {{Main\|Zaporozhian Host}} [thumb\|A memorial to the first settlers in [Taman](/wiki/Taman_Peninsula "Taman Peninsula")](/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC.JPG "Памятник казакам.JPG") In a different part of southeastern Europe, on the middle [Dnieper](/wiki/Dnieper "Dnieper") in what is now Ukraine, lived the [Zaporozhian Cossacks](/wiki/Zaporozhian_Cossacks "Zaporozhian Cossacks"). By the late 18th century, however, their combat ability was greatly reduced.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}} With their traditional adversaries, the [Crimean Khanate](/wiki/Crimean_Khanate "Crimean Khanate") and the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"), now all but defunct, the Russian administration saw little military use for them. The Zaporozhian Sich, however, represented a safe haven for runaway serfs, where the state authority did not extend, and often took part in rebellions which were constantly breaking out in Ukraine. Another problem for the imperial Russian government was the Cossacks' resistance to colonization of lands the government considered theirs. [Orest Subtelny](/wiki/Orest_Subtelny "Orest Subtelny") *Ukraine a history* [History of Ukraine. Retrieved on 4 July 2008](https://books.google.com/books?id=HNIs9O3EmtQC&dq=destruction+Zaporozhian+Sich&pg=PA175). In 1775, after numerous attacks on Serbian colonisers, the Russian Empress [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia "Catherine II of Russia") had [Grigory Potemkin](/wiki/Grigori_Alexandrovich_Potemkin "Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin") destroy the Zaporozhian Host. The operation was carried out by General [Pyotr Tekeli](/wiki/Pyotr_Tekeli "Pyotr Tekeli"). The Zaporozhians scattered; some (five thousand men or 30% of the host) fled to the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire")\-controlled [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube") area.{{cite web\|first\=Taras\|last\=Chukhlib\|title\= \|url\=http://knsuvorov.narod.ru/text/ukr.html\|script\-title\=ru:Александр Суворов в украинской истории\|trans\-title\=Alexander Suvorov in Ukrainian history\|language\=ru\|publisher\=Pravda.org.ua\|via\=knsuvorov.narod.ru\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219035248/http://knsuvorov.narod.ru/text/ukr.html\|archive\-date\=19 December 2007}} Others joined the [Imperial Russian](/wiki/Military_history_of_Imperial_Russia "Military history of Imperial Russia") [Husar](/wiki/Hussar "Hussar") and [Dragoon](/wiki/Dragoon "Dragoon") regiments, while most turned to local farming and trade. A decade later, the Russian administration was forced to reconsider its decision, with the escalation of tension with the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). In 1778 the Turkish sultan offered the exiled Zaporozhians the chance to build a new [Danubian Sich](/wiki/Danubian_Sich "Danubian Sich"). Potemkin suggested that the former commanders [Antin Holovaty](/wiki/Antin_Holovaty "Antin Holovaty"), [Zakhary Chepiha](/wiki/Zakhary_Chepiha "Zakhary Chepiha") and [Sydir Bily](/wiki/Sydir_Bily "Sydir Bily") round the former Cossacks into a *Host of the loyal Zaporozhians* in 1787\.V. Golubtsky *Black Sea Cossack Host* from the Large Soviet Encyclopedia [Retrieved on 22 April 2007](https://archive.today/20050525025850/http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/122/012.htm). The new host played a crucial role in the [Russo\-Turkish War (1787–1792\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281787%E2%80%931792%29 "Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)"), and for their loyalty and service the Russian Empress rewarded them with eternal use of the Kuban, then inhabited by [Nogai](/wiki/Nogai_people "Nogai people") remnants, and in the cause of the [Caucasus War](/wiki/Caucasus_War "Caucasus War") a crucial progress in further pushing the Russian line into [Circassia](/wiki/Circassia "Circassia"). Renamed the [Black Sea Cossack Host](/wiki/Black_Sea_Cossack_Host "Black Sea Cossack Host"), a total of 25,000 men made the migration in 1792\-93\.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}} ### On the Russian frontier (1777–1860\) [thumb\|Cossack reconnaissance during the Caucasus wars, by [Franz Roubaud](/wiki/Franz_Roubaud "Franz Roubaud")](/wiki/File:Roubaud._Scene_from_Caucasian_war.jpg "Roubaud. Scene from Caucasian war.jpg") During the [Russo\-Turkish War (1768–1774\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281768%E2%80%931774%29 "Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)"), the [Don Cossacks](/wiki/Don_Cossacks "Don Cossacks") on the [Khopyor River](/wiki/Khopyor_River "Khopyor River") took part in the campaign, and in 1770 – then numbering four settlements – requested to form a regiment. Owing to their service in the war, on 6 October 1774 [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia "Catherine II of Russia") issued a manifesto granting their request.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}} The end of the war and the [Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca](/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca "Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca") brought Russia's frontiers south from the [Kuban River](/wiki/Kuban_River "Kuban River")'s entry into the [Azov Sea](/wiki/Azov_Sea "Azov Sea") along its right bank and right to the bend of the [Terek River](/wiki/Terek_River "Terek River"). This created a 500\-[verst](/wiki/Verst "Verst") undefended border, and in the summer of 1777 the Khopyor regiment – in addition to the remnants of the [Volga Cossacks](/wiki/Volga_Cossacks "Volga Cossacks") and a [Vladimir](/wiki/Vladimir%2C_Russia "Vladimir, Russia") [Dragoon](/wiki/Dragoon "Dragoon") regiment – were re\-settled in the [Northern Caucasus](/wiki/North_Caucasus "North Caucasus") to build the [Azov](/wiki/Azov "Azov")\-[Mozdok](/wiki/Mozdok%2C_Republic_of_North_Ossetia%E2%80%93Alania "Mozdok, Republic of North Ossetia–Alania") defence line. This marked the start of the [Caucasus War](/wiki/Caucasus_War "Caucasus War"), which would continue for almost 90 years. The Khopyor regiment was responsible for the western flank of the line. In 1778\-1782, Khopyor Cossacks founded four [stanitsas](/wiki/Stanitsa "Stanitsa"): Stavropolskaya (next to the fortress of [Stavropol](/wiki/Stavropol "Stavropol"), established on 22 October 1777\), Moskovskaya, Donskaya and Severnaya – with approximately 140 Cossack families in each. In 1779, the Khopyor regiment was given its own district. The conditions were desperate as the Circassians would mount almost daily raids on the Russian positions. In 1825\-1826 the regiment began its first expansions, pushing westwards to the bend of the [Kuban River](/wiki/Kuban_River "Kuban River") and founding five new stanitsas (the so\-called new\-Kuban line: [Barsukovskaya](/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F "Барсуковская"), [Nevinnomysskaya](/wiki/Nevinnomyssk "Nevinnomyssk"), [Belomechetskaya](/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F "Беломечетская"), Batalpashinskaya (modern [Cherkessk](/wiki/Cherkessk "Cherkessk")), [Bekeshevskaya](/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F "Бекешевская") and Karantynnaya (currently [Suvorovskaya](/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F "Суворовская")). In 1828 the Khopyor Cossacks participated in the conquest of [Karachay](/wiki/Karachay "Karachay") and became part of the first Russian expedition to reach the summit of [Elbrus](/wiki/Elbrus "Elbrus") in 1829\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nevchronograph.ru/publications/7\|title\=К 300\-летию Хоперского полка – основателя и защитника нашего города – Публикации – \[Невинномысскiй хронографЪ]\|website\=www.nevchronograph.ru}} However, the Russian position in the Caucasus was desperate, and to ease administration in 1832 military reform united ten regiments from the mouth of the [Terek River](/wiki/Terek_River "Terek River") all the way to the Khopyor in the western Kabarda, forming a single [Caucasus Line Cossack Host](/wiki/Caucasus_Line_Cossack_Host "Caucasus Line Cossack Host"). The Khopyor regiment was also given several civilian settlements, raising its manpower to 12,000\. With the further advance to the [Laba River](/wiki/Bolshaya_Laba_River "Bolshaya Laba River") the Khopyor district was split into two regiments, and Spokoynaya, Ispravnaya, Podgornaya, Udobnaya, Peredovaya, Storozhevaya formed the Laba line. ### Zaporozhets beyond the Kuban River {{main\|Black Sea Cossack Host}} [thumb\|Historic map, showing the initial settlement of the Black Sea Cossacks](/wiki/File:KOZAKS_of_the_BLACK_SEA_on_the_MAP_of_1806.JPG "KOZAKS of the BLACK SEA on the MAP of 1806.JPG") Many traditions of the Zaporozhian Cossacks continued in the Black Sea Cossacks, such as the formal election of the host administration, but in some cases, new traditions replaced the old. Instead of a central Sich, a defence line was formed from the Kuban River Black Sea inlet to the [Bolshaya Laba River](/wiki/Bolshaya_Laba_River "Bolshaya Laba River") inlet. The land north of this line was settled with villages called [stanitsas](/wiki/Stanitsa "Stanitsa"). The administrative centre of [Yekaterinodar](/wiki/Yekaterinodar "Yekaterinodar") (literally "Catherine's gift") was built. The Black Sea Cossacks sent men to many major campaigns at the Russian Empire's demand, such as the suppression of the Polish [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising "Kościuszko Uprising") in 1794, the ill\-fated [Persian Expedition of 1796](/wiki/Persian_Expedition_of_1796 "Persian Expedition of 1796") where nearly half of the Cossacks died from hunger and disease, and sent the 9th [plastun](/wiki/Plastun "Plastun") (infantry) and 1st joint cavalry regiments as well as the first [Leib Guards](/wiki/Leib_Guard "Leib Guard") (elite) [sotnia](/wiki/Sotnia "Sotnia") to aid the Russian Army in the [Patriotic War of 1812](/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia_%281812%29 "French invasion of Russia (1812)"). The new host participated in the [Russo\-Persian War (1826–1828\)](/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_%281826%E2%80%931828%29 "Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)") where they stormed the last remaining Ottoman bastion of the northern Black Sea coast, the fortress of [Anapa](/wiki/Anapa "Anapa"), in 1828\. In the course of the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War") of 1853 to 1856, the Cossacks foiled any attempts of allied landing on the [Taman Peninsula](/wiki/Taman_Peninsula "Taman Peninsula"), whilst the 2nd and 5th plastun battalions took part in the [Defence of Sevastopol](/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_%281854%E2%80%931855%29 "Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)"). In the land they left behind, the [Buh Cossacks](/wiki/Buh_Cossacks "Buh Cossacks") were able to provide a strong buffer from the [Danubian Sich](/wiki/Danubian_Sich "Danubian Sich"). After the [Russo\-Turkish War (1828–1829\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281828%E2%80%931829%29 "Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)") most of the Danube Cossacks officially turned themselves over and under amnesty were resettled between the [Mariupol](/wiki/Mariupol "Mariupol") and [Berdyansk](/wiki/Berdyansk "Berdyansk"), forming the [Azov Cossack Host](/wiki/Azov_Cossack_Host "Azov Cossack Host").{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}}
[ "Formation history of the Kuban Cossack Host\n-------------------------------------------", "Although Cossacks lived in the region prior to the late 18th century\nSee [Nekrasov Cossacks](/wiki/Nekrasov_Cossacks \"Nekrasov Cossacks\")\n (one theory of Cossack origin traces their lineage to the ancient Kasog peoples who populated the Kuban in 9th\\-13th centuries{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://annales.info/life/5minaev/5minaev.htm\\#43\\|title\\=Северный Кавказ и кочевой мир степей Евразии: V Минаевские чтения по археологии, этнографии и краеведению Северного Кавказа\\|website\\=annales.info}}), the landscape prevented permanent habitation. Modern Kuban Cossacks claim 1696 as their foundation year, when the Don Cossacks from the Khopyor took part in [Peter's](/wiki/Peter_I_of_Russia \"Peter I of Russia\") [Azov campaigns](/wiki/Azov_campaigns_%281695%E2%80%931696%29 \"Azov campaigns (1695–1696)\"). Sporadic raids reached out into the land, which was partially populated by the [Nogay](/wiki/Nogais \"Nogais\"), though territorially part of the [Crimean khanate](/wiki/Crimean_khanate \"Crimean khanate\"). In 1784 the lower Kuban passed to Russia, after which its colonisation became an important step in the Empire's expansion.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://slavakubani.ru/read.php?id\\=4544\\|title\\=Новости\\|website\\=slavakubani.ru\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=11 January 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111030401/http://slavakubani.ru/read.php?id\\=4544\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Black Sea Cossacks", "{{Main\\|Zaporozhian Host}}\n[thumb\\|A memorial to the first settlers in [Taman](/wiki/Taman_Peninsula \"Taman Peninsula\")](/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC.JPG \"Памятник казакам.JPG\")", "In a different part of southeastern Europe, on the middle [Dnieper](/wiki/Dnieper \"Dnieper\") in what is now Ukraine, lived the [Zaporozhian Cossacks](/wiki/Zaporozhian_Cossacks \"Zaporozhian Cossacks\"). By the late 18th century, however, their combat ability was greatly reduced.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}} With their traditional adversaries, the [Crimean Khanate](/wiki/Crimean_Khanate \"Crimean Khanate\") and the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\"), now all but defunct, the Russian administration saw little military use for them. The Zaporozhian Sich, however, represented a safe haven for runaway serfs, where the state authority did not extend, and often took part in rebellions which were constantly breaking out in Ukraine. Another problem for the imperial Russian government was the Cossacks' resistance to colonization of lands the government considered theirs.\n[Orest Subtelny](/wiki/Orest_Subtelny \"Orest Subtelny\") *Ukraine a history* [History of Ukraine. Retrieved on 4 July 2008](https://books.google.com/books?id=HNIs9O3EmtQC&dq=destruction+Zaporozhian+Sich&pg=PA175).\n In 1775, after numerous attacks on Serbian colonisers, the Russian Empress [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia \"Catherine II of Russia\") had [Grigory Potemkin](/wiki/Grigori_Alexandrovich_Potemkin \"Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin\") destroy the Zaporozhian Host. The operation was carried out by General [Pyotr Tekeli](/wiki/Pyotr_Tekeli \"Pyotr Tekeli\").", "The Zaporozhians scattered; some (five thousand men or 30% of the host) fled to the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\")\\-controlled [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\") area.{{cite web\\|first\\=Taras\\|last\\=Chukhlib\\|title\\= \\|url\\=http://knsuvorov.narod.ru/text/ukr.html\\|script\\-title\\=ru:Александр Суворов в украинской истории\\|trans\\-title\\=Alexander Suvorov in Ukrainian history\\|language\\=ru\\|publisher\\=Pravda.org.ua\\|via\\=knsuvorov.narod.ru\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219035248/http://knsuvorov.narod.ru/text/ukr.html\\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2007}} Others joined the [Imperial Russian](/wiki/Military_history_of_Imperial_Russia \"Military history of Imperial Russia\") [Husar](/wiki/Hussar \"Hussar\") and [Dragoon](/wiki/Dragoon \"Dragoon\") regiments, while most turned to local farming and trade.", "A decade later, the Russian administration was forced to reconsider its decision, with the escalation of tension with the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"). In 1778 the Turkish sultan offered the exiled Zaporozhians the chance to build a new [Danubian Sich](/wiki/Danubian_Sich \"Danubian Sich\"). Potemkin suggested that the former commanders [Antin Holovaty](/wiki/Antin_Holovaty \"Antin Holovaty\"), [Zakhary Chepiha](/wiki/Zakhary_Chepiha \"Zakhary Chepiha\") and [Sydir Bily](/wiki/Sydir_Bily \"Sydir Bily\") round the former Cossacks into a *Host of the loyal Zaporozhians* in 1787\\.V. Golubtsky *Black Sea Cossack Host* from the Large Soviet Encyclopedia [Retrieved on 22 April 2007](https://archive.today/20050525025850/http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/122/012.htm).", "The new host played a crucial role in the [Russo\\-Turkish War (1787–1792\\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281787%E2%80%931792%29 \"Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)\"), and for their loyalty and service the Russian Empress rewarded them with eternal use of the Kuban, then inhabited by [Nogai](/wiki/Nogai_people \"Nogai people\") remnants, and in the cause of the [Caucasus War](/wiki/Caucasus_War \"Caucasus War\") a crucial progress in further pushing the Russian line into [Circassia](/wiki/Circassia \"Circassia\"). Renamed the [Black Sea Cossack Host](/wiki/Black_Sea_Cossack_Host \"Black Sea Cossack Host\"), a total of 25,000 men made the migration in 1792\\-93\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}}", "### On the Russian frontier (1777–1860\\)", "[thumb\\|Cossack reconnaissance during the Caucasus wars, by [Franz Roubaud](/wiki/Franz_Roubaud \"Franz Roubaud\")](/wiki/File:Roubaud._Scene_from_Caucasian_war.jpg \"Roubaud. Scene from Caucasian war.jpg\")", "During the [Russo\\-Turkish War (1768–1774\\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281768%E2%80%931774%29 \"Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)\"), the [Don Cossacks](/wiki/Don_Cossacks \"Don Cossacks\") on the [Khopyor River](/wiki/Khopyor_River \"Khopyor River\") took part in the campaign, and in 1770 – then numbering four settlements – requested to form a regiment. Owing to their service in the war, on 6 October 1774 [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia \"Catherine II of Russia\") issued a manifesto granting their request.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}}", "The end of the war and the [Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca](/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca \"Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca\") brought Russia's frontiers south from the [Kuban River](/wiki/Kuban_River \"Kuban River\")'s entry into the [Azov Sea](/wiki/Azov_Sea \"Azov Sea\") along its right bank and right to the bend of the [Terek River](/wiki/Terek_River \"Terek River\"). This created a 500\\-[verst](/wiki/Verst \"Verst\") undefended border, and in the summer of 1777 the Khopyor regiment – in addition to the remnants of the [Volga Cossacks](/wiki/Volga_Cossacks \"Volga Cossacks\") and a [Vladimir](/wiki/Vladimir%2C_Russia \"Vladimir, Russia\") [Dragoon](/wiki/Dragoon \"Dragoon\") regiment – were re\\-settled in the [Northern Caucasus](/wiki/North_Caucasus \"North Caucasus\") to build the [Azov](/wiki/Azov \"Azov\")\\-[Mozdok](/wiki/Mozdok%2C_Republic_of_North_Ossetia%E2%80%93Alania \"Mozdok, Republic of North Ossetia–Alania\") defence line. This marked the start of the [Caucasus War](/wiki/Caucasus_War \"Caucasus War\"), which would continue for almost 90 years.", "The Khopyor regiment was responsible for the western flank of the line. In 1778\\-1782, Khopyor Cossacks founded four [stanitsas](/wiki/Stanitsa \"Stanitsa\"): Stavropolskaya (next to the fortress of [Stavropol](/wiki/Stavropol \"Stavropol\"), established on 22 October 1777\\), Moskovskaya, Donskaya and Severnaya – with approximately 140 Cossack families in each. In 1779, the Khopyor regiment was given its own district. The conditions were desperate as the Circassians would mount almost daily raids on the Russian positions. In 1825\\-1826 the regiment began its first expansions, pushing westwards to the bend of the [Kuban River](/wiki/Kuban_River \"Kuban River\") and founding five new stanitsas (the so\\-called new\\-Kuban line: [Barsukovskaya](/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F \"Барсуковская\"), [Nevinnomysskaya](/wiki/Nevinnomyssk \"Nevinnomyssk\"), [Belomechetskaya](/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F \"Беломечетская\"), Batalpashinskaya (modern [Cherkessk](/wiki/Cherkessk \"Cherkessk\")), [Bekeshevskaya](/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F \"Бекешевская\") and Karantynnaya (currently [Suvorovskaya](/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F \"Суворовская\")). In 1828 the Khopyor Cossacks participated in the conquest of [Karachay](/wiki/Karachay \"Karachay\") and became part of the first Russian expedition to reach the summit of [Elbrus](/wiki/Elbrus \"Elbrus\") in 1829\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nevchronograph.ru/publications/7\\|title\\=К 300\\-летию Хоперского полка – основателя и защитника нашего города – Публикации – \\[Невинномысскiй хронографЪ]\\|website\\=www.nevchronograph.ru}}", "However, the Russian position in the Caucasus was desperate, and to ease administration in 1832 military reform united ten regiments from the mouth of the [Terek River](/wiki/Terek_River \"Terek River\") all the way to the Khopyor in the western Kabarda, forming a single [Caucasus Line Cossack Host](/wiki/Caucasus_Line_Cossack_Host \"Caucasus Line Cossack Host\"). The Khopyor regiment was also given several civilian settlements, raising its manpower to 12,000\\. With the further advance to the [Laba River](/wiki/Bolshaya_Laba_River \"Bolshaya Laba River\") the Khopyor district was split into two regiments, and Spokoynaya, Ispravnaya, Podgornaya, Udobnaya, Peredovaya, Storozhevaya formed the Laba line.", "### Zaporozhets beyond the Kuban River", "{{main\\|Black Sea Cossack Host}}\n[thumb\\|Historic map, showing the initial settlement of the Black Sea Cossacks](/wiki/File:KOZAKS_of_the_BLACK_SEA_on_the_MAP_of_1806.JPG \"KOZAKS of the BLACK SEA on the MAP of 1806.JPG\")", "Many traditions of the Zaporozhian Cossacks continued in the Black Sea Cossacks, such as the formal election of the host administration, but in some cases, new traditions replaced the old. Instead of a central Sich, a defence line was formed from the Kuban River Black Sea inlet to the [Bolshaya Laba River](/wiki/Bolshaya_Laba_River \"Bolshaya Laba River\") inlet. The land north of this line was settled with villages called [stanitsas](/wiki/Stanitsa \"Stanitsa\"). The administrative centre of [Yekaterinodar](/wiki/Yekaterinodar \"Yekaterinodar\") (literally \"Catherine's gift\") was built. The Black Sea Cossacks sent men to many major campaigns at the Russian Empire's demand, such as the suppression of the Polish [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising \"Kościuszko Uprising\") in 1794, the ill\\-fated [Persian Expedition of 1796](/wiki/Persian_Expedition_of_1796 \"Persian Expedition of 1796\") where nearly half of the Cossacks died from hunger and disease, and sent the 9th [plastun](/wiki/Plastun \"Plastun\") (infantry) and 1st joint cavalry regiments as well as the first [Leib Guards](/wiki/Leib_Guard \"Leib Guard\") (elite) [sotnia](/wiki/Sotnia \"Sotnia\") to aid the Russian Army in the [Patriotic War of 1812](/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia_%281812%29 \"French invasion of Russia (1812)\"). The new host participated in the [Russo\\-Persian War (1826–1828\\)](/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_%281826%E2%80%931828%29 \"Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)\") where they stormed the last remaining Ottoman bastion of the northern Black Sea coast, the fortress of [Anapa](/wiki/Anapa \"Anapa\"), in 1828\\. In the course of the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\") of 1853 to 1856, the Cossacks foiled any attempts of allied landing on the [Taman Peninsula](/wiki/Taman_Peninsula \"Taman Peninsula\"), whilst the 2nd and 5th plastun battalions took part in the [Defence of Sevastopol](/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_%281854%E2%80%931855%29 \"Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)\").", "In the land they left behind, the [Buh Cossacks](/wiki/Buh_Cossacks \"Buh Cossacks\") were able to provide a strong buffer from the [Danubian Sich](/wiki/Danubian_Sich \"Danubian Sich\"). After the [Russo\\-Turkish War (1828–1829\\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281828%E2%80%931829%29 \"Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)\") most of the Danube Cossacks officially turned themselves over and under amnesty were resettled between the [Mariupol](/wiki/Mariupol \"Mariupol\") and [Berdyansk](/wiki/Berdyansk \"Berdyansk\"), forming the [Azov Cossack Host](/wiki/Azov_Cossack_Host \"Azov Cossack Host\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}}", "" ]
Expansion --------- [thumb\|Late 19th century](/wiki/File:Kubanskie_kazaki_2.jpg "Kubanskie kazaki 2.jpg") As the years went by, the Black Sea Cossacks continued its systematic penetrations into the mountainous regions of the Northern Caucasus. Taking an active part in the finale of the [Russian conquest of the Northern Caucasus](/wiki/Caucasian_War "Caucasian War"), they settled the regions each time these were conquered. To aid them, a total of 70 thousand additional ex\-Zaporozhians from the [Bug](/wiki/Bug_Cossacks "Bug Cossacks"), [Yekaterinoslav](/wiki/Yekaterinoslav_Cossack_Host "Yekaterinoslav Cossack Host"), and finally the [Azov Cossack Host](/wiki/Azov_Cossack_Host "Azov Cossack Host") migrated there in the mid 19th century. All three of the former were necessary to be removed to vacate space for the colonisation of [New Russia](/wiki/New_Russia "New Russia"), and with the increasing weakness of the Ottoman Empire as well as the formation of independent buffer states in the Balkans, the need for further Cossack presence had ended. They made the migration to the Kuban in 1860\. Separating the ethnic Ukrainian Black Sea Cossacks from the Caucasian mountain tribes were the [Caucasus Line Cossack Host](/wiki/Caucasus_Line_Cossack_Host "Caucasus Line Cossack Host"), ethnic Russian Cossacks from the Don region. Although both groups lived in the general Kuban region, they did not integrate with each other.Anna Procyk. (1995\). *Russian Nationalism and Ukraine: The Nationality Policy of the Volunteer Army During the Civil War* Toronto: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies at University of Toronto, pg. 36 ### Apogee of the Kuban Host [thumb\|*Kubanets* a sketch by [Franz Roubaud](/wiki/Franz_Roubaud "Franz Roubaud").](/wiki/File:Kubanets.jpg "Kubanets.jpg") The new Host grew to be the second largest in Russia. The Kuban Cossacks continued to make an active part in the Russian affairs of the 19th century starting from the finale of the [Russian\-Circassian War](/wiki/Russian-Circassian_War "Russian-Circassian War") which ceased shortly after the hosts' formation. A small group took part in the 1873 conquest that brought the [Khanate of Khiva](/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva "Khanate of Khiva") under Russian control. Their largest military campaign was the [Russo\-Turkish War (1877–1878\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29 "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)"), on both the Balkan and the Caucasus fronts. The latter in particular was a strong contribution as the Kuban Cossacks made 90% of the Russian cavalry. Famous achievements in the numerous [Battles of Shipka](/wiki/Battle_of_Shipka_Pass "Battle of Shipka Pass"), the defence of [Bayazet](/wiki/Do%C4%9Fubeyaz%C4%B1t "Doğubeyazıt") and finally, in decisive and victorious [Battle of Kars](/wiki/Battle_of_Kars "Battle of Kars") where the Cossacks were the first to enter. Three Kuban Cossack regiments took part in the storming of [Geok Tepe](/wiki/Geok_Tepe "Geok Tepe") in Turkmenistan in 1881\. During the [Russo\-Japanese War](/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War "Russo-Japanese War") (1904–1905\), the host mobilised six cavalry regiments, five plastun battalions and one battery to the distant region of Russia. The Cossacks also carried out the second strategical objective, the colonisation of the Kuban land. In total, the host owned more than six million tithes, of which 5\.7 million belonged to the stanitsas, with the remaining in the reserve or in private hands of Cossack officers and officials. Upon reaching the age of 17, a Cossack would be given between 16 and 30 tithes for cultivation and personal use. With the natural growth of the population, the average land that a Cossack owned decreased from 23 tithes in the 1860s to 7\.6 in 1917\. Such arrangements, however ensured that the colonisation and the cultivation would be very rational. The military purpose of the Kuban was echoed in its administration pattern. Rather than a traditional Imperial [Guberniya](/wiki/Governorate_%28Russia%29 "Governorate (Russia)") (governorate) with [uyezds](/wiki/Uyezd "Uyezd") (districts), the territory was administered by the [Kuban Oblast](/wiki/Kuban_Oblast "Kuban Oblast") which was split into {{transliteration\|ru\|otdels}} (regions, which in 1888 counted seven). Each {{transliteration\|ru\|otdel}} would have its own {{transliteration\|ru\|\[\[sotnia]]s}} which in turn would be split into {{transliteration\|ru\|\[\[stanitsa]]s}} and {{transliteration\|ru\|\[\[khutor]]s}}. The {{transliteration\|ru\|\[\[ataman]]}} (commander) for each region was not only responsible for the military preparation of the Cossacks, but for the local administration duties. Local Stanitsa and Khutor atamans were elected, but approved by the {{transliteration\|ru\|atamans}} of the {{transliteration\|ru\|otdel}}. These, in turn, were appointed by the supreme {{transliteration\|ru\|ataman}} of the host, who was in turn appointed directly by the Russian Emperor. Prior to 1870, this system of legislature in the Oblast remained a robust military one and all legal decisions were carried out by the {{transliteration\|ru\|stanitsa ataman}} and two elected judges. Afterwards, however, the system was bureaucratised and the judicial functions became independent of the {{transliteration\|ru\|stanitsas}}.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}} The more liberal policy of the Kuban was directly mirrored in the living standards of the people. One of the central features of this was education. Indeed, the first schools were known to have existed since the migration of the Black Sea Cossacks, and by 1860, the host had one male high school and 30 elementary schools.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2015}} In 1863, the first periodical Кубанские войсковые ведомсти (*Kubanskiye voiskovye vedomsti*) began printing, and two years later the host's library was opened in Yekaterinodar. In all, by 1870, the number of schools in rural stanitsas increased to 170\. Compared with the rest of the Russian Empire, by the start of the 20th century the Oblast had a very high literacy rate of 50% and each year up to 30 students from Cossack families (again a rate unmatched by any other rural province) were sent to study in the [higher education establishments of Russia](/wiki/Education_in_Russia "Education in Russia"). During the early twentieth century contacts between Kuban and Ukraine were established and clandestine Ukrainian organizations appeared in Kuban. ### Uniform and equipment [thumb\|Kuban Cossacks in 1915\.](/wiki/File:Kubanskie_Kazaki.jpg "Kubanskie Kazaki.jpg") Until 1914 the Kuban Cossack Host wore a full dress uniform comprising a dark grey/black [kaftan](/wiki/Kaftan "Kaftan") (knee length collarless coat) with red shoulder straps and braiding on the wide cuffs. Ornamental containers (*gaziri*) which had originally contained single loading measures of gunpowder for muzzle\-loading muskets, were worn on the breasts of the kaftans. The kaftan had an open front, showing a red waistcoat.{{cite book\|first\=Vladimir A.\|last\=Emmanuel\|pages\=90 \& 91 \& 105\|title\=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914\|date\=2 April 2013\|isbn\=978\-0\-9889532\-1\-5}} Wide grey trousers were worn, tucked into soft leather boots without heels. Officers wore silver epaulettes, braiding and [ferrules](/wiki/Ferrule "Ferrule").Preben Kannik, page 236 "Military Uniforms of the World in Colour" This Caucasian national dress was also worn by the [Terek](/wiki/Terek_Cossacks "Terek Cossacks") Cossack Host but in different [facing colors](/wiki/Facings "Facings"). Tall black fur hats were worn on all occasions with red cloth tops and (for officers) silver lace. A white metal scroll was worn on the front of the fur hat. A whip was used instead of spurs.page 591 of volume 27, The Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition Prior to 1908, individual cossacks from all Hosts were required to provide their own uniforms (together with horses, Caucasian saddles and harness). On active service during World War I the Kuban Cossacks retained their distinctive dress but with a black waistcoat replacing the conspicuous red one and without the silver ornaments or red facings of full dress. A black felt cloak ({{transliteration\|ru\|bourki}}) was worn in bad weather both in peace\-time and on active service.{{cite book\|first\=Vladimir A.\|last\=Emmanuel\|page\=89\|title\=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914\|date\=2 April 2013\|isbn\=978\-0\-9889532\-1\-5}} The 200 Kuban and 200 Terek Cossacks of the Imperial Escort (*Konvoi*) wore a special gala uniform; including a scarlet kaftan edged with yellow braid and a white waistcoat. Officers had silver braiding on their coats and epaulettes. A dark coloured kaftan was issued for ordinary duties together with a red waistcoat.{{cite book\|first\=Vladimir A.\|last\=Emmanuel\|pages\=12 and 89\|title\=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914\|date\=2 April 2013\|isbn\=978\-0\-9889532\-1\-5}} ### Russian Revolution and Civil War {{See also\|Decossackization\|Kuban People's Republic}} During the [Russian Revolution](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917 "Russian Revolution of 1917") and resulting [Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War "Russian Civil War"), the Cossacks found themselves conflicted in their loyalties. In October 1917, the [Kuban Soviet Republic](/wiki/Kuban_Soviet_Republic "Kuban Soviet Republic") and the [Kuban Rada](/wiki/Kuban_Rada "Kuban Rada") were formed simultaneously, with both proclaiming their right to rule the Kuban. Shortly after the Rada declared a [Kuban National Republic](/wiki/Kuban_National_Republic "Kuban National Republic"), but this was soon dispersed by Bolshevik forces. While most Cossacks initially sided with the Rada, many joined the Bolsheviks who promised them autonomy. [thumb\|Kuban Cossacks of the Imperial Escort pose with [Nicholas II](/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia "Nicholas II of Russia") and his family in October 1916\.](/wiki/File:Nicholas_II_and_children_with_Cossacks_of_the_Guard.jpg "Nicholas II and children with Cossacks of the Guard.jpg") In March 1918, after [Lavr Kornilov](/wiki/Lavr_Kornilov "Lavr Kornilov")'s successful offensive, the Kuban Rada placed itself under his authority. With his death in June 1918, however, a federative union was signed with the Ukrainian government of Hetman [Pavlo Skoropadsky](/wiki/Pavlo_Skoropadsky "Pavlo Skoropadsky") after which many Cossacks left to return home or defected to the Bolsheviks. Additionally, there was an internal struggle among the Kuban cossacks over loyalty towards [Anton Denikin](/wiki/Anton_Denikin "Anton Denikin")'s [Russian Volunteer Army](/wiki/Volunteer_Army "Volunteer Army") and the [Ukrainian People's Republic](/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic "Ukrainian People's Republic"). On 6 November 1919, Denikin's forces surrounded the Rada, and with the help of Ataman [Alexander Filimonov](/wiki/Alexander_Filimonov_%28Cossack%29 "Alexander Filimonov (Cossack)") arrested ten of its members, including the [Ukrainophile](/wiki/Ukrainophile "Ukrainophile"), P. Kurgansky, who was the premier of the Rada, and publicly hanged one of them for treason. Many Cossacks joined Denikin and fought in the ranks of the Volunteer Army. In December 1919, after Denikin's defeat and as it became clear that the Bolsheviks would overrun the Kuban, some of the pro\-Ukrainian groups attempted to restore the Rada and to break away from the Volunteer Army and fight the Bolsheviks in alliance with Ukraine;{{cite book\| author\=Kubijovic, V..\|title\=Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia\| location\= Toronto\|publisher\= University of Toronto Press\|year \= 1963\|pages \= 790–793}} however, by early 1920 the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") took most of Kuban, and both the Rada and Denikin were ousted. The Soviet policy of [de\-Cossackization](/wiki/De-Cossackization "De-Cossackization") repressed Cossacks and aimed to eliminate Cossack distinctness.Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean\-Louis Panné, Jean\-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, [Stéphane Courtois](/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Courtois "Stéphane Courtois"). *[The Black Book of Communism](/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism "The Black Book of Communism"): Crimes, Terror, Repression*. [Harvard University Press](/wiki/Harvard_University_Press "Harvard University Press"), 1999\. {{ISBN\|0\-674\-07608\-7}} p. 98 The de\-Cossackization is sometimes described as an act of [genocide](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide").[Orlando Figes](/wiki/Orlando_Figes "Orlando Figes"). *A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924\.* [Penguin Books](/wiki/Penguin_Books "Penguin Books"), 1998\. {{ISBN\|0\-14\-024364\-X}}[Donald Rayfield](/wiki/Donald_Rayfield "Donald Rayfield"). *[Stalin and His Hangmen](/wiki/Stalin_and_His_Hangmen "Stalin and His Hangmen"): The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him* Random House, 2004\. {{ISBN\|0\-375\-50632\-2}}Mikhail Heller \& [Aleksandr Nekrich](/wiki/Alexander_Nekrich "Alexander Nekrich"). *Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present.*{{cite book\|author\=R. J. Rummel\|author\-link\=R. J. Rummel\|url\=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE4\.HTM\|title\=''Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917''\|publisher\=\[\[Transaction Publishers]]\|date\=1990\|isbn\=1\-56000\-887\-3\|access\-date\=2014\-03\-01}}[Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed](http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210025518/http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm \|date\=10 December 2009 }} [University of York](/wiki/University_of_York "University of York") Communications Office, 21 January 2003 ### World War II #### Collaborators in Wehrmacht and Waffen SS [thumb\|Waffen SS and the Regiment III of Cossacks during [Warsaw Uprising](/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising "Warsaw Uprising"). The regiment was composed of both Don and Kuban Cossacks](/wiki/File:Genera%C5%82_Heinz_Reinefarth_w_czapce_kubance_i_3_pu%C5%82k_Kozak%C3%B3w.jpg "Generał Heinz Reinefarth w czapce kubance i 3 pułk Kozaków.jpg") The first collaborators were formed from Soviet Cossack POWs and deserters after the consequences of the Red Army's early defeats in the course of [Operation Barbarossa](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa "Operation Barbarossa"). During the [Battle of the Caucasus](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Caucasus "Battle of the Caucasus") in summer of 1942, some of the Nazi aggressors reaching Kuban were greeted as liberators.{{Cite web\|url\=https://axis101\.bizland.com/CossackShields02\.htm\|title\="AXIS \& LEGION MILITARIA" – Axis \& Legion Militaria\|website\=axis101\.bizland.com}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=J8ideJ9KDh0C\&dq\=volunteer\+Pannwitz\+cossacks\&pg\=PA5 \|title\=Cossacks in the German Army, 1941\-1945\|year\=1991\|publisher\=F. Cass\|isbn\=9780714633510\|access\-date\=2007\-09\-20}}[Stalin's Enemies](https://archive.today/20061210175509/http://www.combatmagazine.ws/S3/BAKISSUE/CMBT03N1/STALIN.HTM) "Combat Magazine" ISSN 1542\-1546 Volume 03 Number 01 Winter Many Soviet Kuban Cossacks chose to defect to Nazi service either when in [POW camps](/wiki/POW_camps "POW camps") or on active duty in the Soviet Army. For example, Major Kononov deserted on 22 August 1941 with an entire regiment and was instrumental in organizing Cossack volunteers in the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht"). Some Cossack emigres, such as [Andrei Shkuro](/wiki/Andrei_Shkuro "Andrei Shkuro") and [Pyotr Krasnov](/wiki/Pyotr_Krasnov "Pyotr Krasnov") chose to collaborate with the Nazis as well and stood at the helm of two Cossack divisions on Nazi service. However, most volunteers came after the Nazis reached the Cossack homelands in summer of 1942\. The Cossack National Movement of Liberation was set up in hope of mobilizing opposition to the Soviet regime with an intent to rebuild an independent nationalist Cossack state.Lt. Gen Wladyslaw Anders and Antonio Munoz [Russian Volunteers in the German Wehrmacht in WWII](https://www.feldgrau.com/WW2-German-Wehrmacht-Russian-Volunteers/) While there were several smaller Cossack detachments in the Wehrmacht since 1941, the [1st Cossack Division](/wiki/1st_Cossack_Division "1st Cossack Division") made up of Don, Terek and Kuban Cossacks was formed in 1943\. This division was further augmented by the 2nd Cossack Cavalry Division formed in December 1944\. Both divisions participated in hostilities against [Tito's partisans](/wiki/Partisans_%28Yugoslavia%29 "Partisans (Yugoslavia)") in Yugoslavia. In February 1945, both Cossack Divisions were transferred into the [Waffen\-SS](/wiki/Waffen-SS "Waffen-SS") and formed the [XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps](/wiki/XVth_SS_Cossack_Cavalry_Corps "XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps"). At the end of the war, the Cossack collaborators retreated to Italy and surrendered to the British army, but, under the [Yalta agreement](/wiki/Yalta_agreement "Yalta agreement"), were forcibly repatriated with the rest of the collaborators to the Soviet authorities and some executed.Gabby de Jong, Yalta Agreement [Retrieved](http://home.hetnet.nl/~gabby-pat/repatriation%20generals.htm) (see [Betrayal of the Cossacks](/wiki/Betrayal_of_the_Cossacks "Betrayal of the Cossacks")) One of the Kuban leaders, the *ataman* [Vyacheslav Naumenko](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Naumenko "Vyacheslav Naumenko") served as their principle historian after World War Two, writing the first Russian language book about the [Repatriation of Cossacks](/wiki/Repatriation_of_Cossacks_after_World_War_II "Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II") in his two volume work published in 1962 and 1970 entitled *Velikoe Predatelstvo* (*The Great Betrayal*).Burgh, Hugo de *Investigative Journalism*, Milton Park, Taylor \& Francis 2008 p.243 #### Red Army Cossacks [thumb\|Lev Dovator (upper left) on the Soviet stamp published during the war. The text says "Death to German invaders!"](/wiki/File:Voennaia_marka_Dovator_Smert_nemeczkim_okkupantam%21.jpg "Voennaia marka Dovator Smert nemeczkim okkupantam!.jpg") Despite the defections that were taking place, the majority of the Cossacks remained loyal to the Red Army.{{cite book\|last\=Shambarov\|first\=Valery\|title\=Kazachestvo Istoriya Volnoy Rusi\|publisher\=Algorithm Expo, Moscow\|year\=2007\|isbn\=978\-5\-699\-20121\-1}} In the earliest battles, particularly the [encirclement of Belostok](/wiki/Battle_of_Bia%C5%82ystok-Minsk "Battle of Białystok-Minsk") Cossack units such as the 94th Beloglisnky, 152nd Rostovsky and 48th Belorechensky regiments fought to their death. In the opening phase of the war, during the German advance towards Moscow, Cossacks became extensively used for the raids behind enemy lines. The most famous of these took place during the [Battle of Smolensk](/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_%281941%29 "Battle of Smolensk (1941)") under the command of [Lev Dovator](/wiki/Lev_Dovator "Lev Dovator"), whose 3rd Cavalry Corps consisted of the 50th and 53rd Cavalry divisions from the Kuban and Terek Cossacks, which were mobilised from the Northern Caucasus. The raid, which in ten days covered 300 km, destroyed the hinterlands of the 9th German Army before successfully breaking out.{{cite journal\|last \= Kochetov V.N.\| journal \= Preobrazheniye\|title\= General Dovator\|volume \= 7\|year\= 2005}} Whilst units under the command of General Pavel Belov, the 2nd Cavalry Corps made from Don, Kuban and Stavropol Cossacks spearheaded the counter\-attack onto the right flank of the 6th German Army delaying its advance towards Moscow. The high professionalism that the Cossacks under Dovator and Belov (both generals would later be granted the title [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union "Hero of the Soviet Union") and their units raised to a [Guards](/wiki/Russian_Guards "Russian Guards") (elite) status) ensured that many new units would be formed. In the end, if the Germans during the whole war only managed to form two Cossack Corps, the Red Army in 1942 already had 17\. Many of the newly formed units were filled with ethnically Cossack volunteers. The Kuban Cossacks were allocated to the 10th, 12th and 13th Corps. However, the most famous Kuban Cossack unit would be the 17th Cossack Corps under the command of general {{Ill\|Nikolay Kirichenko\|ru\|Кириченко, Николай Яковлевич}}. During one particular attack, Cossacks killed up to 1,800 enemy soldiers and officers, they took 300 prisoners, seized 18 artillery pieces and 25 mortars. The 5th and 9th Romanian Cavalry divisions fled in panic, and the 198th German Infantry division, carrying large losses, hastily departed to the left bank of the river Ei.{{Cite web\|url\=http://ot\-a\-do\-ya.org/Articles/Kazak/Cossacks\_in\_VOV.aspx\#.XGxz8U2WyUk\|title \= От А до Я – Действия казаков во время Великой Отечественной войны\|language\=RU\|website\=ot\-a\-do\-ya.org}} During the opening phase of the [Battle of Stalingrad](/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad "Battle of Stalingrad"), when the Germans overran the Kuban, the majority of the Cossack population, long before the Germans began their agitation with Krasnov and Shkuro, became involved in [Partisan](/wiki/Soviet_Partisans "Soviet Partisans") activity.Kuban Today, Vol.7 *В годы суровых испытаний* about partisan movement on the Kuban by V. Turov, 6 May 1998Fire of war.ru — Anthology of various historians of the Partisan Activity in the Krasnodar Kray [Retrieved 15 Oct 2007](https://archive.today/20120709072339/http://fire-of-war.ru/podpolie/p868.htm) Raids onto the German positions from the Caucasus mountains became commonplace. After the German defeat at [Stalingrad](/wiki/Stalingrad "Stalingrad"), the 4th Guards Kuban Cossack Corps, strengthened by tanks and artillery, broke through the German lines and liberated [Mineralnye Vody](/wiki/Mineralnye_Vody "Mineralnye Vody"), and [Stavropol](/wiki/Stavropol "Stavropol"). For the latter part of the war, although the Cossacks did prove especially useful in reconnaissance and rear guards, the war did show that the age of horse cavalry had come to an end. The famous [4th Guards Kuban Cossacks Cavalry Corps](/wiki/4th_Guards_Cavalry_Corps "4th Guards Cavalry Corps") which took part in heavy fighting in the course of the liberation of Southern Ukraine and Romania was allowed to proudly march on the [Red Square](/wiki/Red_Square "Red Square") in the famous [Moscow Victory Parade of 1945](/wiki/Moscow_Victory_Parade_of_1945 "Moscow Victory Parade of 1945").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.slavakubani.ru/p\-service/military\-service/history\-units/kubanskie\-kazaki\-uchastniki\-parada\-pobedy\-v\-moskve\-24\-iyunya\-1945\-goda/\|title\=Кубанские казаки – участники парада Победы в Москве 24 июня 1945 года\|website\=www.slavakubani.ru\|access\-date\=7 July 2020\|archive\-date\=7 July 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707140319/http://www.slavakubani.ru/p\-service/military\-service/history\-units/kubanskie\-kazaki\-uchastniki\-parada\-pobedy\-v\-moskve\-24\-iyunya\-1945\-goda/\|url\-status\=dead}}
[ "Expansion\n---------", "[thumb\\|Late 19th century](/wiki/File:Kubanskie_kazaki_2.jpg \"Kubanskie kazaki 2.jpg\")", "As the years went by, the Black Sea Cossacks continued its systematic penetrations into the mountainous regions of the Northern Caucasus. Taking an active part in the finale of the [Russian conquest of the Northern Caucasus](/wiki/Caucasian_War \"Caucasian War\"), they settled the regions each time these were conquered. To aid them, a total of 70 thousand additional ex\\-Zaporozhians from the [Bug](/wiki/Bug_Cossacks \"Bug Cossacks\"), [Yekaterinoslav](/wiki/Yekaterinoslav_Cossack_Host \"Yekaterinoslav Cossack Host\"), and finally the [Azov Cossack Host](/wiki/Azov_Cossack_Host \"Azov Cossack Host\") migrated there in the mid 19th century. All three of the former were necessary to be removed to vacate space for the colonisation of [New Russia](/wiki/New_Russia \"New Russia\"), and with the increasing weakness of the Ottoman Empire as well as the formation of independent buffer states in the Balkans, the need for further Cossack presence had ended. They made the migration to the Kuban in 1860\\. Separating the ethnic Ukrainian Black Sea Cossacks from the Caucasian mountain tribes were the [Caucasus Line Cossack Host](/wiki/Caucasus_Line_Cossack_Host \"Caucasus Line Cossack Host\"), ethnic Russian Cossacks from the Don region. Although both groups lived in the general Kuban region, they did not integrate with each other.Anna Procyk. (1995\\). *Russian Nationalism and Ukraine: The Nationality Policy of the Volunteer Army During the Civil War* Toronto: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies at University of Toronto, pg. 36", "### Apogee of the Kuban Host", "[thumb\\|*Kubanets* a sketch by [Franz Roubaud](/wiki/Franz_Roubaud \"Franz Roubaud\").](/wiki/File:Kubanets.jpg \"Kubanets.jpg\")", "The new Host grew to be the second largest in Russia. The Kuban Cossacks continued to make an active part in the Russian affairs of the 19th century starting from the finale of the [Russian\\-Circassian War](/wiki/Russian-Circassian_War \"Russian-Circassian War\") which ceased shortly after the hosts' formation. A small group took part in the 1873 conquest that brought the [Khanate of Khiva](/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva \"Khanate of Khiva\") under Russian control. Their largest military campaign was the [Russo\\-Turkish War (1877–1878\\)](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29 \"Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)\"), on both the Balkan and the Caucasus fronts. The latter in particular was a strong contribution as the Kuban Cossacks made 90% of the Russian cavalry. Famous achievements in the numerous [Battles of Shipka](/wiki/Battle_of_Shipka_Pass \"Battle of Shipka Pass\"), the defence of [Bayazet](/wiki/Do%C4%9Fubeyaz%C4%B1t \"Doğubeyazıt\") and finally, in decisive and victorious [Battle of Kars](/wiki/Battle_of_Kars \"Battle of Kars\") where the Cossacks were the first to enter. Three Kuban Cossack regiments took part in the storming of [Geok Tepe](/wiki/Geok_Tepe \"Geok Tepe\") in Turkmenistan in 1881\\. During the [Russo\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War \"Russo-Japanese War\") (1904–1905\\), the host mobilised six cavalry regiments, five plastun battalions and one battery to the distant region of Russia.", "The Cossacks also carried out the second strategical objective, the colonisation of the Kuban land. In total, the host owned more than six million tithes, of which 5\\.7 million belonged to the stanitsas, with the remaining in the reserve or in private hands of Cossack officers and officials. Upon reaching the age of 17, a Cossack would be given between 16 and 30 tithes for cultivation and personal use. With the natural growth of the population, the average land that a Cossack owned decreased from 23 tithes in the 1860s to 7\\.6 in 1917\\. Such arrangements, however ensured that the colonisation and the cultivation would be very rational.", "The military purpose of the Kuban was echoed in its administration pattern. Rather than a traditional Imperial [Guberniya](/wiki/Governorate_%28Russia%29 \"Governorate (Russia)\") (governorate) with [uyezds](/wiki/Uyezd \"Uyezd\") (districts), the territory was administered by the [Kuban Oblast](/wiki/Kuban_Oblast \"Kuban Oblast\") which was split into {{transliteration\\|ru\\|otdels}} (regions, which in 1888 counted seven). Each {{transliteration\\|ru\\|otdel}} would have its own {{transliteration\\|ru\\|\\[\\[sotnia]]s}} which in turn would be split into {{transliteration\\|ru\\|\\[\\[stanitsa]]s}} and {{transliteration\\|ru\\|\\[\\[khutor]]s}}. The {{transliteration\\|ru\\|\\[\\[ataman]]}} (commander) for each region was not only responsible for the military preparation of the Cossacks, but for the local administration duties. Local Stanitsa and Khutor atamans were elected, but approved by the {{transliteration\\|ru\\|atamans}} of the {{transliteration\\|ru\\|otdel}}. These, in turn, were appointed by the supreme {{transliteration\\|ru\\|ataman}} of the host, who was in turn appointed directly by the Russian Emperor. Prior to 1870, this system of legislature in the Oblast remained a robust military one and all legal decisions were carried out by the {{transliteration\\|ru\\|stanitsa ataman}} and two elected judges. Afterwards, however, the system was bureaucratised and the judicial functions became independent of the {{transliteration\\|ru\\|stanitsas}}.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}}", "The more liberal policy of the Kuban was directly mirrored in the living standards of the people. One of the central features of this was education. Indeed, the first schools were known to have existed since the migration of the Black Sea Cossacks, and by 1860, the host had one male high school and 30 elementary schools.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2015}} In 1863, the first periodical Кубанские войсковые ведомсти (*Kubanskiye voiskovye vedomsti*) began printing, and two years later the host's library was opened in Yekaterinodar. In all, by 1870, the number of schools in rural stanitsas increased to 170\\. Compared with the rest of the Russian Empire, by the start of the 20th century the Oblast had a very high literacy rate of 50% and each year up to 30 students from Cossack families (again a rate unmatched by any other rural province) were sent to study in the [higher education establishments of Russia](/wiki/Education_in_Russia \"Education in Russia\").", "During the early twentieth century contacts between Kuban and Ukraine were established and clandestine Ukrainian organizations appeared in Kuban.", "### Uniform and equipment", "[thumb\\|Kuban Cossacks in 1915\\.](/wiki/File:Kubanskie_Kazaki.jpg \"Kubanskie Kazaki.jpg\")\nUntil 1914 the Kuban Cossack Host wore a full dress uniform comprising a dark grey/black [kaftan](/wiki/Kaftan \"Kaftan\") (knee length collarless coat) with red shoulder straps and braiding on the wide cuffs. Ornamental containers (*gaziri*) which had originally contained single loading measures of gunpowder for muzzle\\-loading muskets, were worn on the breasts of the kaftans. The kaftan had an open front, showing a red waistcoat.{{cite book\\|first\\=Vladimir A.\\|last\\=Emmanuel\\|pages\\=90 \\& 91 \\& 105\\|title\\=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914\\|date\\=2 April 2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9889532\\-1\\-5}} Wide grey trousers were worn, tucked into soft leather boots without heels. Officers wore silver epaulettes, braiding and [ferrules](/wiki/Ferrule \"Ferrule\").Preben Kannik, page 236 \"Military Uniforms of the World in Colour\" This Caucasian national dress was also worn by the [Terek](/wiki/Terek_Cossacks \"Terek Cossacks\") Cossack Host but in different [facing colors](/wiki/Facings \"Facings\"). Tall black fur hats were worn on all occasions with red cloth tops and (for officers) silver lace. A white metal scroll was worn on the front of the fur hat. A whip was used instead of spurs.page 591 of volume 27, The Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition Prior to 1908, individual cossacks from all Hosts were required to provide their own uniforms (together with horses, Caucasian saddles and harness). On active service during World War I the Kuban Cossacks retained their distinctive dress but with a black waistcoat replacing the conspicuous red one and without the silver ornaments or red facings of full dress. A black felt cloak ({{transliteration\\|ru\\|bourki}}) was worn in bad weather both in peace\\-time and on active service.{{cite book\\|first\\=Vladimir A.\\|last\\=Emmanuel\\|page\\=89\\|title\\=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914\\|date\\=2 April 2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9889532\\-1\\-5}}", "The 200 Kuban and 200 Terek Cossacks of the Imperial Escort (*Konvoi*) wore a special gala uniform; including a scarlet kaftan edged with yellow braid and a white waistcoat. Officers had silver braiding on their coats and epaulettes. A dark coloured kaftan was issued for ordinary duties together with a red waistcoat.{{cite book\\|first\\=Vladimir A.\\|last\\=Emmanuel\\|pages\\=12 and 89\\|title\\=The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914\\|date\\=2 April 2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9889532\\-1\\-5}}", "### Russian Revolution and Civil War", "{{See also\\|Decossackization\\|Kuban People's Republic}}\nDuring the [Russian Revolution](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917 \"Russian Revolution of 1917\") and resulting [Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War \"Russian Civil War\"), the Cossacks found themselves conflicted in their loyalties. In October 1917, the [Kuban Soviet Republic](/wiki/Kuban_Soviet_Republic \"Kuban Soviet Republic\") and the [Kuban Rada](/wiki/Kuban_Rada \"Kuban Rada\") were formed simultaneously, with both proclaiming their right to rule the Kuban. Shortly after the Rada declared a [Kuban National Republic](/wiki/Kuban_National_Republic \"Kuban National Republic\"), but this was soon dispersed by Bolshevik forces. While most Cossacks initially sided with the Rada, many joined the Bolsheviks who promised them autonomy.\n[thumb\\|Kuban Cossacks of the Imperial Escort pose with [Nicholas II](/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia \"Nicholas II of Russia\") and his family in October 1916\\.](/wiki/File:Nicholas_II_and_children_with_Cossacks_of_the_Guard.jpg \"Nicholas II and children with Cossacks of the Guard.jpg\")", "In March 1918, after [Lavr Kornilov](/wiki/Lavr_Kornilov \"Lavr Kornilov\")'s successful offensive, the Kuban Rada placed itself under his authority. With his death in June 1918, however, a federative union was signed with the Ukrainian government of Hetman [Pavlo Skoropadsky](/wiki/Pavlo_Skoropadsky \"Pavlo Skoropadsky\") after which many Cossacks left to return home or defected to the Bolsheviks. Additionally, there was an internal struggle among the Kuban cossacks over loyalty towards [Anton Denikin](/wiki/Anton_Denikin \"Anton Denikin\")'s [Russian Volunteer Army](/wiki/Volunteer_Army \"Volunteer Army\") and the [Ukrainian People's Republic](/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic \"Ukrainian People's Republic\").", "On 6 November 1919, Denikin's forces surrounded the Rada, and with the help of Ataman [Alexander Filimonov](/wiki/Alexander_Filimonov_%28Cossack%29 \"Alexander Filimonov (Cossack)\") arrested ten of its members, including the [Ukrainophile](/wiki/Ukrainophile \"Ukrainophile\"), P. Kurgansky, who was the premier of the Rada, and publicly hanged one of them for treason. Many Cossacks joined Denikin and fought in the ranks of the Volunteer Army. In December 1919, after Denikin's defeat and as it became clear that the Bolsheviks would overrun the Kuban, some of the pro\\-Ukrainian groups attempted to restore the Rada and to break away from the Volunteer Army and fight the Bolsheviks in alliance with Ukraine;{{cite book\\| author\\=Kubijovic, V..\\|title\\=Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia\\| location\\= Toronto\\|publisher\\= University of Toronto Press\\|year \\= 1963\\|pages \\= 790–793}} however, by early 1920 the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") took most of Kuban, and both the Rada and Denikin were ousted.", "The Soviet policy of [de\\-Cossackization](/wiki/De-Cossackization \"De-Cossackization\") repressed Cossacks and aimed to eliminate Cossack distinctness.Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean\\-Louis Panné, Jean\\-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, [Stéphane Courtois](/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Courtois \"Stéphane Courtois\"). *[The Black Book of Communism](/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism \"The Black Book of Communism\"): Crimes, Terror, Repression*. [Harvard University Press](/wiki/Harvard_University_Press \"Harvard University Press\"), 1999\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-674\\-07608\\-7}} p. 98 The de\\-Cossackization is sometimes described as an act of [genocide](/wiki/Genocide \"Genocide\").[Orlando Figes](/wiki/Orlando_Figes \"Orlando Figes\"). *A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924\\.* [Penguin Books](/wiki/Penguin_Books \"Penguin Books\"), 1998\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-14\\-024364\\-X}}[Donald Rayfield](/wiki/Donald_Rayfield \"Donald Rayfield\"). *[Stalin and His Hangmen](/wiki/Stalin_and_His_Hangmen \"Stalin and His Hangmen\"): The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him* Random House, 2004\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-375\\-50632\\-2}}Mikhail Heller \\& [Aleksandr Nekrich](/wiki/Alexander_Nekrich \"Alexander Nekrich\"). *Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present.*{{cite book\\|author\\=R. J. Rummel\\|author\\-link\\=R. J. Rummel\\|url\\=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE4\\.HTM\\|title\\=''Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917''\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Transaction Publishers]]\\|date\\=1990\\|isbn\\=1\\-56000\\-887\\-3\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-01}}[Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed](http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210025518/http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm \\|date\\=10 December 2009 }} [University of York](/wiki/University_of_York \"University of York\") Communications Office, 21 January 2003", "### World War II", "#### Collaborators in Wehrmacht and Waffen SS", "[thumb\\|Waffen SS and the Regiment III of Cossacks during [Warsaw Uprising](/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising \"Warsaw Uprising\"). The regiment was composed of both Don and Kuban Cossacks](/wiki/File:Genera%C5%82_Heinz_Reinefarth_w_czapce_kubance_i_3_pu%C5%82k_Kozak%C3%B3w.jpg \"Generał Heinz Reinefarth w czapce kubance i 3 pułk Kozaków.jpg\")", "The first collaborators were formed from Soviet Cossack POWs and deserters after the consequences of the Red Army's early defeats in the course of [Operation Barbarossa](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa \"Operation Barbarossa\"). During the [Battle of the Caucasus](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Caucasus \"Battle of the Caucasus\") in summer of 1942, some of the Nazi aggressors reaching Kuban were greeted as liberators.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://axis101\\.bizland.com/CossackShields02\\.htm\\|title\\=\"AXIS \\& LEGION MILITARIA\" – Axis \\& Legion Militaria\\|website\\=axis101\\.bizland.com}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=J8ideJ9KDh0C\\&dq\\=volunteer\\+Pannwitz\\+cossacks\\&pg\\=PA5 \\|title\\=Cossacks in the German Army, 1941\\-1945\\|year\\=1991\\|publisher\\=F. Cass\\|isbn\\=9780714633510\\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-20}}[Stalin's Enemies](https://archive.today/20061210175509/http://www.combatmagazine.ws/S3/BAKISSUE/CMBT03N1/STALIN.HTM) \"Combat Magazine\" ISSN 1542\\-1546 Volume 03 Number 01 Winter Many Soviet Kuban Cossacks chose to defect to Nazi service either when in [POW camps](/wiki/POW_camps \"POW camps\") or on active duty in the Soviet Army. For example, Major Kononov deserted on 22 August 1941 with an entire regiment and was instrumental in organizing Cossack volunteers in the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\"). Some Cossack emigres, such as [Andrei Shkuro](/wiki/Andrei_Shkuro \"Andrei Shkuro\") and [Pyotr Krasnov](/wiki/Pyotr_Krasnov \"Pyotr Krasnov\") chose to collaborate with the Nazis as well and stood at the helm of two Cossack divisions on Nazi service. However, most volunteers came after the Nazis reached the Cossack homelands in summer of 1942\\. The Cossack National Movement of Liberation was set up in hope of mobilizing opposition to the Soviet regime with an intent to rebuild an independent nationalist Cossack state.Lt. Gen Wladyslaw Anders and Antonio Munoz [Russian Volunteers in the German Wehrmacht in WWII](https://www.feldgrau.com/WW2-German-Wehrmacht-Russian-Volunteers/)", "While there were several smaller Cossack detachments in the Wehrmacht since 1941, the [1st Cossack Division](/wiki/1st_Cossack_Division \"1st Cossack Division\") made up of Don, Terek and Kuban Cossacks was formed in 1943\\. This division was further augmented by the 2nd Cossack Cavalry Division formed in December 1944\\. Both divisions participated in hostilities against [Tito's partisans](/wiki/Partisans_%28Yugoslavia%29 \"Partisans (Yugoslavia)\") in Yugoslavia. In February 1945, both Cossack Divisions were transferred into the [Waffen\\-SS](/wiki/Waffen-SS \"Waffen-SS\") and formed the [XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps](/wiki/XVth_SS_Cossack_Cavalry_Corps \"XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps\"). At the end of the war, the Cossack collaborators retreated to Italy and surrendered to the British army, but, under the [Yalta agreement](/wiki/Yalta_agreement \"Yalta agreement\"), were forcibly repatriated with the rest of the collaborators to the Soviet authorities and some executed.Gabby de Jong, Yalta Agreement [Retrieved](http://home.hetnet.nl/~gabby-pat/repatriation%20generals.htm) (see [Betrayal of the Cossacks](/wiki/Betrayal_of_the_Cossacks \"Betrayal of the Cossacks\")) One of the Kuban leaders, the *ataman* [Vyacheslav Naumenko](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Naumenko \"Vyacheslav Naumenko\") served as their principle historian after World War Two, writing the first Russian language book about the [Repatriation of Cossacks](/wiki/Repatriation_of_Cossacks_after_World_War_II \"Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II\") in his two volume work published in 1962 and 1970 entitled *Velikoe Predatelstvo* (*The Great Betrayal*).Burgh, Hugo de *Investigative Journalism*, Milton Park, Taylor \\& Francis 2008 p.243", "#### Red Army Cossacks", "[thumb\\|Lev Dovator (upper left) on the Soviet stamp published during the war. The text says \"Death to German invaders!\"](/wiki/File:Voennaia_marka_Dovator_Smert_nemeczkim_okkupantam%21.jpg \"Voennaia marka Dovator Smert nemeczkim okkupantam!.jpg\")", "Despite the defections that were taking place, the majority of the Cossacks remained loyal to the Red Army.{{cite book\\|last\\=Shambarov\\|first\\=Valery\\|title\\=Kazachestvo Istoriya Volnoy Rusi\\|publisher\\=Algorithm Expo, Moscow\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=978\\-5\\-699\\-20121\\-1}} In the earliest battles, particularly the [encirclement of Belostok](/wiki/Battle_of_Bia%C5%82ystok-Minsk \"Battle of Białystok-Minsk\") Cossack units such as the 94th Beloglisnky, 152nd Rostovsky and 48th Belorechensky regiments fought to their death.", "In the opening phase of the war, during the German advance towards Moscow, Cossacks became extensively used for the raids behind enemy lines. The most famous of these took place during the [Battle of Smolensk](/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_%281941%29 \"Battle of Smolensk (1941)\") under the command of [Lev Dovator](/wiki/Lev_Dovator \"Lev Dovator\"), whose 3rd Cavalry Corps consisted of the 50th and 53rd Cavalry divisions from the Kuban and Terek Cossacks, which were mobilised from the Northern Caucasus. The raid, which in ten days covered 300 km, destroyed the hinterlands of the 9th German Army before successfully breaking out.{{cite journal\\|last \\= Kochetov V.N.\\| journal \\= Preobrazheniye\\|title\\= General Dovator\\|volume \\= 7\\|year\\= 2005}} Whilst units under the command of General Pavel Belov, the 2nd Cavalry Corps made from Don, Kuban and Stavropol Cossacks spearheaded the counter\\-attack onto the right flank of the 6th German Army delaying its advance towards Moscow.", "The high professionalism that the Cossacks under Dovator and Belov (both generals would later be granted the title [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Hero of the Soviet Union\") and their units raised to a [Guards](/wiki/Russian_Guards \"Russian Guards\") (elite) status) ensured that many new units would be formed. In the end, if the Germans during the whole war only managed to form two Cossack Corps, the Red Army in 1942 already had 17\\. Many of the newly formed units were filled with ethnically Cossack volunteers. The Kuban Cossacks were allocated to the 10th, 12th and 13th Corps. However, the most famous Kuban Cossack unit would be the 17th Cossack Corps under the command of general {{Ill\\|Nikolay Kirichenko\\|ru\\|Кириченко, Николай Яковлевич}}.", "During one particular attack, Cossacks killed up to 1,800 enemy soldiers and officers, they took 300 prisoners, seized 18 artillery pieces and 25 mortars. The 5th and 9th Romanian Cavalry divisions fled in panic, and the 198th German Infantry division, carrying large losses, hastily departed to the left bank of the river Ei.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ot\\-a\\-do\\-ya.org/Articles/Kazak/Cossacks\\_in\\_VOV.aspx\\#.XGxz8U2WyUk\\|title \\= От А до Я – Действия казаков во время Великой Отечественной войны\\|language\\=RU\\|website\\=ot\\-a\\-do\\-ya.org}}", "During the opening phase of the [Battle of Stalingrad](/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad \"Battle of Stalingrad\"), when the Germans overran the Kuban, the majority of the Cossack population, long before the Germans began their agitation with Krasnov and Shkuro, became involved in [Partisan](/wiki/Soviet_Partisans \"Soviet Partisans\") activity.Kuban Today, Vol.7 *В годы суровых испытаний* about partisan movement on the Kuban by V. Turov, 6 May 1998Fire of war.ru — Anthology of various historians of the Partisan Activity in the Krasnodar Kray [Retrieved 15 Oct 2007](https://archive.today/20120709072339/http://fire-of-war.ru/podpolie/p868.htm) Raids onto the German positions from the Caucasus mountains became commonplace. After the German defeat at [Stalingrad](/wiki/Stalingrad \"Stalingrad\"), the 4th Guards Kuban Cossack Corps, strengthened by tanks and artillery, broke through the German lines and liberated [Mineralnye Vody](/wiki/Mineralnye_Vody \"Mineralnye Vody\"), and [Stavropol](/wiki/Stavropol \"Stavropol\").", "For the latter part of the war, although the Cossacks did prove especially useful in reconnaissance and rear guards, the war did show that the age of horse cavalry had come to an end. The famous [4th Guards Kuban Cossacks Cavalry Corps](/wiki/4th_Guards_Cavalry_Corps \"4th Guards Cavalry Corps\") which took part in heavy fighting in the course of the liberation of Southern Ukraine and Romania was allowed to proudly march on the [Red Square](/wiki/Red_Square \"Red Square\") in the famous [Moscow Victory Parade of 1945](/wiki/Moscow_Victory_Parade_of_1945 \"Moscow Victory Parade of 1945\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.slavakubani.ru/p\\-service/military\\-service/history\\-units/kubanskie\\-kazaki\\-uchastniki\\-parada\\-pobedy\\-v\\-moskve\\-24\\-iyunya\\-1945\\-goda/\\|title\\=Кубанские казаки – участники парада Победы в Москве 24 июня 1945 года\\|website\\=www.slavakubani.ru\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707140319/http://www.slavakubani.ru/p\\-service/military\\-service/history\\-units/kubanskie\\-kazaki\\-uchastniki\\-parada\\-pobedy\\-v\\-moskve\\-24\\-iyunya\\-1945\\-goda/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "" ]
Modern Kuban Cossacks --------------------- [thumb\|150px\|Flag of the Kuban Cossacks](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Kuban_People%27s_Republic.svg "Flag of Kuban People's Republic.svg") [thumb\|150px\|Emblem of [registered Kuban cossacks](/wiki/Registered_Cossacks_of_the_Russian_Federation "Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation")](/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8C%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%28%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%29.png "Кубанское казачье войско (шеврон).png") Following the war, the Cossack regiments, along with remaining cavalry were disbanded and removed from the Soviet armed forces as they were thought to be obsolete. Starting in the late 1980s, there were renewed efforts to revive Cossack traditions which went to great lengths; in 1990, the Host was once again recognised by the Supreme [Ataman](/wiki/Ataman "Ataman") of the [All\-Great Don Host](/wiki/Don_Cossacks "Don Cossacks") (Всевеликое Войско Донское). At this time some pro\-Ukrainian sentiment emerged among some Kuban Cossack leaders. For example, when in May 1993 Cossack leader Yevhen Nahai was arrested and accused of plotting a coup, another Cossack leader (kish otaman Pyuypenko) threatened to call for support for Ukraine if Nahai's rights were violated. A march of cossack cavalry from eastern Ukraine to Kuban was met with some enthusiasm by locals.Serhiy Plokhy.(2008\). *Ukraine and Russia: Representations of the Past*. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 179\. The Cossacks have actively participated in some of the more abrupt political developments following the [dissolution of the Soviet Union](/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281985%E2%80%931991%29 "History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)"): invasions of [South Ossetia](/wiki/South_Ossetia "South Ossetia"), [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea"), [Transnistria](/wiki/Transnistria "Transnistria") and [Abkhazia](/wiki/Abkhazia "Abkhazia") and nominally as peacekeepers in Kosovo. The latter conflict was in particular special for the Kuban Cossacks, initially a number of Cossacks fled from the de\-Cossackization repressions of the 1920s and assimilated with the [Abkhaz people](/wiki/Abkhaz_people "Abkhaz people"). Before the [Georgian\-Abkhaz Conflict](/wiki/Georgian-Abkhaz_Conflict "Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict") there was a strong movement of creating an Abkhaz\-Kuban Host among the descendants. When the civil war broke out, 1500 Kuban Cossack volunteers from Russia came to aid the Abkhaz side. One of the notable groups was the 1st [sotnia](/wiki/Sotnia "Sotnia") under the command of Ataman Nikolay Pusko which reportedly completely destroyed a Ukrainian volunteer group fighting on the Georgian side and then went on to be the first to enter Sukhumi in 1993\.{{cite web\|last\=Perov\|first\=Sergei\|title\= \|url\=http://www.newizv.ru/news/2004\-02\-11/4562/\|script\-title\=ru:Кубанские казаки берут Сухуми \-Губернатор Александр Ткачев взялся за решение абхазской проблемы\|trans\-title\=Kuban Cossacks take Sukhumi – Governor Alexander Tkachov has taken on the solution to the Abkhazian problem\|language\=ru\|publisher\=Newizv.ru\|location\=Krasnodar Krai\|date\=11 February 2004\|access\-date\=25 April 2007\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714025831/http://www.newizv.ru/news/2004\-02\-11/4562/\|archive\-date\=14 July 2007\|df\=dmy\-all}} Since then, a detachment of Kuban Cossacks continue to inhabit Abkhazia, and their presence continues to influence the [Georgian\-Russian relations](/wiki/Georgian-Russian_relations "Georgian-Russian relations"). According to human rights reports from the 1990s, the Cossacks regularly harassed non\-Russians, such as Armenians and Chechens, living in southern Russia.[Russia: Cossacks and their role in Sochi (Krasnodar Krai)](http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,49709c7d2,3ae6a6b57,0.html). [U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services](/wiki/United_States_Citizenship_and_Immigration_Services "United States Citizenship and Immigration Services")/[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees](/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees"). 27 August 1999\. A contingent of Kuban Cossacks (led by Head of the All\-Russian Cossack Society, Cossack General [Nikolai Doluda](/wiki/Nikolai_Doluda "Nikolai Doluda")) took part in the [2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade](/wiki/2015_Moscow_Victory_Day_Parade "2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade") for the first time.{{Cite web\|url\=https://kubnews.ru/amp/obshchestvo/2020/06/24/v\-moskvu\-na\-parad\-pobedy\-priekhali\-kubanskie\-kazaki\-veteran\-iz\-eyska\-i\-krasnodarskaya\-shkolnitsa/\|title \= В Москву на парад Победы приехали кубанские казаки, ветеран из Ейска и краснодарская школьница}} ### Present day military units With the help of the governor of Krasnodar Krai, [Aleksandr Tkachyov](/wiki/Aleksandr_Tkachyov_%28politician%29 "Aleksandr Tkachyov (politician)"), the host has become an integral part of the Kuban life, there are joint combat training operations with the [Russian Army](/wiki/Russian_Ground_Forces "Russian Ground Forces"), policing of the rural areas with the [Police of Russia](/wiki/Police_of_Russia "Police of Russia"), and preparation of local youth for the one\-year military conscription term. Not only is their aid in military affairs important, during the floods in 2004 of the Taman Peninsula they provided men and equipment for relief missions. Today, the host numbers 25 thousand men and has its own distinct forces: a whole regiment of the 7th "Cherkassy" Guards Air\-Assault Division (the 108th "Kuban Cossack" Guards Airborne Regiment) in the Russian [VDV](/wiki/Russian_Airborne_Troops "Russian Airborne Troops"); 205th Motorised Rifle Brigade, within the [Southern Military District](/wiki/Southern_Military_District "Southern Military District") in the [Russian Ground Forces](/wiki/Russian_Ground_Forces "Russian Ground Forces"), in addition to border guards. On 2 August 2012, the governor of [Krasnodar Krai](/wiki/Krasnodar_Krai "Krasnodar Krai"), [Alexander Tkachyov](/wiki/Aleksandr_Tkachyov_%28politician%29 "Aleksandr Tkachyov (politician)") announced a controversial plan to deploy a paramilitary force of one thousand unarmed but uniformed Kuban Cossacks in the region to help police patrols. The cossacks were to be charged with preventing what he described as "illegal immigration" from the neighboring Caucasian republics.[Cossacks to crack down on migrants in southern Russian region that will host 2014 Olympics](https://web.archive.org/web/20120807091320/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/cossacks-to-crack-down-on-migrants-in-southern-russian-region-that-will-host-2014-olympics/2012/08/06/d676a1aa-dfe4-11e1-8d48-2b1243f34c85_story.html). *The Washington Post*. 6 August 2012\. The Kuban Cossacks has maintained a [guard of honour](/wiki/Guard_of_honour "Guard of honour") since the mid 2000s. The formation of the guard of honor began in April 2006 by a group of Cossacks with the support of the Cossack chieftain, General Vladimir Gromov. On 12 June 2006, the guard performed for the first time at the Cossack monument in [Krasnodar](/wiki/Krasnodar "Krasnodar").{{Cite web\|title\=В Краснодаре наградили лучших казаков Почетного караула Кубанского казачьего войска\|url\=http://www.vkpress.ru:443/glavnoe/v\-krasnodare\-nagradili\-luchshikh\-kazakov\-pochetnogo\-karaula\-kubanskogo\-kazachego\-voyska/?id\=101659\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-04\|website\=www.vkpress.ru}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://krd.ru/podrazdeleniya/administratsii\-krasnodara/departament\-po\-svyazyam\-s\-obschestvennostyu\-vzaimodeystviyu\-s\-pravookhranitelnymi\-organami\-delam\-kazachestva\-i\-voennosluzhaschikh/novosti/news\_29062016\_103459\.html\|title \= В Краснодаре отметили годовщину создания Почётного караула Кубанского казачьего войска :: KRD.ru\|date \= 14 June 2016}} Cossack Colonel Pyotr Petrenko has been in charge of this unit for 12 years. They wear the historical uniform of the [His Majesty's Own Cossack Escort](/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Own_Cossack_Escort "His Majesty's Own Cossack Escort") Regiment. After an increase in personnel took place, an [equestrian](/wiki/Equestrianism "Equestrianism") group was formed.{{Cite web\|title\=Час славы Кубани: кто руководит Почетным караулом ККВ\|url\=http://www.vkpress.ru:443/projects/kazachiy\-blog/chas\-slavy\-kubani\-kto\-rukovodit\-pochetnym\-karaulom\-kkv/?id\=124013\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-04\|website\=www.vkpress.ru}} The requirements for members of the guard of honor include a lack of a criminal record and being more than 180 centimeters in height.{{Cite web\|title\=Почётный караул ККВ — СКМК\|url\=http://xn\-\-j1aafs.xn\-\-p1ai/pochyotnyy\-karaul\-kkv/\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-04\|language\=ru\-RU}}
[ "Modern Kuban Cossacks\n---------------------", "[thumb\\|150px\\|Flag of the Kuban Cossacks](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Kuban_People%27s_Republic.svg \"Flag of Kuban People's Republic.svg\")\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Emblem of [registered Kuban cossacks](/wiki/Registered_Cossacks_of_the_Russian_Federation \"Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation\")](/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8C%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%28%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%29.png \"Кубанское казачье войско (шеврон).png\")", "Following the war, the Cossack regiments, along with remaining cavalry were disbanded and removed from the Soviet armed forces as they were thought to be obsolete.", "Starting in the late 1980s, there were renewed efforts to revive Cossack traditions which went to great lengths; in 1990, the Host was once again recognised by the Supreme [Ataman](/wiki/Ataman \"Ataman\") of the [All\\-Great Don Host](/wiki/Don_Cossacks \"Don Cossacks\") (Всевеликое Войско Донское). At this time some pro\\-Ukrainian sentiment emerged among some Kuban Cossack leaders. For example, when in May 1993 Cossack leader Yevhen Nahai was arrested and accused of plotting a coup, another Cossack leader (kish otaman Pyuypenko) threatened to call for support for Ukraine if Nahai's rights were violated. A march of cossack cavalry from eastern Ukraine to Kuban was met with some enthusiasm by locals.Serhiy Plokhy.(2008\\). *Ukraine and Russia: Representations of the Past*. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 179\\.", "The Cossacks have actively participated in some of the more abrupt political developments following the [dissolution of the Soviet Union](/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281985%E2%80%931991%29 \"History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)\"): invasions of [South Ossetia](/wiki/South_Ossetia \"South Ossetia\"), [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\"), [Transnistria](/wiki/Transnistria \"Transnistria\") and [Abkhazia](/wiki/Abkhazia \"Abkhazia\") and nominally as peacekeepers in Kosovo. The latter conflict was in particular special for the Kuban Cossacks, initially a number of Cossacks fled from the de\\-Cossackization repressions of the 1920s and assimilated with the [Abkhaz people](/wiki/Abkhaz_people \"Abkhaz people\"). Before the [Georgian\\-Abkhaz Conflict](/wiki/Georgian-Abkhaz_Conflict \"Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict\") there was a strong movement of creating an Abkhaz\\-Kuban Host among the descendants. When the civil war broke out, 1500 Kuban Cossack volunteers from Russia came to aid the Abkhaz side. One of the notable groups was the 1st [sotnia](/wiki/Sotnia \"Sotnia\") under the command of Ataman Nikolay Pusko which reportedly completely destroyed a Ukrainian volunteer group fighting on the Georgian side and then went on to be the first to enter Sukhumi in 1993\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Perov\\|first\\=Sergei\\|title\\= \\|url\\=http://www.newizv.ru/news/2004\\-02\\-11/4562/\\|script\\-title\\=ru:Кубанские казаки берут Сухуми \\-Губернатор Александр Ткачев взялся за решение абхазской проблемы\\|trans\\-title\\=Kuban Cossacks take Sukhumi – Governor Alexander Tkachov has taken on the solution to the Abkhazian problem\\|language\\=ru\\|publisher\\=Newizv.ru\\|location\\=Krasnodar Krai\\|date\\=11 February 2004\\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2007\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714025831/http://www.newizv.ru/news/2004\\-02\\-11/4562/\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2007\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Since then, a detachment of Kuban Cossacks continue to inhabit Abkhazia, and their presence continues to influence the [Georgian\\-Russian relations](/wiki/Georgian-Russian_relations \"Georgian-Russian relations\").", "According to human rights reports from the 1990s, the Cossacks regularly harassed non\\-Russians, such as Armenians and Chechens, living in southern Russia.[Russia: Cossacks and their role in Sochi (Krasnodar Krai)](http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,49709c7d2,3ae6a6b57,0.html). [U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services](/wiki/United_States_Citizenship_and_Immigration_Services \"United States Citizenship and Immigration Services\")/[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees](/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees \"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees\"). 27 August 1999\\.", "A contingent of Kuban Cossacks (led by Head of the All\\-Russian Cossack Society, Cossack General [Nikolai Doluda](/wiki/Nikolai_Doluda \"Nikolai Doluda\")) took part in the [2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade](/wiki/2015_Moscow_Victory_Day_Parade \"2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade\") for the first time.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://kubnews.ru/amp/obshchestvo/2020/06/24/v\\-moskvu\\-na\\-parad\\-pobedy\\-priekhali\\-kubanskie\\-kazaki\\-veteran\\-iz\\-eyska\\-i\\-krasnodarskaya\\-shkolnitsa/\\|title \\= В Москву на парад Победы приехали кубанские казаки, ветеран из Ейска и краснодарская школьница}}", "### Present day military units", "With the help of the governor of Krasnodar Krai, [Aleksandr Tkachyov](/wiki/Aleksandr_Tkachyov_%28politician%29 \"Aleksandr Tkachyov (politician)\"), the host has become an integral part of the Kuban life, there are joint combat training operations with the [Russian Army](/wiki/Russian_Ground_Forces \"Russian Ground Forces\"), policing of the rural areas with the [Police of Russia](/wiki/Police_of_Russia \"Police of Russia\"), and preparation of local youth for the one\\-year military conscription term. Not only is their aid in military affairs important, during the floods in 2004 of the Taman Peninsula they provided men and equipment for relief missions. Today, the host numbers 25 thousand men and has its own distinct forces: a whole regiment of the 7th \"Cherkassy\" Guards Air\\-Assault Division (the 108th \"Kuban Cossack\" Guards Airborne Regiment) in the Russian [VDV](/wiki/Russian_Airborne_Troops \"Russian Airborne Troops\"); 205th Motorised Rifle Brigade, within the [Southern Military District](/wiki/Southern_Military_District \"Southern Military District\") in the [Russian Ground Forces](/wiki/Russian_Ground_Forces \"Russian Ground Forces\"), in addition to border guards.", "On 2 August 2012, the governor of [Krasnodar Krai](/wiki/Krasnodar_Krai \"Krasnodar Krai\"), [Alexander Tkachyov](/wiki/Aleksandr_Tkachyov_%28politician%29 \"Aleksandr Tkachyov (politician)\") announced a controversial plan to deploy a paramilitary force of one thousand unarmed but uniformed Kuban Cossacks in the region to help police patrols. The cossacks were to be charged with preventing what he described as \"illegal immigration\" from the neighboring Caucasian republics.[Cossacks to crack down on migrants in southern Russian region that will host 2014 Olympics](https://web.archive.org/web/20120807091320/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/cossacks-to-crack-down-on-migrants-in-southern-russian-region-that-will-host-2014-olympics/2012/08/06/d676a1aa-dfe4-11e1-8d48-2b1243f34c85_story.html). *The Washington Post*. 6 August 2012\\.", "The Kuban Cossacks has maintained a [guard of honour](/wiki/Guard_of_honour \"Guard of honour\") since the mid 2000s. The formation of the guard of honor began in April 2006 by a group of Cossacks with the support of the Cossack chieftain, General Vladimir Gromov. On 12 June 2006, the guard performed for the first time at the Cossack monument in [Krasnodar](/wiki/Krasnodar \"Krasnodar\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=В Краснодаре наградили лучших казаков Почетного караула Кубанского казачьего войска\\|url\\=http://www.vkpress.ru:443/glavnoe/v\\-krasnodare\\-nagradili\\-luchshikh\\-kazakov\\-pochetnogo\\-karaula\\-kubanskogo\\-kazachego\\-voyska/?id\\=101659\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-04\\|website\\=www.vkpress.ru}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://krd.ru/podrazdeleniya/administratsii\\-krasnodara/departament\\-po\\-svyazyam\\-s\\-obschestvennostyu\\-vzaimodeystviyu\\-s\\-pravookhranitelnymi\\-organami\\-delam\\-kazachestva\\-i\\-voennosluzhaschikh/novosti/news\\_29062016\\_103459\\.html\\|title \\= В Краснодаре отметили годовщину создания Почётного караула Кубанского казачьего войска :: KRD.ru\\|date \\= 14 June 2016}} Cossack Colonel Pyotr Petrenko has been in charge of this unit for 12 years. They wear the historical uniform of the [His Majesty's Own Cossack Escort](/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Own_Cossack_Escort \"His Majesty's Own Cossack Escort\") Regiment. After an increase in personnel took place, an [equestrian](/wiki/Equestrianism \"Equestrianism\") group was formed.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Час славы Кубани: кто руководит Почетным караулом ККВ\\|url\\=http://www.vkpress.ru:443/projects/kazachiy\\-blog/chas\\-slavy\\-kubani\\-kto\\-rukovodit\\-pochetnym\\-karaulom\\-kkv/?id\\=124013\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-04\\|website\\=www.vkpress.ru}} The requirements for members of the guard of honor include a lack of a criminal record and being more than 180 centimeters in height.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Почётный караул ККВ — СКМК\\|url\\=http://xn\\-\\-j1aafs.xn\\-\\-p1ai/pochyotnyy\\-karaul\\-kkv/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-04\\|language\\=ru\\-RU}}", "" ]
Organisation ------------ ### Early 20th century Within the Empire, the Kuban land was administered through the [Kuban Oblast](/wiki/Kuban_Oblast "Kuban Oblast") with a semi\-military administration. It was composed of seven subdivisions ({{transliteration\|ru\|otdels}}), and numbered 1\.3 million people (278 {{transliteration\|ru\|stanitsas}} and 32 {{transliteration\|ru\|khutors}}). Kuban Cossacks formed regular units of the Imperial Russian Army as listed below. The following lists the structure prior to the outbreak of World War I, although this was re\-organised during the conflict (see foot\-note). In peacetime the Host provided 10 horse regiments making up a Kuban Cossack division, six *plastun* (infantry) battalions and six horse\-artillery batteries; in addition to irregular and support units. The "first" regiments were linked to the specific locales that they were recruited from, although they would often be deployed elsewhere in the Empire. In wartime, recruits were drafted from each region to form "second" regiments during the stage of initial mobilization. If further manpower was required, a "third" regiment would be formed to be dispatched as reinforcements. During World War One a total of 37 horse (cavalry) regiments were raised by the Kuban Cossack Host. [thumb\|A 1916 map of Kuban Oblast with the neighboring [Black Sea Governorate](/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate "Black Sea Governorate") and part of [Sukhumi Okrug](/wiki/Sukhumi_Okrug "Sukhumi Okrug") {{in lang\|ru}}](/wiki/File:Map_of_Kuban_Oblast_%281916%29.jpg "Map of Kuban Oblast (1916).jpg") **Regiments:** * 1st and 2nd Kuban Life Guard sotnias of His Imperial Majesty's personal convoy (a special unit of the [Imperial Guard](/wiki/Imperial_Guard_%28Russia%29 "Imperial Guard (Russia)") acting for personal protection of the monarch) * 1st Khopyor regiment "Her Imperial Highness [Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Anastasia_Mikhailovna_of_Russia "Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia")" * 1st Kuban regiment "General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia "Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia")" * 1st Zaporozhian regiment "Empress [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_the_Great "Catherine the Great")" * 1st Yekaterinodar regiment "Kosh Ataman [Chepiga](/wiki/Zakhary_Chepiha "Zakhary Chepiha")" * 1st Poltavskaya regiment "Yekatrinoslav Viceroy General Field Marshal Prince [Potyomkin\-Tavrichesky](/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin "Grigory Potemkin")" * 1st Umanskaya regiment "Brigadier [Golovaty](/wiki/Antin_Holovaty "Antin Holovaty")" * 1st Taman regiment "General [Bezkrovny](/wiki/Alexey_Bezrkovny "Alexey Bezrkovny")" * 1st Laba regiment "General [Zass](/wiki/Grigory_Zass "Grigory Zass")" * 1st Line regiment "General [Velyaminov](/wiki/Nikolaya_Velyaminov "Nikolaya Velyaminov")" * 1st Black Sea regiment "Colonel [Bursak](/wiki/Fyodor_Bursak "Fyodor Bursak")" **Divisions:** * Kuban Cossack Division (after the outbreak of World War I, the Russian Army began reforming this system along modern lines, but only one division was in existence in 1914\) **Plastuns:** * 1st Kuban [plastun](/wiki/Plastun "Plastun") battalion "General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia "Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia")" * 2nd through 6th Kuban plastun battalions As noted the *plastun* units served as infantry. On mobilization an additional six battalions (numbered 7th through 12th) were added to the peacetime establishment, and a further two (13th and 14th) raised as reserve units. The effectiveness of these units was demonstrated during the war, particularly the [Caucasus Front](/wiki/Caucasus_Front_%28Russian_Republic%29 "Caucasus Front (Russian Republic)") and by 1917 a total of 22 battalions, comprising one division plus four brigades, were on active service. A further three battalions were in reserve. Horse artillery: * 1st Kuban Cossack battery "General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia "Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia")" * 2nd through 5th Kuban Cossack batteries. In addition there four commands that were responsible for support and home front organisation in the Kuban (supplies, hospitals etc.): Ust\-Labinskaya, Armavirskaya, Labinskaya and Batalpashinskaya. From 1914 to 1917 the Kuban Cossack Host committed a total of 89 thousand men to the Russian war effort. These included 37 horse regiments, a cavalry division, 2 mounted regiments recruited from mountain peoples (Adyghe and Karachay), six *convoy* (Imperial Guard) escort half\-sotnias, two Leib Guard HIH personal sotnias, 4 infantry plastun brigades (22 battalions), a special plastun division, nine horse artillery batteries, four reserve horse regiments and three reserve plastun battalions.
[ "Organisation\n------------", "### Early 20th century", "Within the Empire, the Kuban land was administered through the [Kuban Oblast](/wiki/Kuban_Oblast \"Kuban Oblast\") with a semi\\-military administration. It was composed of seven subdivisions ({{transliteration\\|ru\\|otdels}}), and numbered 1\\.3 million people (278 {{transliteration\\|ru\\|stanitsas}} and 32 {{transliteration\\|ru\\|khutors}}). Kuban Cossacks formed regular units of the Imperial Russian Army as listed below. The following lists the structure prior to the outbreak of World War I, although this was re\\-organised during the conflict (see foot\\-note).", "In peacetime the Host provided 10 horse regiments making up a Kuban Cossack division, six *plastun* (infantry) battalions and six horse\\-artillery batteries; in addition to irregular and support units. The \"first\" regiments were linked to the specific locales that they were recruited from, although they would often be deployed elsewhere in the Empire. In wartime, recruits were drafted from each region to form \"second\" regiments during the stage of initial mobilization. If further manpower was required, a \"third\" regiment would be formed to be dispatched as reinforcements. During World War One a total of 37 horse (cavalry) regiments were raised by the Kuban Cossack Host.", "[thumb\\|A 1916 map of Kuban Oblast with the neighboring [Black Sea Governorate](/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate \"Black Sea Governorate\") and part of [Sukhumi Okrug](/wiki/Sukhumi_Okrug \"Sukhumi Okrug\") {{in lang\\|ru}}](/wiki/File:Map_of_Kuban_Oblast_%281916%29.jpg \"Map of Kuban Oblast (1916).jpg\")\n**Regiments:**\n* 1st and 2nd Kuban Life Guard sotnias of His Imperial Majesty's personal convoy (a special unit of the [Imperial Guard](/wiki/Imperial_Guard_%28Russia%29 \"Imperial Guard (Russia)\") acting for personal protection of the monarch)\n* 1st Khopyor regiment \"Her Imperial Highness [Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Anastasia_Mikhailovna_of_Russia \"Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia\")\"\n* 1st Kuban regiment \"General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia \"Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia\")\"\n* 1st Zaporozhian regiment \"Empress [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_the_Great \"Catherine the Great\")\"\n* 1st Yekaterinodar regiment \"Kosh Ataman [Chepiga](/wiki/Zakhary_Chepiha \"Zakhary Chepiha\")\"\n* 1st Poltavskaya regiment \"Yekatrinoslav Viceroy General Field Marshal Prince [Potyomkin\\-Tavrichesky](/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin \"Grigory Potemkin\")\"\n* 1st Umanskaya regiment \"Brigadier [Golovaty](/wiki/Antin_Holovaty \"Antin Holovaty\")\"\n* 1st Taman regiment \"General [Bezkrovny](/wiki/Alexey_Bezrkovny \"Alexey Bezrkovny\")\"\n* 1st Laba regiment \"General [Zass](/wiki/Grigory_Zass \"Grigory Zass\")\"\n* 1st Line regiment \"General [Velyaminov](/wiki/Nikolaya_Velyaminov \"Nikolaya Velyaminov\")\"\n* 1st Black Sea regiment \"Colonel [Bursak](/wiki/Fyodor_Bursak \"Fyodor Bursak\")\"", "**Divisions:**\n* Kuban Cossack Division (after the outbreak of World War I, the Russian Army began reforming this system along modern lines, but only one division was in existence in 1914\\)", "**Plastuns:**\n* 1st Kuban [plastun](/wiki/Plastun \"Plastun\") battalion \"General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia \"Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia\")\"\n* 2nd through 6th Kuban plastun battalions", "As noted the *plastun* units served as infantry. On mobilization an additional six battalions (numbered 7th through 12th) were added to the peacetime establishment, and a further two (13th and 14th) raised as reserve units. The effectiveness of these units was demonstrated during the war, particularly the [Caucasus Front](/wiki/Caucasus_Front_%28Russian_Republic%29 \"Caucasus Front (Russian Republic)\") and by 1917 a total of 22 battalions, comprising one division plus four brigades, were on active service. A further three battalions were in reserve.", "Horse artillery:\n* 1st Kuban Cossack battery \"General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia \"Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia\")\"\n* 2nd through 5th Kuban Cossack batteries.", "In addition there four commands that were responsible for support and home front organisation in the Kuban (supplies, hospitals etc.): Ust\\-Labinskaya, Armavirskaya, Labinskaya and Batalpashinskaya.", "From 1914 to 1917 the Kuban Cossack Host committed a total of 89 thousand men to the Russian war effort. These included 37 horse regiments, a cavalry division, 2 mounted regiments recruited from mountain peoples (Adyghe and Karachay), six *convoy* (Imperial Guard) escort half\\-sotnias, two Leib Guard HIH personal sotnias, 4 infantry plastun brigades (22 battalions), a special plastun division, nine horse artillery batteries, four reserve horse regiments and three reserve plastun battalions.", "" ]
### Early 20th century Within the Empire, the Kuban land was administered through the [Kuban Oblast](/wiki/Kuban_Oblast "Kuban Oblast") with a semi\-military administration. It was composed of seven subdivisions ({{transliteration\|ru\|otdels}}), and numbered 1\.3 million people (278 {{transliteration\|ru\|stanitsas}} and 32 {{transliteration\|ru\|khutors}}). Kuban Cossacks formed regular units of the Imperial Russian Army as listed below. The following lists the structure prior to the outbreak of World War I, although this was re\-organised during the conflict (see foot\-note). In peacetime the Host provided 10 horse regiments making up a Kuban Cossack division, six *plastun* (infantry) battalions and six horse\-artillery batteries; in addition to irregular and support units. The "first" regiments were linked to the specific locales that they were recruited from, although they would often be deployed elsewhere in the Empire. In wartime, recruits were drafted from each region to form "second" regiments during the stage of initial mobilization. If further manpower was required, a "third" regiment would be formed to be dispatched as reinforcements. During World War One a total of 37 horse (cavalry) regiments were raised by the Kuban Cossack Host. [thumb\|A 1916 map of Kuban Oblast with the neighboring [Black Sea Governorate](/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate "Black Sea Governorate") and part of [Sukhumi Okrug](/wiki/Sukhumi_Okrug "Sukhumi Okrug") {{in lang\|ru}}](/wiki/File:Map_of_Kuban_Oblast_%281916%29.jpg "Map of Kuban Oblast (1916).jpg") **Regiments:** * 1st and 2nd Kuban Life Guard sotnias of His Imperial Majesty's personal convoy (a special unit of the [Imperial Guard](/wiki/Imperial_Guard_%28Russia%29 "Imperial Guard (Russia)") acting for personal protection of the monarch) * 1st Khopyor regiment "Her Imperial Highness [Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Anastasia_Mikhailovna_of_Russia "Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia")" * 1st Kuban regiment "General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia "Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia")" * 1st Zaporozhian regiment "Empress [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_the_Great "Catherine the Great")" * 1st Yekaterinodar regiment "Kosh Ataman [Chepiga](/wiki/Zakhary_Chepiha "Zakhary Chepiha")" * 1st Poltavskaya regiment "Yekatrinoslav Viceroy General Field Marshal Prince [Potyomkin\-Tavrichesky](/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin "Grigory Potemkin")" * 1st Umanskaya regiment "Brigadier [Golovaty](/wiki/Antin_Holovaty "Antin Holovaty")" * 1st Taman regiment "General [Bezkrovny](/wiki/Alexey_Bezrkovny "Alexey Bezrkovny")" * 1st Laba regiment "General [Zass](/wiki/Grigory_Zass "Grigory Zass")" * 1st Line regiment "General [Velyaminov](/wiki/Nikolaya_Velyaminov "Nikolaya Velyaminov")" * 1st Black Sea regiment "Colonel [Bursak](/wiki/Fyodor_Bursak "Fyodor Bursak")" **Divisions:** * Kuban Cossack Division (after the outbreak of World War I, the Russian Army began reforming this system along modern lines, but only one division was in existence in 1914\) **Plastuns:** * 1st Kuban [plastun](/wiki/Plastun "Plastun") battalion "General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia "Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia")" * 2nd through 6th Kuban plastun battalions As noted the *plastun* units served as infantry. On mobilization an additional six battalions (numbered 7th through 12th) were added to the peacetime establishment, and a further two (13th and 14th) raised as reserve units. The effectiveness of these units was demonstrated during the war, particularly the [Caucasus Front](/wiki/Caucasus_Front_%28Russian_Republic%29 "Caucasus Front (Russian Republic)") and by 1917 a total of 22 battalions, comprising one division plus four brigades, were on active service. A further three battalions were in reserve. Horse artillery: * 1st Kuban Cossack battery "General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia "Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia")" * 2nd through 5th Kuban Cossack batteries. In addition there four commands that were responsible for support and home front organisation in the Kuban (supplies, hospitals etc.): Ust\-Labinskaya, Armavirskaya, Labinskaya and Batalpashinskaya. From 1914 to 1917 the Kuban Cossack Host committed a total of 89 thousand men to the Russian war effort. These included 37 horse regiments, a cavalry division, 2 mounted regiments recruited from mountain peoples (Adyghe and Karachay), six *convoy* (Imperial Guard) escort half\-sotnias, two Leib Guard HIH personal sotnias, 4 infantry plastun brigades (22 battalions), a special plastun division, nine horse artillery batteries, four reserve horse regiments and three reserve plastun battalions.
[ "### Early 20th century", "Within the Empire, the Kuban land was administered through the [Kuban Oblast](/wiki/Kuban_Oblast \"Kuban Oblast\") with a semi\\-military administration. It was composed of seven subdivisions ({{transliteration\\|ru\\|otdels}}), and numbered 1\\.3 million people (278 {{transliteration\\|ru\\|stanitsas}} and 32 {{transliteration\\|ru\\|khutors}}). Kuban Cossacks formed regular units of the Imperial Russian Army as listed below. The following lists the structure prior to the outbreak of World War I, although this was re\\-organised during the conflict (see foot\\-note).", "In peacetime the Host provided 10 horse regiments making up a Kuban Cossack division, six *plastun* (infantry) battalions and six horse\\-artillery batteries; in addition to irregular and support units. The \"first\" regiments were linked to the specific locales that they were recruited from, although they would often be deployed elsewhere in the Empire. In wartime, recruits were drafted from each region to form \"second\" regiments during the stage of initial mobilization. If further manpower was required, a \"third\" regiment would be formed to be dispatched as reinforcements. During World War One a total of 37 horse (cavalry) regiments were raised by the Kuban Cossack Host.", "[thumb\\|A 1916 map of Kuban Oblast with the neighboring [Black Sea Governorate](/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate \"Black Sea Governorate\") and part of [Sukhumi Okrug](/wiki/Sukhumi_Okrug \"Sukhumi Okrug\") {{in lang\\|ru}}](/wiki/File:Map_of_Kuban_Oblast_%281916%29.jpg \"Map of Kuban Oblast (1916).jpg\")\n**Regiments:**\n* 1st and 2nd Kuban Life Guard sotnias of His Imperial Majesty's personal convoy (a special unit of the [Imperial Guard](/wiki/Imperial_Guard_%28Russia%29 \"Imperial Guard (Russia)\") acting for personal protection of the monarch)\n* 1st Khopyor regiment \"Her Imperial Highness [Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Anastasia_Mikhailovna_of_Russia \"Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia\")\"\n* 1st Kuban regiment \"General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia \"Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia\")\"\n* 1st Zaporozhian regiment \"Empress [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_the_Great \"Catherine the Great\")\"\n* 1st Yekaterinodar regiment \"Kosh Ataman [Chepiga](/wiki/Zakhary_Chepiha \"Zakhary Chepiha\")\"\n* 1st Poltavskaya regiment \"Yekatrinoslav Viceroy General Field Marshal Prince [Potyomkin\\-Tavrichesky](/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin \"Grigory Potemkin\")\"\n* 1st Umanskaya regiment \"Brigadier [Golovaty](/wiki/Antin_Holovaty \"Antin Holovaty\")\"\n* 1st Taman regiment \"General [Bezkrovny](/wiki/Alexey_Bezrkovny \"Alexey Bezrkovny\")\"\n* 1st Laba regiment \"General [Zass](/wiki/Grigory_Zass \"Grigory Zass\")\"\n* 1st Line regiment \"General [Velyaminov](/wiki/Nikolaya_Velyaminov \"Nikolaya Velyaminov\")\"\n* 1st Black Sea regiment \"Colonel [Bursak](/wiki/Fyodor_Bursak \"Fyodor Bursak\")\"", "**Divisions:**\n* Kuban Cossack Division (after the outbreak of World War I, the Russian Army began reforming this system along modern lines, but only one division was in existence in 1914\\)", "**Plastuns:**\n* 1st Kuban [plastun](/wiki/Plastun \"Plastun\") battalion \"General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia \"Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia\")\"\n* 2nd through 6th Kuban plastun battalions", "As noted the *plastun* units served as infantry. On mobilization an additional six battalions (numbered 7th through 12th) were added to the peacetime establishment, and a further two (13th and 14th) raised as reserve units. The effectiveness of these units was demonstrated during the war, particularly the [Caucasus Front](/wiki/Caucasus_Front_%28Russian_Republic%29 \"Caucasus Front (Russian Republic)\") and by 1917 a total of 22 battalions, comprising one division plus four brigades, were on active service. A further three battalions were in reserve.", "Horse artillery:\n* 1st Kuban Cossack battery \"General Field Marshal [Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia \"Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia\")\"\n* 2nd through 5th Kuban Cossack batteries.", "In addition there four commands that were responsible for support and home front organisation in the Kuban (supplies, hospitals etc.): Ust\\-Labinskaya, Armavirskaya, Labinskaya and Batalpashinskaya.", "From 1914 to 1917 the Kuban Cossack Host committed a total of 89 thousand men to the Russian war effort. These included 37 horse regiments, a cavalry division, 2 mounted regiments recruited from mountain peoples (Adyghe and Karachay), six *convoy* (Imperial Guard) escort half\\-sotnias, two Leib Guard HIH personal sotnias, 4 infantry plastun brigades (22 battalions), a special plastun division, nine horse artillery batteries, four reserve horse regiments and three reserve plastun battalions.", "" ]
History ------- Kraut's first performance was opening for [The Clash](/wiki/The_Clash "The Clash") at [Bonds International Casino](/wiki/Bonds_International_Casino "Bonds International Casino") in New York on June 11, 1981\. Their debut single, "Kill for Cash", and second single, "Unemployed", were both released in 1981 on the band's own Cabbage Records label. While recording their debut album, *An Adjustment to Society* (produced by Ryk Oakley), they opened for [the Professionals](/wiki/The_Professionals_%28band%29 "The Professionals (band)") at [The Channel](/wiki/The_Channel_%28nightclub%29 "The Channel (nightclub)") in Boston. Former [Sex Pistols](/wiki/Sex_Pistols "Sex Pistols") guitarist [Steve Jones](/wiki/Steve_Jones_%28musician%29 "Steve Jones (musician)") became friends with Kraut and recorded extra guitar tracks for three tracks on the album: "Kill for Cash", "Sell Out" and "Onward". The album was again self\-released, distributed by [Faulty Products](/wiki/Faulty_Products "Faulty Products"). A video clip for "All Twisted" appeared in rotation on [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV"), making Kraut the first independent band to be played on the station. The band released a mini\-album, *Whetting the Scythe*, in 1984, and toured the U.S. By the mid\-1980s, Kraut had added second guitarist Christopher Smith from [Battalion of Saints](/wiki/Battalion_of_Saints "Battalion of Saints"), and developed a more [hard rock](/wiki/Hard_rock "Hard rock")/[metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music "Heavy metal music") sound. Guitarist Holland went on to play for [New York hardcore](/wiki/New_York_hardcore "New York hardcore") band the [Cro\-Mags](/wiki/Cro-Mags "Cro-Mags"). A Kraut reunion show with all four original members took place in 2002 at [CBGB](/wiki/CBGB "CBGB") during the *[New York Thrash](/wiki/New_York_Thrash "New York Thrash")* reunion, yielding the *Live at CBGB's* album.
[ "History\n-------", "Kraut's first performance was opening for [The Clash](/wiki/The_Clash \"The Clash\") at [Bonds International Casino](/wiki/Bonds_International_Casino \"Bonds International Casino\") in New York on June 11, 1981\\.", "Their debut single, \"Kill for Cash\", and second single, \"Unemployed\", were both released in 1981 on the band's own Cabbage Records label.", "While recording their debut album, *An Adjustment to Society* (produced by Ryk Oakley), they opened for [the Professionals](/wiki/The_Professionals_%28band%29 \"The Professionals (band)\") at [The Channel](/wiki/The_Channel_%28nightclub%29 \"The Channel (nightclub)\") in Boston. Former [Sex Pistols](/wiki/Sex_Pistols \"Sex Pistols\") guitarist [Steve Jones](/wiki/Steve_Jones_%28musician%29 \"Steve Jones (musician)\") became friends with Kraut and recorded extra guitar tracks for three tracks on the album: \"Kill for Cash\", \"Sell Out\" and \"Onward\". The album was again self\\-released, distributed by [Faulty Products](/wiki/Faulty_Products \"Faulty Products\"). A video clip for \"All Twisted\" appeared in rotation on [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\"), making Kraut the first independent band to be played on the station.", "The band released a mini\\-album, *Whetting the Scythe*, in 1984, and toured the U.S.", "By the mid\\-1980s, Kraut had added second guitarist Christopher Smith from [Battalion of Saints](/wiki/Battalion_of_Saints \"Battalion of Saints\"), and developed a more [hard rock](/wiki/Hard_rock \"Hard rock\")/[metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music \"Heavy metal music\") sound.", "Guitarist Holland went on to play for [New York hardcore](/wiki/New_York_hardcore \"New York hardcore\") band the [Cro\\-Mags](/wiki/Cro-Mags \"Cro-Mags\").", "A Kraut reunion show with all four original members took place in 2002 at [CBGB](/wiki/CBGB \"CBGB\") during the *[New York Thrash](/wiki/New_York_Thrash \"New York Thrash\")* reunion, yielding the *Live at CBGB's* album.", "" ]
18th century ------------ | **Historical population of Newtown**<https://web.archive.org/web/20080216021023/http://www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionVII/SecVIITOC.htm> | | | --- | --- | | 1756 | 1,253 | | 1774 | 2,229 | | 1782 | 2,404 | | 1790 | 2,764 | | 1800 | 2,903 | | 1810 | 2,834 | | 1820 | 2,879 | | 1830 | 3,096 | | 1840 | 3,189 | | 1850 | 3,338 | | 1860 | 3,578 | | 1870 | 3,681 | | 1880 | 4,013 | | 1890 | 3,539 | | 1900 | 3,276 | | 1910 | 3,012 | | 1920 | 2,751 | | 1930 | 2,635 | | 1940 | 4,023 | | 1950 | 7,448 | | 1960 | 11,373 | | 1970 | 16,942 | | 1980 | 19,107 | | 1990 | 20,779 | | 2000 | 25,031 | | Newtown Meeting House served as the town's Congregational Church for many years. The town of Newtown, originally known as Quanneapague, was purchased from the [Pohtatuck Indians](/wiki/Potatuck "Potatuck") in 1705\. In 1708, 36 Connecticut Englishmen petitioned the General Assembly to settle an area north of [Stratford](/wiki/Stratford%2C_Connecticut "Stratford, Connecticut") (at least seven men previously had been given permission to settle the area). The 36 became "petition proprietors" legally entitled to own its common land and share in the division when the town decided to parcel out tracts into private hands. The town was incorporated in 1711\.<http://www.newtownhistory.org/newtownhistory.htm> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207011059/http://www.newtownhistory.org/newtownhistory.htm \|date\=2012\-02\-07 }} Cruson, Daniel, "A Brief History of Newtown" Web page at Newtown Historical Society Web site, accessed March 28, 2007 In 1709, a "Town Plat" (essentially a planned design for the town's roads and properties) was established. The plan called for a {{convert\|132\|ft\|m\|sing\=on}} wide north–south road (now Main Street), intersected by a northern and southern Cross Highway (now West Street, Church Hill Road and Glover Avenue [Route 302](/wiki/Connecticut_Route_302 "Connecticut Route 302")). {{convert\|4\|acre\|m2\|sing\=on}} home lots were distributed in 1710 to proprietors, which then totaled 48 men. A 49th parcel was reserved for the minister when one was chosen. The town's first settlers had a lot in common. They were generally in their late 20s and early 30s, mostly from [Stratford](/wiki/Stratford%2C_Connecticut "Stratford, Connecticut") and [Milford](/wiki/Milford%2C_Connecticut "Milford, Connecticut"), and second\- and third\-generation immigrants and farmers to a man. A move to the interior meant they could have more land to farm. Most of the men settled with their families on the original {{convert\|4\|acre\|m2\|sing\=on}} plots in a relatively compact village near the main street. Their houses were built in the [saltbox](/wiki/Saltbox "Saltbox") or [Cape Cod cottage](/wiki/Cape_Cod_%28house%29 "Cape Cod (house)") style and were 1½ or 2 stories high. In the back were [barns](/wiki/Barn "Barn"), privies and other small outbuildings, and typically an orchard farther back. Small gardens were started for vegetables and herbs. Originally, each proprietor's property was scattered. In addition to the {{convert\|4\|acre\|m2\|sing\=on}} plots for homes, land was given out for planting and grazing land. The first division gave each proprietor a {{convert\|4\|acre\|m2\|sing\=on}} meadow lot to the south of the village, near Deep Brook. Then a division was made for {{convert\|4\|acre\|m2}} for "pitch" — parcels for crop fields near the village. Then each received a {{convert\|20\|acre\|m2\|sing\=on}} parcel somewhere else in town. Almost all of the town's land was divided up within 20 years. For convenience, proprietors began moving away from the central village and to some of their larger parcels, and several proprietors with land in the same area tended to move out together to reduce isolation. One of the first of these outlying settlements was [Sandy Hook](/wiki/Sandy_Hook%2C_Connecticut "Sandy Hook, Connecticut"), settled within a year of the start of the village. The Potatuck River at Sandy Hook allowed for the setting up of saw and grist mills. Other concentrations of settlers (as seen from the establishment of schools) were at the area around Taunton Lake (school founded in 1738\); Zoar to the east and Land's End to the north (both in 1748\); Palestine petitioned for a school in 1748; Hanover got its school in 1755\. By 1760 the town had seven school districts, including two in the village. There were 20 by 1794\. (The districts were abolished in the 1920s, but their names have survived and are still use in designating various neighborhoods or areas of town. Other names include [Dodgingtown](/wiki/Dodgingtown%2C_Connecticut "Dodgingtown, Connecticut"), [Hattertown](/wiki/Hattertown%2C_Connecticut "Hattertown, Connecticut"), Lake George, and Head O'Meadow.) ### American Revolution Newtown was a stronghold of [Tory](/wiki/Loyalist_%28American_Revolution%29 "Loyalist (American Revolution)") sentiment during the early [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War"). French General [Rochambeau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Donatien_de_Vimeur%2C_comte_de_Rochambeau "Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau") and his troops encamped here in 1781 on their way to the [siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown "Siege of Yorktown"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), which ended the Revolution. The rooster weathervane (a town symbol), located atop the Newtown Meeting House, is said to have been used as a target by French soldiers encamped here in 1781 during the Revolutionary War.
[ "18th century\n------------", "", "| **Historical population of Newtown**<https://web.archive.org/web/20080216021023/http://www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionVII/SecVIITOC.htm> | |\n| --- | --- |\n| 1756 | 1,253 |\n| 1774 | 2,229 |\n| 1782 | 2,404 |\n| 1790 | 2,764 |\n| 1800 | 2,903 |\n| 1810 | 2,834 |\n| 1820 | 2,879 |\n| 1830 | 3,096 |\n| 1840 | 3,189 |\n| 1850 | 3,338 |\n| 1860 | 3,578 |\n| 1870 | 3,681 |\n| 1880 | 4,013 |\n| 1890 | 3,539 |\n| 1900 | 3,276 |\n| 1910 | 3,012 |\n| 1920 | 2,751 |\n| 1930 | 2,635 |\n| 1940 | 4,023 |\n| 1950 | 7,448 |\n| 1960 | 11,373 |\n| 1970 | 16,942 |\n| 1980 | 19,107 |\n| 1990 | 20,779 |\n| 2000 | 25,031 |\n|", "Newtown Meeting House served as the town's Congregational Church for many years.", "The town of Newtown, originally known as Quanneapague, was purchased from the [Pohtatuck Indians](/wiki/Potatuck \"Potatuck\") in 1705\\. In 1708, 36 Connecticut Englishmen petitioned the General Assembly to settle an area north of [Stratford](/wiki/Stratford%2C_Connecticut \"Stratford, Connecticut\") (at least seven men previously had been given permission to settle the area). The 36 became \"petition proprietors\" legally entitled to own its common land and share in the division when the town decided to parcel out tracts into private hands. The town was incorporated in 1711\\.<http://www.newtownhistory.org/newtownhistory.htm> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207011059/http://www.newtownhistory.org/newtownhistory.htm \\|date\\=2012\\-02\\-07 }} Cruson, Daniel, \"A Brief History of Newtown\" Web page at Newtown Historical Society Web site, accessed March 28, 2007", "In 1709, a \"Town Plat\" (essentially a planned design for the town's roads and properties) was established. The plan called for a {{convert\\|132\\|ft\\|m\\|sing\\=on}} wide north–south road (now Main Street), intersected by a northern and southern Cross Highway (now West Street, Church Hill Road and Glover Avenue [Route 302](/wiki/Connecticut_Route_302 \"Connecticut Route 302\")). {{convert\\|4\\|acre\\|m2\\|sing\\=on}} home lots were distributed in 1710 to proprietors, which then totaled 48 men. A 49th parcel was reserved for the minister when one was chosen.", "The town's first settlers had a lot in common. They were generally in their late 20s and early 30s, mostly from [Stratford](/wiki/Stratford%2C_Connecticut \"Stratford, Connecticut\") and [Milford](/wiki/Milford%2C_Connecticut \"Milford, Connecticut\"), and second\\- and third\\-generation immigrants and farmers to a man. A move to the interior meant they could have more land to farm. Most of the men settled with their families on the original {{convert\\|4\\|acre\\|m2\\|sing\\=on}} plots in a relatively compact village near the main street.", "Their houses were built in the [saltbox](/wiki/Saltbox \"Saltbox\") or [Cape Cod cottage](/wiki/Cape_Cod_%28house%29 \"Cape Cod (house)\") style and were 1½ or 2 stories high. In the back were [barns](/wiki/Barn \"Barn\"), privies and other small outbuildings, and typically an orchard farther back. Small gardens were started for vegetables and herbs.", "Originally, each proprietor's property was scattered. In addition to the {{convert\\|4\\|acre\\|m2\\|sing\\=on}} plots for homes, land was given out for planting and grazing land. The first division gave each proprietor a {{convert\\|4\\|acre\\|m2\\|sing\\=on}} meadow lot to the south of the village, near Deep Brook. Then a division was made for {{convert\\|4\\|acre\\|m2}} for \"pitch\" — parcels for crop fields near the village. Then each received a {{convert\\|20\\|acre\\|m2\\|sing\\=on}} parcel somewhere else in town. Almost all of the town's land was divided up within 20 years.", "For convenience, proprietors began moving away from the central village and to some of their larger parcels, and several proprietors with land in the same area tended to move out together to reduce isolation. One of the first of these outlying settlements was [Sandy Hook](/wiki/Sandy_Hook%2C_Connecticut \"Sandy Hook, Connecticut\"), settled within a year of the start of the village. The Potatuck River at Sandy Hook allowed for the setting up of saw and grist mills.", "Other concentrations of settlers (as seen from the establishment of schools) were at the area around Taunton Lake (school founded in 1738\\); Zoar to the east and Land's End to the north (both in 1748\\); Palestine petitioned for a school in 1748; Hanover got its school in 1755\\. By 1760 the town had seven school districts, including two in the village. There were 20 by 1794\\. (The districts were abolished in the 1920s, but their names have survived and are still use in designating various neighborhoods or areas of town. Other names include [Dodgingtown](/wiki/Dodgingtown%2C_Connecticut \"Dodgingtown, Connecticut\"), [Hattertown](/wiki/Hattertown%2C_Connecticut \"Hattertown, Connecticut\"), Lake George, and Head O'Meadow.)", "### American Revolution", "Newtown was a stronghold of [Tory](/wiki/Loyalist_%28American_Revolution%29 \"Loyalist (American Revolution)\") sentiment during the early [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\"). French General [Rochambeau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Donatien_de_Vimeur%2C_comte_de_Rochambeau \"Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau\") and his troops encamped here in 1781 on their way to the [siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown \"Siege of Yorktown\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), which ended the Revolution.", "The rooster weathervane (a town symbol), located atop the Newtown Meeting House, is said to have been used as a target by French soldiers encamped here in 1781 during the Revolutionary War.", "" ]
19th century ------------ [thumb\|right\|250px\|Railroad tunnel, from a postcard sent in 1905](/wiki/Image:PostcardNewtownTheTunnel1905.jpg "PostcardNewtownTheTunnel1905.jpg") In the early 19th century, several small industries developed along the town's rivers, which supplied power to the water wheels of shops and mills. [Hat making](/wiki/Hat_making "Hat making") was an early industry, but the several small shops that developed were put out of business by the 1880s by the larger, more efficient factories in [Danbury](/wiki/Danbury%2C_Connecticut "Danbury, Connecticut") and [Bethel](/wiki/Bethel%2C_Connecticut "Bethel, Connecticut").<http://www.newtownhistory.org/nineteenthcentury.htm> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229014111/http://www.newtownhistory.org/nineteenthcentury.htm \|date\=2006\-12\-29 }} Cruson, Daniel, "Newtown in the Nineteenth Century", Web page/article at the Newtown Historical Society Web site Button and comb production thrived until the late 19th century. Both buttons and combs were made from the horns, bones and hooves of animals, all plentiful in an agricultural town. At one point there were 14 button shops, but after the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), plastic began to replace the older materials and the industry shriveled. Two button shops remained in 1900, one of which finally went out of business after a fire in 1926\. The other, S. Curtis and Co., survived by remaking itself into a manufacturer of cardboard boxes and is now Curtis Packaging, Inc. An important crossroads throughout its early history, the village of [Hawleyville](/wiki/Hawleyville "Hawleyville") briefly emerged as a [railroad](/wiki/Railroad "Railroad") center and the town's population grew to over 4,000 circa 1881\. In the following decades, the population dwindled to a low of 2,635 in 1930 before again growing. Local industry has included the manufacture of furniture, tea bags, combs, fire hose, folding boxes, buttons, and hats, as well as farming and mica and feldspar mining. The town flag pole, which remains a prominent landmark, was first erected in 1876\. *The Newtown Bee*, the weekly newspaper based in town, was founded in 1877, and owned (and operated) by the Smith family since 1881\. ### Irish [thumb\|right\|350px\|Postcard: "Bird's Eye View of Newtown" sent January 10, 1900](/wiki/Image:PostcardBirdsEyeViewOfNewtownCT1900.jpg "PostcardBirdsEyeViewOfNewtownCT1900.jpg") The town experienced a big change with an influx of Irish immigrants, many of whom came through the area as railroad workers in the early 19th century and stayed to farm land abandoned by earlier farmers.[http://www.newtownbee.com/news.asp?s\=news\-2007\-03\-15\-13\-45\-58p1\.htm](http://www.newtownbee.com/news.asp?s=news-2007-03-15-13-45-58p1.htm) Crevier, Nancy K., "Newtown: Not Just A Little Irish", article in *The Newtown Bee*, March 15, 2007 Most of the early Irish residents lived in the [Sandy Hook](/wiki/Sandy_Hook%2C_Connecticut "Sandy Hook, Connecticut") and Walnut Tree Hill neighborhoods, as well as farms along Route 25 in the [Botsford](/wiki/Botsford%2C_Connecticut "Botsford, Connecticut") section of town. "The Irish were very polarizing socially, religiously, and politically in town," said Daniel Cruson, the town historian, in a 2007 interview. "There was very little Catholic presence in town when the Irish moved in, and with the increase in the Irish population, St. Rose (Roman Catholic Church) saw a big lift in membership, for instance." As more Irish moved into town in the 19th century, they changed the town's political majority from Republican to Democrat. The proportion of the town's [Irish\-American](/wiki/Irish-American "Irish-American") population went from 5\.6 percent in 1850 to 41\.8 percent in 1890, and by 1900 it was up to 44 percent. Many of the immigrants came to Newtown from one small area of [County Clare](/wiki/County_Clare "County Clare"), according to Harlan Jessup, a local genealogist. Many found work in the local factories and button shops. At one point, according to Jessup, the New York Belting and Packing rubber factory in town employed 200 people — 185 of whom were Irish. Many Irishwomen worked as domestic laborers, seamstresses and lace makers. Tensions between the Yankees and Irish ran high. One Irishmen, James E. Madigan, published the popular *Newtown Chronicle* from 1880 to 1882, a Democratic, working\-class rival to *The Newtown Bee*, a self\-professed independent newspaper then hobbled by poor management. The *Chronicle* devoted one page of each four\-page issue to news from Ireland. Not until after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") were the Irish finally accepted, according to Cruson.
[ "19th century\n------------", "[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Railroad tunnel, from a postcard sent in 1905](/wiki/Image:PostcardNewtownTheTunnel1905.jpg \"PostcardNewtownTheTunnel1905.jpg\")\nIn the early 19th century, several small industries developed along the town's rivers, which supplied power to the water wheels of shops and mills. [Hat making](/wiki/Hat_making \"Hat making\") was an early industry, but the several small shops that developed were put out of business by the 1880s by the larger, more efficient factories in [Danbury](/wiki/Danbury%2C_Connecticut \"Danbury, Connecticut\") and [Bethel](/wiki/Bethel%2C_Connecticut \"Bethel, Connecticut\").<http://www.newtownhistory.org/nineteenthcentury.htm> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229014111/http://www.newtownhistory.org/nineteenthcentury.htm \\|date\\=2006\\-12\\-29 }} Cruson, Daniel, \"Newtown in the Nineteenth Century\", Web page/article at the Newtown Historical Society Web site", "Button and comb production thrived until the late 19th century. Both buttons and combs were made from the horns, bones and hooves of animals, all plentiful in an agricultural town. At one point there were 14 button shops, but after the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), plastic began to replace the older materials and the industry shriveled. Two button shops remained in 1900, one of which finally went out of business after a fire in 1926\\. The other, S. Curtis and Co., survived by remaking itself into a manufacturer of cardboard boxes and is now Curtis Packaging, Inc.", "An important crossroads throughout its early history, the village of [Hawleyville](/wiki/Hawleyville \"Hawleyville\") briefly emerged as a [railroad](/wiki/Railroad \"Railroad\") center and the town's population grew to over 4,000 circa 1881\\. In the following decades, the population dwindled to a low of 2,635 in 1930 before again growing.", "Local industry has included the manufacture of furniture, tea bags, combs, fire hose, folding boxes, buttons, and hats, as well as farming and mica and feldspar mining.", "The town flag pole, which remains a prominent landmark, was first erected in 1876\\.", "*The Newtown Bee*, the weekly newspaper based in town, was founded in 1877, and owned (and operated) by the Smith family since 1881\\.", "### Irish", "[thumb\\|right\\|350px\\|Postcard: \"Bird's Eye View of Newtown\" sent January 10, 1900](/wiki/Image:PostcardBirdsEyeViewOfNewtownCT1900.jpg \"PostcardBirdsEyeViewOfNewtownCT1900.jpg\")\nThe town experienced a big change with an influx of Irish immigrants, many of whom came through the area as railroad workers in the early 19th century and stayed to farm land abandoned by earlier farmers.[http://www.newtownbee.com/news.asp?s\\=news\\-2007\\-03\\-15\\-13\\-45\\-58p1\\.htm](http://www.newtownbee.com/news.asp?s=news-2007-03-15-13-45-58p1.htm) Crevier, Nancy K., \"Newtown: Not Just A Little Irish\", article in *The Newtown Bee*, March 15, 2007", "Most of the early Irish residents lived in the [Sandy Hook](/wiki/Sandy_Hook%2C_Connecticut \"Sandy Hook, Connecticut\") and Walnut Tree Hill neighborhoods, as well as farms along Route 25 in the [Botsford](/wiki/Botsford%2C_Connecticut \"Botsford, Connecticut\") section of town. \"The Irish were very polarizing socially, religiously, and politically in town,\" said Daniel Cruson, the town historian, in a 2007 interview. \"There was very little Catholic presence in town when the Irish moved in, and with the increase in the Irish population, St. Rose (Roman Catholic Church) saw a big lift in membership, for instance.\" As more Irish moved into town in the 19th century, they changed the town's political majority from Republican to Democrat.", "The proportion of the town's [Irish\\-American](/wiki/Irish-American \"Irish-American\") population went from 5\\.6 percent in 1850 to 41\\.8 percent in 1890, and by 1900 it was up to 44 percent. Many of the immigrants came to Newtown from one small area of [County Clare](/wiki/County_Clare \"County Clare\"), according to Harlan Jessup, a local genealogist.", "Many found work in the local factories and button shops. At one point, according to Jessup, the New York Belting and Packing rubber factory in town employed 200 people — 185 of whom were Irish. Many Irishwomen worked as domestic laborers, seamstresses and lace makers.", "Tensions between the Yankees and Irish ran high. One Irishmen, James E. Madigan, published the popular *Newtown Chronicle* from 1880 to 1882, a Democratic, working\\-class rival to *The Newtown Bee*, a self\\-professed independent newspaper then hobbled by poor management. The *Chronicle* devoted one page of each four\\-page issue to news from Ireland. Not until after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") were the Irish finally accepted, according to Cruson.", "" ]
History ------- The [Franciscans](/wiki/Franciscans "Franciscans") arrived to Loro Piceno by 1362, and likely soon after founded a monastery and adjacent church. The latter was consecrated in 1372\. The monastery was suppressed only by the Napoleonic invasion, and even afterward some five monks returned after the complex was reassigned to the order after the restoration of Papal government. By then much of the convent became used for other activities including a school. The sacristy had been used in the 18th century as a town archive. Between the seventeenth and nineteenth century, the total number altars inside the church was reduced to five. In 1793, the wooden choir stalls were moved. The conterfacade held an organ built by [Gaetano Callido](/wiki/Gaetano_Callido "Gaetano Callido"). The front of the nave once had wooden benches reserved for the nobility of the town; these were moved to the council chamber. Also lost from the church is a 19th\-century silver bas\-relief designed by sculptor [Luigi Fontana](/wiki/Luigi_Fontana "Luigi Fontana") of Montesampietrangeli; the bas relief had been made as a votive offering to the Virgin for an event, interpreted as miraculous, occurring in October 1858, when during the recitation of the Rosary, lightning struck the church, but left all the parishioners inside unharmed. In 1828 Luigi Silvestri built the chapel of the Santissimo Crocifisso, to display a copy of the Crucifix of [Lanciano](/wiki/Lanciano "Lanciano"). The church underwent a major restoration in 1956–1958\. The church still maintains rich collections of paintings. In houses on one of the altars a wooden Madonna of the Rosary (1680\), attributed to [Sebastiano Sebastiani](/wiki/Sebastiano_Sebastiani "Sebastiano Sebastiani"). In the lateral altars are paintings depicting: * *The Apparition of the Virgin to the Blessed Liberato during his illness* * *The Temptation of St Anthony Abott* * *St. Anthony of Padua* (1771\) by [Filippo de Conti](/wiki/Filippo_de_Conti "Filippo de Conti") * *The Ecstasy of St [Joseph of Cupertino](/wiki/Joseph_of_Cupertino "Joseph of Cupertino")* * *A Madonna of Loreto* * *The Blessed Liberato praying with his companions Umile and Pacifico* (1924\) derived from the Gabinetto del Sindaco nel Palazzo Municipale. The main altarpiece depicts a *Madonna del Rosario* (Madonna of the Rosary), painted in 1581–1590, and attributed to [Giuseppe Bastiani](/wiki/Giuseppe_Bastiani "Giuseppe Bastiani") of Macerata, who often painted mannerist, provincial devotional subjects, and a pupil of [Gaspare Gasparini](/wiki/Gaspare_Gasparini "Gaspare Gasparini") and follower of the [Zuccari](/wiki/Federico_Zuccari "Federico Zuccari"). The work was commissioned by the Confraternity of the Rosary, founded in 1573, and officiating at an altar in this church. The painting has a complex iconography: it contains a central scene and is garlanded around the frame with fifteen scenes representing the *[Mysteries of the Rosary](/wiki/Mysteries_of_the_Rosary "Mysteries of the Rosary")*. The central scene depicts and enthroned Madonna and child Jesus with angels: nearest to them, the Madonna passes St Dominic the rosary, while the Child Jesus gives St Francis a red cross. These two saints are flanked in the central panel includes the next most prominent Dominican and Franciscan male and female saints: respectively, standing, [St Peter Martyr](/wiki/St_Peter_Martyr "St Peter Martyr") and [St Anthony of Padua](/wiki/St_Anthony_of_Padua "St Anthony of Padua"); and kneeling, [St Catherine of Siena](/wiki/St_Catherine_of_Siena "St Catherine of Siena") and [St Clare of Assisi](/wiki/St_Clare_of_Assisi "St Clare of Assisi"). The canvas is also crowded below with both religious and secular leaders showing devotion to the institutions of the rosary and cross. Some identify among them [Pope Pius V](/wiki/Pope_Pius_V "Pope Pius V"), a former Dominican friar; Cardinal [Carlo Bonelli](/wiki/Carlo_Bonelli "Carlo Bonelli"), Pius' nephew; [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria "John of Austria"), the Spanish admiral for King [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain "Philip II of Spain"). All were leaders in forming coalition that checked the Ottoman navy in the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto"). Pope Pius V had called for prayers of the Rosary prior to the battle, and afterward declared the Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary is on October 7, would be held on the anniversary of the 1571 battle. The fifteen scenes are represented by the five Joyful (gaudiosi), five Sorrowful (dolorosi), and five Glorious (gloriosi) Mysteries.[Comune of Loro Piceno](http://www.comune.loropiceno.mc.it/chiesa-di-san-francesco/), entry on church by Chiara Negromanti Tini.
[ "History\n-------", "The [Franciscans](/wiki/Franciscans \"Franciscans\") arrived to Loro Piceno by 1362, and likely soon after founded a monastery and adjacent church. The latter was consecrated in 1372\\. The monastery was suppressed only by the Napoleonic invasion, and even afterward some five monks returned after the complex was reassigned to the order after the restoration of Papal government. By then much of the convent became used for other activities including a school. The sacristy had been used in the 18th century as a town archive.", "Between the seventeenth and nineteenth century, the total number altars inside the church was reduced to five. In 1793, the wooden choir stalls were moved. The conterfacade held an organ built by [Gaetano Callido](/wiki/Gaetano_Callido \"Gaetano Callido\"). The front of the nave once had wooden benches reserved for the nobility of the town; these were moved to the council chamber. Also lost from the church is a 19th\\-century silver bas\\-relief designed by sculptor [Luigi Fontana](/wiki/Luigi_Fontana \"Luigi Fontana\") of Montesampietrangeli; the bas relief had been made as a votive offering to the Virgin for an event, interpreted as miraculous, occurring in October 1858, when during the recitation of the Rosary, lightning struck the church, but left all the parishioners inside unharmed. In 1828 Luigi Silvestri built the chapel of the Santissimo Crocifisso, to display a copy of the Crucifix of [Lanciano](/wiki/Lanciano \"Lanciano\"). The church underwent a major restoration in 1956–1958\\.", "The church still maintains rich collections of paintings. In houses on one of the altars a wooden Madonna of the Rosary (1680\\), attributed to [Sebastiano Sebastiani](/wiki/Sebastiano_Sebastiani \"Sebastiano Sebastiani\"). In the lateral altars are paintings depicting: \n* *The Apparition of the Virgin to the Blessed Liberato during his illness*\n* *The Temptation of St Anthony Abott*\n* *St. Anthony of Padua* (1771\\) by [Filippo de Conti](/wiki/Filippo_de_Conti \"Filippo de Conti\")\n* *The Ecstasy of St [Joseph of Cupertino](/wiki/Joseph_of_Cupertino \"Joseph of Cupertino\")*\n* *A Madonna of Loreto*\n* *The Blessed Liberato praying with his companions Umile and Pacifico* (1924\\) derived from the Gabinetto del Sindaco nel Palazzo Municipale.", "The main altarpiece depicts a *Madonna del Rosario* (Madonna of the Rosary), painted in 1581–1590, and attributed to [Giuseppe Bastiani](/wiki/Giuseppe_Bastiani \"Giuseppe Bastiani\") of Macerata, who often painted mannerist, provincial devotional subjects, and a pupil of [Gaspare Gasparini](/wiki/Gaspare_Gasparini \"Gaspare Gasparini\") and follower of the [Zuccari](/wiki/Federico_Zuccari \"Federico Zuccari\"). The work was commissioned by the Confraternity of the Rosary, founded in 1573, and officiating at an altar in this church. The painting has a complex iconography: it contains a central scene and is garlanded around the frame with fifteen scenes representing the *[Mysteries of the Rosary](/wiki/Mysteries_of_the_Rosary \"Mysteries of the Rosary\")*.", "The central scene depicts and enthroned Madonna and child Jesus with angels: nearest to them, the Madonna passes St Dominic the rosary, while the Child Jesus gives St Francis a red cross. These two saints are flanked in the central panel includes the next most prominent Dominican and Franciscan male and female saints: respectively, standing, [St Peter Martyr](/wiki/St_Peter_Martyr \"St Peter Martyr\") and [St Anthony of Padua](/wiki/St_Anthony_of_Padua \"St Anthony of Padua\"); and kneeling, [St Catherine of Siena](/wiki/St_Catherine_of_Siena \"St Catherine of Siena\") and [St Clare of Assisi](/wiki/St_Clare_of_Assisi \"St Clare of Assisi\"). The canvas is also crowded below with both religious and secular leaders showing devotion to the institutions of the rosary and cross. Some identify among them [Pope Pius V](/wiki/Pope_Pius_V \"Pope Pius V\"), a former Dominican friar; Cardinal [Carlo Bonelli](/wiki/Carlo_Bonelli \"Carlo Bonelli\"), Pius' nephew; [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria \"John of Austria\"), the Spanish admiral for King [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\"). All were leaders in forming coalition that checked the Ottoman navy in the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\"). Pope Pius V had called for prayers of the Rosary prior to the battle, and afterward declared the Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary is on October 7, would be held on the anniversary of the 1571 battle. The fifteen scenes are represented by the five Joyful (gaudiosi), five Sorrowful (dolorosi), and five Glorious (gloriosi) Mysteries.[Comune of Loro Piceno](http://www.comune.loropiceno.mc.it/chiesa-di-san-francesco/), entry on church by Chiara Negromanti Tini.", "" ]
Geography --------- {{Further\|Geography of Niger}} [thumb\|right\|Grazing on an island in the [Niger River](/wiki/Niger_River "Niger River")](/wiki/File:ILRI%2C_Stevie_Mann_-_Livestock_graze_on_an_island_in_the_Niger.jpg "ILRI, Stevie Mann - Livestock graze on an island in the Niger.jpg") As a landlocked country of the sub\-Saharan region, its topography is covered with sand dunes, deserts, uplands and so forth, spread over three broad regions: the northern desert zone; the middle zone comprising the semi\-arid zone; and the southwest zone which has fertile terrain. It shares international borders with [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria"), [Chad](/wiki/Chad "Chad"), [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria "Algeria"), [Mali](/wiki/Mali "Mali"), [Burkina Faso](/wiki/Burkina_Faso "Burkina Faso"), [Benin](/wiki/Benin "Benin") and [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"). Wildlife crosses the borders freely, so national parks and reserves are managed under joint cooperation programs where possible.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.our\-africa.org/niger/geography\-wildlife\|title\=Geography \& Wildlife:Our Planet, Regions of Niger\|access\-date\=17 March 2013\|publisher\=Our Africa Org.}} Niger is comparatively flat with the lowest point at {{Convert\|200\|m}} on the Niger River. Tertiary sediments in horizontal layers is the common geological formation in the lowlands. Plateaux created from the sediment deposits are superimposed by [laterite](/wiki/Laterite "Laterite") formations not subject to erosion. Sand deposits are a common feature in low\-lying areas. The upland areas have the scenic [Aïr Mountains](/wiki/A%C3%AFr_Mountain "Aïr Mountain") in the central north with Mount Greboun ({{Convert\|2310\|m}}), the Djado plateau in the north\-east with elevation varying between {{Convert\|800\|m}} and {{Convert\|1000\|m}}, and the [Termit Massif](/wiki/Termit_Massif "Termit Massif") which forms the central east part of the country, the maximum elevation is {{Convert\|710\|m}}. In these hilly areas rainfall is heavy compared to the lowlands surrounding them. This condition also dictates the vegetation in the hilly areas, and even [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") and [Afromontane](/wiki/Afromontane "Afromontane") species are reported. Apart from the Niger River, the other sources of perennial surface water is the [Yobe River](/wiki/Yobe_River "Yobe River"). In the southern region of the country where rainfall is adequate and has fertile and wooded landscape, dry\-land agriculture is practiced. Drainage from this mountain ranges flows into the [Niger River](/wiki/Niger_River "Niger River"), the only perennial source in the country, which flows in the southwest. It is a crucial source of water for the wildlife of the country. Another source of surface water is [Lake Chad](/wiki/Lake_Chad "Lake Chad"), which is an ephemeral lake as it gets filled only during rains, and during the dry season (January to May) puddles of water are seen. Over the years its size has reduced. Another source of water is ground water from a rich aquifer called the Iullemeden which extends into the neighboring countries of Mali and Nigeria and it is overexploited. Laws have been put in place by the three countries to prevent over extraction to avoid lowering of water table and also affecting flows into the Niger River. Oases is also a source of water in the desert region of the country. ### Climate Niger's climate, which dictates its wildlife distribution, is subtropical in the north and tropical in the south and data of [Niamey](/wiki/Niamey "Niamey") is an indicator for the entire country. Drought conditions are quite common as the monsoon rainy season is short and its distribution in the three geographical regions vary. While average rainfall for the country is reported as {{Convert\|600\|mm}}—May to September—its incidence is heavy to the extent of {{Convert\|50\|mm}} per day causing much of the flows draining out in quick time as surface flow without enriching the ground water aquifer. This condition coupled with high temperatures cause drought situation in many years affecting the vegetation. Distribution of the rainfall varies across the country. In the northern Sahara desert region (covering about 50 percent of Niger) it is only {{Convert\|100\|mm}} or less annually, the Sahelian grasslands in the south receives {{Convert\|150\|\-\|350\|mm}} during the monsoon months of June, July and August, and in the southern Sahelian zone, the annual rainfall varies between {{Convert\|350\|mm}} and {{Convert\|600\|mm}} during the monsoon months of June to September. Temperatures average between {{Convert\|30\|C}} and {{Convert\|50\|C}}. Milder cold temperatures are reported during December, January and February. It is for this that the vegetation in the wildlife of the country richness is very limited; the Savannah region recording herbaceous species of plants and trees. The annual temperature variation between northeast and the southwest is {{Convert\|16\|C}} and {{Convert\|9\|C}} respectively.
[ "Geography\n---------", "{{Further\\|Geography of Niger}}", "[thumb\\|right\\|Grazing on an island in the [Niger River](/wiki/Niger_River \"Niger River\")](/wiki/File:ILRI%2C_Stevie_Mann_-_Livestock_graze_on_an_island_in_the_Niger.jpg \"ILRI, Stevie Mann - Livestock graze on an island in the Niger.jpg\")\nAs a landlocked country of the sub\\-Saharan region, its topography is covered with sand dunes, deserts, uplands and so forth, spread over three broad regions: the northern desert zone; the middle zone comprising the semi\\-arid zone; and the southwest zone which has fertile terrain. It shares international borders with [Nigeria](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\"), [Chad](/wiki/Chad \"Chad\"), [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria \"Algeria\"), [Mali](/wiki/Mali \"Mali\"), [Burkina Faso](/wiki/Burkina_Faso \"Burkina Faso\"), [Benin](/wiki/Benin \"Benin\") and [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"). Wildlife crosses the borders freely, so national parks and reserves are managed under joint cooperation programs where possible.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.our\\-africa.org/niger/geography\\-wildlife\\|title\\=Geography \\& Wildlife:Our Planet, Regions of Niger\\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2013\\|publisher\\=Our Africa Org.}}", "Niger is comparatively flat with the lowest point at {{Convert\\|200\\|m}} on the Niger River. Tertiary sediments in horizontal layers is the common geological formation in the lowlands. Plateaux created from the sediment deposits are superimposed by [laterite](/wiki/Laterite \"Laterite\") formations not subject to erosion. Sand deposits are a common feature in low\\-lying areas. The upland areas have the scenic [Aïr Mountains](/wiki/A%C3%AFr_Mountain \"Aïr Mountain\") in the central north with Mount Greboun ({{Convert\\|2310\\|m}}), the Djado plateau in the north\\-east with elevation varying between {{Convert\\|800\\|m}} and {{Convert\\|1000\\|m}}, and the [Termit Massif](/wiki/Termit_Massif \"Termit Massif\") which forms the central east part of the country, the maximum elevation is {{Convert\\|710\\|m}}.", "In these hilly areas rainfall is heavy compared to the lowlands surrounding them. This condition also dictates the vegetation in the hilly areas, and even [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") and [Afromontane](/wiki/Afromontane \"Afromontane\") species are reported. Apart from the Niger River, the other sources of perennial surface water is the [Yobe River](/wiki/Yobe_River \"Yobe River\"). In the southern region of the country where rainfall is adequate and has fertile and wooded landscape, dry\\-land agriculture is practiced.", "Drainage from this mountain ranges flows into the [Niger River](/wiki/Niger_River \"Niger River\"), the only perennial source in the country, which flows in the southwest. It is a crucial source of water for the wildlife of the country. Another source of surface water is [Lake Chad](/wiki/Lake_Chad \"Lake Chad\"), which is an ephemeral lake as it gets filled only during rains, and during the dry season (January to May) puddles of water are seen. Over the years its size has reduced.", "Another source of water is ground water from a rich aquifer called the Iullemeden which extends into the neighboring countries of Mali and Nigeria and it is overexploited. Laws have been put in place by the three countries to prevent over extraction to avoid lowering of water table and also affecting flows into the Niger River. Oases is also a source of water in the desert region of the country.", "### Climate", "Niger's climate, which dictates its wildlife distribution, is subtropical in the north and tropical in the south and data of [Niamey](/wiki/Niamey \"Niamey\") is an indicator for the entire country. Drought conditions are quite common as the monsoon rainy season is short and its distribution in the three geographical regions vary.", "While average rainfall for the country is reported as {{Convert\\|600\\|mm}}—May to September—its incidence is heavy to the extent of {{Convert\\|50\\|mm}} per day causing much of the flows draining out in quick time as surface flow without enriching the ground water aquifer. This condition coupled with high temperatures cause drought situation in many years affecting the vegetation.", "Distribution of the rainfall varies across the country. In the northern Sahara desert region (covering about 50 percent of Niger) it is only {{Convert\\|100\\|mm}} or less annually, the Sahelian grasslands in the south receives {{Convert\\|150\\|\\-\\|350\\|mm}} during the monsoon months of June, July and August, and in the southern Sahelian zone, the annual rainfall varies between {{Convert\\|350\\|mm}} and {{Convert\\|600\\|mm}} during the monsoon months of June to September.", "Temperatures average between {{Convert\\|30\\|C}} and {{Convert\\|50\\|C}}. Milder cold temperatures are reported during December, January and February. It is for this that the vegetation in the wildlife of the country richness is very limited; the Savannah region recording herbaceous species of plants and trees. The annual temperature variation between northeast and the southwest is {{Convert\\|16\\|C}} and {{Convert\\|9\\|C}} respectively.", "" ]
Plot ---- In 2012, [Pakistani](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") terrorist and arms dealer Asad Rahil began to sell old [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") weaponry to fundamentalists in the Middle East through corrupt contacts in the Kazakhstan military. When the Kazakh president found out about this, he and his security council attempted to shut them down. As a response, Rahil assassinated the president and his security council in a bombing attack on Almaty, Kazakhstan. A couple weeks before the bombing, Rahil moved his troops to Kyrgyzstan, where he attempted to steal chemical weapons at a disposal facility in Oshkek. When local militia tried to stop him, Rahil detonated gas shells at the facility, killing the militia and over 500 civilians. After this, Rahil moved his troops into Almaty where he set off the bomb. After the bombing, the Kazakh military broke apart into multiple factions fighting for control of the government. UN peacekeeping troops are deployed into Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to prevent an outbreak of a civil war. The UN deploys the Ghosts, led by Captain Mitchell, to capture or kill Rahil and eliminate his forces in the region. The ghosts are tasked to work with Gregoriy Koslov, a Kazakh military specialist working with the UN to take down the corrupt military elements. Their first mission is to destroy an old Soviet military installation Rahil is using as a base of operations. They clear a village near the base of enemy soldiers and destroy artillery pieces guarding it. They then successfully clear the base of Rahil's troops after destroying nearby SAM sites. Afterwards, Mitchell and his team kill one of Rahil's top lieutenants and destroy his training camps, but several of Koslovs troops are captured by enemy forces. The Ghosts travel to another one of Rahil's bases where Koslovs men are being kept. They successfully secure the prisoners and the base, as well as eliminating an enemy armor convoy. Eventually, Rahil's army attacks Astana in an attempt to capture the capital and establish power. The Ghosts are sent to destroy enemy armored reinforcements traveling to the capital and destroy another armor battalion before they can ambush UN troops. Despite these setbacks, Rahal's forces take Astana, and the UN troops and Kazakh loyalists prepare a full\-scale assault of the city. Mitchell and his team destroy enemy bunkers East of the capital to prevent reinforcements from reaching the city. UN troops assault Astana in an attempt to capture Rahil. The Ghosts are sent into the city to secure the crash sites of a Predator UAV and a downed Kazakh loyalist helicopter. After completing this, Mitchell and his forward team work with UN troops to take back the city. After taking back the city, Mitchell gets word that one of his teams has been ambushed by Rahil's troops. Mitchell goes in alone while the rest of his team stays with Koslov to search for Rahil. Mitchell eventually eliminates the enemy attackers and rescues his team. Rahil's army retreats from the capital and is spread throughout the Badlands. The Ghosts work with UN troops to take back a satellite launch facility from a large enemy force. They find no sign of Rahil but find out that Koslov may be engaging him. Koslov disobeys Mitchell's orders and attacks Rahils forces without the Ghosts. The ghosts are sent to help Koslov but are then sent to secure an old Soviet nuclear storage facility to prevent Rahil from getting his hands on weapons\-grade Uranium. The Ghosts prevent Rahil's forces from escaping with the Uranium, but fail to capture Rahil himself. They also discover that Koslov and his men were killed by Rahil's men. UN forces learn of Rahils hiding place, and they find him and his remaining forces trapped in a fortress, where he faces off against the UN troops in a final battle. One of Mitchell's teams guards the canyon to prevent Rahil's forces from escaping. The Ghosts then help UN troops pinned down by enemy forces leaving the fortress. The Ghosts and UN forces assault the fortress in an attempt to capture Rahil. Rahil tries to escape with a platoon of his troops guarding him, but Mitchell and his team defeat his soldiers and kill Rahil in a final standoff. 3 months after the bombing attack, the Kazakh military is finally put back together and the country celebrates the first elections since the attack. Mitchell and the Ghosts finally leave Kazakhstan after visiting Koslovs grave.
[ "Plot\n----", "In 2012, [Pakistani](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") terrorist and arms dealer Asad Rahil began to sell old [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") weaponry to fundamentalists in the Middle East through corrupt contacts in the Kazakhstan military. When the Kazakh president found out about this, he and his security council attempted to shut them down. As a response, Rahil assassinated the president and his security council in a bombing attack on Almaty, Kazakhstan. A couple weeks before the bombing, Rahil moved his troops to Kyrgyzstan, where he attempted to steal chemical weapons at a disposal facility in Oshkek. When local militia tried to stop him, Rahil detonated gas shells at the facility, killing the militia and over 500 civilians. After this, Rahil moved his troops into Almaty where he set off the bomb. After the bombing, the Kazakh military broke apart into multiple factions fighting for control of the government. UN peacekeeping troops are deployed into Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to prevent an outbreak of a civil war.", "The UN deploys the Ghosts, led by Captain Mitchell, to capture or kill Rahil and eliminate his forces in the region. The ghosts are tasked to work with Gregoriy Koslov, a Kazakh military specialist working with the UN to take down the corrupt military elements. Their first mission is to destroy an old Soviet military installation Rahil is using as a base of operations. They clear a village near the base of enemy soldiers and destroy artillery pieces guarding it. They then successfully clear the base of Rahil's troops after destroying nearby SAM sites. Afterwards, Mitchell and his team kill one of Rahil's top lieutenants and destroy his training camps, but several of Koslovs troops are captured by enemy forces. The Ghosts travel to another one of Rahil's bases where Koslovs men are being kept. They successfully secure the prisoners and the base, as well as eliminating an enemy armor convoy.", "Eventually, Rahil's army attacks Astana in an attempt to capture the capital and establish power. The Ghosts are sent to destroy enemy armored reinforcements traveling to the capital and destroy another armor battalion before they can ambush UN troops. Despite these setbacks, Rahal's forces take Astana, and the UN troops and Kazakh loyalists prepare a full\\-scale assault of the city. Mitchell and his team destroy enemy bunkers East of the capital to prevent reinforcements from reaching the city. UN troops assault Astana in an attempt to capture Rahil. The Ghosts are sent into the city to secure the crash sites of a Predator UAV and a downed Kazakh loyalist helicopter. After completing this, Mitchell and his forward team work with UN troops to take back the city.", "After taking back the city, Mitchell gets word that one of his teams has been ambushed by Rahil's troops. Mitchell goes in alone while the rest of his team stays with Koslov to search for Rahil. Mitchell eventually eliminates the enemy attackers and rescues his team. Rahil's army retreats from the capital and is spread throughout the Badlands. The Ghosts work with UN troops to take back a satellite launch facility from a large enemy force. They find no sign of Rahil but find out that Koslov may be engaging him. Koslov disobeys Mitchell's orders and attacks Rahils forces without the Ghosts. The ghosts are sent to help Koslov but are then sent to secure an old Soviet nuclear storage facility to prevent Rahil from getting his hands on weapons\\-grade Uranium. The Ghosts prevent Rahil's forces from escaping with the Uranium, but fail to capture Rahil himself. They also discover that Koslov and his men were killed by Rahil's men.", "UN forces learn of Rahils hiding place, and they find him and his remaining forces trapped in a fortress, where he faces off against the UN troops in a final battle. One of Mitchell's teams guards the canyon to prevent Rahil's forces from escaping. The Ghosts then help UN troops pinned down by enemy forces leaving the fortress. The Ghosts and UN forces assault the fortress in an attempt to capture Rahil. Rahil tries to escape with a platoon of his troops guarding him, but Mitchell and his team defeat his soldiers and kill Rahil in a final standoff. 3 months after the bombing attack, the Kazakh military is finally put back together and the country celebrates the first elections since the attack. Mitchell and the Ghosts finally leave Kazakhstan after visiting Koslovs grave.", "" ]
Process ------- The process is lengthy and very repetitive. There are also many similar variations in schedule and technique. What is described here is one of them. The finish is obtained through a specific combination of different rubbing motions (generally circles and figure\-eights), waiting for considerable time, building up layers of polish and then spiriting off any streaks left in the surface. The fad is first used to place a thinned coat of shellac. Once fully dry, thicker coats follow with small amounts of superfine pumice, a crushed volcanic glass. The pumice acts both as a fine abrasive and to fill the pores of open\-grain woods. It becomes transparent when saturated with the shellac, providing the deep gleam that brings out the wood's grain. Pumice tends to be messy to work with though and many modern woodworkers simply use fine\-grained sandpapers (\>4000? grit) to smooth off the earliest layers of shellac. The resulting shellac powder fills in the wood pores at least as well as, and often better than, pumice. The subsequent shellac coats will liquefy and surround this dust, filling in and sealing the wood pores like pumice would. The fad is often lubricated with an oil that then becomes integrated into the overall finish.{{cite web\|url\=http://woodworking.about.com/od/finishing/p/FrenchPolishing.htm\|title\=How to French Polish Your Woodworking Project\|access\-date\=2009\-03\-15\|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-08\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208195224/http://woodworking.about.com/od/finishing/p/FrenchPolishing.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} This helps to prevent the fad from lifting previously applied layers of shellac. Typically, softer/ thinner oils such as mineral oil will produce a glossier though less durable finish whereas harder/ more viscous oils such as [walnut oil](/wiki/Walnut_oil "Walnut oil") and [olive oil](/wiki/Olive_oil "Olive oil") will produce a more durable finish. Although [boiled linseed oil](/wiki/Boiled_linseed_oil "Boiled linseed oil") is commonly used as a wood treatment, it is too viscous to use for French polishing {{Citation needed\|date\=November 2021}}. There are two main variations to French polishing with regard to the use of pumice/ abrasives. In the original 'French Method',{{harvnb\|Allen\|pages\=36–41}} both shellac and abrasive are applied and worked together. In the 'British Method',{{harvnb\|Allen\|pages\=41–46}} shellac and abrasive are worked alternately. Additives to the shellac mixture may include [sandarac](/wiki/Sandarac "Sandarac") (sap of an African cedar) and [copal](/wiki/Copal "Copal"), sap of a South American tree. These and other additives combined with heat and light can make the finish tougher, by cross\-linking the polymers and oils in the shellac. The piece is usually finished off after leveling (1500 grit oil sanding), then light buffing with [carnauba paste wax](/wiki/Carnauba_wax "Carnauba wax"). Too much heat or pressure from buffing will melt off the shellac and result in a bare spot that must be refinished.
[ "Process\n-------", "The process is lengthy and very repetitive. There are also many similar variations in schedule and technique. What is described here is one of them. The finish is obtained through a specific combination of different rubbing motions (generally circles and figure\\-eights), waiting for considerable time, building up layers of polish and then spiriting off any streaks left in the surface.", "The fad is first used to place a thinned coat of shellac. Once fully dry, thicker coats follow with small amounts of superfine pumice, a crushed volcanic glass. The pumice acts both as a fine abrasive and to fill the pores of open\\-grain woods. It becomes transparent when saturated with the shellac, providing the deep gleam that brings out the wood's grain. Pumice tends to be messy to work with though and many modern woodworkers simply use fine\\-grained sandpapers (\\>4000? grit) to smooth off the earliest layers of shellac. The resulting shellac powder fills in the wood pores at least as well as, and often better than, pumice. The subsequent shellac coats will liquefy and surround this dust, filling in and sealing the wood pores like pumice would.", "The fad is often lubricated with an oil that then becomes integrated into the overall finish.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://woodworking.about.com/od/finishing/p/FrenchPolishing.htm\\|title\\=How to French Polish Your Woodworking Project\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-08\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208195224/http://woodworking.about.com/od/finishing/p/FrenchPolishing.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} This helps to prevent the fad from lifting previously applied layers of shellac. Typically, softer/ thinner oils such as mineral oil will produce a glossier though less durable finish whereas harder/ more viscous oils such as [walnut oil](/wiki/Walnut_oil \"Walnut oil\") and [olive oil](/wiki/Olive_oil \"Olive oil\") will produce a more durable finish. Although [boiled linseed oil](/wiki/Boiled_linseed_oil \"Boiled linseed oil\") is commonly used as a wood treatment, it is too viscous to use for French polishing {{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2021}}.", "There are two main variations to French polishing with regard to the use of pumice/ abrasives. In the original 'French Method',{{harvnb\\|Allen\\|pages\\=36–41}} both shellac and abrasive are applied and worked together. In the 'British Method',{{harvnb\\|Allen\\|pages\\=41–46}} shellac and abrasive are worked alternately.", "Additives to the shellac mixture may include [sandarac](/wiki/Sandarac \"Sandarac\") (sap of an African cedar) and [copal](/wiki/Copal \"Copal\"), sap of a South American tree. These and other additives combined with heat and light can make the finish tougher, by cross\\-linking the polymers and oils in the shellac.", "The piece is usually finished off after leveling (1500 grit oil sanding), then light buffing with [carnauba paste wax](/wiki/Carnauba_wax \"Carnauba wax\"). Too much heat or pressure from buffing will melt off the shellac and result in a bare spot that must be refinished.", "" ]
Biography --------- Pierre\-Olivier Malherbe went on 27\-year world tour, and returned to France in 1609\. He has a claim to being the first French circumnavigator.[*Asia in the Making of Europe* p.393](https://books.google.com/books?id=SqTQjve2VLsC&pg=RA1-PA393) He visited China, and in India had an encounter with [Akbar](/wiki/Akbar "Akbar"). Upon his return, Pierre\-Olivier Malherbe met several times with the French king [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France "Henry IV of France"), to tell him about the [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold") and [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver") of the [East Indies](/wiki/East_Indies "East Indies"). He explained about the routes to reach these places, and offered to lead an expedition for the king. Pierre\-Olivier Malherbe may have been the author of a [Malay language](/wiki/Malay_language "Malay language") dictionary, which was added to [François Martin de Vitré](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Martin_de_Vitr%C3%A9 "François Martin de Vitré")'s work *La Description du premier voyage fait aux Indes orientales par les Français en l'an 1603* in 1609\. He is mentioned in the 1629 *Traité de navigation et des voyages de découvertes et conquêtes, principalement des François* by geographer [Pierre Bergeron](/wiki/Pierre_Bergeron "Pierre Bergeron"). In Paris, he also met with the Dutch linguist [Erpenius](/wiki/Erpenius "Erpenius"), who was preparing the first Latin–Arab Dictionary.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Pierre\\-Olivier Malherbe went on 27\\-year world tour, and returned to France in 1609\\. He has a claim to being the first French circumnavigator.[*Asia in the Making of Europe* p.393](https://books.google.com/books?id=SqTQjve2VLsC&pg=RA1-PA393) He visited China, and in India had an encounter with [Akbar](/wiki/Akbar \"Akbar\").", "Upon his return, Pierre\\-Olivier Malherbe met several times with the French king [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France \"Henry IV of France\"), to tell him about the [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\") and [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\") of the [East Indies](/wiki/East_Indies \"East Indies\"). He explained about the routes to reach these places, and offered to lead an expedition for the king.", "Pierre\\-Olivier Malherbe may have been the author of a [Malay language](/wiki/Malay_language \"Malay language\") dictionary, which was added to [François Martin de Vitré](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Martin_de_Vitr%C3%A9 \"François Martin de Vitré\")'s work *La Description du premier voyage fait aux Indes orientales par les Français en l'an 1603* in 1609\\.", "He is mentioned in the 1629 *Traité de navigation et des voyages de découvertes et conquêtes, principalement des François* by geographer [Pierre Bergeron](/wiki/Pierre_Bergeron \"Pierre Bergeron\").", "In Paris, he also met with the Dutch linguist [Erpenius](/wiki/Erpenius \"Erpenius\"), who was preparing the first Latin–Arab Dictionary.", "" ]
Net job gains and losses by month --------------------------------- ### United States [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|US Employment to population ratio, 1990–2021](/wiki/File:US_Employment_to_Population_Ratio.png "US Employment to Population Ratio.png") [thumb\|314x314px\|Job loss in the United States in 2008 by thousands](/wiki/File:Job_loss_2008.png "Job loss 2008.png") ### 2008 * September 2008 – 433,000 jobs lost * November 2008 – 803,000 jobs lost * December 2008 – 661,000 jobs lost{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.thebalance.com/jobs\-report\-monthly\-employment\-growth\-statistics\-3305732 \|title\=Jobs Report and the Monthly Employment Growth Statistics in US \|access\-date\=2021\-01\-27 \|archive\-date\=2021\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125031341/https://www.thebalance.com/jobs\-report\-monthly\-employment\-growth\-statistics\-3305732 \|url\-status\=live }} ### 2009 * January 2009 – 818,000 jobs lost * February 2009 – 724,000 jobs lost * March 2009 – 799,000 jobs lost * April 2009 – 692,000 jobs lost * May 2009 – 361,000 jobs lost * June 2009 – 482,000 jobs lost * July 2009 – 339,000 jobs lost * August 2009 – 222,000 jobs lost * September 2009 – 199,000 jobs lost * October 2009 – 202,000 jobs lost{{Cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8395249\.stm \|title\=US unemployment rate eases to 10% \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2009\-12\-04 \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21 \|archive\-date\=2009\-12\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091217052557/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8395249\.stm \|url\-status\=live }} * November 2009 \- 64,000 jobs created{{Cite news \|last\=Fox \|first\=Justin \|url\=http://curiouscapitalist.blogs.time.com/2010/01/08/the\-great\-american\-job\-destruction\-isnt\-over\-quite\-yet/ \|title\=Payroll employment down 85,000 in December, unemployment steady at 10% \- The Curious Capitalist \- TIME.com \|publisher\=Curiouscapitalist.blogs.time.com \|date\=2010\-01\-08 \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21 \|archive\-date\=2010\-01\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111040600/http://curiouscapitalist.blogs.time.com/2010/01/08/the\-great\-american\-job\-destruction\-isnt\-over\-quite\-yet/ \|url\-status\=live }} * December 2009 \- 109,000 jobs lost ### 2010 * January 2010 \- 40,000 jobs lost{{cite news \|last1\=Goodman \|first1\=Peter S. \|title\=Jobless Rate Falls to 9\.7%, Giving Hope Worst Is Over \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=February 5, 2010 \|page\=A1 \|id\={{ProQuest\|434305915}}}} * February 2010 \- 35,000 jobs lost * March 2010 \- 189,000 jobs created * April 2010 \- 239,000 jobs created * May 2010 \- 516,000 jobs created * June 2010 \- 167,000 jobs lost * July 2010 \- 58,000 jobs lost (143,000 Federal Census jobs lost) {{cite news \| url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\-10890989 \| work\=BBC News \| title\=US sees 131,000 jobs lost in July \| date\=2010\-08\-06 \| access\-date\=2018\-06\-20 \| archive\-date\=2018\-06\-25 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021327/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\-10890989 \| url\-status\=live }} * August 2010 \- 51,000 jobs lost * September 2010 \- 27,000 jobs lost (According to U.S. Labor Department, 64,000 private sector jobs are added but a net loss of 95,000 jobs are due to government layoffs) {{cite news \| url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703735804575535712155449120?mod\=WSJ\_hpp\_LEFTWhatsNewsCollection \| work\=The Wall Street Journal \| first\=Justin \| last\=Lahart \| title\=Companies Shed Jobs Last Month, ADP Says \| date\=2010\-10\-07 \| access\-date\=2017\-08\-08 \| archive\-date\=2021\-11\-27 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127084802/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703735804575535712155449120?mod\=WSJ\_hpp\_LEFTWhatsNewsCollection \| url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704657304575539760708117610?mod\=googlenews\_wsj \| work\=The Wall Street Journal \| first\=Justin \| last\=Lahart \| title\=Job Losses Increase Pressure on Fed \| date\=2010\-10\-09 \| access\-date\=2017\-08\-08 \| archive\-date\=2020\-10\-08 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008045911/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704657304575539760708117610?mod\=googlenews\_wsj \| url\-status\=live }} * October 2010 \- 220,000 jobs created (Private sector jobs net increase) * November 2010 \- 121,000 jobs created * December 2010 \- 120,000 jobs created ### 2011 * January 2011 \- 110,000 jobs created * February 2011 \- 220,000 jobs created * March 2011 \- 246,000 jobs created * April 2011 \- 251,000 jobs created * May 2011 \- 54,000 jobs created * June 2011 \- 84,000 jobs created * July 2011 \- 96,000 jobs created * August 2011 \- 85,000 jobs created * September 2011 \- 202,000 jobs created * October 2011 \- 112,000 jobs created * November 2011 \- 157,000 jobs created * December 2011 \- 223,000 jobs created ### 2012 * January 2012 \- 275,000 jobs created * February 2012 \- 259,000 jobs created * March 2012 \- 143,000 jobs created * April 2012 \- 68,000 jobs created * May 2012 \- 87,000 jobs created * June 2012 \- 45,000 jobs created * July 2012 \- 181,000 jobs created * August 2012 \- 142,000 jobs created * September 2012 \- 114,000 jobs created * October 2012 \- 225,000 jobs created * November 2012 \- 203,000 jobs created * December 2012 \- 214,000 jobs created ### Table | YEAR | JAN | FEB | MAR | APR | MAY | JUN | JUL | AUG | SEP | OCT | NOV | DEC | Annual | Source | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2006 | 277 | 315 | 280 | 182 | 23 | 77 | 207 | 184 | 157 | 2 | 210 | 171 | 2085 | {{Cite web \|url\=http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/CES0000000001?output\_view\=net\_1mth/ \|title\="Bureau of Labor Statistics" \|access\-date\=2014\-12\-07 \|archive\-date\=2016\-02\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201005903/http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/CES0000000001?output\_view\=net\_1mth/ \|url\-status\=live }} | | 2007 | 238 | 88 | 188 | 78 | 144 | 71 | \-33 | \-16 | 85 | 82 | 118 | 97 | 1140 | | | 2008 | 15 | \-906 | \-80 | \-214 | \-182 | \-172 | \-210 | \-259 | \-452 | \-474 | \-765 | \-697 | \-3576 | | | 2009 | \-798 | \-701 | \-826 | \-684 | \-354 | \-467 | \-327 | \-216 | \-227 | \-198 | \-6 | \-283 | \-5087 | | | 2010 | 18 | \-50 | 156 | 251 | 516 | \-122 | \-61 | \-42 | \-57 | 241 | 137 | 71 | 1058 | | | 2011 | 70 | 160 | 212 | 322 | 102 | 217 | 106 | 122 | 221 | 183 | 164 | 196 | 2083 | | | 2012 | 360 | 226 | 143 | 96 | 110 | 88 | 160 | 150 | 161 | 225 | 203 | 214 | 2236 | | | 2013 | 197 | 280 | 141 | 203 | 199 | 201 | 149 | 202 | 164 | 237 | 274 | 84 | 2331 | | | 2014 | 144 | 222 | 203 | 304 | 229 | 267 | 243 | 203 | 271 | 243\* | 321\* | \-\-\- | 2086\* | | * Preliminary Note: Job losses in June and July 2010 are largely attributed to US census worker jobs lost. Private sector jobs have increased during those months. Since the start of the recession, 8\.8 million jobs have been lost, according to the [Bureau of Labor Statistics](/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics "Bureau of Labor Statistics").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0\.htm \|title\=Employment Situation Summary \|publisher\=Bls.gov \|date\=2010\-01\-08 \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21 \|archive\-date\=2009\-10\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006024659/http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0\.htm \|url\-status\=live }} In the U.S., jobs paying between $14 and $21 per hour made up about 60% those lost during the recession, but such mid\-wage jobs have comprised only about 27% of jobs gained during the recovery through mid\-2012\. In contrast, lower\-paying jobs constituted about 58% of the jobs regained.["Low wage jobs are dominating the U.S. recovery"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/08/31/low-wage-jobs-are-dominating-the-u-s-recovery/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910055942/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/08/31/low\-wage\-jobs\-are\-dominating\-the\-u\-s\-recovery/ \|date\=2014\-09\-10 }} *Washington Post*, August 31, 2012 ### Canada Drastic job loss in Canada started later than in the US. 45 crores jobs has been lost in the USA itself in the time period. Some months in 2008 had job growth, such as September, while others such as July had losses. Due to the collapse of the American car industry at the same time as a strong Canadian dollar achieved parity \+10% against a poorly\-performing US dollar, the cross\-border manufacturing industry has been disproportionately affected throughout.{{Cite web\|last\=Hill\|first\=Bert\|date\=2009\-11\-06\|title\=Ottawa unemployment rate up to 5\.4 per cent\|url\=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local\-news/ottawa\-jobless\-rate\-steady\-at\-5\-4\-in\-june\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21\|website\=\|publisher\=Ottawacitizen.com}}{{dead link\|date\=January 2021\|bot\=Dlmarial}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} * September 2008 – No net loss * October 2008 – No net loss * November 2008 – 71,000 jobs lost{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/story.html?id\=1036943 \|title\=Massive job losses hit Canada, U.S \- December 5, 2008 \|publisher\=Canada.com \|date\=2008\-12\-05 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109090704/http://www2\.canada.com/topics/news/story.html?id\=1036943 \|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-09 \|url\-status\=dead }} * December 2008 – 34,000 jobs lost * January 2009 – 129,000 jobs lost * February 2009 – 82,600 jobs lost{{Cite web \|author\=Financial Post Published: Friday, March 13, 2009 \|url\=http://www.financialpost.com/news\-sectors/story.html?id\=1385317 \|title\=unemployment rate rises to 7\.7% on 82,000 job losses \|publisher\=Financial Post \|date\=2009\-03\-13 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-01 \|archive\-date\=2009\-04\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410064057/http://www.financialpost.com/news\-sectors/story.html?id\=1385317 \|url\-status\=live }} * March 2009 – 61,300 jobs lost * April 2009 – No net loss (1\) * May 2009 – 36,000 jobs lost * October 2009 – 43,200 jobs lost * December 2009 \- 28,300 jobs lost{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.hrmguide.net/canada/jobmarket/canadian\-unemployment.htm \|title\=Canadian unemploymentr \|publisher\=Hrmguide.net \|date\=2010\-04\-09 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-01 \|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203121707/http://www.hrmguide.net/canada/jobmarket/canadian\-unemployment.htm \|url\-status\=live }} * January 2010 \- 43,000 jobs created * February 2010 \- 21,000 jobs created{{Cite web \|url\=http://news.ca.msn.com/top\-stories/cbc\-article.aspx?cp\-documentid\=23631954 \|title\=Loonie soars on jobs report \- March 12, 2010 \|publisher\=News.ca.msn.com \|date\=2010\-03\-12 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714124941/http://news.ca.msn.com/top\-stories/cbc\-article.aspx?cp\-documentid\=23631954 \|archive\-date\=July 14, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead }} * March 2010 \- 17,900 jobs created{{Cite web \|last\=Canadian \|first\=The \|url\=http://news.ca.msn.com/top\-stories/cbc\-article.aspx?cp\-documentid\=23832989 \|title\=Jobless rate remains at 8\.2% \|publisher\=News.ca.msn.com \|date\=2010\-04\-09 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720091256/http://news.ca.msn.com/top\-stories/cbc\-article.aspx?cp\-documentid\=23832989 \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-20 \|url\-status\=dead }} * April 2010 \- 109,000 jobs created{{Cite web\|last\=Canadian \|first\=The \|url\=http://baystreet.money.ca.msn.com/quotedata/partners/msn/ca/the\_economy.aspx \|title\=109000 fewer jobless people in Canada \|publisher\=Baystreet.money.ca.msn.com \|date\=2010\-05\-31 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-31 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529180821/http://baystreet.money.ca.msn.com/quotedata/partners/msn/ca/the\_economy.aspx \|archive\-date\=May 29, 2010 }} * May 2010 \- 25,000 jobs created{{Cite news \|last\=Canadian \|first\=The \|url\=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international\-business/Canada\-sees\-25000\-new\-jobs\-created\-in\-May/articleshow/6011754\.cms \|title\=25000 fewer jobless people in Canada \|publisher\=Economic Times India \|date\=2010\-06\-04 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-13 \|archive\-date\=2010\-06\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608044305/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international\-business/Canada\-sees\-25000\-new\-jobs\-created\-in\-May/articleshow/6011754\.cms \|url\-status\=live }} * June 2010 \- 20,000 jobs created{{Cite web \|last\=Canadian \|first\=The \|url\=http://www.canada.com/story\_print.html?id\=3229189\&sponsor\= \|title\=20000 fewer jobless people in Canada \|publisher\=Canada.com \|date\=2010\-07\-02 \|access\-date\=2010\-07\-04 }}{{Dead link\|date\=November 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} * September 2010 \- 6,600 jobs lost * October 2010 \- 47,000 jobs created * December 2010 \- 22,000 jobs created (1\) 37,000 jobs are gained in the self\-employment category{{Cite news \|author\=Julian Beltrame THE CANADIAN PRESS \|url\=https://www.thestar.com/business/article/645120 \|title\=Experts predict bleak job numbers tomorrow \|work\=thestar.com \|date\=2009\-06\-03 \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21 \|location\=Toronto \|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608224252/http://www.thestar.com/business/article/645120 \|url\-status\=live }} While job creation has increased in the past three months, most Canadians still complain about people getting laid off from work. However, a growing amount of these layoffs are considered for seasonal purposes and has little or no relation to the recession. Excluding Stelco employees, most laid off workers have six months to acquire a job while collecting [unemployment insurance](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits "Unemployment benefits"). After that, they must go on [welfare](/wiki/Welfare "Welfare") and continue their job search from there. * May 2009 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\.4% * September 2009 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\.7% * November 2009 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\.6%{{cite web \|date\= 2009 \|title\= Is Canada still in recession or in mother of all jobless recoveries? \|url\= https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5i7F0zSW7kKY265PrP7X0s5pqnb4Q \|access\-date\= October 20, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20091111133928/https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5i7F0zSW7kKY265PrP7X0s5pqnb4Q \|archive\-date\= November 11, 2009 }} * January 2010 Canadian v rate: 8\.3% * May 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\.1% * June 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\.1%{{Cite web \|url\= http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects\-sujets/labour\-travail/lfs\-epa/lfs\-epa\-eng.htm \|title\= Latest release from the Labour Force Survey \- February 2010 \|publisher\= Statcan.gc.ca \|date\= 2010\-04\-09 \|access\-date\= 2010\-05\-01 \|archive\-date\= 2011\-08\-11 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110811033027/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects\-sujets/labour\-travail/lfs\-epa/lfs\-epa\-eng.htm \|url\-status\= dead }} * September 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\.0%{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.hrmguide.net/canada/jobmarket/canadian\-unemployment.htm \|title\=Canadian Unemployment Rate At 8\.0% October 9 2010 \|access\-date\=2010\-10\-20 \|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203121707/http://www.hrmguide.net/canada/jobmarket/canadian\-unemployment.htm \|url\-status\=live }} * October 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 7\.9%{{Cite web \|url\=http://news.ca.msn.com/top\-stories/cbc\-article.aspx?cp\-documentid\=26236154 \|title\=unemployment rate dips to 7\.9% November 5, 2010 \|access\-date\=November 5, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720091345/http://news.ca.msn.com/top\-stories/cbc\-article.aspx?cp\-documentid\=26236154 \|archive\-date\=July 20, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead }} * November 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 7\.6%[Latest release from the Labour Force Survey](http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects-sujets/labour-travail/lfs-epa/lfs-epa-eng.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811033027/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects\-sujets/labour\-travail/lfs\-epa/lfs\-epa\-eng.htm \|date\=2011\-08\-11 }}. [Statistics Canada](/wiki/Statistics_Canada "Statistics Canada"). Accessed 2010\-12\-05\. The employment rate has been stabilized between 8\.0% and 11\.0% for the past two years; signifying the economic strength of Canada's financial institutions compared to its counterparts in the United States. Many job places in Canada (i.e., [grocery stores](/wiki/Grocery_store "Grocery store") and [restaurants](/wiki/Restaurant "Restaurant")) have opted to reduce hours rather than lay off staff. This unemployment of job protection is especially in industries that are needed to keep the economy from going into a [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28economics%29 "Depression (economics)"). While the automotive sector is slowly recalling workers back to work, grocery stores and restaurants have slashed hours in the face of the global recession. ### Australia * September 2008\#\#– 2,200 jobs created * October 2008 – 34,300 jobs created * November 2008 – 15,600 jobs lost * December 2008 – 1,200 jobs lost * January 2009 – 1,200 jobs created * February 2009 – 1,800 jobs created * March 2009 – 34,700 jobs lost * April 2009 – 27,300 jobs created * May 2009 – 1,700 jobs lost * June 2009 – 21,400 jobs lost * July 2009 – 32,200 jobs created * August 2009 – 27,100 jobs lost * September 2009 – 40,600 jobs created * October 2009 – 24,500 jobs created April 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\.5%{{Cite web \|url\=http://abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/0C55555A36DACE00CA2575D1007BDD0A?opendocument \|title\=6202\.0 – Labour Force, Australia, April 2009 \|date\=7 May 2009 \|access\-date\=2009\-08\-23 \|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611161308/http://abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/0C55555A36DACE00CA2575D1007BDD0A?opendocument \|url\-status\=live }} July 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\.8%{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/6202\.0 \|title\=6202\.0 \- Labour Force, Australia, December 2009 \|publisher\=Abs.gov.au \|date\=2010\-01\-14 \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21 \|archive\-date\=2020\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205165229/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment\-and\-unemployment/labour\-force\-australia/latest\-release \|url\-status\=live }} August 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\.8%{{Cite web \|url\=http://abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/6202\.0Main\+Features1Aug%202009?OpenDocument \|title\=6202\.0 \- Labour Force, Australia, August 2009 \|publisher\=Abs.gov.au \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21 \|archive\-date\=2009\-09\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917181615/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/6202\.0Main\+Features1Aug%202009?OpenDocument \|url\-status\=live }} September 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\.7%{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/F9503E18F78A5C3FCA25766B00162732?opendocument \|title\=6202\.0 \- Labour Force, Australia, September 2009 \|date\=8 October 2009 \|publisher\=Abs.gov.au \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21 \|archive\-date\=2010\-06\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611230252/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/F9503E18F78A5C3FCA25766B00162732?opendocument \|url\-status\=live }} October 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\.8%{{cite web\|title\=(Page not found) \|url\=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mf/6202\.0t \|access\-date\=October 20, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706121557/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40\.nsf/mf/6202\.0t \|archive\-date\=July 6, 2011 }} The unemployment rate for October rose slightly due to population growth and other factors leading to 35,000 people looking for work, even though 24,500 jobs were created. In general, throughout the subdued economic growth caused by the recession in the rest of the world, Australian employers have elected to cut working hours rather than fire employees, in recognition of the skill shortage caused by the resources boom. ### United Kingdom In September 2007, approximately a year before the recession began, unemployment stood at 1,649,000\.{{cite news \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6990785\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=Pay rising as unemployment falls \| date\=2007\-09\-12 \| access\-date\=2011\-07\-26 \| archive\-date\=2009\-01\-24 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124182711/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6990785\.stm \| url\-status\=live }} By the end of 2008, that figure had risen to 1,860,000 \- an increase of 211,000 and nearly 13%.{{cite news \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7787280\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=Unemployment increases by 137,000 \| date\=2008\-12\-17 \| access\-date\=2011\-07\-26 \| archive\-date\=2013\-06\-01 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601164655/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7787280\.stm \| url\-status\=live }} By March 2009, unemployment had increased to more than 2,000,000 \- the highest level the nation had seen for more than 12 years.{{cite news \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7947766\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=Unemployment passes two million \| date\=2009\-03\-18 \| access\-date\=2011\-07\-26 \| archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327061533/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7947766\.stm \| url\-status\=live }} It reached 2,261,000 by June that year,{{cite news \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8104546\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=UK jobless total at 12\-year high \| date\=2009\-06\-17 \| access\-date\=2011\-07\-26 \| archive\-date\=2023\-09\-15 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915003807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8104546\.stm \| url\-status\=live }} and by April 2010 had exceeded 2,500,000 for the first time in 16 years.{{cite news \| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8634241\.stm \| work\=BBC News \| title\=UK unemployment increases to 2\.5m \| date\=2010\-04\-21 \| access\-date\=2011\-07\-26 \| archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327061601/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8634241\.stm \| url\-status\=live }}
[ "Net job gains and losses by month\n---------------------------------", "### United States", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|US Employment to population ratio, 1990–2021](/wiki/File:US_Employment_to_Population_Ratio.png \"US Employment to Population Ratio.png\")\n[thumb\\|314x314px\\|Job loss in the United States in 2008 by thousands](/wiki/File:Job_loss_2008.png \"Job loss 2008.png\")", "### 2008", "* September 2008 – 433,000 jobs lost\n* November 2008 – 803,000 jobs lost\n* December 2008 – 661,000 jobs lost{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.thebalance.com/jobs\\-report\\-monthly\\-employment\\-growth\\-statistics\\-3305732 \\|title\\=Jobs Report and the Monthly Employment Growth Statistics in US \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-27 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125031341/https://www.thebalance.com/jobs\\-report\\-monthly\\-employment\\-growth\\-statistics\\-3305732 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### 2009", "* January 2009 – 818,000 jobs lost\n* February 2009 – 724,000 jobs lost\n* March 2009 – 799,000 jobs lost\n* April 2009 – 692,000 jobs lost\n* May 2009 – 361,000 jobs lost\n* June 2009 – 482,000 jobs lost\n* July 2009 – 339,000 jobs lost\n* August 2009 – 222,000 jobs lost\n* September 2009 – 199,000 jobs lost\n* October 2009 – 202,000 jobs lost{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8395249\\.stm \\|title\\=US unemployment rate eases to 10% \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2009\\-12\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-12\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091217052557/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8395249\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* November 2009 \\- 64,000 jobs created{{Cite news \\|last\\=Fox \\|first\\=Justin \\|url\\=http://curiouscapitalist.blogs.time.com/2010/01/08/the\\-great\\-american\\-job\\-destruction\\-isnt\\-over\\-quite\\-yet/ \\|title\\=Payroll employment down 85,000 in December, unemployment steady at 10% \\- The Curious Capitalist \\- TIME.com \\|publisher\\=Curiouscapitalist.blogs.time.com \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-08 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111040600/http://curiouscapitalist.blogs.time.com/2010/01/08/the\\-great\\-american\\-job\\-destruction\\-isnt\\-over\\-quite\\-yet/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* December 2009 \\- 109,000 jobs lost", "### 2010", "* January 2010 \\- 40,000 jobs lost{{cite news \\|last1\\=Goodman \\|first1\\=Peter S. \\|title\\=Jobless Rate Falls to 9\\.7%, Giving Hope Worst Is Over \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=February 5, 2010 \\|page\\=A1 \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|434305915}}}}\n* February 2010 \\- 35,000 jobs lost\n* March 2010 \\- 189,000 jobs created\n* April 2010 \\- 239,000 jobs created\n* May 2010 \\- 516,000 jobs created\n* June 2010 \\- 167,000 jobs lost\n* July 2010 \\- 58,000 jobs lost (143,000 Federal Census jobs lost) {{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\\-10890989 \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=US sees 131,000 jobs lost in July \\| date\\=2010\\-08\\-06 \\| access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-20 \\| archive\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-25 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021327/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\\-10890989 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}\n* August 2010 \\- 51,000 jobs lost\n* September 2010 \\- 27,000 jobs lost (According to U.S. Labor Department, 64,000 private sector jobs are added but a net loss of 95,000 jobs are due to government layoffs) {{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703735804575535712155449120?mod\\=WSJ\\_hpp\\_LEFTWhatsNewsCollection \\| work\\=The Wall Street Journal \\| first\\=Justin \\| last\\=Lahart \\| title\\=Companies Shed Jobs Last Month, ADP Says \\| date\\=2010\\-10\\-07 \\| access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-08 \\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-27 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127084802/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703735804575535712155449120?mod\\=WSJ\\_hpp\\_LEFTWhatsNewsCollection \\| url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704657304575539760708117610?mod\\=googlenews\\_wsj \\| work\\=The Wall Street Journal \\| first\\=Justin \\| last\\=Lahart \\| title\\=Job Losses Increase Pressure on Fed \\| date\\=2010\\-10\\-09 \\| access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-08 \\| archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-08 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008045911/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704657304575539760708117610?mod\\=googlenews\\_wsj \\| url\\-status\\=live }}\n* October 2010 \\- 220,000 jobs created (Private sector jobs net increase)\n* November 2010 \\- 121,000 jobs created\n* December 2010 \\- 120,000 jobs created", "### 2011", "* January 2011 \\- 110,000 jobs created\n* February 2011 \\- 220,000 jobs created\n* March 2011 \\- 246,000 jobs created\n* April 2011 \\- 251,000 jobs created\n* May 2011 \\- 54,000 jobs created\n* June 2011 \\- 84,000 jobs created\n* July 2011 \\- 96,000 jobs created\n* August 2011 \\- 85,000 jobs created\n* September 2011 \\- 202,000 jobs created\n* October 2011 \\- 112,000 jobs created\n* November 2011 \\- 157,000 jobs created\n* December 2011 \\- 223,000 jobs created", "### 2012", "* January 2012 \\- 275,000 jobs created\n* February 2012 \\- 259,000 jobs created\n* March 2012 \\- 143,000 jobs created\n* April 2012 \\- 68,000 jobs created\n* May 2012 \\- 87,000 jobs created\n* June 2012 \\- 45,000 jobs created\n* July 2012 \\- 181,000 jobs created\n* August 2012 \\- 142,000 jobs created\n* September 2012 \\- 114,000 jobs created\n* October 2012 \\- 225,000 jobs created\n* November 2012 \\- 203,000 jobs created\n* December 2012 \\- 214,000 jobs created", "### Table", "", "| YEAR | JAN | FEB | MAR | APR | MAY | JUN | JUL | AUG | SEP | OCT | NOV | DEC | Annual | Source |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2006 | 277 | 315 | 280 | 182 | 23 | 77 | 207 | 184 | 157 | 2 | 210 | 171 | 2085 | {{Cite web \\|url\\=http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/CES0000000001?output\\_view\\=net\\_1mth/ \\|title\\=\"Bureau of Labor Statistics\" \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-12\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201005903/http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/CES0000000001?output\\_view\\=net\\_1mth/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} |\n| 2007 | 238 | 88 | 188 | 78 | 144 | 71 | \\-33 | \\-16 | 85 | 82 | 118 | 97 | 1140 | |\n| 2008 | 15 | \\-906 | \\-80 | \\-214 | \\-182 | \\-172 | \\-210 | \\-259 | \\-452 | \\-474 | \\-765 | \\-697 | \\-3576 | |\n| 2009 | \\-798 | \\-701 | \\-826 | \\-684 | \\-354 | \\-467 | \\-327 | \\-216 | \\-227 | \\-198 | \\-6 | \\-283 | \\-5087 | |\n| 2010 | 18 | \\-50 | 156 | 251 | 516 | \\-122 | \\-61 | \\-42 | \\-57 | 241 | 137 | 71 | 1058 | |\n| 2011 | 70 | 160 | 212 | 322 | 102 | 217 | 106 | 122 | 221 | 183 | 164 | 196 | 2083 | |\n| 2012 | 360 | 226 | 143 | 96 | 110 | 88 | 160 | 150 | 161 | 225 | 203 | 214 | 2236 | |\n| 2013 | 197 | 280 | 141 | 203 | 199 | 201 | 149 | 202 | 164 | 237 | 274 | 84 | 2331 | |\n| 2014 | 144 | 222 | 203 | 304 | 229 | 267 | 243 | 203 | 271 | 243\\* | 321\\* | \\-\\-\\- | 2086\\* | |", "* Preliminary", "Note: Job losses in June and July 2010 are largely attributed to US census worker jobs lost. Private sector jobs have increased during those months.", "Since the start of the recession, 8\\.8 million jobs have been lost, according to the [Bureau of Labor Statistics](/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics \"Bureau of Labor Statistics\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0\\.htm \\|title\\=Employment Situation Summary \\|publisher\\=Bls.gov \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-08 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006024659/http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In the U.S., jobs paying between $14 and $21 per hour made up about 60% those lost during the recession, but such mid\\-wage jobs have comprised only about 27% of jobs gained during the recovery through mid\\-2012\\. In contrast, lower\\-paying jobs constituted about 58% of the jobs regained.[\"Low wage jobs are dominating the U.S. recovery\"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/08/31/low-wage-jobs-are-dominating-the-u-s-recovery/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910055942/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/08/31/low\\-wage\\-jobs\\-are\\-dominating\\-the\\-u\\-s\\-recovery/ \\|date\\=2014\\-09\\-10 }} *Washington Post*, August 31, 2012", "### Canada", "Drastic job loss in Canada started later than in the US. 45 crores jobs has been lost in the USA itself in the time period. Some months in 2008 had job growth, such as September, while others such as July had losses. Due to the collapse of the American car industry at the same time as a strong Canadian dollar achieved parity \\+10% against a poorly\\-performing US dollar, the cross\\-border manufacturing industry has been disproportionately affected throughout.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Hill\\|first\\=Bert\\|date\\=2009\\-11\\-06\\|title\\=Ottawa unemployment rate up to 5\\.4 per cent\\|url\\=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local\\-news/ottawa\\-jobless\\-rate\\-steady\\-at\\-5\\-4\\-in\\-june\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21\\|website\\=\\|publisher\\=Ottawacitizen.com}}{{dead link\\|date\\=January 2021\\|bot\\=Dlmarial}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}", "* September 2008 – No net loss\n* October 2008 – No net loss\n* November 2008 – 71,000 jobs lost{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/story.html?id\\=1036943 \\|title\\=Massive job losses hit Canada, U.S \\- December 5, 2008 \\|publisher\\=Canada.com \\|date\\=2008\\-12\\-05 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109090704/http://www2\\.canada.com/topics/news/story.html?id\\=1036943 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* December 2008 – 34,000 jobs lost\n* January 2009 – 129,000 jobs lost\n* February 2009 – 82,600 jobs lost{{Cite web \\|author\\=Financial Post Published: Friday, March 13, 2009 \\|url\\=http://www.financialpost.com/news\\-sectors/story.html?id\\=1385317 \\|title\\=unemployment rate rises to 7\\.7% on 82,000 job losses \\|publisher\\=Financial Post \\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-01 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410064057/http://www.financialpost.com/news\\-sectors/story.html?id\\=1385317 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* March 2009 – 61,300 jobs lost\n* April 2009 – No net loss (1\\)\n* May 2009 – 36,000 jobs lost\n* October 2009 – 43,200 jobs lost\n* December 2009 \\- 28,300 jobs lost{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hrmguide.net/canada/jobmarket/canadian\\-unemployment.htm \\|title\\=Canadian unemploymentr \\|publisher\\=Hrmguide.net \\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-09 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-01 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203121707/http://www.hrmguide.net/canada/jobmarket/canadian\\-unemployment.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* January 2010 \\- 43,000 jobs created\n* February 2010 \\- 21,000 jobs created{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://news.ca.msn.com/top\\-stories/cbc\\-article.aspx?cp\\-documentid\\=23631954 \\|title\\=Loonie soars on jobs report \\- March 12, 2010 \\|publisher\\=News.ca.msn.com \\|date\\=2010\\-03\\-12 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714124941/http://news.ca.msn.com/top\\-stories/cbc\\-article.aspx?cp\\-documentid\\=23631954 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 14, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* March 2010 \\- 17,900 jobs created{{Cite web \\|last\\=Canadian \\|first\\=The \\|url\\=http://news.ca.msn.com/top\\-stories/cbc\\-article.aspx?cp\\-documentid\\=23832989 \\|title\\=Jobless rate remains at 8\\.2% \\|publisher\\=News.ca.msn.com \\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-09 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720091256/http://news.ca.msn.com/top\\-stories/cbc\\-article.aspx?cp\\-documentid\\=23832989 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-20 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* April 2010 \\- 109,000 jobs created{{Cite web\\|last\\=Canadian \\|first\\=The \\|url\\=http://baystreet.money.ca.msn.com/quotedata/partners/msn/ca/the\\_economy.aspx \\|title\\=109000 fewer jobless people in Canada \\|publisher\\=Baystreet.money.ca.msn.com \\|date\\=2010\\-05\\-31 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-31 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529180821/http://baystreet.money.ca.msn.com/quotedata/partners/msn/ca/the\\_economy.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=May 29, 2010 }}\n* May 2010 \\- 25,000 jobs created{{Cite news \\|last\\=Canadian \\|first\\=The \\|url\\=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international\\-business/Canada\\-sees\\-25000\\-new\\-jobs\\-created\\-in\\-May/articleshow/6011754\\.cms \\|title\\=25000 fewer jobless people in Canada \\|publisher\\=Economic Times India \\|date\\=2010\\-06\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-13 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608044305/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international\\-business/Canada\\-sees\\-25000\\-new\\-jobs\\-created\\-in\\-May/articleshow/6011754\\.cms \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* June 2010 \\- 20,000 jobs created{{Cite web \\|last\\=Canadian \\|first\\=The \\|url\\=http://www.canada.com/story\\_print.html?id\\=3229189\\&sponsor\\= \\|title\\=20000 fewer jobless people in Canada \\|publisher\\=Canada.com \\|date\\=2010\\-07\\-02 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-04 }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=November 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}\n* September 2010 \\- 6,600 jobs lost\n* October 2010 \\- 47,000 jobs created\n* December 2010 \\- 22,000 jobs created", "(1\\) 37,000 jobs are gained in the self\\-employment category{{Cite news \\|author\\=Julian Beltrame THE CANADIAN PRESS \\|url\\=https://www.thestar.com/business/article/645120 \\|title\\=Experts predict bleak job numbers tomorrow \\|work\\=thestar.com \\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 \\|location\\=Toronto \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608224252/http://www.thestar.com/business/article/645120 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "While job creation has increased in the past three months, most Canadians still complain about people getting laid off from work. However, a growing amount of these layoffs are considered for seasonal purposes and has little or no relation to the recession. Excluding Stelco employees, most laid off workers have six months to acquire a job while collecting [unemployment insurance](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits \"Unemployment benefits\"). After that, they must go on [welfare](/wiki/Welfare \"Welfare\") and continue their job search from there.", "* May 2009 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\\.4%\n* September 2009 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\\.7%\n* November 2009 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\\.6%{{cite web \\|date\\= 2009 \\|title\\= Is Canada still in recession or in mother of all jobless recoveries? \\|url\\= https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5i7F0zSW7kKY265PrP7X0s5pqnb4Q \\|access\\-date\\= October 20, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20091111133928/https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5i7F0zSW7kKY265PrP7X0s5pqnb4Q \\|archive\\-date\\= November 11, 2009 }}\n* January 2010 Canadian v rate: 8\\.3%\n* May 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\\.1%\n* June 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\\.1%{{Cite web \\|url\\= http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects\\-sujets/labour\\-travail/lfs\\-epa/lfs\\-epa\\-eng.htm \\|title\\= Latest release from the Labour Force Survey \\- February 2010 \\|publisher\\= Statcan.gc.ca \\|date\\= 2010\\-04\\-09 \\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-05\\-01 \\|archive\\-date\\= 2011\\-08\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110811033027/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects\\-sujets/labour\\-travail/lfs\\-epa/lfs\\-epa\\-eng.htm \\|url\\-status\\= dead }}\n* September 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 8\\.0%{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hrmguide.net/canada/jobmarket/canadian\\-unemployment.htm \\|title\\=Canadian Unemployment Rate At 8\\.0% October 9 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-20 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203121707/http://www.hrmguide.net/canada/jobmarket/canadian\\-unemployment.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* October 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 7\\.9%{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://news.ca.msn.com/top\\-stories/cbc\\-article.aspx?cp\\-documentid\\=26236154 \\|title\\=unemployment rate dips to 7\\.9% November 5, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=November 5, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720091345/http://news.ca.msn.com/top\\-stories/cbc\\-article.aspx?cp\\-documentid\\=26236154 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 20, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* November 2010 Canadian unemployment rate: 7\\.6%[Latest release from the Labour Force Survey](http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects-sujets/labour-travail/lfs-epa/lfs-epa-eng.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811033027/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects\\-sujets/labour\\-travail/lfs\\-epa/lfs\\-epa\\-eng.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-08\\-11 }}. [Statistics Canada](/wiki/Statistics_Canada \"Statistics Canada\"). Accessed 2010\\-12\\-05\\.", "The employment rate has been stabilized between 8\\.0% and 11\\.0% for the past two years; signifying the economic strength of Canada's financial institutions compared to its counterparts in the United States. Many job places in Canada (i.e., [grocery stores](/wiki/Grocery_store \"Grocery store\") and [restaurants](/wiki/Restaurant \"Restaurant\")) have opted to reduce hours rather than lay off staff. This unemployment of job protection is especially in industries that are needed to keep the economy from going into a [depression](/wiki/Depression_%28economics%29 \"Depression (economics)\"). While the automotive sector is slowly recalling workers back to work, grocery stores and restaurants have slashed hours in the face of the global recession.", "### Australia", "* September 2008\\#\\#– 2,200 jobs created\n* October 2008 – 34,300 jobs created\n* November 2008 – 15,600 jobs lost\n* December 2008 – 1,200 jobs lost\n* January 2009 – 1,200 jobs created\n* February 2009 – 1,800 jobs created\n* March 2009 – 34,700 jobs lost\n* April 2009 – 27,300 jobs created\n* May 2009 – 1,700 jobs lost\n* June 2009 – 21,400 jobs lost\n* July 2009 – 32,200 jobs created\n* August 2009 – 27,100 jobs lost\n* September 2009 – 40,600 jobs created\n* October 2009 – 24,500 jobs created", "April 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\\.5%{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/0C55555A36DACE00CA2575D1007BDD0A?opendocument \\|title\\=6202\\.0 – Labour Force, Australia, April 2009 \\|date\\=7 May 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-23 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611161308/http://abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/0C55555A36DACE00CA2575D1007BDD0A?opendocument \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "July 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\\.8%{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/6202\\.0 \\|title\\=6202\\.0 \\- Labour Force, Australia, December 2009 \\|publisher\\=Abs.gov.au \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-14 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205165229/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment\\-and\\-unemployment/labour\\-force\\-australia/latest\\-release \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "August 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\\.8%{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/6202\\.0Main\\+Features1Aug%202009?OpenDocument \\|title\\=6202\\.0 \\- Labour Force, Australia, August 2009 \\|publisher\\=Abs.gov.au \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-09\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917181615/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/6202\\.0Main\\+Features1Aug%202009?OpenDocument \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "September 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\\.7%{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/F9503E18F78A5C3FCA25766B00162732?opendocument \\|title\\=6202\\.0 \\- Labour Force, Australia, September 2009 \\|date\\=8 October 2009 \\|publisher\\=Abs.gov.au \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611230252/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/F9503E18F78A5C3FCA25766B00162732?opendocument \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "October 2009 Australian unemployment rate: 5\\.8%{{cite web\\|title\\=(Page not found) \\|url\\=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mf/6202\\.0t \\|access\\-date\\=October 20, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706121557/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40\\.nsf/mf/6202\\.0t \\|archive\\-date\\=July 6, 2011 }}", "The unemployment rate for October rose slightly due to population growth and other factors leading to 35,000 people looking for work, even though 24,500 jobs were created.", "In general, throughout the subdued economic growth caused by the recession in the rest of the world, Australian employers have elected to cut working hours rather than fire employees, in recognition of the skill shortage caused by the resources boom.", "### United Kingdom", "In September 2007, approximately a year before the recession began, unemployment stood at 1,649,000\\.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6990785\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Pay rising as unemployment falls \\| date\\=2007\\-09\\-12 \\| access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-26 \\| archive\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-24 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124182711/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6990785\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }} By the end of 2008, that figure had risen to 1,860,000 \\- an increase of 211,000 and nearly 13%.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7787280\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Unemployment increases by 137,000 \\| date\\=2008\\-12\\-17 \\| access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-26 \\| archive\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-01 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601164655/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7787280\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }} By March 2009, unemployment had increased to more than 2,000,000 \\- the highest level the nation had seen for more than 12 years.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7947766\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=Unemployment passes two million \\| date\\=2009\\-03\\-18 \\| access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-26 \\| archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327061533/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7947766\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }} It reached 2,261,000 by June that year,{{cite news \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8104546\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=UK jobless total at 12\\-year high \\| date\\=2009\\-06\\-17 \\| access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-26 \\| archive\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-15 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915003807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8104546\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }} and by April 2010 had exceeded 2,500,000 for the first time in 16 years.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8634241\\.stm \\| work\\=BBC News \\| title\\=UK unemployment increases to 2\\.5m \\| date\\=2010\\-04\\-21 \\| access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-26 \\| archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327061601/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8634241\\.stm \\| url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
Sections -------- ### Bucharest – Pitești This section of the motorway is fully operational and is composed of two segments: [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest "Bucharest") – [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești") and [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești") bypass. The [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest "Bucharest") – [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești") segment (95\.9 km) is the first motorway class road built in Romania and remained the only one for more than 15 years, until the completion of the [Fetești](/wiki/Fete%C8%99ti "Fetești") – [Cernavodă](/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83 "Cernavodă") segment on the [A2 motorway](/wiki/A2_motorway_%28Romania%29 "A2 motorway (Romania)") in 1987\. Construction works began on 4 February 1967 and the motorway's initial carriageway was opened on 12 April 1972, before eventually entering in full service to all traffic on 11 September 1972, except for [oversize loads](/wiki/Oversize_load "Oversize load") that were otherwise restricted to the old [DN7](/wiki/DN7 "DN7") road.{{cite web\|title\=12 aprilie 1972: Ceaușescu a inaugurat primele două benzi din A1 București\-Pitești\|url\=https://click.ro/actualitate/national/12\-aprilie\-1972\-ceausescu\-a\-inaugurat\-primele\-67944\.html\|publisher\=click.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=16 April 2018\|access\-date\=23 February 2023}}{{cite web\|title\=Prima autostradă din România: La 4 februarie 1967 începea construcţia Autostrăzii Bucureşti – Piteşti\|url\=https://www.economica.net/prima\-autostrada\-din\-romania\-la\-4\-februarie\-1967\-incepea\-constructia\-autostrazii\-bucuresti\-pitesti\_558213\.html\|publisher\=economica.net\|language\=ro\|date\=4 February 2022\|access\-date\=23 February 2023}}{{cite web\|title\=Iptana, 50 de ani de proiectare pentru infrastructura transporturilor\|url\=http://www.iptana.ro/romania/download/PARTEA%20II\_Drumuri.pdf\|publisher\=Iptana.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=10 September 2003\|access\-date\=26 July 2015\|archive\-date\=31 July 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731200231/http://www.iptana.ro/romania/download/PARTEA%20II\_Drumuri.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} Various parts of the segment underwent several major rehabilitations: between 1997 and 2000 by the FAT joint venture composed of Italian companies Federici, [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi "Astaldi") and Todini, between 2002 and 2004 by the Romanian companies Albix Timișoara and Cosar București and between 2006 and 2010 by Romanian companies PA\&CO Internațional and Euroconstruct Trading '98\.{{cite web\|title\=Autostrada meșterului Manole\|url\=http://www.evz.ro/autostrada\-mesterului\-manole\-807020\.html\|publisher\=Evenimentul Zilei\|language\=ro\|date\=9 June 2008\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Studiu de caz: Cea mai veche autostradă din România\|url\=http://www.zf.ro/proprietati/studiu\-de\-caz\-cea\-mai\-veche\-autostrada\-din\-romania\-bucuresti\-pitesti\-o\-poveste\-cu\-santuri\-si\-cratere\-7641234\|publisher\=Ziarul Financiar\|language\=ro\|date\=31 October 2010\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} As of August 2023 this is the only segment of the motorway where motels and restaurants operate in rest areas. The [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești") bypass segment (13\.6 km) was awarded in April 2004 to a joint venture composed of Italian companies [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi "Astaldi") and Italstrade. The segment was opened to traffic during November 2007, having a major role in diverting traffic from the [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești") city centre.{{cite web\|title\=S\-a inaugurat centura de ocolire a Piteștiului \|url\=http://www.realitatea.net/s\-a\-inaugurat\-centura\-de\-ocolire\-a\-pitestiului\_115362\.html \|publisher\=Realitatea.net \|language\=ro \|date\=19 November 2007 \|access\-date\=26 July 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713030655/http://www.realitatea.net/s\-a\-inaugurat\-centura\-de\-ocolire\-a\-pitestiului\_115362\.html \|archive\-date\=13 July 2015 }} An underpass in the [Bascov](/wiki/Bascov "Bascov") area (north of [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești")) was also built to resolve traffic congestion at the nearby junction of the [DN7](/wiki/DN7 "DN7") and [DN7C](/wiki/DN7C "DN7C") roads which was generating in turn problems at the [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești") motorway end. The underpass was fully completed during October 2008\.{{cite web\|title\=Deschiderea traficului prin Pasajul Bascov\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat\-deschidere\-pasaj\-bascov.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=22 October 2008\|access\-date\=8 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205433/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat\-deschidere\-pasaj\-bascov.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|title\=A fost inaugurat pasajul subteran de la Bascov. Orban a taiat panglica\|url\=http://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/eveniment/a\-fost\-inaugurat\-pasajul\-subteran\-de\-la\-bascov\-orban\-a\-taiat\-panglica.html\|publisher\=Pro TV\|language\=ro\|date\=22 October 2008\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} ### Pitești – Sibiu This section of the motorway is partially under construction and is split into five segments: [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești") – [Curtea de Argeș](/wiki/Curtea_de_Arge%C8%99 "Curtea de Argeș") (lot 5\), [Curtea de Argeș](/wiki/Curtea_de_Arge%C8%99 "Curtea de Argeș") – Văleni (lot 4\), Văleni – [Racovița](/wiki/Racovi%C8%9Ba%2C_V%C3%A2lcea "Racovița, Vâlcea") (lot 3\), [Racovița](/wiki/Racovi%C8%9Ba%2C_V%C3%A2lcea "Racovița, Vâlcea") – [Boița](/wiki/Boi%C8%9Ba "Boița") (lot 2\), [Boița](/wiki/Boi%C8%9Ba "Boița") – [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu "Sibiu") (lot 1\).{{cite web\|title\=Revision/Update of the Feasibility Study for Pitești – Sibiu motorway\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/proceduri\_derulare/5%20Caiet%20de%20sarcini%20Revizuire%20SF%20Sibiu%20\-%20Pitesti.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} This is the most difficult section of the whole motorway from construction works perspective, considering that it has to cross the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains "Carpathian Mountains"), partly along the [Olt River Valley](/wiki/Olt_River "Olt River"). The feasibility study was initially completed during late 2008 with plans to start construction works next year, however the [Romanian Government](/wiki/Government_of_Romania "Government of Romania") has continuously delayed the start of the activity until 2012, considering several options on how the motorway construction was to be funded,{{cite web\|title\=Transporturile le propun chinezilor să facă autostradă\|url\=http://www.zf.ro/eveniment/transporturile\-le\-propun\-chinezilor\-sa\-faca\-autostrada\-in\-jurul\-capitalei\-cu\-aproape\-20\-de\-milioane\-de\-euro\-pe\-kilometru\-8624380\|publisher\=Ziarul Financiar\|language\=ro\|date\=16 August 2011\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Anca Boagiu: Autostrada Sibiu – Pitești va fi finalizată până în 2016 \|url\=http://www.realitatea.net/anca\-boagiu\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-va\-fi\-finalizata\-pana\-in\-2016\_867204\.html \|publisher\=Realitatea.net \|language\=ro \|date\=2 September 2011 \|access\-date\=26 July 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924085544/http://www.realitatea.net/anca\-boagiu\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-va\-fi\-finalizata\-pana\-in\-2016\_867204\.html \|archive\-date\=24 September 2015 }}{{cite web\|title\=Autostrada Pitești\-Sibiu: licitație la toamnă, fonduri de la Uniunea Europeană\|url\=http://www.automarket.ro/stiri/autostrada\-pitesti\-sibiu\-licitatie\-la\-toamna\-fonduri\-de\-la\-uniunea\-42760\.html\|publisher\=Automarket\|language\=ro\|date\=19 January 2012\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} while advancing several deadlines for the start/completion of works on the section.{{cite web\|title\=Constructorul autostrăzii Comarnic\-Brașov\-Făgăraș va fi selectat anul viitor\|url\=http://www.bzb.ro/stire/constructorul\-autostrazii\-comarnic\-brasov\-fagaras\-va\-fi\-selectat\-anul\-viitor\-\-a17240\|publisher\=Buna Ziua Brasov\|language\=ro\|date\=17 December 2011\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Transporturile vor să construiască în trei ani autostrada Sibiu – Pitești\|url\=http://www.zf.ro/eveniment/transporturile\-vor\-sa\-construiasca\-in\-trei\-ani\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-care\-trece\-muntii\-desi\-fac\-sosele\-de\-30\-km\-la\-campie\-in\-3\-4\-ani\-9375566\|publisher\=Ziarul Financiar\|language\=ro\|date\=7 March 2012\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} As during early 2012 the section was accepted to be funded under [European Union's Cohesion Fund](/wiki/Structural_Funds_and_Cohesion_Fund%23The_Cohesion_Fund "Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund#The Cohesion Fund"),{{cite web\|title\=Autostrada Pitești\-Sibiu se licitează în toamnă. UE ne dă bani s\-o facem\|url\=http://www.rtv.net/autostrada\-pitesti\-sibiu\-se\-liciteaza\-in\-toamna\-ue\-ne\-da\-bani\-s\-o\-facem\_11261\.html\|publisher\=RTV.net\|language\=ro\|date\=19 January 2012\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} the 2008 feasibility study had to be updated with several key elements required by the European Union that were previously not considered. The tender for the update was launched in April 2012 aiming to have the section finalized by 2020, as total construction costs for its 116\.6 kilometers were estimated at 3\.25 billion euro.{{cite web\|title\=Studiul de fezabilitate pentru Autostrada Sibiu – Pitești va costa 61 de milioane de lei\|url\=http://jurnalul.ro/stiri/observator/studiul\-de\-fezabilitate\-pentru\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-va\-costa\-61\-de\-milioane\-de\-lei\-608699\.html\|newspaper\=\[\[Jurnalul Național]]\|language\=ro\|date\=1 April 2012\|access\-date\=26 July 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008000217/http://jurnalul.ro/stiri/observator/studiul\-de\-fezabilitate\-pentru\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-va\-costa\-61\-de\-milioane\-de\-lei\-608699\.html\|archive\-date\=8 October 2015\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|title\=Un nou vis spulberat? Autostrada Sibiu\-Pitești care ar trebui să fie gata în 2020\|url\=http://www.wall\-street.ro/articol/Auto/138534/segmentul\-de\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-va\-fi\-finalizat\-in\-anul\-2020\.html\|publisher\=Wall\-Street.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=11 October 2012\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} Eight months later the Romanian Government reconsidered and cancelled the tender.{{cite web\|title\=CNADNR anulează pe bandă rulantă licitațiile pentru autostrăzi. După Comarnic\-Brașov, a fost oprită și procedura pentru Sibiu\-Pitești\|url\=http://www.gandul.info/financiar/cnadnr\-anuleaza\-pe\-banda\-rulanta\-licitatiile\-pentru\-autostrazi\-dupa\-comarnic\-brasov\-a\-fost\-oprita\-si\-procedura\-pentru\-sibiu\-pitesti\-10281836\|work\=\[\[Gândul]]\|language\=ro\|date\=8 November 2012\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} The year 2013 brought much controversy, as the Romanian Government declared that the priority motorway route for crossing the Carpathian Mountains will be the [A3 motorway](/wiki/A3_motorway_%28Romania%29 "A3 motorway (Romania)") (between [Comarnic](/wiki/Comarnic "Comarnic") and [Brașov](/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov "Brașov")) instead of the A1 motorway (between Pitești and [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu "Sibiu")) and further supported the idea of modifying the route of the [Pan\-European Corridor IV](/wiki/Pan-European_Corridor_IV "Pan-European Corridor IV") to pass through Brașov.{{cite web\|title\=Cum vrea sa schimbe Sova traseul autostrazilor din Romania: "Mutam Coridorul IV pe Sibiu\-Brașov. Autostrada Sibiu\-Pitești o facem abia dupa 2020"\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-15985304\-cum\-vrea\-schimbe\-sova\-traseul\-autostrazilor\-din\-romania\-mutam\-coridorul\-sibiu\-brasov\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-facem\-abia\-dupa\-2020\.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=8 November 2013\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Guvernul a scos autostrada Sibiu\-Pitești de pe harta investițiilor în infrastructură pe următorii cinci ani\|url\=http://www.zf.ro/zf\-24/guvernul\-a\-scos\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-de\-pe\-harta\-investitiilor\-in\-infrastructura\-pe\-urmatorii\-cinci\-ani\-11738903\|newspaper\=\[\[Ziarul Financiar]]\|language\=ro\|date\=4 December 2013\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} According to the same plans the A3 motorway was to be connected to the A1 motorway via another motorway between Sibiu and [Făgăraș](/wiki/F%C4%83g%C4%83ra%C8%99 "Făgăraș"), thus creating a nearly complete motorway corridor between [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest "Bucharest") and Sibiu, via Brașov, while the section between Pitești and Sibiu was no longer an immediate priority.{{cite web\|title\=Strategia de autostrazi pana in 2018: Guvernul vrea mai multe autostrazi mici, printre care si una care sa lege Bucuresti de Alexandria – fieful lui Liviu Dragnea, in loc sa finalizeze coridorul european de la Sibiu la Pitești\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-16124674\-harta\-strategia\-autostrazi\-pana\-2018\-guvernul\-vrea\-mai\-multe\-autostrazi\-mici\-printre\-care\-una\-care\-lege\-bucuresti\-alexandria\-fieful\-lui\-liviu\-dragnea\-loc\-finalizeze\-coridorul\-european\-sibiu\-pitesti.htm\|work\=\[\[HotNews]]\|language\=ro\|date\=3 December 2013\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} This was generally regarded as a strategy to avoid a competing alternative route to the section of the [A3 motorway](/wiki/A3_motorway_%28Romania%29 "A3 motorway (Romania)") between [Comarnic](/wiki/Comarnic "Comarnic") and [Brașov](/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov "Brașov"), which was planned to be built via a [concession contract](/wiki/Concession_%28contract%29 "Concession (contract)").{{cite web\|title\=Analiză. Autostrada Sibiu – Pitești vs Sibiu – Brașov. Care este mai importantă investiție\|url\=http://www.oradesibiu.ro/2013/10/04/analiza\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-vs\-sibiu\-brasov\-care\-este\-mai\-importanta/\|publisher\=Ora de Sibiu\|language\=ro\|date\=4 October 2013\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} During the 2013 Trans\-European Transport Networks (TEN\-T) reunion the European Union rejected the plan and officially criticized the attempt to switch priorities from constructing the Pitești – Sibiu motorway, determining the Romanian authorities to reconsider the change.{{cite web\|title\=Comisia Europeană a decis să finanțeze construirea autostrăzii Sibiu–Pitești și a respins varianta Sibiu\-Brașov\|url\=http://ziarulunirea.ro/comisia\-europeana\-a\-decis\-sa\-finanteze\-construirea\-autostrazii\-sibiu\-pitesti\-si\-a\-respins\-varianta\-sibiu\-brasov\-222688/\|publisher\=Unirea\|language\=ro\|date\=23 October 2013\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Cum a ajuns autostrada Sibiu\-Pitesti sa fie din nou o prioritate si de ce risca sa fie amanata in continuare\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-16851181\-cum\-ajuns\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-fie\-din\-nou\-prioritate\-risca\-fie\-amanata\-continuare.htm\|work\=\[\[HotNews]]\|language\=ro\|date\=18 March 2014\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} After further trying unsuccessfully in December 2013 to persuade the European Union to change the route of the motorway to pass through [Râmnicu Vâlcea](/wiki/R%C3%A2mnicu_V%C3%A2lcea "Râmnicu Vâlcea"),{{cite web\|title\=Șapte semne de întrebare legate de planul cincinal pentru autostrăzi al Guvernului Ponta: De la autostrada lui Dragnea, la eliminarea soluției Pitești – Sibiu\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-16128246\-sapte\-semne\-intrebare\-legate\-planul\-cincinal\-pentru\-autostrazi\-guvernului\-ponta\-autostrada\-lui\-dragnea\-eliminarea\-solutiei\-pitesti\-sibiu.htm\|work\=\[\[HotNews]]\|language\=ro\|date\=4 December 2013\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} the [Romanian Government](/wiki/Government_of_Romania "Government of Romania") has retendered in June 2014 the update of the 2008 feasibility study for the section,{{cite web\|title\=Cea mai importantă decizie pentru autostrada Sibiu\-Pitești: Compania de Drumuri a lansat licitația pentru studiul de fezabilitate\|url\=http://www.zf.ro/zf\-24/cea\-mai\-importanta\-decizie\-pentru\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-compania\-de\-drumuri\-a\-lansat\-licitatia\-pentru\-studiul\-de\-fezabilitate\-12674627\|newspaper\=\[\[Ziarul Financiar]]\|language\=ro\|date\=2 June 2014\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} and has signed the contract for this activity with a joint venture composed of the Italian company Spea Ingegneria Europea and the Romanian company Tecnic Consulting Engineering in June 2015, after an appeal from one of the bid participants.{{cite web\|title\=Comunicat de presa CNADNR 15\.06\.2015\| url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\_Comunicat%20CNADNR%20SA%2015\.06\.2015%20ref.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=15 June 2015\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=CNADNR a semnat contractul pentru revizuirea studiului de fezabilitate al autostrăzii Sibiu\-Pitești\|url\=http://www.mediafax.ro/economic/cnadnr\-a\-semnat\-contractul\-pentru\-revizuirea\-studiului\-de\-fezabilitate\-al\-autostrazii\-sibiu\-pitesti\-14455960\|publisher\=Mediafax\|language\=ro\|date\=15 June 2015\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} As the Ministry of Transport has started work on the Romanian General Master Plan for Transport required to access 2014–2020 European funds, it generated further controversy by appearing to continue to try avoiding the construction of the section as a motorway, as it downgraded it to express road in an October 2014 version of the Master Plan{{cite web\|title\=Romanian General Transport Master Plan\|url\=http://www.ampost.ro/fisiere/pagini\_fisiere/01\.10\.2014\_Prezentare\_MPGT.pdf\|publisher\=AMPOST\|language\=ro\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} and later considered a phased express road/motorway approach in a subsequent version of the Master Plan.{{cite web\|title\=Master Planul de Transport – Șoseaua Sibiu\-Pitești va fi construită ca o autostradă fazată până în 2020\|url\=http://www.zf.ro/constructii\-imobiliare/master\-planul\-de\-transport\-soseaua\-sibiu\-pitesti\-va\-fi\-construita\-ca\-o\-autostrada\-fazata\-pana\-in\-2020\-iar\-centura\-de\-sud\-a\-capitalei\-va\-primi\-bani\-europeni\-13638995\|publisher\=Ziarul Financiar\|language\=ro\|date\=25 November 2014\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} This has prompted reactions from the European Union, the public society and the employees of the [Dacia](/wiki/Automobile_Dacia "Automobile Dacia") plant near [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti "Pitești"),{{cite web\|title\=Peste 10\.000 de angajati de la Uzina Dacia au iesit in strada\|url\=http://www.enational.ro/news/peste\-10\-000\-de\-angajati\-de\-la\-uzina\-dacia\-au\-iesit\-in\-strada\-470226\.html/\|publisher\=National\|language\=ro\|date\=16 April 2015\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} and while the Romanian Prime Minister announced during October 2014 that the section will be included as a motorway in the final version of the Master Plan{{cite web\|title\=Victor Ponta, in vizita la Dacia Mioveni: Am stabilit ca segmentul Pitesti\-Sibiu este trecut ca autostrada in Programul Operational de Transport\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-18282881\-victor\-ponta\-vizita\-dacia\-mioveni\-stabilit\-segmentul\-pitesti\-sibiu\-este\-trecut\-autostrada\-programul\-operational\-transport.htm\|work\=\[\[HotNews]]\|language\=ro\|date\=11 October 2014\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} the change was reflected in the document only in July 2015\. In an interview given by the general manager of CNADNR during August 2015 it was announced that possible routes for lots 1 and 5 were already discussed with the joint venture updating the feasibility study and based on that the company will hold public consultations during October 2015, where all interested parties will be invited to comment on the proposed solutions and also to contribute with knowledge regarding the potential problems CNADNR might face on the selected routes. Dependent on the issues that might be identified and their environmental impact, the bid for the construction works on these two lots might be launched as early as January 2016\. CNADNR has published on 7 November 2015 five alternative routes for the Pitești – Sibiu section.{{cite web\|title\=Variante Autostrada Sibiu\-Pitești\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/Sibiu\_Pitesti/Plan\_5\_variante\_Sibiu\_Pitesti.pdf\|website\=www.cnadnr.roÂlanguage\=ro\|date\=7 November 2015\|access\-date\=8 November 2015}} As previously announced all interested parties are welcome to provide their opinion by 11 December 2015 on the company's Facebook page. Following these consultations, it is expected that on 15 December 2015 the company preparing the feasibility study will hand over to CNADNR the final study for lots 1 and 5\.{{cite web\|title\=Traseul autostrăzii A1 Pitești – Sibiu. Cele cinci variante luate in calcul de autorități \|url\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-20566992\-harta\-interactiva\-traseul\-autostrazii\-a1\-pitesti\-sibiu\-cele\-cinci\-variante\-luate\-calcul\-autoritati.htm\|work\=\[\[HotNews]]\|language\=ro\|date\=7 November 2015\|access\-date\=8 November 2015}}{{Update after\|2018\|8\|7}} According to the approved version of the Master Plan, the section was expected to be completed until 2020 using a mix between European funds, Romanian budget and low interest loans.{{cite web\|title\=Romanian General Transport Master Plan\|url\=http://www.mt.ro/web14/documente/strategie/mpgt/23072015/Master%20Planul%20General%20de%20Transport\_iulie\_2015\_vol%20I.pdf\|website\=www.mt.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=23 July 2015\|access\-date\=26 July 2015}} The works for lots 1 and 5 were tendered in July 2017 and for lot 4 in March 2019\. As of April 2019, the lot 1 was awarded for construction to the Austrian company [Porr](/wiki/Porr "Porr"), for nearly 128\.7 million euro, with 12 months allowed for planning and 36 months for execution. The other two lots were still pending to be awarded.{{cite web\| url \= https://www.economica.net/autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-china\-raiway\-sectiunea\-5\_170959\.html\| title \= Primul tronson de autostradă făcut de chinezi? CNAIR, obligată a doua oară să primească China Railway în cursa pentru lotul 5 din Sibiu – Pitești\| date \= 7 July 2019}} Announcements of intention for a tender were published for two of the rest of the three lots, as well, in April 2018\.{{cite web\| url \= https://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-22410208\-harta\-interactiva\-noul\-traseul\-autostrazii\-a1\-pitesti\-sibiu\-asa\-cum\-fost\-scos\-licitatie\-cum\-schimbat\-sectiunile\-unde\-vor\-tunelurile\-cte\-noduri\-rutiere\-mai\-ramas.htm?nomobile\=\| title \= HARTĂ INTERACTIVĂ Traseul modificat al autostrăzii A1 Pitești \- Sibiu, așa cum va fi scos la licitație. Cum s\-au schimbat secțiunile, unde vor fi tunelurile și câte noduri rutiere au mai rămas \- Infrastructura \- HotNews.ro}} As of July 2019, the lot 1 of this section (Boița – Sibiu, 13\.1 km) is undergoing construction.{{cite web\| url \= https://www.capital.ro/in\-sfarsit\-romania\-va\-avea\-o\-noua\-autostrada\-au\-inceput\-lucrarile.html\| title \= În sfârșit! România va avea o nouă autostradă. Au început lucrările – Capital}} On 11 May 2020, the contract for the construction of the lot 5 (Pitești – Curtea de Argeș, 30\.4 km) was signed with the Italian company [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi "Astaldi"). The value of the contract is 356 million euro and it is scheduled to take 12 months for planning and 48 months for execution.{{cite web\| url \= https://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-23989768\-contract\-semnat\-pentru\-autostrada\-sibiu\-pitesti\-356\-milioane\-euro\-pentru\-30\-kilometri\-pitesti\-curtea\-arges.htm\| title \= Contract semnat pentru autostrada Sibiu \- Pitești: 356 milioane de euro pentru 30 de kilometri de la Pitești la Curtea de Argeș \- Hotnews Mobile}} The lot 4 (Curtea de Argeș – Tigveni, 9\.86 km) followed on 15 November 2021; the contract for its construction was signed with the Austrian company [Porr](/wiki/Porr "Porr").[Contractul pentru lotul 4 al autostrăzii Sibiu \- Pitești a fost semnat cu o întârziere de doi ani](https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/economie/transporturi/contractul-pentru-lotul-4-al-autostrazii-sibiu-pitesti-a-fost-semnat-cu-o-intarziere-de-doi-ani-1737009) On 7 February 2022, the contract for the construction of the lot 2 (Boița – Cornetu, 31\.3 km) was signed with the Turkish joint\-venture [Mapa](/wiki/Mapa_Group "Mapa Group")\-Cengiz.[Autostrada Sibiu – Pitești: CNAIR a semnat contractul pentru primul lot de autostradă din România care intră în zona de munte / Turcii de la MAPA au termen cinci ani și jumătate pentru lotul de 31 km](https://economedia.ro/autostrada-sibiu-pitesti-cnair-a-semnat-contractul-pentru-proiectarea-si-executia-lotului-2-boita-cornetu-primul-lot-de-autostrada-din-romania-care-intra-in-zona-de-munte-turcii-de-la-mapa-au-ter.html) On 1 August 2022, the contract for the construction of the lot 3 (Cornetu–Tigveni, 37\.3 km) was signed with Webuild. It is the most expensive roadbuilding contract ever signed in Romania. On 15 December 2022, lot 1 ([Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu "Sibiu") \- [Boița](/wiki/Boi%C8%9Ba "Boița"), 13\.1 km) was opened to the public {{Cite web \|title\=Primul tronson al autostrăzii A1 Sibiu \- Pitești, de la Sibiu la Boița, se deschide mai devreme. Constructorul e din Austria \|url\=https://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/social/primul\-tronson\-al\-autostrazii\-a1\-sibiu\-pitesti\-de\-la\-sibiu\-la\-boita\-se\-deschide\-mai\-devreme\-constructorul\-e\-din\-austria.html \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-15 \|website\=Stirileprotv.ro \|language\=ro}} ### Sibiu bypass This section of the motorway is fully operational. The contract for the whole section (17\.5 km) forming a partial beltway around [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu "Sibiu") was initially signed during 2003 with Italian company Todini, with the actual construction work starting during 2004 and scheduled to finish during 2007\. This plan suffered multiple delays and eventually in September 2006 CNADNR decided to terminate the contract.{{cite web\|title\=Boc: Centura ocolitoare a Sibiului va fi gata la finele lui 2010 \|url\=http://www.ziare.com/stiri/drumuri/boc\-centura\-ocolitoare\-a\-sibiului\-va\-fi\-gata\-la\-finele\-lui\-2010\-1037800\|website\=www.ziare.com\|language\=ro\|date\=26 August 2010\|access\-date\=1 August 2015}} Following this, the section was split into two segments. The first segment (km 0\-14\) was awarded in May 2008 to a joint venture composed of Geiger, Max Bögl and Comtram.{{cite web\|title\=A fost semnat contractul pentru construcția variantei de ocolire a municipiului Sibiu la standard de autostradă\| url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat\_19mai2008\.pdf\|website\=www.cnadnr.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=16 May 2008\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Consortiul Boegl–Geiger–Comtram a castigat licitatia pentru modernizarea centurii orasului Sibiu\|url\=http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri\-companii\-2880331\-consortiul\-boegl\-ndash\-geiger\-ndash\-comtram\-castigat\-licitatia\-pentru\-modernizarea\-centurii\-orasului\-sibiu.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=24 April 2008\|access\-date\=1 August 2015}} The second segment (km 14\-17\) was awarded in September 2009 to the Romanian company Vectra Service and included also the upgrade of 3\.3 kilometers of road connecting the motorway with [DN1](/wiki/DN1 "DN1") that was designated DN1T.{{cite web\|title\=Vectra Service SRL – PD\-L a câștigat centura Sibiului. Partea a doua\|url\=http://www.turnulsfatului.ro/565/vectra\-service\-srl\-\-pd\-l\-a\-c%C3%A2stigat\-centura\-sibiului\-partea\-a\-doua.html\|publisher\=Turnul Sfatului\|language\=ro\|date\=27 September 2009\|access\-date\=1 August 2015}} Works started on the first segment during July 2008 and on the second during February 2010 and were scheduled to be fully completed during 2011, but as a result of the authorities insisting on the bypass being finished sooner the section was opened for traffic in December 2010\.{{cite web\|title\=Varianta de Ocolire a Municipiului Sibiu, Secțiunea 1 deschisă traficului\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/VO\_Sibiu\_sect1\_deschidere\_site\_2dec2010\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=1 December 2010\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Varianta de Ocolire a Municipiului Sibiu, Secțiunea 2 deschisă traficului\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/VO\_Sibiu\_sect2\_deschidere\_site\_2dec2010\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=1 December 2010\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Premierul Emil Boc a inaugurat centura ocolitoare a municipiului Sibiu\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-8088281\-premierul\-emil\-boc\-inaugurat\-centura\-ocolitoare\-municipiului\-sibiu.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=1 December 2010\|access\-date\=1 August 2015}} ### Sibiu – Orăștie This section of the motorway is fully open and is split into four segments: [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu "Sibiu") – [Săliște](/wiki/S%C4%83li%C8%99te "Săliște") (lot 4\), [Săliște](/wiki/S%C4%83li%C8%99te "Săliște") – Cunța (lot 3\), Cunța – [Sebeș](/wiki/Sebe%C8%99 "Sebeș") (lot 2\) and [Sebeș](/wiki/Sebe%C8%99 "Sebeș") – [Orăștie](/wiki/Or%C4%83%C8%99tie "Orăștie") (lot 1\).{{cite web\|title\=Contract de Finanțare pentru Autostrada Orăștie\-Sibiu\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20contract%20finantare%20Orastie%20Sibiu.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=21 October 2011\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}} The bid for the design \& build contracts for all four segments that are part of this section was launched by CNADNR during December 2010\.{{cite web\|title\=CNADNR a lansat licitația pentru 'Proiectare și execuție autostrada Orăștie\-Sibiu, Loturile 1, 2, 3 și 4' și 'Proiectare și execuție autostrada Timișoara\-Lugoj, Loturile 1 și 2'\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\_Comunicat\_licitatie\_Orastie\-Sibiu\_Tim\-Lugoj\_14dec2010\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=14 December 2010\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} The [Cunța](/wiki/Cun%C8%9Ba "Cunța") – [Săliște](/wiki/S%C4%83li%C8%99te "Săliște") segment (22\.1 km), which includes the {{convert\|1100\|m\|ft\|adj\=on}} long [Aciliu viaduct](/wiki/Aciliu_Viaduct "Aciliu Viaduct") was awarded to Italian company [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo "Impregilo") in May 2011,{{cite web\|title\=Proiectarea și execuția autostrăzii Orăștie\-Sibiu km 43\+855 – km 65\+96 finanțate de Uniunea Europeană\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat\_lucrari\_Orastie\_Sibiu\_23mai2011\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=20 May 2011\|access\-date\=8 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205339/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat\_lucrari\_Orastie\_Sibiu\_23mai2011\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} while the [Orăștie](/wiki/Or%C4%83%C8%99tie "Orăștie") – [Sebeș](/wiki/Sebe%C8%99 "Sebeș") segment (24\.1 km) was awarded to Austrian company [Strabag](/wiki/Strabag "Strabag"), the [Sebeș](/wiki/Sebe%C8%99 "Sebeș") – Cunța segment (19\.7 km) was awarded to a joint venture composed of Romanian companies Straco and Studio Corona and the Săliște – [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu "Sibiu") segment (16\.1 km) was awarded to Italian company [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi "Astaldi"), all in June 2011\.{{cite web\|title\=Proiectarea și execuția loturilor 1, 2 și 4 ale autostrăzii Orăștie\-Sibiu sunt finanțate de Uniunea Europeană\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20lucrari%20Orastie%20sibiu%20lot%201%202%20si%204\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|date\=7 June 2011\|access\-date\=8 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205417/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20lucrari%20Orastie%20sibiu%20lot%201%202%20si%204\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} Construction works on all four segments have started in October 2011 and were planned to finish in April 2013\.{{cite web\|title\=Panglicile se îndepărtează de autostrăzile în lucru\|url\=http://www.capital.ro/luni\-panglicile\-se\-indeparteaza\-de\-autostrazile\-in\-lucru\-167275\.html\|publisher\=Capital\|language\=ro\|date\=4 June 2012\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} After several delays, lots 1, 2 and 4 were opened in December 2013,{{cite web\|title\=Deschiderea traficului rutier pe Autostrada Orăstie\-Sibiu, Loturile I, II si IV\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat%20Orastie\-Sibiu%20deschidere%20trafic%2019%2012%202013\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=19 December 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205334/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat%20Orastie\-Sibiu%20deschidere%20trafic%2019%2012%202013\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|title\=CNADNR: Circulația pe AUTOSTRADA Orăștie – Sibiu se DESCHIDE de JOI, 19 decembrie. Lotul 3, finalizat doar la sfârșitul anului viitor\|url\=http://alba24\.ro/cnadnr\-circulatia\-pe\-autostrada\-orastie\-sibiu\-se\-deschide\-de\-joi\-19\-decembrie\-lotul\-3\-finalizat\-doar\-la\-sfarsitul\-anului\-viitor\-260623\.html\|publisher\=Alba24\.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=15 December 2013\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}} while lot 3 was eventually opened at the end of November 2014\.{{cite web\|title\=Comunicat de presă\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20CNADNR%20SA%20%2026%2011%202014\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=26 November 2014\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=AUTOSTRADA ORĂȘTIE\-SIBIU : Din 14 noiembrie se va putea circula și pe cei 22 km dintre Cunța și Săliște\|url\=http://alba24\.ro/autostrada\-orastie\-sibiu\-din\-14\-noiembrie\-se\-va\-putea\-circula\-si\-pe\-cei\-22\-km\-dintre\-cunta\-si\-saliste\-366516\.html\|publisher\=Alba24\.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=5 November 2014\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}} As of November 2015 construction works were still ongoing on lot 3,{{cite web\|title\=Stadiul lucrarilor pe fiecare autostrada din Romania. Ce autostrada are sanse sa fie deschisa pana la finalul anului\|url\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-20579503\-harta\-interactiva\-stadiul\-lucrarilor\-fiecare\-autostrada\-din\-romania\-autostrada\-are\-sanse\-fie\-deschisa\-pana\-finalul\-anului.htm\|language\=ro\|date\=11 November 2015\|access\-date\=21 November 2015}} as there are multiple issues on this lot generated by a combination of ignoring the [terrain instability](/wiki/Landslide "Landslide") identified by the feasibility study, the low quality of the construction works and the [Romanian Government](/wiki/Government_of_Romania "Government of Romania") pressuring for electoral reasons for the segment to open before a number of critical road elements were completed.{{cite web\|title\=Autostrada pe nisipuri miscatoare\|url\=http://www.money.ro/autostrada\-pe\-nisipuri\-miscatoare/\|publisher\=Money.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=29 October 2014\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Sibiu\-Orăștie, autostrada greșelilor în lanț\|url\=http://www.digi24\.ro/Stiri/Digi24/Special/Romania\+cu\+incetinitorul/Sibiu\-Orastie\+autostrada\+greselilor\+in\+lant\|publisher\=Digi24\.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=22 July 2015\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Povestea autostrazii care o ia la vale: Cum s\-a ajuns ca Lotul 3 din A1 Orastie – Sibiu sa fie macinat de alunecari de teren, cat de serioase sunt riscurile pentru soferi si cum explica autoritatile problemele de la viaductul Aciliu\|url\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-20314190\-povestea\-autostrazii\-care\-vale\-cum\-ajuns\-lotul\-3\-din\-a1\-orastie\-sibiu\-fie\-macinat\-alunecari\-teren\-cat\-serioase\-sunt\-riscurile\-pentru\-soferi\-cum\-explica\-autoritatile\-problemele\-viaductul\-aciliu.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=22 July 2015\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Rus pe autostrada Sibiu – Orăștie: Pe 15 sau 16 noiembrie deschidem lotul 3\. Mergem la vot pe autostradă!\|url\=http://www.oradesibiu.ro/2014/10/09/rus\-pe\-autostrada\-sibiu\-orastie\-pe\-15\-sau\-16\-noiembrie\-deschidem\-lotul\-3\-mergem\-la\-vot\-pe\-autostrada/\|publisher\=Ora de Sibiu\|date\=9 October 2014\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}} Another aspect that has surfaced and is generating controversy is related to the fact that while there are multiple disputes awaiting resolution between CNADNR and [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo "Impregilo") and during the construction of the segment there were around 300 non\-conformity reports issued, CNADNR has paid to [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo "Impregilo") the works executed.{{cite web\|title\=CNADNR: italienii au lucrat foarte prost pe autostrada din Sibiu. Peste 300 de neconformități. Dar și\-au primit banii\|url\=http://www.turnulsfatului.ro/31466/cnadnr:\-italienii\-au\-lucrat\-foarte\-prost\-pe\-autostrada\-din\-sibiu\-peste\-300\-de\-neconformitati\-dar\-si\-au\-primit\-banii.html\|publisher\=Turnul Sfatului\|language\=ro\|date\=22 July 2015\|access\-date\=8 August 2015}} Following this, during August 2015 the general manager of CNADNR has given a number of interviews during various TV shows defending the company and putting all the blame for the issues on lot 3 on the poor quality of execution of [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo "Impregilo").{{cite web\|title\=Adevarul Live – Interview with CNADNR general manager Narcis Neaga\|url\=http://adevarul.ro/embed/economie/stiri\-economice/directorul\-cnadnr\-despre\-starea\-infrastructurii\-romanesti\-marile\-probleme\-constructiei\-autostrazi\-\-8\_55d5a470f5eaafab2cbf2cff/index.html?width\=640\&height\=360\|publisher\=Adevarul\|language\=ro\|date\=20 August 2015\|access\-date\=6 September 2015\|archive\-date\=24 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043726/http://adevarul.ro/embed/economie/stiri\-economice/directorul\-cnadnr\-despre\-starea\-infrastructurii\-romanesti\-marile\-probleme\-constructiei\-autostrazi\-\-8\_55d5a470f5eaafab2cbf2cff/index.html?width\=640\&height\=360\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|title\=TVR2 – Interview with CNADNR general manager Narcis Neaga\|website \= \[\[YouTube]]\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=TY4clXru3rY\|language\=ro\|date\=18 August 2015\|access\-date\=6 September 2015}} Regardless of the statements from both parties, the problems on lot 3 are serious enough so that they required CNADNR to close down the traffic on the affected lanes during August 2015, while having both the company's experts and [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo "Impregilo")'s ones looking for the technical solutions to address the issues. As those solutions were discussed and agreed, lot 3 was closed down to traffic, initially for about one month and a half, just nine months after it was inaugurated.{{cite web\|title\=Comunicat de Presă\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat%20CNADNR%20SA%2003%2009%202015%20Autostrada%20Orastie%20\-%20Sibiu%20lot%203\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=3 September 2015\|access\-date\=6 September 2015}} According to information surfacing from various sources about one kilometer from the motorway will need to be completely rebuilt from the ground while other issues that appeared will be addressed as well.{{cite web\|title\=Premiera absoluta: Romania inchide o autostrada la 9 luni dupa inaugurare. Cum pierd autoritatile 1,2 mld. EUR pentru drumuri\|url\=http://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/financiar/premiera\-absoluta\-romania\-inchide\-o\-autostrada\-la\-9\-luni\-dupa\-inaugurare\-cum\-pierd\-autoritatile\-1\-2\-mld\-eur\-pentru\-drumuri.html\|publisher\=ProTV\|language\=ro\|date\=3 September 2015\|access\-date\=6 September 2015}} During October and November 2015 the conflict between CNADNR and [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo "Impregilo") seems to have taken a turn for worse as after the promised one month and a half term passed no substantial progress has been made on fixing the identified problems, the construction works on the lot were completely stopped and CNADNR announced it made a penal complaint against [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo "Impregilo").{{cite web\|title\=Comunicat de presă\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat%20CNADNR%20SA%2009%2011%202015\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=9 November 2015\|access\-date\=1 December 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=Un an de la deschiderea circulației pe Săliște – Cunța. Și 69 de zile de la închidere\|url\=http://www.turnulsfatului.ro/2015/11/15/un\-an\-de\-la\-deschiderea\-circulatiei\-pe\-saliste\-cunta\-si\-69\-de\-zile\-de\-la\-inchidere\-foto\-si\-video/\|publisher\=Turnul Sfatului\|language\=ro\|date\=15 November 2015\|access\-date\=21 November 2015}} Six months after the closing, come the spring of 2016, the CNADNR decided to fix the problems itself with its own workforce and rented equipment; part of the financing of these repairs was to come from the 90 million lei guarantee posted for the project by Impregilo, which was to be blacklisted for two years in which it would not be allowed to obtain contracts from the Romanian government.{{Citation \| url\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-20867880\-directorul\-companiei\-drumuri\-repararea\-autostrazii\-demolate\-incepe\-aprilie\-facuta\-cnadnr.htm\| title\=Directorul Companiei de Drumuri: Repararea autostrazii demolate incepe in aprilie si va fi facuta de CNADNR – Infrastructura\_Articole\| newspaper\=HotNews.ro\| date\= 15 March 2016\| author\=Victor Cozmei\| access\-date\=31 March 2016}} On 10 October 2016, the lot 3 was re\-opened after repairing works had reportedly been completed.{{cite web\| url \= http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-21342817\-autostrada\-a1\-saliste\-cunta\-redeschide\-traficului\-luni\-peste\-cand\-fost\-inchisa\-demolata\-partial.htm\| title \= Autostrada A1 Saliste\-Cunta a fost redeschisa traficului, la peste un an de cand a fost inchisa si demolata partial \- Hotnews Mobile}} ### Orăștie – Deva This section of the motorway is fully operational and is composed of two segments: [Orăștie](/wiki/Or%C4%83%C8%99tie "Orăștie") – [Simeria](/wiki/Simeria "Simeria") and [Simeria](/wiki/Simeria "Simeria") – [Deva](/wiki/Deva%2C_Romania "Deva, Romania"). Bids for the construction works for this section were launched by CNADNR during 2006{{cite web\|title\=CNADNR a semnat cu Strabag un contract de 220 milioane de euro pentru constructia tronsonului de autostrada Deva\-Orastie\|url\=http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri\-companii\-8020399\-cnadnr\-semnat\-strabag\-contract\-220\-milioane\-euro\-pentru\-constructia\-tronsonului\-autostrada\-deva\-orastie.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=9 November 2010\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} and subsequently during September 2009,{{cite web\|title\=CNADNR lansează procedura de achiziție publică de lucrări pentru "Construcția variantei de ocolire Deva\-Orăștie la standard de autostradă – relicitare"\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\_comunicat2\-16\-09\-09\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=16 September 2009\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} but they were both cancelled due to problems related to the selection criteria. The bid was launched again during March 2010{{cite web\|title\=Anunt de participare în vederea atribuirii contractului "Constructia Variantei de Ocolire Deva – Orastie la standard de autostrada – relicitare"\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%201\-19\.03\.2010\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=19 March 2010\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} and the whole section (32\.8 km) was finally awarded to the joint venture between the Austrian company [Strabag](/wiki/Strabag "Strabag") and the Romanian company Straco Grup in November 2010, after appeals from the competing companies.{{cite web\|title\=Varianta de ocolire Deva\-Orastie se finanteaza prin Fonduri ex\-ISPA\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20\-11\.11\.2010\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=9 November 2010\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205347/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20\-11\.11\.2010\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} Construction works have started in April 2011 and were planned to finish in April 2013\. The [Simeria](/wiki/Simeria "Simeria") – [Deva](/wiki/Deva%2C_Romania "Deva, Romania") segment (15\.4 km) was opened during December 2012,{{cite web\|title\=COMUNICAT\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/COMUNICAT%20deschidere%20trafic%20Deva\-Orastie%20\_1\_.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=21 December 2012\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205327/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/COMUNICAT%20deschidere%20trafic%20Deva\-Orastie%20\_1\_.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|title\=CNADNR anunta deschiderea traficului pe sectiunea Simeria – Deva a tronsonului de autostrada Deva – Orastie\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-13859203\-cnadnr\-anunta\-deschiderea\-traficului\-sectiunea\-simeria\-deva\-tronsonului\-autostrada\-deva\-orastie.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=21 December 2012\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} while the [Orăștie](/wiki/Or%C4%83%C8%99tie "Orăștie") – [Simeria](/wiki/Simeria "Simeria") segment (17\.4 km) was opened during May 2013\.{{cite web\|title\=Autostrada Deva – Orăstie finalizată prin fonduri ISPA\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20Deva\-Orastie.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=30 May 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205356/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20Deva\-Orastie.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|title\=Inca 18 km din autostrada Deva\-Orastie, deschisi circulatiei\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-14902516\-harta\-interactiva\-inca\-18\-din\-autostrada\-deva\-orastie\-deschisi\-circulatiei\-vezi\-unde\-trece\-autostrada\-care\-ocoleste\-orasele\-deva\-simeria\-orastie\-degreveaza\-trafic\-dn7\.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=30 May 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} ### Deva – Lugoj This section of the motorway is partially operational and partially under construction and is split into four segments: [Șoimuș](/wiki/%C8%98oimu%C8%99 "Șoimuș") – [Ilia](/wiki/Ilia%2C_Hunedoara "Ilia, Hunedoara") (lot 4\), [Ilia](/wiki/Ilia%2C_Hunedoara "Ilia, Hunedoara") – [Coșevița](/wiki/Co%C8%99evi%C8%9Ba "Coșevița") (lot 3\), [Coșevița](/wiki/Co%C8%99evi%C8%9Ba "Coșevița") – [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 "Dumbrava, Timiș") (lot 2\) and [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 "Dumbrava, Timiș") – [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba "Șanovița") (lot 1\).{{cite web\|title\=Studiu de fezabilitate final. Obiectiv: Lugoj – Deva.\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/Lugoj\-Deva/\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=April 2009\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} The bid for the design \& build contract for lot 1 was launched by CNADNR during December 2010\.{{cite web\|title\=Execuția și proiectarea tronsoanelor Nădlac\-Arad și Lugoj\-Deva va dura 30 de luni\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/3\_Comunicat\_tronsoane\_Nadlac\_Arad\_Lugoj\_Deva\_13dec2010\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=13 December 2010\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} The contract included also the first segment of the [A6 motorway](/wiki/A6_motorway_%28Romania%29 "A6 motorway (Romania)") (11\.4 km) that is branching off from the A1 motorway near the village of [Balinț](/wiki/Balin%C8%9B "Balinț") and connecting the city of [Lugoj](/wiki/Lugoj "Lugoj").{{cite web\|title\=Contract de Finanțare pentru Autostrada Lugoj Dumbrava\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20lugoj%20dumbrava.doc\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=2 December 2011\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} The [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba "Șanovița") – [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 "Dumbrava, Timiș") segment (27\.4 km) was awarded to a joint venture composed of Italian companies Tirrena Scavi, Societa Italiana per Condotte D'Acqua and Cossi Construzioni in May 2011, after an appeal from one of the bid participants.{{cite web\|title\=Proiectarea și execuția autostrăzii Lugoj\-Deva km 0\+000 – km 27\+400 finanțate de Uniunea Europeană\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat\_lucrari\_%20Lugoj\_Deva\_23mai2011\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=20 May 2011\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205337/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat\_lucrari\_%20Lugoj\_Deva\_23mai2011\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} Construction works on lot 1 have started in October 2011 and were planned to finish in April 2013\. After several delays, the segment was eventually opened during December 2013, but only between the junction with the [A6 motorway](/wiki/A6_motorway_%28Romania%29 "A6 motorway (Romania)") and [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 "Dumbrava, Timiș").{{cite web\|title\=Primul lot al Autostrazii Lugoj – Deva, deschis circulatiei in plina noapte, cu o intarziere de noua luni\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-16272336\-primul\-tronson\-autostrazii\-lugoj\-deva\-deschis\-circulatiei\-intarziere\-noua\-luni\-10\-km\-necirculabili\-autostrada\-opreste\-in\-camp.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=23 December 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} As of July 2015 the remaining part of lot 1 was still not usable, as the next segment containing an exit ([Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara "Timișoara") – [Lugoj](/wiki/Lugoj "Lugoj") lot 2\) was not opened for traffic. The idea of building a temporary exit at the western end of the segment near [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba "Șanovița") was discussed but never implemented.{{cite web\|title\=Drumul de legatura pentru descarcarea de pe Autostrada Lugoj – Deva\|url\=http://www.opiniatimisoarei.ro/drumul\-de\-legatura\-pentru\-descarcarea\-de\-pe\-autostrada\-lugoj\-deva\-gata\-de\-inaugurare\-ar\-putea\-fi\-construit\-de\-consiliul\-judetean\-timis/28/11/2013/\|publisher\=Opinia Timisoarei\|language\=ro\|date\=24 December 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} Another option discussed, considering that [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara "Timișoara") – [Lugoj](/wiki/Lugoj "Lugoj") lot 2 was awarded to the same joint venture of companies was a partial opening from [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba "Șanovița") to [Topolovățu Mare](/wiki/Topolov%C4%83%C8%9Bu_Mare "Topolovățu Mare") interchange with DJ572 (6\.02 km),{{cite web\|title\=Bilantul autostrazilor la final de an\|url\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-16313372\-harta\-interactiva\-bilantul\-autostrazilor\-final\-108\-2013\-10\-gata\-dar\-neutilizabili\-prima\-autostrada\-care\-opreste\-camp\-77\-posibili\-2014\.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews.ro\|language\=ro\|date\=30 December 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} but this was not pursued either. The bid for the design \& build contracts for the remaining three segments that are part of this section was launched by CNADNR during April 2012\.{{cite web\|title\=Comunicat de presă\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/lugojdeva\_tmlugoj.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=1 April 2012\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} After more than one year after the bid was launched, the [Ilia](/wiki/Ilia%2C_Hunedoara "Ilia, Hunedoara") – [Șoimuș](/wiki/%C8%98oimu%C8%99 "Șoimuș") segment (22\.1 km) was awarded to a joint venture composed of Romanian companies [Spedition UMB](/wiki/UMB_Grup "UMB Grup") and Tehnostrade in July 2013,{{cite web\|title\=Semnare contract Proiectare și execuție Autostrada Lugoj – Deva Lot 4\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\_comunicat%20de%20presa%20Lugoj%20\-Deva%20ilia%20deva.pdf\|language\=ro\|publisher\=CNADNR\|date\=31 July 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205320/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\_comunicat%20de%20presa%20Lugoj%20\-Deva%20ilia%20deva.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|title\=Loturile 2,3 și 4 ale tronsonului de autostradă Lugoj\-Deva au fost atribuite în vederea începerii lucrărilor\|url\=http://www.agerpres.ro/media/index.php/economic/item/197607\-Loturile\-23\-si\-4\-ale\-tronsonului\-de\-autostrada\-LugojDeva\-au\-fost\-atribuite\-in\-vederea\-inceperii\-lucrarilor.html\|publisher\=Agerpres\|language\=ro\|date\=23 May 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213043906/http://www.agerpres.ro/media/index.php/economic/item/197607\-Loturile\-23\-si\-4\-ale\-tronsonului\-de\-autostrada\-LugojDeva\-au\-fost\-atribuite\-in\-vederea\-inceperii\-lucrarilor.html\|archive\-date\=13 December 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} while the [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 "Dumbrava, Timiș") – [Coșevița](/wiki/Co%C8%99evi%C8%9Ba "Coșevița") segment (28\.6 km) was awarded to a joint venture composed of Italian companies [Salini Impregilo](/wiki/Salini_Impregilo "Salini Impregilo") and Secol,{{cite web\|title\=Semnare contract "Proiectare și execu ie autostrada Lugoj – Deva, Lot 2, Km 27\+620 – Km 56\+220"\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\_comunicat%20constructie%20lugoj%20deva%20lot%202\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=31 October 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205318/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\_comunicat%20constructie%20lugoj%20deva%20lot%202\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} and the [Coșevița](/wiki/Co%C8%99evi%C8%9Ba "Coșevița") – [Ilia](/wiki/Ilia%2C_Hunedoara "Ilia, Hunedoara") segment (21\.1 km) was awarded to a joint\-venture led by the Spanish company [Comsa](/wiki/Comsa "Comsa"),{{cite web\|title\=Semnare contract "Proiectare și execu ie autostrada Lugoj – Deva, Lot 3, Sectorul Dumbrava – Ilia: Km 56\+220 – Km 77\+361"\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20constructie%20lugoj%20deva%20lot%203\.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|language\=ro\|date\=31 October 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205400/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20constructie%20lugoj%20deva%20lot%203\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} both in October 2013\.{{cite web\|title\=Au fost semnate contractele pentru constructia loturilor 2 si 3 din autostrada Lugoj – Deva\|url\=http://www.tion.ro/au\-fost\-semnate\-contractele\-pentru\-constructia\-loturilor\-2\-si\-3\-din\-autostrada\-lugoj\-deva/1346541\|publisher\=TION\|language\=ro\|date\=23 October 2013\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} Constructions works for lots 2, 3 and 4 were planned to finish in May 2016, however the lots face multiple issues: a revision of the environmental study imposed a number of changes to structures among which the requirement for a number of [ecoducts](/wiki/Ecoduct "Ecoduct") for protecting the large carnivore fauna in the area,{{cite web\|title\=Pentru Autostrada Lugoj – Deva se cer tuneluri si viaducte noi\|url\=http://www.tion.ro/pentru\-autostrada\-lugoj\-deva\-se\-cer\-tuneluri\-si\-viaducte\-noi/1490456\|publisher\=TION\|language\=ro\|date\=23 December 2014\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} which called for an additional bid to cover for the changes; on lot 4 an illegal cemetery was discovered on the path of the motorway and was relocated, the motorway route was passing by too close to a cave near [Brănișca](/wiki/Br%C4%83ni%C8%99ca "Brănișca") which was supposedly housing a significant bat population protected by law and there were discussions between Spedition UMB and CNADNR regarding a potential change of the technical solution in the area of the [Mintia](/wiki/Mintia%2C_Hunedoara "Mintia, Hunedoara") ash and clay deposit.{{cite web\|title\=A1 Lugoj – Deva (Loturile 2,3,4\) – Prima autostrada cu ecoducte pentru ursi, dar care s\-a poticnit intr\-un cimitir ilegal, o pestera cu lilieci si o halda de steril\|url\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_proiecte\-19354613\-a1\-lugoj\-deva\-loturile\-2\-3\-4\-prima\-autostrada\-ecoducte\-pentru\-ursi\-dar\-care\-poticnit\-intr\-cimitir\-ilegal\-pestera\-lilieci\-halda\-steril.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=11 February 2015\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}} In an interview given by the general manager of CNADNR during August 2015, it was announced that the problems on lot 4 were now cleared and Spedition UMB was praised for their approach and pace of work on the segment, the appreciation being that if the issues hadn't surfaced most probably the works would have been completed by end of 2015\. On 6 March 2017, a part of lot 2, between Dumbrava and [Margina](/wiki/Margina "Margina") was opened to traffic. By April 2019,{{cite web\|url\=https://i.imgur.com/vsoz4DV.png\|title\=Image\|website\=imgur.con}} the physical progress was at 95\.8% on lot 2 (except tunnels), 94% on lot 3 and 95% on lot 4\. The bid for the new planned tunnels on lot 2, claimed publicly since December 2014,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.tion.ro/pentru\-autostrada\-lugoj\-deva\-se\-cer\-tuneluri\-si\-viaducte\-noi/1490456\|title\=Pentru Autostrada Lugoj – Deva se cer tuneluri si viaducte noi}} was finally announced in June 2019\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://adevarul.ro/locale/timisoara/constructia\-tunelurilor\-ursi\-autostrada\-lugoj\-deva\-intra\-faza\-licitatie\-vom\-doua\-tuneluri\-forate\-213\-kilometri\-1\_5d164922892c0bb0c6e78835/index.html\|title \= Construcţia tunelurilor pentru urşi de pe autostrada Lugoj – Deva intră în faza de licitaţie. Vom avea două tuneluri forate de 2,13 kilometri}} On 14 August 2019, lot 4 of the motorway was opened, whereas the lot 3 was opened on 23 December, same year, with speed and tonnage restrictions.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.economica.net/autostrada\-lugoj\-deva\-deschidere\-lot\-3\_178016\.html\|title \= Autostrada Lugoj \- Deva: S\-a deschis circulația pe lotul 3, cu restricții de 80 km/Oră FOTO Update\|date \= 23 December 2019}} Both restrictions on the latter were lifted gradually throughout the following year.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-05\-27 \|title\=CNAIR: Pe lotul 3 al autostrăzii Lugoj\-Deva vor fi menținute restricțiile de viteză. Au fost ridicate doar "temporar" restricțiile de tonaj \|url\=https://www.g4media.ro/cnair\-pe\-lotul\-3\-al\-autostrazii\-lugoj\-deva\-vor\-fi\-mentinute\-restrictiile\-de\-viteza\-au\-fost\-ridicate\-doar\-temporar\-restrictile\-de\-tonaj.html \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-17}}{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-12\-30 \|title\=Restricțiile de viteză pe lotul 3 al Autostrăzii Lugoj\-Deva, ridicate de miercuri seară, după mai bine de un an \|url\=https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-24513075\-restrictiile\-viteza\-lotul\-3\-autostrazii\-lugoj\-deva\-ridicate\-miercuri\-seara\-dupa\-mai\-bine.htm \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-17 \|website\=www.hotnews.ro \|language\=ro}} In October 2022, the remainder segments of lot 2 were signed with [Spedition UMB](/wiki/UMB_Grup "UMB Grup"), the section is supposed to finish by 2026, and 11 months would be for the project phase, and 45 months for the execution. {{Cite web \|title\=UMB va construi tunelurile lipsă de pe A1 Lugoj \- Deva / Cursă contra\-cronometru pentru a nu pierde banii din PNRR \|url\=https://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-25845396\-umb\-construi\-tunelurile\-lipsa\-a1\-lugoj\-deva\-cursa\-contra\-cronometru\-pentru\-nu\-pierde\-banii\-din\-pnrr.htm \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-30 \|website\=monitorizari.hotnews.ro \|language\=ro}} ### Lugoj – Timișoara This section of the motorway is fully operational and is composed of two segments: [Giarmata](/wiki/Giarmata "Giarmata") – [Izvin](/wiki/Izvin "Izvin") (lot 1\) and [Izvin](/wiki/Izvin "Izvin") – [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba "Șanovița") (lot 2\). The Timișoara bypass (9\.5 km, also referred to as the Timișoara – Lugoj lot 1\) was awarded in April 2011 to the Romanian company [Spedition UMB](/wiki/UMB_Grup "UMB Grup").{{cite web\|title\=Cum au fost "impartite" patru tronsoane de autostrada\|url\=http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri\-companii\-8495454\-vezi\-cine\-castigat\-licitatiile\-pentru\-patru\-tronsoane\-autostrada.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews.ro\|date\=12 April 2011}} It was opened to traffic in October 2012\.{{cite web\|title\=Primul lot din autostrada Timișoara\-Lugoj, deschis circulatiei\|url\=http://www.tion.ro/primul\-lot\-din\-autostrada\-timisoara\-lugoj\-deschis\-circulatiei/1191596\|publisher\=TION.ro\|date\=23 October 2012\|access\-date\=23 October 2012\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100333/http://www.tion.ro/primul\-lot\-din\-autostrada\-timisoara\-lugoj\-deschis\-circulatiei/1191596\|url\-status\=dead}} The stretch between Timișoara and Lugoj (25\.6 km, referred to as the Timișoara – Lugoj lot 2\) has been re\-auctioned in August 2012, after appeals from participants at the previous auction.{{cite web\|title\=Constructorii străini surclasați de "Regii Asfaltului". Umbrărescu vrea 291 mil. € pentru Lugoj\-Deva\|url\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/constructorii\-straini\-surclasati\-de\-regii\-asfaltului\-umbrarescu\-vrea\-291\-mil\-EUR\-pentru\-lugoj.html\|publisher\=Capital.ro\|date\=24 August 2012\|access\-date\=24 August 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827012129/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/constructorii\-straini\-surclasati\-de\-regii\-asfaltului\-umbrarescu\-vrea\-291\-mil\-EUR\-pentru\-lugoj.html\|archive\-date\=27 August 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} It has been awarded to the joint venture between the Italian companies Tirrena Scavi and Societa Italiana Per Condotte D'Acqua in December 2013\.{{cite web\|title\=Cine a câștigat licitația pentru lotul 2 din autostrada Timișoara\-Lugoj. Cât va costa lucrarea\|url\=http://www.realitatea.net/cine\-a\-castigat\-licitatia\-pentru\-lotul\-2\-din\-autostrada\-timisoara\-lugoj\-cat\-va\-costa\-lucrarea\_1332095\.html\|publisher\=Realitatea.net\|date\=4 December 2013\|access\-date\=4 December 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204230822/http://www.realitatea.net/cine\-a\-castigat\-licitatia\-pentru\-lotul\-2\-din\-autostrada\-timisoara\-lugoj\-cat\-va\-costa\-lucrarea\_1332095\.html\|archive\-date\=4 December 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} Construction works have been completed seven months earlier than the contractual deadline and the segment became operational in December 2015\.{{cite web\|title\=Se deschide traficul rutier pe Autostrada Timișoara – Lugoj\|url\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\-infrastructura\_articole\-20685948\-deschide\-traficul\-rutier\-autostrada\-timisoara\-lugoj.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews\|language\=ro\|date\=23 December 2015\|access\-date\=25 December 2015}} ### Timișoara – Arad This section of the motorway is fully operational and is composed of two segments: [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara "Timișoara") – [Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania "Arad, Romania") and [Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania "Arad, Romania") bypass. Works for the Arad bypass (12\.25 km) were awarded in March 2009 to the joint venture between the Spanish company [FCC Construccion](/wiki/Fomento_de_Construcciones_y_Contratas "Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas") and the Austrian company [Porr](/wiki/Porr "Porr").{{cite web\|title\=Progresul Lucrarilor\|url\=http://www.autostrada\-arad\-timisoara.ro/progresul\-lucrarilor\|publisher\=Constructia autostrazii Arad – Timișoara (inclusiv varianta de ocolire Arad)\|access\-date\=17 June 2013\|archive\-date\=7 March 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307145216/http://www.autostrada\-arad\-timisoara.ro/progresul\-lucrarilor\|url\-status\=dead}} The segment was opened in on a single carriageway December 2011, and on both carriageways in June 2012\.{{cite web\|title\=Centura Aradului, deschisă și pe al doilea sens\|url\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/centura\-aradului\-deschisa\-si\-pe\-al\-doilea\-sens\-167387\.html\|publisher\=Capital.ro\|date\=6 June 2012\|access\-date\=12 June 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609032720/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/centura\-aradului\-deschisa\-si\-pe\-al\-doilea\-sens\-167387\.html\|archive\-date\=9 June 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} The 32\.25 km section of motorway between Arad and Timișoara was awarded in December 2008 to the joint venture between the Spanish company [FCC Construccion](/wiki/Fomento_de_Construcciones_y_Contratas "Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas") and the Italian company [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi "Astaldi"). It was opened along with the Arad bypass in December 2011\. ### Arad – Nădlac The construction of the 38\.8 km section between [Nădlac](/wiki/N%C4%83dlac "Nădlac") and [Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania "Arad, Romania") was split into two parts. The first part, between Nădlac and [Pecica](/wiki/Pecica "Pecica") (22\.2 km),{{cite web\|title\=Documentația de atribuire a contractului de servicii "Supervizare autostrada Nadlac – Arad si Drum de legatura"\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/proceduri\_derulare/167p\-documentatie.pdf\|publisher\=CNADNR\|page\=54\|date\=23 March 2011}} was awarded in April 2011 to a consortium led by the Romanian company [Romstrade](/wiki/Romstrade "Romstrade"), while the second section, between Pecica and Arad (16\.6 km), was to be constructed by the Austrian company Alpine. Works started in October 2011 and were due to be finalized in April 2013\.{{cite web\|title\=Panglicile se îndepărtează de autostrăzile în lucru\|url\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/luni\-panglicile\-se\-indeparteaza\-de\-autostrazile\-in\-lucru\-167275\.html\|publisher\=Capital.ro\|date\=4 June 2012\|access\-date\=24 August 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827143448/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/luni\-panglicile\-se\-indeparteaza\-de\-autostrazile\-in\-lucru\-167275\.html\|archive\-date\=27 August 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} However, the contract for the first part of the section was terminated by the Romanian government in November 2012, due to low construction progress recorded by the Romstrade company (approximately 15–20%) and potential fraud by the company owner.{{cite web\|title\=Autostrada Nădlac\-Pecica a mai scăpat de o contestație. A început organizarea de șantier\|url\=http://ziuadevest.ro/actualitate/44335\-autostrada\-ndlac\-pecica\-a\-mai\-scpat\-de\-o\-contestaie\-a\-inceput\-organizarea\-de\-antier.html\|publisher\=Ziua de Vest\|date\=14 January 2014\|access\-date\=14 January 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116110542/http://ziuadevest.ro/actualitate/44335\-autostrada\-ndlac\-pecica\-a\-mai\-scpat\-de\-o\-contestaie\-a\-inceput\-organizarea\-de\-antier.html\|archive\-date\=16 January 2014\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|title\=Promisiunile ministrului Șova cu privire la finalizarea lucrărilor la autostrada Arad\-Nădlac nu reflectă realitatea din teren\|url\=http://adevarul.ro/locale/arad/arad\-ministru\-sova\-autostrada\-nadlac\-1\_52cfd157c7b855ff565cb283/index.html\|publisher\=Adevărul\|access\-date\=11 January 2014\|language\=Romanian\|date\=10 January 2014}} Also, the contract for the second part (construction progress approximately 85%){{cite web\|title\=Când vom circula pe AUTOSTRADĂ de la Nădlac pe Sibiu, în viziunea ministrului Dan Șova\|url\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/cand\-vom\-circula\-pe\-autostrada\-de\-la\-nadlac\-pe\-sibiu\-in\-viziunea\-ministrului\-dan\-sova\-184774\.html\|publisher\=Capital\|access\-date\=14 January 2014\|language\=Romanian\|date\=29 July 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801164621/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/cand\-vom\-circula\-pe\-autostrada\-de\-la\-nadlac\-pe\-sibiu\-in\-viziunea\-ministrului\-dan\-sova\-184774\.html\|archive\-date\=1 August 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} was terminated in July 2013, because the Austrian company filed for bankruptcy.{{cite web\|title\=Contractul cu Alpine pentru autostrada Nădlac\-Arad, reziliat în secret\|url\=http://www.romanialibera.ro/bani\-afaceri/economie/contractul\-cu\-alpine\-pentru\-autostrada\-nadlac\-arad\-reziliat\-in\-secret\-308270\.html\|publisher\=România Liberă\|date\=22 July 2013\|access\-date\=19 November 2013\|archive\-date\=28 December 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228110341/http://www.romanialibera.ro/bani\-afaceri/economie/contractul\-cu\-alpine\-pentru\-autostrada\-nadlac\-arad\-reziliat\-in\-secret\-308270\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} The first segment was re\-auctioned in April 2013,{{cite web\|title\=Lotul Romstrade al autostrazii Arad – Nadlac, scos din nou la licitatie\|url\=http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri\-esential\-14594196\-lotul\-romstrade\-autostrazii\-arad\-nadlac\-scos\-din\-nou\-licitatie\-cost\-circa\-69\-mil\-euro\-pentru\-terminarea\-12\-luni\-celor\-22\-autostrada.htm\|publisher\=Hotnews.ro\|date\=10 April 2013}} and awarded in December 2013 to the joint venture of [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi "Astaldi") and [Max Bögl](/wiki/Max_B%C3%B6gl "Max Bögl").{{cite web\|title\=Astaldi a câștigat un contract de 56 de milioane de euro pentru lotul 1 din autostrada Arad\-Nădlac\|url\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/astaldi\-a\-castigat\-un\-contract\-de\-56\-de\-milioane\-de\-euro\-pentru\-lotul\-1\-din\-autostrada\-arad\-nadla.html\|publisher\=Capital\|date\=23 December 2013\|access\-date\=27 December 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228092009/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/astaldi\-a\-castigat\-un\-contract\-de\-56\-de\-milioane\-de\-euro\-pentru\-lotul\-1\-din\-autostrada\-arad\-nadla.html\|archive\-date\=28 December 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} Works should be completed until the end of 2014\.{{cite web\|title\=Ministrul Dan Șova a anunțat că lucrările la autostrada Arad – Nădlac vor fi finalizate anul viitor\|url\=http://adevarul.ro/locale/arad/ministrul\-dan\-Sova\-anuntat\-lucrarile\-autostrada\-arad\-nadlac\-vor\-finalizate\-anul\-viitor\-1\_5273926fc7b855ff56a57175/index.html\|publisher\=Adevărul\|access\-date\=11 January 2014\|date\=1 November 2013\|language\=Romanian}} A tender for the remaining works on the second segment was announced in June 2014,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/proceduri\_derulare/7\_1%20Anunt%20participare.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2014\-07\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727062037/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/proceduri\_derulare/7\_1%20Anunt%20participare.pdf \|archive\-date\=2014\-07\-27 \|url\-status\=dead }} and the section was finally awarded to the same joint venture of Astaldi and Max Bögl. The section between Nădlac and Pecica and 6\.30 km of the section between Pecica and Arad ware opened ahead of schedule on December 19, 2014\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.zf.ro/autostrazi/o\-portiune\-de\-28\-de\-kilometri\-din\-autostrada\-nadlac\-arad\-a\-fost\-deschisa\-traficului\-13732009\|title\=O porţiune de 28 de kilometri din autostrada Nădlac\-Arad a fost deschisă traficului}} The remainder of the Pecica – Arad segment (10\.3 km) was opened on 11 July 2015\. At the western end, the motorway connects with [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary")'s [M43 motorway](/wiki/M43_motorway_%28Hungary%29 "M43 motorway (Hungary)"), which further connects with the [M5 motorway](/wiki/M5_motorway_%28Hungary%29 "M5 motorway (Hungary)"), that runs from the border with [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia") to the capital city of [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest").{{cite web\|title\=Ungurii s\-au apucat de autostrada care va lega România de Occident\|url\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/veste\-buna\-ungurii\-s\-au\-apucat\-de\-autostrada\-care\-va\-lega\-romania\-de\-occident\-182941\.html\|publisher\=Capital.ro\|access\-date\=21 December 2013\|date\=11 July 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224085641/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\-articole/stiri/veste\-buna\-ungurii\-s\-au\-apucat\-de\-autostrada\-care\-va\-lega\-romania\-de\-occident\-182941\.html\|archive\-date\=24 December 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} A connecting road between the motorway (near the border crossing) and the town of [Nădlac](/wiki/N%C4%83dlac "Nădlac") (approximately 7 km southbound), designated as DN7G, has also been built.{{cite web\|title\=Constructie Autostrada Nadlac – Arad\|url\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/pagina.php?idg\=134\|publisher\=CNADNR\|access\-date\=21 December 2013}}
[ "Sections\n--------", "### Bucharest – Pitești", "This section of the motorway is fully operational and is composed of two segments: [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest \"Bucharest\") – [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\") and [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\") bypass.", "The [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest \"Bucharest\") – [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\") segment (95\\.9 km) is the first motorway class road built in Romania and remained the only one for more than 15 years, until the completion of the [Fetești](/wiki/Fete%C8%99ti \"Fetești\") – [Cernavodă](/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83 \"Cernavodă\") segment on the [A2 motorway](/wiki/A2_motorway_%28Romania%29 \"A2 motorway (Romania)\") in 1987\\. Construction works began on 4 February 1967 and the motorway's initial carriageway was opened on 12 April 1972, before eventually entering in full service to all traffic on 11 September 1972, except for [oversize loads](/wiki/Oversize_load \"Oversize load\") that were otherwise restricted to the old [DN7](/wiki/DN7 \"DN7\") road.{{cite web\\|title\\=12 aprilie 1972: Ceaușescu a inaugurat primele două benzi din A1 București\\-Pitești\\|url\\=https://click.ro/actualitate/national/12\\-aprilie\\-1972\\-ceausescu\\-a\\-inaugurat\\-primele\\-67944\\.html\\|publisher\\=click.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=16 April 2018\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Prima autostradă din România: La 4 februarie 1967 începea construcţia Autostrăzii Bucureşti – Piteşti\\|url\\=https://www.economica.net/prima\\-autostrada\\-din\\-romania\\-la\\-4\\-februarie\\-1967\\-incepea\\-constructia\\-autostrazii\\-bucuresti\\-pitesti\\_558213\\.html\\|publisher\\=economica.net\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=4 February 2022\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2023}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Iptana, 50 de ani de proiectare pentru infrastructura transporturilor\\|url\\=http://www.iptana.ro/romania/download/PARTEA%20II\\_Drumuri.pdf\\|publisher\\=Iptana.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=10 September 2003\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731200231/http://www.iptana.ro/romania/download/PARTEA%20II\\_Drumuri.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Various parts of the segment underwent several major rehabilitations: between 1997 and 2000 by the FAT joint venture composed of Italian companies Federici, [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi \"Astaldi\") and Todini, between 2002 and 2004 by the Romanian companies Albix Timișoara and Cosar București and between 2006 and 2010 by Romanian companies PA\\&CO Internațional and Euroconstruct Trading '98\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Autostrada meșterului Manole\\|url\\=http://www.evz.ro/autostrada\\-mesterului\\-manole\\-807020\\.html\\|publisher\\=Evenimentul Zilei\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=9 June 2008\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Studiu de caz: Cea mai veche autostradă din România\\|url\\=http://www.zf.ro/proprietati/studiu\\-de\\-caz\\-cea\\-mai\\-veche\\-autostrada\\-din\\-romania\\-bucuresti\\-pitesti\\-o\\-poveste\\-cu\\-santuri\\-si\\-cratere\\-7641234\\|publisher\\=Ziarul Financiar\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=31 October 2010\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} As of August 2023 this is the only segment of the motorway where motels and restaurants operate in rest areas.", "The [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\") bypass segment (13\\.6 km) was awarded in April 2004 to a joint venture composed of Italian companies [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi \"Astaldi\") and Italstrade. The segment was opened to traffic during November 2007, having a major role in diverting traffic from the [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\") city centre.{{cite web\\|title\\=S\\-a inaugurat centura de ocolire a Piteștiului \\|url\\=http://www.realitatea.net/s\\-a\\-inaugurat\\-centura\\-de\\-ocolire\\-a\\-pitestiului\\_115362\\.html \\|publisher\\=Realitatea.net \\|language\\=ro \\|date\\=19 November 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713030655/http://www.realitatea.net/s\\-a\\-inaugurat\\-centura\\-de\\-ocolire\\-a\\-pitestiului\\_115362\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=13 July 2015 }} An underpass in the [Bascov](/wiki/Bascov \"Bascov\") area (north of [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\")) was also built to resolve traffic congestion at the nearby junction of the [DN7](/wiki/DN7 \"DN7\") and [DN7C](/wiki/DN7C \"DN7C\") roads which was generating in turn problems at the [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\") motorway end. The underpass was fully completed during October 2008\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Deschiderea traficului prin Pasajul Bascov\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat\\-deschidere\\-pasaj\\-bascov.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=22 October 2008\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205433/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat\\-deschidere\\-pasaj\\-bascov.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|title\\=A fost inaugurat pasajul subteran de la Bascov. Orban a taiat panglica\\|url\\=http://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/eveniment/a\\-fost\\-inaugurat\\-pasajul\\-subteran\\-de\\-la\\-bascov\\-orban\\-a\\-taiat\\-panglica.html\\|publisher\\=Pro TV\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=22 October 2008\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}", "### Pitești – Sibiu", "This section of the motorway is partially under construction and is split into five segments: [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\") – [Curtea de Argeș](/wiki/Curtea_de_Arge%C8%99 \"Curtea de Argeș\") (lot 5\\), [Curtea de Argeș](/wiki/Curtea_de_Arge%C8%99 \"Curtea de Argeș\") – Văleni (lot 4\\), Văleni – [Racovița](/wiki/Racovi%C8%9Ba%2C_V%C3%A2lcea \"Racovița, Vâlcea\") (lot 3\\), [Racovița](/wiki/Racovi%C8%9Ba%2C_V%C3%A2lcea \"Racovița, Vâlcea\") – [Boița](/wiki/Boi%C8%9Ba \"Boița\") (lot 2\\), [Boița](/wiki/Boi%C8%9Ba \"Boița\") – [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu \"Sibiu\") (lot 1\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=Revision/Update of the Feasibility Study for Pitești – Sibiu motorway\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/proceduri\\_derulare/5%20Caiet%20de%20sarcini%20Revizuire%20SF%20Sibiu%20\\-%20Pitesti.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}", "This is the most difficult section of the whole motorway from construction works perspective, considering that it has to cross the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains \"Carpathian Mountains\"), partly along the [Olt River Valley](/wiki/Olt_River \"Olt River\"). The feasibility study was initially completed during late 2008 with plans to start construction works next year, however the [Romanian Government](/wiki/Government_of_Romania \"Government of Romania\") has continuously delayed the start of the activity until 2012, considering several options on how the motorway construction was to be funded,{{cite web\\|title\\=Transporturile le propun chinezilor să facă autostradă\\|url\\=http://www.zf.ro/eveniment/transporturile\\-le\\-propun\\-chinezilor\\-sa\\-faca\\-autostrada\\-in\\-jurul\\-capitalei\\-cu\\-aproape\\-20\\-de\\-milioane\\-de\\-euro\\-pe\\-kilometru\\-8624380\\|publisher\\=Ziarul Financiar\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=16 August 2011\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Anca Boagiu: Autostrada Sibiu – Pitești va fi finalizată până în 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.realitatea.net/anca\\-boagiu\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-va\\-fi\\-finalizata\\-pana\\-in\\-2016\\_867204\\.html \\|publisher\\=Realitatea.net \\|language\\=ro \\|date\\=2 September 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924085544/http://www.realitatea.net/anca\\-boagiu\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-va\\-fi\\-finalizata\\-pana\\-in\\-2016\\_867204\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2015 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Autostrada Pitești\\-Sibiu: licitație la toamnă, fonduri de la Uniunea Europeană\\|url\\=http://www.automarket.ro/stiri/autostrada\\-pitesti\\-sibiu\\-licitatie\\-la\\-toamna\\-fonduri\\-de\\-la\\-uniunea\\-42760\\.html\\|publisher\\=Automarket\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=19 January 2012\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} while advancing several deadlines for the start/completion of works on the section.{{cite web\\|title\\=Constructorul autostrăzii Comarnic\\-Brașov\\-Făgăraș va fi selectat anul viitor\\|url\\=http://www.bzb.ro/stire/constructorul\\-autostrazii\\-comarnic\\-brasov\\-fagaras\\-va\\-fi\\-selectat\\-anul\\-viitor\\-\\-a17240\\|publisher\\=Buna Ziua Brasov\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=17 December 2011\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Transporturile vor să construiască în trei ani autostrada Sibiu – Pitești\\|url\\=http://www.zf.ro/eveniment/transporturile\\-vor\\-sa\\-construiasca\\-in\\-trei\\-ani\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-care\\-trece\\-muntii\\-desi\\-fac\\-sosele\\-de\\-30\\-km\\-la\\-campie\\-in\\-3\\-4\\-ani\\-9375566\\|publisher\\=Ziarul Financiar\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=7 March 2012\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} As during early 2012 the section was accepted to be funded under [European Union's Cohesion Fund](/wiki/Structural_Funds_and_Cohesion_Fund%23The_Cohesion_Fund \"Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund#The Cohesion Fund\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=Autostrada Pitești\\-Sibiu se licitează în toamnă. UE ne dă bani s\\-o facem\\|url\\=http://www.rtv.net/autostrada\\-pitesti\\-sibiu\\-se\\-liciteaza\\-in\\-toamna\\-ue\\-ne\\-da\\-bani\\-s\\-o\\-facem\\_11261\\.html\\|publisher\\=RTV.net\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=19 January 2012\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} the 2008 feasibility study had to be updated with several key elements required by the European Union that were previously not considered. The tender for the update was launched in April 2012 aiming to have the section finalized by 2020, as total construction costs for its 116\\.6 kilometers were estimated at 3\\.25 billion euro.{{cite web\\|title\\=Studiul de fezabilitate pentru Autostrada Sibiu – Pitești va costa 61 de milioane de lei\\|url\\=http://jurnalul.ro/stiri/observator/studiul\\-de\\-fezabilitate\\-pentru\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-va\\-costa\\-61\\-de\\-milioane\\-de\\-lei\\-608699\\.html\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Jurnalul Național]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=1 April 2012\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008000217/http://jurnalul.ro/stiri/observator/studiul\\-de\\-fezabilitate\\-pentru\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-va\\-costa\\-61\\-de\\-milioane\\-de\\-lei\\-608699\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=8 October 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Un nou vis spulberat? Autostrada Sibiu\\-Pitești care ar trebui să fie gata în 2020\\|url\\=http://www.wall\\-street.ro/articol/Auto/138534/segmentul\\-de\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-va\\-fi\\-finalizat\\-in\\-anul\\-2020\\.html\\|publisher\\=Wall\\-Street.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=11 October 2012\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} Eight months later the Romanian Government reconsidered and cancelled the tender.{{cite web\\|title\\=CNADNR anulează pe bandă rulantă licitațiile pentru autostrăzi. După Comarnic\\-Brașov, a fost oprită și procedura pentru Sibiu\\-Pitești\\|url\\=http://www.gandul.info/financiar/cnadnr\\-anuleaza\\-pe\\-banda\\-rulanta\\-licitatiile\\-pentru\\-autostrazi\\-dupa\\-comarnic\\-brasov\\-a\\-fost\\-oprita\\-si\\-procedura\\-pentru\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-10281836\\|work\\=\\[\\[Gândul]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=8 November 2012\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}", "The year 2013 brought much controversy, as the Romanian Government declared that the priority motorway route for crossing the Carpathian Mountains will be the [A3 motorway](/wiki/A3_motorway_%28Romania%29 \"A3 motorway (Romania)\") (between [Comarnic](/wiki/Comarnic \"Comarnic\") and [Brașov](/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov \"Brașov\")) instead of the A1 motorway (between Pitești and [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu \"Sibiu\")) and further supported the idea of modifying the route of the [Pan\\-European Corridor IV](/wiki/Pan-European_Corridor_IV \"Pan-European Corridor IV\") to pass through Brașov.{{cite web\\|title\\=Cum vrea sa schimbe Sova traseul autostrazilor din Romania: \"Mutam Coridorul IV pe Sibiu\\-Brașov. Autostrada Sibiu\\-Pitești o facem abia dupa 2020\"\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-15985304\\-cum\\-vrea\\-schimbe\\-sova\\-traseul\\-autostrazilor\\-din\\-romania\\-mutam\\-coridorul\\-sibiu\\-brasov\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-facem\\-abia\\-dupa\\-2020\\.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=8 November 2013\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Guvernul a scos autostrada Sibiu\\-Pitești de pe harta investițiilor în infrastructură pe următorii cinci ani\\|url\\=http://www.zf.ro/zf\\-24/guvernul\\-a\\-scos\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-de\\-pe\\-harta\\-investitiilor\\-in\\-infrastructura\\-pe\\-urmatorii\\-cinci\\-ani\\-11738903\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Ziarul Financiar]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=4 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} According to the same plans the A3 motorway was to be connected to the A1 motorway via another motorway between Sibiu and [Făgăraș](/wiki/F%C4%83g%C4%83ra%C8%99 \"Făgăraș\"), thus creating a nearly complete motorway corridor between [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest \"Bucharest\") and Sibiu, via Brașov, while the section between Pitești and Sibiu was no longer an immediate priority.{{cite web\\|title\\=Strategia de autostrazi pana in 2018: Guvernul vrea mai multe autostrazi mici, printre care si una care sa lege Bucuresti de Alexandria – fieful lui Liviu Dragnea, in loc sa finalizeze coridorul european de la Sibiu la Pitești\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-16124674\\-harta\\-strategia\\-autostrazi\\-pana\\-2018\\-guvernul\\-vrea\\-mai\\-multe\\-autostrazi\\-mici\\-printre\\-care\\-una\\-care\\-lege\\-bucuresti\\-alexandria\\-fieful\\-lui\\-liviu\\-dragnea\\-loc\\-finalizeze\\-coridorul\\-european\\-sibiu\\-pitesti.htm\\|work\\=\\[\\[HotNews]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=3 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} This was generally regarded as a strategy to avoid a competing alternative route to the section of the [A3 motorway](/wiki/A3_motorway_%28Romania%29 \"A3 motorway (Romania)\") between [Comarnic](/wiki/Comarnic \"Comarnic\") and [Brașov](/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov \"Brașov\"), which was planned to be built via a [concession contract](/wiki/Concession_%28contract%29 \"Concession (contract)\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Analiză. Autostrada Sibiu – Pitești vs Sibiu – Brașov. Care este mai importantă investiție\\|url\\=http://www.oradesibiu.ro/2013/10/04/analiza\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-vs\\-sibiu\\-brasov\\-care\\-este\\-mai\\-importanta/\\|publisher\\=Ora de Sibiu\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=4 October 2013\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} During the 2013 Trans\\-European Transport Networks (TEN\\-T) reunion the European Union rejected the plan and officially criticized the attempt to switch priorities from constructing the Pitești – Sibiu motorway, determining the Romanian authorities to reconsider the change.{{cite web\\|title\\=Comisia Europeană a decis să finanțeze construirea autostrăzii Sibiu–Pitești și a respins varianta Sibiu\\-Brașov\\|url\\=http://ziarulunirea.ro/comisia\\-europeana\\-a\\-decis\\-sa\\-finanteze\\-construirea\\-autostrazii\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-si\\-a\\-respins\\-varianta\\-sibiu\\-brasov\\-222688/\\|publisher\\=Unirea\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=23 October 2013\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Cum a ajuns autostrada Sibiu\\-Pitesti sa fie din nou o prioritate si de ce risca sa fie amanata in continuare\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-16851181\\-cum\\-ajuns\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-fie\\-din\\-nou\\-prioritate\\-risca\\-fie\\-amanata\\-continuare.htm\\|work\\=\\[\\[HotNews]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=18 March 2014\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}", "After further trying unsuccessfully in December 2013 to persuade the European Union to change the route of the motorway to pass through [Râmnicu Vâlcea](/wiki/R%C3%A2mnicu_V%C3%A2lcea \"Râmnicu Vâlcea\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=Șapte semne de întrebare legate de planul cincinal pentru autostrăzi al Guvernului Ponta: De la autostrada lui Dragnea, la eliminarea soluției Pitești – Sibiu\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-16128246\\-sapte\\-semne\\-intrebare\\-legate\\-planul\\-cincinal\\-pentru\\-autostrazi\\-guvernului\\-ponta\\-autostrada\\-lui\\-dragnea\\-eliminarea\\-solutiei\\-pitesti\\-sibiu.htm\\|work\\=\\[\\[HotNews]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=4 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} the [Romanian Government](/wiki/Government_of_Romania \"Government of Romania\") has retendered in June 2014 the update of the 2008 feasibility study for the section,{{cite web\\|title\\=Cea mai importantă decizie pentru autostrada Sibiu\\-Pitești: Compania de Drumuri a lansat licitația pentru studiul de fezabilitate\\|url\\=http://www.zf.ro/zf\\-24/cea\\-mai\\-importanta\\-decizie\\-pentru\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-compania\\-de\\-drumuri\\-a\\-lansat\\-licitatia\\-pentru\\-studiul\\-de\\-fezabilitate\\-12674627\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Ziarul Financiar]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=2 June 2014\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} and has signed the contract for this activity with a joint venture composed of the Italian company Spea Ingegneria Europea and the Romanian company Tecnic Consulting Engineering in June 2015, after an appeal from one of the bid participants.{{cite web\\|title\\=Comunicat de presa CNADNR 15\\.06\\.2015\\| url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\\_Comunicat%20CNADNR%20SA%2015\\.06\\.2015%20ref.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=15 June 2015\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=CNADNR a semnat contractul pentru revizuirea studiului de fezabilitate al autostrăzii Sibiu\\-Pitești\\|url\\=http://www.mediafax.ro/economic/cnadnr\\-a\\-semnat\\-contractul\\-pentru\\-revizuirea\\-studiului\\-de\\-fezabilitate\\-al\\-autostrazii\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-14455960\\|publisher\\=Mediafax\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=15 June 2015\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} As the Ministry of Transport has started work on the Romanian General Master Plan for Transport required to access 2014–2020 European funds, it generated further controversy by appearing to continue to try avoiding the construction of the section as a motorway, as it downgraded it to express road in an October 2014 version of the Master Plan{{cite web\\|title\\=Romanian General Transport Master Plan\\|url\\=http://www.ampost.ro/fisiere/pagini\\_fisiere/01\\.10\\.2014\\_Prezentare\\_MPGT.pdf\\|publisher\\=AMPOST\\|language\\=ro\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} and later considered a phased express road/motorway approach in a subsequent version of the Master Plan.{{cite web\\|title\\=Master Planul de Transport – Șoseaua Sibiu\\-Pitești va fi construită ca o autostradă fazată până în 2020\\|url\\=http://www.zf.ro/constructii\\-imobiliare/master\\-planul\\-de\\-transport\\-soseaua\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-va\\-fi\\-construita\\-ca\\-o\\-autostrada\\-fazata\\-pana\\-in\\-2020\\-iar\\-centura\\-de\\-sud\\-a\\-capitalei\\-va\\-primi\\-bani\\-europeni\\-13638995\\|publisher\\=Ziarul Financiar\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=25 November 2014\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} This has prompted reactions from the European Union, the public society and the employees of the [Dacia](/wiki/Automobile_Dacia \"Automobile Dacia\") plant near [Pitești](/wiki/Pite%C8%99ti \"Pitești\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=Peste 10\\.000 de angajati de la Uzina Dacia au iesit in strada\\|url\\=http://www.enational.ro/news/peste\\-10\\-000\\-de\\-angajati\\-de\\-la\\-uzina\\-dacia\\-au\\-iesit\\-in\\-strada\\-470226\\.html/\\|publisher\\=National\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=16 April 2015\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} and while the Romanian Prime Minister announced during October 2014 that the section will be included as a motorway in the final version of the Master Plan{{cite web\\|title\\=Victor Ponta, in vizita la Dacia Mioveni: Am stabilit ca segmentul Pitesti\\-Sibiu este trecut ca autostrada in Programul Operational de Transport\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-18282881\\-victor\\-ponta\\-vizita\\-dacia\\-mioveni\\-stabilit\\-segmentul\\-pitesti\\-sibiu\\-este\\-trecut\\-autostrada\\-programul\\-operational\\-transport.htm\\|work\\=\\[\\[HotNews]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=11 October 2014\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}} the change was reflected in the document only in July 2015\\.", "In an interview given by the general manager of CNADNR during August 2015 it was announced that possible routes for lots 1 and 5 were already discussed with the joint venture updating the feasibility study and based on that the company will hold public consultations during October 2015, where all interested parties will be invited to comment on the proposed solutions and also to contribute with knowledge regarding the potential problems CNADNR might face on the selected routes. Dependent on the issues that might be identified and their environmental impact, the bid for the construction works on these two lots might be launched as early as January 2016\\. CNADNR has published on 7 November 2015 five alternative routes for the Pitești – Sibiu section.{{cite web\\|title\\=Variante Autostrada Sibiu\\-Pitești\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/Sibiu\\_Pitesti/Plan\\_5\\_variante\\_Sibiu\\_Pitesti.pdf\\|website\\=www.cnadnr.roÂlanguage\\=ro\\|date\\=7 November 2015\\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2015}} As previously announced all interested parties are welcome to provide their opinion by 11 December 2015 on the company's Facebook page. Following these consultations, it is expected that on 15 December 2015 the company preparing the feasibility study will hand over to CNADNR the final study for lots 1 and 5\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Traseul autostrăzii A1 Pitești – Sibiu. Cele cinci variante luate in calcul de autorități \\|url\\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-20566992\\-harta\\-interactiva\\-traseul\\-autostrazii\\-a1\\-pitesti\\-sibiu\\-cele\\-cinci\\-variante\\-luate\\-calcul\\-autoritati.htm\\|work\\=\\[\\[HotNews]]\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=7 November 2015\\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2015}}{{Update after\\|2018\\|8\\|7}}", "According to the approved version of the Master Plan, the section was expected to be completed until 2020 using a mix between European funds, Romanian budget and low interest loans.{{cite web\\|title\\=Romanian General Transport Master Plan\\|url\\=http://www.mt.ro/web14/documente/strategie/mpgt/23072015/Master%20Planul%20General%20de%20Transport\\_iulie\\_2015\\_vol%20I.pdf\\|website\\=www.mt.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=23 July 2015\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}", "The works for lots 1 and 5 were tendered in July 2017 and for lot 4 in March 2019\\. As of April 2019, the lot 1 was awarded for construction to the Austrian company [Porr](/wiki/Porr \"Porr\"), for nearly 128\\.7 million euro, with 12 months allowed for planning and 36 months for execution. The other two lots were still pending to be awarded.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.economica.net/autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-china\\-raiway\\-sectiunea\\-5\\_170959\\.html\\| title \\= Primul tronson de autostradă făcut de chinezi? CNAIR, obligată a doua oară să primească China Railway în cursa pentru lotul 5 din Sibiu – Pitești\\| date \\= 7 July 2019}}", "Announcements of intention for a tender were published for two of the rest of the three lots, as well, in April 2018\\.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-22410208\\-harta\\-interactiva\\-noul\\-traseul\\-autostrazii\\-a1\\-pitesti\\-sibiu\\-asa\\-cum\\-fost\\-scos\\-licitatie\\-cum\\-schimbat\\-sectiunile\\-unde\\-vor\\-tunelurile\\-cte\\-noduri\\-rutiere\\-mai\\-ramas.htm?nomobile\\=\\| title \\= HARTĂ INTERACTIVĂ Traseul modificat al autostrăzii A1 Pitești \\- Sibiu, așa cum va fi scos la licitație. Cum s\\-au schimbat secțiunile, unde vor fi tunelurile și câte noduri rutiere au mai rămas \\- Infrastructura \\- HotNews.ro}}", "As of July 2019, the lot 1 of this section (Boița – Sibiu, 13\\.1 km) is undergoing construction.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.capital.ro/in\\-sfarsit\\-romania\\-va\\-avea\\-o\\-noua\\-autostrada\\-au\\-inceput\\-lucrarile.html\\| title \\= În sfârșit! România va avea o nouă autostradă. Au început lucrările – Capital}}", "On 11 May 2020, the contract for the construction of the lot 5 (Pitești – Curtea de Argeș, 30\\.4 km) was signed with the Italian company [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi \"Astaldi\"). The value of the contract is 356 million euro and it is scheduled to take 12 months for planning and 48 months for execution.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-23989768\\-contract\\-semnat\\-pentru\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-356\\-milioane\\-euro\\-pentru\\-30\\-kilometri\\-pitesti\\-curtea\\-arges.htm\\| title \\= Contract semnat pentru autostrada Sibiu \\- Pitești: 356 milioane de euro pentru 30 de kilometri de la Pitești la Curtea de Argeș \\- Hotnews Mobile}} The lot 4 (Curtea de Argeș – Tigveni, 9\\.86 km) followed on 15 November 2021; the contract for its construction was signed with the Austrian company [Porr](/wiki/Porr \"Porr\").[Contractul pentru lotul 4 al autostrăzii Sibiu \\- Pitești a fost semnat cu o întârziere de doi ani](https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/economie/transporturi/contractul-pentru-lotul-4-al-autostrazii-sibiu-pitesti-a-fost-semnat-cu-o-intarziere-de-doi-ani-1737009) On 7 February 2022, the contract for the construction of the lot 2 (Boița – Cornetu, 31\\.3 km) was signed with the Turkish joint\\-venture [Mapa](/wiki/Mapa_Group \"Mapa Group\")\\-Cengiz.[Autostrada Sibiu – Pitești: CNAIR a semnat contractul pentru primul lot de autostradă din România care intră în zona de munte / Turcii de la MAPA au termen cinci ani și jumătate pentru lotul de 31 km](https://economedia.ro/autostrada-sibiu-pitesti-cnair-a-semnat-contractul-pentru-proiectarea-si-executia-lotului-2-boita-cornetu-primul-lot-de-autostrada-din-romania-care-intra-in-zona-de-munte-turcii-de-la-mapa-au-ter.html)\nOn 1 August 2022, the contract for the construction of the lot 3 (Cornetu–Tigveni, 37\\.3 km) was signed with Webuild. It is the most expensive roadbuilding contract ever signed in Romania. On 15 December 2022, lot 1 ([Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu \"Sibiu\") \\- [Boița](/wiki/Boi%C8%9Ba \"Boița\"), 13\\.1 km) was opened to the public {{Cite web \\|title\\=Primul tronson al autostrăzii A1 Sibiu \\- Pitești, de la Sibiu la Boița, se deschide mai devreme. Constructorul e din Austria \\|url\\=https://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/social/primul\\-tronson\\-al\\-autostrazii\\-a1\\-sibiu\\-pitesti\\-de\\-la\\-sibiu\\-la\\-boita\\-se\\-deschide\\-mai\\-devreme\\-constructorul\\-e\\-din\\-austria.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-15 \\|website\\=Stirileprotv.ro \\|language\\=ro}}", "### Sibiu bypass", "This section of the motorway is fully operational.", "The contract for the whole section (17\\.5 km) forming a partial beltway around [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu \"Sibiu\") was initially signed during 2003 with Italian company Todini, with the actual construction work starting during 2004 and scheduled to finish during 2007\\. This plan suffered multiple delays and eventually in September 2006 CNADNR decided to terminate the contract.{{cite web\\|title\\=Boc: Centura ocolitoare a Sibiului va fi gata la finele lui 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.ziare.com/stiri/drumuri/boc\\-centura\\-ocolitoare\\-a\\-sibiului\\-va\\-fi\\-gata\\-la\\-finele\\-lui\\-2010\\-1037800\\|website\\=www.ziare.com\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=26 August 2010\\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2015}} Following this, the section was split into two segments. The first segment (km 0\\-14\\) was awarded in May 2008 to a joint venture composed of Geiger, Max Bögl and Comtram.{{cite web\\|title\\=A fost semnat contractul pentru construcția variantei de ocolire a municipiului Sibiu la standard de autostradă\\| url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat\\_19mai2008\\.pdf\\|website\\=www.cnadnr.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=16 May 2008\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Consortiul Boegl–Geiger–Comtram a castigat licitatia pentru modernizarea centurii orasului Sibiu\\|url\\=http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-companii\\-2880331\\-consortiul\\-boegl\\-ndash\\-geiger\\-ndash\\-comtram\\-castigat\\-licitatia\\-pentru\\-modernizarea\\-centurii\\-orasului\\-sibiu.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=24 April 2008\\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2015}} The second segment (km 14\\-17\\) was awarded in September 2009 to the Romanian company Vectra Service and included also the upgrade of 3\\.3 kilometers of road connecting the motorway with [DN1](/wiki/DN1 \"DN1\") that was designated DN1T.{{cite web\\|title\\=Vectra Service SRL – PD\\-L a câștigat centura Sibiului. Partea a doua\\|url\\=http://www.turnulsfatului.ro/565/vectra\\-service\\-srl\\-\\-pd\\-l\\-a\\-c%C3%A2stigat\\-centura\\-sibiului\\-partea\\-a\\-doua.html\\|publisher\\=Turnul Sfatului\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=27 September 2009\\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2015}} Works started on the first segment during July 2008 and on the second during February 2010 and were scheduled to be fully completed during 2011, but as a result of the authorities insisting on the bypass being finished sooner the section was opened for traffic in December 2010\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Varianta de Ocolire a Municipiului Sibiu, Secțiunea 1 deschisă traficului\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/VO\\_Sibiu\\_sect1\\_deschidere\\_site\\_2dec2010\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=1 December 2010\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Varianta de Ocolire a Municipiului Sibiu, Secțiunea 2 deschisă traficului\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/VO\\_Sibiu\\_sect2\\_deschidere\\_site\\_2dec2010\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=1 December 2010\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Premierul Emil Boc a inaugurat centura ocolitoare a municipiului Sibiu\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-8088281\\-premierul\\-emil\\-boc\\-inaugurat\\-centura\\-ocolitoare\\-municipiului\\-sibiu.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=1 December 2010\\|access\\-date\\=1 August 2015}}", "### Sibiu – Orăștie", "This section of the motorway is fully open and is split into four segments: [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu \"Sibiu\") – [Săliște](/wiki/S%C4%83li%C8%99te \"Săliște\") (lot 4\\), [Săliște](/wiki/S%C4%83li%C8%99te \"Săliște\") – Cunța (lot 3\\), Cunța – [Sebeș](/wiki/Sebe%C8%99 \"Sebeș\") (lot 2\\) and [Sebeș](/wiki/Sebe%C8%99 \"Sebeș\") – [Orăștie](/wiki/Or%C4%83%C8%99tie \"Orăștie\") (lot 1\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=Contract de Finanțare pentru Autostrada Orăștie\\-Sibiu\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20contract%20finantare%20Orastie%20Sibiu.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=21 October 2011\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}}", "The bid for the design \\& build contracts for all four segments that are part of this section was launched by CNADNR during December 2010\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=CNADNR a lansat licitația pentru 'Proiectare și execuție autostrada Orăștie\\-Sibiu, Loturile 1, 2, 3 și 4' și 'Proiectare și execuție autostrada Timișoara\\-Lugoj, Loturile 1 și 2'\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\\_Comunicat\\_licitatie\\_Orastie\\-Sibiu\\_Tim\\-Lugoj\\_14dec2010\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=14 December 2010\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} The [Cunța](/wiki/Cun%C8%9Ba \"Cunța\") – [Săliște](/wiki/S%C4%83li%C8%99te \"Săliște\") segment (22\\.1 km), which includes the {{convert\\|1100\\|m\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} long [Aciliu viaduct](/wiki/Aciliu_Viaduct \"Aciliu Viaduct\") was awarded to Italian company [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo \"Impregilo\") in May 2011,{{cite web\\|title\\=Proiectarea și execuția autostrăzii Orăștie\\-Sibiu km 43\\+855 – km 65\\+96 finanțate de Uniunea Europeană\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat\\_lucrari\\_Orastie\\_Sibiu\\_23mai2011\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=20 May 2011\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205339/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat\\_lucrari\\_Orastie\\_Sibiu\\_23mai2011\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} while the [Orăștie](/wiki/Or%C4%83%C8%99tie \"Orăștie\") – [Sebeș](/wiki/Sebe%C8%99 \"Sebeș\") segment (24\\.1 km) was awarded to Austrian company [Strabag](/wiki/Strabag \"Strabag\"), the [Sebeș](/wiki/Sebe%C8%99 \"Sebeș\") – Cunța segment (19\\.7 km) was awarded to a joint venture composed of Romanian companies Straco and Studio Corona and the Săliște – [Sibiu](/wiki/Sibiu \"Sibiu\") segment (16\\.1 km) was awarded to Italian company [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi \"Astaldi\"), all in June 2011\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Proiectarea și execuția loturilor 1, 2 și 4 ale autostrăzii Orăștie\\-Sibiu sunt finanțate de Uniunea Europeană\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20lucrari%20Orastie%20sibiu%20lot%201%202%20si%204\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|date\\=7 June 2011\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205417/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20lucrari%20Orastie%20sibiu%20lot%201%202%20si%204\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Construction works on all four segments have started in October 2011 and were planned to finish in April 2013\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Panglicile se îndepărtează de autostrăzile în lucru\\|url\\=http://www.capital.ro/luni\\-panglicile\\-se\\-indeparteaza\\-de\\-autostrazile\\-in\\-lucru\\-167275\\.html\\|publisher\\=Capital\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=4 June 2012\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} After several delays, lots 1, 2 and 4 were opened in December 2013,{{cite web\\|title\\=Deschiderea traficului rutier pe Autostrada Orăstie\\-Sibiu, Loturile I, II si IV\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat%20Orastie\\-Sibiu%20deschidere%20trafic%2019%2012%202013\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=19 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205334/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat%20Orastie\\-Sibiu%20deschidere%20trafic%2019%2012%202013\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|title\\=CNADNR: Circulația pe AUTOSTRADA Orăștie – Sibiu se DESCHIDE de JOI, 19 decembrie. Lotul 3, finalizat doar la sfârșitul anului viitor\\|url\\=http://alba24\\.ro/cnadnr\\-circulatia\\-pe\\-autostrada\\-orastie\\-sibiu\\-se\\-deschide\\-de\\-joi\\-19\\-decembrie\\-lotul\\-3\\-finalizat\\-doar\\-la\\-sfarsitul\\-anului\\-viitor\\-260623\\.html\\|publisher\\=Alba24\\.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=15 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}} while lot 3 was eventually opened at the end of November 2014\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Comunicat de presă\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20CNADNR%20SA%20%2026%2011%202014\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=26 November 2014\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=AUTOSTRADA ORĂȘTIE\\-SIBIU : Din 14 noiembrie se va putea circula și pe cei 22 km dintre Cunța și Săliște\\|url\\=http://alba24\\.ro/autostrada\\-orastie\\-sibiu\\-din\\-14\\-noiembrie\\-se\\-va\\-putea\\-circula\\-si\\-pe\\-cei\\-22\\-km\\-dintre\\-cunta\\-si\\-saliste\\-366516\\.html\\|publisher\\=Alba24\\.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=5 November 2014\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}} As of November 2015 construction works were still ongoing on lot 3,{{cite web\\|title\\=Stadiul lucrarilor pe fiecare autostrada din Romania. Ce autostrada are sanse sa fie deschisa pana la finalul anului\\|url\\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-20579503\\-harta\\-interactiva\\-stadiul\\-lucrarilor\\-fiecare\\-autostrada\\-din\\-romania\\-autostrada\\-are\\-sanse\\-fie\\-deschisa\\-pana\\-finalul\\-anului.htm\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=11 November 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2015}} as there are multiple issues on this lot generated by a combination of ignoring the [terrain instability](/wiki/Landslide \"Landslide\") identified by the feasibility study, the low quality of the construction works and the [Romanian Government](/wiki/Government_of_Romania \"Government of Romania\") pressuring for electoral reasons for the segment to open before a number of critical road elements were completed.{{cite web\\|title\\=Autostrada pe nisipuri miscatoare\\|url\\=http://www.money.ro/autostrada\\-pe\\-nisipuri\\-miscatoare/\\|publisher\\=Money.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=29 October 2014\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Sibiu\\-Orăștie, autostrada greșelilor în lanț\\|url\\=http://www.digi24\\.ro/Stiri/Digi24/Special/Romania\\+cu\\+incetinitorul/Sibiu\\-Orastie\\+autostrada\\+greselilor\\+in\\+lant\\|publisher\\=Digi24\\.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=22 July 2015\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Povestea autostrazii care o ia la vale: Cum s\\-a ajuns ca Lotul 3 din A1 Orastie – Sibiu sa fie macinat de alunecari de teren, cat de serioase sunt riscurile pentru soferi si cum explica autoritatile problemele de la viaductul Aciliu\\|url\\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-20314190\\-povestea\\-autostrazii\\-care\\-vale\\-cum\\-ajuns\\-lotul\\-3\\-din\\-a1\\-orastie\\-sibiu\\-fie\\-macinat\\-alunecari\\-teren\\-cat\\-serioase\\-sunt\\-riscurile\\-pentru\\-soferi\\-cum\\-explica\\-autoritatile\\-problemele\\-viaductul\\-aciliu.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=22 July 2015\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Rus pe autostrada Sibiu – Orăștie: Pe 15 sau 16 noiembrie deschidem lotul 3\\. Mergem la vot pe autostradă!\\|url\\=http://www.oradesibiu.ro/2014/10/09/rus\\-pe\\-autostrada\\-sibiu\\-orastie\\-pe\\-15\\-sau\\-16\\-noiembrie\\-deschidem\\-lotul\\-3\\-mergem\\-la\\-vot\\-pe\\-autostrada/\\|publisher\\=Ora de Sibiu\\|date\\=9 October 2014\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}} Another aspect that has surfaced and is generating controversy is related to the fact that while there are multiple disputes awaiting resolution between CNADNR and [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo \"Impregilo\") and during the construction of the segment there were around 300 non\\-conformity reports issued, CNADNR has paid to [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo \"Impregilo\") the works executed.{{cite web\\|title\\=CNADNR: italienii au lucrat foarte prost pe autostrada din Sibiu. Peste 300 de neconformități. Dar și\\-au primit banii\\|url\\=http://www.turnulsfatului.ro/31466/cnadnr:\\-italienii\\-au\\-lucrat\\-foarte\\-prost\\-pe\\-autostrada\\-din\\-sibiu\\-peste\\-300\\-de\\-neconformitati\\-dar\\-si\\-au\\-primit\\-banii.html\\|publisher\\=Turnul Sfatului\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=22 July 2015\\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2015}} Following this, during August 2015 the general manager of CNADNR has given a number of interviews during various TV shows defending the company and putting all the blame for the issues on lot 3 on the poor quality of execution of [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo \"Impregilo\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Adevarul Live – Interview with CNADNR general manager Narcis Neaga\\|url\\=http://adevarul.ro/embed/economie/stiri\\-economice/directorul\\-cnadnr\\-despre\\-starea\\-infrastructurii\\-romanesti\\-marile\\-probleme\\-constructiei\\-autostrazi\\-\\-8\\_55d5a470f5eaafab2cbf2cff/index.html?width\\=640\\&height\\=360\\|publisher\\=Adevarul\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=20 August 2015\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043726/http://adevarul.ro/embed/economie/stiri\\-economice/directorul\\-cnadnr\\-despre\\-starea\\-infrastructurii\\-romanesti\\-marile\\-probleme\\-constructiei\\-autostrazi\\-\\-8\\_55d5a470f5eaafab2cbf2cff/index.html?width\\=640\\&height\\=360\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|title\\=TVR2 – Interview with CNADNR general manager Narcis Neaga\\|website \\= \\[\\[YouTube]]\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=TY4clXru3rY\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=18 August 2015\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2015}}", "Regardless of the statements from both parties, the problems on lot 3 are serious enough so that they required CNADNR to close down the traffic on the affected lanes during August 2015, while having both the company's experts and [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo \"Impregilo\")'s ones looking for the technical solutions to address the issues. As those solutions were discussed and agreed, lot 3 was closed down to traffic, initially for about one month and a half, just nine months after it was inaugurated.{{cite web\\|title\\=Comunicat de Presă\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat%20CNADNR%20SA%2003%2009%202015%20Autostrada%20Orastie%20\\-%20Sibiu%20lot%203\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=3 September 2015\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2015}} According to information surfacing from various sources about one kilometer from the motorway will need to be completely rebuilt from the ground while other issues that appeared will be addressed as well.{{cite web\\|title\\=Premiera absoluta: Romania inchide o autostrada la 9 luni dupa inaugurare. Cum pierd autoritatile 1,2 mld. EUR pentru drumuri\\|url\\=http://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/financiar/premiera\\-absoluta\\-romania\\-inchide\\-o\\-autostrada\\-la\\-9\\-luni\\-dupa\\-inaugurare\\-cum\\-pierd\\-autoritatile\\-1\\-2\\-mld\\-eur\\-pentru\\-drumuri.html\\|publisher\\=ProTV\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=3 September 2015\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2015}} During October and November 2015 the conflict between CNADNR and [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo \"Impregilo\") seems to have taken a turn for worse as after the promised one month and a half term passed no substantial progress has been made on fixing the identified problems, the construction works on the lot were completely stopped and CNADNR announced it made a penal complaint against [Impregilo](/wiki/Impregilo \"Impregilo\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Comunicat de presă\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat%20CNADNR%20SA%2009%2011%202015\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=9 November 2015\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Un an de la deschiderea circulației pe Săliște – Cunța. Și 69 de zile de la închidere\\|url\\=http://www.turnulsfatului.ro/2015/11/15/un\\-an\\-de\\-la\\-deschiderea\\-circulatiei\\-pe\\-saliste\\-cunta\\-si\\-69\\-de\\-zile\\-de\\-la\\-inchidere\\-foto\\-si\\-video/\\|publisher\\=Turnul Sfatului\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=15 November 2015\\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2015}} Six months after the closing, come the spring of 2016, the CNADNR decided to fix the problems itself with its own workforce and rented equipment; part of the financing of these repairs was to come from the 90 million lei guarantee posted for the project by Impregilo, which was to be blacklisted for two years in which it would not be allowed to obtain contracts from the Romanian government.{{Citation \\| url\\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-20867880\\-directorul\\-companiei\\-drumuri\\-repararea\\-autostrazii\\-demolate\\-incepe\\-aprilie\\-facuta\\-cnadnr.htm\\| title\\=Directorul Companiei de Drumuri: Repararea autostrazii demolate incepe in aprilie si va fi facuta de CNADNR – Infrastructura\\_Articole\\| newspaper\\=HotNews.ro\\| date\\= 15 March 2016\\| author\\=Victor Cozmei\\| access\\-date\\=31 March 2016}}", "On 10 October 2016, the lot 3 was re\\-opened after repairing works had reportedly been completed.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-21342817\\-autostrada\\-a1\\-saliste\\-cunta\\-redeschide\\-traficului\\-luni\\-peste\\-cand\\-fost\\-inchisa\\-demolata\\-partial.htm\\| title \\= Autostrada A1 Saliste\\-Cunta a fost redeschisa traficului, la peste un an de cand a fost inchisa si demolata partial \\- Hotnews Mobile}}", "### Orăștie – Deva", "This section of the motorway is fully operational and is composed of two segments: [Orăștie](/wiki/Or%C4%83%C8%99tie \"Orăștie\") – [Simeria](/wiki/Simeria \"Simeria\") and [Simeria](/wiki/Simeria \"Simeria\") – [Deva](/wiki/Deva%2C_Romania \"Deva, Romania\").", "Bids for the construction works for this section were launched by CNADNR during 2006{{cite web\\|title\\=CNADNR a semnat cu Strabag un contract de 220 milioane de euro pentru constructia tronsonului de autostrada Deva\\-Orastie\\|url\\=http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-companii\\-8020399\\-cnadnr\\-semnat\\-strabag\\-contract\\-220\\-milioane\\-euro\\-pentru\\-constructia\\-tronsonului\\-autostrada\\-deva\\-orastie.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=9 November 2010\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} and subsequently during September 2009,{{cite web\\|title\\=CNADNR lansează procedura de achiziție publică de lucrări pentru \"Construcția variantei de ocolire Deva\\-Orăștie la standard de autostradă – relicitare\"\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\\_comunicat2\\-16\\-09\\-09\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=16 September 2009\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} but they were both cancelled due to problems related to the selection criteria. The bid was launched again during March 2010{{cite web\\|title\\=Anunt de participare în vederea atribuirii contractului \"Constructia Variantei de Ocolire Deva – Orastie la standard de autostrada – relicitare\"\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%201\\-19\\.03\\.2010\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=19 March 2010\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} and the whole section (32\\.8 km) was finally awarded to the joint venture between the Austrian company [Strabag](/wiki/Strabag \"Strabag\") and the Romanian company Straco Grup in November 2010, after appeals from the competing companies.{{cite web\\|title\\=Varianta de ocolire Deva\\-Orastie se finanteaza prin Fonduri ex\\-ISPA\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20\\-11\\.11\\.2010\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=9 November 2010\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205347/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20\\-11\\.11\\.2010\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Construction works have started in April 2011 and were planned to finish in April 2013\\. The [Simeria](/wiki/Simeria \"Simeria\") – [Deva](/wiki/Deva%2C_Romania \"Deva, Romania\") segment (15\\.4 km) was opened during December 2012,{{cite web\\|title\\=COMUNICAT\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/COMUNICAT%20deschidere%20trafic%20Deva\\-Orastie%20\\_1\\_.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=21 December 2012\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205327/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/COMUNICAT%20deschidere%20trafic%20Deva\\-Orastie%20\\_1\\_.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|title\\=CNADNR anunta deschiderea traficului pe sectiunea Simeria – Deva a tronsonului de autostrada Deva – Orastie\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-13859203\\-cnadnr\\-anunta\\-deschiderea\\-traficului\\-sectiunea\\-simeria\\-deva\\-tronsonului\\-autostrada\\-deva\\-orastie.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=21 December 2012\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} while the [Orăștie](/wiki/Or%C4%83%C8%99tie \"Orăștie\") – [Simeria](/wiki/Simeria \"Simeria\") segment (17\\.4 km) was opened during May 2013\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Autostrada Deva – Orăstie finalizată prin fonduri ISPA\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20Deva\\-Orastie.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=30 May 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205356/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20Deva\\-Orastie.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Inca 18 km din autostrada Deva\\-Orastie, deschisi circulatiei\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-14902516\\-harta\\-interactiva\\-inca\\-18\\-din\\-autostrada\\-deva\\-orastie\\-deschisi\\-circulatiei\\-vezi\\-unde\\-trece\\-autostrada\\-care\\-ocoleste\\-orasele\\-deva\\-simeria\\-orastie\\-degreveaza\\-trafic\\-dn7\\.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=30 May 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}}", "### Deva – Lugoj", "This section of the motorway is partially operational and partially under construction and is split into four segments: [Șoimuș](/wiki/%C8%98oimu%C8%99 \"Șoimuș\") – [Ilia](/wiki/Ilia%2C_Hunedoara \"Ilia, Hunedoara\") (lot 4\\), [Ilia](/wiki/Ilia%2C_Hunedoara \"Ilia, Hunedoara\") – [Coșevița](/wiki/Co%C8%99evi%C8%9Ba \"Coșevița\") (lot 3\\), [Coșevița](/wiki/Co%C8%99evi%C8%9Ba \"Coșevița\") – [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 \"Dumbrava, Timiș\") (lot 2\\) and [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 \"Dumbrava, Timiș\") – [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba \"Șanovița\") (lot 1\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=Studiu de fezabilitate final. Obiectiv: Lugoj – Deva.\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/Lugoj\\-Deva/\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=April 2009\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}}", "The bid for the design \\& build contract for lot 1 was launched by CNADNR during December 2010\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Execuția și proiectarea tronsoanelor Nădlac\\-Arad și Lugoj\\-Deva va dura 30 de luni\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/3\\_Comunicat\\_tronsoane\\_Nadlac\\_Arad\\_Lugoj\\_Deva\\_13dec2010\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=13 December 2010\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} The contract included also the first segment of the [A6 motorway](/wiki/A6_motorway_%28Romania%29 \"A6 motorway (Romania)\") (11\\.4 km) that is branching off from the A1 motorway near the village of [Balinț](/wiki/Balin%C8%9B \"Balinț\") and connecting the city of [Lugoj](/wiki/Lugoj \"Lugoj\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Contract de Finanțare pentru Autostrada Lugoj Dumbrava\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20lugoj%20dumbrava.doc\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=2 December 2011\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} The [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba \"Șanovița\") – [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 \"Dumbrava, Timiș\") segment (27\\.4 km) was awarded to a joint venture composed of Italian companies Tirrena Scavi, Societa Italiana per Condotte D'Acqua and Cossi Construzioni in May 2011, after an appeal from one of the bid participants.{{cite web\\|title\\=Proiectarea și execuția autostrăzii Lugoj\\-Deva km 0\\+000 – km 27\\+400 finanțate de Uniunea Europeană\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat\\_lucrari\\_%20Lugoj\\_Deva\\_23mai2011\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=20 May 2011\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205337/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/Comunicat\\_lucrari\\_%20Lugoj\\_Deva\\_23mai2011\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Construction works on lot 1 have started in October 2011 and were planned to finish in April 2013\\. After several delays, the segment was eventually opened during December 2013, but only between the junction with the [A6 motorway](/wiki/A6_motorway_%28Romania%29 \"A6 motorway (Romania)\") and [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 \"Dumbrava, Timiș\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Primul lot al Autostrazii Lugoj – Deva, deschis circulatiei in plina noapte, cu o intarziere de noua luni\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-16272336\\-primul\\-tronson\\-autostrazii\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-deschis\\-circulatiei\\-intarziere\\-noua\\-luni\\-10\\-km\\-necirculabili\\-autostrada\\-opreste\\-in\\-camp.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=23 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} As of July 2015 the remaining part of lot 1 was still not usable, as the next segment containing an exit ([Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara \"Timișoara\") – [Lugoj](/wiki/Lugoj \"Lugoj\") lot 2\\) was not opened for traffic. The idea of building a temporary exit at the western end of the segment near [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba \"Șanovița\") was discussed but never implemented.{{cite web\\|title\\=Drumul de legatura pentru descarcarea de pe Autostrada Lugoj – Deva\\|url\\=http://www.opiniatimisoarei.ro/drumul\\-de\\-legatura\\-pentru\\-descarcarea\\-de\\-pe\\-autostrada\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-gata\\-de\\-inaugurare\\-ar\\-putea\\-fi\\-construit\\-de\\-consiliul\\-judetean\\-timis/28/11/2013/\\|publisher\\=Opinia Timisoarei\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=24 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} Another option discussed, considering that [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara \"Timișoara\") – [Lugoj](/wiki/Lugoj \"Lugoj\") lot 2 was awarded to the same joint venture of companies was a partial opening from [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba \"Șanovița\") to [Topolovățu Mare](/wiki/Topolov%C4%83%C8%9Bu_Mare \"Topolovățu Mare\") interchange with DJ572 (6\\.02 km),{{cite web\\|title\\=Bilantul autostrazilor la final de an\\|url\\=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-16313372\\-harta\\-interactiva\\-bilantul\\-autostrazilor\\-final\\-108\\-2013\\-10\\-gata\\-dar\\-neutilizabili\\-prima\\-autostrada\\-care\\-opreste\\-camp\\-77\\-posibili\\-2014\\.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews.ro\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=30 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} but this was not pursued either.", "The bid for the design \\& build contracts for the remaining three segments that are part of this section was launched by CNADNR during April 2012\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Comunicat de presă\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/lugojdeva\\_tmlugoj.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=1 April 2012\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} After more than one year after the bid was launched, the [Ilia](/wiki/Ilia%2C_Hunedoara \"Ilia, Hunedoara\") – [Șoimuș](/wiki/%C8%98oimu%C8%99 \"Șoimuș\") segment (22\\.1 km) was awarded to a joint venture composed of Romanian companies [Spedition UMB](/wiki/UMB_Grup \"UMB Grup\") and Tehnostrade in July 2013,{{cite web\\|title\\=Semnare contract Proiectare și execuție Autostrada Lugoj – Deva Lot 4\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\\_comunicat%20de%20presa%20Lugoj%20\\-Deva%20ilia%20deva.pdf\\|language\\=ro\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|date\\=31 July 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205320/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\\_comunicat%20de%20presa%20Lugoj%20\\-Deva%20ilia%20deva.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Loturile 2,3 și 4 ale tronsonului de autostradă Lugoj\\-Deva au fost atribuite în vederea începerii lucrărilor\\|url\\=http://www.agerpres.ro/media/index.php/economic/item/197607\\-Loturile\\-23\\-si\\-4\\-ale\\-tronsonului\\-de\\-autostrada\\-LugojDeva\\-au\\-fost\\-atribuite\\-in\\-vederea\\-inceperii\\-lucrarilor.html\\|publisher\\=Agerpres\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=23 May 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213043906/http://www.agerpres.ro/media/index.php/economic/item/197607\\-Loturile\\-23\\-si\\-4\\-ale\\-tronsonului\\-de\\-autostrada\\-LugojDeva\\-au\\-fost\\-atribuite\\-in\\-vederea\\-inceperii\\-lucrarilor.html\\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} while the [Dumbrava](/wiki/Dumbrava%2C_Timi%C8%99 \"Dumbrava, Timiș\") – [Coșevița](/wiki/Co%C8%99evi%C8%9Ba \"Coșevița\") segment (28\\.6 km) was awarded to a joint venture composed of Italian companies [Salini Impregilo](/wiki/Salini_Impregilo \"Salini Impregilo\") and Secol,{{cite web\\|title\\=Semnare contract \"Proiectare și execu ie autostrada Lugoj – Deva, Lot 2, Km 27\\+620 – Km 56\\+220\"\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\\_comunicat%20constructie%20lugoj%20deva%20lot%202\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=31 October 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205318/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/1\\_comunicat%20constructie%20lugoj%20deva%20lot%202\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and the [Coșevița](/wiki/Co%C8%99evi%C8%9Ba \"Coșevița\") – [Ilia](/wiki/Ilia%2C_Hunedoara \"Ilia, Hunedoara\") segment (21\\.1 km) was awarded to a joint\\-venture led by the Spanish company [Comsa](/wiki/Comsa \"Comsa\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=Semnare contract \"Proiectare și execu ie autostrada Lugoj – Deva, Lot 3, Sectorul Dumbrava – Ilia: Km 56\\+220 – Km 77\\+361\"\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20constructie%20lugoj%20deva%20lot%203\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=31 October 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205400/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/comunicate/comunicat%20constructie%20lugoj%20deva%20lot%203\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} both in October 2013\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Au fost semnate contractele pentru constructia loturilor 2 si 3 din autostrada Lugoj – Deva\\|url\\=http://www.tion.ro/au\\-fost\\-semnate\\-contractele\\-pentru\\-constructia\\-loturilor\\-2\\-si\\-3\\-din\\-autostrada\\-lugoj\\-deva/1346541\\|publisher\\=TION\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=23 October 2013\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} Constructions works for lots 2, 3 and 4 were planned to finish in May 2016, however the lots face multiple issues: a revision of the environmental study imposed a number of changes to structures among which the requirement for a number of [ecoducts](/wiki/Ecoduct \"Ecoduct\") for protecting the large carnivore fauna in the area,{{cite web\\|title\\=Pentru Autostrada Lugoj – Deva se cer tuneluri si viaducte noi\\|url\\=http://www.tion.ro/pentru\\-autostrada\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-se\\-cer\\-tuneluri\\-si\\-viaducte\\-noi/1490456\\|publisher\\=TION\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=23 December 2014\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} which called for an additional bid to cover for the changes; on lot 4 an illegal cemetery was discovered on the path of the motorway and was relocated, the motorway route was passing by too close to a cave near [Brănișca](/wiki/Br%C4%83ni%C8%99ca \"Brănișca\") which was supposedly housing a significant bat population protected by law and there were discussions between Spedition UMB and CNADNR regarding a potential change of the technical solution in the area of the [Mintia](/wiki/Mintia%2C_Hunedoara \"Mintia, Hunedoara\") ash and clay deposit.{{cite web\\|title\\=A1 Lugoj – Deva (Loturile 2,3,4\\) – Prima autostrada cu ecoducte pentru ursi, dar care s\\-a poticnit intr\\-un cimitir ilegal, o pestera cu lilieci si o halda de steril\\|url\\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_proiecte\\-19354613\\-a1\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-loturile\\-2\\-3\\-4\\-prima\\-autostrada\\-ecoducte\\-pentru\\-ursi\\-dar\\-care\\-poticnit\\-intr\\-cimitir\\-ilegal\\-pestera\\-lilieci\\-halda\\-steril.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=11 February 2015\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}} In an interview given by the general manager of CNADNR during August 2015, it was announced that the problems on lot 4 were now cleared and Spedition UMB was praised for their approach and pace of work on the segment, the appreciation being that if the issues hadn't surfaced most probably the works would have been completed by end of 2015\\.", "On 6 March 2017, a part of lot 2, between Dumbrava and [Margina](/wiki/Margina \"Margina\") was opened to traffic.", "By April 2019,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://i.imgur.com/vsoz4DV.png\\|title\\=Image\\|website\\=imgur.con}} the physical progress was at 95\\.8% on lot 2 (except tunnels), 94% on lot 3 and 95% on lot 4\\. The bid for the new planned tunnels on lot 2, claimed publicly since December 2014,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tion.ro/pentru\\-autostrada\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-se\\-cer\\-tuneluri\\-si\\-viaducte\\-noi/1490456\\|title\\=Pentru Autostrada Lugoj – Deva se cer tuneluri si viaducte noi}} was finally announced in June 2019\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://adevarul.ro/locale/timisoara/constructia\\-tunelurilor\\-ursi\\-autostrada\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-intra\\-faza\\-licitatie\\-vom\\-doua\\-tuneluri\\-forate\\-213\\-kilometri\\-1\\_5d164922892c0bb0c6e78835/index.html\\|title \\= Construcţia tunelurilor pentru urşi de pe autostrada Lugoj – Deva intră în faza de licitaţie. Vom avea două tuneluri forate de 2,13 kilometri}}", "On 14 August 2019, lot 4 of the motorway was opened, whereas the lot 3 was opened on 23 December, same year, with speed and tonnage restrictions.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.economica.net/autostrada\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-deschidere\\-lot\\-3\\_178016\\.html\\|title \\= Autostrada Lugoj \\- Deva: S\\-a deschis circulația pe lotul 3, cu restricții de 80 km/Oră FOTO Update\\|date \\= 23 December 2019}} Both restrictions on the latter were lifted gradually throughout the following year.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-05\\-27 \\|title\\=CNAIR: Pe lotul 3 al autostrăzii Lugoj\\-Deva vor fi menținute restricțiile de viteză. Au fost ridicate doar \"temporar\" restricțiile de tonaj \\|url\\=https://www.g4media.ro/cnair\\-pe\\-lotul\\-3\\-al\\-autostrazii\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-vor\\-fi\\-mentinute\\-restrictiile\\-de\\-viteza\\-au\\-fost\\-ridicate\\-doar\\-temporar\\-restrictile\\-de\\-tonaj.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-17}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-30 \\|title\\=Restricțiile de viteză pe lotul 3 al Autostrăzii Lugoj\\-Deva, ridicate de miercuri seară, după mai bine de un an \\|url\\=https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-24513075\\-restrictiile\\-viteza\\-lotul\\-3\\-autostrazii\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-ridicate\\-miercuri\\-seara\\-dupa\\-mai\\-bine.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-17 \\|website\\=www.hotnews.ro \\|language\\=ro}} In October 2022, the remainder segments of lot 2 were signed with [Spedition UMB](/wiki/UMB_Grup \"UMB Grup\"), the section is supposed to finish by 2026, and 11 months would be for the project phase, and 45 months for the execution. {{Cite web \\|title\\=UMB va construi tunelurile lipsă de pe A1 Lugoj \\- Deva / Cursă contra\\-cronometru pentru a nu pierde banii din PNRR \\|url\\=https://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-25845396\\-umb\\-construi\\-tunelurile\\-lipsa\\-a1\\-lugoj\\-deva\\-cursa\\-contra\\-cronometru\\-pentru\\-nu\\-pierde\\-banii\\-din\\-pnrr.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-30 \\|website\\=monitorizari.hotnews.ro \\|language\\=ro}}", "### Lugoj – Timișoara", "This section of the motorway is fully operational and is composed of two segments: [Giarmata](/wiki/Giarmata \"Giarmata\") – [Izvin](/wiki/Izvin \"Izvin\") (lot 1\\) and [Izvin](/wiki/Izvin \"Izvin\") – [Șanovița](/wiki/%C8%98anovi%C8%9Ba \"Șanovița\") (lot 2\\).", "The Timișoara bypass (9\\.5 km, also referred to as the Timișoara – Lugoj lot 1\\) was awarded in April 2011 to the Romanian company [Spedition UMB](/wiki/UMB_Grup \"UMB Grup\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Cum au fost \"impartite\" patru tronsoane de autostrada\\|url\\=http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-companii\\-8495454\\-vezi\\-cine\\-castigat\\-licitatiile\\-pentru\\-patru\\-tronsoane\\-autostrada.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews.ro\\|date\\=12 April 2011}} It was opened to traffic in October 2012\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Primul lot din autostrada Timișoara\\-Lugoj, deschis circulatiei\\|url\\=http://www.tion.ro/primul\\-lot\\-din\\-autostrada\\-timisoara\\-lugoj\\-deschis\\-circulatiei/1191596\\|publisher\\=TION.ro\\|date\\=23 October 2012\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100333/http://www.tion.ro/primul\\-lot\\-din\\-autostrada\\-timisoara\\-lugoj\\-deschis\\-circulatiei/1191596\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The stretch between Timișoara and Lugoj (25\\.6 km, referred to as the Timișoara – Lugoj lot 2\\) has been re\\-auctioned in August 2012, after appeals from participants at the previous auction.{{cite web\\|title\\=Constructorii străini surclasați de \"Regii Asfaltului\". Umbrărescu vrea 291 mil. € pentru Lugoj\\-Deva\\|url\\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/constructorii\\-straini\\-surclasati\\-de\\-regii\\-asfaltului\\-umbrarescu\\-vrea\\-291\\-mil\\-EUR\\-pentru\\-lugoj.html\\|publisher\\=Capital.ro\\|date\\=24 August 2012\\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827012129/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/constructorii\\-straini\\-surclasati\\-de\\-regii\\-asfaltului\\-umbrarescu\\-vrea\\-291\\-mil\\-EUR\\-pentru\\-lugoj.html\\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} It has been awarded to the joint venture between the Italian companies Tirrena Scavi and Societa Italiana Per Condotte D'Acqua in December 2013\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Cine a câștigat licitația pentru lotul 2 din autostrada Timișoara\\-Lugoj. Cât va costa lucrarea\\|url\\=http://www.realitatea.net/cine\\-a\\-castigat\\-licitatia\\-pentru\\-lotul\\-2\\-din\\-autostrada\\-timisoara\\-lugoj\\-cat\\-va\\-costa\\-lucrarea\\_1332095\\.html\\|publisher\\=Realitatea.net\\|date\\=4 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204230822/http://www.realitatea.net/cine\\-a\\-castigat\\-licitatia\\-pentru\\-lotul\\-2\\-din\\-autostrada\\-timisoara\\-lugoj\\-cat\\-va\\-costa\\-lucrarea\\_1332095\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=4 December 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Construction works have been completed seven months earlier than the contractual deadline and the segment became operational in December 2015\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Se deschide traficul rutier pe Autostrada Timișoara – Lugoj\\|url\\=http://monitorizari.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-infrastructura\\_articole\\-20685948\\-deschide\\-traficul\\-rutier\\-autostrada\\-timisoara\\-lugoj.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews\\|language\\=ro\\|date\\=23 December 2015\\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2015}}", "### Timișoara – Arad", "This section of the motorway is fully operational and is composed of two segments: [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara \"Timișoara\") – [Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania \"Arad, Romania\") and [Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania \"Arad, Romania\") bypass.", "Works for the Arad bypass (12\\.25 km) were awarded in March 2009 to the joint venture between the Spanish company [FCC Construccion](/wiki/Fomento_de_Construcciones_y_Contratas \"Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas\") and the Austrian company [Porr](/wiki/Porr \"Porr\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Progresul Lucrarilor\\|url\\=http://www.autostrada\\-arad\\-timisoara.ro/progresul\\-lucrarilor\\|publisher\\=Constructia autostrazii Arad – Timișoara (inclusiv varianta de ocolire Arad)\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=7 March 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307145216/http://www.autostrada\\-arad\\-timisoara.ro/progresul\\-lucrarilor\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The segment was opened in on a single carriageway December 2011, and on both carriageways in June 2012\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Centura Aradului, deschisă și pe al doilea sens\\|url\\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/centura\\-aradului\\-deschisa\\-si\\-pe\\-al\\-doilea\\-sens\\-167387\\.html\\|publisher\\=Capital.ro\\|date\\=6 June 2012\\|access\\-date\\=12 June 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609032720/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/centura\\-aradului\\-deschisa\\-si\\-pe\\-al\\-doilea\\-sens\\-167387\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=9 June 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The 32\\.25 km section of motorway between Arad and Timișoara was awarded in December 2008 to the joint venture between the Spanish company [FCC Construccion](/wiki/Fomento_de_Construcciones_y_Contratas \"Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas\") and the Italian company [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi \"Astaldi\"). It was opened along with the Arad bypass in December 2011\\.", "### Arad – Nădlac", "The construction of the 38\\.8 km section between [Nădlac](/wiki/N%C4%83dlac \"Nădlac\") and [Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania \"Arad, Romania\") was split into two parts. The first part, between Nădlac and [Pecica](/wiki/Pecica \"Pecica\") (22\\.2 km),{{cite web\\|title\\=Documentația de atribuire a contractului de servicii \"Supervizare autostrada Nadlac – Arad si Drum de legatura\"\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/proceduri\\_derulare/167p\\-documentatie.pdf\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|page\\=54\\|date\\=23 March 2011}} was awarded in April 2011 to a consortium led by the Romanian company [Romstrade](/wiki/Romstrade \"Romstrade\"), while the second section, between Pecica and Arad (16\\.6 km), was to be constructed by the Austrian company Alpine. Works started in October 2011 and were due to be finalized in April 2013\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Panglicile se îndepărtează de autostrăzile în lucru\\|url\\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/luni\\-panglicile\\-se\\-indeparteaza\\-de\\-autostrazile\\-in\\-lucru\\-167275\\.html\\|publisher\\=Capital.ro\\|date\\=4 June 2012\\|access\\-date\\=24 August 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827143448/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/luni\\-panglicile\\-se\\-indeparteaza\\-de\\-autostrazile\\-in\\-lucru\\-167275\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "However, the contract for the first part of the section was terminated by the Romanian government in November 2012, due to low construction progress recorded by the Romstrade company (approximately 15–20%) and potential fraud by the company owner.{{cite web\\|title\\=Autostrada Nădlac\\-Pecica a mai scăpat de o contestație. A început organizarea de șantier\\|url\\=http://ziuadevest.ro/actualitate/44335\\-autostrada\\-ndlac\\-pecica\\-a\\-mai\\-scpat\\-de\\-o\\-contestaie\\-a\\-inceput\\-organizarea\\-de\\-antier.html\\|publisher\\=Ziua de Vest\\|date\\=14 January 2014\\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116110542/http://ziuadevest.ro/actualitate/44335\\-autostrada\\-ndlac\\-pecica\\-a\\-mai\\-scpat\\-de\\-o\\-contestaie\\-a\\-inceput\\-organizarea\\-de\\-antier.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 January 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Promisiunile ministrului Șova cu privire la finalizarea lucrărilor la autostrada Arad\\-Nădlac nu reflectă realitatea din teren\\|url\\=http://adevarul.ro/locale/arad/arad\\-ministru\\-sova\\-autostrada\\-nadlac\\-1\\_52cfd157c7b855ff565cb283/index.html\\|publisher\\=Adevărul\\|access\\-date\\=11 January 2014\\|language\\=Romanian\\|date\\=10 January 2014}} Also, the contract for the second part (construction progress approximately 85%){{cite web\\|title\\=Când vom circula pe AUTOSTRADĂ de la Nădlac pe Sibiu, în viziunea ministrului Dan Șova\\|url\\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/cand\\-vom\\-circula\\-pe\\-autostrada\\-de\\-la\\-nadlac\\-pe\\-sibiu\\-in\\-viziunea\\-ministrului\\-dan\\-sova\\-184774\\.html\\|publisher\\=Capital\\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2014\\|language\\=Romanian\\|date\\=29 July 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801164621/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/cand\\-vom\\-circula\\-pe\\-autostrada\\-de\\-la\\-nadlac\\-pe\\-sibiu\\-in\\-viziunea\\-ministrului\\-dan\\-sova\\-184774\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=1 August 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} was terminated in July 2013, because the Austrian company filed for bankruptcy.{{cite web\\|title\\=Contractul cu Alpine pentru autostrada Nădlac\\-Arad, reziliat în secret\\|url\\=http://www.romanialibera.ro/bani\\-afaceri/economie/contractul\\-cu\\-alpine\\-pentru\\-autostrada\\-nadlac\\-arad\\-reziliat\\-in\\-secret\\-308270\\.html\\|publisher\\=România Liberă\\|date\\=22 July 2013\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=28 December 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228110341/http://www.romanialibera.ro/bani\\-afaceri/economie/contractul\\-cu\\-alpine\\-pentru\\-autostrada\\-nadlac\\-arad\\-reziliat\\-in\\-secret\\-308270\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The first segment was re\\-auctioned in April 2013,{{cite web\\|title\\=Lotul Romstrade al autostrazii Arad – Nadlac, scos din nou la licitatie\\|url\\=http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri\\-esential\\-14594196\\-lotul\\-romstrade\\-autostrazii\\-arad\\-nadlac\\-scos\\-din\\-nou\\-licitatie\\-cost\\-circa\\-69\\-mil\\-euro\\-pentru\\-terminarea\\-12\\-luni\\-celor\\-22\\-autostrada.htm\\|publisher\\=Hotnews.ro\\|date\\=10 April 2013}} and awarded in December 2013 to the joint venture of [Astaldi](/wiki/Astaldi \"Astaldi\") and [Max Bögl](/wiki/Max_B%C3%B6gl \"Max Bögl\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Astaldi a câștigat un contract de 56 de milioane de euro pentru lotul 1 din autostrada Arad\\-Nădlac\\|url\\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/astaldi\\-a\\-castigat\\-un\\-contract\\-de\\-56\\-de\\-milioane\\-de\\-euro\\-pentru\\-lotul\\-1\\-din\\-autostrada\\-arad\\-nadla.html\\|publisher\\=Capital\\|date\\=23 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228092009/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/astaldi\\-a\\-castigat\\-un\\-contract\\-de\\-56\\-de\\-milioane\\-de\\-euro\\-pentru\\-lotul\\-1\\-din\\-autostrada\\-arad\\-nadla.html\\|archive\\-date\\=28 December 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Works should be completed until the end of 2014\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ministrul Dan Șova a anunțat că lucrările la autostrada Arad – Nădlac vor fi finalizate anul viitor\\|url\\=http://adevarul.ro/locale/arad/ministrul\\-dan\\-Sova\\-anuntat\\-lucrarile\\-autostrada\\-arad\\-nadlac\\-vor\\-finalizate\\-anul\\-viitor\\-1\\_5273926fc7b855ff56a57175/index.html\\|publisher\\=Adevărul\\|access\\-date\\=11 January 2014\\|date\\=1 November 2013\\|language\\=Romanian}} A tender for the remaining works on the second segment was announced in June 2014,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/proceduri\\_derulare/7\\_1%20Anunt%20participare.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727062037/http://www.cnadnr.ro/docs/proceduri\\_derulare/7\\_1%20Anunt%20participare.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and the section was finally awarded to the same joint venture of Astaldi and Max Bögl.", "The section between Nădlac and Pecica and 6\\.30 km of the section between Pecica and Arad ware opened ahead of schedule on December 19, 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.zf.ro/autostrazi/o\\-portiune\\-de\\-28\\-de\\-kilometri\\-din\\-autostrada\\-nadlac\\-arad\\-a\\-fost\\-deschisa\\-traficului\\-13732009\\|title\\=O porţiune de 28 de kilometri din autostrada Nădlac\\-Arad a fost deschisă traficului}} The remainder of the Pecica – Arad segment (10\\.3 km) was opened on 11 July 2015\\.", "At the western end, the motorway connects with [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\")'s [M43 motorway](/wiki/M43_motorway_%28Hungary%29 \"M43 motorway (Hungary)\"), which further connects with the [M5 motorway](/wiki/M5_motorway_%28Hungary%29 \"M5 motorway (Hungary)\"), that runs from the border with [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia \"Serbia\") to the capital city of [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Ungurii s\\-au apucat de autostrada care va lega România de Occident\\|url\\=http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/veste\\-buna\\-ungurii\\-s\\-au\\-apucat\\-de\\-autostrada\\-care\\-va\\-lega\\-romania\\-de\\-occident\\-182941\\.html\\|publisher\\=Capital.ro\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2013\\|date\\=11 July 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224085641/http://www.capital.ro/detalii\\-articole/stiri/veste\\-buna\\-ungurii\\-s\\-au\\-apucat\\-de\\-autostrada\\-care\\-va\\-lega\\-romania\\-de\\-occident\\-182941\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} A connecting road between the motorway (near the border crossing) and the town of [Nădlac](/wiki/N%C4%83dlac \"Nădlac\") (approximately 7 km southbound), designated as DN7G, has also been built.{{cite web\\|title\\=Constructie Autostrada Nadlac – Arad\\|url\\=http://www.cnadnr.ro/pagina.php?idg\\=134\\|publisher\\=CNADNR\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2013}}", "" ]
Summary ------- [thumb\|upright\=1\.9\|Map of results {{col\-start}}{{col\-4}}{{legend\|\#2b42a3\|Champion}} {{legend\|\#34c0be\|Runner\-up}}{{col\-4}}{{legend\|\#269c5a\|Third place}} {{legend\|\#81c846\|Fourth place}}{{col\-4}}{{legend\|\#e4e454\|Quarter\-finals}} {{legend\|\#f4d4ac\|Round of 16}}{{col\-4}}{{legend\|\#b94954\|Group stage}}{{col\-end}}](/wiki/File:1986_world_cup.png "1986 world cup.png") ### First round [thumb\|Celebrations of Mexican fans at Zocalo main square, June 7, 1986\.](/wiki/File:026549-018_FUTBOLEROS_FESTEJANDO_EN_EL_Z%C3%93CALO_JUNIO_7_1986_%2845398933914%29.jpg "026549-018 FUTBOLEROS FESTEJANDO EN EL ZÓCALO JUNIO 7 1986 (45398933914).jpg") The first round of the finals began in Group A, where [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team "Italy national football team") were held 1–1 by [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria_national_football_team "Bulgaria national football team"). Meanwhile, [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_national_football_team "Argentina national football team") beat [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea_national_football_team "South Korea national football team") 3–1, with [Diego Maradona](/wiki/Diego_Maradona "Diego Maradona") playing a major part. [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team "Italy national football team") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_national_football_team "Argentina national football team") drew 1–1, Maradona and [Alessandro Altobelli](/wiki/Alessandro_Altobelli "Alessandro Altobelli") scoring. South Korea and Bulgaria also drew 1–1 in a downpour. The final set of matches saw Argentina beating Bulgaria 2–0, and Italy narrowly defeating South Korea 3–2\. In Group B [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico_national_football_team "Mexico national football team") beat [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium_national_football_team "Belgium national football team") 2–1, and despite being held 1–1 by [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay_national_football_team "Paraguay national football team"), they won the group after a further win over [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq_national_football_team "Iraq national football team"), 1–0\. Paraguay and Belgium also progressed after both beating Iraq and drawing with each other. Group C pitted a strong [Dynamo Kyiv](/wiki/FC_Dynamo_Kyiv "FC Dynamo Kyiv")\-dominated [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union_national_football_team "Soviet Union national football team") side against the reigning European champions [France](/wiki/France_national_football_team "France national football team"). They drew with each other 1–1, with a goal scored by [Vasyl Rats](/wiki/Vasyl_Rats "Vasyl Rats"). France beat [Canada](/wiki/Canada_men%27s_national_soccer_team "Canada men's national soccer team") 1–0 and finished in 2nd place in the group after beating [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary_national_football_team "Hungary national football team"), 3–0\. Hungary had earlier lost 6–0 against the Soviet Union, which won the group due to goal difference. Group D saw [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team "Brazil national football team") start against [Spain](/wiki/Spain_men%27s_national_football_team "Spain men's national football team"), winning 1–0 after the referee failed to validate a legal goal scored by [Míchel](/wiki/M%C3%ADchel_%28footballer%2C_born_1963%29 "Míchel (footballer, born 1963)"). [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team "Northern Ireland national football team") began their campaign with a draw against [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria_national_football_team "Algeria national football team"). Northern Ireland were then narrowly beaten by Spain before losing to Brazil 3–0 in their final match. This match saw a goal from [Josimar](/wiki/Josimar_%28footballer%2C_born_1961%29 "Josimar (footballer, born 1961)") on his debut and was also the final time [Pat Jennings](/wiki/Pat_Jennings "Pat Jennings") played for [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team "Northern Ireland national football team"). Spain qualified along with Brazil after defeating Algeria 3–0\. [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark_national_football_team "Denmark national football team") stormed through Group E, dubbed the [group of death](/wiki/Group_of_death "Group of death"), with a 100 per cent record. They beat Alex Ferguson's [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team "Scotland national football team") 1–0 in their first game, then hammered [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay_national_football_team "Uruguay national football team") 6–1, with [Preben Elkjær](/wiki/Preben_Elkj%C3%A6r "Preben Elkjær") hitting a hat\-trick. Denmark beat one of the favourites to win the tournament, [West Germany](/wiki/Germany_national_football_team "Germany national football team"), 2–0 thanks to a [Jesper Olsen](/wiki/Jesper_Olsen "Jesper Olsen") penalty and a goal from [John Eriksen](/wiki/John_Eriksen "John Eriksen"). After losing to Denmark, Scotland took the lead against West Germany thanks to a [Gordon Strachan](/wiki/Gordon_Strachan "Gordon Strachan") goal, but the West Germans fought back to win 2–1\. After a violent 0–0 draw against Uruguay, the Scots were eliminated from the tournament. During that game [José Batista](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Batista "José Batista") of Uruguay was [sent off](/wiki/Misconduct_%28football%29 "Misconduct (football)") after less than one minute of play for a foul on Strachan, a [World Cup record](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup_records "FIFA World Cup records") that still stands. West Germany went through to the second round despite a loss against Denmark. [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco_national_football_team "Morocco national football team") topped Group F after holding both [Poland](/wiki/Poland_national_football_team "Poland national football team") and [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team") to goalless draws, and beating [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal_national_football_team "Portugal national football team") 3–1\. By doing so, they became the first African team, and only the second nation from outside Europe and the Americas (after North Korea in 1966\), to reach the second round. England lost 1–0 to Portugal, followed by a 0–0 draw against Morocco in which they lost captain [Bryan Robson](/wiki/Bryan_Robson "Bryan Robson") to injury (for the remainder of the tournament) and vice\-captain [Ray Wilkins](/wiki/Ray_Wilkins "Ray Wilkins") to a red card (he was not selected for the remainder of the tournament, even after having served his obligatory one\-match ban). In their last first\-round game, with the captaincy taken over by [Peter Shilton](/wiki/Peter_Shilton "Peter Shilton") in goal, a first\-half [Gary Lineker](/wiki/Gary_Lineker "Gary Lineker") hat\-trick helped the reshaped side beat Poland 3–0 – although losing yet another player to a ban for the next round, Terry Fenwick receiving his second booking of the tournament. Poland had previously beaten Portugal, and in the end the Portuguese were the only team from Group F to be eliminated in the first round. Portugal, making their first appearance in 20 years, went on strike (in the [Saltillo Affair](/wiki/Saltillo_Affair "Saltillo Affair")) during the competition. Players refused to train between their first and second games (against England and Poland) and were eliminated after a loss to [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco_national_football_team "Morocco national football team") in the final group match. ### Second round and quarter\-finals Belgium beat the Soviet Union 4–3, despite a hat\-trick by the Soviets' [Igor Belanov](/wiki/Igor_Belanov "Igor Belanov"). The game was level at 2–2 after 90 minutes, and in extra time [Stephane Demol](/wiki/Stephane_Demol "Stephane Demol") and [Nico Claesen](/wiki/Nico_Claesen "Nico Claesen") put Belgium 4–2 up. Belanov scored from the penalty spot with nine minutes remaining, but neither he nor any of his teammates could find a fourth goal for the Soviet Union. At the [Olympic University Stadium](/wiki/Estadio_Olimpico_Universitario "Estadio Olimpico Universitario") in Mexico City, the European champions France ended Italy's reign as world champions with a 2–0 victory thanks to goals from [Michel Platini](/wiki/Michel_Platini "Michel Platini") and [Yannick Stopyra](/wiki/Yannick_Stopyra "Yannick Stopyra"). In the rematch of the [1930 FIFA World Cup Final](/wiki/1930_FIFA_World_Cup_Final "1930 FIFA World Cup Final"), Argentina just edged out South American champions Uruguay in Puebla thanks to a 42nd\-minute strike from [Pedro Pasculli](/wiki/Pedro_Pasculli "Pedro Pasculli"). The all\-South American affair had a Diego Maradona goal disallowed. In Querétaro, Denmark were eliminated as they went from a 1–0 lead to a 5–1 battering against Spain; key player [Frank Arnesen](/wiki/Frank_Arnesen "Frank Arnesen") was suspended for the game after being sent off against West Germany in their last group match, for taking a swipe at German playmaker [Lothar Matthäus](/wiki/Lothar_Matth%C3%A4us "Lothar Matthäus"). The Danes scored first, with a Jesper Olsen penalty, but they were then taken apart by a devastating performance from [Butragueño](/wiki/Emilio_Butrague%C3%B1o "Emilio Butragueño") of Spain, who scored four of his team's five goals. At the [Azteca Stadium](/wiki/Estadio_Azteca "Estadio Azteca") in Mexico City, England progressed to the quarter\-finals comfortably when they saw off Paraguay 3–0, while Brazil brushed aside Poland 4–0\. West Germany had a much harder time getting past Morocco, for whom goalkeeper [Badou Zaki](/wiki/Badou_Zaki "Badou Zaki") had an outstanding game. Morocco held out until the 87th minute, when Lothar Matthäus scored the only goal of the match with a free kick. Mexico won 2–0 against Bulgaria with an outstanding scissor\-kick goal by [Manuel Negrete](/wiki/Manuel_Negrete_Arias "Manuel Negrete Arias") which is honored by a remembrance plaque at [the Azteca](/wiki/Estadio_Azteca "Estadio Azteca"). In the quarter\-finals, France faced three\-time world champion Brazil in Guadalajara. Brazil were well on top in the early stages, and Careca put them one up after 18 minutes. Five minutes before half\-time, France drew level when Michel Platini scored his 41st goal after converting a cross from [Dominique Rocheteau](/wiki/Dominique_Rocheteau "Dominique Rocheteau"). Brazil had a chance to regain the lead in the second half when Branco was fouled by French keeper [Joël Bats](/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Bats "Joël Bats") in the penalty area. [Zico](/wiki/Zico_%28footballer%29 "Zico (footballer)") got up to take the kick, but Bats saved Zico's penalty. The match went to extra time, and France finished slightly the stronger of the two sides. No more goals were scored, and so it was time for a penalty shoot\-out. Socrates, who had earlier missed an open goal and headed an easy chance straight into the French keeper's arms, failed with the first kick for Brazil. The next six penalties were all converted, and then Platini fired over the bar. Brazil were back on level terms – but not for long. [Julio Cesar](/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_C%C3%A9sar_da_Silva "Júlio César da Silva") struck the post with his penalty, and [Luis Fernández](/wiki/Luis_Fern%C3%A1ndez "Luis Fernández") then scored to put France through 4–3 on penalties. Two other quarter\-finals were also decided on penalties. [Jan Ceulemans](/wiki/Jan_Ceulemans "Jan Ceulemans") put Belgium ahead against Spain in the 35th minute, but Spanish substitute Señor equalised with five minutes to go. No more goals were scored in extra time, and Belgium won the shoot\-out 5–4\. On the hosts' first game outside of the Azteca, [Francisco Javier Cruz](/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Cruz "Francisco Javier Cruz") saw a goal disallowed as West Germany and Mexico drew 0–0 after extra time. The West Germans eliminated the hosts 4–1 on penalties. As a curiosity, the German goalkeeper [Harald Schumacher](/wiki/Harald_Schumacher "Harald Schumacher") jumped to the right in the three Mexican penalties (stopping two of them). The quarter\-final between Argentina and England at the Azteca featured two very different goals in the second half by Diego Maradona: the first was scored illegally, as he punched the ball into the goal past England goalkeeper [Peter Shilton](/wiki/Peter_Shilton "Peter Shilton"). The referee did not see the handball and the goal was given as valid. After the game, Maradona claimed the goal was scored "A bit with the head of Maradona and another bit with the hand of God"; it became known as the "[Hand of God](/wiki/The_hand_of_God "The hand of God")" goal. For his second goal, voted "[Goal of the Century](/wiki/Goal_of_the_Century "Goal of the Century")" in 2002 on the FIFA website, Maradona dribbled half the length of the field past five English players before scoring. With 20 minutes to go, the introduction of John Barnes as a substitute changed the tide of play in England's favour, as he pinged cross after cross into the Argentine penalty area: with 9 minutes to go, Lineker got on the end of one and scored, then almost repeated the dose six minutes later but was just unable to reach the ball thanks to a timely block by Olarticoechea: 2–1 to Argentina was the final score. In Argentina, the game was seen as revenge for the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War "Falklands War").El Diego – Diego Maradona, Page 127, {{ISBN\|0\-224\-07190\-4}} ### Semi\-finals, third\-place match and final In the first semi\-final match, [Andreas Brehme](/wiki/Andreas_Brehme "Andreas Brehme") put West Germany 1–0 ahead against France in the ninth minute in Guadalajara, but the outcome remained in doubt until two minutes from time when [Rudi Völler](/wiki/Rudi_V%C3%B6ller "Rudi Völler") made it 2–0, and West Germany were in the final for the second World Cup in succession. In the second semi\-final match, Maradona struck twice in the second half as Argentina beat Belgium 2–0 at the Azteca. France went on to defeat Belgium in the third\-place match, 4–2\. So it was to be the South American Argentina vs the European West Germany at the final at the Azteca, the second time this massive stadium would host a World Cup Final ([the first](/wiki/1970_FIFA_World_Cup_Final "1970 FIFA World Cup Final") in 1970\). [Jose Brown](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Luis_Brown "José Luis Brown") put Argentina one up midway through the first half of the final, and when [Jorge Valdano](/wiki/Jorge_Valdano "Jorge Valdano") scored a second for the South Americans in the 55th minute, Argentina looked to be strolling to victory. West Germany then staged a spirited comeback. [Karl\-Heinz Rummenigge](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Rummenigge "Karl-Heinz Rummenigge") pulled one back in the 74th minute, and six minutes later Rudi Völler hit the equaliser. With seven minutes remaining, a pass from Maradona gave [Jorge Burruchaga](/wiki/Jorge_Burruchaga "Jorge Burruchaga") the chance to score the winner for Argentina. Eight years on from their [home triumph](/wiki/1978_FIFA_World_Cup "1978 FIFA World Cup"), Argentina regained the world title and 30 million people in Argentina celebrated in the streets after the final victory. Maradona was the Golden Ball winner as the best player of the tournament, while Gary Lineker of England won the Golden Boot as the leading scorer of the World Cup with six goals.
[ "Summary\n-------", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.9\\|Map of results {{col\\-start}}{{col\\-4}}{{legend\\|\\#2b42a3\\|Champion}} {{legend\\|\\#34c0be\\|Runner\\-up}}{{col\\-4}}{{legend\\|\\#269c5a\\|Third place}} {{legend\\|\\#81c846\\|Fourth place}}{{col\\-4}}{{legend\\|\\#e4e454\\|Quarter\\-finals}} {{legend\\|\\#f4d4ac\\|Round of 16}}{{col\\-4}}{{legend\\|\\#b94954\\|Group stage}}{{col\\-end}}](/wiki/File:1986_world_cup.png \"1986 world cup.png\")", "### First round", "[thumb\\|Celebrations of Mexican fans at Zocalo main square, June 7, 1986\\.](/wiki/File:026549-018_FUTBOLEROS_FESTEJANDO_EN_EL_Z%C3%93CALO_JUNIO_7_1986_%2845398933914%29.jpg \"026549-018 FUTBOLEROS FESTEJANDO EN EL ZÓCALO JUNIO 7 1986 (45398933914).jpg\")\nThe first round of the finals began in Group A, where [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team \"Italy national football team\") were held 1–1 by [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria_national_football_team \"Bulgaria national football team\"). Meanwhile, [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_national_football_team \"Argentina national football team\") beat [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea_national_football_team \"South Korea national football team\") 3–1, with [Diego Maradona](/wiki/Diego_Maradona \"Diego Maradona\") playing a major part. [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team \"Italy national football team\") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_national_football_team \"Argentina national football team\") drew 1–1, Maradona and [Alessandro Altobelli](/wiki/Alessandro_Altobelli \"Alessandro Altobelli\") scoring. South Korea and Bulgaria also drew 1–1 in a downpour. The final set of matches saw Argentina beating Bulgaria 2–0, and Italy narrowly defeating South Korea 3–2\\.", "In Group B [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico_national_football_team \"Mexico national football team\") beat [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium_national_football_team \"Belgium national football team\") 2–1, and despite being held 1–1 by [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay_national_football_team \"Paraguay national football team\"), they won the group after a further win over [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq_national_football_team \"Iraq national football team\"), 1–0\\. Paraguay and Belgium also progressed after both beating Iraq and drawing with each other.", "Group C pitted a strong [Dynamo Kyiv](/wiki/FC_Dynamo_Kyiv \"FC Dynamo Kyiv\")\\-dominated [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union_national_football_team \"Soviet Union national football team\") side against the reigning European champions [France](/wiki/France_national_football_team \"France national football team\"). They drew with each other 1–1, with a goal scored by [Vasyl Rats](/wiki/Vasyl_Rats \"Vasyl Rats\"). France beat [Canada](/wiki/Canada_men%27s_national_soccer_team \"Canada men's national soccer team\") 1–0 and finished in 2nd place in the group after beating [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary_national_football_team \"Hungary national football team\"), 3–0\\. Hungary had earlier lost 6–0 against the Soviet Union, which won the group due to goal difference.", "Group D saw [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team \"Brazil national football team\") start against [Spain](/wiki/Spain_men%27s_national_football_team \"Spain men's national football team\"), winning 1–0 after the referee failed to validate a legal goal scored by [Míchel](/wiki/M%C3%ADchel_%28footballer%2C_born_1963%29 \"Míchel (footballer, born 1963)\"). [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team \"Northern Ireland national football team\") began their campaign with a draw against [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria_national_football_team \"Algeria national football team\"). Northern Ireland were then narrowly beaten by Spain before losing to Brazil 3–0 in their final match. This match saw a goal from [Josimar](/wiki/Josimar_%28footballer%2C_born_1961%29 \"Josimar (footballer, born 1961)\") on his debut and was also the final time [Pat Jennings](/wiki/Pat_Jennings \"Pat Jennings\") played for [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team \"Northern Ireland national football team\"). Spain qualified along with Brazil after defeating Algeria 3–0\\.", "[Denmark](/wiki/Denmark_national_football_team \"Denmark national football team\") stormed through Group E, dubbed the [group of death](/wiki/Group_of_death \"Group of death\"), with a 100 per cent record. They beat Alex Ferguson's [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team \"Scotland national football team\") 1–0 in their first game, then hammered [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay_national_football_team \"Uruguay national football team\") 6–1, with [Preben Elkjær](/wiki/Preben_Elkj%C3%A6r \"Preben Elkjær\") hitting a hat\\-trick. Denmark beat one of the favourites to win the tournament, [West Germany](/wiki/Germany_national_football_team \"Germany national football team\"), 2–0 thanks to a [Jesper Olsen](/wiki/Jesper_Olsen \"Jesper Olsen\") penalty and a goal from [John Eriksen](/wiki/John_Eriksen \"John Eriksen\"). After losing to Denmark, Scotland took the lead against West Germany thanks to a [Gordon Strachan](/wiki/Gordon_Strachan \"Gordon Strachan\") goal, but the West Germans fought back to win 2–1\\. After a violent 0–0 draw against Uruguay, the Scots were eliminated from the tournament. During that game [José Batista](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Batista \"José Batista\") of Uruguay was [sent off](/wiki/Misconduct_%28football%29 \"Misconduct (football)\") after less than one minute of play for a foul on Strachan, a [World Cup record](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup_records \"FIFA World Cup records\") that still stands. West Germany went through to the second round despite a loss against Denmark.", "[Morocco](/wiki/Morocco_national_football_team \"Morocco national football team\") topped Group F after holding both [Poland](/wiki/Poland_national_football_team \"Poland national football team\") and [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\") to goalless draws, and beating [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal_national_football_team \"Portugal national football team\") 3–1\\. By doing so, they became the first African team, and only the second nation from outside Europe and the Americas (after North Korea in 1966\\), to reach the second round. England lost 1–0 to Portugal, followed by a 0–0 draw against Morocco in which they lost captain [Bryan Robson](/wiki/Bryan_Robson \"Bryan Robson\") to injury (for the remainder of the tournament) and vice\\-captain [Ray Wilkins](/wiki/Ray_Wilkins \"Ray Wilkins\") to a red card (he was not selected for the remainder of the tournament, even after having served his obligatory one\\-match ban). In their last first\\-round game, with the captaincy taken over by [Peter Shilton](/wiki/Peter_Shilton \"Peter Shilton\") in goal, a first\\-half [Gary Lineker](/wiki/Gary_Lineker \"Gary Lineker\") hat\\-trick helped the reshaped side beat Poland 3–0 – although losing yet another player to a ban for the next round, Terry Fenwick receiving his second booking of the tournament. Poland had previously beaten Portugal, and in the end the Portuguese were the only team from Group F to be eliminated in the first round. Portugal, making their first appearance in 20 years, went on strike (in the [Saltillo Affair](/wiki/Saltillo_Affair \"Saltillo Affair\")) during the competition. Players refused to train between their first and second games (against England and Poland) and were eliminated after a loss to [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco_national_football_team \"Morocco national football team\") in the final group match.", "### Second round and quarter\\-finals", "Belgium beat the Soviet Union 4–3, despite a hat\\-trick by the Soviets' [Igor Belanov](/wiki/Igor_Belanov \"Igor Belanov\"). The game was level at 2–2 after 90 minutes, and in extra time [Stephane Demol](/wiki/Stephane_Demol \"Stephane Demol\") and [Nico Claesen](/wiki/Nico_Claesen \"Nico Claesen\") put Belgium 4–2 up. Belanov scored from the penalty spot with nine minutes remaining, but neither he nor any of his teammates could find a fourth goal for the Soviet Union. At the [Olympic University Stadium](/wiki/Estadio_Olimpico_Universitario \"Estadio Olimpico Universitario\") in Mexico City, the European champions France ended Italy's reign as world champions with a 2–0 victory thanks to goals from [Michel Platini](/wiki/Michel_Platini \"Michel Platini\") and [Yannick Stopyra](/wiki/Yannick_Stopyra \"Yannick Stopyra\"). In the rematch of the [1930 FIFA World Cup Final](/wiki/1930_FIFA_World_Cup_Final \"1930 FIFA World Cup Final\"), Argentina just edged out South American champions Uruguay in Puebla thanks to a 42nd\\-minute strike from [Pedro Pasculli](/wiki/Pedro_Pasculli \"Pedro Pasculli\"). The all\\-South American affair had a Diego Maradona goal disallowed.", "In Querétaro, Denmark were eliminated as they went from a 1–0 lead to a 5–1 battering against Spain; key player [Frank Arnesen](/wiki/Frank_Arnesen \"Frank Arnesen\") was suspended for the game after being sent off against West Germany in their last group match, for taking a swipe at German playmaker [Lothar Matthäus](/wiki/Lothar_Matth%C3%A4us \"Lothar Matthäus\"). The Danes scored first, with a Jesper Olsen penalty, but they were then taken apart by a devastating performance from [Butragueño](/wiki/Emilio_Butrague%C3%B1o \"Emilio Butragueño\") of Spain, who scored four of his team's five goals. At the [Azteca Stadium](/wiki/Estadio_Azteca \"Estadio Azteca\") in Mexico City, England progressed to the quarter\\-finals comfortably when they saw off Paraguay 3–0, while Brazil brushed aside Poland 4–0\\. West Germany had a much harder time getting past Morocco, for whom goalkeeper [Badou Zaki](/wiki/Badou_Zaki \"Badou Zaki\") had an outstanding game. Morocco held out until the 87th minute, when Lothar Matthäus scored the only goal of the match with a free kick. Mexico won 2–0 against Bulgaria with an outstanding scissor\\-kick goal by [Manuel Negrete](/wiki/Manuel_Negrete_Arias \"Manuel Negrete Arias\") which is honored by a remembrance plaque at [the Azteca](/wiki/Estadio_Azteca \"Estadio Azteca\").", "In the quarter\\-finals, France faced three\\-time world champion Brazil in Guadalajara. Brazil were well on top in the early stages, and Careca put them one up after 18 minutes. Five minutes before half\\-time, France drew level when Michel Platini scored his 41st goal after converting a cross from [Dominique Rocheteau](/wiki/Dominique_Rocheteau \"Dominique Rocheteau\"). Brazil had a chance to regain the lead in the second half when Branco was fouled by French keeper [Joël Bats](/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Bats \"Joël Bats\") in the penalty area. [Zico](/wiki/Zico_%28footballer%29 \"Zico (footballer)\") got up to take the kick, but Bats saved Zico's penalty.", "The match went to extra time, and France finished slightly the stronger of the two sides. No more goals were scored, and so it was time for a penalty shoot\\-out. Socrates, who had earlier missed an open goal and headed an easy chance straight into the French keeper's arms, failed with the first kick for Brazil. The next six penalties were all converted, and then Platini fired over the bar. Brazil were back on level terms – but not for long. [Julio Cesar](/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_C%C3%A9sar_da_Silva \"Júlio César da Silva\") struck the post with his penalty, and [Luis Fernández](/wiki/Luis_Fern%C3%A1ndez \"Luis Fernández\") then scored to put France through 4–3 on penalties.", "Two other quarter\\-finals were also decided on penalties. [Jan Ceulemans](/wiki/Jan_Ceulemans \"Jan Ceulemans\") put Belgium ahead against Spain in the 35th minute, but Spanish substitute Señor equalised with five minutes to go. No more goals were scored in extra time, and Belgium won the shoot\\-out 5–4\\. On the hosts' first game outside of the Azteca, [Francisco Javier Cruz](/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Cruz \"Francisco Javier Cruz\") saw a goal disallowed as West Germany and Mexico drew 0–0 after extra time. The West Germans eliminated the hosts 4–1 on penalties. As a curiosity, the German goalkeeper [Harald Schumacher](/wiki/Harald_Schumacher \"Harald Schumacher\") jumped to the right in the three Mexican penalties (stopping two of them).", "The quarter\\-final between Argentina and England at the Azteca featured two very different goals in the second half by Diego Maradona: the first was scored illegally, as he punched the ball into the goal past England goalkeeper [Peter Shilton](/wiki/Peter_Shilton \"Peter Shilton\"). The referee did not see the handball and the goal was given as valid. After the game, Maradona claimed the goal was scored \"A bit with the head of Maradona and another bit with the hand of God\"; it became known as the \"[Hand of God](/wiki/The_hand_of_God \"The hand of God\")\" goal. For his second goal, voted \"[Goal of the Century](/wiki/Goal_of_the_Century \"Goal of the Century\")\" in 2002 on the FIFA website, Maradona dribbled half the length of the field past five English players before scoring. With 20 minutes to go, the introduction of John Barnes as a substitute changed the tide of play in England's favour, as he pinged cross after cross into the Argentine penalty area: with 9 minutes to go, Lineker got on the end of one and scored, then almost repeated the dose six minutes later but was just unable to reach the ball thanks to a timely block by Olarticoechea: 2–1 to Argentina was the final score. In Argentina, the game was seen as revenge for the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War \"Falklands War\").El Diego – Diego Maradona, Page 127, {{ISBN\\|0\\-224\\-07190\\-4}}", "### Semi\\-finals, third\\-place match and final", "In the first semi\\-final match, [Andreas Brehme](/wiki/Andreas_Brehme \"Andreas Brehme\") put West Germany 1–0 ahead against France in the ninth minute in Guadalajara, but the outcome remained in doubt until two minutes from time when [Rudi Völler](/wiki/Rudi_V%C3%B6ller \"Rudi Völler\") made it 2–0, and West Germany were in the final for the second World Cup in succession. In the second semi\\-final match, Maradona struck twice in the second half as Argentina beat Belgium 2–0 at the Azteca. France went on to defeat Belgium in the third\\-place match, 4–2\\.", "So it was to be the South American Argentina vs the European West Germany at the final at the Azteca, the second time this massive stadium would host a World Cup Final ([the first](/wiki/1970_FIFA_World_Cup_Final \"1970 FIFA World Cup Final\") in 1970\\). [Jose Brown](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Luis_Brown \"José Luis Brown\") put Argentina one up midway through the first half of the final, and when [Jorge Valdano](/wiki/Jorge_Valdano \"Jorge Valdano\") scored a second for the South Americans in the 55th minute, Argentina looked to be strolling to victory. West Germany then staged a spirited comeback. [Karl\\-Heinz Rummenigge](/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Rummenigge \"Karl-Heinz Rummenigge\") pulled one back in the 74th minute, and six minutes later Rudi Völler hit the equaliser. With seven minutes remaining, a pass from Maradona gave [Jorge Burruchaga](/wiki/Jorge_Burruchaga \"Jorge Burruchaga\") the chance to score the winner for Argentina. Eight years on from their [home triumph](/wiki/1978_FIFA_World_Cup \"1978 FIFA World Cup\"), Argentina regained the world title and 30 million people in Argentina celebrated in the streets after the final victory. Maradona was the Golden Ball winner as the best player of the tournament, while Gary Lineker of England won the Golden Boot as the leading scorer of the World Cup with six goals.", "" ]
### Second round and quarter\-finals Belgium beat the Soviet Union 4–3, despite a hat\-trick by the Soviets' [Igor Belanov](/wiki/Igor_Belanov "Igor Belanov"). The game was level at 2–2 after 90 minutes, and in extra time [Stephane Demol](/wiki/Stephane_Demol "Stephane Demol") and [Nico Claesen](/wiki/Nico_Claesen "Nico Claesen") put Belgium 4–2 up. Belanov scored from the penalty spot with nine minutes remaining, but neither he nor any of his teammates could find a fourth goal for the Soviet Union. At the [Olympic University Stadium](/wiki/Estadio_Olimpico_Universitario "Estadio Olimpico Universitario") in Mexico City, the European champions France ended Italy's reign as world champions with a 2–0 victory thanks to goals from [Michel Platini](/wiki/Michel_Platini "Michel Platini") and [Yannick Stopyra](/wiki/Yannick_Stopyra "Yannick Stopyra"). In the rematch of the [1930 FIFA World Cup Final](/wiki/1930_FIFA_World_Cup_Final "1930 FIFA World Cup Final"), Argentina just edged out South American champions Uruguay in Puebla thanks to a 42nd\-minute strike from [Pedro Pasculli](/wiki/Pedro_Pasculli "Pedro Pasculli"). The all\-South American affair had a Diego Maradona goal disallowed. In Querétaro, Denmark were eliminated as they went from a 1–0 lead to a 5–1 battering against Spain; key player [Frank Arnesen](/wiki/Frank_Arnesen "Frank Arnesen") was suspended for the game after being sent off against West Germany in their last group match, for taking a swipe at German playmaker [Lothar Matthäus](/wiki/Lothar_Matth%C3%A4us "Lothar Matthäus"). The Danes scored first, with a Jesper Olsen penalty, but they were then taken apart by a devastating performance from [Butragueño](/wiki/Emilio_Butrague%C3%B1o "Emilio Butragueño") of Spain, who scored four of his team's five goals. At the [Azteca Stadium](/wiki/Estadio_Azteca "Estadio Azteca") in Mexico City, England progressed to the quarter\-finals comfortably when they saw off Paraguay 3–0, while Brazil brushed aside Poland 4–0\. West Germany had a much harder time getting past Morocco, for whom goalkeeper [Badou Zaki](/wiki/Badou_Zaki "Badou Zaki") had an outstanding game. Morocco held out until the 87th minute, when Lothar Matthäus scored the only goal of the match with a free kick. Mexico won 2–0 against Bulgaria with an outstanding scissor\-kick goal by [Manuel Negrete](/wiki/Manuel_Negrete_Arias "Manuel Negrete Arias") which is honored by a remembrance plaque at [the Azteca](/wiki/Estadio_Azteca "Estadio Azteca"). In the quarter\-finals, France faced three\-time world champion Brazil in Guadalajara. Brazil were well on top in the early stages, and Careca put them one up after 18 minutes. Five minutes before half\-time, France drew level when Michel Platini scored his 41st goal after converting a cross from [Dominique Rocheteau](/wiki/Dominique_Rocheteau "Dominique Rocheteau"). Brazil had a chance to regain the lead in the second half when Branco was fouled by French keeper [Joël Bats](/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Bats "Joël Bats") in the penalty area. [Zico](/wiki/Zico_%28footballer%29 "Zico (footballer)") got up to take the kick, but Bats saved Zico's penalty. The match went to extra time, and France finished slightly the stronger of the two sides. No more goals were scored, and so it was time for a penalty shoot\-out. Socrates, who had earlier missed an open goal and headed an easy chance straight into the French keeper's arms, failed with the first kick for Brazil. The next six penalties were all converted, and then Platini fired over the bar. Brazil were back on level terms – but not for long. [Julio Cesar](/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_C%C3%A9sar_da_Silva "Júlio César da Silva") struck the post with his penalty, and [Luis Fernández](/wiki/Luis_Fern%C3%A1ndez "Luis Fernández") then scored to put France through 4–3 on penalties. Two other quarter\-finals were also decided on penalties. [Jan Ceulemans](/wiki/Jan_Ceulemans "Jan Ceulemans") put Belgium ahead against Spain in the 35th minute, but Spanish substitute Señor equalised with five minutes to go. No more goals were scored in extra time, and Belgium won the shoot\-out 5–4\. On the hosts' first game outside of the Azteca, [Francisco Javier Cruz](/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Cruz "Francisco Javier Cruz") saw a goal disallowed as West Germany and Mexico drew 0–0 after extra time. The West Germans eliminated the hosts 4–1 on penalties. As a curiosity, the German goalkeeper [Harald Schumacher](/wiki/Harald_Schumacher "Harald Schumacher") jumped to the right in the three Mexican penalties (stopping two of them). The quarter\-final between Argentina and England at the Azteca featured two very different goals in the second half by Diego Maradona: the first was scored illegally, as he punched the ball into the goal past England goalkeeper [Peter Shilton](/wiki/Peter_Shilton "Peter Shilton"). The referee did not see the handball and the goal was given as valid. After the game, Maradona claimed the goal was scored "A bit with the head of Maradona and another bit with the hand of God"; it became known as the "[Hand of God](/wiki/The_hand_of_God "The hand of God")" goal. For his second goal, voted "[Goal of the Century](/wiki/Goal_of_the_Century "Goal of the Century")" in 2002 on the FIFA website, Maradona dribbled half the length of the field past five English players before scoring. With 20 minutes to go, the introduction of John Barnes as a substitute changed the tide of play in England's favour, as he pinged cross after cross into the Argentine penalty area: with 9 minutes to go, Lineker got on the end of one and scored, then almost repeated the dose six minutes later but was just unable to reach the ball thanks to a timely block by Olarticoechea: 2–1 to Argentina was the final score. In Argentina, the game was seen as revenge for the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War "Falklands War").El Diego – Diego Maradona, Page 127, {{ISBN\|0\-224\-07190\-4}}
[ "### Second round and quarter\\-finals", "Belgium beat the Soviet Union 4–3, despite a hat\\-trick by the Soviets' [Igor Belanov](/wiki/Igor_Belanov \"Igor Belanov\"). The game was level at 2–2 after 90 minutes, and in extra time [Stephane Demol](/wiki/Stephane_Demol \"Stephane Demol\") and [Nico Claesen](/wiki/Nico_Claesen \"Nico Claesen\") put Belgium 4–2 up. Belanov scored from the penalty spot with nine minutes remaining, but neither he nor any of his teammates could find a fourth goal for the Soviet Union. At the [Olympic University Stadium](/wiki/Estadio_Olimpico_Universitario \"Estadio Olimpico Universitario\") in Mexico City, the European champions France ended Italy's reign as world champions with a 2–0 victory thanks to goals from [Michel Platini](/wiki/Michel_Platini \"Michel Platini\") and [Yannick Stopyra](/wiki/Yannick_Stopyra \"Yannick Stopyra\"). In the rematch of the [1930 FIFA World Cup Final](/wiki/1930_FIFA_World_Cup_Final \"1930 FIFA World Cup Final\"), Argentina just edged out South American champions Uruguay in Puebla thanks to a 42nd\\-minute strike from [Pedro Pasculli](/wiki/Pedro_Pasculli \"Pedro Pasculli\"). The all\\-South American affair had a Diego Maradona goal disallowed.", "In Querétaro, Denmark were eliminated as they went from a 1–0 lead to a 5–1 battering against Spain; key player [Frank Arnesen](/wiki/Frank_Arnesen \"Frank Arnesen\") was suspended for the game after being sent off against West Germany in their last group match, for taking a swipe at German playmaker [Lothar Matthäus](/wiki/Lothar_Matth%C3%A4us \"Lothar Matthäus\"). The Danes scored first, with a Jesper Olsen penalty, but they were then taken apart by a devastating performance from [Butragueño](/wiki/Emilio_Butrague%C3%B1o \"Emilio Butragueño\") of Spain, who scored four of his team's five goals. At the [Azteca Stadium](/wiki/Estadio_Azteca \"Estadio Azteca\") in Mexico City, England progressed to the quarter\\-finals comfortably when they saw off Paraguay 3–0, while Brazil brushed aside Poland 4–0\\. West Germany had a much harder time getting past Morocco, for whom goalkeeper [Badou Zaki](/wiki/Badou_Zaki \"Badou Zaki\") had an outstanding game. Morocco held out until the 87th minute, when Lothar Matthäus scored the only goal of the match with a free kick. Mexico won 2–0 against Bulgaria with an outstanding scissor\\-kick goal by [Manuel Negrete](/wiki/Manuel_Negrete_Arias \"Manuel Negrete Arias\") which is honored by a remembrance plaque at [the Azteca](/wiki/Estadio_Azteca \"Estadio Azteca\").", "In the quarter\\-finals, France faced three\\-time world champion Brazil in Guadalajara. Brazil were well on top in the early stages, and Careca put them one up after 18 minutes. Five minutes before half\\-time, France drew level when Michel Platini scored his 41st goal after converting a cross from [Dominique Rocheteau](/wiki/Dominique_Rocheteau \"Dominique Rocheteau\"). Brazil had a chance to regain the lead in the second half when Branco was fouled by French keeper [Joël Bats](/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Bats \"Joël Bats\") in the penalty area. [Zico](/wiki/Zico_%28footballer%29 \"Zico (footballer)\") got up to take the kick, but Bats saved Zico's penalty.", "The match went to extra time, and France finished slightly the stronger of the two sides. No more goals were scored, and so it was time for a penalty shoot\\-out. Socrates, who had earlier missed an open goal and headed an easy chance straight into the French keeper's arms, failed with the first kick for Brazil. The next six penalties were all converted, and then Platini fired over the bar. Brazil were back on level terms – but not for long. [Julio Cesar](/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_C%C3%A9sar_da_Silva \"Júlio César da Silva\") struck the post with his penalty, and [Luis Fernández](/wiki/Luis_Fern%C3%A1ndez \"Luis Fernández\") then scored to put France through 4–3 on penalties.", "Two other quarter\\-finals were also decided on penalties. [Jan Ceulemans](/wiki/Jan_Ceulemans \"Jan Ceulemans\") put Belgium ahead against Spain in the 35th minute, but Spanish substitute Señor equalised with five minutes to go. No more goals were scored in extra time, and Belgium won the shoot\\-out 5–4\\. On the hosts' first game outside of the Azteca, [Francisco Javier Cruz](/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Cruz \"Francisco Javier Cruz\") saw a goal disallowed as West Germany and Mexico drew 0–0 after extra time. The West Germans eliminated the hosts 4–1 on penalties. As a curiosity, the German goalkeeper [Harald Schumacher](/wiki/Harald_Schumacher \"Harald Schumacher\") jumped to the right in the three Mexican penalties (stopping two of them).", "The quarter\\-final between Argentina and England at the Azteca featured two very different goals in the second half by Diego Maradona: the first was scored illegally, as he punched the ball into the goal past England goalkeeper [Peter Shilton](/wiki/Peter_Shilton \"Peter Shilton\"). The referee did not see the handball and the goal was given as valid. After the game, Maradona claimed the goal was scored \"A bit with the head of Maradona and another bit with the hand of God\"; it became known as the \"[Hand of God](/wiki/The_hand_of_God \"The hand of God\")\" goal. For his second goal, voted \"[Goal of the Century](/wiki/Goal_of_the_Century \"Goal of the Century\")\" in 2002 on the FIFA website, Maradona dribbled half the length of the field past five English players before scoring. With 20 minutes to go, the introduction of John Barnes as a substitute changed the tide of play in England's favour, as he pinged cross after cross into the Argentine penalty area: with 9 minutes to go, Lineker got on the end of one and scored, then almost repeated the dose six minutes later but was just unable to reach the ball thanks to a timely block by Olarticoechea: 2–1 to Argentina was the final score. In Argentina, the game was seen as revenge for the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War \"Falklands War\").El Diego – Diego Maradona, Page 127, {{ISBN\\|0\\-224\\-07190\\-4}}", "" ]
Biography --------- Shalev was born in [Nahalal](/wiki/Nahalal "Nahalal"), Israel. Later he lived in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") and at [Kibbutz Ginosar](/wiki/Kibbutz_Ginosar "Kibbutz Ginosar") with his family. He is the son of the Jerusalem poet [Yitzhak Shalev](/wiki/Yitzhak_Shalev "Yitzhak Shalev"). His cousin [Zeruya Shalev](/wiki/Zeruya_Shalev "Zeruya Shalev") is also a writer. Shalev was drafted into the IDF in 1966, and did his military service in the [Golani Brigade](/wiki/Golani_Brigade "Golani Brigade"). He served as a soldier, a [squad leader](/wiki/Squad_leader "Squad leader") in the brigade's [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") company. Shalev fought in [The Six Day War](/wiki/The_Six_Day_War "The Six Day War"),Meir Shalev, [What happened to our army?](http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3514632,00.html), [Ynetnews](/wiki/Ynetnews "Ynetnews"), 4 March 2008\. and a few months after the war was injured in a friendly fire incident. Shalev began his career by presenting ironic features on television and radio. He also moderated the program *Erev Shabbat* ("Friday night") on Israel channel one. His first novel, *The Blue Mountain*, was published in 1988\. Shalev also wrote non\-fiction, children's books, and a weekly column in the weekend edition of *[Yediot Ahronot](/wiki/Yediot_Ahronot "Yediot Ahronot")*. Shalev lived in the [Jezreel Valley](/wiki/Jezreel_Valley "Jezreel Valley") until his death on 11 April 2023, following a prolonged battle with cancer. He was 74\. Upon news of Shalev's death, Israeli President [Isaac Herzog](/wiki/Isaac_Herzog "Isaac Herzog") expressed condolences: "Israel has lost one of its greatest storytellers, he made us love the Hebrew language, the Hebrew Bible, and ourselves, the Jewish People".Dennis Bihler, [Israeli famed author Meir Shalev dies at 74](https://www.ynetnews.com/culture/article/byf9ve7g3), [Ynetnews](/wiki/Ynetnews "Ynetnews"), 11 April 2023\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Shalev was born in [Nahalal](/wiki/Nahalal \"Nahalal\"), Israel. Later he lived in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") and at [Kibbutz Ginosar](/wiki/Kibbutz_Ginosar \"Kibbutz Ginosar\") with his family. He is the son of the Jerusalem poet [Yitzhak Shalev](/wiki/Yitzhak_Shalev \"Yitzhak Shalev\"). His cousin [Zeruya Shalev](/wiki/Zeruya_Shalev \"Zeruya Shalev\") is also a writer.", "Shalev was drafted into the IDF in 1966, and did his military service in the [Golani Brigade](/wiki/Golani_Brigade \"Golani Brigade\"). He served as a soldier, a [squad leader](/wiki/Squad_leader \"Squad leader\") in the brigade's [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") company. Shalev fought in [The Six Day War](/wiki/The_Six_Day_War \"The Six Day War\"),Meir Shalev, [What happened to our army?](http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3514632,00.html), [Ynetnews](/wiki/Ynetnews \"Ynetnews\"), 4 March 2008\\. and a few months after the war was injured in a friendly fire incident.", "Shalev began his career by presenting ironic features on television and radio. He also moderated the program *Erev Shabbat* (\"Friday night\") on Israel channel one. His first novel, *The Blue Mountain*, was published in 1988\\.", "Shalev also wrote non\\-fiction, children's books, and a weekly column in the weekend edition of *[Yediot Ahronot](/wiki/Yediot_Ahronot \"Yediot Ahronot\")*.", "Shalev lived in the [Jezreel Valley](/wiki/Jezreel_Valley \"Jezreel Valley\") until his death on 11 April 2023, following a prolonged battle with cancer. He was 74\\. Upon news of Shalev's death, Israeli President [Isaac Herzog](/wiki/Isaac_Herzog \"Isaac Herzog\") expressed condolences: \"Israel has lost one of its greatest storytellers, he made us love the Hebrew language, the Hebrew Bible, and ourselves, the Jewish People\".Dennis Bihler, [Israeli famed author Meir Shalev dies at 74](https://www.ynetnews.com/culture/article/byf9ve7g3), [Ynetnews](/wiki/Ynetnews \"Ynetnews\"), 11 April 2023\\.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|[Historic American Engineering Record](/wiki/Historic_American_Engineering_Record "Historic American Engineering Record") photograph of the bridge in fall 1979](/wiki/File:Bellows_Falls_Arch_Bridge_-_HAER_NH-6_-_104830pu.jpg "Bellows Falls Arch Bridge - HAER NH-6 - 104830pu.jpg") Due to industrial and transportation expansion, residential needs in the Bellows Falls and Walpole area expanded in the late 1800s. The only means of crossing the river was provided by the [Tucker Toll Bridge](/wiki/Tucker_Toll_Bridge "Tucker Toll Bridge") and the [Sullivan Railroad Bridge](/wiki/Sullivan_Railroad_Bridge "Sullivan Railroad Bridge"). The Tucker Toll Bridge was a [Town lattice truss](/wiki/Town_lattice_truss "Town lattice truss") [covered bridge](/wiki/Covered_bridge "Covered bridge") completed in 1840, which was acquired by the towns in 1904 and free thereafter.Hayes, pp. 269–270 (plus plate) The Sullivan Railroad Bridge was originally built by the [Sullivan Railroad](/wiki/Sullivan_Railroad "Sullivan Railroad"),The [Sullivan Railroad](/wiki/Sullivan_Railroad "Sullivan Railroad") was acquired by the [Boston and Maine Railroad](/wiki/Boston_and_Maine_Railroad "Boston and Maine Railroad"), see [List of defunct New Hampshire railroads](/wiki/List_of_New_Hampshire_railroads%23Defunct_railroads "List of New Hampshire railroads#Defunct railroads") built in 1882 as a replacement for an 1852 span.Simpson, p.275 Residents didn't like the toll, and the [Boston and Maine Railroad](/wiki/Boston_and_Maine_Railroad "Boston and Maine Railroad") objected to pedestrians on its bridge, so following the town meetings in March 1904, the two communities formed a joint committee to buy out the toll bridge and replace it with a new bridge, with five members from each town. Walpole budgeted US$30,000 (US${{Formatnum:{{Inflation\|US\|30000\|1904\|r\=\-4}}}} with inflation{{Inflation\-fn\|US}}), and [Rockingham, Vermont](/wiki/Rockingham%2C_Vermont "Rockingham, Vermont"), which includes Bellows Falls, offered US$15,000 (US${{Formatnum:{{Inflation\|US\|15000\|1904\|r\=\-4}}}} with inflation{{Inflation\-fn\|US}}). The two towns established an agreement whereby maintenance costs would be shouldered two\-thirds by Walpole and one\-third by Rockingham. Design restrictions included the objection by the [Bellows Falls Canal](/wiki/Bellows_Falls_Canal "Bellows Falls Canal") Company to any [abutments](/wiki/Abutment "Abutment") obstructing the river near their canal, as well as the river bed conditions in the area, which are roughly {{convert\|25\|ft}} deep, with no firm location for a pier. This situation was thought to necessitate a single span structure.Worcester, p. 289 The Bridge Committee held an unsuccessful design competition. While the Committee received many proposals for deck trusses and suspension bridges, all were too expensive. Having exhausted their own proposals, they requested assistance from the railroad. Since it wished to eliminate pedestrians from its bridge, the railroad complied by providing a company engineer as an advisor. The advisor, a Mr. Snow, recommended that the Committee hire civil engineer J.R. Worcester, from [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), Massachusetts, which they did. [thumb\|Schematic of Bellows Falls Arch Bridge from the [Historic American Engineering Record](/wiki/Historic_American_Engineering_Record "Historic American Engineering Record")](/wiki/File:Bellows_Falls_Arch_Bridge_-_HAER_NH-6_-_104837pu.jpg "Bellows Falls Arch Bridge - HAER NH-6 - 104837pu.jpg") ### Design The final design was defined by Worcester as a {{convert\|540\|ft\|adj\=on}}\-long three\-hinged arch with a suspended roadway, plus a {{convert\|104\|ft\|8\|in\|adj\=on}} bowstring truss over the railroad on the Vermont side. The large arch type of structure was new in the US, but not in Europe, which may have inspired Worcester's concept. The two arch trusses were each designed to support a [load](/wiki/Structural_load "Structural load") of 60 lbs per square foot ({{convert\|0\.42\|psi\|lk\=on}}). The total weight of the steel in the bridge was {{convert\|450\|ST}}. As a departure from a normal three\-hinged arch, the design used a compression joint in each arch instead of the third hinge. He apparently did this to provide a continuous visual curve through the arches. The roadway, made of [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)") [yellow pine](/wiki/Pinus_classification "Pinus classification"), was {{convert\|32\|ft}} wide, with a total length just shy of {{convert\|650\|ft}}, a 3\.3% grade up to the Vermont side, and a load capacity of 100 lbs. per square foot ({{convert\|0\.69\|psi}}). ### Initial construction Using falsework made of spruce, later recycled by the local paper mills, construction started in November 1904\. Assembly of the main superstructure began in December 1904, from prefabricated sections by Louis A. Shoemaker and Company (Philadelphia).Prevoort, p.4 Construction crews assembled the arches from both sides of the river. A rivalry formed between the two crews, likely making the assembly go faster, as the trusses were connected on January 10, 1905, after twenty\-eight working days. The total construction time was four months, using a total of forty\-five men. The bridge was formally opened on March 20, 1905\.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|[Historic American Engineering Record](/wiki/Historic_American_Engineering_Record \"Historic American Engineering Record\") photograph of the bridge in fall 1979](/wiki/File:Bellows_Falls_Arch_Bridge_-_HAER_NH-6_-_104830pu.jpg \"Bellows Falls Arch Bridge - HAER NH-6 - 104830pu.jpg\")\nDue to industrial and transportation expansion, residential needs in the Bellows Falls and Walpole area expanded in the late 1800s. The only means of crossing the river was provided by the [Tucker Toll Bridge](/wiki/Tucker_Toll_Bridge \"Tucker Toll Bridge\") and the [Sullivan Railroad Bridge](/wiki/Sullivan_Railroad_Bridge \"Sullivan Railroad Bridge\").", "The Tucker Toll Bridge was a [Town lattice truss](/wiki/Town_lattice_truss \"Town lattice truss\") [covered bridge](/wiki/Covered_bridge \"Covered bridge\") completed in 1840, which was acquired by the towns in 1904 and free thereafter.Hayes, pp. 269–270 (plus plate) The Sullivan Railroad Bridge was originally built by the [Sullivan Railroad](/wiki/Sullivan_Railroad \"Sullivan Railroad\"),The [Sullivan Railroad](/wiki/Sullivan_Railroad \"Sullivan Railroad\") was acquired by the [Boston and Maine Railroad](/wiki/Boston_and_Maine_Railroad \"Boston and Maine Railroad\"), see [List of defunct New Hampshire railroads](/wiki/List_of_New_Hampshire_railroads%23Defunct_railroads \"List of New Hampshire railroads#Defunct railroads\") built in 1882 as a replacement for an 1852 span.Simpson, p.275", "Residents didn't like the toll, and the [Boston and Maine Railroad](/wiki/Boston_and_Maine_Railroad \"Boston and Maine Railroad\") objected to pedestrians on its bridge, so following the town meetings in March 1904, the two communities formed a joint committee to buy out the toll bridge and replace it with a new bridge, with five members from each town. Walpole budgeted US$30,000 (US${{Formatnum:{{Inflation\\|US\\|30000\\|1904\\|r\\=\\-4}}}} with inflation{{Inflation\\-fn\\|US}}), and [Rockingham, Vermont](/wiki/Rockingham%2C_Vermont \"Rockingham, Vermont\"), which includes Bellows Falls, offered US$15,000 (US${{Formatnum:{{Inflation\\|US\\|15000\\|1904\\|r\\=\\-4}}}} with inflation{{Inflation\\-fn\\|US}}). The two towns established an agreement whereby maintenance costs would be shouldered two\\-thirds by Walpole and one\\-third by Rockingham.", "Design restrictions included the objection by the [Bellows Falls Canal](/wiki/Bellows_Falls_Canal \"Bellows Falls Canal\") Company to any [abutments](/wiki/Abutment \"Abutment\") obstructing the river near their canal, as well as the river bed conditions in the area, which are roughly {{convert\\|25\\|ft}} deep, with no firm location for a pier. This situation was thought to necessitate a single span structure.Worcester, p. 289", "The Bridge Committee held an unsuccessful design competition. While the Committee received many proposals for deck trusses and suspension bridges, all were too expensive. Having exhausted their own proposals, they requested assistance from the railroad. Since it wished to eliminate pedestrians from its bridge, the railroad complied by providing a company engineer as an advisor. The advisor, a Mr. Snow, recommended that the Committee hire civil engineer J.R. Worcester, from [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), Massachusetts, which they did.", "[thumb\\|Schematic of Bellows Falls Arch Bridge from the [Historic American Engineering Record](/wiki/Historic_American_Engineering_Record \"Historic American Engineering Record\")](/wiki/File:Bellows_Falls_Arch_Bridge_-_HAER_NH-6_-_104837pu.jpg \"Bellows Falls Arch Bridge - HAER NH-6 - 104837pu.jpg\")", "### Design", "The final design was defined by Worcester as a {{convert\\|540\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}}\\-long three\\-hinged arch with a suspended roadway, plus a {{convert\\|104\\|ft\\|8\\|in\\|adj\\=on}} bowstring truss over the railroad on the Vermont side. The large arch type of structure was new in the US, but not in Europe, which may have inspired Worcester's concept. The two arch trusses were each designed to support a [load](/wiki/Structural_load \"Structural load\") of 60 lbs per square foot ({{convert\\|0\\.42\\|psi\\|lk\\=on}}). The total weight of the steel in the bridge was {{convert\\|450\\|ST}}. As a departure from a normal three\\-hinged arch, the design used a compression joint in each arch instead of the third hinge. He apparently did this to provide a continuous visual curve through the arches.", "The roadway, made of [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\") [yellow pine](/wiki/Pinus_classification \"Pinus classification\"), was {{convert\\|32\\|ft}} wide, with a total length just shy of {{convert\\|650\\|ft}}, a 3\\.3% grade up to the Vermont side, and a load capacity of 100 lbs. per square foot ({{convert\\|0\\.69\\|psi}}).", "### Initial construction", "Using falsework made of spruce, later recycled by the local paper mills, construction started in November 1904\\. Assembly of the main superstructure began in December 1904, from prefabricated sections by Louis A. Shoemaker and Company (Philadelphia).Prevoort, p.4", "Construction crews assembled the arches from both sides of the river. A rivalry formed between the two crews, likely making the assembly go faster, as the trusses were connected on January 10, 1905, after twenty\\-eight working days. The total construction time was four months, using a total of forty\\-five men. The bridge was formally opened on March 20, 1905\\.", "" ]
Characters ---------- ### Count Arthur Strong Count Arthur Strong is a former variety star living in the [North of England](/wiki/North_of_England "North of England"). The Count, now in his old age, has [delusions of grandeur](/wiki/Delusions_of_grandeur "Delusions of grandeur"). He has selective [memory loss](/wiki/Memory_loss "Memory loss"), never hearing what he doesn't want to and malapropism\-itis, which result in his confusing anyone he happens to be talking to and even confusing himself. However, he more often than not blames the people he is talking to for causing the confusion in the first place.{{cite web\|last\=Boosey\|first\=Mark\|url\=http://www.comedy.org.uk/guide/radio/count\_arthur\_strong\_radio\_show/\|title\=Count Arthur Strong's Radio Show!\|publisher\=\[\[British Comedy Guide]]\|accessdate\=12 May 2009}} A typical conversation for the Count will involve his confusing both himself and others, while becoming drastically sidetracked from the matter in hand. He is usually oblivious to the chaos he causes, often blaming his [interlocutors](/wiki/Interlocutor_%28linguistics%29 "Interlocutor (linguistics)") for any confusion. On the rare occasions he realises he is at fault, he often attempts to divert the blame by lying. Inevitably becoming confused by his own lies, his last resort is usually to claim he was recording a stunt for a [hidden camera](/wiki/Hidden_camera "Hidden camera") show. The Count does very rarely encounter frustrating situations which are not his fault such as doing a cooking show and only being brought products that were prepared in packets however he tends to simply complain in these circumstances before making matters worse than they were to start with. He has a misguided belief in his ability to hold his drink, and has often performed on stage or live TV/radio when drunk (or occasionally, [concussed](/wiki/Concussed "Concussed"), with similar effects). He will often go to great lengths to get as drunk as he can as cheaply as he can. The list of TV shows in which Count Arthur claims to have appeared is remarkably similar to Delaney's own career. However, the one role that Count Arthur speaks about wherever possible, is what he calls the "*[Bridge Up The River Kwai](/wiki/The_Bridge_over_the_River_Kwai "The Bridge over the River Kwai")*", where he claims to have appeared alongside [Alec Guinness](/wiki/Alec_Guinness "Alec Guinness"), apparently resenting the fact that Guinness got the part instead of him, although he does point out that he took over the role for the [musical](/wiki/Musical_theatre "Musical theatre") version. He also seems resentful that [Sean Connery](/wiki/Sean_Connery "Sean Connery") beat him to the lead role in *[Doctor No](/wiki/Dr._No_%28film%29 "Dr. No (film)")*, the title of which he often confuses with either [Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who "Doctor Who") or [Doctor Dolittle](/wiki/Doctor_Dolittle "Doctor Dolittle"). He has had roles, or at least sat in a car, in numerous TV series and films, such as *[Juliet Bravo](/wiki/Juliet_Bravo "Juliet Bravo")* and of course "The Man Who Had Some Shoes." The Count believes himself to be an expert on [Egyptology](/wiki/Egyptology "Egyptology"), leading to the show "Count Arthur Strong's Forgotten Egypt". This stems from his army days when he toured Egypt as part of the cast of what he calls *[Piddler on the Roof](/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof "Fiddler on the Roof")*. He claims to have many show business friends although, apart from Guinness, this seems limited to brief conversations with [Anita Harris](/wiki/Anita_Harris "Anita Harris") and [Jimmy Clitheroe](/wiki/Jimmy_Clitheroe "Jimmy Clitheroe"). He also appears to have a mixed relationship with [Edward Woodward](/wiki/Edward_Woodward "Edward Woodward"). While resenting Woodward's success, he also claims that his advice meant that "for the first time in years, Edward Woodward can cross his legs when he sits down". Woodward's name causes the Count many problems, calling him "Edward Woodwardward", "Edward Woodwind", "Edward Woodbine", "Wedward Goodwood", at one point saying, "In my game, you’ve got to be available 25\-7, 380 degrees of the year – that’s why Edward Woodworm’s getting so much work!"{{Cite web\|last\=Arthur\|title\=New Statesman: Radio Show review, January 2008 {{!}} Count Arthur StrongCount Arthur Strong\|date\=14 January 2008 \|url\=https://www.countarthurstrong.com/new\-statesman\-radio\-show\-review\-january\-2008/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-08\|language\=en\-US}} etc. ### Malcolm Titter In some of his stage shows, and in an episode per radio series, the Count has been joined by his protégé, Malcolm Titter (stage name Malcolm de Tinsel). Malcolm is a budding actor and playwright, and goes to the Count for acting lessons. The result is that the naive Malcolm's work is shown to be utterly abysmal. ### Other characters Other than Count Arthur, there are other regular characters in the series played by Alastair Kerr, Dave Mounfield, [Joanna Neary](/wiki/Joanna_Neary "Joanna Neary") (series one), [Sue Perkins](/wiki/Sue_Perkins "Sue Perkins") (series two and three and the first two specials) and [Mel Giedroyc](/wiki/Mel_Giedroyc "Mel Giedroyc") (since series four).{{cite web\|last\=Boosey\|first\=Mark\|url\=http://www.comedy.org.uk/guide/radio/count\_arthur\_strong\_radio\_show/details/\|title\=Count Arthur Strong's Radio Show! – Production Details, Plus Regular Cast and Crew\|publisher\=\[\[British Comedy Guide]]\|accessdate\=12 May 2009}} These characters include Arthur's [butcher](/wiki/Butcher "Butcher") Wilf Taylor; [cafe](/wiki/Coffeehouse "Coffeehouse") owner Gerry; Geoffrey the church hall caretaker; female friend Sally; and Malcolm Titter played by Terry Kilkelly, a student actor for whom Arthur acts as teacher. Other guest appearances have been made by [Barry Cryer](/wiki/Barry_Cryer "Barry Cryer"), a showbiz colleague of Arthur's, Kate Van Dike played the dying mother of Arthur in The Musical in series 5 and the stage show of the same name, [Martin Marquez](/wiki/Martin_Marquez "Martin Marquez") in shows 4 and 5 of series 7, and [Peter Serafinowicz](/wiki/Peter_Serafinowicz "Peter Serafinowicz") who appears in series 7, Episode 1: 'The Minx' voicing Terry Wogan.
[ "Characters\n----------", "### Count Arthur Strong", "Count Arthur Strong is a former variety star living in the [North of England](/wiki/North_of_England \"North of England\"). The Count, now in his old age, has [delusions of grandeur](/wiki/Delusions_of_grandeur \"Delusions of grandeur\"). He has selective [memory loss](/wiki/Memory_loss \"Memory loss\"), never hearing what he doesn't want to and malapropism\\-itis, which result in his confusing anyone he happens to be talking to and even confusing himself. However, he more often than not blames the people he is talking to for causing the confusion in the first place.{{cite web\\|last\\=Boosey\\|first\\=Mark\\|url\\=http://www.comedy.org.uk/guide/radio/count\\_arthur\\_strong\\_radio\\_show/\\|title\\=Count Arthur Strong's Radio Show!\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[British Comedy Guide]]\\|accessdate\\=12 May 2009}}", "A typical conversation for the Count will involve his confusing both himself and others, while becoming drastically sidetracked from the matter in hand. He is usually oblivious to the chaos he causes, often blaming his [interlocutors](/wiki/Interlocutor_%28linguistics%29 \"Interlocutor (linguistics)\") for any confusion. On the rare occasions he realises he is at fault, he often attempts to divert the blame by lying. Inevitably becoming confused by his own lies, his last resort is usually to claim he was recording a stunt for a [hidden camera](/wiki/Hidden_camera \"Hidden camera\") show.\nThe Count does very rarely encounter frustrating situations which are not his fault such as doing a cooking show and only being brought products that were prepared in packets however he tends to simply complain in these circumstances before making matters worse than they were to start with. \nHe has a misguided belief in his ability to hold his drink, and has often performed on stage or live TV/radio when drunk (or occasionally, [concussed](/wiki/Concussed \"Concussed\"), with similar effects). He will often go to great lengths to get as drunk as he can as cheaply as he can.", "The list of TV shows in which Count Arthur claims to have appeared is remarkably similar to Delaney's own career. However, the one role that Count Arthur speaks about wherever possible, is what he calls the \"*[Bridge Up The River Kwai](/wiki/The_Bridge_over_the_River_Kwai \"The Bridge over the River Kwai\")*\", where he claims to have appeared alongside [Alec Guinness](/wiki/Alec_Guinness \"Alec Guinness\"), apparently resenting the fact that Guinness got the part instead of him, although he does point out that he took over the role for the [musical](/wiki/Musical_theatre \"Musical theatre\") version. He also seems resentful that [Sean Connery](/wiki/Sean_Connery \"Sean Connery\") beat him to the lead role in *[Doctor No](/wiki/Dr._No_%28film%29 \"Dr. No (film)\")*, the title of which he often confuses with either [Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who \"Doctor Who\") or [Doctor Dolittle](/wiki/Doctor_Dolittle \"Doctor Dolittle\"). He has had roles, or at least sat in a car, in numerous TV series and films, such as *[Juliet Bravo](/wiki/Juliet_Bravo \"Juliet Bravo\")* and of course \"The Man Who Had Some Shoes.\"", "The Count believes himself to be an expert on [Egyptology](/wiki/Egyptology \"Egyptology\"), leading to the show \"Count Arthur Strong's Forgotten Egypt\". This stems from his army days when he toured Egypt as part of the cast of what he calls *[Piddler on the Roof](/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof \"Fiddler on the Roof\")*.", "He claims to have many show business friends although, apart from Guinness, this seems limited to brief conversations with [Anita Harris](/wiki/Anita_Harris \"Anita Harris\") and [Jimmy Clitheroe](/wiki/Jimmy_Clitheroe \"Jimmy Clitheroe\"). He also appears to have a mixed relationship with [Edward Woodward](/wiki/Edward_Woodward \"Edward Woodward\"). While resenting Woodward's success, he also claims that his advice meant that \"for the first time in years, Edward Woodward can cross his legs when he sits down\". Woodward's name causes the Count many problems, calling him \"Edward Woodwardward\", \"Edward Woodwind\", \"Edward Woodbine\", \"Wedward Goodwood\", at one point saying, \"In my game, you’ve got to be available 25\\-7, 380 degrees of the year – that’s why Edward Woodworm’s getting so much work!\"{{Cite web\\|last\\=Arthur\\|title\\=New Statesman: Radio Show review, January 2008 {{!}} Count Arthur StrongCount Arthur Strong\\|date\\=14 January 2008 \\|url\\=https://www.countarthurstrong.com/new\\-statesman\\-radio\\-show\\-review\\-january\\-2008/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-08\\|language\\=en\\-US}} etc.", "### Malcolm Titter", "In some of his stage shows, and in an episode per radio series, the Count has been joined by his protégé, Malcolm Titter (stage name Malcolm de Tinsel). Malcolm is a budding actor and playwright, and goes to the Count for acting lessons. The result is that the naive Malcolm's work is shown to be utterly abysmal.", "### Other characters", "Other than Count Arthur, there are other regular characters in the series played by Alastair Kerr, Dave Mounfield, [Joanna Neary](/wiki/Joanna_Neary \"Joanna Neary\") (series one), [Sue Perkins](/wiki/Sue_Perkins \"Sue Perkins\") (series two and three and the first two specials) and [Mel Giedroyc](/wiki/Mel_Giedroyc \"Mel Giedroyc\") (since series four).{{cite web\\|last\\=Boosey\\|first\\=Mark\\|url\\=http://www.comedy.org.uk/guide/radio/count\\_arthur\\_strong\\_radio\\_show/details/\\|title\\=Count Arthur Strong's Radio Show! – Production Details, Plus Regular Cast and Crew\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[British Comedy Guide]]\\|accessdate\\=12 May 2009}} These characters include Arthur's [butcher](/wiki/Butcher \"Butcher\") Wilf Taylor; [cafe](/wiki/Coffeehouse \"Coffeehouse\") owner Gerry; Geoffrey the church hall caretaker; female friend Sally; and Malcolm Titter played by Terry Kilkelly, a student actor for whom Arthur acts as teacher. Other guest appearances have been made by [Barry Cryer](/wiki/Barry_Cryer \"Barry Cryer\"), a showbiz colleague of Arthur's, Kate Van Dike played the dying mother of Arthur in The Musical in series 5 and the stage show of the same name, [Martin Marquez](/wiki/Martin_Marquez \"Martin Marquez\") in shows 4 and 5 of series 7, and [Peter Serafinowicz](/wiki/Peter_Serafinowicz \"Peter Serafinowicz\") who appears in series 7, Episode 1: 'The Minx' voicing Terry Wogan.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Kindergarten educator In 1882, when the Hadley Roberts Academy, a private school for affluent families in Indianapolis, began its search for a kindergarten teacher, Burrito recommended Blaker for the position. Black accepted the job and moved to [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis "Indianapolis") with her husband.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 33\. Shortly after the move to Indianapolis, Blaker left the academy to help the Children's Aid Society, founder of the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Society, established free kindergartens for the city's impoverished children.In Indianapolis the free kindergarten movement began in 1881, when a kindergarten was set up on a trial basis in a corridor of an Indianapolis elementary school. See Boomhower, "Eliza Blaker" in *Indiana's 200*, p. 25\. Because many of the children lacked sufficient clothing or food, the Society sought donations from the community to help obtain the necessary items. The city's free kindergartens also provided services similar to the settlement houses of that era to assist recent immigrants. The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society incorporated in 1884, the same year that Blaker was selected as its first superintendent. She retained the position until her death in 1926\. In its early years Indianapolis's free kindergartens were privately funded through membership dues, community donations, and fund\-raising events. In 1901 the [Indiana General Assembly](/wiki/Indiana_General_Assembly "Indiana General Assembly") passed legislation permitting a portion of local property taxes in towns with a population exceeding 6,000 to be used for the financial support of local kindergartens.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 34\. By the mid\-1910s the Society had established as many as sixty free kindergartens in Indianapolis under Blaker's direction. Blaker viewed kindergarten teaching as an extended form of mothering.{{cite book \| author\=Emma Lou Thornbrough\| title\=Eliza A Blaker: Her Life and Work\| location\=Indianapolis\| publisher\=Indiana Historical Society\| year\=1956\| page\=73url \= \| oclc \= 3474050}} As a result, her school had only female teachers. Blaker explained: "Every school teacher is a foster mother. She is helping the mother in the rearing of her children. The teacher that has not a great mother heart should not have charge of your children in a school room for a number of hours every day. School teaching would be drudgery if we did not love it. It would be abject slavery to any one who did not love children. We must love little children if we are going to help them."As quoted in Erin J. Gobel, *Three Necessary Things: The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children’s Aid Society, 1880–1920*, (Thesis, Indiana University, 2010\), p. 21\. Under Blaker's direction, Indianapolis's free kindergartens gained a national reputation among educators. Based on the theories of Frederich Froebel and [Elizabeth Palmer Peabody](/wiki/Elizabeth_Peabody "Elizabeth Peabody"), Blaker's schools sought to provide students with "a wholesome environment" and denounced corporal punishment when a child misbehaved.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, pp. 32, 34\. Instead, Blaker encouraged parents and teachers to discover the underlying reasons for a child's behavior and to find a solution that avoided violence. Blaker's methods also included efforts to involve the whole family in the child's education. In 1884 she organized a mothers' club that provided an opportunity for social gatherings as well as classes on child care and early child development. In 1889 Blaker's schools offered Saturday classes on domestic training and household management for older girls and manual arts for boys.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, pp. 34–35\. ### Founder, teacher training school In addition to establishing kindergarten schools, Blaker also identified the need to provide well\-trained kindergarten teachers. To help satisfy the demand, she established a teacher training school in 1882\.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 36\. The Indianapolis Kindergarten and Primary Normal Training School, which the locals sometimes referred to as "Mrs. Blaker's College," began at her home. As its enrollment increased the school moved to several locations in Indianapolis. It became the Teachers College of Indianapolis in 1905\. It 1930, four years after Blaker's death, the school became part of [Butler University](/wiki/Butler_University "Butler University")'s education department.Boomhower, "Eliza Blaker" in *Indiana's 200*, pp. 24–25\. In 1883, Blaker had twelve students and within a decade that number had jumped to 344\.Gobel, p. 14\. In 1905 the school became formally known as the Teachers College of Indianapolis. By 1907 a total of 49,353 children had enrolled in thirty\-five free kindergartens in Indianapolis and upwards of 5,500 teachers had been trained under Blaker's tenure.{{cite book\|author1\=Rachel Lapp\|author2\=Anita Stalter\|title\=More than Petticoats, Remarkable Indiana Women\|location\=Guilford, CT\|publisher\=Morris Book Publishing\|year\=2007\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780762738069/page/56 56]\|url\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780762738069/page/56\|isbn\=9780762738069}} The Teachers College incorporated in 1914 and Blaker served as its president until her death in 1926\. The training school's faculty and students were all women. Blaker maintained strict standards for the school, whose teacher trainees had a nightly curfew, followed a dress code, and attended mandatory religious services.{{cite book \|editor1\=James, Edward T. \|editor2\=Janet Wilson James \|editor3\=Paul S. Boyer \| title \=Notable American Women, 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary \| publisher \=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press \| volume \=1 \| year \=1971 \| location \=Cambridge, Massachusetts \| page\=170 \| isbn \= 9780674627345}}Boruff, pp. 48–50\. Blaker became a leader in the [International Kindergarten Union](/wiki/International_Kindergarten_Union "International Kindergarten Union") and the [National Education Association](/wiki/National_Education_Association "National Education Association"). Several graduates of her school went on to establish kindergarten programs in other Indiana cities, such as [Evansville](/wiki/Evansville%2C_Indiana "Evansville, Indiana"), [Lafayette](/wiki/Lafayette%2C_Indiana "Lafayette, Indiana"), and [Bloomington](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Indiana "Bloomington, Indiana"), and in other states, including [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee "Tennessee"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio"), [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan "Michigan"), and Pennsylvania.Boomhower, "Eliza Blaker" in *Indiana's 200*, p. 25\.
[ "Career\n------", "### Kindergarten educator", "In 1882, when the Hadley Roberts Academy, a private school for affluent families in Indianapolis, began its search for a kindergarten teacher, Burrito recommended Blaker for the position. Black accepted the job and moved to [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis \"Indianapolis\") with her husband.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 33\\.", "Shortly after the move to Indianapolis, Blaker left the academy to help the Children's Aid Society, founder of the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Society, established free kindergartens for the city's impoverished children.In Indianapolis the free kindergarten movement began in 1881, when a kindergarten was set up on a trial basis in a corridor of an Indianapolis elementary school. See Boomhower, \"Eliza Blaker\" in *Indiana's 200*, p. 25\\. Because many of the children lacked sufficient clothing or food, the Society sought donations from the community to help obtain the necessary items. The city's free kindergartens also provided services similar to the settlement houses of that era to assist recent immigrants.", "The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society incorporated in 1884, the same year that \nBlaker was selected as its first superintendent. She retained the position until her death in 1926\\. In its early years Indianapolis's free kindergartens were privately funded through membership dues, community donations, and fund\\-raising events. In 1901 the [Indiana General Assembly](/wiki/Indiana_General_Assembly \"Indiana General Assembly\") passed legislation permitting a portion of local property taxes in towns with a population exceeding 6,000 to be used for the financial support of local kindergartens.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 34\\. By the mid\\-1910s the Society had established as many as sixty free kindergartens in Indianapolis under Blaker's direction.", "Blaker viewed kindergarten teaching as an extended form of mothering.{{cite book \\| author\\=Emma Lou Thornbrough\\| title\\=Eliza A Blaker: Her Life and Work\\| location\\=Indianapolis\\| publisher\\=Indiana Historical Society\\| year\\=1956\\| page\\=73url \\= \\| oclc \\= 3474050}} As a result, her school had only female teachers. Blaker explained: \"Every school teacher is a foster mother. She is helping the mother in the rearing of her children. The teacher that has not a great mother heart should not have charge of your children in a school room for a number of hours every day. School teaching would be drudgery if we did not love it. It would be abject slavery to any one who did not love children. We must love little children if we are going to help them.\"As quoted in Erin J. Gobel, *Three Necessary Things: The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children’s Aid Society, 1880–1920*, (Thesis, Indiana University, 2010\\), p. 21\\.", "Under Blaker's direction, Indianapolis's free kindergartens gained a national reputation among educators. Based on the theories of Frederich Froebel and [Elizabeth Palmer Peabody](/wiki/Elizabeth_Peabody \"Elizabeth Peabody\"), Blaker's schools sought to provide students with \"a wholesome environment\" and denounced corporal punishment when a child misbehaved.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, pp. 32, 34\\. Instead, Blaker encouraged parents and teachers to discover the underlying reasons for a child's behavior and to find a solution that avoided violence. Blaker's methods also included efforts to involve the whole family in the child's education. In 1884 she organized a mothers' club that provided an opportunity for social gatherings as well as classes on child care and early child development. In 1889 Blaker's schools offered Saturday classes on domestic training and household management for older girls and manual arts for boys.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, pp. 34–35\\.", "### Founder, teacher training school", "In addition to establishing kindergarten schools, Blaker also identified the need to provide well\\-trained kindergarten teachers. To help satisfy the demand, she established a teacher training school in 1882\\.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 36\\. The Indianapolis Kindergarten and Primary Normal Training School, which the locals sometimes referred to as \"Mrs. Blaker's College,\" began at her home. As its enrollment increased the school moved to several locations in Indianapolis. It became the Teachers College of Indianapolis in 1905\\. It 1930, four years after Blaker's death, the school became part of [Butler University](/wiki/Butler_University \"Butler University\")'s education department.Boomhower, \"Eliza Blaker\" in *Indiana's 200*, pp. 24–25\\.", "In 1883, Blaker had twelve students and within a decade that number had jumped to 344\\.Gobel, p. 14\\. In 1905 the school became formally known as the Teachers College of Indianapolis. By 1907 a total of 49,353 children had enrolled in thirty\\-five free kindergartens in Indianapolis and upwards of 5,500 teachers had been trained under Blaker's tenure.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Rachel Lapp\\|author2\\=Anita Stalter\\|title\\=More than Petticoats, Remarkable Indiana Women\\|location\\=Guilford, CT\\|publisher\\=Morris Book Publishing\\|year\\=2007\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780762738069/page/56 56]\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780762738069/page/56\\|isbn\\=9780762738069}} The Teachers College incorporated in 1914 and Blaker served as its president until her death in 1926\\. The training school's faculty and students were all women. Blaker maintained strict standards for the school, whose teacher trainees had a nightly curfew, followed a dress code, and attended mandatory religious services.{{cite book \\|editor1\\=James, Edward T. \\|editor2\\=Janet Wilson James \\|editor3\\=Paul S. Boyer \\| title \\=Notable American Women, 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary \\| publisher \\=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press \\| volume \\=1 \\| year \\=1971 \\| location \\=Cambridge, Massachusetts \\| page\\=170 \\| isbn \\= 9780674627345}}Boruff, pp. 48–50\\.", "Blaker became a leader in the [International Kindergarten Union](/wiki/International_Kindergarten_Union \"International Kindergarten Union\") and the [National Education Association](/wiki/National_Education_Association \"National Education Association\"). Several graduates of her school went on to establish kindergarten programs in other Indiana cities, such as [Evansville](/wiki/Evansville%2C_Indiana \"Evansville, Indiana\"), [Lafayette](/wiki/Lafayette%2C_Indiana \"Lafayette, Indiana\"), and [Bloomington](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Indiana \"Bloomington, Indiana\"), and in other states, including [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee \"Tennessee\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\"), [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan \"Michigan\"), and Pennsylvania.Boomhower, \"Eliza Blaker\" in *Indiana's 200*, p. 25\\.", "" ]
### Kindergarten educator In 1882, when the Hadley Roberts Academy, a private school for affluent families in Indianapolis, began its search for a kindergarten teacher, Burrito recommended Blaker for the position. Black accepted the job and moved to [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis "Indianapolis") with her husband.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 33\. Shortly after the move to Indianapolis, Blaker left the academy to help the Children's Aid Society, founder of the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Society, established free kindergartens for the city's impoverished children.In Indianapolis the free kindergarten movement began in 1881, when a kindergarten was set up on a trial basis in a corridor of an Indianapolis elementary school. See Boomhower, "Eliza Blaker" in *Indiana's 200*, p. 25\. Because many of the children lacked sufficient clothing or food, the Society sought donations from the community to help obtain the necessary items. The city's free kindergartens also provided services similar to the settlement houses of that era to assist recent immigrants. The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society incorporated in 1884, the same year that Blaker was selected as its first superintendent. She retained the position until her death in 1926\. In its early years Indianapolis's free kindergartens were privately funded through membership dues, community donations, and fund\-raising events. In 1901 the [Indiana General Assembly](/wiki/Indiana_General_Assembly "Indiana General Assembly") passed legislation permitting a portion of local property taxes in towns with a population exceeding 6,000 to be used for the financial support of local kindergartens.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 34\. By the mid\-1910s the Society had established as many as sixty free kindergartens in Indianapolis under Blaker's direction. Blaker viewed kindergarten teaching as an extended form of mothering.{{cite book \| author\=Emma Lou Thornbrough\| title\=Eliza A Blaker: Her Life and Work\| location\=Indianapolis\| publisher\=Indiana Historical Society\| year\=1956\| page\=73url \= \| oclc \= 3474050}} As a result, her school had only female teachers. Blaker explained: "Every school teacher is a foster mother. She is helping the mother in the rearing of her children. The teacher that has not a great mother heart should not have charge of your children in a school room for a number of hours every day. School teaching would be drudgery if we did not love it. It would be abject slavery to any one who did not love children. We must love little children if we are going to help them."As quoted in Erin J. Gobel, *Three Necessary Things: The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children’s Aid Society, 1880–1920*, (Thesis, Indiana University, 2010\), p. 21\. Under Blaker's direction, Indianapolis's free kindergartens gained a national reputation among educators. Based on the theories of Frederich Froebel and [Elizabeth Palmer Peabody](/wiki/Elizabeth_Peabody "Elizabeth Peabody"), Blaker's schools sought to provide students with "a wholesome environment" and denounced corporal punishment when a child misbehaved.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, pp. 32, 34\. Instead, Blaker encouraged parents and teachers to discover the underlying reasons for a child's behavior and to find a solution that avoided violence. Blaker's methods also included efforts to involve the whole family in the child's education. In 1884 she organized a mothers' club that provided an opportunity for social gatherings as well as classes on child care and early child development. In 1889 Blaker's schools offered Saturday classes on domestic training and household management for older girls and manual arts for boys.Boomhower, "'The Thing is Right!'", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, pp. 34–35\.
[ "### Kindergarten educator", "In 1882, when the Hadley Roberts Academy, a private school for affluent families in Indianapolis, began its search for a kindergarten teacher, Burrito recommended Blaker for the position. Black accepted the job and moved to [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis \"Indianapolis\") with her husband.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 33\\.", "Shortly after the move to Indianapolis, Blaker left the academy to help the Children's Aid Society, founder of the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Society, established free kindergartens for the city's impoverished children.In Indianapolis the free kindergarten movement began in 1881, when a kindergarten was set up on a trial basis in a corridor of an Indianapolis elementary school. See Boomhower, \"Eliza Blaker\" in *Indiana's 200*, p. 25\\. Because many of the children lacked sufficient clothing or food, the Society sought donations from the community to help obtain the necessary items. The city's free kindergartens also provided services similar to the settlement houses of that era to assist recent immigrants.", "The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society incorporated in 1884, the same year that \nBlaker was selected as its first superintendent. She retained the position until her death in 1926\\. In its early years Indianapolis's free kindergartens were privately funded through membership dues, community donations, and fund\\-raising events. In 1901 the [Indiana General Assembly](/wiki/Indiana_General_Assembly \"Indiana General Assembly\") passed legislation permitting a portion of local property taxes in towns with a population exceeding 6,000 to be used for the financial support of local kindergartens.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, p. 34\\. By the mid\\-1910s the Society had established as many as sixty free kindergartens in Indianapolis under Blaker's direction.", "Blaker viewed kindergarten teaching as an extended form of mothering.{{cite book \\| author\\=Emma Lou Thornbrough\\| title\\=Eliza A Blaker: Her Life and Work\\| location\\=Indianapolis\\| publisher\\=Indiana Historical Society\\| year\\=1956\\| page\\=73url \\= \\| oclc \\= 3474050}} As a result, her school had only female teachers. Blaker explained: \"Every school teacher is a foster mother. She is helping the mother in the rearing of her children. The teacher that has not a great mother heart should not have charge of your children in a school room for a number of hours every day. School teaching would be drudgery if we did not love it. It would be abject slavery to any one who did not love children. We must love little children if we are going to help them.\"As quoted in Erin J. Gobel, *Three Necessary Things: The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children’s Aid Society, 1880–1920*, (Thesis, Indiana University, 2010\\), p. 21\\.", "Under Blaker's direction, Indianapolis's free kindergartens gained a national reputation among educators. Based on the theories of Frederich Froebel and [Elizabeth Palmer Peabody](/wiki/Elizabeth_Peabody \"Elizabeth Peabody\"), Blaker's schools sought to provide students with \"a wholesome environment\" and denounced corporal punishment when a child misbehaved.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, pp. 32, 34\\. Instead, Blaker encouraged parents and teachers to discover the underlying reasons for a child's behavior and to find a solution that avoided violence. Blaker's methods also included efforts to involve the whole family in the child's education. In 1884 she organized a mothers' club that provided an opportunity for social gatherings as well as classes on child care and early child development. In 1889 Blaker's schools offered Saturday classes on domestic training and household management for older girls and manual arts for boys.Boomhower, \"'The Thing is Right!'\", *Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History*, pp. 34–35\\.", "" ]
Technical description --------------------- [Raised handlebar and chrome plated pod type mirrors ('V' grip Zapper tyres)\|thumb\|225px\|left](/wiki/File:Yamaha_Enticer_Front.jpg "Yamaha Enticer Front.jpg") The Yamaha Enticer had a raised handlebar, a long [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase "Wheelbase"), easy rider [seating](/wiki/2%2B2_%28seating_arrangement%29 "2+2 (seating arrangement)") geometry, foot boards instead of foot [pegs](/wiki/wikt:Peg "Peg"), a fat rear tyre, and a single pod instrument cluster. The motorcycle was available in four colour variants: [Gold](/wiki/Gold_%28color%29 "Gold (color)") (light yellow), [Burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy_%28color%29 "Burgundy (color)") (reddish), Black and Lavender\-Silver (exclusive to the delux variant). The motive power comes from the 54 mm × 54 mm, 123\.7 cc [square engine](/wiki/Stroke_ratio "Stroke ratio") that it shares with the Yamaha YBX motorcycle. While the maximum torque of 1\.06 KgM at 6500 rpm is identical to that of YBX, the 11 bhp (PS) of power in the Enticer engine comes at a slower 8000 rpm, while in the YBX it comes at a higher 8500 rpm. The [compression ratio](/wiki/Compression_ratio "Compression ratio") of the Enticer is 10:1\. Maximum speed can reach 120 kph. The wheelbase is 1,375 mm, with a claimed ground clearance of 140 mm. Kerb weight (with oil and a full petrol tank) is 125 kg, while dry weight is 116 kg. The fuel tank capacity is 13 liters, with a reserve of 2\.4 liters. The VM20SS, Ucal / Mikuni [carburetor](/wiki/Carburetor "Carburetor") breathes through a wet\-type air cleaner. Fuel is ignited by an [NGK Spark Plug](/wiki/Niterra "Niterra"), model CR7HSA with an ideal plug gap of 0\.65 mm. The ignition is [CDI](/wiki/Capacitor_discharge_ignition "Capacitor discharge ignition"). Electricity is produced by a 12 volt flywheel magneto with a 12 volt, 2\.5 Ah [lead–acid battery](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery "Lead–acid battery"). The headlight power is 12v–35w. The front tyre is a 4\-ply rating 2\.75 × 18 (Zapper FS pattern), while at the rear is a 6\-ply rating 120/80 × 16 (Zapper Y pattern). The engine oil specified is Yamalube 4\-stroke motor oil (20W40 type SF) or equivalent. Yamaha also warns not to use oils that contain anti\-friction modifiers or car oils (often referred to as energy\-conserving oils) that contain anti\-friction additives, since this will cause clutch slippage and will in turn reduce the life of components and cause a drop in engine performance. While the total quantity of engine oil is 1\.2 liters, the top\-up quantity is one liter. The {{convert\|16\|in\|mm\|adj\=on}} [MRF](/wiki/MRF_%28company%29 "MRF (company)") Zapper wide tyres for the rear wheel are no longer available in the Indian market.
[ "Technical description\n---------------------", "[Raised handlebar and chrome plated pod type mirrors ('V' grip Zapper tyres)\\|thumb\\|225px\\|left](/wiki/File:Yamaha_Enticer_Front.jpg \"Yamaha Enticer Front.jpg\")", "The Yamaha Enticer had a raised handlebar, a long [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase \"Wheelbase\"), easy rider [seating](/wiki/2%2B2_%28seating_arrangement%29 \"2+2 (seating arrangement)\") geometry, foot boards instead of foot [pegs](/wiki/wikt:Peg \"Peg\"), a fat rear tyre, and a single pod instrument cluster. The motorcycle was available in four colour variants: [Gold](/wiki/Gold_%28color%29 \"Gold (color)\") (light yellow), [Burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy_%28color%29 \"Burgundy (color)\") (reddish), Black and Lavender\\-Silver (exclusive to the delux variant).", "The motive power comes from the 54 mm × 54 mm, 123\\.7 cc [square engine](/wiki/Stroke_ratio \"Stroke ratio\") that it shares with the Yamaha YBX motorcycle. While the maximum torque of 1\\.06 KgM at 6500 rpm is identical to that of YBX, the 11 bhp (PS) of power in the Enticer engine comes at a slower 8000 rpm, while in the YBX it comes at a higher 8500 rpm. The [compression ratio](/wiki/Compression_ratio \"Compression ratio\") of the Enticer is 10:1\\. Maximum speed can reach 120 kph. The wheelbase is 1,375 mm, with a claimed ground clearance of 140 mm. Kerb weight (with oil and a full petrol tank) is 125 kg, while dry weight is 116 kg. The fuel tank capacity is 13 liters, with a reserve of 2\\.4 liters. The VM20SS, Ucal / Mikuni [carburetor](/wiki/Carburetor \"Carburetor\") breathes through a wet\\-type air cleaner. Fuel is ignited by an [NGK Spark Plug](/wiki/Niterra \"Niterra\"), model CR7HSA with an ideal plug gap of 0\\.65 mm. The ignition is [CDI](/wiki/Capacitor_discharge_ignition \"Capacitor discharge ignition\").", "Electricity is produced by a 12 volt flywheel magneto with a 12 volt, 2\\.5 Ah [lead–acid battery](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery \"Lead–acid battery\"). The headlight power is 12v–35w. The front tyre is a 4\\-ply rating 2\\.75 × 18 (Zapper FS pattern), while at the rear is a 6\\-ply rating 120/80 × 16 (Zapper Y pattern).", "The engine oil specified is Yamalube 4\\-stroke motor oil (20W40 type SF) or equivalent. Yamaha also warns not to use oils that contain anti\\-friction modifiers or car oils (often referred to as energy\\-conserving oils) that contain anti\\-friction additives, since this will cause clutch slippage and will in turn reduce the life of components and cause a drop in engine performance. While the total quantity of engine oil is 1\\.2 liters, the top\\-up quantity is one liter.", "The {{convert\\|16\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\\=on}} [MRF](/wiki/MRF_%28company%29 \"MRF (company)\") Zapper wide tyres for the rear wheel are no longer available in the Indian market.", "" ]
Second World War ---------------- [thumb\|Major General [Sir Frank Messervy](/wiki/Sir_Frank_Messervy "Sir Frank Messervy") inspects troops of the 17th Infantry Division in [Burma](/wiki/Burma "Burma"), 1944\.](/wiki/File:Major_General_Sir_Frank_Messervy_inspecting_Indian_Army_troops_in_Burma%2C_1944_%28c%29.jpg "Major General Sir Frank Messervy inspecting Indian Army troops in Burma, 1944 (c).jpg") The division was first raised at [Ahmednagar](/wiki/Ahmednagar "Ahmednagar"), [India](/wiki/India "India") under the command of Major General H V Lewis {{small\|CB CIE DSO MC}} in 1941\.{{cite web\|url\=https://burmastarmemorial.org/archive/stories/1405855\-17th\-indian\-infantry\-division?\|title\=17th Indian Infantry Division\|date\=July 2019 \|access\-date\=2021\-09\-23}} It consisted then of the [44th](/wiki/44th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "44th Indian Infantry Brigade"), [45th](/wiki/45th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "45th Indian Infantry Brigade") and [46th Indian Infantry Brigades](/wiki/46th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "46th Indian Infantry Brigade"), and was intended to garrison [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq"). At the end of the year, war with [Imperial Japan](/wiki/Imperial_Japan "Imperial Japan") broke out and the division was split; 44th and 45th Brigades were despatched to [Malaya](/wiki/British_Malaya "British Malaya") where 45th Brigade fought in the [Battle of Muar](/wiki/Battle_of_Muar "Battle of Muar") before both brigades were lost in the [Battle of Singapore](/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore "Battle of Singapore"). The 46th Brigade and the division HQ went to Burma, where the Division was reinforced by [16th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/16th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "16th Indian Infantry Brigade") and took [2nd Burma Infantry Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Burma_Infantry_Brigade "2nd Burma Infantry Brigade") under command. ### 1942 The Japanese attacked Burma on January 22, 1942\. It was soon apparent that the British and Indian troops in Burma were too few in number, wrongly equipped and inadequately trained for the terrain and conditions. After failing to hold the Kawkareik Pass, [Moulmein](/wiki/Mawlamaying "Mawlamaying") and [Kuzeik](/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma%23Battle_of_Pa-an "Japanese invasion of Burma#Battle of Pa-an"), the division fell back to the [Bilin River](/wiki/Battle_of_Bilin_River "Battle of Bilin River"), where it was joined by [48th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/48th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "48th Indian Infantry Brigade"). The Bilin was not a proper defensive position, and the division tried to retreat over the [Sittang River](/wiki/Battle_of_Sittang_Bridge "Battle of Sittang Bridge"). Air attacks, poor organization and vehicle breakdowns delayed the division, and Japanese parties infiltrated around them to threaten the vital bridge over the Sittang. The division's commander, Major General ["Jackie" Smyth VC](/wiki/Sir_John_Smyth%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir John Smyth, 1st Baronet"), was forced to order the bridge to be destroyed, with most of the division cut off on the far side of the river. Only a few thousand men without equipment succeeded in crossing the river. Smyth was dismissed and replaced by Major General [Cowan](/wiki/David_Cowan_%28soldier%29 "David Cowan (soldier)"). The division was reinforced with [the 63rd Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/63rd_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "63rd Indian Infantry Brigade"), and narrowly escaped being trapped in [Rangoon](/wiki/Rangoon "Rangoon"). After trying to hold a front in the [Irrawaddy River](/wiki/Irrawaddy_River "Irrawaddy River") valley, the division subsequently retreated north into [Assam](/wiki/Assam "Assam") just before the monsoon broke, fighting off a Japanese attempt to trap it at [Kalewa](/wiki/Kalewa "Kalewa"). ### 1943 For the campaigning season of 1943, the division was reorganised as a "Light" formation, with two brigades only (48th and 63rd), supported by mountain artillery, and with mules and jeeps only for transport. It disputed the mountainous and jungle\-covered region around [Tiddim](/wiki/Tiddim "Tiddim"), with mixed success. The division was at the end of a long and precarious supply line, and the "light" establishment was found to be inadequate in some respects. Some heavier equipment and transport was restored. ### 1944 In 1944, the Japanese launched a major invasion of India. During the long [Battle of Imphal](/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal "Battle of Imphal"), the 17th Division first successfully fought its way out of encirclement at Tiddim, and then disputed the vital Bishenpur sector south of Imphal (with [32nd Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/32nd_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "32nd Indian Infantry Brigade") temporarily under command). In July, the Japanese were broken by heavy casualties and starvation, and retreated. Some units of the 17th Division had suffered nearly 100% casualties. During the late monsoon season, the division was temporarily withdrawn to India and reorganised once again. The 48th and 63rd Brigades were fully equipped with vehicles to become [a Motorized infantry](/wiki/Motorized_infantry "Motorized infantry"). [The 99th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/99th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "99th Indian Infantry Brigade") was added to the division, equipped to be transported by [Douglas DC\-3](/wiki/Douglas_DC-3 "Douglas DC-3") aircraft. ### 1945 [thumb\|Major General W. A. Crowther, GOC 17th Indian Division, takes the salute at a March Past after the surrender ceremony, 1945\.](/wiki/File:Surrender_Ceremony_March_Past_%285316024908%29.jpg "Surrender Ceremony March Past (5316024908).jpg") In late February 1945, the motor elements of the division, with the bulk of [255th Indian Tank Brigade](/wiki/255th_Indian_Tank_Brigade "255th Indian Tank Brigade") under command, crossed the [Irrawaddy River](/wiki/Irrawaddy_River "Irrawaddy River") and advanced on the vital Japanese communications centre of [Meiktila](/wiki/Meiktila "Meiktila"). Joined by [the 99th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/99th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "99th Indian Infantry Brigade") which was flown into the captured airfield at [Thabutkon](/wiki/Thabutkon "Thabutkon"), they captured Meiktila in only four days. Reinforced by [the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/9th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "9th Indian Infantry Brigade") which was flown into the airfields around Meiktila, they subsequently withstood a Japanese siege. This [Battle of Meiktila](/wiki/Battle_of_Meiktila_/_Mandalay "Battle of Meiktila / Mandalay") largely destroyed the Japanese armies in Central Burma. The division now broke the last Japanese defensive position at [Pyawbwe](/wiki/Pyawbwe%2C_Pyawbwe_Township "Pyawbwe, Pyawbwe Township"), and advanced south on [Rangoon](/wiki/Rangoon "Rangoon"). At [Pegu](/wiki/Pegu "Pegu"), it pushed Japanese rearguards aside, but was still short of its objective when the [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon "Monsoon") broke. Rangoon fell to an assault from the sea, [Operation Dracula](/wiki/Operation_Dracula "Operation Dracula"). In the last months of the campaign, the division participated in the mopping up of Japanese stragglers in Burma. After the war ended, elements of it formed part of the Commonwealth Occupation force in Japan (under Cowan). The division was disbanded in India in 1946\.
[ "Second World War\n----------------", "[thumb\\|Major General [Sir Frank Messervy](/wiki/Sir_Frank_Messervy \"Sir Frank Messervy\") inspects troops of the 17th Infantry Division in [Burma](/wiki/Burma \"Burma\"), 1944\\.](/wiki/File:Major_General_Sir_Frank_Messervy_inspecting_Indian_Army_troops_in_Burma%2C_1944_%28c%29.jpg \"Major General Sir Frank Messervy inspecting Indian Army troops in Burma, 1944 (c).jpg\")\nThe division was first raised at [Ahmednagar](/wiki/Ahmednagar \"Ahmednagar\"), [India](/wiki/India \"India\") under the command of Major General H V Lewis {{small\\|CB CIE DSO MC}} in 1941\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://burmastarmemorial.org/archive/stories/1405855\\-17th\\-indian\\-infantry\\-division?\\|title\\=17th Indian Infantry Division\\|date\\=July 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-23}} It consisted then of the [44th](/wiki/44th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"44th Indian Infantry Brigade\"), [45th](/wiki/45th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"45th Indian Infantry Brigade\") and [46th Indian Infantry Brigades](/wiki/46th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"46th Indian Infantry Brigade\"), and was intended to garrison [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\"). At the end of the year, war with [Imperial Japan](/wiki/Imperial_Japan \"Imperial Japan\") broke out and the division was split; 44th and 45th Brigades were despatched to [Malaya](/wiki/British_Malaya \"British Malaya\") where 45th Brigade fought in the [Battle of Muar](/wiki/Battle_of_Muar \"Battle of Muar\") before both brigades were lost in the [Battle of Singapore](/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore \"Battle of Singapore\"). The 46th Brigade and the division HQ went to Burma, where the Division was reinforced by [16th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/16th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"16th Indian Infantry Brigade\") and took [2nd Burma Infantry Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Burma_Infantry_Brigade \"2nd Burma Infantry Brigade\") under command.", "### 1942", "The Japanese attacked Burma on January 22, 1942\\. It was soon apparent that the British and Indian troops in Burma were too few in number, wrongly equipped and inadequately trained for the terrain and conditions. After failing to hold the Kawkareik Pass, [Moulmein](/wiki/Mawlamaying \"Mawlamaying\") and [Kuzeik](/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma%23Battle_of_Pa-an \"Japanese invasion of Burma#Battle of Pa-an\"), the division fell back to the [Bilin River](/wiki/Battle_of_Bilin_River \"Battle of Bilin River\"), where it was joined by [48th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/48th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"48th Indian Infantry Brigade\").", "The Bilin was not a proper defensive position, and the division tried to retreat over the [Sittang River](/wiki/Battle_of_Sittang_Bridge \"Battle of Sittang Bridge\"). Air attacks, poor organization and vehicle breakdowns delayed the division, and Japanese parties infiltrated around them to threaten the vital bridge over the Sittang. The division's commander, Major General [\"Jackie\" Smyth VC](/wiki/Sir_John_Smyth%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir John Smyth, 1st Baronet\"), was forced to order the bridge to be destroyed, with most of the division cut off on the far side of the river. Only a few thousand men without equipment succeeded in crossing the river. Smyth was dismissed and replaced by Major General [Cowan](/wiki/David_Cowan_%28soldier%29 \"David Cowan (soldier)\").", "The division was reinforced with [the 63rd Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/63rd_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"63rd Indian Infantry Brigade\"), and narrowly escaped being trapped in [Rangoon](/wiki/Rangoon \"Rangoon\"). After trying to hold a front in the [Irrawaddy River](/wiki/Irrawaddy_River \"Irrawaddy River\") valley, the division subsequently retreated north into [Assam](/wiki/Assam \"Assam\") just before the monsoon broke, fighting off a Japanese attempt to trap it at [Kalewa](/wiki/Kalewa \"Kalewa\").", "### 1943", "For the campaigning season of 1943, the division was reorganised as a \"Light\" formation, with two brigades only (48th and 63rd), supported by mountain artillery, and with mules and jeeps only for transport. It disputed the mountainous and jungle\\-covered region around [Tiddim](/wiki/Tiddim \"Tiddim\"), with mixed success. The division was at the end of a long and precarious supply line, and the \"light\" establishment was found to be inadequate in some respects. Some heavier equipment and transport was restored.", "### 1944", "In 1944, the Japanese launched a major invasion of India. During the long [Battle of Imphal](/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal \"Battle of Imphal\"), the 17th Division first successfully fought its way out of encirclement at Tiddim, and then disputed the vital Bishenpur sector south of Imphal (with [32nd Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/32nd_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"32nd Indian Infantry Brigade\") temporarily under command). In July, the Japanese were broken by heavy casualties and starvation, and retreated. Some units of the 17th Division had suffered nearly 100% casualties.", "During the late monsoon season, the division was temporarily withdrawn to India and reorganised once again. The 48th and 63rd Brigades were fully equipped with vehicles to become [a Motorized infantry](/wiki/Motorized_infantry \"Motorized infantry\"). [The 99th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/99th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"99th Indian Infantry Brigade\") was added to the division, equipped to be transported by [Douglas DC\\-3](/wiki/Douglas_DC-3 \"Douglas DC-3\") aircraft.", "### 1945", "[thumb\\|Major General W. A. Crowther, GOC 17th Indian Division, takes the salute at a March Past after the surrender ceremony, 1945\\.](/wiki/File:Surrender_Ceremony_March_Past_%285316024908%29.jpg \"Surrender Ceremony March Past (5316024908).jpg\")", "In late February 1945, the motor elements of the division, with the bulk of [255th Indian Tank Brigade](/wiki/255th_Indian_Tank_Brigade \"255th Indian Tank Brigade\") under command, crossed the [Irrawaddy River](/wiki/Irrawaddy_River \"Irrawaddy River\") and advanced on the vital Japanese communications centre of [Meiktila](/wiki/Meiktila \"Meiktila\"). Joined by [the 99th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/99th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"99th Indian Infantry Brigade\") which was flown into the captured airfield at [Thabutkon](/wiki/Thabutkon \"Thabutkon\"), they captured Meiktila in only four days. Reinforced by [the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/9th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"9th Indian Infantry Brigade\") which was flown into the airfields around Meiktila, they subsequently withstood a Japanese siege. This [Battle of Meiktila](/wiki/Battle_of_Meiktila_/_Mandalay \"Battle of Meiktila / Mandalay\") largely destroyed the Japanese armies in Central Burma.", "The division now broke the last Japanese defensive position at [Pyawbwe](/wiki/Pyawbwe%2C_Pyawbwe_Township \"Pyawbwe, Pyawbwe Township\"), and advanced south on [Rangoon](/wiki/Rangoon \"Rangoon\"). At [Pegu](/wiki/Pegu \"Pegu\"), it pushed Japanese rearguards aside, but was still short of its objective when the [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon \"Monsoon\") broke. Rangoon fell to an assault from the sea, [Operation Dracula](/wiki/Operation_Dracula \"Operation Dracula\").", "In the last months of the campaign, the division participated in the mopping up of Japanese stragglers in Burma. After the war ended, elements of it formed part of the Commonwealth Occupation force in Japan (under Cowan). The division was disbanded in India in 1946\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### *Coleman v. Brown* *Coleman v. Brown* {{cite court \|court\=E.D. Cal. \|opinion\=No. crv 8\-90\-0520 LKK JFM P Docket Number(s): 2:90\-cv\-00520, ECF Number: 547 \|date\=June 6, 1994 \|litigants\=RALPH COLEMAN, WINIFRED WILLIAMS DAVID HEROUX, DAVID MCKAY, ROY JOSEPH, and all others similarly situated vs. PETE WILSON, Governor of the State of California, JOSEPH SANDOVAL, Secretary of Youth and Corrections Agency, JAMES GOMEZ, Director of the California Department of Corrections, NADIM KHOURY, M.D., Assistant Deputy Director for Medical Services, JOHN S. ZIL, M. D., Chief, Psychiatric Services \|url\=http://www.clearinghouse.net/chDocs/public/PC\-CA\-0002\-0035\.pdf}} {{cite court \|litigants\=Coleman v. Wilson \|vol\=912 \|reporter\=F. Supp. \|opinion\=1282 \|pinpoint\= \|court\=\[\[E.D. Cal.]] \|date\=1995 \|url\= \|accessdate\= \|quote\=}} (Previously *Coleman v. Wilson*) ([E.D. Cal.](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Eastern_District_of_California "United States District Court for the Eastern District of California")), is a federal [class action](/wiki/Class_action "Class action") [civil rights](/wiki/Civil_rights "Civil rights") lawsuit under the [Civil Rights Act of 1871](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1871 "Civil Rights Act of 1871"), [Eighth](/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution") and [Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution"), and the [Rehabilitation Act of 1973](/wiki/Rehabilitation_Act_of_1973 "Rehabilitation Act of 1973") alleging unconstitutional mental health care by the [California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation](/wiki/California_Department_of_Corrections_and_Rehabilitation "California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation") (CDCR). The case was filed on April 23, 1990, and tried before a [United States magistrate judge](/wiki/United_States_magistrate_judge "United States magistrate judge"). In June 1994 the magistrate judge found that defendants’ delivery of mental health care to class members violated the [Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution"). On September 13, 1995, the court upheld the magistrate judge's factual findings regarding mental health care screening, insufficient number of staff, incompetence of staff, delays in access to care, medication management and involuntary medication. The court also issued a [permanent injunction](/wiki/Permanent_injunction "Permanent injunction") and ordered that a [special master](/wiki/Special_master "Special master") be appointed to monitor compliance with the court\-ordered injunctive relief. The special master submitted 16 interim reports, with later reports "reflect\[ing] a troubling reversal in the progress of the remedial efforts of the preceding decade". ### *Plata v. Brown* *Plata v. Brown* ([N.D. Cal.](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_California "United States District Court for the Northern District of California")), is a federal [class action](/wiki/Class_action "Class action") [civil rights](/wiki/Civil_rights "Civil rights") lawsuit alleging that the [California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation](/wiki/California_Department_of_Corrections_and_Rehabilitation "California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation")'s (CDCR) medical services are inadequate and violate the [Eighth Amendment](/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution"), the [Americans with Disabilities Act](/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act "Americans with Disabilities Act"), and section 504 of the [Rehabilitation Act of 1973](/wiki/Rehabilitation_Act_of_1973 "Rehabilitation Act of 1973"). The case was filed on April 5, 2001, and re\-filed with an amended complaint on August 20, 2001\. The plaintiffs claimed a number of deficiencies related to inadequate medical care including, but not limited to: inadequate medical screening of incoming prisoners; delays in or failure to provide access to medical care; untimely responses to medical emergencies; the interference of custodial staff with the provision of medical care; insufficient numbers of competent medical staff; incomplete medical records; a "lack of quality control procedures,"; a lack of protocols to deal with chronic illnesses; and the failure of the administrative grievance system to provide timely or adequate responses to complaints concerning medical care. The claims alleged that patients being treated by the CDCR received inadequate medical care that resulted in the deaths of 34 inmate\-patients.{{cite news\|title\=California Must Reduce Inmate Population, U.S. Judges Rule\|last\=Gullo\|first\=Karen\|date\=February 10, 2009\|publisher\=\[\[Bloomberg News]]\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\=20601103\&sid\=aogBNJsZBpSY\&refer\=us\|accessdate\=October 14, 2009}} The plaintiffs and defendants negotiated a [stipulation](/wiki/Stipulation "Stipulation") for [injunctive relief](/wiki/Injunction "Injunction"), which the court approved by court order on June 13, 2002, requiring defendants to provide "only the minimum level of medical care required under the Eighth Amendment." However, three years after approving the stipulation as an order of the court, the court conducted an evidentiary hearing that revealed the continued existence of appalling conditions arising from defendants’ failure to provide adequate medical care to California inmates. As a result, the court ruled in June 2005 and issued an order on October 3, 2005, putting the CDCR's medical health care delivery system in [receivership](/wiki/Receivership "Receivership"). The receivership became effect in April 2006\. ### *Plata v. Brown*/*Coleman v. Brown* three\-judge court In 2006, the plaintiffs in the *Coleman* and *Plata* cases filed motions to convene a [three\-judge court](/wiki/Three-judge_court "Three-judge court") to limit the prison population.[Order for population reduction plan](http://www.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/general/2009/08/04/Opinion%20&%20Order%20FINAL.pdf), three\-judge court convened by the Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit hearing *Plata v. Schwarzenegger* and *Coleman v. Schwarzenegger* {{UnitedStatesCode\|18\|3626}}, a statute created by the [Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act](/wiki/Violent_Crime_Control_and_Law_Enforcement_Act "Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act") and further amended by the [Prison Litigation Reform Act](/wiki/Prison_Litigation_Reform_Act "Prison Litigation Reform Act"), requires that any orders for the reduction of prisoner population be issued by a court consisting of three district judges. On October 4, 2006, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_California "Governor of California") [Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger "Arnold Schwarzenegger") issued Proclamation 4278, declaring a [state of emergency](/wiki/State_of_emergency "State of emergency") with regard to the prisons. During the pending motions, the [Little Hoover Commission](/wiki/Little_Hoover_Commission "Little Hoover Commission") released its report titled ["Solving California's Corrections Crisis: Time Is Running Out"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091008111456/http://www.lhc.ca.gov/studies/185/Report185.pdf) and the CDCR Expert Panel on Adult Offender Recidivism Reduction Programming released its [report](https://web.archive.org/web/20091008120208/http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/ExpertPanel.html), both advocating a reduction in [prison overcrowding](/wiki/Prison_overcrowding "Prison overcrowding"). On July 23, 2007, both the *Plata* and *Coleman* courts granted the plaintiff's motions and recommended that the cases be assigned to the same three\-judge court. The Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit agreed and, on July 26, 2007, convened the instant three\-judge district court pursuant to {{usc\|28\|2284}}. The Three\-Judge Court initially consisted of [Judge Thelton Henderson](/wiki/Thelton_Henderson "Thelton Henderson"), [Judge Lawrence Karlton](/wiki/Lawrence_K._Karlton "Lawrence K. Karlton"), and [Judge Stephen Reinhardt](/wiki/Stephen_Reinhardt "Stephen Reinhardt").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.clearinghouse.net/detail.php?id\=12280\|title\=Plata v. Brown / Coleman v. Brown Three\-Judge Court {{!}} Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse\|website\=www.clearinghouse.net\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-06\-01}} [Judge Karlton](/wiki/Lawrence_K._Karlton "Lawrence K. Karlton") passed away and then [Judge Kimberly Mueller](/wiki/Kimberly_J._Mueller "Kimberly J. Mueller") joined the Three\-Judge Court on September 1, 2014\. On August 14, 2017 [Judge Jon Tigar](/wiki/Jon_S._Tigar "Jon S. Tigar") took the place of [Judge Henderson](/wiki/Thelton_Henderson "Thelton Henderson").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCOURTS\-caed\-2\_90\-cv\-00520/pdf/USCOURTS\-caed\-2\_90\-cv\-00520\-852\.pdf\|title\=ORDER DESIGNATING UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT COMPOSED OF THREE JUDGES\|date\=August 14, 2017\|website\=GPO\|access\-date\=June 1, 2018}} After [Judge Reinhardt's](/wiki/Stephen_Reinhardt "Stephen Reinhardt") death, [Judge Kim Wardlaw](/wiki/Kim_McLane_Wardlaw "Kim McLane Wardlaw") took his place on April 4, 2018\.ORDER designating and assigning the Honorable Kim McLane Wardlaw, Circuit Judge for the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, to take the place of Judge Reinhardt. Signed by Chief Judge Sidney R. Thomas on April 4, 2018\. (Filed on 4/4/2018\) (Entered: 04/04/2018\). ### Release order On August 4, 2009, the three\-judge court ordered that the defendants submit a plan within 45 days detailing "a population reduction plan that will in no more than two years reduce the population of the CDCR's adult institutions to 137\.5% of their combined design capacity." The [decarceration](/wiki/Decarceration_in_the_United_States "Decarceration in the United States") plan would require California to cut 40,000 inmates out of its prison population of 150,000 when the verdict was issued. In an order described by *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* as "scathing", the panel indicated that the state had failed to follow through on previous orders to improve conditions and that the cuts were needed to deal with overcrowding and poor health care that was causing an unnecessary death each week on average. The panel recommended achieving the cuts by reducing imprisonment of nonviolent offenders and technical parole violators.{{Citation \|last1\=Moore \|first1\=Solomon \|title\=California Prisons Must Cut Inmate Population \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=August 4, 2009 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/05/us/05calif.html \|accessdate\=2009\-10\-13 }} The state submitted a plan on September 18, 2009, but the plan failed to meet requirements set by the release order.{{Citation \|last1\=Yi \|first1\=Matthew \|last2\=Egelko \|first2\=Bob \|title\=State fails federal demand to cut prisoners \|publisher\=\[\[San Francisco Chronicle]] \|date\=September 19, 2009 \|page\=C\-1 \|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\-bin/article.cgi?f\=/c/a/2009/09/18/BA7F19PC7H.DTL \|accessdate\=2009\-10\-23 }} On October 21, 2009, the court rejected the plan,{{Citation \|last1\=Egelko \|first1\=Bob \|title\=Court, governor dig in heels on prison crowding \|publisher\=\[\[San Francisco Chronicle]] \|date\=October 22, 2009 \|page\=A\-11 \|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\-bin/article.cgi?f\=/c/a/2009/10/22/MNF51A927O.DTL \|accessdate\=2009\-10\-23 }} and gave the government until November 12 to submit a corrected plan{{Citation \|last1\=Rothfeld \|first1\=Michael \|title\=Judges reject California plan to cut prison crowding \|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|date\=October 22, 2009 \|page\=A\-11 \|url\=http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la\-me\-prisons22\-2009oct22,0,1269315\.story \|accessdate\=2009\-10\-23 }} or it would order the attorneys for the [plaintiffs](/wiki/Plaintiff "Plaintiff") to submit a plan and order it implemented.{{Citation \|last1\=Walsh \|first1\=Denny \|title\=Federal judges reject plan to cut California prison crowding \|publisher\=\[\[Sacramento Bee]] \|date\=October 22, 2009 \|page\=A4 \|url\=http://www.sacbee.com/politics/story/2272601\.html \|accessdate\=2009\-10\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025142245/http://www.sacbee.com/politics/story/2272601\.html \|archive\-date\=2009\-10\-25 \|url\-status\=dead }} The state submitted a revised plan on November 12, 2009, and the plan was accepted and entered as an order of the court on January 12, 2010\.[Order to reduce prison population](http://www.cand.uscourts.gov/cand/judges.nsf/33fd9c0607be66f188256d480060b74b/e5a3b5c9bfe0cfbb882576a9007fbd45/$FILE/order%20to%20reduce%20prison%20population.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218021713/http://www.cand.uscourts.gov/cand/judges.nsf/33fd9c0607be66f188256d480060b74b/e5a3b5c9bfe0cfbb882576a9007fbd45/%24FILE/order%20to%20reduce%20prison%20population.pdf \|date\=2010\-12\-18 }}, three\-judge court convened by the Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit hearing *Plata v. Schwarzenegger* and *Coleman v. Schwarzenegger*
[ "History\n-------", "### *Coleman v. Brown*", "*Coleman v. Brown* \n{{cite court \\|court\\=E.D. Cal. \\|opinion\\=No. crv 8\\-90\\-0520 LKK JFM P Docket Number(s): 2:90\\-cv\\-00520, ECF Number: 547 \\|date\\=June 6, 1994 \n\\|litigants\\=RALPH COLEMAN, WINIFRED WILLIAMS DAVID HEROUX, DAVID MCKAY, ROY JOSEPH, and all others similarly situated vs. PETE WILSON, Governor of the State of California, JOSEPH SANDOVAL, Secretary of Youth and Corrections Agency, JAMES GOMEZ, Director of the California Department of Corrections, NADIM KHOURY, M.D., Assistant Deputy Director for\nMedical Services, JOHN S. ZIL, M. D., Chief, Psychiatric Services \\|url\\=http://www.clearinghouse.net/chDocs/public/PC\\-CA\\-0002\\-0035\\.pdf}}\n{{cite court \\|litigants\\=Coleman v. Wilson \\|vol\\=912 \\|reporter\\=F. Supp. \\|opinion\\=1282 \\|pinpoint\\= \\|court\\=\\[\\[E.D. Cal.]] \\|date\\=1995 \\|url\\= \\|accessdate\\= \\|quote\\=}} (Previously *Coleman v. Wilson*) ([E.D. Cal.](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Eastern_District_of_California \"United States District Court for the Eastern District of California\")), is a federal [class action](/wiki/Class_action \"Class action\") [civil rights](/wiki/Civil_rights \"Civil rights\") lawsuit under the [Civil Rights Act of 1871](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1871 \"Civil Rights Act of 1871\"), [Eighth](/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") and [Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\"), and the [Rehabilitation Act of 1973](/wiki/Rehabilitation_Act_of_1973 \"Rehabilitation Act of 1973\") alleging unconstitutional mental health care by the [California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation](/wiki/California_Department_of_Corrections_and_Rehabilitation \"California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation\") (CDCR).", "The case was filed on April 23, 1990, and tried before a [United States magistrate judge](/wiki/United_States_magistrate_judge \"United States magistrate judge\"). In June 1994 the magistrate judge found that defendants’ delivery of mental health care to class members violated the [Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution](/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution\").", "On September 13, 1995, the court upheld the magistrate judge's factual findings regarding mental health care screening, insufficient number of staff, incompetence of staff, delays in access to care, medication management and involuntary medication. The court also issued a [permanent injunction](/wiki/Permanent_injunction \"Permanent injunction\") and ordered that a [special master](/wiki/Special_master \"Special master\") be appointed to monitor compliance with the court\\-ordered injunctive relief. The special master submitted 16 interim reports, with later reports \"reflect\\[ing] a troubling reversal in the progress of the remedial efforts of the preceding decade\".", "### *Plata v. Brown*", "*Plata v. Brown* ([N.D. Cal.](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_California \"United States District Court for the Northern District of California\")), is a federal [class action](/wiki/Class_action \"Class action\") [civil rights](/wiki/Civil_rights \"Civil rights\") lawsuit alleging that the [California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation](/wiki/California_Department_of_Corrections_and_Rehabilitation \"California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation\")'s (CDCR) medical services are inadequate and violate the [Eighth Amendment](/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution\"), the [Americans with Disabilities Act](/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act \"Americans with Disabilities Act\"), and section 504 of the [Rehabilitation Act of 1973](/wiki/Rehabilitation_Act_of_1973 \"Rehabilitation Act of 1973\").", "The case was filed on April 5, 2001, and re\\-filed with an amended complaint on August 20, 2001\\. The plaintiffs claimed a number of deficiencies related to inadequate medical care including, but not limited to: inadequate medical screening of incoming prisoners; delays in or failure to provide access to medical care; untimely responses to medical emergencies; the interference of custodial staff with the provision of medical care; insufficient numbers of competent medical staff; incomplete medical records; a \"lack of quality control procedures,\"; a lack of protocols to deal with chronic illnesses; and the failure of the administrative grievance system to provide timely or adequate responses to complaints concerning medical care. The claims alleged that patients being treated by the CDCR received inadequate medical care that resulted in the deaths of 34 inmate\\-patients.{{cite news\\|title\\=California Must Reduce Inmate Population, U.S. Judges Rule\\|last\\=Gullo\\|first\\=Karen\\|date\\=February 10, 2009\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg News]]\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\\=20601103\\&sid\\=aogBNJsZBpSY\\&refer\\=us\\|accessdate\\=October 14, 2009}}", "The plaintiffs and defendants negotiated a [stipulation](/wiki/Stipulation \"Stipulation\") for [injunctive relief](/wiki/Injunction \"Injunction\"), which the court approved by court order on June 13, 2002, requiring defendants to provide \"only the minimum level of medical care required under the Eighth Amendment.\"", "However, three years after approving the stipulation as an order of the court, the court conducted an evidentiary hearing that revealed the continued existence of appalling conditions arising from defendants’ failure to provide adequate medical care to California inmates. As a result, the court ruled in June 2005 and issued an order on October 3, 2005, putting the CDCR's medical health care delivery system in [receivership](/wiki/Receivership \"Receivership\"). The receivership became effect in April 2006\\.", "### *Plata v. Brown*/*Coleman v. Brown* three\\-judge court", "In 2006, the plaintiffs in the *Coleman* and *Plata* cases filed motions to convene a [three\\-judge court](/wiki/Three-judge_court \"Three-judge court\") to limit the prison population.[Order for population reduction plan](http://www.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/general/2009/08/04/Opinion%20&%20Order%20FINAL.pdf), three\\-judge court convened by the Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit hearing *Plata v. Schwarzenegger* and *Coleman v. Schwarzenegger* {{UnitedStatesCode\\|18\\|3626}}, a statute created by the [Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act](/wiki/Violent_Crime_Control_and_Law_Enforcement_Act \"Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act\") and further amended by the [Prison Litigation Reform Act](/wiki/Prison_Litigation_Reform_Act \"Prison Litigation Reform Act\"), requires that any orders for the reduction of prisoner population be issued by a court consisting of three district judges. On October 4, 2006, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_California \"Governor of California\") [Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger \"Arnold Schwarzenegger\") issued Proclamation 4278, declaring a [state of emergency](/wiki/State_of_emergency \"State of emergency\") with regard to the prisons. During the pending motions, the [Little Hoover Commission](/wiki/Little_Hoover_Commission \"Little Hoover Commission\") released its report titled [\"Solving California's Corrections Crisis: Time Is Running Out\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091008111456/http://www.lhc.ca.gov/studies/185/Report185.pdf) and the CDCR Expert Panel on Adult Offender Recidivism Reduction Programming released its [report](https://web.archive.org/web/20091008120208/http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/ExpertPanel.html), both advocating a reduction in [prison overcrowding](/wiki/Prison_overcrowding \"Prison overcrowding\"). On July 23, 2007, both the *Plata* and *Coleman* courts granted the plaintiff's motions and recommended that the cases be assigned to the same three\\-judge court. The Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit agreed and, on July 26, 2007, convened the instant three\\-judge district court pursuant to {{usc\\|28\\|2284}}.", "The Three\\-Judge Court initially consisted of [Judge Thelton Henderson](/wiki/Thelton_Henderson \"Thelton Henderson\"), [Judge Lawrence Karlton](/wiki/Lawrence_K._Karlton \"Lawrence K. Karlton\"), and [Judge Stephen Reinhardt](/wiki/Stephen_Reinhardt \"Stephen Reinhardt\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.clearinghouse.net/detail.php?id\\=12280\\|title\\=Plata v. Brown / Coleman v. Brown Three\\-Judge Court {{!}} Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse\\|website\\=www.clearinghouse.net\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-01}} [Judge Karlton](/wiki/Lawrence_K._Karlton \"Lawrence K. Karlton\") passed away and then [Judge Kimberly Mueller](/wiki/Kimberly_J._Mueller \"Kimberly J. Mueller\") joined the Three\\-Judge Court on September 1, 2014\\. On August 14, 2017 [Judge Jon Tigar](/wiki/Jon_S._Tigar \"Jon S. Tigar\") took the place of [Judge Henderson](/wiki/Thelton_Henderson \"Thelton Henderson\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCOURTS\\-caed\\-2\\_90\\-cv\\-00520/pdf/USCOURTS\\-caed\\-2\\_90\\-cv\\-00520\\-852\\.pdf\\|title\\=ORDER DESIGNATING UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT COMPOSED OF THREE JUDGES\\|date\\=August 14, 2017\\|website\\=GPO\\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2018}} After [Judge Reinhardt's](/wiki/Stephen_Reinhardt \"Stephen Reinhardt\") death, [Judge Kim Wardlaw](/wiki/Kim_McLane_Wardlaw \"Kim McLane Wardlaw\") took his place on April 4, 2018\\.ORDER designating and assigning the Honorable Kim McLane Wardlaw, Circuit Judge for the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, to take the place of Judge Reinhardt. Signed by Chief Judge Sidney R. Thomas on April 4, 2018\\. (Filed on 4/4/2018\\) (Entered: 04/04/2018\\).", "### Release order", "On August 4, 2009, the three\\-judge court ordered that the defendants submit a plan within 45 days detailing \"a population reduction plan that will in no more than two years reduce the population of the CDCR's adult institutions to 137\\.5% of their combined design capacity.\" The [decarceration](/wiki/Decarceration_in_the_United_States \"Decarceration in the United States\") plan would require California to cut 40,000 inmates out of its prison population of 150,000 when the verdict was issued. In an order described by *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* as \"scathing\", the panel indicated that the state had failed to follow through on previous orders to improve conditions and that the cuts were needed to deal with overcrowding and poor health care that was causing an unnecessary death each week on average. The panel recommended achieving the cuts by reducing imprisonment of nonviolent offenders and technical parole violators.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Moore \\|first1\\=Solomon \\|title\\=California Prisons Must Cut Inmate Population \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=August 4, 2009 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/05/us/05calif.html \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-10\\-13 }}", "The state submitted a plan on September 18, 2009, but the plan failed to meet requirements set by the release order.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Yi \\|first1\\=Matthew \\|last2\\=Egelko \\|first2\\=Bob \\|title\\=State fails federal demand to cut prisoners \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[San Francisco Chronicle]] \\|date\\=September 19, 2009 \\|page\\=C\\-1 \\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\\-bin/article.cgi?f\\=/c/a/2009/09/18/BA7F19PC7H.DTL \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-10\\-23 }} On October 21, 2009, the court rejected the plan,{{Citation \\|last1\\=Egelko \\|first1\\=Bob \\|title\\=Court, governor dig in heels on prison crowding \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[San Francisco Chronicle]] \\|date\\=October 22, 2009 \\|page\\=A\\-11 \\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\\-bin/article.cgi?f\\=/c/a/2009/10/22/MNF51A927O.DTL \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-10\\-23 }} and gave the government until November 12 to submit a corrected plan{{Citation \\|last1\\=Rothfeld \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Judges reject California plan to cut prison crowding \\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|date\\=October 22, 2009 \\|page\\=A\\-11 \\|url\\=http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la\\-me\\-prisons22\\-2009oct22,0,1269315\\.story \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-10\\-23 }} or it would order the attorneys for the [plaintiffs](/wiki/Plaintiff \"Plaintiff\") to submit a plan and order it implemented.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Walsh \\|first1\\=Denny \\|title\\=Federal judges reject plan to cut California prison crowding \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sacramento Bee]] \\|date\\=October 22, 2009 \\|page\\=A4 \\|url\\=http://www.sacbee.com/politics/story/2272601\\.html \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-10\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025142245/http://www.sacbee.com/politics/story/2272601\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-25 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The state submitted a revised plan on November 12, 2009, and the plan was accepted and entered as an order of the court on January 12, 2010\\.[Order to reduce prison population](http://www.cand.uscourts.gov/cand/judges.nsf/33fd9c0607be66f188256d480060b74b/e5a3b5c9bfe0cfbb882576a9007fbd45/$FILE/order%20to%20reduce%20prison%20population.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218021713/http://www.cand.uscourts.gov/cand/judges.nsf/33fd9c0607be66f188256d480060b74b/e5a3b5c9bfe0cfbb882576a9007fbd45/%24FILE/order%20to%20reduce%20prison%20population.pdf \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-18 }}, three\\-judge court convened by the Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit hearing *Plata v. Schwarzenegger* and *Coleman v. Schwarzenegger*", "" ]
United States Supreme Court Decision ------------------------------------ California appealed the order to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") on January 19, 2010,[Jurisdictional statement](http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/09-1233_jurisdictional-statement.pdf), [California Attorney General](/wiki/California_Attorney_General "California Attorney General") et al. and the Court postponed jurisdictional questions relating to the appeal on June 14, 2010\.{{citation \| title\= Orders in Pending Cases, Monday, June 14, 2010 \| url\= https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/061410zor.pdf \| date\= June 14, 2010}} It was argued on November 30, 2010\.{{Bluebook website\|first\= \|last\= \|title\=Brown v. Plata \|publisher\=\[\[Oyez]] \|url\=https://www.oyez.org/cases/2010/09\-1233 \|pin\= \|date\= \|access\-date\=June 2, 2018 }} ### Opinion of the Court A five justice majority of the Court affirmed the prisoner release order.{{cite news\|last1\=Liptak\|first1\=Adam\|title\=Justices, 5\-4, Tell California to Cut Prisoner Population\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/us/24scotus.html?\_r\=0\|accessdate\=26 September 2015\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=23 May 2011}} [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento "Sacramento") native Justice [Anthony Kennedy](/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy "Anthony Kennedy") wrote for the Court, first chronicling the troubled 11 years California prisons operated near 200% of design capacity.{{Bluebook journal \| first\=Margo \| last\=Schlanger \| title\=Plata v. Brown and Realignment: Jails, Prisons, Courts, and Politics \| volume\=48 \| journal\=Harv. C. R. \-C. L. L. Rev. \| page\=165 \| pin\= \| url\=https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles/463/ \| year\=2013}} Kennedy then offers a [parade of horribles](/wiki/Parade_of_horribles "Parade of horribles"), including 54 prisoners may share a single toilet, suicidal prisoners have been locked for nearly 24 hours in telephone booth sized cages, and that a preventable death occurs once every five to six days.{{Bluebook journal \| title\=Leading Case: Prison Population Reduction Order \| volume\=125 \| journal\=Harv. L. Rev. \| page\=261 \| pin\=\| url\=https://harvardlawreview.org/2011/11/eighth\-amendment\-ae\-prison\-population\-reduction\-order\-brown\-v\-plata/ \| year\=2011}} Because “Prisoners retain the essence of human dignity inherent in all persons”, the courts have a responsibility to remedy violations of the Eighth Amendment's prohibition against [cruel and unusual punishment](/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment "Cruel and unusual punishment").{{cite news\|last1\=Eisen\|first1\=Lauren\-Brooke\|title\=Review: 'Mass Incarceration on Trial: A Remarkable Court Decision and the Future of Prisons in America'\|url\=https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/mass\-incarceration\-trial\-remarkable\-court\-decision\-and\-future\-prisons\-america\|accessdate\=26 September 2015\|work\=New York Law Journal\|date\=4 August 2014}} Kennedy notes that the [Prison Litigation Reform Act](/wiki/Prison_Litigation_Reform_Act "Prison Litigation Reform Act") of 1996 (PLRA) only allows a three\-judge court to order a limit on prison population. A three\-judge court can only be convened after less intrusive orders have failed and the State has been given a reasonable time to comply with prior orders. Because over 12 years have passed since the initial *Coleman* order, Kennedy rejects California's argument that it has not been given reasonable time to comply. Kennedy likewise finds less intrusive orders have failed because over 70 orders have already been issued and the *Plata* Receiver had stated that a solution other than reducing overcrowding would “all but bankrupt the State of California".*Brown v. Plata*, 131 S. Ct. 1910, 1931 (2011\). The PLRA's requirement that crowding is the primary cause of the violation is met because, according to Kennedy, deference should be given to the three\-judge court's findings. Adequate staffing is unfeasible because prisons had a 54% vacancy rate for psychiatrists and they already “would hire any doctor who had ‘a license, a pulse and a pair of shoes’.”131 S. Ct. at 1927\. Kennedy then catalogs the many ways overcrowding causes problems, noting that orderly trial management requires some deadline to [discovery](/wiki/Discovery_%28law%29 "Discovery (law)"), and that the PLRA merely requires overcrowding to be the primary, not the only, cause of the constitutional violation. Kennedy rejects California's argument that out of state prison transfers are an available alternative relief to prisoner reductions because out of state transfers are a prisoner reduction under the PLRA. Furthermore, Kennedy rejects the availability of alternative solutions because “California's Legislature has not been willing or able to allocate the resources necessary to meet this crisis”.131 S. Ct. at 1939\. The PLRA requires prospective relief to be narrowly drawn, extend no further than is necessary to correct the violation, and be the least intrusive means of correcting the violation. The “positive effect” of releasing healthy prisoners who are not members of the class actions is still [narrowly tailored](/wiki/Narrowly_tailored "Narrowly tailored") because, according to Kennedy, the scope of the remedy must be proportional to the scope of the violation. Placing a population limit on the entire state prison system instead of the plaintiffs’ prisons is less intrusive because it allows the State flexibility to shift prisoners between prisons. Additionally, Kennedy writes that the prisoner release order is not overbroad because the State will be allowed to ask the three\-judge court to modify the order, someday. Kennedy finds the three\-judge court met the PLRA requirement that substantial weight must be given to public safety. The “difficult predictive judgments” prospective relief requires means that courts “can and should” rely on [expert testimony](/wiki/Expert_testimony "Expert testimony").131 S. Ct. at 1942\. Noting that there were nearly 10 days of trial on the public safety issue, Kennedy agrees with the three\-judge court that releasing criminals from prison “could even improve public safety” because the prisons are making people worse. Finally, Kennedy finds the three\-judge court did not err with establishing the two\-year deadline. While the two\-year deadline may not be feasible, Kennedy notes that California has already made progress in reducing overcrowding and that it asked the court to reverse, not extend, the order. As such, Kennedy feels that the three\-judge court should give “serious consideration” to any future requests to extend the deadline. As an appendix to the opinion Kennedy includes photographs of California prison conditions, such as the suicide cages.{{cite web\|last1\=Gilson\|first1\=Dave\|title\=California's Jam\-Packed Prisons\|url\=https://www.motherjones.com/slideshows/2011/05/california\-prison\-overcrowding\-photos/suicide\-cage\|publisher\=Mother Jones\|accessdate\=26 September 2015}} ### Dissents #### Justice Scalia's oral dissent Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") disagreed with the Court majority so strongly that he spent over nine minutes after the Opinion Announcement reading his dissent from the bench. Scalia believes that “the only viable claims are those by prisoners who have themselves been denied needed medical treatment. Since the classes certified here are improper, it follows the remedy decreed is also illegal.” #### Justice Scalia's written dissent In his written dissent Scalia, joined by Justice [Clarence Thomas](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas "Clarence Thomas"), elaborates that a constitutionally inadequate prison hospital system cannot authorize the District Court to release healthy prisoners. Because only prisoners who have already been denied medical care have a legal claim, and only those prisoners meet the "bedrock rule" that all class action members' claims are individually viable, the courts cannot "most generously reward" any healthy prisoners.131 S. Ct. at 1952 (Scalia J., dissenting). Scalia thinks it is absurd that "fine physical specimens who have developed intimidating muscles pumping iron in the prison gym" will be ordered released to alleviate prison hospital crowding. Scalia further rejects the "theory of systemic unconstitutionality". Since judges' [factfinding](/wiki/Trier_of_fact "Trier of fact") is traditionally for past or present facts, Scalia thinks it is proper only for elected policy officials to make "broad empirical predictions".131 S. C.t at 1953 (Scalia, J., dissenting), citing {{Bluebook journal \| first\=Donald L. \| last\=Horowitz \| title\=Decreeing Organizational Change: Judicial Supervision of Public Institutions \| volume\=32 \| journal\=Duke L.J. \| page\=1265 \| pin\= \| url\=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/faculty\_scholarship/69/ \| year\=1983}} Because this "structural injunction" made such predictions about the future, Scalia writes "the policy preferences of three District Judges now govern the operation of California's penal system."131 S. Ct. at 1955 (Scalia, J., dissenting). While Scalia acknowledges that the PLRA explicitly contemplates prospective prisoner release orders, he feels that this reading of the statute should be construed so as to not "veer significantly from the historical role" of the courts. Scalia also feels "the Court's respect for state sovereignty has vanished in the case where it most matters." Accusing the majority of affirming "the functional equivalent of 46,000 writs of [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus"), based on its paean to courts", Scalia ridicules the [9th Circuit](/wiki/9th_Circuit "9th Circuit") for having its habeas relief reversed four times that Term alone, three of which involved Judge Reinhardt.131 S. Ct. at 1956 (Scalia, J., dissenting) citing *Harrington v. Richter*, 131 S.Ct. 770 (2011\)(reversing en banc opinion by Reinhardt), *Cullen v. Pinholster*, 131 S.Ct. 1388 (2011\)(reversing Reinhardt in en banc majority); *[Felkner v. Jackson](/wiki/Felkner_v._Jackson "Felkner v. Jackson")*, 131 S.Ct. 1305, 179 L.Ed.2d 374 (2011\) (per curiam)(reversing unpublished memorandum); *[Swarthout v. Cooke](/wiki/Swarthout_v._Cooke "Swarthout v. Cooke")*, 131 S.Ct. 859, 178 L.Ed.2d 732 (2011\) (per curiam)(reversing opinion by Reinhardt). Finally, Scalia castigates Kennedy for what he calls the "bizarre coda" emphasizing that the order can be modified latter. Lampooning Kennedy for stating the obvious, Scalia speculates that the majority is attempting to rein in some headstrong judges and that "a warning, if successful, would achieve the benefit of a marginal reduction in the inevitable murders, robberies, and rapes to be committed by the released inmates. But it would achieve that at the expense of intellectual bankruptcy". #### Justice Alito dissents Justice [Samuel Alito](/wiki/Samuel_Alito "Samuel Alito"), joined by [Chief Justice John Roberts](/wiki/Chief_Justice_John_Roberts "Chief Justice John Roberts"), dissented separately. Alito believes the prison capacity ratio imposed by the three\-judge court will order "the premature release of approximately *46,000 criminals\-the equivalent of three [Army divisions](/wiki/Army_division "Army division").*" As such, Alito first objects that "with the safety of the people of California in the balance the record on this issue should not have been closed." Because "prospective relief must be tailored to present and future, not past, conditions" Alito feels the court needed to extend its factfinding beyond when it closed discovery.{{cite news\|last1\=Taylor Jr.\|first1\=Stuart\|title\=Justice Scalia's Overheated Dissent\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/06/justice\-scalias\-overheated\-dissent/239736/\|accessdate\=26 September 2015\|work\=The Atlantic\|date\=1 June 2011}} Second, Alito rejects that the prisoner relief order extends no further than is necessary. He notes that California could have simply released some of the class action plaintiffs, that is, the medically and mentally ill prisoners. It "exemplifies what went wrong in this case", for Alito, that the judge rejecting this solution responded he would not "say yes, and the hell with everybody else."131 S. Ct. at 1965 (Alito, J., dissenting). Finally, Alito does not believe the three\-judge court met the PLRA requirement to give substantial weight to any adverse impact on public safety. Reciting crime statistics from Philadelphia from the 1990s, Alito deduces that released criminals will commit crimes.131 S. Ct. at 1966, fn. 9, citing Hearing on Prison Reform before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 104th Cong., 1st Sess., 49 (1995\) (statement of [Lynne Abraham](/wiki/Lynne_Abraham "Lynne Abraham"), District Attorney of Philadelphia). Alito warns "I fear that today's decision, like prior prisoner release orders, will lead to a grim roster of victims."{{Bluebook journal \| first\=Joan \| last\=Petersilia \| title\=California Prison Downsizing and Its Impact on Local Criminal Justice Systems \| volume\=8 \| journal\=Harvard L. \& Pol'y Rev. \| page\=327 \| pin\=\| url\=http://harvardlpr.com/wp\-content/uploads/2014/08/HLP208\.pdf \| year\=2014}}
[ "United States Supreme Court Decision\n------------------------------------", "California appealed the order to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") on January 19, 2010,[Jurisdictional statement](http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/09-1233_jurisdictional-statement.pdf), [California Attorney General](/wiki/California_Attorney_General \"California Attorney General\") et al. and the Court postponed jurisdictional questions relating to the appeal on June 14, 2010\\.{{citation \\| title\\= Orders in Pending Cases, Monday, June 14, 2010 \\| url\\= https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/061410zor.pdf \\| date\\= June 14, 2010}} It was argued on November 30, 2010\\.{{Bluebook website\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|title\\=Brown v. Plata \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oyez]] \\|url\\=https://www.oyez.org/cases/2010/09\\-1233 \\|pin\\= \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2018 }}", "### Opinion of the Court", "A five justice majority of the Court affirmed the prisoner release order.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Liptak\\|first1\\=Adam\\|title\\=Justices, 5\\-4, Tell California to Cut Prisoner Population\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/us/24scotus.html?\\_r\\=0\\|accessdate\\=26 September 2015\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=23 May 2011}} [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento \"Sacramento\") native Justice [Anthony Kennedy](/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy \"Anthony Kennedy\") wrote for the Court, first chronicling the troubled 11 years California prisons operated near 200% of design capacity.{{Bluebook journal \\| first\\=Margo \\| last\\=Schlanger \\| title\\=Plata v. Brown and Realignment: Jails, Prisons, Courts, and Politics \\| volume\\=48 \\| journal\\=Harv. C. R. \\-C. L. L. Rev. \\| page\\=165 \\| pin\\= \\| url\\=https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles/463/ \\| year\\=2013}} Kennedy then offers a [parade of horribles](/wiki/Parade_of_horribles \"Parade of horribles\"), including 54 prisoners may share a single toilet, suicidal prisoners have been locked for nearly 24 hours in telephone booth sized cages, and that a preventable death occurs once every five to six days.{{Bluebook journal \\| title\\=Leading Case: Prison Population Reduction Order \\| volume\\=125 \\| journal\\=Harv. L. Rev. \\| page\\=261 \\| pin\\=\\| url\\=https://harvardlawreview.org/2011/11/eighth\\-amendment\\-ae\\-prison\\-population\\-reduction\\-order\\-brown\\-v\\-plata/ \\| year\\=2011}} Because “Prisoners retain the essence of human dignity inherent in all persons”, the courts have a responsibility to remedy violations of the Eighth Amendment's prohibition against [cruel and unusual punishment](/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment \"Cruel and unusual punishment\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Eisen\\|first1\\=Lauren\\-Brooke\\|title\\=Review: 'Mass Incarceration on Trial: A Remarkable Court Decision and the Future of Prisons in America'\\|url\\=https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/mass\\-incarceration\\-trial\\-remarkable\\-court\\-decision\\-and\\-future\\-prisons\\-america\\|accessdate\\=26 September 2015\\|work\\=New York Law Journal\\|date\\=4 August 2014}}", "Kennedy notes that the [Prison Litigation Reform Act](/wiki/Prison_Litigation_Reform_Act \"Prison Litigation Reform Act\") of 1996 (PLRA) only allows a three\\-judge court to order a limit on prison population. A three\\-judge court can only be convened after less intrusive orders have failed and the State has been given a reasonable time to comply with prior orders. Because over 12 years have passed since the initial *Coleman* order, Kennedy rejects California's argument that it has not been given reasonable time to comply. Kennedy likewise finds less intrusive orders have failed because over 70 orders have already been issued and the *Plata* Receiver had stated that a solution other than reducing overcrowding would “all but bankrupt the State of California\".*Brown v. Plata*, 131 S. Ct. 1910, 1931 (2011\\).", "The PLRA's requirement that crowding is the primary cause of the violation is met because, according to Kennedy, deference should be given to the three\\-judge court's findings. Adequate staffing is unfeasible because prisons had a 54% vacancy rate for psychiatrists and they already “would hire any doctor who had ‘a license, a pulse and a pair of shoes’.”131 S. Ct. at 1927\\. Kennedy then catalogs the many ways overcrowding causes problems, noting that orderly trial management requires some deadline to [discovery](/wiki/Discovery_%28law%29 \"Discovery (law)\"), and that the PLRA merely requires overcrowding to be the primary, not the only, cause of the constitutional violation.", "Kennedy rejects California's argument that out of state prison transfers are an available alternative relief to prisoner reductions because out of state transfers are a prisoner reduction under the PLRA. Furthermore, Kennedy rejects the availability of alternative solutions because “California's Legislature has not been willing or able to allocate the resources necessary to meet this crisis”.131 S. Ct. at 1939\\.", "The PLRA requires prospective relief to be narrowly drawn, extend no further than is necessary to correct the violation, and be the least intrusive means of correcting the violation. The “positive effect” of releasing healthy prisoners who are not members of the class actions is still [narrowly tailored](/wiki/Narrowly_tailored \"Narrowly tailored\") because, according to Kennedy, the scope of the remedy must be proportional to the scope of the violation. Placing a population limit on the entire state prison system instead of the plaintiffs’ prisons is less intrusive because it allows the State flexibility to shift prisoners between prisons. Additionally, Kennedy writes that the prisoner release order is not overbroad because the State will be allowed to ask the three\\-judge court to modify the order, someday.", "Kennedy finds the three\\-judge court met the PLRA requirement that substantial weight must be given to public safety. The “difficult predictive judgments” prospective relief requires means that courts “can and should” rely on [expert testimony](/wiki/Expert_testimony \"Expert testimony\").131 S. Ct. at 1942\\. Noting that there were nearly 10 days of trial on the public safety issue, Kennedy agrees with the three\\-judge court that releasing criminals from prison “could even improve public safety” because the prisons are making people worse.", "Finally, Kennedy finds the three\\-judge court did not err with establishing the two\\-year deadline. While the two\\-year deadline may not be feasible, Kennedy notes that California has already made progress in reducing overcrowding and that it asked the court to reverse, not extend, the order. As such, Kennedy feels that the three\\-judge court should give “serious consideration” to any future requests to extend the deadline.", "As an appendix to the opinion Kennedy includes photographs of California prison conditions, such as the suicide cages.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Gilson\\|first1\\=Dave\\|title\\=California's Jam\\-Packed Prisons\\|url\\=https://www.motherjones.com/slideshows/2011/05/california\\-prison\\-overcrowding\\-photos/suicide\\-cage\\|publisher\\=Mother Jones\\|accessdate\\=26 September 2015}}", "### Dissents", "#### Justice Scalia's oral dissent", "Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") disagreed with the Court majority so strongly that he spent over nine minutes after the Opinion Announcement reading his dissent from the bench. Scalia believes that “the only viable claims are those by prisoners who have themselves been denied needed medical treatment. Since the classes certified here are improper, it follows the remedy decreed is also illegal.”", "#### Justice Scalia's written dissent", "In his written dissent Scalia, joined by Justice [Clarence Thomas](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas \"Clarence Thomas\"), elaborates that a constitutionally inadequate prison hospital system cannot authorize the District Court to release healthy prisoners. Because only prisoners who have already been denied medical care have a legal claim, and only those prisoners meet the \"bedrock rule\" that all class action members' claims are individually viable, the courts cannot \"most generously reward\" any healthy prisoners.131 S. Ct. at 1952 (Scalia J., dissenting). Scalia thinks it is absurd that \"fine physical specimens who have developed intimidating muscles pumping iron in the prison gym\" will be ordered released to alleviate prison hospital crowding.", "Scalia further rejects the \"theory of systemic unconstitutionality\". Since judges' [factfinding](/wiki/Trier_of_fact \"Trier of fact\") is traditionally for past or present facts, Scalia thinks it is proper only for elected policy officials to make \"broad empirical predictions\".131 S. C.t at 1953 (Scalia, J., dissenting), citing {{Bluebook journal \\| first\\=Donald L. \\| last\\=Horowitz \\| title\\=Decreeing Organizational Change: Judicial Supervision of Public Institutions \\| volume\\=32 \\| journal\\=Duke L.J. \\| page\\=1265 \\| pin\\= \\| url\\=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/faculty\\_scholarship/69/ \\| year\\=1983}} Because this \"structural injunction\" made such predictions about the future, Scalia writes \"the policy preferences of three District Judges now govern the operation of California's penal system.\"131 S. Ct. at 1955 (Scalia, J., dissenting).", "While Scalia acknowledges that the PLRA explicitly contemplates prospective prisoner release orders, he feels that this reading of the statute should be construed so as to not \"veer significantly from the historical role\" of the courts.", "Scalia also feels \"the Court's respect for state sovereignty has vanished in the case where it most matters.\" Accusing the majority of affirming \"the functional equivalent of 46,000 writs of [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\"), based on its paean to courts\", Scalia ridicules the [9th Circuit](/wiki/9th_Circuit \"9th Circuit\") for having its habeas relief reversed four times that Term alone, three of which involved Judge Reinhardt.131 S. Ct. at 1956 (Scalia, J., dissenting) citing *Harrington v. Richter*, 131 S.Ct. 770 (2011\\)(reversing en banc opinion by Reinhardt), *Cullen v. Pinholster*, 131 S.Ct. 1388 (2011\\)(reversing Reinhardt in en banc majority); *[Felkner v. Jackson](/wiki/Felkner_v._Jackson \"Felkner v. Jackson\")*, 131 S.Ct. 1305, 179 L.Ed.2d 374 (2011\\) (per curiam)(reversing unpublished memorandum); *[Swarthout v. Cooke](/wiki/Swarthout_v._Cooke \"Swarthout v. Cooke\")*, 131 S.Ct. 859, 178 L.Ed.2d 732 (2011\\) (per curiam)(reversing opinion by Reinhardt).", "Finally, Scalia castigates Kennedy for what he calls the \"bizarre coda\" emphasizing that the order can be modified latter. Lampooning Kennedy for stating the obvious, Scalia speculates that the majority is attempting to rein in some headstrong judges and that \"a warning, if successful, would achieve the benefit of a marginal reduction in the inevitable murders, robberies, and rapes to be committed by the released inmates. But it would achieve that at the expense of intellectual bankruptcy\".", "#### Justice Alito dissents", "Justice [Samuel Alito](/wiki/Samuel_Alito \"Samuel Alito\"), joined by [Chief Justice John Roberts](/wiki/Chief_Justice_John_Roberts \"Chief Justice John Roberts\"), dissented separately. Alito believes the prison capacity ratio imposed by the three\\-judge court will order \"the premature release of approximately *46,000 criminals\\-the equivalent of three [Army divisions](/wiki/Army_division \"Army division\").*\"", "As such, Alito first objects that \"with the safety of the people of California in the balance the record on this issue should not have been closed.\" Because \"prospective relief must be tailored to present and future, not past, conditions\" Alito feels the court needed to extend its factfinding beyond when it closed discovery.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Taylor Jr.\\|first1\\=Stuart\\|title\\=Justice Scalia's Overheated Dissent\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/06/justice\\-scalias\\-overheated\\-dissent/239736/\\|accessdate\\=26 September 2015\\|work\\=The Atlantic\\|date\\=1 June 2011}}", "Second, Alito rejects that the prisoner relief order extends no further than is necessary. He notes that California could have simply released some of the class action plaintiffs, that is, the medically and mentally ill prisoners. It \"exemplifies what went wrong in this case\", for Alito, that the judge rejecting this solution responded he would not \"say yes, and the hell with everybody else.\"131 S. Ct. at 1965 (Alito, J., dissenting).", "Finally, Alito does not believe the three\\-judge court met the PLRA requirement to give substantial weight to any adverse impact on public safety. Reciting crime statistics from Philadelphia from the 1990s, Alito deduces that released criminals will commit crimes.131 S. Ct. at 1966, fn. 9, citing Hearing on Prison Reform before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 104th Cong., 1st Sess., 49 (1995\\) (statement of [Lynne Abraham](/wiki/Lynne_Abraham \"Lynne Abraham\"), District Attorney of Philadelphia). Alito warns \"I fear that today's decision, like prior prisoner release orders, will lead to a grim roster of victims.\"{{Bluebook journal \\| first\\=Joan \\| last\\=Petersilia \\| title\\=California Prison Downsizing and Its Impact on Local Criminal Justice Systems \\| volume\\=8 \\| journal\\=Harvard L. \\& Pol'y Rev. \\| page\\=327 \\| pin\\=\\| url\\=http://harvardlpr.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2014/08/HLP208\\.pdf \\| year\\=2014}}", "" ]
### Opinion of the Court A five justice majority of the Court affirmed the prisoner release order.{{cite news\|last1\=Liptak\|first1\=Adam\|title\=Justices, 5\-4, Tell California to Cut Prisoner Population\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/us/24scotus.html?\_r\=0\|accessdate\=26 September 2015\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=23 May 2011}} [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento "Sacramento") native Justice [Anthony Kennedy](/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy "Anthony Kennedy") wrote for the Court, first chronicling the troubled 11 years California prisons operated near 200% of design capacity.{{Bluebook journal \| first\=Margo \| last\=Schlanger \| title\=Plata v. Brown and Realignment: Jails, Prisons, Courts, and Politics \| volume\=48 \| journal\=Harv. C. R. \-C. L. L. Rev. \| page\=165 \| pin\= \| url\=https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles/463/ \| year\=2013}} Kennedy then offers a [parade of horribles](/wiki/Parade_of_horribles "Parade of horribles"), including 54 prisoners may share a single toilet, suicidal prisoners have been locked for nearly 24 hours in telephone booth sized cages, and that a preventable death occurs once every five to six days.{{Bluebook journal \| title\=Leading Case: Prison Population Reduction Order \| volume\=125 \| journal\=Harv. L. Rev. \| page\=261 \| pin\=\| url\=https://harvardlawreview.org/2011/11/eighth\-amendment\-ae\-prison\-population\-reduction\-order\-brown\-v\-plata/ \| year\=2011}} Because “Prisoners retain the essence of human dignity inherent in all persons”, the courts have a responsibility to remedy violations of the Eighth Amendment's prohibition against [cruel and unusual punishment](/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment "Cruel and unusual punishment").{{cite news\|last1\=Eisen\|first1\=Lauren\-Brooke\|title\=Review: 'Mass Incarceration on Trial: A Remarkable Court Decision and the Future of Prisons in America'\|url\=https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/mass\-incarceration\-trial\-remarkable\-court\-decision\-and\-future\-prisons\-america\|accessdate\=26 September 2015\|work\=New York Law Journal\|date\=4 August 2014}} Kennedy notes that the [Prison Litigation Reform Act](/wiki/Prison_Litigation_Reform_Act "Prison Litigation Reform Act") of 1996 (PLRA) only allows a three\-judge court to order a limit on prison population. A three\-judge court can only be convened after less intrusive orders have failed and the State has been given a reasonable time to comply with prior orders. Because over 12 years have passed since the initial *Coleman* order, Kennedy rejects California's argument that it has not been given reasonable time to comply. Kennedy likewise finds less intrusive orders have failed because over 70 orders have already been issued and the *Plata* Receiver had stated that a solution other than reducing overcrowding would “all but bankrupt the State of California".*Brown v. Plata*, 131 S. Ct. 1910, 1931 (2011\). The PLRA's requirement that crowding is the primary cause of the violation is met because, according to Kennedy, deference should be given to the three\-judge court's findings. Adequate staffing is unfeasible because prisons had a 54% vacancy rate for psychiatrists and they already “would hire any doctor who had ‘a license, a pulse and a pair of shoes’.”131 S. Ct. at 1927\. Kennedy then catalogs the many ways overcrowding causes problems, noting that orderly trial management requires some deadline to [discovery](/wiki/Discovery_%28law%29 "Discovery (law)"), and that the PLRA merely requires overcrowding to be the primary, not the only, cause of the constitutional violation. Kennedy rejects California's argument that out of state prison transfers are an available alternative relief to prisoner reductions because out of state transfers are a prisoner reduction under the PLRA. Furthermore, Kennedy rejects the availability of alternative solutions because “California's Legislature has not been willing or able to allocate the resources necessary to meet this crisis”.131 S. Ct. at 1939\. The PLRA requires prospective relief to be narrowly drawn, extend no further than is necessary to correct the violation, and be the least intrusive means of correcting the violation. The “positive effect” of releasing healthy prisoners who are not members of the class actions is still [narrowly tailored](/wiki/Narrowly_tailored "Narrowly tailored") because, according to Kennedy, the scope of the remedy must be proportional to the scope of the violation. Placing a population limit on the entire state prison system instead of the plaintiffs’ prisons is less intrusive because it allows the State flexibility to shift prisoners between prisons. Additionally, Kennedy writes that the prisoner release order is not overbroad because the State will be allowed to ask the three\-judge court to modify the order, someday. Kennedy finds the three\-judge court met the PLRA requirement that substantial weight must be given to public safety. The “difficult predictive judgments” prospective relief requires means that courts “can and should” rely on [expert testimony](/wiki/Expert_testimony "Expert testimony").131 S. Ct. at 1942\. Noting that there were nearly 10 days of trial on the public safety issue, Kennedy agrees with the three\-judge court that releasing criminals from prison “could even improve public safety” because the prisons are making people worse. Finally, Kennedy finds the three\-judge court did not err with establishing the two\-year deadline. While the two\-year deadline may not be feasible, Kennedy notes that California has already made progress in reducing overcrowding and that it asked the court to reverse, not extend, the order. As such, Kennedy feels that the three\-judge court should give “serious consideration” to any future requests to extend the deadline. As an appendix to the opinion Kennedy includes photographs of California prison conditions, such as the suicide cages.{{cite web\|last1\=Gilson\|first1\=Dave\|title\=California's Jam\-Packed Prisons\|url\=https://www.motherjones.com/slideshows/2011/05/california\-prison\-overcrowding\-photos/suicide\-cage\|publisher\=Mother Jones\|accessdate\=26 September 2015}}
[ "### Opinion of the Court", "A five justice majority of the Court affirmed the prisoner release order.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Liptak\\|first1\\=Adam\\|title\\=Justices, 5\\-4, Tell California to Cut Prisoner Population\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/us/24scotus.html?\\_r\\=0\\|accessdate\\=26 September 2015\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=23 May 2011}} [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento \"Sacramento\") native Justice [Anthony Kennedy](/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy \"Anthony Kennedy\") wrote for the Court, first chronicling the troubled 11 years California prisons operated near 200% of design capacity.{{Bluebook journal \\| first\\=Margo \\| last\\=Schlanger \\| title\\=Plata v. Brown and Realignment: Jails, Prisons, Courts, and Politics \\| volume\\=48 \\| journal\\=Harv. C. R. \\-C. L. L. Rev. \\| page\\=165 \\| pin\\= \\| url\\=https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles/463/ \\| year\\=2013}} Kennedy then offers a [parade of horribles](/wiki/Parade_of_horribles \"Parade of horribles\"), including 54 prisoners may share a single toilet, suicidal prisoners have been locked for nearly 24 hours in telephone booth sized cages, and that a preventable death occurs once every five to six days.{{Bluebook journal \\| title\\=Leading Case: Prison Population Reduction Order \\| volume\\=125 \\| journal\\=Harv. L. Rev. \\| page\\=261 \\| pin\\=\\| url\\=https://harvardlawreview.org/2011/11/eighth\\-amendment\\-ae\\-prison\\-population\\-reduction\\-order\\-brown\\-v\\-plata/ \\| year\\=2011}} Because “Prisoners retain the essence of human dignity inherent in all persons”, the courts have a responsibility to remedy violations of the Eighth Amendment's prohibition against [cruel and unusual punishment](/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment \"Cruel and unusual punishment\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Eisen\\|first1\\=Lauren\\-Brooke\\|title\\=Review: 'Mass Incarceration on Trial: A Remarkable Court Decision and the Future of Prisons in America'\\|url\\=https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/mass\\-incarceration\\-trial\\-remarkable\\-court\\-decision\\-and\\-future\\-prisons\\-america\\|accessdate\\=26 September 2015\\|work\\=New York Law Journal\\|date\\=4 August 2014}}", "Kennedy notes that the [Prison Litigation Reform Act](/wiki/Prison_Litigation_Reform_Act \"Prison Litigation Reform Act\") of 1996 (PLRA) only allows a three\\-judge court to order a limit on prison population. A three\\-judge court can only be convened after less intrusive orders have failed and the State has been given a reasonable time to comply with prior orders. Because over 12 years have passed since the initial *Coleman* order, Kennedy rejects California's argument that it has not been given reasonable time to comply. Kennedy likewise finds less intrusive orders have failed because over 70 orders have already been issued and the *Plata* Receiver had stated that a solution other than reducing overcrowding would “all but bankrupt the State of California\".*Brown v. Plata*, 131 S. Ct. 1910, 1931 (2011\\).", "The PLRA's requirement that crowding is the primary cause of the violation is met because, according to Kennedy, deference should be given to the three\\-judge court's findings. Adequate staffing is unfeasible because prisons had a 54% vacancy rate for psychiatrists and they already “would hire any doctor who had ‘a license, a pulse and a pair of shoes’.”131 S. Ct. at 1927\\. Kennedy then catalogs the many ways overcrowding causes problems, noting that orderly trial management requires some deadline to [discovery](/wiki/Discovery_%28law%29 \"Discovery (law)\"), and that the PLRA merely requires overcrowding to be the primary, not the only, cause of the constitutional violation.", "Kennedy rejects California's argument that out of state prison transfers are an available alternative relief to prisoner reductions because out of state transfers are a prisoner reduction under the PLRA. Furthermore, Kennedy rejects the availability of alternative solutions because “California's Legislature has not been willing or able to allocate the resources necessary to meet this crisis”.131 S. Ct. at 1939\\.", "The PLRA requires prospective relief to be narrowly drawn, extend no further than is necessary to correct the violation, and be the least intrusive means of correcting the violation. The “positive effect” of releasing healthy prisoners who are not members of the class actions is still [narrowly tailored](/wiki/Narrowly_tailored \"Narrowly tailored\") because, according to Kennedy, the scope of the remedy must be proportional to the scope of the violation. Placing a population limit on the entire state prison system instead of the plaintiffs’ prisons is less intrusive because it allows the State flexibility to shift prisoners between prisons. Additionally, Kennedy writes that the prisoner release order is not overbroad because the State will be allowed to ask the three\\-judge court to modify the order, someday.", "Kennedy finds the three\\-judge court met the PLRA requirement that substantial weight must be given to public safety. The “difficult predictive judgments” prospective relief requires means that courts “can and should” rely on [expert testimony](/wiki/Expert_testimony \"Expert testimony\").131 S. Ct. at 1942\\. Noting that there were nearly 10 days of trial on the public safety issue, Kennedy agrees with the three\\-judge court that releasing criminals from prison “could even improve public safety” because the prisons are making people worse.", "Finally, Kennedy finds the three\\-judge court did not err with establishing the two\\-year deadline. While the two\\-year deadline may not be feasible, Kennedy notes that California has already made progress in reducing overcrowding and that it asked the court to reverse, not extend, the order. As such, Kennedy feels that the three\\-judge court should give “serious consideration” to any future requests to extend the deadline.", "As an appendix to the opinion Kennedy includes photographs of California prison conditions, such as the suicide cages.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Gilson\\|first1\\=Dave\\|title\\=California's Jam\\-Packed Prisons\\|url\\=https://www.motherjones.com/slideshows/2011/05/california\\-prison\\-overcrowding\\-photos/suicide\\-cage\\|publisher\\=Mother Jones\\|accessdate\\=26 September 2015}}", "" ]
### Dissents #### Justice Scalia's oral dissent Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia "Antonin Scalia") disagreed with the Court majority so strongly that he spent over nine minutes after the Opinion Announcement reading his dissent from the bench. Scalia believes that “the only viable claims are those by prisoners who have themselves been denied needed medical treatment. Since the classes certified here are improper, it follows the remedy decreed is also illegal.” #### Justice Scalia's written dissent In his written dissent Scalia, joined by Justice [Clarence Thomas](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas "Clarence Thomas"), elaborates that a constitutionally inadequate prison hospital system cannot authorize the District Court to release healthy prisoners. Because only prisoners who have already been denied medical care have a legal claim, and only those prisoners meet the "bedrock rule" that all class action members' claims are individually viable, the courts cannot "most generously reward" any healthy prisoners.131 S. Ct. at 1952 (Scalia J., dissenting). Scalia thinks it is absurd that "fine physical specimens who have developed intimidating muscles pumping iron in the prison gym" will be ordered released to alleviate prison hospital crowding. Scalia further rejects the "theory of systemic unconstitutionality". Since judges' [factfinding](/wiki/Trier_of_fact "Trier of fact") is traditionally for past or present facts, Scalia thinks it is proper only for elected policy officials to make "broad empirical predictions".131 S. C.t at 1953 (Scalia, J., dissenting), citing {{Bluebook journal \| first\=Donald L. \| last\=Horowitz \| title\=Decreeing Organizational Change: Judicial Supervision of Public Institutions \| volume\=32 \| journal\=Duke L.J. \| page\=1265 \| pin\= \| url\=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/faculty\_scholarship/69/ \| year\=1983}} Because this "structural injunction" made such predictions about the future, Scalia writes "the policy preferences of three District Judges now govern the operation of California's penal system."131 S. Ct. at 1955 (Scalia, J., dissenting). While Scalia acknowledges that the PLRA explicitly contemplates prospective prisoner release orders, he feels that this reading of the statute should be construed so as to not "veer significantly from the historical role" of the courts. Scalia also feels "the Court's respect for state sovereignty has vanished in the case where it most matters." Accusing the majority of affirming "the functional equivalent of 46,000 writs of [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus"), based on its paean to courts", Scalia ridicules the [9th Circuit](/wiki/9th_Circuit "9th Circuit") for having its habeas relief reversed four times that Term alone, three of which involved Judge Reinhardt.131 S. Ct. at 1956 (Scalia, J., dissenting) citing *Harrington v. Richter*, 131 S.Ct. 770 (2011\)(reversing en banc opinion by Reinhardt), *Cullen v. Pinholster*, 131 S.Ct. 1388 (2011\)(reversing Reinhardt in en banc majority); *[Felkner v. Jackson](/wiki/Felkner_v._Jackson "Felkner v. Jackson")*, 131 S.Ct. 1305, 179 L.Ed.2d 374 (2011\) (per curiam)(reversing unpublished memorandum); *[Swarthout v. Cooke](/wiki/Swarthout_v._Cooke "Swarthout v. Cooke")*, 131 S.Ct. 859, 178 L.Ed.2d 732 (2011\) (per curiam)(reversing opinion by Reinhardt). Finally, Scalia castigates Kennedy for what he calls the "bizarre coda" emphasizing that the order can be modified latter. Lampooning Kennedy for stating the obvious, Scalia speculates that the majority is attempting to rein in some headstrong judges and that "a warning, if successful, would achieve the benefit of a marginal reduction in the inevitable murders, robberies, and rapes to be committed by the released inmates. But it would achieve that at the expense of intellectual bankruptcy". #### Justice Alito dissents Justice [Samuel Alito](/wiki/Samuel_Alito "Samuel Alito"), joined by [Chief Justice John Roberts](/wiki/Chief_Justice_John_Roberts "Chief Justice John Roberts"), dissented separately. Alito believes the prison capacity ratio imposed by the three\-judge court will order "the premature release of approximately *46,000 criminals\-the equivalent of three [Army divisions](/wiki/Army_division "Army division").*" As such, Alito first objects that "with the safety of the people of California in the balance the record on this issue should not have been closed." Because "prospective relief must be tailored to present and future, not past, conditions" Alito feels the court needed to extend its factfinding beyond when it closed discovery.{{cite news\|last1\=Taylor Jr.\|first1\=Stuart\|title\=Justice Scalia's Overheated Dissent\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/06/justice\-scalias\-overheated\-dissent/239736/\|accessdate\=26 September 2015\|work\=The Atlantic\|date\=1 June 2011}} Second, Alito rejects that the prisoner relief order extends no further than is necessary. He notes that California could have simply released some of the class action plaintiffs, that is, the medically and mentally ill prisoners. It "exemplifies what went wrong in this case", for Alito, that the judge rejecting this solution responded he would not "say yes, and the hell with everybody else."131 S. Ct. at 1965 (Alito, J., dissenting). Finally, Alito does not believe the three\-judge court met the PLRA requirement to give substantial weight to any adverse impact on public safety. Reciting crime statistics from Philadelphia from the 1990s, Alito deduces that released criminals will commit crimes.131 S. Ct. at 1966, fn. 9, citing Hearing on Prison Reform before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 104th Cong., 1st Sess., 49 (1995\) (statement of [Lynne Abraham](/wiki/Lynne_Abraham "Lynne Abraham"), District Attorney of Philadelphia). Alito warns "I fear that today's decision, like prior prisoner release orders, will lead to a grim roster of victims."{{Bluebook journal \| first\=Joan \| last\=Petersilia \| title\=California Prison Downsizing and Its Impact on Local Criminal Justice Systems \| volume\=8 \| journal\=Harvard L. \& Pol'y Rev. \| page\=327 \| pin\=\| url\=http://harvardlpr.com/wp\-content/uploads/2014/08/HLP208\.pdf \| year\=2014}}
[ "### Dissents", "#### Justice Scalia's oral dissent", "Justice [Antonin Scalia](/wiki/Antonin_Scalia \"Antonin Scalia\") disagreed with the Court majority so strongly that he spent over nine minutes after the Opinion Announcement reading his dissent from the bench. Scalia believes that “the only viable claims are those by prisoners who have themselves been denied needed medical treatment. Since the classes certified here are improper, it follows the remedy decreed is also illegal.”", "#### Justice Scalia's written dissent", "In his written dissent Scalia, joined by Justice [Clarence Thomas](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas \"Clarence Thomas\"), elaborates that a constitutionally inadequate prison hospital system cannot authorize the District Court to release healthy prisoners. Because only prisoners who have already been denied medical care have a legal claim, and only those prisoners meet the \"bedrock rule\" that all class action members' claims are individually viable, the courts cannot \"most generously reward\" any healthy prisoners.131 S. Ct. at 1952 (Scalia J., dissenting). Scalia thinks it is absurd that \"fine physical specimens who have developed intimidating muscles pumping iron in the prison gym\" will be ordered released to alleviate prison hospital crowding.", "Scalia further rejects the \"theory of systemic unconstitutionality\". Since judges' [factfinding](/wiki/Trier_of_fact \"Trier of fact\") is traditionally for past or present facts, Scalia thinks it is proper only for elected policy officials to make \"broad empirical predictions\".131 S. C.t at 1953 (Scalia, J., dissenting), citing {{Bluebook journal \\| first\\=Donald L. \\| last\\=Horowitz \\| title\\=Decreeing Organizational Change: Judicial Supervision of Public Institutions \\| volume\\=32 \\| journal\\=Duke L.J. \\| page\\=1265 \\| pin\\= \\| url\\=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/faculty\\_scholarship/69/ \\| year\\=1983}} Because this \"structural injunction\" made such predictions about the future, Scalia writes \"the policy preferences of three District Judges now govern the operation of California's penal system.\"131 S. Ct. at 1955 (Scalia, J., dissenting).", "While Scalia acknowledges that the PLRA explicitly contemplates prospective prisoner release orders, he feels that this reading of the statute should be construed so as to not \"veer significantly from the historical role\" of the courts.", "Scalia also feels \"the Court's respect for state sovereignty has vanished in the case where it most matters.\" Accusing the majority of affirming \"the functional equivalent of 46,000 writs of [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\"), based on its paean to courts\", Scalia ridicules the [9th Circuit](/wiki/9th_Circuit \"9th Circuit\") for having its habeas relief reversed four times that Term alone, three of which involved Judge Reinhardt.131 S. Ct. at 1956 (Scalia, J., dissenting) citing *Harrington v. Richter*, 131 S.Ct. 770 (2011\\)(reversing en banc opinion by Reinhardt), *Cullen v. Pinholster*, 131 S.Ct. 1388 (2011\\)(reversing Reinhardt in en banc majority); *[Felkner v. Jackson](/wiki/Felkner_v._Jackson \"Felkner v. Jackson\")*, 131 S.Ct. 1305, 179 L.Ed.2d 374 (2011\\) (per curiam)(reversing unpublished memorandum); *[Swarthout v. Cooke](/wiki/Swarthout_v._Cooke \"Swarthout v. Cooke\")*, 131 S.Ct. 859, 178 L.Ed.2d 732 (2011\\) (per curiam)(reversing opinion by Reinhardt).", "Finally, Scalia castigates Kennedy for what he calls the \"bizarre coda\" emphasizing that the order can be modified latter. Lampooning Kennedy for stating the obvious, Scalia speculates that the majority is attempting to rein in some headstrong judges and that \"a warning, if successful, would achieve the benefit of a marginal reduction in the inevitable murders, robberies, and rapes to be committed by the released inmates. But it would achieve that at the expense of intellectual bankruptcy\".", "#### Justice Alito dissents", "Justice [Samuel Alito](/wiki/Samuel_Alito \"Samuel Alito\"), joined by [Chief Justice John Roberts](/wiki/Chief_Justice_John_Roberts \"Chief Justice John Roberts\"), dissented separately. Alito believes the prison capacity ratio imposed by the three\\-judge court will order \"the premature release of approximately *46,000 criminals\\-the equivalent of three [Army divisions](/wiki/Army_division \"Army division\").*\"", "As such, Alito first objects that \"with the safety of the people of California in the balance the record on this issue should not have been closed.\" Because \"prospective relief must be tailored to present and future, not past, conditions\" Alito feels the court needed to extend its factfinding beyond when it closed discovery.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Taylor Jr.\\|first1\\=Stuart\\|title\\=Justice Scalia's Overheated Dissent\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/06/justice\\-scalias\\-overheated\\-dissent/239736/\\|accessdate\\=26 September 2015\\|work\\=The Atlantic\\|date\\=1 June 2011}}", "Second, Alito rejects that the prisoner relief order extends no further than is necessary. He notes that California could have simply released some of the class action plaintiffs, that is, the medically and mentally ill prisoners. It \"exemplifies what went wrong in this case\", for Alito, that the judge rejecting this solution responded he would not \"say yes, and the hell with everybody else.\"131 S. Ct. at 1965 (Alito, J., dissenting).", "Finally, Alito does not believe the three\\-judge court met the PLRA requirement to give substantial weight to any adverse impact on public safety. Reciting crime statistics from Philadelphia from the 1990s, Alito deduces that released criminals will commit crimes.131 S. Ct. at 1966, fn. 9, citing Hearing on Prison Reform before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 104th Cong., 1st Sess., 49 (1995\\) (statement of [Lynne Abraham](/wiki/Lynne_Abraham \"Lynne Abraham\"), District Attorney of Philadelphia). Alito warns \"I fear that today's decision, like prior prisoner release orders, will lead to a grim roster of victims.\"{{Bluebook journal \\| first\\=Joan \\| last\\=Petersilia \\| title\\=California Prison Downsizing and Its Impact on Local Criminal Justice Systems \\| volume\\=8 \\| journal\\=Harvard L. \\& Pol'y Rev. \\| page\\=327 \\| pin\\=\\| url\\=http://harvardlpr.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2014/08/HLP208\\.pdf \\| year\\=2014}}", "" ]
#### Justice Scalia's written dissent In his written dissent Scalia, joined by Justice [Clarence Thomas](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas "Clarence Thomas"), elaborates that a constitutionally inadequate prison hospital system cannot authorize the District Court to release healthy prisoners. Because only prisoners who have already been denied medical care have a legal claim, and only those prisoners meet the "bedrock rule" that all class action members' claims are individually viable, the courts cannot "most generously reward" any healthy prisoners.131 S. Ct. at 1952 (Scalia J., dissenting). Scalia thinks it is absurd that "fine physical specimens who have developed intimidating muscles pumping iron in the prison gym" will be ordered released to alleviate prison hospital crowding. Scalia further rejects the "theory of systemic unconstitutionality". Since judges' [factfinding](/wiki/Trier_of_fact "Trier of fact") is traditionally for past or present facts, Scalia thinks it is proper only for elected policy officials to make "broad empirical predictions".131 S. C.t at 1953 (Scalia, J., dissenting), citing {{Bluebook journal \| first\=Donald L. \| last\=Horowitz \| title\=Decreeing Organizational Change: Judicial Supervision of Public Institutions \| volume\=32 \| journal\=Duke L.J. \| page\=1265 \| pin\= \| url\=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/faculty\_scholarship/69/ \| year\=1983}} Because this "structural injunction" made such predictions about the future, Scalia writes "the policy preferences of three District Judges now govern the operation of California's penal system."131 S. Ct. at 1955 (Scalia, J., dissenting). While Scalia acknowledges that the PLRA explicitly contemplates prospective prisoner release orders, he feels that this reading of the statute should be construed so as to not "veer significantly from the historical role" of the courts. Scalia also feels "the Court's respect for state sovereignty has vanished in the case where it most matters." Accusing the majority of affirming "the functional equivalent of 46,000 writs of [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus"), based on its paean to courts", Scalia ridicules the [9th Circuit](/wiki/9th_Circuit "9th Circuit") for having its habeas relief reversed four times that Term alone, three of which involved Judge Reinhardt.131 S. Ct. at 1956 (Scalia, J., dissenting) citing *Harrington v. Richter*, 131 S.Ct. 770 (2011\)(reversing en banc opinion by Reinhardt), *Cullen v. Pinholster*, 131 S.Ct. 1388 (2011\)(reversing Reinhardt in en banc majority); *[Felkner v. Jackson](/wiki/Felkner_v._Jackson "Felkner v. Jackson")*, 131 S.Ct. 1305, 179 L.Ed.2d 374 (2011\) (per curiam)(reversing unpublished memorandum); *[Swarthout v. Cooke](/wiki/Swarthout_v._Cooke "Swarthout v. Cooke")*, 131 S.Ct. 859, 178 L.Ed.2d 732 (2011\) (per curiam)(reversing opinion by Reinhardt). Finally, Scalia castigates Kennedy for what he calls the "bizarre coda" emphasizing that the order can be modified latter. Lampooning Kennedy for stating the obvious, Scalia speculates that the majority is attempting to rein in some headstrong judges and that "a warning, if successful, would achieve the benefit of a marginal reduction in the inevitable murders, robberies, and rapes to be committed by the released inmates. But it would achieve that at the expense of intellectual bankruptcy".
[ "#### Justice Scalia's written dissent", "In his written dissent Scalia, joined by Justice [Clarence Thomas](/wiki/Clarence_Thomas \"Clarence Thomas\"), elaborates that a constitutionally inadequate prison hospital system cannot authorize the District Court to release healthy prisoners. Because only prisoners who have already been denied medical care have a legal claim, and only those prisoners meet the \"bedrock rule\" that all class action members' claims are individually viable, the courts cannot \"most generously reward\" any healthy prisoners.131 S. Ct. at 1952 (Scalia J., dissenting). Scalia thinks it is absurd that \"fine physical specimens who have developed intimidating muscles pumping iron in the prison gym\" will be ordered released to alleviate prison hospital crowding.", "Scalia further rejects the \"theory of systemic unconstitutionality\". Since judges' [factfinding](/wiki/Trier_of_fact \"Trier of fact\") is traditionally for past or present facts, Scalia thinks it is proper only for elected policy officials to make \"broad empirical predictions\".131 S. C.t at 1953 (Scalia, J., dissenting), citing {{Bluebook journal \\| first\\=Donald L. \\| last\\=Horowitz \\| title\\=Decreeing Organizational Change: Judicial Supervision of Public Institutions \\| volume\\=32 \\| journal\\=Duke L.J. \\| page\\=1265 \\| pin\\= \\| url\\=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/faculty\\_scholarship/69/ \\| year\\=1983}} Because this \"structural injunction\" made such predictions about the future, Scalia writes \"the policy preferences of three District Judges now govern the operation of California's penal system.\"131 S. Ct. at 1955 (Scalia, J., dissenting).", "While Scalia acknowledges that the PLRA explicitly contemplates prospective prisoner release orders, he feels that this reading of the statute should be construed so as to not \"veer significantly from the historical role\" of the courts.", "Scalia also feels \"the Court's respect for state sovereignty has vanished in the case where it most matters.\" Accusing the majority of affirming \"the functional equivalent of 46,000 writs of [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\"), based on its paean to courts\", Scalia ridicules the [9th Circuit](/wiki/9th_Circuit \"9th Circuit\") for having its habeas relief reversed four times that Term alone, three of which involved Judge Reinhardt.131 S. Ct. at 1956 (Scalia, J., dissenting) citing *Harrington v. Richter*, 131 S.Ct. 770 (2011\\)(reversing en banc opinion by Reinhardt), *Cullen v. Pinholster*, 131 S.Ct. 1388 (2011\\)(reversing Reinhardt in en banc majority); *[Felkner v. Jackson](/wiki/Felkner_v._Jackson \"Felkner v. Jackson\")*, 131 S.Ct. 1305, 179 L.Ed.2d 374 (2011\\) (per curiam)(reversing unpublished memorandum); *[Swarthout v. Cooke](/wiki/Swarthout_v._Cooke \"Swarthout v. Cooke\")*, 131 S.Ct. 859, 178 L.Ed.2d 732 (2011\\) (per curiam)(reversing opinion by Reinhardt).", "Finally, Scalia castigates Kennedy for what he calls the \"bizarre coda\" emphasizing that the order can be modified latter. Lampooning Kennedy for stating the obvious, Scalia speculates that the majority is attempting to rein in some headstrong judges and that \"a warning, if successful, would achieve the benefit of a marginal reduction in the inevitable murders, robberies, and rapes to be committed by the released inmates. But it would achieve that at the expense of intellectual bankruptcy\".", "" ]
Implications of *Brown v. Plata* -------------------------------- ### 2011 Public Safety Realignment Initiative (AB 109\) Instead of releasing state prison inmates, California simply moved them to county jails. After the case was argued but before Court issued its opinion the California legislature passed the 2011 [Public Safety Realignment initiative](/wiki/Public_Safety_Realignment_initiative "Public Safety Realignment initiative"), or AB 109\.[Joan Petersilia \& Francis T. Cullen, *Liberal But Not Stupid: Meeting the Promise of Downsizing Prisons*, 2 Stanford Journal of Criminal Law and Policy 1 (2015\).](http://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/default/files/publication/580250/doc/slspublic/Petersilia_Liberal%20But%20Not%20Stupid_2015%20April.pdf) State officials felt it was inefficient that the state was subject to a 46,000 prisoner reduction order while the county jails contained 10,000 empty beds. As such, the legislation restructured California's penal system mostly by shifting prison inmates, which are subject to the court order and an expense to the state, to county jails, which are not subject to the court order and are an expense of the counties.[Rebecca Sullivan Silbert, THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT REALIGNMENT IN CALIFORNIA, Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Law and Social Policy (February 2012\).](https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/bccj/Thinking_Critically_3-14-2012.pdf) Almost 500 felonies were redefined by the legislature so that they could only be served in county jail and the state provided that "non\-non\-nons", that is non\-serious, non\-violent, and non\-sexual offenders, will always serve their time in county jail.[Lisa T. Quan, Sara Abarbanel \& Debbie Mukamal, Reallocation of Responsibility: Changes to the Correctional System in California Post\-Realignment, Stanford Criminal Justice Center (January 2014\).](http://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/default/files/publication/458403/doc/slspublic/CC%20Bulletin%20Jan%2014.pdf) From 2010 to 2012 California's prison population was reduced by 18% while its jail population increased by 12%. Additionally, the state run probation system dropped by 46% while the county run parole population increased by 34%. All told, prison realignment resulted in the largest drop in California's prisoner population since the 34% of inmates population between [1969](/wiki/1969 "1969") and [1976](/wiki/1976 "1976"). ### Population reduction California met the initial court imposed benchmarks. The state released a [white paper](/wiki/White_paper "White paper") on "The Future of California Corrections" known as “The Blueprint” which planned on seeking the kind of order modification Justice Kennedy had anticipated. [Governor Jerry Brown](/wiki/Jerry_Brown "Jerry Brown") then announced that the prison crisis had been resolved, terminated his emergency powers, and asked to modify the court order.{{cite news\|last1\=Walshe\|first1\=Sadhbh\|title\=Governor Jerry Brown, California's prison crisis is not over\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/10/governor\-jerry\-brown\-california\-prison\-crisis\|accessdate\=29 September 2015\|work\=The Guardian\|date\=10 January 2013}} The three\-judge court refused any modification, threatening to hold the governor in [contempt of court](/wiki/Contempt_of_court "Contempt of court").{{cite news\|last1\=Cohen\|first1\=Andrew\|title\=Jerry Brown, Constitutional Scofflaw\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/06/jerry\-brown\-constitutional\-scofflaw/277095/\|accessdate\=29 September 2015\|work\=The Atlantic\|date\=22 June 2013}} Judge Reinhardt even appended to his opinion a table of state laws, including appropriation limits, that were now "waived" so that the governor could obey his order.{{cite court \|litigants\=Coleman v. Brown \|vol\=952 \|reporter\=F. Supp. 2d \|opinion\=901 \|pinpoint\= \|court\=\[\[E.D. Cal.]] \& \[\[N.D. Cal.]] \|date\=2013 \|url\=https://www.leagle.com/decision/infdco20130621902 \|accessdate\=2018\-06\-02 \|quote\=}} California applied for a stay of the order from the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court denied the stay without comment.{{cite news\|last1\=Cohen\|first1\=Andrew\|title\=The Irony of Justice Scalia's California Prison Rant\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/08/the\-irony\-of\-justice\-scalias\-california\-prison\-rant/278349/\|accessdate\=29 September 2015\|work\=The Atlantic\|date\=5 August 2013}} However, Justice Alito would have granted the stay and Justice Scalia even wrote a dissent, joined by Justice Thomas. Scalia largely quotes his dissent to the Court's earlier opinion, noting that he had correctly predicted that the three\-judge court would be unwilling to modify its order. He derides that, "The bluff has been called, and the Court has nary a pair to lay on the table."[*Brown v. Plata*, 134 S. Ct. 1 (U.S. 2013\).](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2861929832403071766&hl=en&as_sdt=2006) Nevertheless, California failed to meet the three\-judge court's deadline and needed to be granted another extension until February 2016\.{{cite news\|last1\=Paige\|first1\=St. John\|title\=Gov. Jerry Brown's prison reforms haven't lived up to his billing\|url\=http://www.latimes.com/local/politics/la\-me\-ff\-pol\-brown\-prisons\-20140622\-story.html\#page\=1\|accessdate\=29 September 2015\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=21 June 2014}} The California electorate further reduced defined felonies by passing [California Proposition 47 (2014\)](/wiki/California_Proposition_47_%282014%29 "California Proposition 47 (2014)").{{cite news\|last1\=Ford\|first1\=Matt\|title\=Californians Vote to Weaken Mass Incarceration\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/11/california\-prop\-47\-mass\-incarceration/382372/\|accessdate\=29 September 2015\|work\=The Atlantic\|date\=5 November 2014}} The state must still submit monthly updates to the Three Judge Court regarding population reduction and other efforts to implement the decision. As of the last update on May 9, 2018, the prison population was at 134\.7% of its design capacity.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/docs/3JP\-May\-2018\.pdf\|title\=DEFENDANTS' MAY 2018 STATUS REPORT IN RESPONSE TO FEBRUARY 10, 2014 ORDER\|last\=Case 3:01\-cv\-01351\-JST Document 3030\|date\=May 15, 2018\|website\=\|access\-date\=}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/3\-judge\-panel.html\|title\=Three\-Judge Court Updates \|website\=www.cdcr.ca.gov\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}} 114,618 inmates are in state institutions, while 3,553 inmates are in out of state facilities as of May 9, 2018\. The final update of 2017 reported 114,813 inmates in state institutions, with 4,315 in out of state facilities.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/docs/3JP\-Dec\-2017\.pdf\|title\=DEFENDANTS' DECEMBER 2017 STATUS REPORT IN RESPONSE TO FEBRUARY 10, 2014 ORDER\|last\=Case 3:01\-cv\-01351\-JST Document 3000\|date\=\|website\=\|access\-date\=\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625132457/https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/docs/3JP\-Dec\-2017\.pdf\|archive\-date\=June 25, 2018\|url\-status\=dead}} ### Cost reduction In the first few years after the decision, California prison costs declined. [Governor Brown](/wiki/Jerry_Brown "Jerry Brown") framed efforts to implement *Brown v. Plata* as a way to decrease costs.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-california\-prison\-budget\-insight\-idUSKBN0UK0J520160106\|title\=California prison reforms have reduced inmate numbers, not costs\|last\=Respaut\|first\=Robin\|work\=U.S.\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-28\|language\=en\-US}} While the prison budget initially declined after the decision, the prison budget then increased beginning in 2013\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2010\-11\-EN/Enacted/agencies.html\|title\=Enacted Budget \- Enacted Budget Detail\|website\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2011\-12\-EN/Enacted/agencies.html\|title\=Enacted Budget \- Enacted Budget Detail\|website\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2012\-13\-EN/Enacted/agencies.html\|title\=Enacted Budget \- Enacted Budget Detail\|website\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2013\-14/Enacted/agencies.html\|title\=Enacted Budget \- Enacted Budget Detail\|website\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2014\-15/Enacted/agencies.html\|title\=Enacted Budget \- Enacted Budget Detail\|website\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2015\-16/Enacted/agencies.html\|title\=Enacted Budget \- Enacted Budget Detail\|website\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2016\-17/Enacted/agencies.html\|title\=Enacted Budget \- Enacted Budget Detail\|website\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/budget/publication/\#/e/2017\-18/BudgetDetail\|title\=Ebudget\|website\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30}} Some state officials maintain that costs have increased because of medical care enhancements (including a new medical facility and additional funding for medication) ordered by *Brown v. Plata*.{{Cite news\|url\=http://calbudgetcenter.org/resources/despite\-the\-recent\-decline\-in\-incarceration\-corrections\-spending\-in\-the\-governors\-proposed\-2018\-19\-budget\-remains\-high/\|title\=Despite the Recent Decline in Incarceration, Corrections Spending in the Governor's Proposed 2018\-19 Budget Remains High \- California Budget \& Policy Center\|date\=2018\-04\-25\|work\=California Budget \& Policy Center\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-30\|language\=en\-US}} However, others maintain that cost increases are due to increased spending on personnel. The state changed how they calculate the appropriate number of personnel. Previously, the state would hire one new prison guard per six new inmates; now, the state staffs each prison based on their size and layout. ### Mental health care improvements Implementation of mental health care facilities improvements are still ongoing. The Program Guide, which is the remedial implementation plan for *Coleman v. Brown*, mandated the following: "1\) Any inmate referred to a Mental Health Crisis Bed must be transferred within 24 hours of referral; 2\) Any inmate referred to any acute inpatient mental health placement be transferred within ten days of referral, if accepted by Department of State Hospitals; 3\) Any inmate referred to any intermediate health care placement be transferred within 30 days of referral, if accepted by the Department of State Hospitals."Order on Coleman v. Brown, Case 2:90\-cv\-00520\-KJM\-DB, Document 5610 (Apr. 19 2017\). On April 19, 2017, [Judge Kimberly Mueller](/wiki/Kimberly_J._Mueller "Kimberly J. Mueller") held that the state was not in compliance with the Program Guide timelines for transfers to mental health care facilities. [Judge Mueller](/wiki/Kimberly_J._Mueller "Kimberly J. Mueller") ruled that if the state was not in compliance by May 15, 2017, she would enforce her order with civil contempt proceedings or monetary sanctions. On February 21, 2018, the state appealed this order to the [Ninth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit"), claiming that the District Court "abused its discretion because perfect compliance with the Program Guide is not relief that is necessary to correct a systemic Eighth Amendment violation" and that if "the April 19 Order also mandated perfect compliance with the 24\-Hour MHCB transfer timeline, then such a ruling also fails to comport with the Eighth Amendment and PLRA."Defendants\-Appellants' Opening Brief, Coleman v. Brown, (2018\) (No. 17\-16080\). The plaintiffs/appellees filed their reply brief on May 25, 2018\.Plaintiffs\-Appellees' Answering Brief, Coleman v. Brown, (2018\) (No. 17\-16080\). ### Subsequent cases *Brown v. Plata* has faced some negative and some positive treatment in the courts. * *Peyton v. Brown* ([C.D. Cal.](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Central_District_of_California "United States District Court for the Central District of California")), which held: "*Plata*'s remedial decree did not create a substantive right in an individual to bring a civil rights action seeking release." The court cited *Preiser v. Rodriguez*, which held: "\[W]hen a state prisoner is challenging the very fact or duration of his physical imprisonment, and the relief he seeks is a determination that he is entitled to immediate release or a speedier release from that imprisonment, his sole federal remedy is a writ of habeas corpus."{{cite court \|litigants\=Peyton v. Brown \|vol\=2013 \|reporter\=WL \|opinion\=3733453 \|pinpoint\= \|court\=\[\[C.D. Cal.]] \|date\=2013 \|url\= \|accessdate\= \|quote\=}} * *Thomas v. Alameda County* ([N.D. Cal](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_California "United States District Court for the Northern District of California")) further discussed whether *Brown v. Plata* created a substantive right.{{cite court \|litigants\=Thomas v. Alameda County \|vol\=2015 \|reporter\=WL \|opinion\=1201290 \|pinpoint\= \|court\=N.D. Cal. \|date\=2015 \|url\= \|accessdate\= \|quote\=}} There, the plaintiff was in custody before trial and in his complaint relied on *Brown v. Plata* to make a prison overcrowding claim. The court stated that *Brown v. Plata* "by itself does not provide any substantive right on which plaintiff can rely, and his claim of general prison overcrowding based on *Plata* fails." * *Peralta v. Dillard* ([9th Cir.](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit"))*,* also defined *Brown v. Plata*.{{cite court \|litigants\=Peralta v. Dillard \|vol\=744 \|reporter\=F.3d \|opinion\=1076 \|pinpoint\= \|court\=\[\[9th Cir.]] \|date\=2014 \|url\=https://www.leagle.com/decision/infco20140306100 \|accessdate\= \|quote\=}} There, an inmate sued California's state medical officer, dental officer and staff dentist under [§1983](/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act "Third Enforcement Act"). The court referenced *Brown v. Plata* because it showed the following: 1\) prisoners cannot sue states for money damages, but can sue them for injunctions; 2\) "even for prisoners not yet injured by constitutionally deficient conditions, history counsels skepticism about the utility of injunctive relief." ### Public opinion According to a national poll of registered voters taken by [Fairleigh Dickinson University](/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University "Fairleigh Dickinson University")'s PublicMind in the spring of 2011, just 25% of voters agreed that prisoners would need to be let go if prisons were badly overcrowded and prisoners’ health conditions were poor, while 63% said, “even though conditions are bad, the court cannot order criminals to be released.” Dr. Peter J. Woolley, Director of PublicMind added, “It's no surprise that the public holds its own interests in much higher regard than health and safety of prisoners or even prison guards”. Nevertheless, important differences emerged among various segments of the population: men were more sympathetic than women to prisoner release. One in five women (19%) agreed that some prisoners should be released, compared to a third of men (32%). In addition, voters under the age of 30 split on the question of release (42%\-43%), while older voters were against allowing courts to order prisoner release by a margin of 2\-to\-1 or more. In terms of ideology, 74% of conservatives were against the idea of court\-ordered releases compared to the 48% of liberals. Finally, white voters by 3\-to\-1 said the courts should not order prisoner releases to remedy overcrowding and health problems, while black voters split on the question, 50%\-41%. Responding to the poll, Bruce Peabody, professor of political science at Fairleigh Dickinson University said the Court's ruling was “somewhat surprising.” He added “While our current Supreme Court has a mixed record with respect to recognizing various rights of those accused of crimes, it has generally declined to give extensive constitutional protections to those already behind bars… the Court has gone against the wishes of eighteen states who asked for more deference on the issue, and \[as a result] it has extended rights to a group – prisoners\- who have historically not received much judicial protection.” Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind, (2011, May 23\). [“U.S. Voters Weigh in on Brown v. Plata, Case involving Prison Overcrowding”](http://publicmind.fdu.edu/2011/brownvplata/) \[Press Release] May 23, 2011\. Retrieved from <http://publicmind.fdu.edu/2011/brownvplata/> ### Selected scholarship A number of legal academic studies and articles have focused on this case, both in the years before the Supreme Court decision and in the years since the Supreme Court decision. Below is a list of selected scholarship*.* * Anastasia Cooper, *The Ongoing Correctional Chaos in Criminalizing Mental Illness: The Realignment's Effects on California Jails*, 24 Hasting's Women's L.J. 339 (2013\). * Bethany L. Edmondson, *Trans\-Lating the Eighth Amendment Standard: The First Circuit's Denial of a Transgender Prisoner's Constitutional Right to Medical Treatment*, 51 Ga. L. Rev. 585 (2017\). * Laura Rovner, *On Litigating Constitutional Challenges to the Federal Supermax: Improving Conditions and Shining a Light*, 95 Denv. L. Rev. 457 (2018\). * Margo Schlanger, *Civil Rights Injunctions Over Time: A Case Study of Jail and Prison Court Orders*, 81 N.YU. L. Rev. 550 (2006\). * Margo Schlanger, *Plata v. Brown and Realignment: Jails, Prisons, Courts and Politics*, 48 Harv. C.R.\-C.L.L. Rev. 165 (2013\). * Fredrick E. Vars, Shelby B. Calambokidis, *From Hospitals to Prisons: A New Explanation*, 102 Cornell L.Rev. Online 101 (2017\).
[ "Implications of *Brown v. Plata*\n--------------------------------", "### 2011 Public Safety Realignment Initiative (AB 109\\)", "Instead of releasing state prison inmates, California simply moved them to county jails. After the case was argued but before Court issued its opinion the California legislature passed the 2011 [Public Safety Realignment initiative](/wiki/Public_Safety_Realignment_initiative \"Public Safety Realignment initiative\"), or AB 109\\.[Joan Petersilia \\& Francis T. Cullen, *Liberal But Not Stupid: Meeting the Promise of Downsizing Prisons*, 2 Stanford Journal of Criminal Law and Policy 1 (2015\\).](http://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/default/files/publication/580250/doc/slspublic/Petersilia_Liberal%20But%20Not%20Stupid_2015%20April.pdf) State officials felt it was inefficient that the state was subject to a 46,000 prisoner reduction order while the county jails contained 10,000 empty beds. As such, the legislation restructured California's penal system mostly by shifting prison inmates, which are subject to the court order and an expense to the state, to county jails, which are not subject to the court order and are an expense of the counties.[Rebecca Sullivan Silbert, THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT REALIGNMENT IN CALIFORNIA, Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Law and Social Policy (February 2012\\).](https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/bccj/Thinking_Critically_3-14-2012.pdf) Almost 500 felonies were redefined by the legislature so that they could only be served in county jail and the state provided that \"non\\-non\\-nons\", that is non\\-serious, non\\-violent, and non\\-sexual offenders, will always serve their time in county jail.[Lisa T. Quan, Sara Abarbanel \\& Debbie Mukamal, Reallocation of Responsibility: Changes to the Correctional System in California Post\\-Realignment, Stanford Criminal Justice Center (January 2014\\).](http://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/default/files/publication/458403/doc/slspublic/CC%20Bulletin%20Jan%2014.pdf)", "From 2010 to 2012 California's prison population was reduced by 18% while its jail population increased by 12%. Additionally, the state run probation system dropped by 46% while the county run parole population increased by 34%. All told, prison realignment resulted in the largest drop in California's prisoner population since the 34% of inmates population between [1969](/wiki/1969 \"1969\") and [1976](/wiki/1976 \"1976\").", "### Population reduction", "California met the initial court imposed benchmarks. The state released a [white paper](/wiki/White_paper \"White paper\") on \"The Future of California Corrections\" known as “The Blueprint” which planned on seeking the kind of order modification Justice Kennedy had anticipated. [Governor Jerry Brown](/wiki/Jerry_Brown \"Jerry Brown\") then announced that the prison crisis had been resolved, terminated his emergency powers, and asked to modify the court order.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Walshe\\|first1\\=Sadhbh\\|title\\=Governor Jerry Brown, California's prison crisis is not over\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/10/governor\\-jerry\\-brown\\-california\\-prison\\-crisis\\|accessdate\\=29 September 2015\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=10 January 2013}} The three\\-judge court refused any modification, threatening to hold the governor in [contempt of court](/wiki/Contempt_of_court \"Contempt of court\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Cohen\\|first1\\=Andrew\\|title\\=Jerry Brown, Constitutional Scofflaw\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/06/jerry\\-brown\\-constitutional\\-scofflaw/277095/\\|accessdate\\=29 September 2015\\|work\\=The Atlantic\\|date\\=22 June 2013}} Judge Reinhardt even appended to his opinion a table of state laws, including appropriation limits, that were now \"waived\" so that the governor could obey his order.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=Coleman v. Brown \\|vol\\=952 \\|reporter\\=F. Supp. 2d \\|opinion\\=901 \\|pinpoint\\= \\|court\\=\\[\\[E.D. Cal.]] \\& \\[\\[N.D. Cal.]] \\|date\\=2013 \\|url\\=https://www.leagle.com/decision/infdco20130621902 \\|accessdate\\=2018\\-06\\-02 \\|quote\\=}}", "California applied for a stay of the order from the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court denied the stay without comment.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Cohen\\|first1\\=Andrew\\|title\\=The Irony of Justice Scalia's California Prison Rant\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/08/the\\-irony\\-of\\-justice\\-scalias\\-california\\-prison\\-rant/278349/\\|accessdate\\=29 September 2015\\|work\\=The Atlantic\\|date\\=5 August 2013}} However, Justice Alito would have granted the stay and Justice Scalia even wrote a dissent, joined by Justice Thomas. Scalia largely quotes his dissent to the Court's earlier opinion, noting that he had correctly predicted that the three\\-judge court would be unwilling to modify its order. He derides that, \"The bluff has been called, and the Court has nary a pair to lay on the table.\"[*Brown v. Plata*, 134 S. Ct. 1 (U.S. 2013\\).](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2861929832403071766&hl=en&as_sdt=2006)", "Nevertheless, California failed to meet the three\\-judge court's deadline and needed to be granted another extension until February 2016\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Paige\\|first1\\=St. John\\|title\\=Gov. Jerry Brown's prison reforms haven't lived up to his billing\\|url\\=http://www.latimes.com/local/politics/la\\-me\\-ff\\-pol\\-brown\\-prisons\\-20140622\\-story.html\\#page\\=1\\|accessdate\\=29 September 2015\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=21 June 2014}} The California electorate further reduced defined felonies by passing [California Proposition 47 (2014\\)](/wiki/California_Proposition_47_%282014%29 \"California Proposition 47 (2014)\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Ford\\|first1\\=Matt\\|title\\=Californians Vote to Weaken Mass Incarceration\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/11/california\\-prop\\-47\\-mass\\-incarceration/382372/\\|accessdate\\=29 September 2015\\|work\\=The Atlantic\\|date\\=5 November 2014}}", "The state must still submit monthly updates to the Three Judge Court regarding population reduction and other efforts to implement the decision. As of the last update on May 9, 2018, the prison population was at 134\\.7% of its design capacity.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/docs/3JP\\-May\\-2018\\.pdf\\|title\\=DEFENDANTS' MAY 2018 STATUS REPORT IN RESPONSE TO FEBRUARY 10, 2014 ORDER\\|last\\=Case 3:01\\-cv\\-01351\\-JST Document 3030\\|date\\=May 15, 2018\\|website\\=\\|access\\-date\\=}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/3\\-judge\\-panel.html\\|title\\=Three\\-Judge Court Updates \\|website\\=www.cdcr.ca.gov\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}} 114,618 inmates are in state institutions, while 3,553 inmates are in out of state facilities as of May 9, 2018\\. The final update of 2017 reported 114,813 inmates in state institutions, with 4,315 in out of state facilities.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/docs/3JP\\-Dec\\-2017\\.pdf\\|title\\=DEFENDANTS' DECEMBER 2017 STATUS REPORT IN RESPONSE TO FEBRUARY 10, 2014 ORDER\\|last\\=Case 3:01\\-cv\\-01351\\-JST Document 3000\\|date\\=\\|website\\=\\|access\\-date\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625132457/https://www.cdcr.ca.gov/News/docs/3JP\\-Dec\\-2017\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=June 25, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Cost reduction", "In the first few years after the decision, California prison costs declined. [Governor Brown](/wiki/Jerry_Brown \"Jerry Brown\") framed efforts to implement *Brown v. Plata* as a way to decrease costs.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-california\\-prison\\-budget\\-insight\\-idUSKBN0UK0J520160106\\|title\\=California prison reforms have reduced inmate numbers, not costs\\|last\\=Respaut\\|first\\=Robin\\|work\\=U.S.\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-28\\|language\\=en\\-US}} While the prison budget initially declined after the decision, the prison budget then increased beginning in 2013\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2010\\-11\\-EN/Enacted/agencies.html\\|title\\=Enacted Budget \\- Enacted Budget Detail\\|website\\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2011\\-12\\-EN/Enacted/agencies.html\\|title\\=Enacted Budget \\- Enacted Budget Detail\\|website\\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2012\\-13\\-EN/Enacted/agencies.html\\|title\\=Enacted Budget \\- Enacted Budget Detail\\|website\\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2013\\-14/Enacted/agencies.html\\|title\\=Enacted Budget \\- Enacted Budget Detail\\|website\\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2014\\-15/Enacted/agencies.html\\|title\\=Enacted Budget \\- Enacted Budget Detail\\|website\\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2015\\-16/Enacted/agencies.html\\|title\\=Enacted Budget \\- Enacted Budget Detail\\|website\\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/2016\\-17/Enacted/agencies.html\\|title\\=Enacted Budget \\- Enacted Budget Detail\\|website\\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ebudget.ca.gov/budget/publication/\\#/e/2017\\-18/BudgetDetail\\|title\\=Ebudget\\|website\\=www.ebudget.ca.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30}}", "Some state officials maintain that costs have increased because of medical care enhancements (including a new medical facility and additional funding for medication) ordered by *Brown v. Plata*.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://calbudgetcenter.org/resources/despite\\-the\\-recent\\-decline\\-in\\-incarceration\\-corrections\\-spending\\-in\\-the\\-governors\\-proposed\\-2018\\-19\\-budget\\-remains\\-high/\\|title\\=Despite the Recent Decline in Incarceration, Corrections Spending in the Governor's Proposed 2018\\-19 Budget Remains High \\- California Budget \\& Policy Center\\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-25\\|work\\=California Budget \\& Policy Center\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-30\\|language\\=en\\-US}} However, others maintain that cost increases are due to increased spending on personnel. The state changed how they calculate the appropriate number of personnel. Previously, the state would hire one new prison guard per six new inmates; now, the state staffs each prison based on their size and layout.", "### Mental health care improvements", "Implementation of mental health care facilities improvements are still ongoing. The Program Guide, which is the remedial implementation plan for *Coleman v. Brown*, mandated the following: \"1\\) Any inmate referred to a Mental Health Crisis Bed must be transferred within 24 hours of referral; 2\\) Any inmate referred to any acute inpatient mental health placement be transferred within ten days of referral, if accepted by Department of State Hospitals; 3\\) Any inmate referred to any intermediate health care placement be transferred within 30 days of referral, if accepted by the Department of State Hospitals.\"Order on Coleman v. Brown, Case 2:90\\-cv\\-00520\\-KJM\\-DB, Document 5610 (Apr. 19 2017\\). On April 19, 2017, [Judge Kimberly Mueller](/wiki/Kimberly_J._Mueller \"Kimberly J. Mueller\") held that the state was not in compliance with the Program Guide timelines for transfers to mental health care facilities. [Judge Mueller](/wiki/Kimberly_J._Mueller \"Kimberly J. Mueller\") ruled that if the state was not in compliance by May 15, 2017, she would enforce her order with civil contempt proceedings or monetary sanctions.", "On February 21, 2018, the state appealed this order to the [Ninth Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit\"), claiming that the District Court \"abused its discretion because perfect compliance with the Program Guide is not relief that is necessary to correct a systemic Eighth Amendment violation\" and that if \"the April 19 Order also mandated perfect compliance with the 24\\-Hour MHCB transfer timeline, then such a ruling also fails to comport with the Eighth Amendment and PLRA.\"Defendants\\-Appellants' Opening Brief, Coleman v. Brown, (2018\\) (No. 17\\-16080\\). The plaintiffs/appellees filed their reply brief on May 25, 2018\\.Plaintiffs\\-Appellees' Answering Brief, Coleman v. Brown, (2018\\) (No. 17\\-16080\\).", "### Subsequent cases", "*Brown v. Plata* has faced some negative and some positive treatment in the courts.", "* *Peyton v. Brown* ([C.D. Cal.](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Central_District_of_California \"United States District Court for the Central District of California\")), which held: \"*Plata*'s remedial decree did not create a substantive right in an individual to bring a civil rights action seeking release.\" The court cited *Preiser v. Rodriguez*, which held: \"\\[W]hen a state prisoner is challenging the very fact or duration of his physical imprisonment, and the relief he seeks is a determination that he is entitled to immediate release or a speedier release from that imprisonment, his sole federal remedy is a writ of habeas corpus.\"{{cite court \\|litigants\\=Peyton v. Brown \\|vol\\=2013 \\|reporter\\=WL \\|opinion\\=3733453 \\|pinpoint\\= \\|court\\=\\[\\[C.D. Cal.]] \\|date\\=2013 \\|url\\= \\|accessdate\\= \\|quote\\=}}\n* *Thomas v. Alameda County* ([N.D. Cal](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_California \"United States District Court for the Northern District of California\")) further discussed whether *Brown v. Plata* created a substantive right.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=Thomas v. Alameda County \\|vol\\=2015 \\|reporter\\=WL \\|opinion\\=1201290 \\|pinpoint\\= \\|court\\=N.D. Cal. \\|date\\=2015 \\|url\\= \\|accessdate\\= \\|quote\\=}} There, the plaintiff was in custody before trial and in his complaint relied on *Brown v. Plata* to make a prison overcrowding claim. The court stated that *Brown v. Plata* \"by itself does not provide any substantive right on which plaintiff can rely, and his claim of general prison overcrowding based on *Plata* fails.\"\n* *Peralta v. Dillard* ([9th Cir.](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit\"))*,* also defined *Brown v. Plata*.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=Peralta v. Dillard \\|vol\\=744 \\|reporter\\=F.3d \\|opinion\\=1076 \\|pinpoint\\= \\|court\\=\\[\\[9th Cir.]] \\|date\\=2014 \\|url\\=https://www.leagle.com/decision/infco20140306100 \\|accessdate\\= \\|quote\\=}} There, an inmate sued California's state medical officer, dental officer and staff dentist under [§1983](/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act \"Third Enforcement Act\"). The court referenced *Brown v. Plata* because it showed the following: 1\\) prisoners cannot sue states for money damages, but can sue them for injunctions; 2\\) \"even for prisoners not yet injured by constitutionally deficient conditions, history counsels skepticism about the utility of injunctive relief.\"", "### Public opinion", "According to a national poll of registered voters taken by [Fairleigh Dickinson University](/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University \"Fairleigh Dickinson University\")'s PublicMind in the spring of 2011, just 25% of voters agreed that prisoners would need to be let go if prisons were badly overcrowded and prisoners’ health conditions were poor, while 63% said, “even though conditions are bad, the court cannot order criminals to be released.” Dr. Peter J. Woolley, Director of PublicMind added, “It's no surprise that the public holds its own interests in much higher regard than health and safety of prisoners or even prison guards”.", "Nevertheless, important differences emerged among various segments of the population: men were more sympathetic than women to prisoner release. One in five women (19%) agreed that some prisoners should be released, compared to a third of men (32%). In addition, voters under the age of 30 split on the question of release (42%\\-43%), while older voters were against allowing courts to order prisoner release by a margin of 2\\-to\\-1 or more. In terms of ideology, 74% of conservatives were against the idea of court\\-ordered releases compared to the 48% of liberals. Finally, white voters by 3\\-to\\-1 said the courts should not order prisoner releases to remedy overcrowding and health problems, while black voters split on the question, 50%\\-41%.", "Responding to the poll, Bruce Peabody, professor of political science at Fairleigh Dickinson University said the Court's ruling was “somewhat surprising.” He added “While our current Supreme Court has a mixed record with respect to recognizing various rights of those accused of crimes, it has generally declined to give extensive constitutional protections to those already behind bars… the Court has gone against the wishes of eighteen states who asked for more deference on the issue, and \\[as a result] it has extended rights to a group – prisoners\\- who have historically not received much judicial protection.” Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind, (2011, May 23\\). [“U.S. Voters Weigh in on Brown v. Plata, Case involving Prison Overcrowding”](http://publicmind.fdu.edu/2011/brownvplata/) \\[Press Release] May 23, 2011\\. Retrieved from <http://publicmind.fdu.edu/2011/brownvplata/>", "### Selected scholarship", "A number of legal academic studies and articles have focused on this case, both in the years before the Supreme Court decision and in the years since the Supreme Court decision. Below is a list of selected scholarship*.*", "* Anastasia Cooper, *The Ongoing Correctional Chaos in Criminalizing Mental Illness: The Realignment's Effects on California Jails*, 24 Hasting's Women's L.J. 339 (2013\\).\n* Bethany L. Edmondson, *Trans\\-Lating the Eighth Amendment Standard: The First Circuit's Denial of a Transgender Prisoner's Constitutional Right to Medical Treatment*, 51 Ga. L. Rev. 585 (2017\\).\n* Laura Rovner, *On Litigating Constitutional Challenges to the Federal Supermax: Improving Conditions and Shining a Light*, 95 Denv. L. Rev. 457 (2018\\).\n* Margo Schlanger, *Civil Rights Injunctions Over Time: A Case Study of Jail and Prison Court Orders*, 81 N.YU. L. Rev. 550 (2006\\).\n* Margo Schlanger, *Plata v. Brown and Realignment: Jails, Prisons, Courts and Politics*, 48 Harv. C.R.\\-C.L.L. Rev. 165 (2013\\).\n* Fredrick E. Vars, Shelby B. Calambokidis, *From Hospitals to Prisons: A New Explanation*, 102 Cornell L.Rev. Online 101 (2017\\)." ]
History ------- Rózsa attempted to compose a violin concerto earlier in his career, when he was twenty one, but he abandoned the work because he considered it to be "immature".[Miklos Rozsa: Violin Concerto](http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/RozsaViolinConcerto.htm), americanmusicpreservation.com, Steve Vertlieb, 22 September 2007 At the beginning of the 1950s he decided to try again. Reasoning that all great composers had written their concertos with a particular artist in mind, he decided to approach Heifetz. Rózsa met Heifetz only once, being introduced to him shortly after Rózsa's arrival in the United States during a concert at the Hollywood Bowl. Rózsa knew Heifetz's accompanist, [Emmanuel Bay](/wiki/Emmanuel_Bay "Emmanuel Bay"), and he asked him to approach Heifetz on his behalf. He appeared interested, writing to Rózsa to compose only one movement. According to Rózsa's autobiography, *Double Life*, he considered it to be a risky proposition because Heifetz was known for refusing other composers' works after hearing only one movement. During his break from [MGM](/wiki/MGM "MGM") in 1953, Rózsa rented a villa in [Rapallo](/wiki/Rapallo "Rapallo"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), where he began to write music for the new concerto. At first he wanted to compose only one movement, as Heifetz requested, but he soon decided to compose a full\-scale concerto in three movements; the concerto was completed in just six weeks. When he returned to the United States, Rózsa delivered the manuscript to Emmanuel Bay who offered it to Heifetz for his approval. Heifetz contacted Rózsa saying that he liked the completed work and he suggested that the two should meet in four weeks, after the violinist would return from his concert tour. Six months elapsed without a word from Heifetz, and Rózsa assumed that he had lost interest in their collaboration. At the suggestion of fellow artists, Rózsa was encouraged to offer his work to other violinists. Before anyone else had an opportunity to accept or decline the invitation, however, Heifetz telephoned. Rózsa, perhaps inappropriately, assumed that the caller was not the great soloist at all but, rather, his friend and fellow composer [Bronislau Kaper](/wiki/Bronislau_Kaper "Bronislau Kaper") playing a practical joke on him. Consequently, when Heifetz contacted him by telephone, Rózsa replied "If you’re Heifetz, I’m Mozart." After recovering from what the composer considered one of the most embarrassing moments of his career, discussions proceeded. Heifetz wished to make some minor changes and edits, and Rózsa happily agreed, working together toward a finalized version of the concerto. Heifetz contacted Rózsa at the end of 1955 telling him that he was prepared to give the concert premiere of the work. The premiere took place on January 15, 1956, in [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas "Dallas"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"), with the [Dallas Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Dallas_Symphony_Orchestra "Dallas Symphony Orchestra") conducted by [Walter Hendl](/wiki/Walter_Hendl "Walter Hendl"), with Heifetz as soloist. At the conclusion of the performance, Heifetz called Rózsa to the stage where both were greeted by a standing ovation. Later that year Heifetz recorded the concerto, teaming again with Hendl and the Dallas Symphony Orchestra.
[ "History\n-------", "Rózsa attempted to compose a violin concerto earlier in his career, when he was twenty one, but he abandoned the work because he considered it to be \"immature\".[Miklos Rozsa: Violin Concerto](http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/RozsaViolinConcerto.htm), americanmusicpreservation.com, Steve Vertlieb, 22 September 2007 At the beginning of the 1950s he decided to try again. Reasoning that all great composers had written their concertos with a particular artist in mind, he decided to approach Heifetz. Rózsa met Heifetz only once, being introduced to him shortly after Rózsa's arrival in the United States during a concert at the Hollywood Bowl.", "Rózsa knew Heifetz's accompanist, [Emmanuel Bay](/wiki/Emmanuel_Bay \"Emmanuel Bay\"), and he asked him to approach Heifetz on his behalf. He appeared interested, writing to Rózsa to compose only one movement. According to Rózsa's autobiography, *Double Life*, he considered it to be a risky proposition because Heifetz was known for refusing other composers' works after hearing only one movement.", "During his break from [MGM](/wiki/MGM \"MGM\") in 1953, Rózsa rented a villa in [Rapallo](/wiki/Rapallo \"Rapallo\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), where he began to write music for the new concerto. At first he wanted to compose only one movement, as Heifetz requested, but he soon decided to compose a full\\-scale concerto in three movements; the concerto was completed in just six weeks.", "When he returned to the United States, Rózsa delivered the manuscript to Emmanuel Bay who offered it to Heifetz for his approval. Heifetz contacted Rózsa saying that he liked the completed work and he suggested that the two should meet in four weeks, after the violinist would return from his concert tour. Six months elapsed without a word from Heifetz, and Rózsa assumed that he had lost interest in their collaboration.", "At the suggestion of fellow artists, Rózsa was encouraged to offer his work to other violinists. Before anyone else had an opportunity to accept or decline the invitation, however, Heifetz telephoned. Rózsa, perhaps inappropriately, assumed that the caller was not the great soloist at all but, rather, his friend and fellow composer [Bronislau Kaper](/wiki/Bronislau_Kaper \"Bronislau Kaper\") playing a practical joke on him. Consequently, when Heifetz contacted him by telephone, Rózsa replied \"If you’re Heifetz, I’m Mozart.\" After recovering from what the composer considered one of the most embarrassing moments of his career, discussions proceeded. Heifetz wished to make some minor changes and edits, and Rózsa happily agreed, working together toward a finalized version of the concerto.", "Heifetz contacted Rózsa at the end of 1955 telling him that he was prepared to give the concert premiere of the work. The premiere took place on January 15, 1956, in [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas \"Dallas\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"), with the [Dallas Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Dallas_Symphony_Orchestra \"Dallas Symphony Orchestra\") conducted by [Walter Hendl](/wiki/Walter_Hendl \"Walter Hendl\"), with Heifetz as soloist. At the conclusion of the performance, Heifetz called Rózsa to the stage where both were greeted by a standing ovation. Later that year Heifetz recorded the concerto, teaming again with Hendl and the Dallas Symphony Orchestra.", "" ]
Belligerents ------------ [left\|250px\|thumb\|Nigerian bandits inside their base, February 2021](/wiki/File:Nigerianbandits2.png "Nigerianbandits2.png") In [Zamfara state](/wiki/Zamfara_State "Zamfara State") alone, there are (as of 2021\) over 30,000 bandits and 100 camps.{{cite web \|title\=30,000 bandits terrorising my state, says Gov Matawalle \|url\=https://thenationonlineng.net/30000\-bandits\-terrorising\-my\-state\-says\-gov\-matawalle/ \|website\=The Nation \|date\=3 April 2021 \|access\-date\=18 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=29 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729013132/https://thenationonlineng.net/30000\-bandits\-terrorising\-my\-state\-says\-gov\-matawalle/ \|url\-status\=live }} ### Ali Kachalla Ali Kawaje, better known by his alias Ali Kachalla,{{Cite news \|date\=12 December 2023 \|title\=Another notorious terrorist, 'Ali Kachalla', others killed in NAF airstrike in Niger \|work\=Vanguard \|url\=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/12/another\-notorious\-terrorist\-ali\-kachalla\-others\-killed\-in\-naf\-airstrike\-in\-niger/amp/ \|access\-date\=13 December 2023}} was a bandit leader in his early 30s who was born in a small town called Madada near Dansadau. Kachalla controlled a bandit group of about 200 in the Kuyambana Forest. His main base of operations consisted of several huts along the Goron Dutse River, about 25 km south of Dansadau. Kachalla's gang directly controls the villages of Dandalla, Madada and Gobirawa Kwacha, from where he launched attacks on Dansadau and other neighboring communities. Kachalla's gang is allied with Dogo Gide's nomadic gang. Kachalla's gang has carried out numerous attacks, most notably the downing of a [Nigerian Air Force](/wiki/Nigerian_Air_Force "Nigerian Air Force") [Alpha Jet](/wiki/Dassault/Dornier_Alpha_Jet "Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet") on 18 July 2021{{cite news \|last\=Ewokor \|first\=Chris \|title\=Nigeria fighter plane shot down by bandits \- military \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-africa\-57893662 \|access\-date\=9 November 2022 \|publisher\=BBC News \|date\=19 July 2021}} and the destruction of a [Mowag Piranha](/wiki/Mowag_Piranha "Mowag Piranha") armored personnel carrier in Dansadau on 23 July 2021\.{{cite news \|title\=Bandits Invade Zamfara Community, Kill 3 Persons, Abduct 7 \|url\=https://www.channelstv.com/2021/07/23/bandits\-invade\-zamfara\-community\-kill\-3\-persons\-set\-ablaze\-military\-armoured\-vehicle/ \|access\-date\=17 August 2021 \|agency\=Channels Television \|date\=23 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818020256/https://www.channelstv.com/2021/07/23/bandits\-invade\-zamfara\-community\-kill\-3\-persons\-set\-ablaze\-military\-armoured\-vehicle/ \|url\-status\=live }} Kachalla's gang has suffered defeats, most notably losing 30 men in a battle with an [Ansaru](/wiki/Ansaru "Ansaru") cell.{{cite web \|title\=Ali Kachalla: Unveiling The Zamfara Terror Kingpin Who Downed NAF Jet \|url\=https://dailytrust.com/ali\-kachalla\-unveiling\-the\-zamfara\-terror\-kingpin\-who\-downed\-naf\-jet \|website\=Daily Trust \|date\=2 August 2021 \|access\-date\=17 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=6 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806084602/https://dailytrust.com/ali\-kachalla\-unveiling\-the\-zamfara\-terror\-kingpin\-who\-downed\-naf\-jet \|url\-status\=live }} Kachalla was killed on 11 December 2023\. Before his death, Kachalla and his fighters attacked a detachment of security operatives in Magorno, [Munya](/wiki/Munya%2C_Nigeria "Munya, Nigeria"). The air component of Nigeria's Operation *Whirl Punch* was notified shortly after, and its aircraft scrambled to protect troops under attack. Aircraft spotted Kachalla and his men withdraw from the area on a convoy of 11 motorcycles. The aircraft trailed them to their hideout near Kopa Hills, and airstrikes were authorized, resulting in the deaths of Kachalla and several of his men. ### Dogo Giɗe Abubakar Abdullahi, known as Dogo Gide, is the leader of a bandit group near Dansadau. He is from [Maru local government](/wiki/Maru%2C_Nigeria "Maru, Nigeria") and is in his 40s, married with children. He is known for killing bandit leader Buharin Daji and 24 of Daji's gang members by luring Daji to a peace meeting. He also killed a rival bandit leader named Damina who had attacked villages under Gide's control.{{cite web \|title\=Dogo Gide: The man who killed Buharin Daji \|url\=https://dailytrust.com/amp/dogo\-gide\-the\-man\-who\-killed\-buharin\-daji \|website\=Daily Trust \|date\=18 March 2018 \|access\-date\=17 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818031818/https://dailytrust.com/amp/dogo\-gide\-the\-man\-who\-killed\-buharin\-daji \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|title\=Dogo Gide: Mutumin Da Ya Hallaka Buharin Daji \|url\=https://aminiya.dailytrust.com/dogo\-gide\-mutumin\-da\-ya\-hallaka\-buharin\-daji/ \|website\=dailytrust \|date\=16 March 2018 \|access\-date\=11 September 2021 \|archive\-date\=12 September 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912000826/https://aminiya.dailytrust.com/dogo\-gide\-mutumin\-da\-ya\-hallaka\-buharin\-daji/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|title\=Is notorious bandit Dogo Gide dead? What we know so far \|url\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\-is\-notorious\-bandit\-dogo\-gide\-dead\-what\-we\-know\-so\-far.html \|access\-date\=1 December 2021 \|agency\=Premium times \|date\=3 November 2021 \|archive\-date\=1 December 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201142712/https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\-is\-notorious\-bandit\-dogo\-gide\-dead\-what\-we\-know\-so\-far.html \|url\-status\=live }} Gide is believed to have formed criminal ties with [Boko Haram](/wiki/Boko_Haram "Boko Haram") in the last quarter of 2019\.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-11\-03 \|title\=Is notorious bandit Dogo Gide dead? What we know so far \- Premium Times Nigeria \|url\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\-is\-notorious\-bandit\-dogo\-gide\-dead\-what\-we\-know\-so\-far.html,%20https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\-is\-notorious\-bandit\-dogo\-gide\-dead\-what\-we\-know\-so\-far.html \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-25 \|language\=en\-GB}} He is also believed to have the financial capacity and connections to procure weapons.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\-is\-notorious\-bandit\-dogo\-gide\-dead\-what\-we\-know\-so\-far.html \| title\=Is notorious bandit Dogo Gide dead? What we know so far \- Premium Times Nigeria \| date\=3 November 2021 }} He is believed to have masterminded many kidnapping raids, one of which involved the kidnapping of scores of students from the Federal Government College Yauri in [Kebbi](/wiki/Kebbi_State "Kebbi State") State in June. ### Kachalla Halilu Sububu Seno Kachalla Halilu Sububu Seno is the leader of a [Fulani](/wiki/Fula_people "Fula people") bandit group. He commands over 1,000 bandits in the Sububu Forest across [Zamfara State](/wiki/Zamfara_State "Zamfara State") and has connections to bandit groups across the west African countries of [Mali](/wiki/Mali "Mali"), [Senegal](/wiki/Senegal "Senegal"), [Burkina Faso](/wiki/Burkina_Faso "Burkina Faso"), [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon "Cameroon") and the [Central African Republic](/wiki/Central_African_Republic "Central African Republic"). He signed a peace treaty with the city of [Shinkafi](/wiki/Shinkafi "Shinkafi") but has shifted his activities elsewhere.{{cite web \|title\=Inside a Nigerian Bandit Camp \|url\=https://www.voanews.com/africa/inside\-nigerian\-bandit\-camp \|website\=VOA \|date\=27 February 2021 \|access\-date\=17 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=28 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728000657/https://www.voanews.com/africa/inside\-nigerian\-bandit\-camp \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|title\=In Rare Access To Enclave: Bandits Speak On Ravaging Insecurity \|url\=https://dailytrust.com/in\-rare\-access\-to\-enclave\-bandits\-speak\-on\-ravaging\-insecurity \|website\=Daily Trust \|date\=26 February 2021 \|access\-date\=17 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818025133/https://dailytrust.com/in\-rare\-access\-to\-enclave\-bandits\-speak\-on\-ravaging\-insecurity \|url\-status\=live }} He is a leader of about 1000 bandits located in Zamfara State.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-02\-26 \|title\=In rare access to enclave: Bandits speak on ravaging insecurity \|url\=https://dailytrust.com/in\-rare\-access\-to\-enclave\-bandits\-speak\-on\-ravaging\-insecurity \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-25 \|website\=Daily Trust \|language\=en}} His men are known for launching attacks and kidnapping of villagers and travellers in Sabon Birni, Rabah and Isa Local Government in Sokoto State, their tentacles reaches as far as Katsina State. Halilu has become one of Nigeria's most dreaded bandits, having built a formidable militia of young men and stockpiling weapons. Two years ago, communities in Shinkafi made a peace deal with Halilu's gang to attain the relative peace they enjoy now. ### Kachalla Turji Kachalla Turji, also known as Gudda Turji, is the leader of a bandit group that operates along Sokoto Road, raiding towns, villages and settlements in the area. On 17 July 2021, Kachalla Turji's main base was raided by security personnel, where they arrested his father. Kachalla Turji then attacked the villages of Kurya, Keta, Kware, Badarawa, Marisuwa and Maberaya, killing 42, abducting 150 and burning 338 houses.{{cite news \|title\=Zamfara bandit goes wild over father's arrest, holds 150 hostage \|url\=https://thenationonlineng.net/zamfara\-bandit\-goes\-wild\-over\-fathers\-arrest\-holds\-150\-hostage/ \|access\-date\=18 August 2021 \|agency\=The Nation \|date\=18 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=28 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728004149/https://thenationonlineng.net/zamfara\-bandit\-goes\-wild\-over\-fathers\-arrest\-holds\-150\-hostage/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|title\=Nigerian Government Has Failed Us, We're Not Afraid Of Death – Zamfara Bandits Commander, Turji \|url\=http://saharareporters.com/2021/02/03/nigerian\-government\-has\-failed\-us\-we%E2%80%99re\-not\-afraid\-death\-%E2%80%93\-zamfara\-bandits\-commander \|access\-date\=18 August 2021 \|agency\=Sahara reporters \|date\=3 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818185341/http://saharareporters.com/2021/02/03/nigerian\-government\-has\-failed\-us\-we%E2%80%99re\-not\-afraid\-death\-%E2%80%93\-zamfara\-bandits\-commander \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|title\=Bandits Are Terrorists – No Ifs, No Buts \|url\=https://dailytrust.com/bandits\-are\-terrorists\-no\-ifs\-no\-buts \|website\=Daily Trust \|date\=21 July 2021 \|access\-date\=18 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=19 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819031159/https://dailytrust.com/bandits\-are\-terrorists\-no\-ifs\-no\-buts \|url\-status\=live }} He was originally from Shinkafi Local Government of Zamfara State.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-12\-19 \|title\=Banditry: Experts authenticate Turji's letter, say notorious kingpin troubled, frustrated \- Premium Times Nigeria \|url\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/501640\-banditry\-experts\-authenticate\-turjis\-letter\-say\-notorious\-kingpin\-troubled\-frustrated.html,%20https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/501640\-banditry\-experts\-authenticate\-turjis\-letter\-say\-notorious\-kingpin\-troubled\-frustrated.html \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-25 \|language\=en\-GB}} ### Dan Karami Dan Karami is the leader of a bandit gang that operates around [Safana](/wiki/Safana "Safana"), [Dan Musa](/wiki/Dan_Musa "Dan Musa"), and [Batsari](/wiki/Batsari "Batsari") local government areas. Karami's group is responsible for [kidnapping 300 students](/wiki/Kankara_kidnapping "Kankara kidnapping") from a secondary boarding school. On 23 January 2021, Karami was injured during a clash with a rival group headed by Mani Na Saleh Mai Dan Doki over the control of guns, ammunition and stolen cattle. The clash took place at [Illela](/wiki/Illela%2C_Niger "Illela, Niger") village and killed 20 of Dan Karami's bandits and nine civilians.{{cite news \|title\=Bandits' leader injured in Katsina clash \|url\=https://thenationonlineng.net/bandits\-leader\-injured\-in\-katsina\-clash/ \|access\-date\=18 August 2021 \|agency\=The Nation \|date\=1 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=19 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819014151/https://thenationonlineng.net/bandits\-leader\-injured\-in\-katsina\-clash/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|title\=Dankarami: Notorious bandits' leader terrorizing Katsina reportedly badly injured in crossfire \|url\=http://katsinapost.com.ng/2021/01/31/dankarami\-notorious\-bandits\-leader\-terrorizing\-katsina\-reportedly\-badly\-injured\-in\-crossfire/ \|access\-date\=18 August 2021 \|agency\=Katsina Post \|date\=31 January 2021 \|archive\-date\=19 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819014154/http://katsinapost.com.ng/2021/01/31/dankarami\-notorious\-bandits\-leader\-terrorizing\-katsina\-reportedly\-badly\-injured\-in\-crossfire/ \|url\-status\=live }} ### Adamu Aliero Yankuzo Adamu Aliero Yankuzo, better known as Yankuzo, is the leader of a bandit group that operates in the forested regions of Katsina and Zamfara states. He controls a bandit group numbering about 2,000\. Yankuzo is 45 years old and was born in Yankuzo village. He has at least one son. On 16 June 2020, Yankuzo was declared wanted by the Katsina State Police Command for five million [Nigerian naira](/wiki/Nigerian_naira "Nigerian naira"). Yankuzo's gang has carried out a number of attacks, including the killing 52 people in Kadisau village in revenge for the arrest of his son on 9 June 2020\. He was declared wanted after his gang members confessed to the kidnapping of innocent villagers, killing of women and rustling of more than hundreds of cattle.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-06\-15 \|title\=Police declare 45\-year\-old bandit wanted in Katsina The Nation Newspaper \|url\=https://thenationonlineng.net/police\-declare\-45\-year\-old\-bandit\-wanted\-in\-katsina/ \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-26 \|language\=en\-US}} ### Jihadist groups [ISWAP](/wiki/ISWAP "ISWAP") and [Boko Haram](/wiki/Boko_Haram "Boko Haram") have both claimed to have carried out attacks in northwest Nigeria, and some bandit groups have claimed to have formed alliances with the jihadist groups.{{cite news \|title\=Nigerian outrage at brazen bandit attacks \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-africa\-57934849 \|access\-date\=17 November 2021 \|agency\=BBC \|date\=26 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=17 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191915/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-africa\-57934849 \|url\-status\=live }} In a phone call intercepted by [American intelligence](/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community "United States Intelligence Community") in October 2021, an unnamed jihadist group and a bandit group discussed kidnapping operations and negotiations between the groups.{{cite news \|title\=US confirms Boko Haram, bandits working together to blackmail Buhari regime \|url\=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/10/us\-confirms\-boko\-haram\-bandits\-working\-together\-to\-blackmail\-buhari\-regime/ \|access\-date\=17 November 2021 \|agency\=Vanguard \|date\=18 October 2021 \|archive\-date\=17 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191915/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/10/us\-confirms\-boko\-haram\-bandits\-working\-together\-to\-blackmail\-buhari\-regime/ \|url\-status\=live }} Boko Haram is also believed to have sent specialized personnel, including bomb makers and military advisors, as well as military equipment to the Kaduna state to train and equip their bandit groups' allies.{{cite news \|title\=Boko Haram sends bomb makers to Kaduna as ISIS visits ISWAP in Lake Chad \|url\=https://dailypost.ng/2021/10/27/boko\-haram\-sends\-bomb\-makers\-to\-kaduna\-as\-isis\-visits\-iswap\-in\-lake\-chad/ \|access\-date\=17 November 2021 \|agency\=Daily post \|date\=27 October 2021 \|archive\-date\=17 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191915/https://dailypost.ng/2021/10/27/boko\-haram\-sends\-bomb\-makers\-to\-kaduna\-as\-isis\-visits\-iswap\-in\-lake\-chad/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|title\=Boko Haram Fighters Training Bandits In Northern Nigeria To Use Anti\-aircraft Guns, Explosives—Report \|url\=http://saharareporters.com/2021/09/26/boko\-haram\-fighters\-training\-bandits\-northern\-nigeria\-use\-anti\-aircraft\-guns\-explosives \|access\-date\=17 November 2021 \|agency\=Sahara reporters \|date\=26 September 2021 \|archive\-date\=17 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191925/http://saharareporters.com/2021/09/26/boko\-haram\-fighters\-training\-bandits\-northern\-nigeria\-use\-anti\-aircraft\-guns\-explosives \|url\-status\=live }} ### Ansaru resurgence [Ansaru](/wiki/Ansaru "Ansaru"), a jihadist group linked with [al\-Qaeda](/wiki/Al-Qaeda "Al-Qaeda"), is believed to have been operating in the Kaduna state. It is believed they enter Nigeria through the porosity of the Niger and Benin Republic border with Nigeria.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-06\-20 \|title\=INSECURITY: Northerners killing Northerners! \|url\=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/06/insecurity\-northerners\-killing\-northerners/ \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-26 \|website\=Vanguard News \|language\=en\-GB}} After going silent in 2013, Ansaru began attacking Nigerian military and police personnel and infrastructure,{{cite web \|title\=Al Qaeda\-linked group claims attack in northwestern Nigeria \|url\=https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/08/al\-qaeda\-linked\-group\-claims\-attack\-in\-northwestern\-nigeria.php \|website\=Long war Journal \|date\=8 August 2020 \|access\-date\=17 November 2021 \|archive\-date\=17 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191917/https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/08/al\-qaeda\-linked\-group\-claims\-attack\-in\-northwestern\-nigeria.php \|url\-status\=live }} including an ambush of a Nigerian military convoy on 15 January 2020\.{{cite news \|title\=Ansaru publicly returns to Nigeria \|url\=https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/01/ansaru\-publicly\-returns\-to\-nigeria.php \|access\-date\=17 November 2021 \|agency\=The Longwar journal \|date\=17 January 2020 \|archive\-date\=17 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191915/https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/01/ansaru\-publicly\-returns\-to\-nigeria.php \|url\-status\=live }} Due to Nigeria having large ungoverned Forest by successive government most of these terrorist and bandit groups have turned some forests in the Northern region of Nigeria to their operational base. In March 2020, the governor Kaduna State Governor Nasiro Ahmed El Rufa'i stated that there will be no negotiation or pardon for bandits and terrorist groups in the state. ### Bello Turji Bello Turji Kachalla is the leader of a bandits and kidnappers gang that operates in the [Zamfara](/wiki/Zamfara_State "Zamfara State") and [Sokoto](/wiki/Sokoto "Sokoto") states.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-01 \|title\=Police parade notorious bandit Bello Turji's 'doctor', others \- Premium Times Nigeria \|url\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top\-news/509009\-police\-parade\-notorious\-bandit\-bello\-turjis\-doctor\-others.html,%20https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top\-news/509009\-police\-parade\-notorious\-bandit\-bello\-turjis\-doctor\-others.html \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-26 \|language\=en\-GB}} He is known to have imposed levies on many villages and appointed leaders in two of the eastern Sokoto Villages. He is notorious and ruthless as shown by him refusing to accept ransom after he kidnapped the father of the [Zamafara](/wiki/Zamfara_State "Zamfara State") House of Assembly speaker which eventually led to the elderly man's unfortunate demise. He was said to have little of Western education but vast in the Islamic Education and also had a good family background.{{Cite news \|title\=Bello Turji, Nigeria alleged bandit kingpin \- Wetin we sabi about am \|work\=BBC News Pidgin \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/world\-59872150 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-26}} According to a Lecturer Dr. Murtala, Turji's group members are from influential family some of which includes Umaru Nagona, Mallam Ina Manara, Bello Kagara and many more.
[ "Belligerents\n------------", "[left\\|250px\\|thumb\\|Nigerian bandits inside their base, February 2021](/wiki/File:Nigerianbandits2.png \"Nigerianbandits2.png\")\nIn [Zamfara state](/wiki/Zamfara_State \"Zamfara State\") alone, there are (as of 2021\\) over 30,000 bandits and 100 camps.{{cite web \\|title\\=30,000 bandits terrorising my state, says Gov Matawalle \\|url\\=https://thenationonlineng.net/30000\\-bandits\\-terrorising\\-my\\-state\\-says\\-gov\\-matawalle/ \\|website\\=The Nation \\|date\\=3 April 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729013132/https://thenationonlineng.net/30000\\-bandits\\-terrorising\\-my\\-state\\-says\\-gov\\-matawalle/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Ali Kachalla", "Ali Kawaje, better known by his alias Ali Kachalla,{{Cite news \\|date\\=12 December 2023 \\|title\\=Another notorious terrorist, 'Ali Kachalla', others killed in NAF airstrike in Niger \\|work\\=Vanguard \\|url\\=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/12/another\\-notorious\\-terrorist\\-ali\\-kachalla\\-others\\-killed\\-in\\-naf\\-airstrike\\-in\\-niger/amp/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2023}} was a bandit leader in his early 30s who was born in a small town called Madada near Dansadau. Kachalla controlled a bandit group of about 200 in the Kuyambana Forest. His main base of operations consisted of several huts along the Goron Dutse River, about 25 km south of Dansadau. Kachalla's gang directly controls the villages of Dandalla, Madada and Gobirawa Kwacha, from where he launched attacks on Dansadau and other neighboring communities. Kachalla's gang is allied with Dogo Gide's nomadic gang.", "Kachalla's gang has carried out numerous attacks, most notably the downing of a [Nigerian Air Force](/wiki/Nigerian_Air_Force \"Nigerian Air Force\") [Alpha Jet](/wiki/Dassault/Dornier_Alpha_Jet \"Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet\") on 18 July 2021{{cite news \\|last\\=Ewokor \\|first\\=Chris \\|title\\=Nigeria fighter plane shot down by bandits \\- military \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-africa\\-57893662 \\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2022 \\|publisher\\=BBC News \\|date\\=19 July 2021}} and the destruction of a [Mowag Piranha](/wiki/Mowag_Piranha \"Mowag Piranha\") armored personnel carrier in Dansadau on 23 July 2021\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Bandits Invade Zamfara Community, Kill 3 Persons, Abduct 7 \\|url\\=https://www.channelstv.com/2021/07/23/bandits\\-invade\\-zamfara\\-community\\-kill\\-3\\-persons\\-set\\-ablaze\\-military\\-armoured\\-vehicle/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2021 \\|agency\\=Channels Television \\|date\\=23 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818020256/https://www.channelstv.com/2021/07/23/bandits\\-invade\\-zamfara\\-community\\-kill\\-3\\-persons\\-set\\-ablaze\\-military\\-armoured\\-vehicle/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Kachalla's gang has suffered defeats, most notably losing 30 men in a battle with an [Ansaru](/wiki/Ansaru \"Ansaru\") cell.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ali Kachalla: Unveiling The Zamfara Terror Kingpin Who Downed NAF Jet \\|url\\=https://dailytrust.com/ali\\-kachalla\\-unveiling\\-the\\-zamfara\\-terror\\-kingpin\\-who\\-downed\\-naf\\-jet \\|website\\=Daily Trust \\|date\\=2 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806084602/https://dailytrust.com/ali\\-kachalla\\-unveiling\\-the\\-zamfara\\-terror\\-kingpin\\-who\\-downed\\-naf\\-jet \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Kachalla was killed on 11 December 2023\\. Before his death, Kachalla and his fighters attacked a detachment of security operatives in Magorno, [Munya](/wiki/Munya%2C_Nigeria \"Munya, Nigeria\"). The air component of Nigeria's Operation *Whirl Punch* was notified shortly after, and its aircraft scrambled to protect troops under attack. Aircraft spotted Kachalla and his men withdraw from the area on a convoy of 11 motorcycles. The aircraft trailed them to their hideout near Kopa Hills, and airstrikes were authorized, resulting in the deaths of Kachalla and several of his men.", "### Dogo Giɗe", "Abubakar Abdullahi, known as Dogo Gide, is the leader of a bandit group near Dansadau. He is from [Maru local government](/wiki/Maru%2C_Nigeria \"Maru, Nigeria\") and is in his 40s, married with children. He is known for killing bandit leader Buharin Daji and 24 of Daji's gang members by luring Daji to a peace meeting. He also killed a rival bandit leader named Damina who had attacked villages under Gide's control.{{cite web \\|title\\=Dogo Gide: The man who killed Buharin Daji \\|url\\=https://dailytrust.com/amp/dogo\\-gide\\-the\\-man\\-who\\-killed\\-buharin\\-daji \\|website\\=Daily Trust \\|date\\=18 March 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818031818/https://dailytrust.com/amp/dogo\\-gide\\-the\\-man\\-who\\-killed\\-buharin\\-daji \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|title\\=Dogo Gide: Mutumin Da Ya Hallaka Buharin Daji \\|url\\=https://aminiya.dailytrust.com/dogo\\-gide\\-mutumin\\-da\\-ya\\-hallaka\\-buharin\\-daji/ \\|website\\=dailytrust \\|date\\=16 March 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=11 September 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 September 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912000826/https://aminiya.dailytrust.com/dogo\\-gide\\-mutumin\\-da\\-ya\\-hallaka\\-buharin\\-daji/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Is notorious bandit Dogo Gide dead? What we know so far \\|url\\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\\-is\\-notorious\\-bandit\\-dogo\\-gide\\-dead\\-what\\-we\\-know\\-so\\-far.html \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2021 \\|agency\\=Premium times \\|date\\=3 November 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 December 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201142712/https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\\-is\\-notorious\\-bandit\\-dogo\\-gide\\-dead\\-what\\-we\\-know\\-so\\-far.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Gide is believed to have formed criminal ties with [Boko Haram](/wiki/Boko_Haram \"Boko Haram\") in the last quarter of 2019\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-03 \\|title\\=Is notorious bandit Dogo Gide dead? What we know so far \\- Premium Times Nigeria \\|url\\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\\-is\\-notorious\\-bandit\\-dogo\\-gide\\-dead\\-what\\-we\\-know\\-so\\-far.html,%20https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\\-is\\-notorious\\-bandit\\-dogo\\-gide\\-dead\\-what\\-we\\-know\\-so\\-far.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-25 \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} He is also believed to have the financial capacity and connections to procure weapons.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/493093\\-is\\-notorious\\-bandit\\-dogo\\-gide\\-dead\\-what\\-we\\-know\\-so\\-far.html \\| title\\=Is notorious bandit Dogo Gide dead? What we know so far \\- Premium Times Nigeria \\| date\\=3 November 2021 }} He is believed to have masterminded many kidnapping raids, one of which involved the kidnapping of scores of students from the Federal Government College Yauri in [Kebbi](/wiki/Kebbi_State \"Kebbi State\") State in June.", "### Kachalla Halilu Sububu Seno", "Kachalla Halilu Sububu Seno is the leader of a [Fulani](/wiki/Fula_people \"Fula people\") bandit group. He commands over 1,000 bandits in the Sububu Forest across [Zamfara State](/wiki/Zamfara_State \"Zamfara State\") and has connections to bandit groups across the west African countries of [Mali](/wiki/Mali \"Mali\"), [Senegal](/wiki/Senegal \"Senegal\"), [Burkina Faso](/wiki/Burkina_Faso \"Burkina Faso\"), [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon \"Cameroon\") and the [Central African Republic](/wiki/Central_African_Republic \"Central African Republic\"). He signed a peace treaty with the city of [Shinkafi](/wiki/Shinkafi \"Shinkafi\") but has shifted his activities elsewhere.{{cite web \\|title\\=Inside a Nigerian Bandit Camp \\|url\\=https://www.voanews.com/africa/inside\\-nigerian\\-bandit\\-camp \\|website\\=VOA \\|date\\=27 February 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728000657/https://www.voanews.com/africa/inside\\-nigerian\\-bandit\\-camp \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|title\\=In Rare Access To Enclave: Bandits Speak On Ravaging Insecurity \\|url\\=https://dailytrust.com/in\\-rare\\-access\\-to\\-enclave\\-bandits\\-speak\\-on\\-ravaging\\-insecurity \\|website\\=Daily Trust \\|date\\=26 February 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818025133/https://dailytrust.com/in\\-rare\\-access\\-to\\-enclave\\-bandits\\-speak\\-on\\-ravaging\\-insecurity \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He is a leader of about 1000 bandits located in Zamfara State.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-26 \\|title\\=In rare access to enclave: Bandits speak on ravaging insecurity \\|url\\=https://dailytrust.com/in\\-rare\\-access\\-to\\-enclave\\-bandits\\-speak\\-on\\-ravaging\\-insecurity \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-25 \\|website\\=Daily Trust \\|language\\=en}} His men are known for launching attacks and kidnapping of villagers and travellers in Sabon Birni, Rabah and Isa Local Government in Sokoto State, their tentacles reaches as far as Katsina State. Halilu has become one of Nigeria's most dreaded bandits, having built a formidable militia of young men and stockpiling weapons. Two years ago, communities in Shinkafi made a peace deal with Halilu's gang to attain the relative peace they enjoy now.", "### Kachalla Turji", "Kachalla Turji, also known as Gudda Turji, is the leader of a bandit group that operates along Sokoto Road, raiding towns, villages and settlements in the area. On 17 July 2021, Kachalla Turji's main base was raided by security personnel, where they arrested his father. Kachalla Turji then attacked the villages of Kurya, Keta, Kware, Badarawa, Marisuwa and Maberaya, killing 42, abducting 150 and burning 338 houses.{{cite news \\|title\\=Zamfara bandit goes wild over father's arrest, holds 150 hostage \\|url\\=https://thenationonlineng.net/zamfara\\-bandit\\-goes\\-wild\\-over\\-fathers\\-arrest\\-holds\\-150\\-hostage/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|agency\\=The Nation \\|date\\=18 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728004149/https://thenationonlineng.net/zamfara\\-bandit\\-goes\\-wild\\-over\\-fathers\\-arrest\\-holds\\-150\\-hostage/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Nigerian Government Has Failed Us, We're Not Afraid Of Death – Zamfara Bandits Commander, Turji \\|url\\=http://saharareporters.com/2021/02/03/nigerian\\-government\\-has\\-failed\\-us\\-we%E2%80%99re\\-not\\-afraid\\-death\\-%E2%80%93\\-zamfara\\-bandits\\-commander \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|agency\\=Sahara reporters \\|date\\=3 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818185341/http://saharareporters.com/2021/02/03/nigerian\\-government\\-has\\-failed\\-us\\-we%E2%80%99re\\-not\\-afraid\\-death\\-%E2%80%93\\-zamfara\\-bandits\\-commander \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|title\\=Bandits Are Terrorists – No Ifs, No Buts \\|url\\=https://dailytrust.com/bandits\\-are\\-terrorists\\-no\\-ifs\\-no\\-buts \\|website\\=Daily Trust \\|date\\=21 July 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819031159/https://dailytrust.com/bandits\\-are\\-terrorists\\-no\\-ifs\\-no\\-buts \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He was originally from Shinkafi Local Government of Zamfara State.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-19 \\|title\\=Banditry: Experts authenticate Turji's letter, say notorious kingpin troubled, frustrated \\- Premium Times Nigeria \\|url\\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/501640\\-banditry\\-experts\\-authenticate\\-turjis\\-letter\\-say\\-notorious\\-kingpin\\-troubled\\-frustrated.html,%20https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/501640\\-banditry\\-experts\\-authenticate\\-turjis\\-letter\\-say\\-notorious\\-kingpin\\-troubled\\-frustrated.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-25 \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}", "### Dan Karami", "Dan Karami is the leader of a bandit gang that operates around [Safana](/wiki/Safana \"Safana\"), [Dan Musa](/wiki/Dan_Musa \"Dan Musa\"), and [Batsari](/wiki/Batsari \"Batsari\") local government areas. Karami's group is responsible for [kidnapping 300 students](/wiki/Kankara_kidnapping \"Kankara kidnapping\") from a secondary boarding school. On 23 January 2021, Karami was injured during a clash with a rival group headed by Mani Na Saleh Mai Dan Doki over the control of guns, ammunition and stolen cattle. The clash took place at [Illela](/wiki/Illela%2C_Niger \"Illela, Niger\") village and killed 20 of Dan Karami's bandits and nine civilians.{{cite news \\|title\\=Bandits' leader injured in Katsina clash \\|url\\=https://thenationonlineng.net/bandits\\-leader\\-injured\\-in\\-katsina\\-clash/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|agency\\=The Nation \\|date\\=1 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819014151/https://thenationonlineng.net/bandits\\-leader\\-injured\\-in\\-katsina\\-clash/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Dankarami: Notorious bandits' leader terrorizing Katsina reportedly badly injured in crossfire \\|url\\=http://katsinapost.com.ng/2021/01/31/dankarami\\-notorious\\-bandits\\-leader\\-terrorizing\\-katsina\\-reportedly\\-badly\\-injured\\-in\\-crossfire/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2021 \\|agency\\=Katsina Post \\|date\\=31 January 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819014154/http://katsinapost.com.ng/2021/01/31/dankarami\\-notorious\\-bandits\\-leader\\-terrorizing\\-katsina\\-reportedly\\-badly\\-injured\\-in\\-crossfire/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Adamu Aliero Yankuzo", "Adamu Aliero Yankuzo, better known as Yankuzo, is the leader of a bandit group that operates in the forested regions of Katsina and Zamfara states. He controls a bandit group numbering about 2,000\\. Yankuzo is 45 years old and was born in Yankuzo village. He has at least one son. On 16 June 2020, Yankuzo was declared wanted by the Katsina State Police Command for five million [Nigerian naira](/wiki/Nigerian_naira \"Nigerian naira\"). Yankuzo's gang has carried out a number of attacks, including the killing 52 people in Kadisau village in revenge for the arrest of his son on 9 June 2020\\. He was declared wanted after his gang members confessed to the kidnapping of innocent villagers, killing of women and rustling of more than hundreds of cattle.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-15 \\|title\\=Police declare 45\\-year\\-old bandit wanted in Katsina The Nation Newspaper \\|url\\=https://thenationonlineng.net/police\\-declare\\-45\\-year\\-old\\-bandit\\-wanted\\-in\\-katsina/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-26 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### Jihadist groups", "[ISWAP](/wiki/ISWAP \"ISWAP\") and [Boko Haram](/wiki/Boko_Haram \"Boko Haram\") have both claimed to have carried out attacks in northwest Nigeria, and some bandit groups have claimed to have formed alliances with the jihadist groups.{{cite news \\|title\\=Nigerian outrage at brazen bandit attacks \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-africa\\-57934849 \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|agency\\=BBC \\|date\\=26 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191915/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-africa\\-57934849 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In a phone call intercepted by [American intelligence](/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community \"United States Intelligence Community\") in October 2021, an unnamed jihadist group and a bandit group discussed kidnapping operations and negotiations between the groups.{{cite news \\|title\\=US confirms Boko Haram, bandits working together to blackmail Buhari regime \\|url\\=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/10/us\\-confirms\\-boko\\-haram\\-bandits\\-working\\-together\\-to\\-blackmail\\-buhari\\-regime/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|agency\\=Vanguard \\|date\\=18 October 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191915/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/10/us\\-confirms\\-boko\\-haram\\-bandits\\-working\\-together\\-to\\-blackmail\\-buhari\\-regime/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Boko Haram is also believed to have sent specialized personnel, including bomb makers and military advisors, as well as military equipment to the Kaduna state to train and equip their bandit groups' allies.{{cite news \\|title\\=Boko Haram sends bomb makers to Kaduna as ISIS visits ISWAP in Lake Chad \\|url\\=https://dailypost.ng/2021/10/27/boko\\-haram\\-sends\\-bomb\\-makers\\-to\\-kaduna\\-as\\-isis\\-visits\\-iswap\\-in\\-lake\\-chad/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|agency\\=Daily post \\|date\\=27 October 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191915/https://dailypost.ng/2021/10/27/boko\\-haram\\-sends\\-bomb\\-makers\\-to\\-kaduna\\-as\\-isis\\-visits\\-iswap\\-in\\-lake\\-chad/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Boko Haram Fighters Training Bandits In Northern Nigeria To Use Anti\\-aircraft Guns, Explosives—Report \\|url\\=http://saharareporters.com/2021/09/26/boko\\-haram\\-fighters\\-training\\-bandits\\-northern\\-nigeria\\-use\\-anti\\-aircraft\\-guns\\-explosives \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|agency\\=Sahara reporters \\|date\\=26 September 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191925/http://saharareporters.com/2021/09/26/boko\\-haram\\-fighters\\-training\\-bandits\\-northern\\-nigeria\\-use\\-anti\\-aircraft\\-guns\\-explosives \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Ansaru resurgence", "[Ansaru](/wiki/Ansaru \"Ansaru\"), a jihadist group linked with [al\\-Qaeda](/wiki/Al-Qaeda \"Al-Qaeda\"), is believed to have been operating in the Kaduna state. It is believed they enter Nigeria through the porosity of the Niger and Benin Republic border with Nigeria.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-20 \\|title\\=INSECURITY: Northerners killing Northerners! \\|url\\=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/06/insecurity\\-northerners\\-killing\\-northerners/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-26 \\|website\\=Vanguard News \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} After going silent in 2013, Ansaru began attacking Nigerian military and police personnel and infrastructure,{{cite web \\|title\\=Al Qaeda\\-linked group claims attack in northwestern Nigeria \\|url\\=https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/08/al\\-qaeda\\-linked\\-group\\-claims\\-attack\\-in\\-northwestern\\-nigeria.php \\|website\\=Long war Journal \\|date\\=8 August 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191917/https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/08/al\\-qaeda\\-linked\\-group\\-claims\\-attack\\-in\\-northwestern\\-nigeria.php \\|url\\-status\\=live }} including an ambush of a Nigerian military convoy on 15 January 2020\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Ansaru publicly returns to Nigeria \\|url\\=https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/01/ansaru\\-publicly\\-returns\\-to\\-nigeria.php \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|agency\\=The Longwar journal \\|date\\=17 January 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117191915/https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/01/ansaru\\-publicly\\-returns\\-to\\-nigeria.php \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Due to Nigeria having large ungoverned Forest by successive government most of these terrorist and bandit groups have turned some forests in the Northern region of Nigeria to their operational base. In March 2020, the governor Kaduna State Governor Nasiro Ahmed El Rufa'i stated that there will be no negotiation or pardon for bandits and terrorist groups in the state.", "### Bello Turji", "Bello Turji Kachalla is the leader of a bandits and kidnappers gang that operates in the [Zamfara](/wiki/Zamfara_State \"Zamfara State\") and [Sokoto](/wiki/Sokoto \"Sokoto\") states.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-01 \\|title\\=Police parade notorious bandit Bello Turji's 'doctor', others \\- Premium Times Nigeria \\|url\\=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top\\-news/509009\\-police\\-parade\\-notorious\\-bandit\\-bello\\-turjis\\-doctor\\-others.html,%20https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top\\-news/509009\\-police\\-parade\\-notorious\\-bandit\\-bello\\-turjis\\-doctor\\-others.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-26 \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} He is known to have imposed levies on many villages and appointed leaders in two of the eastern Sokoto Villages. He is notorious and ruthless as shown by him refusing to accept ransom after he kidnapped the father of the [Zamafara](/wiki/Zamfara_State \"Zamfara State\") House of Assembly speaker which eventually led to the elderly man's unfortunate demise. He was said to have little of Western education but vast in the Islamic Education and also had a good family background.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Bello Turji, Nigeria alleged bandit kingpin \\- Wetin we sabi about am \\|work\\=BBC News Pidgin \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/world\\-59872150 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-26}} According to a Lecturer Dr. Murtala, Turji's group members are from influential family some of which includes Umaru Nagona, Mallam Ina Manara, Bello Kagara and many more.", "" ]
Plot ---- Sam ([Aga Muhlach](/wiki/Aga_Muhlach "Aga Muhlach")), a carefree guy who enjoys life, goes on a cruise. On board [Star Cruises](/wiki/Star_Cruises "Star Cruises"), he meets an angry, heartbroken Louie ([Kristine Hermosa](/wiki/Kristine_Hermosa "Kristine Hermosa")) who is staying next door. One night, Sam watches a drunk Louie lean on the railing. Thinking she might jump, he stops her. They share a heartfelt moment until Louie throws up on Sam. The next morning, Sam joins Louie for breakfast uninvited and introduces himself. Louie apologizes for how she acted the night before and leaves soon after. They meet again at the gift shop where Louie accuses him of following her. Sam tells her she might want some company as they're both alone on the cruise and that he's just in the next room if she needs a friend. Later, Louie knocks on his door and invites him to dinner as she prefers him over someone else, seeing Sam as "harmless." They talk briefly about their respective jobs. As the cruise docks from place to place, Sam and Louie grew closer, sharing their time traveling together. Over time, Louie's rigid personality softens under Sam's influence. In a temple, Sam is praying and Louie asks him what he's praying for. He admits that he was diagnosed when he was twenty\-five with a heart disease and wishes for more time to live. Louie is sad at the confession but Sam plays it off, making it seem like a joke. Back on board, they go to dinner. They dance and eventually share a kiss. Louie pulls away and runs back to her room where she holds on to a wedding dress hanging from her closet. A flashback scene reveals that Louie was about to get married until a pregnant woman crashes their wedding, saying Joey ([Bernard Palanca](/wiki/Bernard_Palanca "Bernard Palanca")) is the father. Louie storms out of the church. Back in the present, Sam knocks on her door. Louie tries to tell him about her past but Sam confesses that he knows. During her hasty exit from the aisle, she leaves a shoe, which Sam now returns to her. Feeling betrayed, they part ways. The cruise ends and they go back to their normal lives. Louie is berated by her mother ([Ces Quesada](/wiki/Ces_Quesada "Ces Quesada")) after coming home, enraged by the scandal of her almost wedding. Her father, Jun ([Ricky Davao](/wiki/Ricky_Davao "Ricky Davao")), is on Louie's side but keeps quiet to not anger Pacita. Louie opens up to her father about meeting someone on the cruise. Finding out she finally came home, Joey tries to reconcile with Louie but to no avail. By accident, Sam sees Louie while stuck in traffic with his cousin Kat ([Dimples Romana](/wiki/Dimples_Romana "Dimples Romana")) and chases after her but they don't meet. Both resume their lives but find it difficult knowing they share a connection, especially Sam whose condition is worsening. Since the beginning, Louie has a habit of sneezing whenever Sam is around. This eventually causes their reunion. They finally admit their feelings for each other and get together. Louie introduces Sam to her family during Pacita's birthday, immediately earning Jun's approval and eventually Pacita's. However, Sam finds out that he no longer has enough time to recover from his illness and confesses this to Louie, leading them to break up. Both suffer in their separation but Pacita convinces Louie to find Sam, knowing that she would only regret it more if they don't spend his last moments together. Louie goes to his yacht (a family business he briefly mentioned during their time on the cruise) and is found by Kat who tells her he went home. Louie meets Sam's parents who immediately show her to where Sam is. Walking on the beach, Sam looks on. Louie arrives and sees him lying face down. Worried, she runs to him but finds him conscious, claiming he's just "practicing" for when he dies. They proclaim their love for each other and gets married. They move to a house on a small island and spend every waking moment together. Sam makes videos for Louie in the event of his death. Louie wakes up to find Sam without her side and panics until she sees him in the hut outside, smiling at her. As they look at each other, Sam's eyes fill with tears in realization that this is his last moment. He falls dead and Louie rushes to his side. She goes into mourning. As the movie ends, Louie is out sitting on the beach and sneezes. She whispers his name, knowing he is near. She looks at the camera, smiles, and calls for "Sammy" — their son. Mother and son enjoy a stroll on the beach. Fast forward to the time when Sammy grows older and looks like His Dad. End
[ "Plot\n----", "Sam ([Aga Muhlach](/wiki/Aga_Muhlach \"Aga Muhlach\")), a carefree guy who enjoys life, goes on a cruise. On board [Star Cruises](/wiki/Star_Cruises \"Star Cruises\"), he meets an angry, heartbroken Louie ([Kristine Hermosa](/wiki/Kristine_Hermosa \"Kristine Hermosa\")) who is staying next door. One night, Sam watches a drunk Louie lean on the railing. Thinking she might jump, he stops her. They share a heartfelt moment until Louie throws up on Sam. The next morning, Sam joins Louie for breakfast uninvited and introduces himself. Louie apologizes for how she acted the night before and leaves soon after. They meet again at the gift shop where Louie accuses him of following her. Sam tells her she might want some company as they're both alone on the cruise and that he's just in the next room if she needs a friend. Later, Louie knocks on his door and invites him to dinner as she prefers him over someone else, seeing Sam as \"harmless.\" They talk briefly about their respective jobs. As the cruise docks from place to place, Sam and Louie grew closer, sharing their time traveling together. Over time, Louie's rigid personality softens under Sam's influence. In a temple, Sam is praying and Louie asks him what he's praying for. He admits that he was diagnosed when he was twenty\\-five with a heart disease and wishes for more time to live. Louie is sad at the confession but Sam plays it off, making it seem like a joke.", "Back on board, they go to dinner. They dance and eventually share a kiss. Louie pulls away and runs back to her room where she holds on to a wedding dress hanging from her closet. A flashback scene reveals that Louie was about to get married until a pregnant woman crashes their wedding, saying Joey ([Bernard Palanca](/wiki/Bernard_Palanca \"Bernard Palanca\")) is the father. Louie storms out of the church. Back in the present, Sam knocks on her door. Louie tries to tell him about her past but Sam confesses that he knows. During her hasty exit from the aisle, she leaves a shoe, which Sam now returns to her. Feeling betrayed, they part ways. The cruise ends and they go back to their normal lives.", "Louie is berated by her mother ([Ces Quesada](/wiki/Ces_Quesada \"Ces Quesada\")) after coming home, enraged by the scandal of her almost wedding. Her father, Jun ([Ricky Davao](/wiki/Ricky_Davao \"Ricky Davao\")), is on Louie's side but keeps quiet to not anger Pacita. Louie opens up to her father about meeting someone on the cruise. Finding out she finally came home, Joey tries to reconcile with Louie but to no avail. By accident, Sam sees Louie while stuck in traffic with his cousin Kat ([Dimples Romana](/wiki/Dimples_Romana \"Dimples Romana\")) and chases after her but they don't meet. Both resume their lives but find it difficult knowing they share a connection, especially Sam whose condition is worsening.", "Since the beginning, Louie has a habit of sneezing whenever Sam is around. This eventually causes their reunion. They finally admit their feelings for each other and get together. Louie introduces Sam to her family during Pacita's birthday, immediately earning Jun's approval and eventually Pacita's. However, Sam finds out that he no longer has enough time to recover from his illness and confesses this to Louie, leading them to break up. Both suffer in their separation but Pacita convinces Louie to find Sam, knowing that she would only regret it more if they don't spend his last moments together. Louie goes to his yacht (a family business he briefly mentioned during their time on the cruise) and is found by Kat who tells her he went home. Louie meets Sam's parents who immediately show her to where Sam is.", "Walking on the beach, Sam looks on. Louie arrives and sees him lying face down. Worried, she runs to him but finds him conscious, claiming he's just \"practicing\" for when he dies. They proclaim their love for each other and gets married. They move to a house on a small island and spend every waking moment together. Sam makes videos for Louie in the event of his death. Louie wakes up to find Sam without her side and panics until she sees him in the hut outside, smiling at her. As they look at each other, Sam's eyes fill with tears in realization that this is his last moment. He falls dead and Louie rushes to his side. She goes into mourning.", "As the movie ends, Louie is out sitting on the beach and sneezes. She whispers his name, knowing he is near. She looks at the camera, smiles, and calls for \"Sammy\" — their son. Mother and son enjoy a stroll on the beach. Fast forward to the time when Sammy grows older and looks like His Dad. End", "" ]
History ------- ### Foundation and early history [thumb\|right\|FedEx's first van displayed at the FedEx World Headquarters](/wiki/File:First_FedEx_van_Memphis_TN_2013-05-17_002.jpg "First FedEx van Memphis TN 2013-05-17 002.jpg") {{For\|history prior to its 1997 reorganization\|FedEx Express}} The company was founded in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1971 as **Federal Express Corporation** by [Frederick W. Smith](/wiki/Frederick_W._Smith "Frederick W. Smith"), a graduate of [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University "Yale University"). He drew up the company's concept in a term paper at Yale, in which he called for a system specifically designed for urgent deliveries. While his professor didn't think much of the idea,{{citation needed\|date\=July 2024}} Smith pressed on. He began formal operations in 1973, when he moved operations to [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee "Memphis, Tennessee"). Smith said he chose [Memphis International Airport](/wiki/Memphis_International_Airport "Memphis International Airport") for being near the mean population center of the country and for its placid weather. The company grew rapidly, and by 1983 had a billion dollars in revenue, a rarity for a startup company that had never taken part in mergers or acquisitions in its first decade.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2024}} It expanded to Europe and Asia in 1984\. In 1988, it acquired one of its major competitors, [Flying Tiger Line](/wiki/Flying_Tiger_Line "Flying Tiger Line"), creating the largest full\-service cargo airline in the world. In 1994, Federal Express shortened its name to "FedEx" for marketing purposes, officially adopting a nickname that had been used for years. ### Reorganization and Caliber acquisition [thumb\|A Federal Express [McDonnell Douglas MD\-11](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_MD-11 "McDonnell Douglas MD-11") at [Narita International Airport](/wiki/Narita_International_Airport "Narita International Airport") in 1995](/wiki/File:FEDEX_MD-11F%28AF%29_%28N612FE48605555%29.jpg "FEDEX MD-11F(AF) (N612FE48605555).jpg") On October 2, 1997, FedEx reorganized as a holding company, **FDX Corporation**, a [Delaware corporation](/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law "Delaware General Corporation Law").Delaware Department of State, Division of Corporations, [Online Services](https://delecorp.delaware.gov/tin/controller) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721035421/https://delecorp.delaware.gov/tin/controller \|date\=July 21, 2011 }}; File No. 2803030\. The new holding company began operations in January 1998, with the acquisition of [Caliber System Inc.](/wiki/Caliber_System "Caliber System") by Federal Express. With the purchase of Caliber, FedEx started offering other services besides express shipping. Caliber subsidiaries included RPS, a small\-package ground service; Roberts Express, an expedited shipping provider; Viking Freight, a regional, [less\-than\-truckload](/wiki/Less-than-truckload_shipping "Less-than-truckload shipping") [freight carrier](/wiki/Freight_company "Freight company") serving the Western United States; Caribbean Transportation Services, a provider of airfreight forwarding between the United States and the Caribbean; and Caliber Logistics and Caliber Technology, providers of logistics and technology services. FDX Corporation was founded to oversee all of the operations of those companies and its original air division, Federal Express. In January 2000, FDX Corporation changed its name to **FedEx Corporation** and re\-branded all of its subsidiaries. Federal Express became FedEx Express, RPS became [FedEx Ground](/wiki/FedEx_Ground "FedEx Ground"), Roberts Express became FedEx Custom Critical, and Caliber Logistics and Caliber Technology were combined to comprise FedEx Global Logistics. A new subsidiary, called FedEx Corporate Services, was formed to centralize the sales, marketing, and customer service for all of the subsidiaries. In February 2000, FedEx acquired Tower Group International, an international logistics company. FedEx also acquired WorldTariff, a [customs duty](/wiki/Customs_duty "Customs duty") and tax information company; TowerGroup and WorldTariff were re\-branded to form FedEx Trade Networks. ### 21st century [thumb\|FedEx Express [delivery van](/wiki/Delivery_van "Delivery van") in [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami")](/wiki/File:FedEx_Truck_Downtown_Miami_%2825706470807%29.jpg "FedEx Truck Downtown Miami (25706470807).jpg") FedEx Corp. acquired privately held [Kinko's, Inc.](/wiki/Kinko%27s "Kinko's") in February 2004 and re\-branded it FedEx Kinko's. The acquisition was made to expand FedEx's retail access to the general public. After the acquisition, all FedEx Kinko's locations offered only FedEx shipping. In June 2008, FedEx announced that they would be dropping the Kinko's name from their ship centers; FedEx Kinko's would now be called [FedEx Office](/wiki/FedEx_Office "FedEx Office").[" The Marketing Doctor Says: FedEx Does It Again!"](http://blog.marketingdoctor.tv/2008/06/03/marketing-101-fed-ex.aspx) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605025342/http://blog.marketingdoctor.tv/2008/06/03/marketing\-101\-fed\-ex.aspx \|date\=June 5, 2009 }} Marketing Doctor Blog. June 3, 2008\.{{cite web \|author1\=Ernest Beck \|title\=FedEx Ditches Kinko's \|url\=http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/jun2008/id2008069\_075908\.htm \|website\=Business Week \|publisher\=The McGraw\-Hill Companies \|access\-date\=20 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612233204/http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/jun2008/id2008069\_075908\.htm \|archive\-date\=June 12, 2008 \|language\=en\-US \|date\=June 9, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead}} In September 2004, FedEx acquired Parcel Direct, a parcel consolidator, and re\-branded it FedEx SmartPost. In April 2015, FedEx acquired their rival firm [TNT Express](/wiki/TNT_Express "TNT Express") for €4\.4 billion ($4\.8 billion; £3\.2 billion) as it looked to expand their operations in Europe.{{Cite news \|date\=April 7, 2015 \|title\=FedEx to buy rival TNT Express for €4\.4bn \|work\=BBC News \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\-32200600 \|access\-date\=June 21, 2018 \|archive\-date\=July 12, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712025200/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\-32200600 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|date\=April 8, 2015 \|title\=FedEx to buy Dutch Delivery Company TNT for 4\.4 billion euros \|publisher\=news.biharprabha.com \|agency\=Reuters \|url\=http://news.biharprabha.com/2015/04/fedex\-to\-buy\-dutch\-delivery\-company\-tnt\-for\-4\-4\-billion\-euros/ \|access\-date\=April 8, 2015 \|archive\-date\=April 11, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411033330/http://news.biharprabha.com/2015/04/fedex\-to\-buy\-dutch\-delivery\-company\-tnt\-for\-4\-4\-billion\-euros/ \|url\-status\=live }} In February 2016, FedEx announced the launch of FedEx Cares, a global giving platform, and committed to invest $200 million to strengthen more than 200 communities by 2020\.{{Cite web \|title\=Timeline \|url\=https://about.van.fedex.com/our\-story/history\-timeline/timeline/ \|access\-date\=2019\-05\-30 \|website\=About FedEx \|archive\-date\=November 17, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117193513/https://about.van.fedex.com/our\-story/history\-timeline/timeline/ \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|last\=Candid \|title\=FedEx Launches $200 Million Giving Initiative \|url\=http://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/fedex\-launches\-200\-million\-giving\-initiative \|access\-date\=2019\-05\-30 \|website\=Philanthropy News Digest (PND) \|archive\-date\=September 19, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919161456/http://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/fedex\-launches\-200\-million\-giving\-initiative \|url\-status\=live }} In March 2018, FedEx announced the acquisition of P2P Mailing Limited, a last\-mile delivery service, for £92 million to expand their portfolio.{{Cite web \|title\=FedEx Expanding E\-Commerce Capabilities with Acquisition of P2P \|url\=http://investors.fedex.com/news\-and\-events/investor\-news/news\-release\-details/2018/FedEx\-Expanding\-E\-Commerce\-Capabilities\-with\-Acquisition\-of\-P2P/default.aspx \|access\-date\=2019\-05\-30 \|website\=investors.fedex.com \|archive\-date\=September 19, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919084456/http://investors.fedex.com/news\-and\-events/investor\-news/news\-release\-details/2018/FedEx\-Expanding\-E\-Commerce\-Capabilities\-with\-Acquisition\-of\-P2P/default.aspx \|url\-status\=live }} In June 2019, FedEx announced they would not be renewing their $850 million contract with [Amazon](/wiki/Amazon_%28company%29 "Amazon (company)") for the company's U.S. domestic express delivery business. Amazon accounted for 1\.3 percent of 2018 revenues.{{Cite news \|last\=Albert\-Deitch \|first\=Cameron \|date\=2019\-06\-10 \|title\=Amazon's Vendor Purge and FedEx Cancellation Prove 1 Thing: Startups Need to Watch Out \|work\=\[\[Inc. (magazine)\|Inc.]] \|url\=https://www.inc.com/cameron\-albert\-deitch/amazon\-fedex\-vendor\-purge\-startups.html \|access\-date\=2019\-06\-10 \|archive\-date\=September 25, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925164502/https://www.inc.com/cameron\-albert\-deitch/amazon\-fedex\-vendor\-purge\-startups.html \|url\-status\=live }} In August 2019, FedEx announced the termination of ground deliveries for Amazon as well.{{Cite web \|title\=FedEx to end ground delivery business with Amazon \|url\=https://news.yahoo.com/fedex\-severs\-ties\-amazon\-135119289\.html \|access\-date\=2019\-08\-08 \|website\=news.yahoo.com \|date\=August 7, 2019 \|archive\-date\=July 31, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731131008/https://news.yahoo.com/fedex\-severs\-ties\-amazon\-135119289\.html \|url\-status\=live }} In December 2020, FedEx acquired ShopRunner, an e\-commerce platform.{{Cite web \|date\=December 28, 2020 \|title\=FedEx completes acquisition of ShopRunner to bolster e\-commerce \|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/memphis/news/2020/12/28/fedex\-completes\-acquisition\-shoprunner.html \|publisher\=Bizjournal \|access\-date\=February 7, 2021 \|archive\-date\=December 31, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231021753/https://www.bizjournals.com/memphis/news/2020/12/28/fedex\-completes\-acquisition\-shoprunner.html \|url\-status\=live }} On March 29, 2022, founder [Frederick W. Smith](/wiki/Frederick_W._Smith "Frederick W. Smith") announced he would be retiring as CEO and become executive chairman effective June 1, 2022\. The company named [Raj Subramaniam](/wiki/Raj_Subramaniam "Raj Subramaniam"), FedEx's current president and COO, as Smith's successor.{{cite news \|last1\=Watts \|first1\=Micaela A. \|title\=FedEx founder Fred Smith to step down as CEO; Raj Subramaniam to succeed him \|url\=https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/money/industries/logistics/2022/03/28/fedex\-fred\-smith\-ceo\-raj\-subramaniam/4455316001/ \|access\-date\=1 April 2022 \|work\=\[\[The Commercial Appeal]] \|date\=March 28, 2022 \|archive\-date\=March 31, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331045437/https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/money/industries/logistics/2022/03/28/fedex\-fred\-smith\-ceo\-raj\-subramaniam/4455316001/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-03\-28 \|title\=FedEx names Raj Subramaniam as CEO, replacing founder Fred Smith \|url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/28/fedex\-names\-raj\-subramaniam\-as\-ceo\-replacing\-founder\-frederick\-smith.html \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-29 \|website\=CNBC \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=March 29, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329144846/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/28/fedex\-names\-raj\-subramaniam\-as\-ceo\-replacing\-founder\-frederick\-smith.html \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "History\n-------", "### Foundation and early history", "[thumb\\|right\\|FedEx's first van displayed at the FedEx World Headquarters](/wiki/File:First_FedEx_van_Memphis_TN_2013-05-17_002.jpg \"First FedEx van Memphis TN 2013-05-17 002.jpg\")", "{{For\\|history prior to its 1997 reorganization\\|FedEx Express}}", "The company was founded in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1971 as **Federal Express Corporation** by [Frederick W. Smith](/wiki/Frederick_W._Smith \"Frederick W. Smith\"), a graduate of [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\"). He drew up the company's concept in a term paper at Yale, in which he called for a system specifically designed for urgent deliveries. While his professor didn't think much of the idea,{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2024}} Smith pressed on. He began formal operations in 1973, when he moved operations to [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee \"Memphis, Tennessee\"). Smith said he chose [Memphis International Airport](/wiki/Memphis_International_Airport \"Memphis International Airport\") for being near the mean population center of the country and for its placid weather.", "The company grew rapidly, and by 1983 had a billion dollars in revenue, a rarity for a startup company that had never taken part in mergers or acquisitions in its first decade.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2024}} It expanded to Europe and Asia in 1984\\. In 1988, it acquired one of its major competitors, [Flying Tiger Line](/wiki/Flying_Tiger_Line \"Flying Tiger Line\"), creating the largest full\\-service cargo airline in the world. In 1994, Federal Express shortened its name to \"FedEx\" for marketing purposes, officially adopting a nickname that had been used for years.", "### Reorganization and Caliber acquisition", "[thumb\\|A Federal Express [McDonnell Douglas MD\\-11](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_MD-11 \"McDonnell Douglas MD-11\") at [Narita International Airport](/wiki/Narita_International_Airport \"Narita International Airport\") in 1995](/wiki/File:FEDEX_MD-11F%28AF%29_%28N612FE48605555%29.jpg \"FEDEX MD-11F(AF) (N612FE48605555).jpg\")", "On October 2, 1997, FedEx reorganized as a holding company, **FDX Corporation**, a [Delaware corporation](/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law \"Delaware General Corporation Law\").Delaware Department of State, Division of Corporations, [Online Services](https://delecorp.delaware.gov/tin/controller) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721035421/https://delecorp.delaware.gov/tin/controller \\|date\\=July 21, 2011 }}; File No. 2803030\\. The new holding company began operations in January 1998, with the acquisition of [Caliber System Inc.](/wiki/Caliber_System \"Caliber System\") by Federal Express. With the purchase of Caliber, FedEx started offering other services besides express shipping. Caliber subsidiaries included RPS, a small\\-package ground service; Roberts Express, an expedited shipping provider; Viking Freight, a regional, [less\\-than\\-truckload](/wiki/Less-than-truckload_shipping \"Less-than-truckload shipping\") [freight carrier](/wiki/Freight_company \"Freight company\") serving the Western United States; Caribbean Transportation Services, a provider of airfreight forwarding between the United States and the Caribbean; and Caliber Logistics and Caliber Technology, providers of logistics and technology services. FDX Corporation was founded to oversee all of the operations of those companies and its original air division, Federal Express.", "In January 2000, FDX Corporation changed its name to **FedEx Corporation** and re\\-branded all of its subsidiaries. Federal Express became FedEx Express, RPS became [FedEx Ground](/wiki/FedEx_Ground \"FedEx Ground\"), Roberts Express became FedEx Custom Critical, and Caliber Logistics and Caliber Technology were combined to comprise FedEx Global Logistics. A new subsidiary, called FedEx Corporate Services, was formed to centralize the sales, marketing, and customer service for all of the subsidiaries. In February 2000, FedEx acquired Tower Group International, an international logistics company. FedEx also acquired WorldTariff, a [customs duty](/wiki/Customs_duty \"Customs duty\") and tax information company; TowerGroup and WorldTariff were re\\-branded to form FedEx Trade Networks.", "### 21st century", "[thumb\\|FedEx Express [delivery van](/wiki/Delivery_van \"Delivery van\") in [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\")](/wiki/File:FedEx_Truck_Downtown_Miami_%2825706470807%29.jpg \"FedEx Truck Downtown Miami (25706470807).jpg\")", "FedEx Corp. acquired privately held [Kinko's, Inc.](/wiki/Kinko%27s \"Kinko's\") in February 2004 and re\\-branded it FedEx Kinko's. The acquisition was made to expand FedEx's retail access to the general public. After the acquisition, all FedEx Kinko's locations offered only FedEx shipping. In June 2008, FedEx announced that they would be dropping the Kinko's name from their ship centers; FedEx Kinko's would now be called [FedEx Office](/wiki/FedEx_Office \"FedEx Office\").[\" The Marketing Doctor Says: FedEx Does It Again!\"](http://blog.marketingdoctor.tv/2008/06/03/marketing-101-fed-ex.aspx) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605025342/http://blog.marketingdoctor.tv/2008/06/03/marketing\\-101\\-fed\\-ex.aspx \\|date\\=June 5, 2009 }} Marketing Doctor Blog. June 3, 2008\\.{{cite web \\|author1\\=Ernest Beck \\|title\\=FedEx Ditches Kinko's \\|url\\=http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/jun2008/id2008069\\_075908\\.htm \\|website\\=Business Week \\|publisher\\=The McGraw\\-Hill Companies \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612233204/http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/jun2008/id2008069\\_075908\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=June 12, 2008 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|date\\=June 9, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In September 2004, FedEx acquired Parcel Direct, a parcel consolidator, and re\\-branded it FedEx SmartPost.", "In April 2015, FedEx acquired their rival firm [TNT Express](/wiki/TNT_Express \"TNT Express\") for €4\\.4 billion ($4\\.8 billion; £3\\.2 billion) as it looked to expand their operations in Europe.{{Cite news \\|date\\=April 7, 2015 \\|title\\=FedEx to buy rival TNT Express for €4\\.4bn \\|work\\=BBC News \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\\-32200600 \\|access\\-date\\=June 21, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 12, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712025200/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business\\-32200600 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|date\\=April 8, 2015 \\|title\\=FedEx to buy Dutch Delivery Company TNT for 4\\.4 billion euros \\|publisher\\=news.biharprabha.com \\|agency\\=Reuters \\|url\\=http://news.biharprabha.com/2015/04/fedex\\-to\\-buy\\-dutch\\-delivery\\-company\\-tnt\\-for\\-4\\-4\\-billion\\-euros/ \\|access\\-date\\=April 8, 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 11, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411033330/http://news.biharprabha.com/2015/04/fedex\\-to\\-buy\\-dutch\\-delivery\\-company\\-tnt\\-for\\-4\\-4\\-billion\\-euros/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In February 2016, FedEx announced the launch of FedEx Cares, a global giving platform, and committed to invest $200 million to strengthen more than 200 communities by 2020\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Timeline \\|url\\=https://about.van.fedex.com/our\\-story/history\\-timeline/timeline/ \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=About FedEx \\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117193513/https://about.van.fedex.com/our\\-story/history\\-timeline/timeline/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Candid \\|title\\=FedEx Launches $200 Million Giving Initiative \\|url\\=http://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/fedex\\-launches\\-200\\-million\\-giving\\-initiative \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=Philanthropy News Digest (PND) \\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919161456/http://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/fedex\\-launches\\-200\\-million\\-giving\\-initiative \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In March 2018, FedEx announced the acquisition of P2P Mailing Limited, a last\\-mile delivery service, for £92 million to expand their portfolio.{{Cite web \\|title\\=FedEx Expanding E\\-Commerce Capabilities with Acquisition of P2P \\|url\\=http://investors.fedex.com/news\\-and\\-events/investor\\-news/news\\-release\\-details/2018/FedEx\\-Expanding\\-E\\-Commerce\\-Capabilities\\-with\\-Acquisition\\-of\\-P2P/default.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=investors.fedex.com \\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919084456/http://investors.fedex.com/news\\-and\\-events/investor\\-news/news\\-release\\-details/2018/FedEx\\-Expanding\\-E\\-Commerce\\-Capabilities\\-with\\-Acquisition\\-of\\-P2P/default.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In June 2019, FedEx announced they would not be renewing their $850 million contract with [Amazon](/wiki/Amazon_%28company%29 \"Amazon (company)\") for the company's U.S. domestic express delivery business. Amazon accounted for 1\\.3 percent of 2018 revenues.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Albert\\-Deitch \\|first\\=Cameron \\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-10 \\|title\\=Amazon's Vendor Purge and FedEx Cancellation Prove 1 Thing: Startups Need to Watch Out \\|work\\=\\[\\[Inc. (magazine)\\|Inc.]] \\|url\\=https://www.inc.com/cameron\\-albert\\-deitch/amazon\\-fedex\\-vendor\\-purge\\-startups.html \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-10 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 25, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925164502/https://www.inc.com/cameron\\-albert\\-deitch/amazon\\-fedex\\-vendor\\-purge\\-startups.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In August 2019, FedEx announced the termination of ground deliveries for Amazon as well.{{Cite web \\|title\\=FedEx to end ground delivery business with Amazon \\|url\\=https://news.yahoo.com/fedex\\-severs\\-ties\\-amazon\\-135119289\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-08 \\|website\\=news.yahoo.com \\|date\\=August 7, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731131008/https://news.yahoo.com/fedex\\-severs\\-ties\\-amazon\\-135119289\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In December 2020, FedEx acquired ShopRunner, an e\\-commerce platform.{{Cite web \\|date\\=December 28, 2020 \\|title\\=FedEx completes acquisition of ShopRunner to bolster e\\-commerce \\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/memphis/news/2020/12/28/fedex\\-completes\\-acquisition\\-shoprunner.html \\|publisher\\=Bizjournal \\|access\\-date\\=February 7, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 31, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231021753/https://www.bizjournals.com/memphis/news/2020/12/28/fedex\\-completes\\-acquisition\\-shoprunner.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "On March 29, 2022, founder [Frederick W. Smith](/wiki/Frederick_W._Smith \"Frederick W. Smith\") announced he would be retiring as CEO and become executive chairman effective June 1, 2022\\. The company named [Raj Subramaniam](/wiki/Raj_Subramaniam \"Raj Subramaniam\"), FedEx's current president and COO, as Smith's successor.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Watts \\|first1\\=Micaela A. \\|title\\=FedEx founder Fred Smith to step down as CEO; Raj Subramaniam to succeed him \\|url\\=https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/money/industries/logistics/2022/03/28/fedex\\-fred\\-smith\\-ceo\\-raj\\-subramaniam/4455316001/ \\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Commercial Appeal]] \\|date\\=March 28, 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 31, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331045437/https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/money/industries/logistics/2022/03/28/fedex\\-fred\\-smith\\-ceo\\-raj\\-subramaniam/4455316001/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-28 \\|title\\=FedEx names Raj Subramaniam as CEO, replacing founder Fred Smith \\|url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/28/fedex\\-names\\-raj\\-subramaniam\\-as\\-ceo\\-replacing\\-founder\\-frederick\\-smith.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-29 \\|website\\=CNBC \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=March 29, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329144846/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/28/fedex\\-names\\-raj\\-subramaniam\\-as\\-ceo\\-replacing\\-founder\\-frederick\\-smith.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
Career ------ A .332 [hitter](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)") for [Auburn University](/wiki/Auburn_University "Auburn University"), he played [collegiate summer baseball](/wiki/Collegiate_summer_baseball "Collegiate summer baseball") with the [Harwich Mariners](/wiki/Harwich_Mariners "Harwich Mariners") of the [Cape Cod Baseball League](/wiki/Cape_Cod_Baseball_League "Cape Cod Baseball League") in 2003\.{{cite web\|author\= \|url\=http://capecodbaseball.org.ismmedia.com/ISM3/std\-content/repos/Top/2012website/archives/Current%20Year/All\_Time\_MLB\_CCBL\_Alumni.pdf \|title\=Major League Baseball Players From the Cape Cod League \|publisher\=capecodbaseball.org \|date\= \|accessdate\=September 25, 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thebaseballcube.com/college/summer/stats.asp?Y\=2003\&T\=Harwich\_Mariners \|title\=2003 Harwich Mariners \|publisher\=thebaseballcube.com \|accessdate\=September 23, 2021}} Hulett was drafted by the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)") in the 14th round of the [2004 Major League Baseball draft](/wiki/2004_Major_League_Baseball_draft "2004 Major League Baseball draft").{{cite web\|title\=Texas Rangers 2004 Draft Results\|url\=http://texas.rangers.mlb.com/team/draft.jsp?c\_id\=tex\&year\=2004\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106195544/http://texas.rangers.mlb.com/team/draft.jsp?c\_id\=tex\&year\=2004\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 6, 2011\|work\=mlb.com\|accessdate\=November 27, 2009}} Hulett hit .274 in 70 games for the Single\-A [Spokane Indians](/wiki/Spokane_Indians "Spokane Indians") in {{baseball year\|2004}}. In {{baseball year\|2005}}, he was promoted to the Single\-A [Clinton LumberKings](/wiki/Clinton_LumberKings "Clinton LumberKings"), where he batted .265 and was a mid\-season All\-Star. He started {{baseball year\|2006}} in Single\-A [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield_Blaze "Bakersfield Blaze") before being promoted to the Double\-A [Frisco RoughRiders](/wiki/Frisco_RoughRiders "Frisco RoughRiders"). He played for the [Oklahoma RedHawks](/wiki/Oklahoma_RedHawks "Oklahoma RedHawks") in {{baseball year\|2007}}, hitting .272 in 132 games. On December 12, 2007, he was traded to the Seattle Mariners for [Ben Broussard](/wiki/Ben_Broussard "Ben Broussard"). Hulett started {{baseball year\|2008}} with Triple\-A [Tacoma](/wiki/Tacoma_Rainiers "Tacoma Rainiers"). After batting .302 in 71 games, Hulett was called up by the Mariners on July 10, after the release of struggling [first baseman](/wiki/First_baseman "First baseman") [Richie Sexson](/wiki/Richie_Sexson "Richie Sexson"). Hulett played one game in Seattle, going 1 for 3, before being sent back down to the Rainiers on July 18 when the Mariners called up first baseman [Bryan LaHair](/wiki/Bryan_LaHair "Bryan LaHair").{{cite web\|title\=LaHair gets call to Majors\|author\=Jesse Baumgartner\|date\=July 17, 2008\|url\=http://seattle.mariners.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080717\&content\_id\=3145990\&vkey\=news\_sea\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=sea\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721032835/http://seattle.mariners.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080717\&content\_id\=3145990\&vkey\=news\_sea\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=sea\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 21, 2008\|work\=mlb.com\|accessdate\=November 27, 2009}} On February 15, 2009, Hulett was [designated for assignment](/wiki/Designated_for_assignment "Designated for assignment") to make room for newly claimed [pitcher](/wiki/Pitcher "Pitcher") Luis Peña from the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers "Milwaukee Brewers");{{cite web\|title\=Mariners claim pitcher from Brewers \|author\=Jim Street\|date\=February 15, 2009\|url\=http://seattle.mariners.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090215\&content\_id\=3832530\&vkey\=news\_sea\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=sea\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218044321/http://seattle.mariners.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090215\&content\_id\=3832530\&vkey\=news\_sea\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=sea\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=February 18, 2009\|work\=mlb.com\|accessdate\=November 27, 2009}} he was claimed by the [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals "Kansas City Royals") four days later.{{cite web\|title\=Royals claim Hulett off waivers\|author\=Dick Kaegel\|date\=February 19, 2009\|url\=http://kansascity.royals.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090219\&content\_id\=3853036\&vkey\=news\_kc\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=kc\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329132429/http://kansascity.royals.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090219\&content\_id\=3853036\&vkey\=news\_kc\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=kc\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=March 29, 2012\|work\=mlb.com\|accessdate\=November 27, 2009}} On November 25, 2009, Hulett was traded to the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox "Boston Red Sox") for a player to be named later or cash considerations.{{cite web\|title\=Red Sox get Hulett in trade with Royals\|author\=John Schlegel\|date\=November 25, 2009\|url\=http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20091125\&content\_id\=7719366\&vkey\=news\_bos\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=bos\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091128015745/http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20091125\&content\_id\=7719366\&vkey\=news\_bos\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=bos\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=November 28, 2009\|work\=mlb.com\|accessdate\=November 27, 2009}} On August 8, 2010, the Red Sox released him. On August 15, 2010, he signed a minor league deal with the [Seattle Mariners](/wiki/Seattle_Mariners "Seattle Mariners") and was assigned to the Triple\-A [Tacoma Rainiers](/wiki/Tacoma_Rainiers "Tacoma Rainiers"). On December 23, 2010, Hulett signed a minor league contract with the [Colorado Rockies](/wiki/Colorado_Rockies "Colorado Rockies"). He was released on April 7, 2011\. On April 23, 2011, Hulett signed a minor league contract with the [Washington Nationals](/wiki/Washington_Nationals "Washington Nationals") and was assigned to the Triple\-A [Syracuse Chiefs](/wiki/Syracuse_Chiefs "Syracuse Chiefs"). Hulett opened the 2012 season with Double\-A [Reading](/wiki/Reading_Phillies "Reading Phillies"). He signed with the [Miami Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins "Miami Marlins") on a minor league contract in January 2013, but was released before the season started.
[ "Career\n------", "A .332 [hitter](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\") for [Auburn University](/wiki/Auburn_University \"Auburn University\"), he played [collegiate summer baseball](/wiki/Collegiate_summer_baseball \"Collegiate summer baseball\") with the [Harwich Mariners](/wiki/Harwich_Mariners \"Harwich Mariners\") of the [Cape Cod Baseball League](/wiki/Cape_Cod_Baseball_League \"Cape Cod Baseball League\") in 2003\\.{{cite web\\|author\\= \\|url\\=http://capecodbaseball.org.ismmedia.com/ISM3/std\\-content/repos/Top/2012website/archives/Current%20Year/All\\_Time\\_MLB\\_CCBL\\_Alumni.pdf \\|title\\=Major League Baseball Players From the Cape Cod League \\|publisher\\=capecodbaseball.org \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=September 25, 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thebaseballcube.com/college/summer/stats.asp?Y\\=2003\\&T\\=Harwich\\_Mariners \\|title\\=2003 Harwich Mariners \\|publisher\\=thebaseballcube.com \\|accessdate\\=September 23, 2021}} Hulett was drafted by the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\") in the 14th round of the [2004 Major League Baseball draft](/wiki/2004_Major_League_Baseball_draft \"2004 Major League Baseball draft\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Texas Rangers 2004 Draft Results\\|url\\=http://texas.rangers.mlb.com/team/draft.jsp?c\\_id\\=tex\\&year\\=2004\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106195544/http://texas.rangers.mlb.com/team/draft.jsp?c\\_id\\=tex\\&year\\=2004\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 6, 2011\\|work\\=mlb.com\\|accessdate\\=November 27, 2009}} Hulett hit .274 in 70 games for the Single\\-A [Spokane Indians](/wiki/Spokane_Indians \"Spokane Indians\") in {{baseball year\\|2004}}. In {{baseball year\\|2005}}, he was promoted to the Single\\-A [Clinton LumberKings](/wiki/Clinton_LumberKings \"Clinton LumberKings\"), where he batted .265 and was a mid\\-season All\\-Star. He started {{baseball year\\|2006}} in Single\\-A [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield_Blaze \"Bakersfield Blaze\") before being promoted to the Double\\-A [Frisco RoughRiders](/wiki/Frisco_RoughRiders \"Frisco RoughRiders\"). He played for the [Oklahoma RedHawks](/wiki/Oklahoma_RedHawks \"Oklahoma RedHawks\") in {{baseball year\\|2007}}, hitting .272 in 132 games. On December 12, 2007, he was traded to the Seattle Mariners for [Ben Broussard](/wiki/Ben_Broussard \"Ben Broussard\").", "Hulett started {{baseball year\\|2008}} with Triple\\-A [Tacoma](/wiki/Tacoma_Rainiers \"Tacoma Rainiers\"). After batting .302 in 71 games, Hulett was called up by the Mariners on July 10, after the release of struggling [first baseman](/wiki/First_baseman \"First baseman\") [Richie Sexson](/wiki/Richie_Sexson \"Richie Sexson\"). Hulett played one game in Seattle, going 1 for 3, before being sent back down to the Rainiers on July 18 when the Mariners called up first baseman [Bryan LaHair](/wiki/Bryan_LaHair \"Bryan LaHair\").{{cite web\\|title\\=LaHair gets call to Majors\\|author\\=Jesse Baumgartner\\|date\\=July 17, 2008\\|url\\=http://seattle.mariners.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080717\\&content\\_id\\=3145990\\&vkey\\=news\\_sea\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=sea\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721032835/http://seattle.mariners.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080717\\&content\\_id\\=3145990\\&vkey\\=news\\_sea\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=sea\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 21, 2008\\|work\\=mlb.com\\|accessdate\\=November 27, 2009}}", "On February 15, 2009, Hulett was [designated for assignment](/wiki/Designated_for_assignment \"Designated for assignment\") to make room for newly claimed [pitcher](/wiki/Pitcher \"Pitcher\") Luis Peña from the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers \"Milwaukee Brewers\");{{cite web\\|title\\=Mariners claim pitcher from Brewers\n\\|author\\=Jim Street\\|date\\=February 15, 2009\\|url\\=http://seattle.mariners.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090215\\&content\\_id\\=3832530\\&vkey\\=news\\_sea\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=sea\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218044321/http://seattle.mariners.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090215\\&content\\_id\\=3832530\\&vkey\\=news\\_sea\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=sea\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=February 18, 2009\\|work\\=mlb.com\\|accessdate\\=November 27, 2009}} he was claimed by the [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals \"Kansas City Royals\") four days later.{{cite web\\|title\\=Royals claim Hulett off waivers\\|author\\=Dick Kaegel\\|date\\=February 19, 2009\\|url\\=http://kansascity.royals.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090219\\&content\\_id\\=3853036\\&vkey\\=news\\_kc\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=kc\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329132429/http://kansascity.royals.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090219\\&content\\_id\\=3853036\\&vkey\\=news\\_kc\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=kc\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=March 29, 2012\\|work\\=mlb.com\\|accessdate\\=November 27, 2009}}", "On November 25, 2009, Hulett was traded to the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox \"Boston Red Sox\") for a player to be named later or cash considerations.{{cite web\\|title\\=Red Sox get Hulett in trade with Royals\\|author\\=John Schlegel\\|date\\=November 25, 2009\\|url\\=http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20091125\\&content\\_id\\=7719366\\&vkey\\=news\\_bos\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=bos\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091128015745/http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20091125\\&content\\_id\\=7719366\\&vkey\\=news\\_bos\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=bos\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=November 28, 2009\\|work\\=mlb.com\\|accessdate\\=November 27, 2009}}\nOn August 8, 2010, the Red Sox released him.", "On August 15, 2010, he signed a minor league deal with the [Seattle Mariners](/wiki/Seattle_Mariners \"Seattle Mariners\") and was assigned to the Triple\\-A [Tacoma Rainiers](/wiki/Tacoma_Rainiers \"Tacoma Rainiers\").", "On December 23, 2010, Hulett signed a minor league contract with the [Colorado Rockies](/wiki/Colorado_Rockies \"Colorado Rockies\"). He was released on April 7, 2011\\.", "On April 23, 2011, Hulett signed a minor league contract with the [Washington Nationals](/wiki/Washington_Nationals \"Washington Nationals\") and was assigned to the Triple\\-A [Syracuse Chiefs](/wiki/Syracuse_Chiefs \"Syracuse Chiefs\").", "Hulett opened the 2012 season with Double\\-A [Reading](/wiki/Reading_Phillies \"Reading Phillies\").", "He signed with the [Miami Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins \"Miami Marlins\") on a minor league contract in January 2013, but was released before the season started.", "" ]
Ancient seafaring ----------------- ### Maritime prehistory There are indications as stone tools and traces left on a [rhinoceros](/wiki/Rhinoceros "Rhinoceros") skeleton that suggest early [hominids](/wiki/Hominid "Hominid") crossed the sea and colonized the [Philippine](/wiki/Philippine "Philippine") island of [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon "Luzon") in a time frame as early as 777,000 to 631,000 years ago.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Ingicco\|first1\=T.\|last2\=van den Bergh\|first2\=G. D.\|last3\=Jago\-on\|first3\=C.\|last4\=Bahain\|first4\=J.\-J.\|last5\=Chacón\|first5\=M. G.\|last6\=Amano\|first6\=N.\|last7\=Forestier\|first7\=H.\|last8\=King\|first8\=C.\|last9\=Manalo\|first9\=K.\|date\=May 2018\|title\=Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago\|journal\=Nature\|language\=En\|volume\=557\|issue\=7704\|pages\=233–237\|doi\=10\.1038/s41586\-018\-0072\-8\|pmid\=29720661\|issn\=0028\-0836\|bibcode\=2018Natur.557\..233I\|s2cid\=13742336\|url\=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=6441\&context\=smhpapers}} The lowered sea levels of the [Pleistocene](/wiki/Pleistocene "Pleistocene") made some of the [modern\-day islands](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia "Maritime Southeast Asia") of [Sundaland](/wiki/Sundaland "Sundaland") accessible via land bridges. However, the spread of [anatomically modern humans](/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans "Anatomically modern humans") across the [Wallace line](/wiki/Wallace_line "Wallace line") and into [Sahul](/wiki/Sahul "Sahul") necessitated crossing bodies of water. Remains of stone tools and marine shells in Liang Sarru, [Salibabu Island](/wiki/Salibabu "Salibabu"), North Sulawesi, dated to 32,000–35,000 years ago, is possible evidence for the longest sea voyage by Paleolithic humans ever recorded. The island was previously uninhabited by humans or [hominins](/wiki/Hominin "Hominin") and can only be reached from either [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao "Mindanao") or the [Sangihe Islands](/wiki/Sangihe_Islands "Sangihe Islands") by crossing an expanse of water at least {{convert\|100\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} wide, even during the low sea levels of the Pleistocene. Other evidence of early maritime transport are the appearance of [obsidian](/wiki/Obsidian "Obsidian") tools with the same source on neighboring islands. These include the Philippine obsidian network ([Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro "Mindoro") and [Palawan](/wiki/Palawan "Palawan"), {{circa\|33,000\-28,000 BP}}), and the [Wallacea](/wiki/Wallacea "Wallacea") obsidian network ([Timor](/wiki/Timor "Timor"), [Atauro](/wiki/Atauro "Atauro"), [Kisar](/wiki/Kisar "Kisar"), [Alor](/wiki/Alor_Island "Alor Island"), {{circa\|22,000 BP}}). However, the method of crossing remains unknown and could have ranged from simple [rafts](/wiki/Raft "Raft") to [dugout canoes](/wiki/Dugout_canoe "Dugout canoe") by the terminal Pleistocene.{{cite book \|last1\=Bellwood \|first1\=Peter S. \|title\=First islanders: prehistory and human migration in Island Southeast Asia \|date\=2017 \|publisher\=Wiley Blackwell \|location\=Hoboken \|isbn\=978\-1\-119\-25155\-2 \|edition\=First}}{{cite journal \|last1\=O'Connor \|first1\=Sue \|last2\=Kealy \|first2\=Shimona \|last3\=Reepmeyer \|first3\=Christian \|last4\=Samper Carro \|first4\=Sofia C. \|last5\=Shipton \|first5\=Ceri \|title\=Terminal Pleistocene emergence of maritime interaction networks across Wallacea \|journal\=World Archaeology \|date\=15 March 2022 \|volume\=54 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=244–263 \|doi\=10\.1080/00438243\.2023\.2172072}}{{cite book \|last1\=O'Connor \|first1\=Sue \|editor1\-last\=Kaifu \|editor1\-first\=Yousuke \|title\=Emergence and Diversity of Modern Human Behavior in Paleolithic Asia \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=Texas A\&M University Press \|location\=College Station \|isbn\=978\-1\-62349\-277\-9 \|edition\=First \|chapter\=Crossing the Wallace Line The Maritime Skills of the Earliest Colonists in the Wallacean Archipelago}} The sea crossing by humans to the [Sahul](/wiki/Sahul_Shelf "Sahul Shelf") landmass (modern [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") and [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea "New Guinea")) from the [Sundaland](/wiki/Sundaland "Sundaland") peninsula occurred around 53,000 to 65,000 years ago. Even with the lower sea level of that time, this crossing would have involved travelling out of sight of land{{snd}}the overall distances involved at the possible crossing points are all over 55 miles. It is likely that large bamboo rafts were used, possibly with a sail of some sort. Up until 58,000 BP, the winds during the Northern Australian wet season were particularly favourable for making this crossing. The reduction in favourable winds after that date fits well with the single colonisation phase of Australia during prehistory.{{cite book \|last1\=O'Connor \|first1\=Sue \|last2\=Hiscock \|first2\=Peter \|editor1\-last\=Cochrane \|editor1\-first\=Ethan E \|editor2\-last\=Hunt \|editor2\-first\=Terry L. \|title\=The Oxford handbook of prehistoric Oceania \|date\=2018 \|location\=New York, NY \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-992507\-0}}{{rp\|26–29}}{{cite book \|last1\=Jett \|first1\=Stephen C. \|title\=Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre\-Columbian Americas \|date\=2017 \|publisher\=University of Alabama Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8173\-1939\-7 \|pages\=168–171 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EgOUDgAAQBAJ}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Clarkson \|first1\=Chris \|last2\=Jacobs \|first2\=Zenobia \|last3\=Marwick \|first3\=Ben \|last4\=Fullagar \|first4\=Richard \|last5\=Wallis \|first5\=Lynley \|last6\=Smith \|first6\=Mike \|last7\=Roberts \|first7\=Richard G. \|last8\=Hayes \|first8\=Elspeth \|last9\=Lowe \|first9\=Kelsey \|last10\=Carah \|first10\=Xavier \|last11\=Florin \|first11\=S. Anna \|last12\=McNeil \|first12\=Jessica \|last13\=Cox \|first13\=Delyth \|last14\=Arnold \|first14\=Lee J. \|last15\=Hua \|first15\=Quan \|last16\=Huntley \|first16\=Jillian \|last17\=Brand \|first17\=Helen E. A. \|last18\=Manne \|first18\=Tiina \|last19\=Fairbairn \|first19\=Andrew \|last20\=Shulmeister \|first20\=James \|last21\=Lyle \|first21\=Lindsey \|last22\=Salinas \|first22\=Makiah \|last23\=Page \|first23\=Mara \|last24\=Connell \|first24\=Kate \|last25\=Park \|first25\=Gayoung \|last26\=Norman \|first26\=Kasih \|last27\=Murphy \|first27\=Tessa \|last28\=Pardoe \|first28\=Colin \|title\=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago \|journal\=Nature \|date\=20 July 2017 \|volume\=547 \|issue\=7663 \|pages\=306–310 \|doi\=10\.1038/nature22968\|pmid\=28726833 \|hdl\=2440/107043 \|hdl\-access\=free \|bibcode\=2017Natur.547\..306C \|s2cid\=205257212 }} In the [history of whaling](/wiki/History_of_whaling "History of whaling"), humans are believed to have begun whaling in Korea at least 6000 BC.{{cite news\|title\=Rock art hints at whaling origins\|work\=BBC News\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3638853\.stm\|date\=20 April 2004\|access\-date\=25 November 2014}} The oldest known method of catching [whales](/wiki/Whales "Whales") is to simply drive them ashore by placing a number of small boats between the whale and the open sea and attempting to frighten them with noise, activity, and perhaps small, non\-lethal weapons such as arrows.{{Cite book\|title\=A Pattern of Islands.\|last\=Grimble, Arthur.\|date\=2012\|publisher\=Eland Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-78060\-026\-0\|location\=London\|oclc\=836405865}} ### Austronesian expansion {{main\|Austronesian expansion\|Polynesian navigation}} [400px\|thumb\|Map showing the migration and expansion of the [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples "Austronesian peoples") which began at about 3000 BC from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan")](/wiki/File:Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg "Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg") [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples "Austronesian peoples") used distinctive sailing technologies, namely the [catamaran](/wiki/Catamaran "Catamaran"), the [outrigger ship](/wiki/Outrigger_ship "Outrigger ship"), [tanja sail](/wiki/Tanja_sail "Tanja sail") and the [crab claw sail](/wiki/Crab_claw_sail "Crab claw sail"). This allowed them to colonize a large part of the [Indo\-Pacific](/wiki/Indo-Pacific "Indo-Pacific") region during the [Austronesian expansion](/wiki/Austronesian_expansion "Austronesian expansion") starting at around 3000 to 1500 BC, and ending with the colonization of [Easter Island](/wiki/Easter_Island "Easter Island") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") in the 10th to 13th centuries AD.{{cite journal \|last1\=Doran \|first1\=Edwin Jr. \|title\=Outrigger Ages \|journal\=The Journal of the Polynesian Society \|date\=1974 \|volume\=83 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=130–140 \|url\=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume\_83\_1974/Volume\_83%2C\_No.\_2/Outrigger\_ages%2C\_by\_Edwin\_Doran\_Jnr.%2C\_p\_130\-140/p1}}{{cite book\|first1\= Waruno\|last1\=Mahdi\|editor1\-last \=Blench\|editor1\-first\= Roger \|editor2\-last\=Spriggs\|editor2\-first\=Matthew\|title \=Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts\|chapter \=The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean\|volume \= 34\|publisher \=Routledge\|series \=One World Archaeology \|year \=1999\|pages\=144–179\|isbn \=978\-0\-415\-10054\-0}} Prior to the 16th century [Colonial Era](/wiki/Early_modern_period "Early modern period"), Austronesians were the most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from Easter Island in the eastern [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean") to [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") in the western [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean").{{cite book \|last1\=Bellwood \|first1\=Peter \|last2\=Fox \|first2\=James J. \|last3\=Tryon \|first3\=Darrell \|title\=The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Australian National University Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-920942\-85\-4 \|url\=https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/series/comparative\-austronesian\-series/austronesians}}{{cite book\|last1\=Bellwood\|first1\=Peter\|title\=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration\|date\=2014\|page\=213}} They also established vast maritime trading networks, among which is the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") precursor to what would become the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road "Maritime Silk Road").{{cite book\|first1\=Bérénice\|last1\= Bellina\|editor1\-first\=John\|editor1\-last\=Guy\|title \=Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu\-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century\|chapter \=Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road\|publisher \=Yale University Press\|year \=2014\|pages\=22–25\|isbn \=978\-1\-58839\-524\-5\|chapter\-url \=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}} [left\|thumb\|Succession of forms in the development of the [Austronesian boat](/wiki/Outrigger_canoe "Outrigger canoe")](/wiki/File:Succession_of_forms_in_the_development_of_the_Austronesian_boat.png "Succession of forms in the development of the Austronesian boat.png") * + - * + {{multiple image \|align\=right \| total\_width \=410 \| image1 \=Hokule'a.jpg \| image2 \=Boracay paraw sailboats 010\.jpg \| image3\=Maquette Prao Musée de la Marine Paris.jpg \| image4\=Kapal Nur Al Marege, koleksi pribadi Muhammad Ridwan Alimudin, 2019\.jpg \| image5\=Waka at Waitangi in the early morning.jpg \|footer\= Typical Austronesian ship designs, left to right: \*''\[\[Hōkūle{{okina}}a]]'', a \[\[Polynesia]]n voyaging \[\[catamaran]] with \[\[crab claw sail]]s \*\[\[Philippines\|Filipino]] \[\[outrigger boat\|double\-outrigger]] (\[\[trimaran]]) \[\[paraw]] with a \[\[crab claw sail]] \*A \[\[Melanesia]]n \[\[outrigger boat\|single\-outrigger]] \[\[tepukei]] with a forward\-mounted \[\[crab claw sail]] from the \[\[Solomon Islands]] \*''Nur al Marege'', an \[\[Indonesia]]n replica of a \[\[padewakang]] with \[\[tanja sail]]s \*\[\[Waka (canoe)\|Waka]], narrow \[\[Māori people\|Māori]] \[\[war canoe]]s propelled by \[\[paddling]] }} The acquisition of the [catamaran](/wiki/Catamaran "Catamaran") and outrigger boat technology by the non\-Austronesian peoples in Sri Lanka and southern India is the result of very early Austronesian contact with the region, including the [Maldives](/wiki/Maldives "Maldives") and [Laccadive Islands](/wiki/Laccadive_Islands "Laccadive Islands"). This is estimated to have occurred around 1000 to 600 BC and onwards, and led to the development of India and Sri Lanka's own maritime trade networks. This may have possibly included limited colonization that have since been assimilated. This is still evident in Sri Lankan and South Indian languages. For example, [Tamil](/wiki/Tamil_language "Tamil language") *paṭavu*, [Telugu](/wiki/Telugu_language "Telugu language") *paḍava*, and [Kannada](/wiki/Kannada_language "Kannada language") *paḍahu*, all meaning "ship", are all derived from [Proto\-Hesperonesian](/wiki/Proto-Hesperonesian "Proto-Hesperonesian") *\*padaw*, "sailboat", with Austronesian cognates like [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_language "Javanese language") *[perahu](/wiki/Perahu "Perahu")*, [Kadazan](/wiki/Kadazan_language "Kadazan language") *padau*, [Maranao](/wiki/Maranao_language "Maranao language") *padaw*, [Cebuano](/wiki/Cebuano_language "Cebuano language") *[paráw](/wiki/Par%C3%A1w "Paráw")*, [Samoan](/wiki/Samoan_language "Samoan language") *folau*, [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaiian_language "Hawaiian language") *halau*, and [Māori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language "Māori language") *wharau*. Similarly the first encounter with large sea\-going ships by the [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_people "Chinese people") is through trade with Southeast Asian Austronesian ships (likely [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_people "Javanese people") or [Sumatran](/wiki/Sumatra "Sumatra")) during the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty") (220 BC–200 AD) as recorded by the Chinese historian Wan Chen (萬震) in his 3rd century AD book "Strange Things of the South" (Nánzhōu Yìwùzhì — 南州異物志). This led to the development of China's own maritime technologies later on, during the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty "Song dynasty") in the 10th to 13th century AD.{{Cite journal\|last\=Christie\|first\=Anthony\|date\=1957\|title\=An Obscure Passage from the "Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟΦΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ"\|journal\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London\|volume\=19\|pages\=345–353\|doi\=10\.1017/S0041977X00133105\|s2cid\=162840685 \|via\=JSTOR}}{{Cite book \|last\=Dick\-Read \|first\=Robert \|title\=The Phantom Voyagers: Evidence of Indonesian Settlement in Africa in Ancient Times \|publisher\=Thurlton \|year\=2005}}{{Rp\|38–42}} At the furthest extents of the Austronesian expansion, colonists from [Borneo](/wiki/Borneo "Borneo") crossed the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean") westward to settle in [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") and the [Comoros](/wiki/Comoros "Comoros") by around 500 AD.{{cite journal \|last1\=Burney \|first1\=David A. \|last2\=Burney \|first2\=Lida Pigott \|last3\=Godfrey \|first3\=Laurie R. \|last4\=Jungers \|first4\=William L. \|last5\=Goodman \|first5\=Steven M. \|last6\=Wright \|first6\=Henry T. \|last7\=Jull \|first7\=A.J. Timothy \|title\=A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar \|journal\=Journal of Human Evolution \|date\=August 2004 \|volume\=47 \|issue\=1–2 \|pages\=25–63 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jhevol.2004\.05\.005 \|pmid\=15288523 \|bibcode\=2004JHumE..47\...25B }}{{cite book \|last\=Pawley \|first\=A. \|chapter\=The Austronesian dispersal: languages, technologies and people \|editor1\-first\=Peter S. \|editor1\-last\=Bellwood \|editor2\-first\=Colin \|editor2\-last\=Renfrew \|title\=Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis \|publisher\=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge \|year\=2002 \|isbn\=978\-1\-902937\-20\-5 \|pages\=251–273 }} In the east, the first true ocean voyage was the colonization of the [Northern Marianas Islands](/wiki/Northern_Marianas_Islands "Northern Marianas Islands") of [Micronesia](/wiki/Micronesia "Micronesia") from the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"). This was followed by more migrations southwards and eastwards to [Island Melanesia](/wiki/Island_Melanesia "Island Melanesia") up to islands beyond the inter\-island visibility range like [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga "Tonga") and [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa "Samoa"). This region was occupied by the Austronesian [Lapita culture](/wiki/Lapita_culture "Lapita culture"). After a gap of about two thousand years, the first [Polynesians](/wiki/Polynesian_people "Polynesian people") continued spreading eastwards into the [Cook Islands](/wiki/Cook_Islands "Cook Islands"), [French Polynesia](/wiki/French_Polynesia "French Polynesia"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii"), [Easter Island](/wiki/Easter_Island "Easter Island"), and Aotearoa, [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") by around AD 700 to 1200\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Carson \|first1\=Mike T. \|last2\=Hung \|first2\=Hsiao\-chun \|last3\=Summerhayes \|first3\=Glenn \|last4\=Bellwood \|first4\=Peter \|title\=The Pottery Trail From Southeast Asia to Remote Oceania \|journal\=The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology \|date\=January 2013 \|volume\=8 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=17–36 \|doi\=10\.1080/15564894\.2012\.726941\|s2cid\=128641903 \|hdl\=1885/72437 \|hdl\-access\=free }}{{cite book\|last\=Goodenough\|first\=Ward Hunt\|title\=Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5\|date\=1996\|publisher\=American Philosophical Society\|pages\=127–128}} [Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples "Austronesian peoples") ethnicities used an advanced Navigation system: Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using a very distinctive [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy") technique called "[star path navigation](/wiki/Star_navigation "Star navigation")". Basically, the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon.{{Citation\|last\=Liebner\|first\=Horst H.\|title\=Eksplorasi Sumberdaya Budaya Maritim\|pages\=53–124\|year\=2005\|editor\-last\=Edi\|editor\-first\=Sedyawati\|contribution\=Perahu\-Perahu Tradisional Nusantara: Suatu Tinjauan Perkapalan dan Pelayaran\|contribution\-url\=https://www.academia.edu/7780936/Perahu\-Perahu\_Tradisional\_Nusantara\_Suatu\_Tinjauan\_Perkapalan\_dan\_Pelayaran\_\-\_\-\_Ini\_sudah\_agak\_outdated\_ada\_tulisan\_barunya\_Beberapa\_Catatan\_akan\_Sejarah\_Pembuatan\_Perahu\_dan\_Pelayaran\_Nusantara\_\|place\=Jakarta\|publisher\=Pusat Riset Wilayah Laut dan Sumber Daya Nonhayati, Badan Riset Kelautan dan Perikanan; Pusat Penelitian Kemasyarakatan dan Budaya, Universitas Indonesia}}{{Refpage\|10}} Māori people of New Zealand are said to have Navigated following the zodiacal constellation of Scorpio, between Libra and Sagittarius in the southern sky positioned at about 16 hours 30 minutes right ascension and 30° south declination to find, Aotearoa, "The Land of the Long, White, Cloud". ### Ancient routes and locations Ancient maritime routes usually began in the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East") or down river from [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh "Madhya Pradesh") with [transshipment](/wiki/Transshipment "Transshipment") via historic [Bharuch](/wiki/Bharuch "Bharuch") (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today's [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") then split around [Hadhramaut](/wiki/Hadhramaut "Hadhramaut") into two streams north into the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden "Gulf of Aden") and thence into the [Levant](/wiki/Levant "Levant"), or south into [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria") via [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea") ports such as [Axum](/wiki/Axum "Axum"). Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates.See: [Arabian Sea Trade routes](/wiki/Arabian_Sea%23Trade_routes "Arabian Sea#Trade routes") [thumb\|center\|555px\|Names, routes and locations of the *[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea](/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea")* at the turn of the first millennium.](/wiki/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg "Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg") [right\|thumbnail\|250px\|Much of the [Radhanites](/wiki/Radhanite "Radhanite")' [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean") trade would have depended on coastal cargo\-ships such as this [dhow](/wiki/Dhow "Dhow").](/wiki/File:Dhow.jpg "Dhow.jpg") Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the utilization of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea") and the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal").Denemark 2000: 107\. [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia"), thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult. Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes. By making use of the maritime trade routes, [bulk commodity trade](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Commercial_infrastructure "Roman commerce#Commercial infrastructure") became possible for the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Romans "Ancient Romans") in the 2nd century BC.Toutain 1979: 243\. A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at [one\-sixtieth the cost](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Sea_routes "Roman commerce#Sea routes") of [over\-land routes](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Land_routes "Roman commerce#Land routes").Scarre 1995\. {{see also\|Ship transport}} #### Egypt [thumb\|222px\|Egyptian ship, 1250 BC](/wiki/File:Wells_egyptian_ship_red_sea.png "Wells egyptian ship red sea.png") [thumb\|222px\|World's oldest depiction of a [stern](/wiki/Stern "Stern")\-mounted steering rudder (c. 1420 BC)](/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Menna_013.jpg "Maler der Grabkammer des Menna 013.jpg") The [Ancient Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") had knowledge of [sail](/wiki/Sail "Sail") construction.[Hatshepsut](/wiki/Hatshepsut "Hatshepsut") oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and *with several sails*. Various others exist, also. The first warships of [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") were constructed during the early [Middle Kingdom](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt "Middle Kingdom of Egypt"), and perhaps – at the end of the [Old Kingdom](/wiki/Old_Kingdom "Old Kingdom"), but the first mention and a detailed description of a large enough and heavily armed ship dates from 16th century BC. "And I ordered to build twelve warships with rams, dedicated to [Amun](/wiki/Amun "Amun") or [Sobek](/wiki/Sobek "Sobek"), or [Maat](/wiki/Maat "Maat") and [Sekhmet](/wiki/Sekhmet "Sekhmet"), whose image was crowned best bronze noses. Carport and equipped outside rook over the waters, for many paddlers, having covered rowers deck not only from the side, but and top. and they were on board eighteen oars in two rows on the top and sat on two rowers, and the lower – one, a hundred and eight rowers were. And twelve rowers aft worked on three steering oars. And blocked Our Majesty ship inside three partitions ([bulkheads](/wiki/Bulkhead_%28partition%29 "Bulkhead (partition)")) so as not to drown it by ramming the wicked, and the sailors had time to repair the hole. And Our Majesty arranged four towers for archers – two behind, and two on the nose and one above the other small – on the mast with narrow loopholes. they are covered with [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") in the fifth finger (3\.2mm), as well as a canopy roof and its rowers. and they have (carried) on the nose three assault heavy crossbow arrows so they lit resin or oil with a salt of Seth (probably nitrate) tore a special blend and punched (?) lead ball with a lot of holes (?), and one of the same at the stern. and long ship seventy five cubits (41m), and the breadth sixteen, and in battle can go three\-quarters of iteru per hour (about 6\.5 knots)..." The text of the tomb of [Amenhotep I](/wiki/Amenhotep_I "Amenhotep I") ([KV39](/wiki/KV39 "KV39")). When [Thutmose III](/wiki/Thutmose_III "Thutmose III") achieved warships [displacement](/wiki/Displacement_%28ship%29 "Displacement (ship)") up to 360 tons and carried up to ten new heavy and light to seventeen catapults based bronze springs, called "siege crossbow" – more precisely, siege bows. Still appeared giant catamarans that are heavy warships and times of [Ramesses III](/wiki/Ramesses_III "Ramesses III") used even when the Ptolemaic dynasty.Nelson Harold Hayden, Allen Thomas George and Dr [Raymond O. Faulkner](/wiki/Raymond_O._Faulkner "Raymond O. Faulkner"). «Tuthmosis III. First Emperor in the History of Mankind. His Regal companions and a Great assistants» Oxford UNV Publishing, 1921 p.127\. [thumb\|222px\|The world according to [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus "Herodotus"), 440 BC](/wiki/File:Herodotus5m1.jpg "Herodotus5m1.jpg") According to the [Greek](/wiki/Greece "Greece") historian [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus "Herodotus"), [Necho II](/wiki/Necho%C2%A0II "Necho II") sent out an expedition of [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians "Phoenicians"), which reputedly, at some point between 610 and before 594 BC, sailed in three years from the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea") around [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa") to the mouth of the [Nile](/wiki/Nile "Nile"). Some Egyptologists dispute that an Egyptian Pharaoh would authorize such an expedition,For instance, the Egyptologist Alan Lloyd wrote "Given the context of [Egyptian thought](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy "Ancient Egyptian philosophy"), [economic life](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade "Ancient Egyptian trade"), and [military](/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt "Military of ancient Egypt") interests, it is impossible for one to imagine what stimulus could have motivated Necho in such a scheme and if we cannot provide a reason which is sound within Egyptian terms of reference, then we have good reason to doubt the historicity of the entire episode." {{cite journal \| last1 \= Lloyd \| first1 \= Alan B. \| year \= 1977 \| title \= Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations \| journal \= Journal of Egyptian Archaeology \| volume \= 63 \| page \= 149 \| doi\=10\.2307/3856314\| jstor \= 3856314 }} except for the reason of trade in the ancient maritime routes. The belief in Herodotus' account, handed down to him by [oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition "Oral tradition"),M. J. Cary. The Ancient Explorers. Penguin Books, 1963\. Page 114 is primarily because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians "*as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right – to northward of them*" (*The Histories* 4\.42\) – in [Herodotus' time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean](/wiki/History_of_geography%23Greco-Roman_world "History of geography#Greco-Roman world") (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to AsiaDie umsegelung Asiens und Europas auf der Vega. Volume 2\. By Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. [p148](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8-SfAAAAMAAJ/page/n173)). So fantastic an assertion is this of a typical example of some seafarers' story and Herodotus therefore may never have mentioned it, at all, had it not been based on facts and made with the according insistence.[Heinz Gartmann](/wiki/Heinz_Gartmann "Heinz Gartmann"): Sonst stünde die Welt still. Das große Ringen um das Neue. *Econ*, Düsseldorf 1957 This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject;The Cambridge History of the British Empire. CUP Archive, 1963\. [p56](https://books.google.com/books?id=ISg9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA56) but [Strabo](/wiki/Strabo "Strabo"), [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius "Polybius"), and [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy "Ptolemy") doubted the description. Egyptologist [A. B. Lloyd](/wiki/Alan_B._Lloyd "Alan B. Lloyd") suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the Sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that "It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure of [Sataspes](/wiki/Sataspes "Sataspes")' attempt to circumnavigate Africa under [Xerxes the Great](/wiki/Xerxes_the_Great "Xerxes the Great").{{cite journal \| last1 \= Lloyd \| first1 \= Alan B \| year \= 1977 \| title \= Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations \| journal \= Journal of Egyptian Archaeology \| volume \= 63 \| pages \= 142–155 \| doi\=10\.2307/3856314\| jstor \= 3856314 }} Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus and [Pliny](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder "Pliny the Elder").The Geographical system of Herodotus By James Rennel. [p348](https://books.google.com/books?id=6C0waiOScrEC&pg=PA348)\+ Much earlier, the [Sea Peoples](/wiki/Sea_Peoples "Sea Peoples") was a [confederacy](/wiki/Confederation "Confederation") of seafaring raiders who sailed into the eastern shores of the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean"), caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") territory during the late [19th dynasty](/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt "Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt"), and especially during Year 8 of [Ramesses III](/wiki/Ramesses%C2%A0III "Ramesses III") of the [20th Dynasty](/wiki/Twentieth_dynasty_of_Egypt "Twentieth dynasty of Egypt").A convenient table of sea peoples in [hieroglyphics](/wiki/Hieroglyphics "Hieroglyphics"), transliteration and English is given in the dissertation of Woodhuizen, 2006, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there The Egyptian Pharaoh [Merneptah](/wiki/Merneptah "Merneptah") explicitly refers to them by the term "the foreign\-countries (or 'peoples'As noted by Gardiner V.1 p.196, other texts have "foreign\-peoples"; both terms can refer to the concept of "foreigners" as well. Zangger in the external link below expresses a commonly held view that "sea peoples" does not translate this and other expressions but is an academic innovation. The Woudhuizen dissertation and the Morris paper identify [Gaston Maspero](/wiki/Gaston_Maspero "Gaston Maspero") as the first to use the term "peuples de la mer" in 1881\.) of the sea"Gardiner V.1 p.196\.Manassa p.55\. in his [Great Karnak Inscription](/wiki/Great_Karnak_Inscription "Great Karnak Inscription").Line 52\. The inscription is shown in Manassa p.55 plate 12\. Although some scholars believe that they "invaded" [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus") and the [Levant](/wiki/Levant "Levant"), this hypothesis is disputed. ##### Kingdom of Punt {{main\|Somali maritime history}} [thumb\|right\|300px\|Historical [Somali commercial enterprise](/wiki/Somali_maritime_history "Somali maritime history") in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea"), the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf"), the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"), and the [straits of Malacca](/wiki/Straits_of_Malacca "Straits of Malacca").](/wiki/File:Somali_Enterprise.JPG "Somali Enterprise.JPG") In ancient times the [Kingdom of Punt](/wiki/Land_of_Punt "Land of Punt"), which is believed by several Egyptologists to have been situated in the area of modern\-day [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"), had a steady trade link with the Ancient Egyptians and exported the precious natural resources such as [myrrh](/wiki/Myrrh "Myrrh"), [frankincense](/wiki/Frankincense "Frankincense") and [gum](/wiki/Natural_gum "Natural gum"). This trade network continued all the way into the [classical era](/wiki/Classical_antiquity "Classical antiquity"). The city states of [Mossylon](/wiki/Bosaso "Bosaso"), [Opone](/wiki/Opone "Opone"), [Malao](/wiki/Malao_%28ancient%29 "Malao (ancient)"), [Mundus](/wiki/Mundus_%28city%29 "Mundus (city)") and [Tabae](/wiki/Tabae "Tabae") in Somalia engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting [Somali](/wiki/Somali_people "Somali people") merchants with [Phoenicia](/wiki/Phoenicia "Phoenicia"), [Ptolemic Egypt](/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom "Ptolemaic Kingdom"), [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece"), [Parthian Persia](/wiki/Parthia "Parthia"), [Saba](/wiki/Sabaeans "Sabaeans"), [Nabataea](/wiki/Nabataea "Nabataea") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"). Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the [beden](/wiki/Beden "Beden") to transport their cargo. #### The Mediterranean [Minoan](/wiki/Minoan_civilization "Minoan civilization") traders from [Crete](/wiki/Crete "Crete") were active in the eastern Mediterranean by the 2nd millennium BC. The [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicia "Phoenicia") were an ancient [civilization](/wiki/Civilization "Civilization") centered in the north of ancient [Canaan](/wiki/Canaan "Canaan"), with its heartland along the coast of modern\-day [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), Western [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") and northern [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel"). Phoenician civilization was an enterprising [maritime trading culture](/wiki/Thalassocracy "Thalassocracy") that spread across the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") during the first millennium BC, between the period of 1200 BC to 900 BC. Though ancient boundaries of such city\-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of [Tyre](/wiki/Tyre_%28Lebanon%29 "Tyre (Lebanon)") seems to have been the southernmost. [Sarepta](/wiki/Sarepta "Sarepta") between [Sidon](/wiki/Sidon "Sidon") and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. The Phoenicians often traded by means of a [galley](/wiki/Galley "Galley"), a man\-powered sailing vessel. They were the first civilization to create the [bireme](/wiki/Bireme "Bireme"). There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not. The [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") was the source of the vessel, [galley](/wiki/Galley "Galley"), developed before 1000 BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. The [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece") [trireme](/wiki/Trireme "Trireme") was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the propulsion power of [oarsmen](/wiki/Oar "Oar"). Mediterranean peoples developed [lighthouse](/wiki/Lighthouse "Lighthouse") technology and built large fire\-based lighthouses, most notably the [Lighthouse of Alexandria](/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria "Lighthouse of Alexandria"), built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt. Many in ancient western societies, such as [Ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece"), were in awe of the seas and deified them, believing that man no longer belonged to himself when once he embarked on a sea voyage. They believed that he was liable to be sacrificed at any time to the anger of the great [Sea God](/wiki/Water_deity "Water deity"). Before the Greeks, the [Carians](/wiki/Carians "Carians") were an early Mediterranean seagoing people that travelled far. Early writers do not give a good idea about the progress of navigation nor that of the man's seamanship. One of the early stories of seafaring was that of [Odysseus](/wiki/Odysseus "Odysseus"). In [Greek mythology](/wiki/Greek_mythology "Greek mythology"), the [Argonauts](/wiki/Argonauts "Argonauts") were a band of heroes who, in the years before the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War "Trojan War"), accompanied [Jason](/wiki/Jason "Jason") to [Colchis](/wiki/Colchis "Colchis") in his quest to find the [Golden Fleece](/wiki/Golden_Fleece "Golden Fleece"). Their name comes from their ship, the [Argo](/wiki/Argo "Argo") which in turn was named after its builder [Argus](/wiki/Argus_%28son_of_Arestor%29 "Argus (son of Arestor)"). Thus, "Argonauts" literally means "Argo sailors". The voyage of the Greek navigator [Pytheas of Massalia](/wiki/Pytheas "Pytheas") is an example of a very early voyage. A competent astronomer and geographer, Pytheas ventured from Greece to Western Europe and the British Isles.{{Cite EB1911\|wstitle\=Pytheas\|volume\=22\|pages\=703–704\|first1\=Edward Herbert\|last1\=Bunbury\|author\-link1\=Edward Bunbury\|first2\=Charles Raymond\|last2\=Beazley\|author\-link2\=Raymond Beazley}} The *[periplus](/wiki/Periplus "Periplus")*, literally "a sailing\-around', in the ancient navigation of [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians "Phoenicians"), [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks "Greeks"), and [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome") was a manuscript document that listed in order the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate distances between, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. Several examples of *periploi* have survived. *[Piracy](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy")*, which is a [robbery](/wiki/Robbery "Robbery") committed at sea or sometimes on the shore, dates back to [Classical Antiquity](/wiki/Classical_Antiquity "Classical Antiquity") and, in all likelihood, much further. The [Tyrrhenians](/wiki/Tyrrhenians "Tyrrhenians"), [Illyrians](/wiki/Illyrians "Illyrians")Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, {{ISBN\|0\-631\-19807\-5}}, page 185 and [Thracians](/wiki/Thracians "Thracians"){{Citation needed\|date\=August 2009}} were known as [pirates](/wiki/Pirate "Pirate") in ancient times. The island of [Lemnos](/wiki/Lemnos "Lemnos") long resisted [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece") influence and remained a haven for Thracian pirates. By the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the [Anatolian](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia") coast, threatening the [commerce](/wiki/Commerce "Commerce") of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"). The earliest seagoing culture in the Mediterranean is associated with [Cardium pottery](/wiki/Cardium_pottery "Cardium pottery"). Their earliest impressed ware sites, dating to 6400–6200 BC, are in [Epirus](/wiki/Epirus "Epirus") and [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu "Corfu"). Settlements then appear in [Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania") and [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia "Dalmatia") on the eastern Adriatic coast dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC.Barry Cunliffe, *Europe Between the Oceans* (2008\), pp.115–6; Staso Forenbaher and Preston Miracle, The spread of farming in the Eastern Adriatic, *Antiquity*, vol. 79, no. 305 (September 2005\), [additional tables](http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/forenbaher305/). The earliest date in Italy comes from [Coppa Nevigata](/wiki/Coppa_Nevigata "Coppa Nevigata") on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, perhaps as early as 6000 cal B.C. Also during Su Carroppu culture in Sardinia, already in its early stages (low strata into Su Coloru cave, c. 6000 BC) early examples of cardium pottery appear.Showcase 3 in the Archeological Museum G. A. Sanna in Sassari Northward and westward all secure radiocarbon dates are identical to those for Iberia c. 5500 cal BC, which indicates a rapid spread of cardium and related cultures: 2,000 km from the gulf of Genoa to the estuary of the Mondego in probably no more than 100–200 years. This suggests a seafaring expansion by planting colonies along the coast.{{Cite journal\|author\=Zilhão\|year\=2001\|title\=Radiocarbon evidence for maritime pioneer colonization at the origins of farming in west Mediterranean Europe\|journal\=PNAS\|volume\=98\|issue\=24\|pages\=14180–14185\|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.241522898\|pmid\=11707599\|pmc\=61188\|bibcode\=2001PNAS...9814180Z\|doi\-access\=free}} ##### The Persian Wars {{Main\|Greco\-Persian Wars\|Peloponnesian War}} [right\|thumb\|222px\|Greek Trireme](/wiki/File:Trireme.jpg "Trireme.jpg") In [Ionia](/wiki/Ionia "Ionia") (the modern Aegean coast of [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey")) the Greek cities, which included great centres such as [Miletus](/wiki/Miletus "Miletus") and [Halicarnassus](/wiki/Halicarnassus "Halicarnassus"), were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of the [Persian Empire](/wiki/Persian_Empire "Persian Empire") in the mid\-6th century BC. In 499 BC the [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks "Greeks") rose in the [Ionian Revolt](/wiki/Ionian_Revolt "Ionian Revolt"), and [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens") and some other Greek cities went to their aid. In 490 BC, the Persian Great King, [Darius I](/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia "Darius I of Persia"), having suppressed the Ionian cities, sent a fleet to punish the Greeks. The Persians landed in [Attica](/wiki/Attica "Attica"), but were defeated at the [Battle of Marathon](/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon "Battle of Marathon") by a Greek army led by the Athenian general [Miltiades](/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger "Miltiades the Younger"). The burial mound of the Athenian dead can still be seen at Marathon. Ten years later Darius' successor, [Xerxes I](/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia "Xerxes I of Persia"), sent a much more powerful force by land. After being delayed by the Spartan King [Leonidas I](/wiki/Leonidas%C2%A0I "Leonidas I") at [Thermopylae](/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae "Battle of Thermopylae"), Xerxes advanced into Attica, where he captured and burned Athens. But the Athenians had evacuated the city by sea, and under [Themistocles](/wiki/Themistocles "Themistocles") they defeated the Persian fleet at the [Battle of Salamis](/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis "Battle of Salamis"). A year later, the Greeks, under the Spartan [Pausanias](/wiki/Pausanias_%28general%29 "Pausanias (general)"), defeated the Persian army at [Plataea](/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea "Battle of Plataea"). The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians out of the Aegean Sea, and in 478 BC they captured [Byzantium](/wiki/Byzantium "Byzantium"). In the course of doing so Athens enrolled all the island states and some mainland allies into an alliance, called the [Delian League](/wiki/Delian_League "Delian League") because its treasury was kept on the sacred island of [Delos](/wiki/Delos "Delos"). The [Spartans](/wiki/Sparta "Sparta"), although they had taken part in the war, withdrew into isolation after it, allowing Athens to establish unchallenged naval and [commercial](/wiki/Commerce "Commerce") power. [thumb\|right\|275px\|[Athenian warship](/wiki/Athenian_warship "Athenian warship") ([Trireme](/wiki/Trireme "Trireme")), c. 400 BC](/wiki/File:AthenianWarship400BC.png "AthenianWarship400BC.png") ##### Punic Wars {{Main\|Punic Wars}} The [Punic Wars](/wiki/Punic_Wars "Punic Wars") were a series of three wars fought between [Rome](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome") and [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage "Carthage"). The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman sphere of influence. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily"), part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the [first Punic War](/wiki/First_Punic_War "First Punic War"), Carthage was the dominant power of the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea"), with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"). By the end of the third war, after the deaths of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming in the process the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. With the end of the [Macedonian wars](/wiki/Macedonian_wars "Macedonian wars") – which ran concurrently with the Punic wars – and the defeat of the [Seleucid Emperor](/wiki/Seleucid_Empire "Seleucid Empire") [Antiochus III the Great](/wiki/Antiochus%C2%A0III_the_Great "Antiochus III the Great") in the [Roman\-Syrian War](/wiki/Roman-Syrian_War "Roman-Syrian War") ([Treaty of Apamea](/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea "Treaty of Apamea"), 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world. This was a turning point that meant that the civilization of the ancient [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa. #### Pre\-Roman Britain [thumb\|250px\|Ancient British canoe](/wiki/File:0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg "0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg") The [Coracle](/wiki/Coracle "Coracle"), a small single\-passenger\-sized float, has been used in Britain since before the first Roman invasion as noted by the invaders. Coracles are round or oval in shape, made of a wooden frame with a hide stretched over it then [tarred](/wiki/Tar "Tar") to provide waterproofing. Being so light, an operator can carry the light craft over the shoulder. They are capable of operating in mere inches of water due to the keel\-less hull. The early people of Wales used these boats for fishing and light travel and updated models are still in use to this day on the rivers of [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"). Early [Britons](/wiki/Britons_%28historic%29 "Britons (historic)") also used the [dugout canoe](/wiki/Dugout_canoe "Dugout canoe"). Examples of these canoes have been found buried in marshes and mud banks of rivers at lengths of upward eight feet.[57\.—Ancient British Canoes. (500x225\)](http://www.fromoldbooks.org/OldEngland/pages/0057-Ancient-British-Canoes/) In 1992 a notable archaeological find, named the "[Dover Bronze Age Boat](/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat "Dover Bronze Age Boat")", was unearthed from beneath what is modern day [Dover, England](/wiki/Dover%2C_England "Dover, England"). The [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") boat which is about 9\.5 meters long × 2\.3 meters wide is believed to have been a seagoing vessel. [Carbon dating](/wiki/Carbon_dating "Carbon dating") reveals that the craft dating from approximately 1600 BC might be the oldest known sea\-going boat. The hull was of half [oak](/wiki/Oak "Oak") logs and side panels also of oak were stitched on with [yew](/wiki/Taxus "Taxus") lashings. Both the straight\-grained oak and yew bindings are now extinct as a shipbuilding method in [England](/wiki/England "England"). A reconstruction in 1996 proved that a crew between four and sixteen paddlers could have easily propelled the boat during Force 4 winds upwards of four knots but with a maximum of {{convert\|5\|kn\|km/h\|0}}. The boat could have easily carried a significant amount of cargo and with a strong crew may have been able to traverse near thirty nautical miles in a day.[Canterbury Archaeological Trust: Buckland Anglo\-Saxon Cemetery](http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d_boat.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509090417/http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d\_boat.htm \|date\=May 9, 2008 }} #### Northern Europe The *[Norsemen](/wiki/Norsemen "Norsemen")*, or 'people from the North', were people from southern and central [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia") which established states and settlements Northern Europe from the late 8th century to the 11th century. [Vikings](/wiki/Viking "Viking") has been a common term for Norsemen in the early [medieval period](/wiki/Medieval_period "Medieval period"), especially in connection with raids and [monastic](/wiki/Monastic "Monastic") plundering made by Norsemen in Great Britain and Ireland. [Leif Ericson](/wiki/Leif_Ericson "Leif Ericson") was an [Icelandic](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland") [explorer](/wiki/Explorer "Explorer") known to be the first [European](/wiki/Europe "Europe") to have landed in [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America") (presumably in [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_%28island%29 "Newfoundland (island)"), [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada")). During a stay in [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway"), Leif Ericsson converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), like many Norse of that time. He also went to Norway to serve the [King of Norway](/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_monarchs "List of Norwegian monarchs"), [Olaf Tryggvason](/wiki/Olaf_I_of_Norway "Olaf I of Norway"). When he returned to [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland "Greenland"), he bought the boat of [Bjarni Herjólfsson](/wiki/Bjarni_Herj%C3%B3lfsson "Bjarni Herjólfsson") and set out to explore the land that Bjarni had found (located [west](/wiki/West "West") of Greenland), which was, in fact, Newfoundland, in Canada. The *[Saga of the Greenlanders](/wiki/Saga_of_the_Greenlanders "Saga of the Greenlanders")* tells that Leif set out around the year 1000 to follow Bjarni's route with 15 crew members, but going north.Another saga, *[The Saga of Eric the Red](/wiki/The_Saga_of_Eric_the_Red "The Saga of Eric the Red")*, relates that Leif discovered the American mainland while returning from Norway to Greenland in 1000 (or possibly 1001\), but does not mention any attempts to settle there. However, the *Saga of the Greenlanders* is usually considered the more reliable of the two. #### Maritime Southeast Asia {{Main\|Austronesian maritime trade network\|Maritime Jade Road\|Maritime Silk Road}} [thumb\|300px\|Distribution of [nephrite jade](/wiki/Nephrite_jade "Nephrite jade") artifacts ([lingling\-o](/wiki/Lingling-o "Lingling-o")) sourced from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Aborigines "Taiwanese Aborigines") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") and transported via a [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") [Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesians "Austronesians") [maritime trade network](/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture "Philippine jade culture"), starting from at least {{circa\|2000 BCE}}](/wiki/File:Jade_culture_distribution.jpg "Jade culture distribution.jpg") [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesians "Austronesians") in [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia "Maritime Southeast Asia") developed very early [maritime trade networks](/wiki/Austronesian_maritime_trade_network "Austronesian maritime trade network") in the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic"). The first of which is the [Maritime Jade Road](/wiki/Maritime_Jade_Road "Maritime Jade Road"). It lasted for around 3,000 years, from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. It was initially established by the indigenous peoples of [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Aborigines "Taiwanese Aborigines") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"). Raw jade was sourced from deposits in Taiwan and worked into ornaments in the Philippines (the most notable and most numerous of which are double\-headed pendants known as [lingling\-o](/wiki/Lingling-o "Lingling-o")). This network later included parts of [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), and other areas in Southeast Asia where these jade ornaments, along with other trade goods, were exchanged (also known as the [Sa Huynh](/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture "Sa Huỳnh culture")\-[Kalanay](/wiki/Kalanay_Cave "Kalanay Cave") Interaction Sphere).{{cite journal \|last1\=Tsang \|first1\=Cheng\-hwa \|title\=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan \|journal\=Bulletin of the Indo\-Pacific Prehistory Association \|date\=2000 \|volume\=20 \|pages\=153–158 \|doi\=10\.7152/bippa.v20i0\.11751 \|doi\-broken\-date\=2024\-04\-12 \|issn\=1835\-1794}}{{cite news \|last1\=Turton \|first1\= M. \|title\=Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south \|url\=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 \|access\-date\=24 December 2021 \|work\=Taipei Times \|date\=17 May 2021}}{{cite news \|last1\=Everington \|first1\= K. \|title\=Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar \|url\=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3247203 \|access\-date\=24 December 2021\|work\=Taiwan News \|date\=6 September 2017}}{{cite book \|last1\=Bellwood \|first1\=Peter \|last2\=Hung \|first2\=H. \|last3\=Lizuka \|first3\=Yoshiyuki \|chapter\=Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long\-distance Interaction \|year\=2011 \|editor\-last\=Benitez\-Johannot \|editor\-first\=P. \|title\=Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde \|publisher\=ArtPostAsia \|isbn\=978\-971\-94292\-0\-3}} The wide distribution throughout [Island Southeast Asia](/wiki/Island_Southeast_Asia "Island Southeast Asia") of the ceremonial [bronze drums](/wiki/Dong_Son_drums "Dong Son drums") ({{circa\|600 BCE to 400 CE}}) sourced from the [Dong Son culture](/wiki/Dong_Son_culture "Dong Son culture") of northern Vietnam is also evidence of the antiquity and density of this prehistoric Southeast Asian maritime network. Austronesians also established very early connections (part of the early [spice trade](/wiki/Spice_trade "Spice trade") networks) with [Dravidian\-speaking](/wiki/Dravidians "Dravidians") regions in [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") and [Southern India](/wiki/Southern_India "Southern India") by around 1500 to 600 BCE.{{cite book\|first1\=Bérénice\|last1\= Bellina \|editor1\-first\=John\|editor1\-last\=Guy\|title \=Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu\-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century\|chapter \=Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road\|publisher \=Yale University Press\|year \=2014\|pages\=22–25\|isbn \=9781588395245\|url \=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}{{cite book \|last1\=Glover \|first1\=Ian C. \|last2\=Bellina \|first2\=Bérénice \|title\=Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross\-Cultural Exchange \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute \|isbn\=9789814311175 \|pages\=17–46 \|chapter\=Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo: The Earliest Indian Contacts Re\-assessed \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/early\-interactions\-between\-south\-and\-southeast\-asia/ban\-don\-ta\-phet\-and\-khao\-sam\-kaeo\-the\-earliest\-indian\-contacts\-reassessed/DE7A8037FF8B50870077C3EDF4865A4E\|editor1\=Manguin, Pierre\-Yves\|editor2\=Mani, A.\|editor3\=Wade, Geoff}} These early contacts resulted in the introduction of Austronesian crops and material culture to South Asia,{{cite book \|editor\=Tripati, Sila \|last1\=Fuller \|first1\=Dorian Q. \|last2\=Boivin \|first2\=Nicole \|last3\=Castillo \|first3\=Cristina Cobo \|last4\=Hoogervorst \|first4\=Tom \|last5\=Allaby \|first5\=Robin G. \|title\=Maritime Contacts of the Past: Deciphering Connections Amongst Communities \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=Kaveri Books \|location\=Delhi \|isbn\=9788192624433 \|pages\=1–23 \|chapter\=The archaeobiology of Indian Ocean translocations: Current outlines of cultural exchanges by proto\-historic seafarers \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272434953}} including [betel nut chewing](/wiki/Betel_nut_chewing "Betel nut chewing"), [coconuts](/wiki/Coconuts "Coconuts"), [sandalwood](/wiki/Sandalwood "Sandalwood"), domesticated [bananas](/wiki/Banana "Banana"),{{cite journal \|last1\=Zumbroich \|first1\=Thomas J. \|date\=2007–2008 \|title\=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond \|url\=https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162 \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=eJournal of Indian Medicine \|volume\=1 \|pages\=87–140 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323014003/https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162 \|archive\-date\=23 March 2019 }} [sugarcane](/wiki/Sugarcane "Sugarcane"),{{cite book\|editor1\-first\=Joseph\|editor1\-last\=Needham\|first1\=Christian\|last1\=Daniels\|first2\=Nicholas K.\|last2\=Menzies\|title\=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 3, Agro\-Industries and Forestry\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|year\=1996\|pages\=177–185\|isbn\=9780521419994\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DzqPvHlFkV4C\&pg\=PR8}} [cloves](/wiki/Clove "Clove"), and [nutmeg](/wiki/Nutmeg "Nutmeg").{{cite journal \|last1\=Olivera \|first1\=Baldomero \|last2\=Hall \|first2\=Zach \|last3\=Granberg \|first3\=Bertrand \|title\=Reconstructing Philippine history before 1521: the Kalaga Putuan Crescent and the Austronesian maritime trade network \|journal\=SciEnggJ \|date\=31 March 2024 \|volume\=17 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=71–85 \|doi\=10\.54645/2024171ZAK\-61}} It also introduced Austronesian sailing technologies like [outrigger boats](/wiki/Outrigger_boat "Outrigger boat") which are still utilized in Sri Lanka and southern India. During this period, the distribution of Austronesian trade goods like *[kapur barus](/wiki/Camphor "Camphor")* and cloves also reached beyond South Asia to [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire").{{cite book \|last1\=Mahdi \|first1\=Waruno \|editor1\-last\=Blench \|editor1\-first\=Roger \|editor2\-last\=Spriggs \|editor2\-first\=Matthew \|title\=Archaeology and Language IV: Language Change and Cultural Transformation \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-81624\-8 \|pages\=160–240 \|chapter\=Linguistic and philological data towards a chronology of Austronesian activity in India and Sri Lanka}}{{Cite book \|last\=Nugroho \|first\=Irawan Djoko \|title\=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim \|publisher\=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti \|year\=2011 \|isbn\=978\-602\-9346\-00\-8}}{{Rp\|1}} There is also indirect evidence of very early Austronesian contacts with [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), based on the presence and spread of Austronesian domesticates like bananas, [taro](/wiki/Taro "Taro"), [chickens](/wiki/Chicken "Chicken"), and [purple yam](/wiki/Purple_yam "Purple yam") in Africa in the first millennium BCE. By around the 2nd century BCE, the prehistoric Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia fully connected with the [maritime trade routes](/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations "Indo-Roman trade relations") of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East"), eastern [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), and the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean"), becoming what is now known as the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road "Maritime Silk Road"). Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive [sewn\-plank](/wiki/Sewn-plank "Sewn-plank") and [lashed\-lug](/wiki/Lashed_lug_boat "Lashed lug boat") ships, although [Persian](/wiki/Persian_people "Persian people") and [Tamil](/wiki/Tamil_people "Tamil people") traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.{{cite journal \|last1\=Guan \|first1\=Kwa Chong \|title\=The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea \|journal\=NSC Working Paper \|date\=2016 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=1–30 \|url\=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23\.pdf}} It allowed the exchange of goods from [East](/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia") and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") and eastern Africa on the other.{{cite book \|first1\=Ariane \|last1\=de Saxcé \|editor1\=Billé, Franck\|editor2\=Mehendale, Sanjyot\|editor3\=Lankton, James\|title\=The Maritime Silk Road: Global Connectivities, Regional Nodes, Localities \|date\=2022 \|publisher\=Amsterdam University Press \|location\=Amsterdam \|isbn\=978\-90\-4855\-242\-9 \|series\=Asian Borderlands \|pages\=129–148 \|chapter\=Networks and Cultural Mapping of South Asian Maritime Trade \|url\=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3\-2dfa\-4a0d\-b04b\-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429\.pdf}} [thumb\|left\|One of the [Borobudur ships](/wiki/Borobudur_ship "Borobudur ship") from the 8th century, they were depictions of large [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_people "Javanese people") [outrigger vessels](/wiki/Outrigger_vessel "Outrigger vessel"). Shown with the characteristic [tanja sail](/wiki/Tanja_sail "Tanja sail") of Southeast Asian [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesians "Austronesians")](/wiki/File:Borobudur_ship.JPG "Borobudur ship.JPG") Austronesian [thalassocracies](/wiki/Thalassocracies "Thalassocracies") controlled the flow of trade in the eastern regions of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the [polities](/wiki/Polities "Polities") around the [straits](/wiki/Straits "Straits") of [Malacca](/wiki/Malacca_Strait "Malacca Strait") and [Bangka](/wiki/Bangka_Strait "Bangka Strait"), the [Malay Peninsula](/wiki/Malay_Peninsula "Malay Peninsula"), and the [Mekong Delta](/wiki/Mekong_Delta "Mekong Delta"); through which passed the main routes of the Austronesian trade ships to [Giao Chỉ](/wiki/Jiaozhi "Jiaozhi") (in the [Tonkin Gulf](/wiki/Tonkin_Gulf "Tonkin Gulf")) and [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou") (southern [China](/wiki/China "China")), the endpoints. Secondary routes also passed through the coastlines of the [Gulf of Thailand](/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand "Gulf of Thailand");{{cite book \|last1\=Li \|first1\=Tana \|editor1\-last\=Cooke \|editor1\-first\=Nola \|editor2\-last\=Li \|editor2\-first\=Tana \|editor3\-last\=Anderson \|editor3\-first\=James A. \|title\=The Tongking Gulf Through History \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=University of Pennsylvania Press \|isbn\=9780812205022 \|pages\=39–44 \|chapter\=Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) in the Han period Tongking Gulf}} as well as through the [Java Sea](/wiki/Java_Sea "Java Sea"), [Celebes Sea](/wiki/Celebes_Sea "Celebes Sea"), [Banda Sea](/wiki/Banda_Sea "Banda Sea"), and the [Sulu Sea](/wiki/Sulu_Sea "Sulu Sea"), reconnecting with the main route through the northern Philippines and Taiwan. The secondary routes also continue onward to the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea "East China Sea") and the [Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea "Yellow Sea") for a limited extent. [300px\|thumb\|[Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples "Austronesian peoples") [proto\-historic](/wiki/Spice_trade "Spice trade") and [historic](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road "Maritime Silk Road") maritime trade network in the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"){{cite book\|first1\=Pierre\-Yves \|last1\=Manguin\|editor1\-first\=Gwyn \|editor1\-last\=Campbell\|title \=Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World \|chapter \=Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships\|publisher \=Palgrave Macmillan\|year \=2016\|pages\=51–76\|isbn \=978\-3\-319\-33822\-4\|chapter\-url \=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XsvDDQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA50}}](/wiki/File:Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png "Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png") The main route of the western regions of the Maritime Silk Road directly crosses the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean") from the northern tip of [Sumatra](/wiki/Sumatra "Sumatra") (or through the [Sunda Strait](/wiki/Sunda_Strait "Sunda Strait")) to [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka"), southern [India](/wiki/India "India") and [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"), and the [Maldives](/wiki/Maldives "Maldives"). It branches from here into routes through the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea") entering the [Gulf of Oman](/wiki/Gulf_of_Oman "Gulf of Oman") (into the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf")), and the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden "Gulf of Aden") (into the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea")). Secondary routes also pass through the coastlines of the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal"), the Arabian Sea, and southwards along the coast of [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa") to [Zanzibar](/wiki/Zanzibar "Zanzibar"), the [Comoros](/wiki/Comoros_Islands "Comoros Islands"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar"), and the [Seychelles](/wiki/Seychelles "Seychelles").{{cite book \|first1\=Shadreck \|last1\=Chirikure \|editor1\=Billé, Franck\|editor2\=Mehendale, Sanjyot\|editor3\=Lankton, James\|title\=The Maritime Silk Road: Global Connectivities, Regional Nodes, Localities \|date\=2022 \|publisher\=Amsterdam University Press \|location\=Amsterdam \|isbn\=978\-90\-4855\-242\-9 \|series\=Asian Borderlands \|pages\=149–176 \|chapter\=Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean World \|url\=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3\-2dfa\-4a0d\-b04b\-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429\.pdf}} The Maldives was of particular importance as a major hub for Austronesian sailors venturing through the western routes. The Austronesian people also reached [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") in the early 1st millennium AD and colonized it.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dewar \|first1\=Robert E. \|last2\=Wright \|first2\=Henry T. \|date\=1993 \|title\=The culture history of Madagascar \|journal\=Journal of World Prehistory \|volume\=7 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=417–466 \|doi\=10\.1007/bf00997802 \|hdl\-access\=free \|hdl\=2027\.42/45256 \|s2cid\=21753825}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Herrera \|first1\=Michael B. \|last2\=Thomson \|first2\=Vicki A. \|last3\=Wadley \|first3\=Jessica J. \|last4\=Piper \|first4\=Philip J. \|last5\=Sulandari \|first5\=Sri \|last6\=Dharmayanthi \|first6\=Anik Budhi \|last7\=Kraitsek \|first7\=Spiridoula \|last8\=Gongora \|first8\=Jaime \|last9\=Austin \|first9\=Jeremy J. \|title\=East African origins for Madagascan chickens as indicated by mitochondrial DNA \|journal\=Royal Society Open Science \|date\=March 2017 \|volume\=4 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=160787 \|doi\=10\.1098/rsos.160787\|pmid\=28405364 \|pmc\=5383821 \|bibcode\=2017RSOS....460787H \|hdl\=2440/104470 \|hdl\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Tofanelli \|first1\=S. \|last2\=Bertoncini \|first2\=S. \|last3\=Castri \|first3\=L. \|last4\=Luiselli \|first4\=D. \|last5\=Calafell \|first5\=F. \|last6\=Donati \|first6\=G. \|last7\=Paoli \|first7\=G. \|title\=On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High\-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages \|journal\=Molecular Biology and Evolution \|date\=1 September 2009 \|volume\=26 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=2109–2124 \|doi\=10\.1093/molbev/msp120\|pmid\=19535740 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Adelaar \|first1\=Alexander \|title\=Malagasy Phonological History and Bantu Influence \|journal\=Oceanic Linguistics \|date\=June 2012 \|volume\=51 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=123–159 \|doi\=10\.1353/ol.2012\.0003\|hdl\=11343/121829 \|hdl\-access\=free }} [Han](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty") and [Tang](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") dynasty Chinese records also indicate that the early Chinese Buddhist [pilgrims](/wiki/Pilgrim "Pilgrim") to South Asia booked passage with the Austronesian ships (which they called the *[k'un\-lun po](/wiki/K%27un-lun_po "K'un-lun po")*) that traded in the Chinese port city of [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou"). Books written by Chinese monks like Wan Chen and Hui\-Lin contain detailed accounts of the large trading vessels from Southeast Asia dating back to at least the 3rd century CE.{{cite book \|last1\=McGrail \|first1\=Seán \|title\=Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to the Medieval Times \|date\=2001 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=9780199271863 \|pages\=289–293 \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/39591350}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Christie \|first\=Anthony \|date\=1957 \|title\=An Obscure Passage from the "Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟΦΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ" \|journal\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London \|volume\=19 \|pages\=345–353 \|doi\=10\.1017/S0041977X00133105 \|s2cid\=162840685 \|via\=JSTOR}}{{Rp\|347}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Manguin \|first\=Pierre\-Yves \|date\=1993 \|title\=Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks \|journal\=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient \|pages\=253–280}}{{Rp\|262}} [Srivijaya](/wiki/Srivijaya "Srivijaya"), a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu "Hindu")\-[Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist "Buddhist") Austronesian polity founded at [Palembang](/wiki/Palembang "Palembang") in 682 CE, rose to dominate the trade in the region around the straits of [Malacca](/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca "Strait of Malacca") and [Sunda](/wiki/Sunda_Strait "Sunda Strait") and the South China Sea [emporium](/wiki/Emporium_%28antiquity%29 "Emporium (antiquity)") by controlling the trade in luxury aromatics and Buddhist artifacts from West Asia to a thriving Tang market.{{rp\|page\=12}} It emerged through the conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These included [Melayu](/wiki/Melayu_Kingdom "Melayu Kingdom"), [Kedah](/wiki/Kedah "Kedah"), [Tarumanagara](/wiki/Tarumanagara "Tarumanagara"), and [Mataram](/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom "Mataram Kingdom"), among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of the [Spice Islands](/wiki/Maluku_islands "Maluku islands"), as well as maritime trade\-routes between [India](/wiki/India "India") and [China](/wiki/China "China").{{cite journal \|last1\= Sulistiyono \|first1\= Singgih Tri \|last2\= Masruroh \|first2\= Noor Naelil \|last3\= Rochwulaningsih \|first3\= Yety \|title\= Contest For Seascape: Local Thalassocracies and Sino\-Indian Trade Expansion in the Maritime Southeast Asia During the Early Premodern Period \|journal\= Journal of Marine and Island Cultures \|date\= 2018 \|volume\= 7 \|issue\= 2 \|doi\= 10\.21463/jmic.2018\.07\.2\.05 \|url\= http://jmic.online/issues/v7n2/5/\|doi\-access\= free }} The [Butuan boat burials](/wiki/Balangay "Balangay") of the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), which feature eleven [lashed\-lug boat](/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat "Lashed-lug boat") remains of the [Austronesian boatbuilding traditions](/wiki/Austronesian_vessels "Austronesian vessels") (individually dated from 689 CE to 988 CE), were found in association with large amounts of trade goods from [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") ([Haripunjaya](/wiki/Haripunjaya "Haripunjaya") and [Satingpra](/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district "Sathing Phra district")), [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), and as far as [Persia](/wiki/Persia "Persia"), indicating they traded as far as the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East").{{cite web \|title\=Butuan Archeological Sites \|url\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2071/ \|website\=UNESCO \|access\-date\=16 June 2024}}{{Cite journal\|title \= The Butuan Two boat known as a balangay in the National Museum, Manila, Philippines\|last1 \= Clark\|first1 \= Paul\|date \= 1993\|journal \= The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology\|doi \= 10\.1111/j.1095\-9270\.1993\.tb00403\.x\|last2 \= Green\|first2 \= Jeremy\|last3 \= Santiago\|first3 \= Rey\|last4 \= Vosmer\|first4 \= Tom\|volume\=22\|issue \= 2\|pages\=143–159\| bibcode\=1993IJNAr..22\..143C }}{{cite book \|last1\=Lacsina \|first1\=Ligaya \|title\=Re\-examining the Butuan Boats: Pre\-colonial Philippine watercraft \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=National Museum of the Philippines \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/31015958}} These maritime routes persisted (with increasing participation of other maritime cultures) into the [medieval era](/wiki/Post-classical_history "Post-classical history"), before declining and being replaced with European trade routes during the [colonial era](/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia "Western imperialism in Asia") in the 15th century.{{cite book \|last1\=Manguin \|first1\=Pierre\-Yves \|editor1\-last\=Reid \|editor1\-first\=Anthony \|chapter\=The Vanishing Jong: Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War (Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries) \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=Cornell University Press \|pages\=197–213 \|title\=Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era \|jstor\=10\.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8014\-8093\-5 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Manguin \|first1\=Pierre\-Yves \|title\=The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach \|journal\=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies \|date\=September 1980 \|volume\=11 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=266–276 \|doi\=10\.1017/S002246340000446X}} #### Indian subcontinent {{Main\|Indian maritime history\|Maritime history of Odisha}}In the [Indian maritime history](/wiki/Indian_maritime_history "Indian maritime history"), the world's first [tidal dock](/wiki/Tidal_dock "Tidal dock") was built in phase II of [Lothal](/wiki/Lothal "Lothal")Science and Technology in Ancient India. Vijnan Bharati, 2002\. Page 18\.Shikaripur Ranganatha Rao. Lothal, a Harappan Port Town (1955–62\). 1979\. Page 44\. during the [Harappan civilisation](/wiki/Harappan_civilisation "Harappan civilisation") near the present day [Mangrol harbour](/wiki/Mangrol_harbour "Mangrol harbour") on the [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat "Gujarat") coast. Other ports were probably at [Balakot](/wiki/Balakot "Balakot") and [Dwarka](/wiki/Dwarka "Dwarka"). However, it is probable that many small\-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.[Possehl, Gregory](/wiki/Gregory_Possehl "Gregory Possehl"). Meluhha. in: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996, 133–208 Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established [trade](/wiki/Trade "Trade") with [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia"),(e.g. Lal 1997: 182–188\) where the Indus Valley was known as [Meluhha](/wiki/Meluhha "Meluhha"). Emperor [Chandragupta Maurya](/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya "Chandragupta Maurya")'s [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister "Prime Minister") [Kautilya](/wiki/Kautilya "Kautilya")'s [Arthashastra](/wiki/Arthashastra "Arthashastra") devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under *nāvādhyakṣa* ([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") for [Superintendent](/wiki/Public_administration "Public administration") of ships) {{Ref\|Kautilya}}. The terms, *nāvā dvīpāntaragamanam* ([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") for sailing to other lands by ships) and *samudrasaṁyānam* (maritime travel) appear in the work. The [Maritime history](/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha "Maritime history of Odisha") of [Kalinga](/wiki/Kalinga_%28historical_kingdom%29 "Kalinga (historical kingdom)") (now [Odisha](/wiki/Odisha "Odisha")) is an important highlight of the traditions of Indian maritime history as it was influential in establishing trading links with Southeast Asia along the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road "Maritime Silk Road"). The people of this region of eastern [India](/wiki/India "India") along the coast of the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal") sailed up and down the [Indian coast](/wiki/Coastal_India "Coastal India"), and travelled to [Indo China](/wiki/Indo_China "Indo China") and throughout [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia "Maritime Southeast Asia"), [introducing elements](/wiki/Indosphere "Indosphere") of [their culture](/wiki/Hinduism_in_Southeast_Asia "Hinduism in Southeast Asia") to the [people with whom they traded](/wiki/Greater_India "Greater India"). The 6th century *[Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa](/wiki/Ma%C3%B1ju%C5%9Br%C4%AB-m%C5%ABla-kalpa "Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa")* mentions the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal") as 'Kaliṅgodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kaliṅga Sāgara' (both Kaliṅgodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the [maritime trade](/wiki/Indian_maritime_history "Indian maritime history").{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=H\-IbAQAAMAAJ \|title\=The Journal of Orissan History, Volumes 13\-15 \|publisher\=Orissa History Congress \|year\=1995 \|page\=54 }} #### Japan {{Main\|Naval history of Japan}} [thumb\|right\|200px\|A clay figure of a *[haniwa](/wiki/Haniwa "Haniwa")* model of a ship, from [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan")'s [Kofun period](/wiki/Kofun_period "Kofun period") (250–538\); during the [Three Kingdoms of Korea](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea "Three Kingdoms of Korea"), the Japanese sided with [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje "Baekje") against a naval alliance between the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") and Korean [Silla](/wiki/Silla "Silla").](/wiki/File:Funagata-haniwa_01%28trim%29.JPG "Funagata-haniwa 01(trim).JPG") [Japan](/wiki/Asuka_period "Asuka period") had a navy by at least the 6th century, with their invasions and involvement in political alliances during the [Three Kingdoms of Korea](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea "Three Kingdoms of Korea"). A joint alliance between the Korean [Silla](/wiki/Silla "Silla") Kingdom and the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") (618–907 AD) heavily defeated the Japanese and their Korean allies of [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje "Baekje") in the [Battle of Baekgang](/wiki/Battle_of_Baekgang "Battle of Baekgang") on August 27 to August 28 of the year 663 AD. This decisive victory expelled the Japanese force from Korea and allowed the Tang and Silla to conquer [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo "Goguryeo"). {{Clear}}
[ "Ancient seafaring\n-----------------", "### Maritime prehistory", "There are indications as stone tools and traces left on a [rhinoceros](/wiki/Rhinoceros \"Rhinoceros\") skeleton that suggest early [hominids](/wiki/Hominid \"Hominid\") crossed the sea and colonized the [Philippine](/wiki/Philippine \"Philippine\") island of [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon \"Luzon\") in a time frame as early as 777,000 to 631,000 years ago.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Ingicco\\|first1\\=T.\\|last2\\=van den Bergh\\|first2\\=G. D.\\|last3\\=Jago\\-on\\|first3\\=C.\\|last4\\=Bahain\\|first4\\=J.\\-J.\\|last5\\=Chacón\\|first5\\=M. G.\\|last6\\=Amano\\|first6\\=N.\\|last7\\=Forestier\\|first7\\=H.\\|last8\\=King\\|first8\\=C.\\|last9\\=Manalo\\|first9\\=K.\\|date\\=May 2018\\|title\\=Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago\\|journal\\=Nature\\|language\\=En\\|volume\\=557\\|issue\\=7704\\|pages\\=233–237\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41586\\-018\\-0072\\-8\\|pmid\\=29720661\\|issn\\=0028\\-0836\\|bibcode\\=2018Natur.557\\..233I\\|s2cid\\=13742336\\|url\\=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=6441\\&context\\=smhpapers}}", "The lowered sea levels of the [Pleistocene](/wiki/Pleistocene \"Pleistocene\") made some of the [modern\\-day islands](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia \"Maritime Southeast Asia\") of [Sundaland](/wiki/Sundaland \"Sundaland\") accessible via land bridges. However, the spread of [anatomically modern humans](/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans \"Anatomically modern humans\") across the [Wallace line](/wiki/Wallace_line \"Wallace line\") and into [Sahul](/wiki/Sahul \"Sahul\") necessitated crossing bodies of water. Remains of stone tools and marine shells in Liang Sarru, [Salibabu Island](/wiki/Salibabu \"Salibabu\"), North Sulawesi, dated to 32,000–35,000 years ago, is possible evidence for the longest sea voyage by Paleolithic humans ever recorded. The island was previously uninhabited by humans or [hominins](/wiki/Hominin \"Hominin\") and can only be reached from either [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao \"Mindanao\") or the [Sangihe Islands](/wiki/Sangihe_Islands \"Sangihe Islands\") by crossing an expanse of water at least {{convert\\|100\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} wide, even during the low sea levels of the Pleistocene. Other evidence of early maritime transport are the appearance of [obsidian](/wiki/Obsidian \"Obsidian\") tools with the same source on neighboring islands. These include the Philippine obsidian network ([Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro \"Mindoro\") and [Palawan](/wiki/Palawan \"Palawan\"), {{circa\\|33,000\\-28,000 BP}}), and the [Wallacea](/wiki/Wallacea \"Wallacea\") obsidian network ([Timor](/wiki/Timor \"Timor\"), [Atauro](/wiki/Atauro \"Atauro\"), [Kisar](/wiki/Kisar \"Kisar\"), [Alor](/wiki/Alor_Island \"Alor Island\"), {{circa\\|22,000 BP}}). However, the method of crossing remains unknown and could have ranged from simple [rafts](/wiki/Raft \"Raft\") to [dugout canoes](/wiki/Dugout_canoe \"Dugout canoe\") by the terminal Pleistocene.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bellwood \\|first1\\=Peter S. \\|title\\=First islanders: prehistory and human migration in Island Southeast Asia \\|date\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=Wiley Blackwell \\|location\\=Hoboken \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-119\\-25155\\-2 \\|edition\\=First}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=O'Connor \\|first1\\=Sue \\|last2\\=Kealy \\|first2\\=Shimona \\|last3\\=Reepmeyer \\|first3\\=Christian \\|last4\\=Samper Carro \\|first4\\=Sofia C. \\|last5\\=Shipton \\|first5\\=Ceri \\|title\\=Terminal Pleistocene emergence of maritime interaction networks across Wallacea \\|journal\\=World Archaeology \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|volume\\=54 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=244–263 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00438243\\.2023\\.2172072}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=O'Connor \\|first1\\=Sue \\|editor1\\-last\\=Kaifu \\|editor1\\-first\\=Yousuke \\|title\\=Emergence and Diversity of Modern Human Behavior in Paleolithic Asia \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Texas A\\&M University Press \\|location\\=College Station \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-62349\\-277\\-9 \\|edition\\=First \\|chapter\\=Crossing the Wallace Line The Maritime Skills of the Earliest Colonists in the Wallacean Archipelago}}", "The sea crossing by humans to the [Sahul](/wiki/Sahul_Shelf \"Sahul Shelf\") landmass (modern [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\")) from the [Sundaland](/wiki/Sundaland \"Sundaland\") peninsula occurred around 53,000 to 65,000 years ago. Even with the lower sea level of that time, this crossing would have involved travelling out of sight of land{{snd}}the overall distances involved at the possible crossing points are all over 55 miles. It is likely that large bamboo rafts were used, possibly with a sail of some sort. Up until 58,000 BP, the winds during the Northern Australian wet season were particularly favourable for making this crossing. The reduction in favourable winds after that date fits well with the single colonisation phase of Australia during prehistory.{{cite book \\|last1\\=O'Connor \\|first1\\=Sue \\|last2\\=Hiscock \\|first2\\=Peter \\|editor1\\-last\\=Cochrane \\|editor1\\-first\\=Ethan E \\|editor2\\-last\\=Hunt \\|editor2\\-first\\=Terry L. \\|title\\=The Oxford handbook of prehistoric Oceania \\|date\\=2018 \\|location\\=New York, NY \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-992507\\-0}}{{rp\\|26–29}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jett \\|first1\\=Stephen C. \\|title\\=Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre\\-Columbian Americas \\|date\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=University of Alabama Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8173\\-1939\\-7 \\|pages\\=168–171 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EgOUDgAAQBAJ}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Clarkson \\|first1\\=Chris \\|last2\\=Jacobs \\|first2\\=Zenobia \\|last3\\=Marwick \\|first3\\=Ben \\|last4\\=Fullagar \\|first4\\=Richard \\|last5\\=Wallis \\|first5\\=Lynley \\|last6\\=Smith \\|first6\\=Mike \\|last7\\=Roberts \\|first7\\=Richard G. \\|last8\\=Hayes \\|first8\\=Elspeth \\|last9\\=Lowe \\|first9\\=Kelsey \\|last10\\=Carah \\|first10\\=Xavier \\|last11\\=Florin \\|first11\\=S. Anna \\|last12\\=McNeil \\|first12\\=Jessica \\|last13\\=Cox \\|first13\\=Delyth \\|last14\\=Arnold \\|first14\\=Lee J. \\|last15\\=Hua \\|first15\\=Quan \\|last16\\=Huntley \\|first16\\=Jillian \\|last17\\=Brand \\|first17\\=Helen E. A. \\|last18\\=Manne \\|first18\\=Tiina \\|last19\\=Fairbairn \\|first19\\=Andrew \\|last20\\=Shulmeister \\|first20\\=James \\|last21\\=Lyle \\|first21\\=Lindsey \\|last22\\=Salinas \\|first22\\=Makiah \\|last23\\=Page \\|first23\\=Mara \\|last24\\=Connell \\|first24\\=Kate \\|last25\\=Park \\|first25\\=Gayoung \\|last26\\=Norman \\|first26\\=Kasih \\|last27\\=Murphy \\|first27\\=Tessa \\|last28\\=Pardoe \\|first28\\=Colin \\|title\\=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago \\|journal\\=Nature \\|date\\=20 July 2017 \\|volume\\=547 \\|issue\\=7663 \\|pages\\=306–310 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nature22968\\|pmid\\=28726833 \\|hdl\\=2440/107043 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=2017Natur.547\\..306C \\|s2cid\\=205257212 }}", "In the [history of whaling](/wiki/History_of_whaling \"History of whaling\"), humans are believed to have begun whaling in Korea at least 6000 BC.{{cite news\\|title\\=Rock art hints at whaling origins\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3638853\\.stm\\|date\\=20 April 2004\\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2014}} The oldest known method of catching [whales](/wiki/Whales \"Whales\") is to simply drive them ashore by placing a number of small boats between the whale and the open sea and attempting to frighten them with noise, activity, and perhaps small, non\\-lethal weapons such as arrows.{{Cite book\\|title\\=A Pattern of Islands.\\|last\\=Grimble, Arthur.\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Eland Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78060\\-026\\-0\\|location\\=London\\|oclc\\=836405865}}", "### Austronesian expansion", "{{main\\|Austronesian expansion\\|Polynesian navigation}}\n[400px\\|thumb\\|Map showing the migration and expansion of the [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples \"Austronesian peoples\") which began at about 3000 BC from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\")](/wiki/File:Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg \"Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg\")\n[Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples \"Austronesian peoples\") used distinctive sailing technologies, namely the [catamaran](/wiki/Catamaran \"Catamaran\"), the [outrigger ship](/wiki/Outrigger_ship \"Outrigger ship\"), [tanja sail](/wiki/Tanja_sail \"Tanja sail\") and the [crab claw sail](/wiki/Crab_claw_sail \"Crab claw sail\"). This allowed them to colonize a large part of the [Indo\\-Pacific](/wiki/Indo-Pacific \"Indo-Pacific\") region during the [Austronesian expansion](/wiki/Austronesian_expansion \"Austronesian expansion\") starting at around 3000 to 1500 BC, and ending with the colonization of [Easter Island](/wiki/Easter_Island \"Easter Island\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") in the 10th to 13th centuries AD.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Doran \\|first1\\=Edwin Jr. \\|title\\=Outrigger Ages \\|journal\\=The Journal of the Polynesian Society \\|date\\=1974 \\|volume\\=83 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=130–140 \\|url\\=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume\\_83\\_1974/Volume\\_83%2C\\_No.\\_2/Outrigger\\_ages%2C\\_by\\_Edwin\\_Doran\\_Jnr.%2C\\_p\\_130\\-140/p1}}{{cite book\\|first1\\= Waruno\\|last1\\=Mahdi\\|editor1\\-last \\=Blench\\|editor1\\-first\\= Roger \\|editor2\\-last\\=Spriggs\\|editor2\\-first\\=Matthew\\|title \\=Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts\\|chapter \\=The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean\\|volume \\= 34\\|publisher \\=Routledge\\|series \\=One World Archaeology \\|year \\=1999\\|pages\\=144–179\\|isbn \\=978\\-0\\-415\\-10054\\-0}} Prior to the 16th century [Colonial Era](/wiki/Early_modern_period \"Early modern period\"), Austronesians were the most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from Easter Island in the eastern [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\") to [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\") in the western [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bellwood \\|first1\\=Peter \\|last2\\=Fox \\|first2\\=James J. \\|last3\\=Tryon \\|first3\\=Darrell \\|title\\=The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Australian National University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-920942\\-85\\-4 \\|url\\=https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/series/comparative\\-austronesian\\-series/austronesians}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Bellwood\\|first1\\=Peter\\|title\\=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration\\|date\\=2014\\|page\\=213}} They also established vast maritime trading networks, among which is the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") precursor to what would become the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road \"Maritime Silk Road\").{{cite book\\|first1\\=Bérénice\\|last1\\= Bellina\\|editor1\\-first\\=John\\|editor1\\-last\\=Guy\\|title \\=Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu\\-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century\\|chapter \\=Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road\\|publisher \\=Yale University Press\\|year \\=2014\\|pages\\=22–25\\|isbn \\=978\\-1\\-58839\\-524\\-5\\|chapter\\-url \\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|Succession of forms in the development of the [Austronesian boat](/wiki/Outrigger_canoe \"Outrigger canoe\")](/wiki/File:Succession_of_forms_in_the_development_of_the_Austronesian_boat.png \"Succession of forms in the development of the Austronesian boat.png\")\n* + - * + {{multiple image\n\t\t\t\t\\|align\\=right\n\t\t\t\t \\| total\\_width \\=410\n\t\t\t\t \\| image1 \\=Hokule'a.jpg\n\t\t\t\t \\| image2 \\=Boracay paraw sailboats 010\\.jpg\n\t\t\t\t \\| image3\\=Maquette Prao Musée de la Marine Paris.jpg\n\t\t\t\t \\| image4\\=Kapal Nur Al Marege, koleksi pribadi Muhammad Ridwan Alimudin, 2019\\.jpg\n\t\t\t\t \\| image5\\=Waka at Waitangi in the early morning.jpg\n\t\t\t\t \\|footer\\= Typical Austronesian ship designs, left to right:\n\t\t\t\t\\*''\\[\\[Hōkūle{{okina}}a]]'', a \\[\\[Polynesia]]n voyaging \\[\\[catamaran]] with \\[\\[crab claw sail]]s\n\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Philippines\\|Filipino]] \\[\\[outrigger boat\\|double\\-outrigger]] (\\[\\[trimaran]]) \\[\\[paraw]] with a \\[\\[crab claw sail]]\n\t\t\t\t\\*A \\[\\[Melanesia]]n \\[\\[outrigger boat\\|single\\-outrigger]] \\[\\[tepukei]] with a forward\\-mounted \\[\\[crab claw sail]] from the \\[\\[Solomon Islands]]\n\t\t\t\t\\*''Nur al Marege'', an \\[\\[Indonesia]]n replica of a \\[\\[padewakang]] with \\[\\[tanja sail]]s\n\t\t\t\t\\*\\[\\[Waka (canoe)\\|Waka]], narrow \\[\\[Māori people\\|Māori]] \\[\\[war canoe]]s propelled by \\[\\[paddling]]\n\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\tThe acquisition of the [catamaran](/wiki/Catamaran \"Catamaran\") and outrigger boat technology by the non\\-Austronesian peoples in Sri Lanka and southern India is the result of very early Austronesian contact with the region, including the [Maldives](/wiki/Maldives \"Maldives\") and [Laccadive Islands](/wiki/Laccadive_Islands \"Laccadive Islands\"). This is estimated to have occurred around 1000 to 600 BC and onwards, and led to the development of India and Sri Lanka's own maritime trade networks. This may have possibly included limited colonization that have since been assimilated. This is still evident in Sri Lankan and South Indian languages. For example, [Tamil](/wiki/Tamil_language \"Tamil language\") *paṭavu*, [Telugu](/wiki/Telugu_language \"Telugu language\") *paḍava*, and [Kannada](/wiki/Kannada_language \"Kannada language\") *paḍahu*, all meaning \"ship\", are all derived from [Proto\\-Hesperonesian](/wiki/Proto-Hesperonesian \"Proto-Hesperonesian\") *\\*padaw*, \"sailboat\", with Austronesian cognates like [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_language \"Javanese language\") *[perahu](/wiki/Perahu \"Perahu\")*, [Kadazan](/wiki/Kadazan_language \"Kadazan language\") *padau*, [Maranao](/wiki/Maranao_language \"Maranao language\") *padaw*, [Cebuano](/wiki/Cebuano_language \"Cebuano language\") *[paráw](/wiki/Par%C3%A1w \"Paráw\")*, [Samoan](/wiki/Samoan_language \"Samoan language\") *folau*, [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaiian_language \"Hawaiian language\") *halau*, and [Māori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language \"Māori language\") *wharau*.", "Similarly the first encounter with large sea\\-going ships by the [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_people \"Chinese people\") is through trade with Southeast Asian Austronesian ships (likely [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_people \"Javanese people\") or [Sumatran](/wiki/Sumatra \"Sumatra\")) during the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\") (220 BC–200 AD) as recorded by the Chinese historian Wan Chen (萬震) in his 3rd century AD book \"Strange Things of the South\" (Nánzhōu Yìwùzhì — 南州異物志). This led to the development of China's own maritime technologies later on, during the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty \"Song dynasty\") in the 10th to 13th century AD.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Christie\\|first\\=Anthony\\|date\\=1957\\|title\\=An Obscure Passage from the \"Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟΦΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ\"\\|journal\\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London\\|volume\\=19\\|pages\\=345–353\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0041977X00133105\\|s2cid\\=162840685 \\|via\\=JSTOR}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Dick\\-Read \\|first\\=Robert \\|title\\=The Phantom Voyagers: Evidence of Indonesian Settlement in Africa in Ancient Times \\|publisher\\=Thurlton \\|year\\=2005}}{{Rp\\|38–42}}", "At the furthest extents of the Austronesian expansion, colonists from [Borneo](/wiki/Borneo \"Borneo\") crossed the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\") westward to settle in [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\") and the [Comoros](/wiki/Comoros \"Comoros\") by around 500 AD.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Burney \\|first1\\=David A. \\|last2\\=Burney \\|first2\\=Lida Pigott \\|last3\\=Godfrey \\|first3\\=Laurie R. \\|last4\\=Jungers \\|first4\\=William L. \\|last5\\=Goodman \\|first5\\=Steven M. \\|last6\\=Wright \\|first6\\=Henry T. \\|last7\\=Jull \\|first7\\=A.J. Timothy \\|title\\=A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar \\|journal\\=Journal of Human Evolution \\|date\\=August 2004 \\|volume\\=47 \\|issue\\=1–2 \\|pages\\=25–63 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jhevol.2004\\.05\\.005 \\|pmid\\=15288523 \\|bibcode\\=2004JHumE..47\\...25B }}{{cite book \\|last\\=Pawley \\|first\\=A. \\|chapter\\=The Austronesian dispersal: languages, technologies and people \\|editor1\\-first\\=Peter S. \\|editor1\\-last\\=Bellwood \\|editor2\\-first\\=Colin \\|editor2\\-last\\=Renfrew \\|title\\=Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis \\|publisher\\=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge \\|year\\=2002 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-902937\\-20\\-5 \\|pages\\=251–273 }}", "In the east, the first true ocean voyage was the colonization of the [Northern Marianas Islands](/wiki/Northern_Marianas_Islands \"Northern Marianas Islands\") of [Micronesia](/wiki/Micronesia \"Micronesia\") from the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"). This was followed by more migrations southwards and eastwards to [Island Melanesia](/wiki/Island_Melanesia \"Island Melanesia\") up to islands beyond the inter\\-island visibility range like [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga \"Tonga\") and [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa \"Samoa\"). This region was occupied by the Austronesian [Lapita culture](/wiki/Lapita_culture \"Lapita culture\"). After a gap of about two thousand years, the first [Polynesians](/wiki/Polynesian_people \"Polynesian people\") continued spreading eastwards into the [Cook Islands](/wiki/Cook_Islands \"Cook Islands\"), [French Polynesia](/wiki/French_Polynesia \"French Polynesia\"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"), [Easter Island](/wiki/Easter_Island \"Easter Island\"), and Aotearoa, [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") by around AD 700 to 1200\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Carson \\|first1\\=Mike T. \\|last2\\=Hung \\|first2\\=Hsiao\\-chun \\|last3\\=Summerhayes \\|first3\\=Glenn \\|last4\\=Bellwood \\|first4\\=Peter \\|title\\=The Pottery Trail From Southeast Asia to Remote Oceania \\|journal\\=The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology \\|date\\=January 2013 \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=17–36 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/15564894\\.2012\\.726941\\|s2cid\\=128641903 \\|hdl\\=1885/72437 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}{{cite book\\|last\\=Goodenough\\|first\\=Ward Hunt\\|title\\=Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5\\|date\\=1996\\|publisher\\=American Philosophical Society\\|pages\\=127–128}}", "[Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples \"Austronesian peoples\") ethnicities used an advanced Navigation system: Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using a very distinctive [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\") technique called \"[star path navigation](/wiki/Star_navigation \"Star navigation\")\". Basically, the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon.{{Citation\\|last\\=Liebner\\|first\\=Horst H.\\|title\\=Eksplorasi Sumberdaya Budaya Maritim\\|pages\\=53–124\\|year\\=2005\\|editor\\-last\\=Edi\\|editor\\-first\\=Sedyawati\\|contribution\\=Perahu\\-Perahu Tradisional Nusantara: Suatu Tinjauan Perkapalan dan Pelayaran\\|contribution\\-url\\=https://www.academia.edu/7780936/Perahu\\-Perahu\\_Tradisional\\_Nusantara\\_Suatu\\_Tinjauan\\_Perkapalan\\_dan\\_Pelayaran\\_\\-\\_\\-\\_Ini\\_sudah\\_agak\\_outdated\\_ada\\_tulisan\\_barunya\\_Beberapa\\_Catatan\\_akan\\_Sejarah\\_Pembuatan\\_Perahu\\_dan\\_Pelayaran\\_Nusantara\\_\\|place\\=Jakarta\\|publisher\\=Pusat Riset Wilayah Laut dan Sumber Daya Nonhayati, Badan Riset Kelautan dan Perikanan; Pusat Penelitian Kemasyarakatan dan Budaya, Universitas Indonesia}}{{Refpage\\|10}}\nMāori people of New Zealand are said to have Navigated following the zodiacal constellation of Scorpio, between Libra and Sagittarius in the southern sky positioned at about 16 hours 30 minutes right ascension and 30° south declination to find, Aotearoa, \"The Land of the Long, White, Cloud\".", "", "### Ancient routes and locations", "Ancient maritime routes usually began in the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\") or down river from [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh \"Madhya Pradesh\") with [transshipment](/wiki/Transshipment \"Transshipment\") via historic [Bharuch](/wiki/Bharuch \"Bharuch\") (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today's [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") then split around [Hadhramaut](/wiki/Hadhramaut \"Hadhramaut\") into two streams north into the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden \"Gulf of Aden\") and thence into the [Levant](/wiki/Levant \"Levant\"), or south into [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\") via [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\") ports such as [Axum](/wiki/Axum \"Axum\"). Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates.See: [Arabian Sea Trade routes](/wiki/Arabian_Sea%23Trade_routes \"Arabian Sea#Trade routes\")", "[thumb\\|center\\|555px\\|Names, routes and locations of the *[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea](/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea \"Periplus of the Erythraean Sea\")* at the turn of the first millennium.](/wiki/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg \"Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg\")", "[right\\|thumbnail\\|250px\\|Much of the [Radhanites](/wiki/Radhanite \"Radhanite\")' [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\") trade would have depended on coastal cargo\\-ships such as this [dhow](/wiki/Dhow \"Dhow\").](/wiki/File:Dhow.jpg \"Dhow.jpg\")", "Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the utilization of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea \"Arabian Sea\") and the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\").Denemark 2000: 107\\. [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\") had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia \"Southeast Asia\"), thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult. Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes. By making use of the maritime trade routes, [bulk commodity trade](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Commercial_infrastructure \"Roman commerce#Commercial infrastructure\") became possible for the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Romans \"Ancient Romans\") in the 2nd century BC.Toutain 1979: 243\\. A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at [one\\-sixtieth the cost](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Sea_routes \"Roman commerce#Sea routes\") of [over\\-land routes](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Land_routes \"Roman commerce#Land routes\").Scarre 1995\\.", "{{see also\\|Ship transport}}", "#### Egypt", "[thumb\\|222px\\|Egyptian ship, 1250 BC](/wiki/File:Wells_egyptian_ship_red_sea.png \"Wells egyptian ship red sea.png\")\n[thumb\\|222px\\|World's oldest depiction of a [stern](/wiki/Stern \"Stern\")\\-mounted steering rudder (c. 1420 BC)](/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Menna_013.jpg \"Maler der Grabkammer des Menna 013.jpg\")", "The [Ancient Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") had knowledge of [sail](/wiki/Sail \"Sail\") construction.[Hatshepsut](/wiki/Hatshepsut \"Hatshepsut\") oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and *with several sails*. Various others exist, also.", "The first warships of [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") were constructed during the early [Middle Kingdom](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt \"Middle Kingdom of Egypt\"), and perhaps – at the end of the [Old Kingdom](/wiki/Old_Kingdom \"Old Kingdom\"), but the first mention and a detailed description of a large enough and heavily armed ship dates from 16th century BC.\n\"And I ordered to build twelve warships with rams, dedicated to [Amun](/wiki/Amun \"Amun\") or [Sobek](/wiki/Sobek \"Sobek\"), or [Maat](/wiki/Maat \"Maat\") and [Sekhmet](/wiki/Sekhmet \"Sekhmet\"), whose image was crowned best bronze noses. Carport and equipped outside rook over the waters, for many paddlers, having covered rowers deck not only from the side, but and top. and they were on board eighteen oars in two rows on the top and sat on two rowers, and the lower – one, a hundred and eight rowers were. And twelve rowers aft worked on three steering oars. And blocked Our Majesty ship inside three partitions ([bulkheads](/wiki/Bulkhead_%28partition%29 \"Bulkhead (partition)\")) so as not to drown it by ramming the wicked, and the sailors had time to repair the hole. And Our Majesty arranged four towers for archers – two behind, and two on the nose and one above the other small – on the mast with narrow loopholes. they are covered with [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") in the fifth finger (3\\.2mm), as well as a canopy roof and its rowers. and they have (carried) on the nose three assault heavy crossbow arrows so they lit resin or oil with a salt of Seth (probably nitrate) tore a special blend and punched (?) lead ball with a lot of holes (?), and one of the same at the stern. and long ship seventy five cubits (41m), and the breadth sixteen, and in battle can go three\\-quarters of iteru per hour (about 6\\.5 knots)...\" The text of the tomb of [Amenhotep I](/wiki/Amenhotep_I \"Amenhotep I\") ([KV39](/wiki/KV39 \"KV39\")). \nWhen [Thutmose III](/wiki/Thutmose_III \"Thutmose III\") achieved warships [displacement](/wiki/Displacement_%28ship%29 \"Displacement (ship)\") up to 360 tons and carried up to ten new heavy and light to seventeen catapults based bronze springs, called \"siege crossbow\" – more precisely, siege bows. Still appeared giant catamarans that are heavy warships and times of [Ramesses III](/wiki/Ramesses_III \"Ramesses III\") used even when the Ptolemaic dynasty.Nelson Harold Hayden, Allen Thomas George and Dr [Raymond O. Faulkner](/wiki/Raymond_O._Faulkner \"Raymond O. Faulkner\").\n«Tuthmosis III. First Emperor in the History of Mankind. His Regal companions\nand a Great assistants» Oxford UNV Publishing, 1921 p.127\\.", "[thumb\\|222px\\|The world according to [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus \"Herodotus\"), 440 BC](/wiki/File:Herodotus5m1.jpg \"Herodotus5m1.jpg\")\nAccording to the [Greek](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\") historian [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus \"Herodotus\"), [Necho II](/wiki/Necho%C2%A0II \"Necho II\") sent out an expedition of [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians \"Phoenicians\"), which reputedly, at some point between 610 and before 594 BC, sailed in three years from the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\") around [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\") to the mouth of the [Nile](/wiki/Nile \"Nile\"). Some Egyptologists dispute that an Egyptian Pharaoh would authorize such an expedition,For instance, the Egyptologist Alan Lloyd wrote \"Given the context of [Egyptian thought](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy \"Ancient Egyptian philosophy\"), [economic life](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade \"Ancient Egyptian trade\"), and [military](/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt \"Military of ancient Egypt\") interests, it is impossible for one to imagine what stimulus could have motivated Necho in such a scheme and if we cannot provide a reason which is sound within Egyptian terms of reference, then we have good reason to doubt the historicity of the entire episode.\" {{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Lloyd \\| first1 \\= Alan B. \\| year \\= 1977 \\| title \\= Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations \\| journal \\= Journal of Egyptian Archaeology \\| volume \\= 63 \\| page \\= 149 \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/3856314\\| jstor \\= 3856314 }} except for the reason of trade in the ancient maritime routes.", "The belief in Herodotus' account, handed down to him by [oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition \"Oral tradition\"),M. J. Cary. The Ancient Explorers. Penguin Books, 1963\\. Page 114 is primarily because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians \"*as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right – to northward of them*\" (*The Histories* 4\\.42\\) – in [Herodotus' time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean](/wiki/History_of_geography%23Greco-Roman_world \"History of geography#Greco-Roman world\") (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to AsiaDie umsegelung Asiens und Europas auf der Vega. Volume 2\\. By Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. [p148](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8-SfAAAAMAAJ/page/n173)). So fantastic an assertion is this of a typical example of some seafarers' story and Herodotus therefore may never have mentioned it, at all, had it not been based on facts and made with the according insistence.[Heinz Gartmann](/wiki/Heinz_Gartmann \"Heinz Gartmann\"): Sonst stünde die Welt still. Das große Ringen um das Neue. *Econ*, Düsseldorf 1957", "This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject;The Cambridge History of the British Empire. CUP Archive, 1963\\. [p56](https://books.google.com/books?id=ISg9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA56) but [Strabo](/wiki/Strabo \"Strabo\"), [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius \"Polybius\"), and [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy \"Ptolemy\") doubted the description. Egyptologist [A. B. Lloyd](/wiki/Alan_B._Lloyd \"Alan B. Lloyd\") suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the Sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that \"It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing\" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure of [Sataspes](/wiki/Sataspes \"Sataspes\")' attempt to circumnavigate Africa under [Xerxes the Great](/wiki/Xerxes_the_Great \"Xerxes the Great\").{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Lloyd \\| first1 \\= Alan B \\| year \\= 1977 \\| title \\= Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations \\| journal \\= Journal of Egyptian Archaeology \\| volume \\= 63 \\| pages \\= 142–155 \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/3856314\\| jstor \\= 3856314 }} Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus and [Pliny](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder \"Pliny the Elder\").The Geographical system of Herodotus By James Rennel. [p348](https://books.google.com/books?id=6C0waiOScrEC&pg=PA348)\\+", "Much earlier, the [Sea Peoples](/wiki/Sea_Peoples \"Sea Peoples\") was a [confederacy](/wiki/Confederation \"Confederation\") of seafaring raiders who sailed into the eastern shores of the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\"), caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") territory during the late [19th dynasty](/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt \"Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt\"), and especially during Year 8 of [Ramesses III](/wiki/Ramesses%C2%A0III \"Ramesses III\") of the [20th Dynasty](/wiki/Twentieth_dynasty_of_Egypt \"Twentieth dynasty of Egypt\").A convenient table of sea peoples in [hieroglyphics](/wiki/Hieroglyphics \"Hieroglyphics\"), transliteration and English is given in the dissertation of Woodhuizen, 2006, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there The Egyptian Pharaoh [Merneptah](/wiki/Merneptah \"Merneptah\") explicitly refers to them by the term \"the foreign\\-countries (or 'peoples'As noted by Gardiner V.1 p.196, other texts have \"foreign\\-peoples\"; both terms can refer to the concept of \"foreigners\" as well. Zangger in the external link below expresses a commonly held view that \"sea peoples\" does not translate this and other expressions but is an academic innovation. The Woudhuizen dissertation and the Morris paper identify [Gaston Maspero](/wiki/Gaston_Maspero \"Gaston Maspero\") as the first to use the term \"peuples de la mer\" in 1881\\.) of the sea\"Gardiner V.1 p.196\\.Manassa p.55\\. in his [Great Karnak Inscription](/wiki/Great_Karnak_Inscription \"Great Karnak Inscription\").Line 52\\. The inscription is shown in Manassa p.55 plate 12\\. Although some scholars believe that they \"invaded\" [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\") and the [Levant](/wiki/Levant \"Levant\"), this hypothesis is disputed.", "##### Kingdom of Punt", "{{main\\|Somali maritime history}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|Historical [Somali commercial enterprise](/wiki/Somali_maritime_history \"Somali maritime history\") in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\"), the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\"), the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"), and the [straits of Malacca](/wiki/Straits_of_Malacca \"Straits of Malacca\").](/wiki/File:Somali_Enterprise.JPG \"Somali Enterprise.JPG\")\nIn ancient times the [Kingdom of Punt](/wiki/Land_of_Punt \"Land of Punt\"), which is believed by several Egyptologists to have been situated in the area of modern\\-day [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"), had a steady trade link with the Ancient Egyptians and exported the precious natural resources such as [myrrh](/wiki/Myrrh \"Myrrh\"), [frankincense](/wiki/Frankincense \"Frankincense\") and [gum](/wiki/Natural_gum \"Natural gum\"). This trade network continued all the way into the [classical era](/wiki/Classical_antiquity \"Classical antiquity\"). The city states of [Mossylon](/wiki/Bosaso \"Bosaso\"), [Opone](/wiki/Opone \"Opone\"), [Malao](/wiki/Malao_%28ancient%29 \"Malao (ancient)\"), [Mundus](/wiki/Mundus_%28city%29 \"Mundus (city)\") and [Tabae](/wiki/Tabae \"Tabae\") in Somalia engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting [Somali](/wiki/Somali_people \"Somali people\") merchants with [Phoenicia](/wiki/Phoenicia \"Phoenicia\"), [Ptolemic Egypt](/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom \"Ptolemaic Kingdom\"), [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\"), [Parthian Persia](/wiki/Parthia \"Parthia\"), [Saba](/wiki/Sabaeans \"Sabaeans\"), [Nabataea](/wiki/Nabataea \"Nabataea\") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"). Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the [beden](/wiki/Beden \"Beden\") to transport their cargo.", "#### The Mediterranean", "[Minoan](/wiki/Minoan_civilization \"Minoan civilization\") traders from [Crete](/wiki/Crete \"Crete\") were active in the eastern Mediterranean by the 2nd millennium BC. The [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicia \"Phoenicia\") were an ancient [civilization](/wiki/Civilization \"Civilization\") centered in the north of ancient [Canaan](/wiki/Canaan \"Canaan\"), with its heartland along the coast of modern\\-day [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), Western [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") and northern [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\"). Phoenician civilization was an enterprising [maritime trading culture](/wiki/Thalassocracy \"Thalassocracy\") that spread across the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") during the first millennium BC, between the period of 1200 BC to 900 BC. Though ancient boundaries of such city\\-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of [Tyre](/wiki/Tyre_%28Lebanon%29 \"Tyre (Lebanon)\") seems to have been the southernmost. [Sarepta](/wiki/Sarepta \"Sarepta\") between [Sidon](/wiki/Sidon \"Sidon\") and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. The Phoenicians often traded by means of a [galley](/wiki/Galley \"Galley\"), a man\\-powered sailing vessel. They were the first civilization to create the [bireme](/wiki/Bireme \"Bireme\"). There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not.", "The [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") was the source of the vessel, [galley](/wiki/Galley \"Galley\"), developed before 1000 BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. The [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") [trireme](/wiki/Trireme \"Trireme\") was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the propulsion power of [oarsmen](/wiki/Oar \"Oar\"). Mediterranean peoples developed [lighthouse](/wiki/Lighthouse \"Lighthouse\") technology and built large fire\\-based lighthouses, most notably the [Lighthouse of Alexandria](/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria \"Lighthouse of Alexandria\"), built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt.", "Many in ancient western societies, such as [Ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\"), were in awe of the seas and deified them, believing that man no longer belonged to himself when once he embarked on a sea voyage. They believed that he was liable to be sacrificed at any time to the anger of the great [Sea God](/wiki/Water_deity \"Water deity\"). Before the Greeks, the [Carians](/wiki/Carians \"Carians\") were an early Mediterranean seagoing people that travelled far. Early writers do not give a good idea about the progress of navigation nor that of the man's seamanship. One of the early stories of seafaring was that of [Odysseus](/wiki/Odysseus \"Odysseus\").", "In [Greek mythology](/wiki/Greek_mythology \"Greek mythology\"), the [Argonauts](/wiki/Argonauts \"Argonauts\") were a band of heroes who, in the years before the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War \"Trojan War\"), accompanied [Jason](/wiki/Jason \"Jason\") to [Colchis](/wiki/Colchis \"Colchis\") in his quest to find the [Golden Fleece](/wiki/Golden_Fleece \"Golden Fleece\"). Their name comes from their ship, the [Argo](/wiki/Argo \"Argo\") which in turn was named after its builder [Argus](/wiki/Argus_%28son_of_Arestor%29 \"Argus (son of Arestor)\"). Thus, \"Argonauts\" literally means \"Argo sailors\". The voyage of the Greek navigator [Pytheas of Massalia](/wiki/Pytheas \"Pytheas\") is an example of a very early voyage. A competent astronomer and geographer, Pytheas ventured from Greece to Western Europe and the British Isles.{{Cite EB1911\\|wstitle\\=Pytheas\\|volume\\=22\\|pages\\=703–704\\|first1\\=Edward Herbert\\|last1\\=Bunbury\\|author\\-link1\\=Edward Bunbury\\|first2\\=Charles Raymond\\|last2\\=Beazley\\|author\\-link2\\=Raymond Beazley}}", "The *[periplus](/wiki/Periplus \"Periplus\")*, literally \"a sailing\\-around', in the ancient navigation of [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians \"Phoenicians\"), [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\"), and [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") was a manuscript document that listed in order the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate distances between, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. Several examples of *periploi* have survived.", "*[Piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\")*, which is a [robbery](/wiki/Robbery \"Robbery\") committed at sea or sometimes on the shore, dates back to [Classical Antiquity](/wiki/Classical_Antiquity \"Classical Antiquity\") and, in all likelihood, much further. The [Tyrrhenians](/wiki/Tyrrhenians \"Tyrrhenians\"), [Illyrians](/wiki/Illyrians \"Illyrians\")Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, {{ISBN\\|0\\-631\\-19807\\-5}}, page 185 and [Thracians](/wiki/Thracians \"Thracians\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2009}} were known as [pirates](/wiki/Pirate \"Pirate\") in ancient times. The island of [Lemnos](/wiki/Lemnos \"Lemnos\") long resisted [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") influence and remained a haven for Thracian pirates. By the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the [Anatolian](/wiki/Anatolia \"Anatolia\") coast, threatening the [commerce](/wiki/Commerce \"Commerce\") of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\").", "The earliest seagoing culture in the Mediterranean is associated with [Cardium pottery](/wiki/Cardium_pottery \"Cardium pottery\"). Their earliest impressed ware sites, dating to 6400–6200 BC, are in [Epirus](/wiki/Epirus \"Epirus\") and [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu \"Corfu\"). Settlements then appear in [Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\") and [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia \"Dalmatia\") on the eastern Adriatic coast dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC.Barry Cunliffe, *Europe Between the Oceans* (2008\\), pp.115–6; Staso Forenbaher and Preston Miracle, The spread of farming in the Eastern Adriatic, *Antiquity*, vol. 79, no. 305 (September 2005\\), [additional tables](http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/forenbaher305/). The earliest date in Italy comes from [Coppa Nevigata](/wiki/Coppa_Nevigata \"Coppa Nevigata\") on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, perhaps as early as 6000 cal B.C. Also during Su Carroppu culture in Sardinia, already in its early stages (low strata into Su Coloru cave, c. 6000 BC) early examples of cardium pottery appear.Showcase 3 in the Archeological Museum G. A. Sanna in Sassari Northward and westward all secure radiocarbon dates are identical to those for Iberia c. 5500 cal BC, which indicates a rapid spread of cardium and related cultures: 2,000 km from the gulf of Genoa to the estuary of the Mondego in probably no more than 100–200 years. This suggests a seafaring expansion by planting colonies along the coast.{{Cite journal\\|author\\=Zilhão\\|year\\=2001\\|title\\=Radiocarbon evidence for maritime pioneer colonization at the origins of farming in west Mediterranean Europe\\|journal\\=PNAS\\|volume\\=98\\|issue\\=24\\|pages\\=14180–14185\\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.241522898\\|pmid\\=11707599\\|pmc\\=61188\\|bibcode\\=2001PNAS...9814180Z\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "##### The Persian Wars", "{{Main\\|Greco\\-Persian Wars\\|Peloponnesian War}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|222px\\|Greek Trireme](/wiki/File:Trireme.jpg \"Trireme.jpg\")\nIn [Ionia](/wiki/Ionia \"Ionia\") (the modern Aegean coast of [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\")) the Greek cities, which included great centres such as [Miletus](/wiki/Miletus \"Miletus\") and [Halicarnassus](/wiki/Halicarnassus \"Halicarnassus\"), were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of the [Persian Empire](/wiki/Persian_Empire \"Persian Empire\") in the mid\\-6th century BC. In 499 BC the [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\") rose in the [Ionian Revolt](/wiki/Ionian_Revolt \"Ionian Revolt\"), and [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\") and some other Greek cities went to their aid. In 490 BC, the Persian Great King, [Darius I](/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia \"Darius I of Persia\"), having suppressed the Ionian cities, sent a fleet to punish the Greeks. The Persians landed in [Attica](/wiki/Attica \"Attica\"), but were defeated at the [Battle of Marathon](/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon \"Battle of Marathon\") by a Greek army led by the Athenian general [Miltiades](/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger \"Miltiades the Younger\"). The burial mound of the Athenian dead can still be seen at Marathon. Ten years later Darius' successor, [Xerxes I](/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia \"Xerxes I of Persia\"), sent a much more powerful force by land. After being delayed by the Spartan King [Leonidas I](/wiki/Leonidas%C2%A0I \"Leonidas I\") at [Thermopylae](/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae \"Battle of Thermopylae\"), Xerxes advanced into Attica, where he captured and burned Athens. But the Athenians had evacuated the city by sea, and under [Themistocles](/wiki/Themistocles \"Themistocles\") they defeated the Persian fleet at the [Battle of Salamis](/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis \"Battle of Salamis\"). A year later, the Greeks, under the Spartan [Pausanias](/wiki/Pausanias_%28general%29 \"Pausanias (general)\"), defeated the Persian army at [Plataea](/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea \"Battle of Plataea\"). The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians out of the Aegean Sea, and in 478 BC they captured [Byzantium](/wiki/Byzantium \"Byzantium\"). In the course of doing so Athens enrolled all the island states and some mainland allies into an alliance, called the [Delian League](/wiki/Delian_League \"Delian League\") because its treasury was kept on the sacred island of [Delos](/wiki/Delos \"Delos\"). The [Spartans](/wiki/Sparta \"Sparta\"), although they had taken part in the war, withdrew into isolation after it, allowing Athens to establish unchallenged naval and [commercial](/wiki/Commerce \"Commerce\") power.", "[thumb\\|right\\|275px\\|[Athenian warship](/wiki/Athenian_warship \"Athenian warship\") ([Trireme](/wiki/Trireme \"Trireme\")), c. 400 BC](/wiki/File:AthenianWarship400BC.png \"AthenianWarship400BC.png\")", "##### Punic Wars", "{{Main\\|Punic Wars}}", "The [Punic Wars](/wiki/Punic_Wars \"Punic Wars\") were a series of three wars fought between [Rome](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") and [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage \"Carthage\"). The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman sphere of influence. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\"), part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the [first Punic War](/wiki/First_Punic_War \"First Punic War\"), Carthage was the dominant power of the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\"), with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). By the end of the third war, after the deaths of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming in the process the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. With the end of the [Macedonian wars](/wiki/Macedonian_wars \"Macedonian wars\") – which ran concurrently with the Punic wars – and the defeat of the [Seleucid Emperor](/wiki/Seleucid_Empire \"Seleucid Empire\") [Antiochus III the Great](/wiki/Antiochus%C2%A0III_the_Great \"Antiochus III the Great\") in the [Roman\\-Syrian War](/wiki/Roman-Syrian_War \"Roman-Syrian War\") ([Treaty of Apamea](/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea \"Treaty of Apamea\"), 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world. This was a turning point that meant that the civilization of the ancient [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa.", "#### Pre\\-Roman Britain", "[thumb\\|250px\\|Ancient British canoe](/wiki/File:0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg \"0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg\")\nThe [Coracle](/wiki/Coracle \"Coracle\"), a small single\\-passenger\\-sized float, has been used in Britain since before the first Roman invasion as noted by the invaders. Coracles are round or oval in shape, made of a wooden frame with a hide stretched over it then [tarred](/wiki/Tar \"Tar\") to provide waterproofing. Being so light, an operator can carry the light craft over the shoulder. They are capable of operating in mere inches of water due to the keel\\-less hull. The early people of Wales used these boats for fishing and light travel and updated models are still in use to this day on the rivers of [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") and [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\").", "Early [Britons](/wiki/Britons_%28historic%29 \"Britons (historic)\") also used the [dugout canoe](/wiki/Dugout_canoe \"Dugout canoe\"). Examples of these canoes have been found buried in marshes and mud banks of rivers at lengths of upward eight feet.[57\\.—Ancient British Canoes. (500x225\\)](http://www.fromoldbooks.org/OldEngland/pages/0057-Ancient-British-Canoes/)", "In 1992 a notable archaeological find, named the \"[Dover Bronze Age Boat](/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat \"Dover Bronze Age Boat\")\", was unearthed from beneath what is modern day [Dover, England](/wiki/Dover%2C_England \"Dover, England\"). The [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") boat which is about 9\\.5 meters long × 2\\.3 meters wide is believed to have been a seagoing vessel. [Carbon dating](/wiki/Carbon_dating \"Carbon dating\") reveals that the craft dating from approximately 1600 BC might be the oldest known sea\\-going boat. The hull was of half [oak](/wiki/Oak \"Oak\") logs and side panels also of oak were stitched on with [yew](/wiki/Taxus \"Taxus\") lashings. Both the straight\\-grained oak and yew bindings are now extinct as a shipbuilding method in [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). A reconstruction in 1996 proved that a crew between four and sixteen paddlers could have easily propelled the boat during Force 4 winds upwards of four knots but with a maximum of {{convert\\|5\\|kn\\|km/h\\|0}}. The boat could have easily carried a significant amount of cargo and with a strong crew may have been able to traverse near thirty nautical miles in a day.[Canterbury Archaeological Trust: Buckland Anglo\\-Saxon Cemetery](http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d_boat.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509090417/http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d\\_boat.htm \\|date\\=May 9, 2008 }}", "#### Northern Europe", "The *[Norsemen](/wiki/Norsemen \"Norsemen\")*, or 'people from the North', were people from southern and central [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\") which established states and settlements Northern Europe from the late 8th century to the 11th century. [Vikings](/wiki/Viking \"Viking\") has been a common term for Norsemen in the early [medieval period](/wiki/Medieval_period \"Medieval period\"), especially in connection with raids and [monastic](/wiki/Monastic \"Monastic\") plundering made by Norsemen in Great Britain and Ireland.", "[Leif Ericson](/wiki/Leif_Ericson \"Leif Ericson\") was an [Icelandic](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\") [explorer](/wiki/Explorer \"Explorer\") known to be the first [European](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") to have landed in [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") (presumably in [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_%28island%29 \"Newfoundland (island)\"), [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\")). During a stay in [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\"), Leif Ericsson converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"), like many Norse of that time. He also went to Norway to serve the [King of Norway](/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_monarchs \"List of Norwegian monarchs\"), [Olaf Tryggvason](/wiki/Olaf_I_of_Norway \"Olaf I of Norway\"). When he returned to [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland \"Greenland\"), he bought the boat of [Bjarni Herjólfsson](/wiki/Bjarni_Herj%C3%B3lfsson \"Bjarni Herjólfsson\") and set out to explore the land that Bjarni had found (located [west](/wiki/West \"West\") of Greenland), which was, in fact, Newfoundland, in Canada. The *[Saga of the Greenlanders](/wiki/Saga_of_the_Greenlanders \"Saga of the Greenlanders\")* tells that Leif set out around the year 1000 to follow Bjarni's route with 15 crew members, but going north.Another saga, *[The Saga of Eric the Red](/wiki/The_Saga_of_Eric_the_Red \"The Saga of Eric the Red\")*, relates that Leif discovered the American mainland while returning from Norway to Greenland in 1000 (or possibly 1001\\), but does not mention any attempts to settle there. However, the *Saga of the Greenlanders* is usually considered the more reliable of the two.", "#### Maritime Southeast Asia", "{{Main\\|Austronesian maritime trade network\\|Maritime Jade Road\\|Maritime Silk Road}}\n[thumb\\|300px\\|Distribution of [nephrite jade](/wiki/Nephrite_jade \"Nephrite jade\") artifacts ([lingling\\-o](/wiki/Lingling-o \"Lingling-o\")) sourced from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Aborigines \"Taiwanese Aborigines\") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") and transported via a [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") [Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesians \"Austronesians\") [maritime trade network](/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture \"Philippine jade culture\"), starting from at least {{circa\\|2000 BCE}}](/wiki/File:Jade_culture_distribution.jpg \"Jade culture distribution.jpg\")", "[Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesians \"Austronesians\") in [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia \"Maritime Southeast Asia\") developed very early [maritime trade networks](/wiki/Austronesian_maritime_trade_network \"Austronesian maritime trade network\") in the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\"). The first of which is the [Maritime Jade Road](/wiki/Maritime_Jade_Road \"Maritime Jade Road\"). It lasted for around 3,000 years, from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. It was initially established by the indigenous peoples of [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Aborigines \"Taiwanese Aborigines\") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"). Raw jade was sourced from deposits in Taiwan and worked into ornaments in the Philippines (the most notable and most numerous of which are double\\-headed pendants known as [lingling\\-o](/wiki/Lingling-o \"Lingling-o\")). This network later included parts of [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\"), and other areas in Southeast Asia where these jade ornaments, along with other trade goods, were exchanged (also known as the [Sa Huynh](/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture \"Sa Huỳnh culture\")\\-[Kalanay](/wiki/Kalanay_Cave \"Kalanay Cave\") Interaction Sphere).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Tsang \\|first1\\=Cheng\\-hwa \\|title\\=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan \\|journal\\=Bulletin of the Indo\\-Pacific Prehistory Association \\|date\\=2000 \\|volume\\=20 \\|pages\\=153–158 \\|doi\\=10\\.7152/bippa.v20i0\\.11751 \\|doi\\-broken\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-12 \\|issn\\=1835\\-1794}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Turton \\|first1\\= M. \\|title\\=Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south \\|url\\=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2021 \\|work\\=Taipei Times \\|date\\=17 May 2021}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Everington \\|first1\\= K. \\|title\\=Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar \\|url\\=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3247203 \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2021\\|work\\=Taiwan News \\|date\\=6 September 2017}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bellwood \\|first1\\=Peter \\|last2\\=Hung \\|first2\\=H. \\|last3\\=Lizuka \\|first3\\=Yoshiyuki \\|chapter\\=Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long\\-distance Interaction \\|year\\=2011 \\|editor\\-last\\=Benitez\\-Johannot \\|editor\\-first\\=P. \\|title\\=Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde \\|publisher\\=ArtPostAsia \\|isbn\\=978\\-971\\-94292\\-0\\-3}} The wide distribution throughout [Island Southeast Asia](/wiki/Island_Southeast_Asia \"Island Southeast Asia\") of the ceremonial [bronze drums](/wiki/Dong_Son_drums \"Dong Son drums\") ({{circa\\|600 BCE to 400 CE}}) sourced from the [Dong Son culture](/wiki/Dong_Son_culture \"Dong Son culture\") of northern Vietnam is also evidence of the antiquity and density of this prehistoric Southeast Asian maritime network.", "Austronesians also established very early connections (part of the early [spice trade](/wiki/Spice_trade \"Spice trade\") networks) with [Dravidian\\-speaking](/wiki/Dravidians \"Dravidians\") regions in [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\") and [Southern India](/wiki/Southern_India \"Southern India\") by around 1500 to 600 BCE.{{cite book\\|first1\\=Bérénice\\|last1\\= Bellina \\|editor1\\-first\\=John\\|editor1\\-last\\=Guy\\|title \\=Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu\\-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century\\|chapter \\=Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road\\|publisher \\=Yale University Press\\|year \\=2014\\|pages\\=22–25\\|isbn \\=9781588395245\\|url \\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Glover \\|first1\\=Ian C. \\|last2\\=Bellina \\|first2\\=Bérénice \\|title\\=Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross\\-Cultural Exchange \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute \\|isbn\\=9789814311175 \\|pages\\=17–46 \\|chapter\\=Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo: The Earliest Indian Contacts Re\\-assessed \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/early\\-interactions\\-between\\-south\\-and\\-southeast\\-asia/ban\\-don\\-ta\\-phet\\-and\\-khao\\-sam\\-kaeo\\-the\\-earliest\\-indian\\-contacts\\-reassessed/DE7A8037FF8B50870077C3EDF4865A4E\\|editor1\\=Manguin, Pierre\\-Yves\\|editor2\\=Mani, A.\\|editor3\\=Wade, Geoff}} These early contacts resulted in the introduction of Austronesian crops and material culture to South Asia,{{cite book \\|editor\\=Tripati, Sila \\|last1\\=Fuller \\|first1\\=Dorian Q. \\|last2\\=Boivin \\|first2\\=Nicole \\|last3\\=Castillo \\|first3\\=Cristina Cobo \\|last4\\=Hoogervorst \\|first4\\=Tom \\|last5\\=Allaby \\|first5\\=Robin G. \\|title\\=Maritime Contacts of the Past: Deciphering Connections Amongst Communities \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Kaveri Books \\|location\\=Delhi \\|isbn\\=9788192624433 \\|pages\\=1–23 \\|chapter\\=The archaeobiology of Indian Ocean translocations: Current outlines of cultural exchanges by proto\\-historic seafarers \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272434953}} including [betel nut chewing](/wiki/Betel_nut_chewing \"Betel nut chewing\"), [coconuts](/wiki/Coconuts \"Coconuts\"), [sandalwood](/wiki/Sandalwood \"Sandalwood\"), domesticated [bananas](/wiki/Banana \"Banana\"),{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Zumbroich \\|first1\\=Thomas J. \\|date\\=2007–2008 \\|title\\=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond \\|url\\=https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=eJournal of Indian Medicine \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=87–140 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323014003/https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2019 }} [sugarcane](/wiki/Sugarcane \"Sugarcane\"),{{cite book\\|editor1\\-first\\=Joseph\\|editor1\\-last\\=Needham\\|first1\\=Christian\\|last1\\=Daniels\\|first2\\=Nicholas K.\\|last2\\=Menzies\\|title\\=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 3, Agro\\-Industries and Forestry\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|year\\=1996\\|pages\\=177–185\\|isbn\\=9780521419994\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DzqPvHlFkV4C\\&pg\\=PR8}} [cloves](/wiki/Clove \"Clove\"), and [nutmeg](/wiki/Nutmeg \"Nutmeg\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Olivera \\|first1\\=Baldomero \\|last2\\=Hall \\|first2\\=Zach \\|last3\\=Granberg \\|first3\\=Bertrand \\|title\\=Reconstructing Philippine history before 1521: the Kalaga Putuan Crescent and the Austronesian maritime trade network \\|journal\\=SciEnggJ \\|date\\=31 March 2024 \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=71–85 \\|doi\\=10\\.54645/2024171ZAK\\-61}} It also introduced Austronesian sailing technologies like [outrigger boats](/wiki/Outrigger_boat \"Outrigger boat\") which are still utilized in Sri Lanka and southern India. During this period, the distribution of Austronesian trade goods like *[kapur barus](/wiki/Camphor \"Camphor\")* and cloves also reached beyond South Asia to [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Mahdi \\|first1\\=Waruno \\|editor1\\-last\\=Blench \\|editor1\\-first\\=Roger \\|editor2\\-last\\=Spriggs \\|editor2\\-first\\=Matthew \\|title\\=Archaeology and Language IV: Language Change and Cultural Transformation \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-81624\\-8 \\|pages\\=160–240 \\|chapter\\=Linguistic and philological data towards a chronology of Austronesian activity in India and Sri Lanka}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Nugroho \\|first\\=Irawan Djoko \\|title\\=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim \\|publisher\\=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti \\|year\\=2011 \\|isbn\\=978\\-602\\-9346\\-00\\-8}}{{Rp\\|1}} There is also indirect evidence of very early Austronesian contacts with [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), based on the presence and spread of Austronesian domesticates like bananas, [taro](/wiki/Taro \"Taro\"), [chickens](/wiki/Chicken \"Chicken\"), and [purple yam](/wiki/Purple_yam \"Purple yam\") in Africa in the first millennium BCE.", "By around the 2nd century BCE, the prehistoric Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia fully connected with the [maritime trade routes](/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations \"Indo-Roman trade relations\") of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\"), eastern [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), and the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\"), becoming what is now known as the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road \"Maritime Silk Road\"). Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive [sewn\\-plank](/wiki/Sewn-plank \"Sewn-plank\") and [lashed\\-lug](/wiki/Lashed_lug_boat \"Lashed lug boat\") ships, although [Persian](/wiki/Persian_people \"Persian people\") and [Tamil](/wiki/Tamil_people \"Tamil people\") traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Guan \\|first1\\=Kwa Chong \\|title\\=The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea \\|journal\\=NSC Working Paper \\|date\\=2016 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=1–30 \\|url\\=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23\\.pdf}} It allowed the exchange of goods from [East](/wiki/East_Asia \"East Asia\") and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and eastern Africa on the other.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Ariane \\|last1\\=de Saxcé \\|editor1\\=Billé, Franck\\|editor2\\=Mehendale, Sanjyot\\|editor3\\=Lankton, James\\|title\\=The Maritime Silk Road: Global Connectivities, Regional Nodes, Localities \\|date\\=2022 \\|publisher\\=Amsterdam University Press \\|location\\=Amsterdam \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-4855\\-242\\-9 \\|series\\=Asian Borderlands \\|pages\\=129–148 \\|chapter\\=Networks and Cultural Mapping of South Asian Maritime Trade \\|url\\=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3\\-2dfa\\-4a0d\\-b04b\\-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429\\.pdf}}", "[thumb\\|left\\|One of the [Borobudur ships](/wiki/Borobudur_ship \"Borobudur ship\") from the 8th century, they were depictions of large [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_people \"Javanese people\") [outrigger vessels](/wiki/Outrigger_vessel \"Outrigger vessel\"). Shown with the characteristic [tanja sail](/wiki/Tanja_sail \"Tanja sail\") of Southeast Asian [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesians \"Austronesians\")](/wiki/File:Borobudur_ship.JPG \"Borobudur ship.JPG\")\nAustronesian [thalassocracies](/wiki/Thalassocracies \"Thalassocracies\") controlled the flow of trade in the eastern regions of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the [polities](/wiki/Polities \"Polities\") around the [straits](/wiki/Straits \"Straits\") of [Malacca](/wiki/Malacca_Strait \"Malacca Strait\") and [Bangka](/wiki/Bangka_Strait \"Bangka Strait\"), the [Malay Peninsula](/wiki/Malay_Peninsula \"Malay Peninsula\"), and the [Mekong Delta](/wiki/Mekong_Delta \"Mekong Delta\"); through which passed the main routes of the Austronesian trade ships to [Giao Chỉ](/wiki/Jiaozhi \"Jiaozhi\") (in the [Tonkin Gulf](/wiki/Tonkin_Gulf \"Tonkin Gulf\")) and [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\") (southern [China](/wiki/China \"China\")), the endpoints. Secondary routes also passed through the coastlines of the [Gulf of Thailand](/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand \"Gulf of Thailand\");{{cite book \\|last1\\=Li \\|first1\\=Tana \\|editor1\\-last\\=Cooke \\|editor1\\-first\\=Nola \\|editor2\\-last\\=Li \\|editor2\\-first\\=Tana \\|editor3\\-last\\=Anderson \\|editor3\\-first\\=James A. \\|title\\=The Tongking Gulf Through History \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania Press \\|isbn\\=9780812205022 \\|pages\\=39–44 \\|chapter\\=Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) in the Han period Tongking Gulf}} as well as through the [Java Sea](/wiki/Java_Sea \"Java Sea\"), [Celebes Sea](/wiki/Celebes_Sea \"Celebes Sea\"), [Banda Sea](/wiki/Banda_Sea \"Banda Sea\"), and the [Sulu Sea](/wiki/Sulu_Sea \"Sulu Sea\"), reconnecting with the main route through the northern Philippines and Taiwan. The secondary routes also continue onward to the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea \"East China Sea\") and the [Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea \"Yellow Sea\") for a limited extent.", "[300px\\|thumb\\|[Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples \"Austronesian peoples\") [proto\\-historic](/wiki/Spice_trade \"Spice trade\") and [historic](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road \"Maritime Silk Road\") maritime trade network in the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"){{cite book\\|first1\\=Pierre\\-Yves \\|last1\\=Manguin\\|editor1\\-first\\=Gwyn \\|editor1\\-last\\=Campbell\\|title \\=Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World \\|chapter \\=Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships\\|publisher \\=Palgrave Macmillan\\|year \\=2016\\|pages\\=51–76\\|isbn \\=978\\-3\\-319\\-33822\\-4\\|chapter\\-url \\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XsvDDQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA50}}](/wiki/File:Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png \"Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png\")\nThe main route of the western regions of the Maritime Silk Road directly crosses the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\") from the northern tip of [Sumatra](/wiki/Sumatra \"Sumatra\") (or through the [Sunda Strait](/wiki/Sunda_Strait \"Sunda Strait\")) to [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\"), southern [India](/wiki/India \"India\") and [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"), and the [Maldives](/wiki/Maldives \"Maldives\"). It branches from here into routes through the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea \"Arabian Sea\") entering the [Gulf of Oman](/wiki/Gulf_of_Oman \"Gulf of Oman\") (into the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\")), and the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden \"Gulf of Aden\") (into the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\")). Secondary routes also pass through the coastlines of the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\"), the Arabian Sea, and southwards along the coast of [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\") to [Zanzibar](/wiki/Zanzibar \"Zanzibar\"), the [Comoros](/wiki/Comoros_Islands \"Comoros Islands\"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\"), and the [Seychelles](/wiki/Seychelles \"Seychelles\").{{cite book \\|first1\\=Shadreck \\|last1\\=Chirikure \\|editor1\\=Billé, Franck\\|editor2\\=Mehendale, Sanjyot\\|editor3\\=Lankton, James\\|title\\=The Maritime Silk Road: Global Connectivities, Regional Nodes, Localities \\|date\\=2022 \\|publisher\\=Amsterdam University Press \\|location\\=Amsterdam \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-4855\\-242\\-9 \\|series\\=Asian Borderlands \\|pages\\=149–176 \\|chapter\\=Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean World \\|url\\=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3\\-2dfa\\-4a0d\\-b04b\\-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429\\.pdf}} The Maldives was of particular importance as a major hub for Austronesian sailors venturing through the western routes. The Austronesian people also reached [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\") in the early 1st millennium AD and colonized it.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dewar \\|first1\\=Robert E. \\|last2\\=Wright \\|first2\\=Henry T. \\|date\\=1993 \\|title\\=The culture history of Madagascar \\|journal\\=Journal of World Prehistory \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=417–466 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/bf00997802 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=2027\\.42/45256 \\|s2cid\\=21753825}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Herrera \\|first1\\=Michael B. \\|last2\\=Thomson \\|first2\\=Vicki A. \\|last3\\=Wadley \\|first3\\=Jessica J. \\|last4\\=Piper \\|first4\\=Philip J. \\|last5\\=Sulandari \\|first5\\=Sri \\|last6\\=Dharmayanthi \\|first6\\=Anik Budhi \\|last7\\=Kraitsek \\|first7\\=Spiridoula \\|last8\\=Gongora \\|first8\\=Jaime \\|last9\\=Austin \\|first9\\=Jeremy J. \\|title\\=East African origins for Madagascan chickens as indicated by mitochondrial DNA \\|journal\\=Royal Society Open Science \\|date\\=March 2017 \\|volume\\=4 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=160787 \\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rsos.160787\\|pmid\\=28405364 \\|pmc\\=5383821 \\|bibcode\\=2017RSOS....460787H \\|hdl\\=2440/104470 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Tofanelli \\|first1\\=S. \\|last2\\=Bertoncini \\|first2\\=S. \\|last3\\=Castri \\|first3\\=L. \\|last4\\=Luiselli \\|first4\\=D. \\|last5\\=Calafell \\|first5\\=F. \\|last6\\=Donati \\|first6\\=G. \\|last7\\=Paoli \\|first7\\=G. \\|title\\=On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High\\-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages \\|journal\\=Molecular Biology and Evolution \\|date\\=1 September 2009 \\|volume\\=26 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=2109–2124 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/molbev/msp120\\|pmid\\=19535740 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Adelaar \\|first1\\=Alexander \\|title\\=Malagasy Phonological History and Bantu Influence \\|journal\\=Oceanic Linguistics \\|date\\=June 2012 \\|volume\\=51 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=123–159 \\|doi\\=10\\.1353/ol.2012\\.0003\\|hdl\\=11343/121829 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}", "[Han](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\") and [Tang](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") dynasty Chinese records also indicate that the early Chinese Buddhist [pilgrims](/wiki/Pilgrim \"Pilgrim\") to South Asia booked passage with the Austronesian ships (which they called the *[k'un\\-lun po](/wiki/K%27un-lun_po \"K'un-lun po\")*) that traded in the Chinese port city of [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\"). Books written by Chinese monks like Wan Chen and Hui\\-Lin contain detailed accounts of the large trading vessels from Southeast Asia dating back to at least the 3rd century CE.{{cite book \\|last1\\=McGrail \\|first1\\=Seán \\|title\\=Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to the Medieval Times \\|date\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=9780199271863 \\|pages\\=289–293 \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/39591350}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Christie \\|first\\=Anthony \\|date\\=1957 \\|title\\=An Obscure Passage from the \"Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟΦΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ\" \\|journal\\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London \\|volume\\=19 \\|pages\\=345–353 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0041977X00133105 \\|s2cid\\=162840685 \\|via\\=JSTOR}}{{Rp\\|347}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Manguin \\|first\\=Pierre\\-Yves \\|date\\=1993 \\|title\\=Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks \\|journal\\=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient \\|pages\\=253–280}}{{Rp\\|262}}", "[Srivijaya](/wiki/Srivijaya \"Srivijaya\"), a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\")\\-[Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist \"Buddhist\") Austronesian polity founded at [Palembang](/wiki/Palembang \"Palembang\") in 682 CE, rose to dominate the trade in the region around the straits of [Malacca](/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca \"Strait of Malacca\") and [Sunda](/wiki/Sunda_Strait \"Sunda Strait\") and the South China Sea [emporium](/wiki/Emporium_%28antiquity%29 \"Emporium (antiquity)\") by controlling the trade in luxury aromatics and Buddhist artifacts from West Asia to a thriving Tang market.{{rp\\|page\\=12}} It emerged through the conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These included [Melayu](/wiki/Melayu_Kingdom \"Melayu Kingdom\"), [Kedah](/wiki/Kedah \"Kedah\"), [Tarumanagara](/wiki/Tarumanagara \"Tarumanagara\"), and [Mataram](/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom \"Mataram Kingdom\"), among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of the [Spice Islands](/wiki/Maluku_islands \"Maluku islands\"), as well as maritime trade\\-routes between [India](/wiki/India \"India\") and [China](/wiki/China \"China\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\= Sulistiyono \\|first1\\= Singgih Tri \\|last2\\= Masruroh \\|first2\\= Noor Naelil \\|last3\\= Rochwulaningsih \\|first3\\= Yety \\|title\\= Contest For Seascape: Local Thalassocracies and Sino\\-Indian Trade Expansion in the Maritime Southeast Asia During the Early Premodern Period \\|journal\\= Journal of Marine and Island Cultures \\|date\\= 2018 \\|volume\\= 7 \\|issue\\= 2 \\|doi\\= 10\\.21463/jmic.2018\\.07\\.2\\.05 \\|url\\= http://jmic.online/issues/v7n2/5/\\|doi\\-access\\= free }}", "The [Butuan boat burials](/wiki/Balangay \"Balangay\") of the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), which feature eleven [lashed\\-lug boat](/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat \"Lashed-lug boat\") remains of the [Austronesian boatbuilding traditions](/wiki/Austronesian_vessels \"Austronesian vessels\") (individually dated from 689 CE to 988 CE), were found in association with large amounts of trade goods from [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") ([Haripunjaya](/wiki/Haripunjaya \"Haripunjaya\") and [Satingpra](/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district \"Sathing Phra district\")), [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), and as far as [Persia](/wiki/Persia \"Persia\"), indicating they traded as far as the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Butuan Archeological Sites \\|url\\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2071/ \\|website\\=UNESCO \\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2024}}{{Cite journal\\|title \\= The Butuan Two boat known as a balangay in the National Museum, Manila, Philippines\\|last1 \\= Clark\\|first1 \\= Paul\\|date \\= 1993\\|journal \\= The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology\\|doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1095\\-9270\\.1993\\.tb00403\\.x\\|last2 \\= Green\\|first2 \\= Jeremy\\|last3 \\= Santiago\\|first3 \\= Rey\\|last4 \\= Vosmer\\|first4 \\= Tom\\|volume\\=22\\|issue \\= 2\\|pages\\=143–159\\| bibcode\\=1993IJNAr..22\\..143C }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Lacsina \\|first1\\=Ligaya \\|title\\=Re\\-examining the Butuan Boats: Pre\\-colonial Philippine watercraft \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=National Museum of the Philippines \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/31015958}}", "These maritime routes persisted (with increasing participation of other maritime cultures) into the [medieval era](/wiki/Post-classical_history \"Post-classical history\"), before declining and being replaced with European trade routes during the [colonial era](/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia \"Western imperialism in Asia\") in the 15th century.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Manguin \\|first1\\=Pierre\\-Yves \\|editor1\\-last\\=Reid \\|editor1\\-first\\=Anthony \\|chapter\\=The Vanishing Jong: Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War (Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries) \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press \\|pages\\=197–213 \\|title\\=Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era \\|jstor\\=10\\.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8014\\-8093\\-5 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\\.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Manguin \\|first1\\=Pierre\\-Yves \\|title\\=The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach \\|journal\\=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies \\|date\\=September 1980 \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=266–276 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S002246340000446X}}", "#### Indian subcontinent", "{{Main\\|Indian maritime history\\|Maritime history of Odisha}}In the [Indian maritime history](/wiki/Indian_maritime_history \"Indian maritime history\"), the world's first [tidal dock](/wiki/Tidal_dock \"Tidal dock\") was built in phase II of [Lothal](/wiki/Lothal \"Lothal\")Science and Technology in Ancient India. Vijnan Bharati, 2002\\. Page 18\\.Shikaripur Ranganatha Rao. Lothal, a Harappan Port Town (1955–62\\). 1979\\. Page 44\\. during the [Harappan civilisation](/wiki/Harappan_civilisation \"Harappan civilisation\") near the present day [Mangrol harbour](/wiki/Mangrol_harbour \"Mangrol harbour\") on the [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat \"Gujarat\") coast. Other ports were probably at [Balakot](/wiki/Balakot \"Balakot\") and [Dwarka](/wiki/Dwarka \"Dwarka\"). However, it is probable that many small\\-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.[Possehl, Gregory](/wiki/Gregory_Possehl \"Gregory Possehl\"). Meluhha. in: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996, 133–208 Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established [trade](/wiki/Trade \"Trade\") with [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\"),(e.g. Lal 1997: 182–188\\) where the Indus Valley was known as [Meluhha](/wiki/Meluhha \"Meluhha\").", "Emperor [Chandragupta Maurya](/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya \"Chandragupta Maurya\")'s [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister \"Prime Minister\") [Kautilya](/wiki/Kautilya \"Kautilya\")'s [Arthashastra](/wiki/Arthashastra \"Arthashastra\") devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under *nāvādhyakṣa* ([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit \"Sanskrit\") for [Superintendent](/wiki/Public_administration \"Public administration\") of ships) {{Ref\\|Kautilya}}. The terms, *nāvā dvīpāntaragamanam* ([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit \"Sanskrit\") for sailing to other lands by ships) and *samudrasaṁyānam* (maritime travel) appear in the work.", "The [Maritime history](/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha \"Maritime history of Odisha\") of [Kalinga](/wiki/Kalinga_%28historical_kingdom%29 \"Kalinga (historical kingdom)\") (now [Odisha](/wiki/Odisha \"Odisha\")) is an important highlight of the traditions of Indian maritime history as it was influential in establishing trading links with Southeast Asia along the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road \"Maritime Silk Road\"). The people of this region of eastern [India](/wiki/India \"India\") along the coast of the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\") sailed up and down the [Indian coast](/wiki/Coastal_India \"Coastal India\"), and travelled to [Indo China](/wiki/Indo_China \"Indo China\") and throughout [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia \"Maritime Southeast Asia\"), [introducing elements](/wiki/Indosphere \"Indosphere\") of [their culture](/wiki/Hinduism_in_Southeast_Asia \"Hinduism in Southeast Asia\") to the [people with whom they traded](/wiki/Greater_India \"Greater India\"). The 6th century *[Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa](/wiki/Ma%C3%B1ju%C5%9Br%C4%AB-m%C5%ABla-kalpa \"Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa\")* mentions the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\") as 'Kaliṅgodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kaliṅga Sāgara' (both Kaliṅgodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the [maritime trade](/wiki/Indian_maritime_history \"Indian maritime history\").{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=H\\-IbAQAAMAAJ \\|title\\=The Journal of Orissan History, Volumes 13\\-15 \\|publisher\\=Orissa History Congress \\|year\\=1995 \\|page\\=54 }}", "#### Japan", "{{Main\\|Naval history of Japan}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|A clay figure of a *[haniwa](/wiki/Haniwa \"Haniwa\")* model of a ship, from [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\")'s [Kofun period](/wiki/Kofun_period \"Kofun period\") (250–538\\); during the [Three Kingdoms of Korea](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea \"Three Kingdoms of Korea\"), the Japanese sided with [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje \"Baekje\") against a naval alliance between the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") and Korean [Silla](/wiki/Silla \"Silla\").](/wiki/File:Funagata-haniwa_01%28trim%29.JPG \"Funagata-haniwa 01(trim).JPG\")", "[Japan](/wiki/Asuka_period \"Asuka period\") had a navy by at least the 6th century, with their invasions and involvement in political alliances during the [Three Kingdoms of Korea](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea \"Three Kingdoms of Korea\"). A joint alliance between the Korean [Silla](/wiki/Silla \"Silla\") Kingdom and the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") (618–907 AD) heavily defeated the Japanese and their Korean allies of [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje \"Baekje\") in the [Battle of Baekgang](/wiki/Battle_of_Baekgang \"Battle of Baekgang\") on August 27 to August 28 of the year 663 AD. This decisive victory expelled the Japanese force from Korea and allowed the Tang and Silla to conquer [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo \"Goguryeo\").\n{{Clear}}", "" ]
### Ancient routes and locations Ancient maritime routes usually began in the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East") or down river from [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh "Madhya Pradesh") with [transshipment](/wiki/Transshipment "Transshipment") via historic [Bharuch](/wiki/Bharuch "Bharuch") (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today's [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") then split around [Hadhramaut](/wiki/Hadhramaut "Hadhramaut") into two streams north into the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden "Gulf of Aden") and thence into the [Levant](/wiki/Levant "Levant"), or south into [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria") via [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea") ports such as [Axum](/wiki/Axum "Axum"). Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates.See: [Arabian Sea Trade routes](/wiki/Arabian_Sea%23Trade_routes "Arabian Sea#Trade routes") [thumb\|center\|555px\|Names, routes and locations of the *[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea](/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea")* at the turn of the first millennium.](/wiki/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg "Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg") [right\|thumbnail\|250px\|Much of the [Radhanites](/wiki/Radhanite "Radhanite")' [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean") trade would have depended on coastal cargo\-ships such as this [dhow](/wiki/Dhow "Dhow").](/wiki/File:Dhow.jpg "Dhow.jpg") Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the utilization of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea") and the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal").Denemark 2000: 107\. [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia"), thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult. Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes. By making use of the maritime trade routes, [bulk commodity trade](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Commercial_infrastructure "Roman commerce#Commercial infrastructure") became possible for the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Romans "Ancient Romans") in the 2nd century BC.Toutain 1979: 243\. A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at [one\-sixtieth the cost](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Sea_routes "Roman commerce#Sea routes") of [over\-land routes](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Land_routes "Roman commerce#Land routes").Scarre 1995\. {{see also\|Ship transport}} #### Egypt [thumb\|222px\|Egyptian ship, 1250 BC](/wiki/File:Wells_egyptian_ship_red_sea.png "Wells egyptian ship red sea.png") [thumb\|222px\|World's oldest depiction of a [stern](/wiki/Stern "Stern")\-mounted steering rudder (c. 1420 BC)](/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Menna_013.jpg "Maler der Grabkammer des Menna 013.jpg") The [Ancient Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") had knowledge of [sail](/wiki/Sail "Sail") construction.[Hatshepsut](/wiki/Hatshepsut "Hatshepsut") oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and *with several sails*. Various others exist, also. The first warships of [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") were constructed during the early [Middle Kingdom](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt "Middle Kingdom of Egypt"), and perhaps – at the end of the [Old Kingdom](/wiki/Old_Kingdom "Old Kingdom"), but the first mention and a detailed description of a large enough and heavily armed ship dates from 16th century BC. "And I ordered to build twelve warships with rams, dedicated to [Amun](/wiki/Amun "Amun") or [Sobek](/wiki/Sobek "Sobek"), or [Maat](/wiki/Maat "Maat") and [Sekhmet](/wiki/Sekhmet "Sekhmet"), whose image was crowned best bronze noses. Carport and equipped outside rook over the waters, for many paddlers, having covered rowers deck not only from the side, but and top. and they were on board eighteen oars in two rows on the top and sat on two rowers, and the lower – one, a hundred and eight rowers were. And twelve rowers aft worked on three steering oars. And blocked Our Majesty ship inside three partitions ([bulkheads](/wiki/Bulkhead_%28partition%29 "Bulkhead (partition)")) so as not to drown it by ramming the wicked, and the sailors had time to repair the hole. And Our Majesty arranged four towers for archers – two behind, and two on the nose and one above the other small – on the mast with narrow loopholes. they are covered with [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") in the fifth finger (3\.2mm), as well as a canopy roof and its rowers. and they have (carried) on the nose three assault heavy crossbow arrows so they lit resin or oil with a salt of Seth (probably nitrate) tore a special blend and punched (?) lead ball with a lot of holes (?), and one of the same at the stern. and long ship seventy five cubits (41m), and the breadth sixteen, and in battle can go three\-quarters of iteru per hour (about 6\.5 knots)..." The text of the tomb of [Amenhotep I](/wiki/Amenhotep_I "Amenhotep I") ([KV39](/wiki/KV39 "KV39")). When [Thutmose III](/wiki/Thutmose_III "Thutmose III") achieved warships [displacement](/wiki/Displacement_%28ship%29 "Displacement (ship)") up to 360 tons and carried up to ten new heavy and light to seventeen catapults based bronze springs, called "siege crossbow" – more precisely, siege bows. Still appeared giant catamarans that are heavy warships and times of [Ramesses III](/wiki/Ramesses_III "Ramesses III") used even when the Ptolemaic dynasty.Nelson Harold Hayden, Allen Thomas George and Dr [Raymond O. Faulkner](/wiki/Raymond_O._Faulkner "Raymond O. Faulkner"). «Tuthmosis III. First Emperor in the History of Mankind. His Regal companions and a Great assistants» Oxford UNV Publishing, 1921 p.127\. [thumb\|222px\|The world according to [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus "Herodotus"), 440 BC](/wiki/File:Herodotus5m1.jpg "Herodotus5m1.jpg") According to the [Greek](/wiki/Greece "Greece") historian [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus "Herodotus"), [Necho II](/wiki/Necho%C2%A0II "Necho II") sent out an expedition of [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians "Phoenicians"), which reputedly, at some point between 610 and before 594 BC, sailed in three years from the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea") around [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa") to the mouth of the [Nile](/wiki/Nile "Nile"). Some Egyptologists dispute that an Egyptian Pharaoh would authorize such an expedition,For instance, the Egyptologist Alan Lloyd wrote "Given the context of [Egyptian thought](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy "Ancient Egyptian philosophy"), [economic life](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade "Ancient Egyptian trade"), and [military](/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt "Military of ancient Egypt") interests, it is impossible for one to imagine what stimulus could have motivated Necho in such a scheme and if we cannot provide a reason which is sound within Egyptian terms of reference, then we have good reason to doubt the historicity of the entire episode." {{cite journal \| last1 \= Lloyd \| first1 \= Alan B. \| year \= 1977 \| title \= Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations \| journal \= Journal of Egyptian Archaeology \| volume \= 63 \| page \= 149 \| doi\=10\.2307/3856314\| jstor \= 3856314 }} except for the reason of trade in the ancient maritime routes. The belief in Herodotus' account, handed down to him by [oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition "Oral tradition"),M. J. Cary. The Ancient Explorers. Penguin Books, 1963\. Page 114 is primarily because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians "*as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right – to northward of them*" (*The Histories* 4\.42\) – in [Herodotus' time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean](/wiki/History_of_geography%23Greco-Roman_world "History of geography#Greco-Roman world") (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to AsiaDie umsegelung Asiens und Europas auf der Vega. Volume 2\. By Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. [p148](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8-SfAAAAMAAJ/page/n173)). So fantastic an assertion is this of a typical example of some seafarers' story and Herodotus therefore may never have mentioned it, at all, had it not been based on facts and made with the according insistence.[Heinz Gartmann](/wiki/Heinz_Gartmann "Heinz Gartmann"): Sonst stünde die Welt still. Das große Ringen um das Neue. *Econ*, Düsseldorf 1957 This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject;The Cambridge History of the British Empire. CUP Archive, 1963\. [p56](https://books.google.com/books?id=ISg9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA56) but [Strabo](/wiki/Strabo "Strabo"), [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius "Polybius"), and [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy "Ptolemy") doubted the description. Egyptologist [A. B. Lloyd](/wiki/Alan_B._Lloyd "Alan B. Lloyd") suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the Sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that "It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure of [Sataspes](/wiki/Sataspes "Sataspes")' attempt to circumnavigate Africa under [Xerxes the Great](/wiki/Xerxes_the_Great "Xerxes the Great").{{cite journal \| last1 \= Lloyd \| first1 \= Alan B \| year \= 1977 \| title \= Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations \| journal \= Journal of Egyptian Archaeology \| volume \= 63 \| pages \= 142–155 \| doi\=10\.2307/3856314\| jstor \= 3856314 }} Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus and [Pliny](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder "Pliny the Elder").The Geographical system of Herodotus By James Rennel. [p348](https://books.google.com/books?id=6C0waiOScrEC&pg=PA348)\+ Much earlier, the [Sea Peoples](/wiki/Sea_Peoples "Sea Peoples") was a [confederacy](/wiki/Confederation "Confederation") of seafaring raiders who sailed into the eastern shores of the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean"), caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") territory during the late [19th dynasty](/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt "Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt"), and especially during Year 8 of [Ramesses III](/wiki/Ramesses%C2%A0III "Ramesses III") of the [20th Dynasty](/wiki/Twentieth_dynasty_of_Egypt "Twentieth dynasty of Egypt").A convenient table of sea peoples in [hieroglyphics](/wiki/Hieroglyphics "Hieroglyphics"), transliteration and English is given in the dissertation of Woodhuizen, 2006, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there The Egyptian Pharaoh [Merneptah](/wiki/Merneptah "Merneptah") explicitly refers to them by the term "the foreign\-countries (or 'peoples'As noted by Gardiner V.1 p.196, other texts have "foreign\-peoples"; both terms can refer to the concept of "foreigners" as well. Zangger in the external link below expresses a commonly held view that "sea peoples" does not translate this and other expressions but is an academic innovation. The Woudhuizen dissertation and the Morris paper identify [Gaston Maspero](/wiki/Gaston_Maspero "Gaston Maspero") as the first to use the term "peuples de la mer" in 1881\.) of the sea"Gardiner V.1 p.196\.Manassa p.55\. in his [Great Karnak Inscription](/wiki/Great_Karnak_Inscription "Great Karnak Inscription").Line 52\. The inscription is shown in Manassa p.55 plate 12\. Although some scholars believe that they "invaded" [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus") and the [Levant](/wiki/Levant "Levant"), this hypothesis is disputed. ##### Kingdom of Punt {{main\|Somali maritime history}} [thumb\|right\|300px\|Historical [Somali commercial enterprise](/wiki/Somali_maritime_history "Somali maritime history") in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea"), the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf"), the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"), and the [straits of Malacca](/wiki/Straits_of_Malacca "Straits of Malacca").](/wiki/File:Somali_Enterprise.JPG "Somali Enterprise.JPG") In ancient times the [Kingdom of Punt](/wiki/Land_of_Punt "Land of Punt"), which is believed by several Egyptologists to have been situated in the area of modern\-day [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"), had a steady trade link with the Ancient Egyptians and exported the precious natural resources such as [myrrh](/wiki/Myrrh "Myrrh"), [frankincense](/wiki/Frankincense "Frankincense") and [gum](/wiki/Natural_gum "Natural gum"). This trade network continued all the way into the [classical era](/wiki/Classical_antiquity "Classical antiquity"). The city states of [Mossylon](/wiki/Bosaso "Bosaso"), [Opone](/wiki/Opone "Opone"), [Malao](/wiki/Malao_%28ancient%29 "Malao (ancient)"), [Mundus](/wiki/Mundus_%28city%29 "Mundus (city)") and [Tabae](/wiki/Tabae "Tabae") in Somalia engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting [Somali](/wiki/Somali_people "Somali people") merchants with [Phoenicia](/wiki/Phoenicia "Phoenicia"), [Ptolemic Egypt](/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom "Ptolemaic Kingdom"), [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece"), [Parthian Persia](/wiki/Parthia "Parthia"), [Saba](/wiki/Sabaeans "Sabaeans"), [Nabataea](/wiki/Nabataea "Nabataea") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"). Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the [beden](/wiki/Beden "Beden") to transport their cargo. #### The Mediterranean [Minoan](/wiki/Minoan_civilization "Minoan civilization") traders from [Crete](/wiki/Crete "Crete") were active in the eastern Mediterranean by the 2nd millennium BC. The [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicia "Phoenicia") were an ancient [civilization](/wiki/Civilization "Civilization") centered in the north of ancient [Canaan](/wiki/Canaan "Canaan"), with its heartland along the coast of modern\-day [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), Western [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") and northern [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel"). Phoenician civilization was an enterprising [maritime trading culture](/wiki/Thalassocracy "Thalassocracy") that spread across the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") during the first millennium BC, between the period of 1200 BC to 900 BC. Though ancient boundaries of such city\-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of [Tyre](/wiki/Tyre_%28Lebanon%29 "Tyre (Lebanon)") seems to have been the southernmost. [Sarepta](/wiki/Sarepta "Sarepta") between [Sidon](/wiki/Sidon "Sidon") and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. The Phoenicians often traded by means of a [galley](/wiki/Galley "Galley"), a man\-powered sailing vessel. They were the first civilization to create the [bireme](/wiki/Bireme "Bireme"). There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not. The [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") was the source of the vessel, [galley](/wiki/Galley "Galley"), developed before 1000 BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. The [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece") [trireme](/wiki/Trireme "Trireme") was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the propulsion power of [oarsmen](/wiki/Oar "Oar"). Mediterranean peoples developed [lighthouse](/wiki/Lighthouse "Lighthouse") technology and built large fire\-based lighthouses, most notably the [Lighthouse of Alexandria](/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria "Lighthouse of Alexandria"), built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt. Many in ancient western societies, such as [Ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece"), were in awe of the seas and deified them, believing that man no longer belonged to himself when once he embarked on a sea voyage. They believed that he was liable to be sacrificed at any time to the anger of the great [Sea God](/wiki/Water_deity "Water deity"). Before the Greeks, the [Carians](/wiki/Carians "Carians") were an early Mediterranean seagoing people that travelled far. Early writers do not give a good idea about the progress of navigation nor that of the man's seamanship. One of the early stories of seafaring was that of [Odysseus](/wiki/Odysseus "Odysseus"). In [Greek mythology](/wiki/Greek_mythology "Greek mythology"), the [Argonauts](/wiki/Argonauts "Argonauts") were a band of heroes who, in the years before the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War "Trojan War"), accompanied [Jason](/wiki/Jason "Jason") to [Colchis](/wiki/Colchis "Colchis") in his quest to find the [Golden Fleece](/wiki/Golden_Fleece "Golden Fleece"). Their name comes from their ship, the [Argo](/wiki/Argo "Argo") which in turn was named after its builder [Argus](/wiki/Argus_%28son_of_Arestor%29 "Argus (son of Arestor)"). Thus, "Argonauts" literally means "Argo sailors". The voyage of the Greek navigator [Pytheas of Massalia](/wiki/Pytheas "Pytheas") is an example of a very early voyage. A competent astronomer and geographer, Pytheas ventured from Greece to Western Europe and the British Isles.{{Cite EB1911\|wstitle\=Pytheas\|volume\=22\|pages\=703–704\|first1\=Edward Herbert\|last1\=Bunbury\|author\-link1\=Edward Bunbury\|first2\=Charles Raymond\|last2\=Beazley\|author\-link2\=Raymond Beazley}} The *[periplus](/wiki/Periplus "Periplus")*, literally "a sailing\-around', in the ancient navigation of [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians "Phoenicians"), [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks "Greeks"), and [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome") was a manuscript document that listed in order the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate distances between, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. Several examples of *periploi* have survived. *[Piracy](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy")*, which is a [robbery](/wiki/Robbery "Robbery") committed at sea or sometimes on the shore, dates back to [Classical Antiquity](/wiki/Classical_Antiquity "Classical Antiquity") and, in all likelihood, much further. The [Tyrrhenians](/wiki/Tyrrhenians "Tyrrhenians"), [Illyrians](/wiki/Illyrians "Illyrians")Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, {{ISBN\|0\-631\-19807\-5}}, page 185 and [Thracians](/wiki/Thracians "Thracians"){{Citation needed\|date\=August 2009}} were known as [pirates](/wiki/Pirate "Pirate") in ancient times. The island of [Lemnos](/wiki/Lemnos "Lemnos") long resisted [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece") influence and remained a haven for Thracian pirates. By the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the [Anatolian](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia") coast, threatening the [commerce](/wiki/Commerce "Commerce") of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"). The earliest seagoing culture in the Mediterranean is associated with [Cardium pottery](/wiki/Cardium_pottery "Cardium pottery"). Their earliest impressed ware sites, dating to 6400–6200 BC, are in [Epirus](/wiki/Epirus "Epirus") and [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu "Corfu"). Settlements then appear in [Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania") and [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia "Dalmatia") on the eastern Adriatic coast dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC.Barry Cunliffe, *Europe Between the Oceans* (2008\), pp.115–6; Staso Forenbaher and Preston Miracle, The spread of farming in the Eastern Adriatic, *Antiquity*, vol. 79, no. 305 (September 2005\), [additional tables](http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/forenbaher305/). The earliest date in Italy comes from [Coppa Nevigata](/wiki/Coppa_Nevigata "Coppa Nevigata") on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, perhaps as early as 6000 cal B.C. Also during Su Carroppu culture in Sardinia, already in its early stages (low strata into Su Coloru cave, c. 6000 BC) early examples of cardium pottery appear.Showcase 3 in the Archeological Museum G. A. Sanna in Sassari Northward and westward all secure radiocarbon dates are identical to those for Iberia c. 5500 cal BC, which indicates a rapid spread of cardium and related cultures: 2,000 km from the gulf of Genoa to the estuary of the Mondego in probably no more than 100–200 years. This suggests a seafaring expansion by planting colonies along the coast.{{Cite journal\|author\=Zilhão\|year\=2001\|title\=Radiocarbon evidence for maritime pioneer colonization at the origins of farming in west Mediterranean Europe\|journal\=PNAS\|volume\=98\|issue\=24\|pages\=14180–14185\|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.241522898\|pmid\=11707599\|pmc\=61188\|bibcode\=2001PNAS...9814180Z\|doi\-access\=free}} ##### The Persian Wars {{Main\|Greco\-Persian Wars\|Peloponnesian War}} [right\|thumb\|222px\|Greek Trireme](/wiki/File:Trireme.jpg "Trireme.jpg") In [Ionia](/wiki/Ionia "Ionia") (the modern Aegean coast of [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey")) the Greek cities, which included great centres such as [Miletus](/wiki/Miletus "Miletus") and [Halicarnassus](/wiki/Halicarnassus "Halicarnassus"), were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of the [Persian Empire](/wiki/Persian_Empire "Persian Empire") in the mid\-6th century BC. In 499 BC the [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks "Greeks") rose in the [Ionian Revolt](/wiki/Ionian_Revolt "Ionian Revolt"), and [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens") and some other Greek cities went to their aid. In 490 BC, the Persian Great King, [Darius I](/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia "Darius I of Persia"), having suppressed the Ionian cities, sent a fleet to punish the Greeks. The Persians landed in [Attica](/wiki/Attica "Attica"), but were defeated at the [Battle of Marathon](/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon "Battle of Marathon") by a Greek army led by the Athenian general [Miltiades](/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger "Miltiades the Younger"). The burial mound of the Athenian dead can still be seen at Marathon. Ten years later Darius' successor, [Xerxes I](/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia "Xerxes I of Persia"), sent a much more powerful force by land. After being delayed by the Spartan King [Leonidas I](/wiki/Leonidas%C2%A0I "Leonidas I") at [Thermopylae](/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae "Battle of Thermopylae"), Xerxes advanced into Attica, where he captured and burned Athens. But the Athenians had evacuated the city by sea, and under [Themistocles](/wiki/Themistocles "Themistocles") they defeated the Persian fleet at the [Battle of Salamis](/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis "Battle of Salamis"). A year later, the Greeks, under the Spartan [Pausanias](/wiki/Pausanias_%28general%29 "Pausanias (general)"), defeated the Persian army at [Plataea](/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea "Battle of Plataea"). The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians out of the Aegean Sea, and in 478 BC they captured [Byzantium](/wiki/Byzantium "Byzantium"). In the course of doing so Athens enrolled all the island states and some mainland allies into an alliance, called the [Delian League](/wiki/Delian_League "Delian League") because its treasury was kept on the sacred island of [Delos](/wiki/Delos "Delos"). The [Spartans](/wiki/Sparta "Sparta"), although they had taken part in the war, withdrew into isolation after it, allowing Athens to establish unchallenged naval and [commercial](/wiki/Commerce "Commerce") power. [thumb\|right\|275px\|[Athenian warship](/wiki/Athenian_warship "Athenian warship") ([Trireme](/wiki/Trireme "Trireme")), c. 400 BC](/wiki/File:AthenianWarship400BC.png "AthenianWarship400BC.png") ##### Punic Wars {{Main\|Punic Wars}} The [Punic Wars](/wiki/Punic_Wars "Punic Wars") were a series of three wars fought between [Rome](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome") and [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage "Carthage"). The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman sphere of influence. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily"), part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the [first Punic War](/wiki/First_Punic_War "First Punic War"), Carthage was the dominant power of the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea"), with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"). By the end of the third war, after the deaths of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming in the process the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. With the end of the [Macedonian wars](/wiki/Macedonian_wars "Macedonian wars") – which ran concurrently with the Punic wars – and the defeat of the [Seleucid Emperor](/wiki/Seleucid_Empire "Seleucid Empire") [Antiochus III the Great](/wiki/Antiochus%C2%A0III_the_Great "Antiochus III the Great") in the [Roman\-Syrian War](/wiki/Roman-Syrian_War "Roman-Syrian War") ([Treaty of Apamea](/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea "Treaty of Apamea"), 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world. This was a turning point that meant that the civilization of the ancient [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa. #### Pre\-Roman Britain [thumb\|250px\|Ancient British canoe](/wiki/File:0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg "0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg") The [Coracle](/wiki/Coracle "Coracle"), a small single\-passenger\-sized float, has been used in Britain since before the first Roman invasion as noted by the invaders. Coracles are round or oval in shape, made of a wooden frame with a hide stretched over it then [tarred](/wiki/Tar "Tar") to provide waterproofing. Being so light, an operator can carry the light craft over the shoulder. They are capable of operating in mere inches of water due to the keel\-less hull. The early people of Wales used these boats for fishing and light travel and updated models are still in use to this day on the rivers of [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"). Early [Britons](/wiki/Britons_%28historic%29 "Britons (historic)") also used the [dugout canoe](/wiki/Dugout_canoe "Dugout canoe"). Examples of these canoes have been found buried in marshes and mud banks of rivers at lengths of upward eight feet.[57\.—Ancient British Canoes. (500x225\)](http://www.fromoldbooks.org/OldEngland/pages/0057-Ancient-British-Canoes/) In 1992 a notable archaeological find, named the "[Dover Bronze Age Boat](/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat "Dover Bronze Age Boat")", was unearthed from beneath what is modern day [Dover, England](/wiki/Dover%2C_England "Dover, England"). The [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") boat which is about 9\.5 meters long × 2\.3 meters wide is believed to have been a seagoing vessel. [Carbon dating](/wiki/Carbon_dating "Carbon dating") reveals that the craft dating from approximately 1600 BC might be the oldest known sea\-going boat. The hull was of half [oak](/wiki/Oak "Oak") logs and side panels also of oak were stitched on with [yew](/wiki/Taxus "Taxus") lashings. Both the straight\-grained oak and yew bindings are now extinct as a shipbuilding method in [England](/wiki/England "England"). A reconstruction in 1996 proved that a crew between four and sixteen paddlers could have easily propelled the boat during Force 4 winds upwards of four knots but with a maximum of {{convert\|5\|kn\|km/h\|0}}. The boat could have easily carried a significant amount of cargo and with a strong crew may have been able to traverse near thirty nautical miles in a day.[Canterbury Archaeological Trust: Buckland Anglo\-Saxon Cemetery](http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d_boat.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509090417/http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d\_boat.htm \|date\=May 9, 2008 }} #### Northern Europe The *[Norsemen](/wiki/Norsemen "Norsemen")*, or 'people from the North', were people from southern and central [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia") which established states and settlements Northern Europe from the late 8th century to the 11th century. [Vikings](/wiki/Viking "Viking") has been a common term for Norsemen in the early [medieval period](/wiki/Medieval_period "Medieval period"), especially in connection with raids and [monastic](/wiki/Monastic "Monastic") plundering made by Norsemen in Great Britain and Ireland. [Leif Ericson](/wiki/Leif_Ericson "Leif Ericson") was an [Icelandic](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland") [explorer](/wiki/Explorer "Explorer") known to be the first [European](/wiki/Europe "Europe") to have landed in [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America") (presumably in [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_%28island%29 "Newfoundland (island)"), [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada")). During a stay in [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway"), Leif Ericsson converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), like many Norse of that time. He also went to Norway to serve the [King of Norway](/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_monarchs "List of Norwegian monarchs"), [Olaf Tryggvason](/wiki/Olaf_I_of_Norway "Olaf I of Norway"). When he returned to [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland "Greenland"), he bought the boat of [Bjarni Herjólfsson](/wiki/Bjarni_Herj%C3%B3lfsson "Bjarni Herjólfsson") and set out to explore the land that Bjarni had found (located [west](/wiki/West "West") of Greenland), which was, in fact, Newfoundland, in Canada. The *[Saga of the Greenlanders](/wiki/Saga_of_the_Greenlanders "Saga of the Greenlanders")* tells that Leif set out around the year 1000 to follow Bjarni's route with 15 crew members, but going north.Another saga, *[The Saga of Eric the Red](/wiki/The_Saga_of_Eric_the_Red "The Saga of Eric the Red")*, relates that Leif discovered the American mainland while returning from Norway to Greenland in 1000 (or possibly 1001\), but does not mention any attempts to settle there. However, the *Saga of the Greenlanders* is usually considered the more reliable of the two. #### Maritime Southeast Asia {{Main\|Austronesian maritime trade network\|Maritime Jade Road\|Maritime Silk Road}} [thumb\|300px\|Distribution of [nephrite jade](/wiki/Nephrite_jade "Nephrite jade") artifacts ([lingling\-o](/wiki/Lingling-o "Lingling-o")) sourced from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Aborigines "Taiwanese Aborigines") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") and transported via a [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") [Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesians "Austronesians") [maritime trade network](/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture "Philippine jade culture"), starting from at least {{circa\|2000 BCE}}](/wiki/File:Jade_culture_distribution.jpg "Jade culture distribution.jpg") [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesians "Austronesians") in [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia "Maritime Southeast Asia") developed very early [maritime trade networks](/wiki/Austronesian_maritime_trade_network "Austronesian maritime trade network") in the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic"). The first of which is the [Maritime Jade Road](/wiki/Maritime_Jade_Road "Maritime Jade Road"). It lasted for around 3,000 years, from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. It was initially established by the indigenous peoples of [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Aborigines "Taiwanese Aborigines") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"). Raw jade was sourced from deposits in Taiwan and worked into ornaments in the Philippines (the most notable and most numerous of which are double\-headed pendants known as [lingling\-o](/wiki/Lingling-o "Lingling-o")). This network later included parts of [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), and other areas in Southeast Asia where these jade ornaments, along with other trade goods, were exchanged (also known as the [Sa Huynh](/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture "Sa Huỳnh culture")\-[Kalanay](/wiki/Kalanay_Cave "Kalanay Cave") Interaction Sphere).{{cite journal \|last1\=Tsang \|first1\=Cheng\-hwa \|title\=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan \|journal\=Bulletin of the Indo\-Pacific Prehistory Association \|date\=2000 \|volume\=20 \|pages\=153–158 \|doi\=10\.7152/bippa.v20i0\.11751 \|doi\-broken\-date\=2024\-04\-12 \|issn\=1835\-1794}}{{cite news \|last1\=Turton \|first1\= M. \|title\=Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south \|url\=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 \|access\-date\=24 December 2021 \|work\=Taipei Times \|date\=17 May 2021}}{{cite news \|last1\=Everington \|first1\= K. \|title\=Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar \|url\=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3247203 \|access\-date\=24 December 2021\|work\=Taiwan News \|date\=6 September 2017}}{{cite book \|last1\=Bellwood \|first1\=Peter \|last2\=Hung \|first2\=H. \|last3\=Lizuka \|first3\=Yoshiyuki \|chapter\=Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long\-distance Interaction \|year\=2011 \|editor\-last\=Benitez\-Johannot \|editor\-first\=P. \|title\=Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde \|publisher\=ArtPostAsia \|isbn\=978\-971\-94292\-0\-3}} The wide distribution throughout [Island Southeast Asia](/wiki/Island_Southeast_Asia "Island Southeast Asia") of the ceremonial [bronze drums](/wiki/Dong_Son_drums "Dong Son drums") ({{circa\|600 BCE to 400 CE}}) sourced from the [Dong Son culture](/wiki/Dong_Son_culture "Dong Son culture") of northern Vietnam is also evidence of the antiquity and density of this prehistoric Southeast Asian maritime network. Austronesians also established very early connections (part of the early [spice trade](/wiki/Spice_trade "Spice trade") networks) with [Dravidian\-speaking](/wiki/Dravidians "Dravidians") regions in [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") and [Southern India](/wiki/Southern_India "Southern India") by around 1500 to 600 BCE.{{cite book\|first1\=Bérénice\|last1\= Bellina \|editor1\-first\=John\|editor1\-last\=Guy\|title \=Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu\-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century\|chapter \=Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road\|publisher \=Yale University Press\|year \=2014\|pages\=22–25\|isbn \=9781588395245\|url \=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}{{cite book \|last1\=Glover \|first1\=Ian C. \|last2\=Bellina \|first2\=Bérénice \|title\=Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross\-Cultural Exchange \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute \|isbn\=9789814311175 \|pages\=17–46 \|chapter\=Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo: The Earliest Indian Contacts Re\-assessed \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/early\-interactions\-between\-south\-and\-southeast\-asia/ban\-don\-ta\-phet\-and\-khao\-sam\-kaeo\-the\-earliest\-indian\-contacts\-reassessed/DE7A8037FF8B50870077C3EDF4865A4E\|editor1\=Manguin, Pierre\-Yves\|editor2\=Mani, A.\|editor3\=Wade, Geoff}} These early contacts resulted in the introduction of Austronesian crops and material culture to South Asia,{{cite book \|editor\=Tripati, Sila \|last1\=Fuller \|first1\=Dorian Q. \|last2\=Boivin \|first2\=Nicole \|last3\=Castillo \|first3\=Cristina Cobo \|last4\=Hoogervorst \|first4\=Tom \|last5\=Allaby \|first5\=Robin G. \|title\=Maritime Contacts of the Past: Deciphering Connections Amongst Communities \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=Kaveri Books \|location\=Delhi \|isbn\=9788192624433 \|pages\=1–23 \|chapter\=The archaeobiology of Indian Ocean translocations: Current outlines of cultural exchanges by proto\-historic seafarers \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272434953}} including [betel nut chewing](/wiki/Betel_nut_chewing "Betel nut chewing"), [coconuts](/wiki/Coconuts "Coconuts"), [sandalwood](/wiki/Sandalwood "Sandalwood"), domesticated [bananas](/wiki/Banana "Banana"),{{cite journal \|last1\=Zumbroich \|first1\=Thomas J. \|date\=2007–2008 \|title\=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond \|url\=https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162 \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=eJournal of Indian Medicine \|volume\=1 \|pages\=87–140 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323014003/https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162 \|archive\-date\=23 March 2019 }} [sugarcane](/wiki/Sugarcane "Sugarcane"),{{cite book\|editor1\-first\=Joseph\|editor1\-last\=Needham\|first1\=Christian\|last1\=Daniels\|first2\=Nicholas K.\|last2\=Menzies\|title\=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 3, Agro\-Industries and Forestry\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|year\=1996\|pages\=177–185\|isbn\=9780521419994\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DzqPvHlFkV4C\&pg\=PR8}} [cloves](/wiki/Clove "Clove"), and [nutmeg](/wiki/Nutmeg "Nutmeg").{{cite journal \|last1\=Olivera \|first1\=Baldomero \|last2\=Hall \|first2\=Zach \|last3\=Granberg \|first3\=Bertrand \|title\=Reconstructing Philippine history before 1521: the Kalaga Putuan Crescent and the Austronesian maritime trade network \|journal\=SciEnggJ \|date\=31 March 2024 \|volume\=17 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=71–85 \|doi\=10\.54645/2024171ZAK\-61}} It also introduced Austronesian sailing technologies like [outrigger boats](/wiki/Outrigger_boat "Outrigger boat") which are still utilized in Sri Lanka and southern India. During this period, the distribution of Austronesian trade goods like *[kapur barus](/wiki/Camphor "Camphor")* and cloves also reached beyond South Asia to [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire").{{cite book \|last1\=Mahdi \|first1\=Waruno \|editor1\-last\=Blench \|editor1\-first\=Roger \|editor2\-last\=Spriggs \|editor2\-first\=Matthew \|title\=Archaeology and Language IV: Language Change and Cultural Transformation \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-81624\-8 \|pages\=160–240 \|chapter\=Linguistic and philological data towards a chronology of Austronesian activity in India and Sri Lanka}}{{Cite book \|last\=Nugroho \|first\=Irawan Djoko \|title\=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim \|publisher\=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti \|year\=2011 \|isbn\=978\-602\-9346\-00\-8}}{{Rp\|1}} There is also indirect evidence of very early Austronesian contacts with [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), based on the presence and spread of Austronesian domesticates like bananas, [taro](/wiki/Taro "Taro"), [chickens](/wiki/Chicken "Chicken"), and [purple yam](/wiki/Purple_yam "Purple yam") in Africa in the first millennium BCE. By around the 2nd century BCE, the prehistoric Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia fully connected with the [maritime trade routes](/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations "Indo-Roman trade relations") of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East"), eastern [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), and the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean"), becoming what is now known as the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road "Maritime Silk Road"). Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive [sewn\-plank](/wiki/Sewn-plank "Sewn-plank") and [lashed\-lug](/wiki/Lashed_lug_boat "Lashed lug boat") ships, although [Persian](/wiki/Persian_people "Persian people") and [Tamil](/wiki/Tamil_people "Tamil people") traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.{{cite journal \|last1\=Guan \|first1\=Kwa Chong \|title\=The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea \|journal\=NSC Working Paper \|date\=2016 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=1–30 \|url\=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23\.pdf}} It allowed the exchange of goods from [East](/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia") and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") and eastern Africa on the other.{{cite book \|first1\=Ariane \|last1\=de Saxcé \|editor1\=Billé, Franck\|editor2\=Mehendale, Sanjyot\|editor3\=Lankton, James\|title\=The Maritime Silk Road: Global Connectivities, Regional Nodes, Localities \|date\=2022 \|publisher\=Amsterdam University Press \|location\=Amsterdam \|isbn\=978\-90\-4855\-242\-9 \|series\=Asian Borderlands \|pages\=129–148 \|chapter\=Networks and Cultural Mapping of South Asian Maritime Trade \|url\=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3\-2dfa\-4a0d\-b04b\-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429\.pdf}} [thumb\|left\|One of the [Borobudur ships](/wiki/Borobudur_ship "Borobudur ship") from the 8th century, they were depictions of large [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_people "Javanese people") [outrigger vessels](/wiki/Outrigger_vessel "Outrigger vessel"). Shown with the characteristic [tanja sail](/wiki/Tanja_sail "Tanja sail") of Southeast Asian [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesians "Austronesians")](/wiki/File:Borobudur_ship.JPG "Borobudur ship.JPG") Austronesian [thalassocracies](/wiki/Thalassocracies "Thalassocracies") controlled the flow of trade in the eastern regions of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the [polities](/wiki/Polities "Polities") around the [straits](/wiki/Straits "Straits") of [Malacca](/wiki/Malacca_Strait "Malacca Strait") and [Bangka](/wiki/Bangka_Strait "Bangka Strait"), the [Malay Peninsula](/wiki/Malay_Peninsula "Malay Peninsula"), and the [Mekong Delta](/wiki/Mekong_Delta "Mekong Delta"); through which passed the main routes of the Austronesian trade ships to [Giao Chỉ](/wiki/Jiaozhi "Jiaozhi") (in the [Tonkin Gulf](/wiki/Tonkin_Gulf "Tonkin Gulf")) and [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou") (southern [China](/wiki/China "China")), the endpoints. Secondary routes also passed through the coastlines of the [Gulf of Thailand](/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand "Gulf of Thailand");{{cite book \|last1\=Li \|first1\=Tana \|editor1\-last\=Cooke \|editor1\-first\=Nola \|editor2\-last\=Li \|editor2\-first\=Tana \|editor3\-last\=Anderson \|editor3\-first\=James A. \|title\=The Tongking Gulf Through History \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=University of Pennsylvania Press \|isbn\=9780812205022 \|pages\=39–44 \|chapter\=Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) in the Han period Tongking Gulf}} as well as through the [Java Sea](/wiki/Java_Sea "Java Sea"), [Celebes Sea](/wiki/Celebes_Sea "Celebes Sea"), [Banda Sea](/wiki/Banda_Sea "Banda Sea"), and the [Sulu Sea](/wiki/Sulu_Sea "Sulu Sea"), reconnecting with the main route through the northern Philippines and Taiwan. The secondary routes also continue onward to the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea "East China Sea") and the [Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea "Yellow Sea") for a limited extent. [300px\|thumb\|[Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples "Austronesian peoples") [proto\-historic](/wiki/Spice_trade "Spice trade") and [historic](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road "Maritime Silk Road") maritime trade network in the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"){{cite book\|first1\=Pierre\-Yves \|last1\=Manguin\|editor1\-first\=Gwyn \|editor1\-last\=Campbell\|title \=Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World \|chapter \=Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships\|publisher \=Palgrave Macmillan\|year \=2016\|pages\=51–76\|isbn \=978\-3\-319\-33822\-4\|chapter\-url \=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XsvDDQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA50}}](/wiki/File:Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png "Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png") The main route of the western regions of the Maritime Silk Road directly crosses the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean") from the northern tip of [Sumatra](/wiki/Sumatra "Sumatra") (or through the [Sunda Strait](/wiki/Sunda_Strait "Sunda Strait")) to [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka"), southern [India](/wiki/India "India") and [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"), and the [Maldives](/wiki/Maldives "Maldives"). It branches from here into routes through the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea") entering the [Gulf of Oman](/wiki/Gulf_of_Oman "Gulf of Oman") (into the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf")), and the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden "Gulf of Aden") (into the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea")). Secondary routes also pass through the coastlines of the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal"), the Arabian Sea, and southwards along the coast of [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa") to [Zanzibar](/wiki/Zanzibar "Zanzibar"), the [Comoros](/wiki/Comoros_Islands "Comoros Islands"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar"), and the [Seychelles](/wiki/Seychelles "Seychelles").{{cite book \|first1\=Shadreck \|last1\=Chirikure \|editor1\=Billé, Franck\|editor2\=Mehendale, Sanjyot\|editor3\=Lankton, James\|title\=The Maritime Silk Road: Global Connectivities, Regional Nodes, Localities \|date\=2022 \|publisher\=Amsterdam University Press \|location\=Amsterdam \|isbn\=978\-90\-4855\-242\-9 \|series\=Asian Borderlands \|pages\=149–176 \|chapter\=Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean World \|url\=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3\-2dfa\-4a0d\-b04b\-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429\.pdf}} The Maldives was of particular importance as a major hub for Austronesian sailors venturing through the western routes. The Austronesian people also reached [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") in the early 1st millennium AD and colonized it.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dewar \|first1\=Robert E. \|last2\=Wright \|first2\=Henry T. \|date\=1993 \|title\=The culture history of Madagascar \|journal\=Journal of World Prehistory \|volume\=7 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=417–466 \|doi\=10\.1007/bf00997802 \|hdl\-access\=free \|hdl\=2027\.42/45256 \|s2cid\=21753825}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Herrera \|first1\=Michael B. \|last2\=Thomson \|first2\=Vicki A. \|last3\=Wadley \|first3\=Jessica J. \|last4\=Piper \|first4\=Philip J. \|last5\=Sulandari \|first5\=Sri \|last6\=Dharmayanthi \|first6\=Anik Budhi \|last7\=Kraitsek \|first7\=Spiridoula \|last8\=Gongora \|first8\=Jaime \|last9\=Austin \|first9\=Jeremy J. \|title\=East African origins for Madagascan chickens as indicated by mitochondrial DNA \|journal\=Royal Society Open Science \|date\=March 2017 \|volume\=4 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=160787 \|doi\=10\.1098/rsos.160787\|pmid\=28405364 \|pmc\=5383821 \|bibcode\=2017RSOS....460787H \|hdl\=2440/104470 \|hdl\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Tofanelli \|first1\=S. \|last2\=Bertoncini \|first2\=S. \|last3\=Castri \|first3\=L. \|last4\=Luiselli \|first4\=D. \|last5\=Calafell \|first5\=F. \|last6\=Donati \|first6\=G. \|last7\=Paoli \|first7\=G. \|title\=On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High\-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages \|journal\=Molecular Biology and Evolution \|date\=1 September 2009 \|volume\=26 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=2109–2124 \|doi\=10\.1093/molbev/msp120\|pmid\=19535740 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Adelaar \|first1\=Alexander \|title\=Malagasy Phonological History and Bantu Influence \|journal\=Oceanic Linguistics \|date\=June 2012 \|volume\=51 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=123–159 \|doi\=10\.1353/ol.2012\.0003\|hdl\=11343/121829 \|hdl\-access\=free }} [Han](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty") and [Tang](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") dynasty Chinese records also indicate that the early Chinese Buddhist [pilgrims](/wiki/Pilgrim "Pilgrim") to South Asia booked passage with the Austronesian ships (which they called the *[k'un\-lun po](/wiki/K%27un-lun_po "K'un-lun po")*) that traded in the Chinese port city of [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou"). Books written by Chinese monks like Wan Chen and Hui\-Lin contain detailed accounts of the large trading vessels from Southeast Asia dating back to at least the 3rd century CE.{{cite book \|last1\=McGrail \|first1\=Seán \|title\=Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to the Medieval Times \|date\=2001 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=9780199271863 \|pages\=289–293 \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/39591350}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Christie \|first\=Anthony \|date\=1957 \|title\=An Obscure Passage from the "Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟΦΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ" \|journal\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London \|volume\=19 \|pages\=345–353 \|doi\=10\.1017/S0041977X00133105 \|s2cid\=162840685 \|via\=JSTOR}}{{Rp\|347}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Manguin \|first\=Pierre\-Yves \|date\=1993 \|title\=Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks \|journal\=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient \|pages\=253–280}}{{Rp\|262}} [Srivijaya](/wiki/Srivijaya "Srivijaya"), a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu "Hindu")\-[Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist "Buddhist") Austronesian polity founded at [Palembang](/wiki/Palembang "Palembang") in 682 CE, rose to dominate the trade in the region around the straits of [Malacca](/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca "Strait of Malacca") and [Sunda](/wiki/Sunda_Strait "Sunda Strait") and the South China Sea [emporium](/wiki/Emporium_%28antiquity%29 "Emporium (antiquity)") by controlling the trade in luxury aromatics and Buddhist artifacts from West Asia to a thriving Tang market.{{rp\|page\=12}} It emerged through the conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These included [Melayu](/wiki/Melayu_Kingdom "Melayu Kingdom"), [Kedah](/wiki/Kedah "Kedah"), [Tarumanagara](/wiki/Tarumanagara "Tarumanagara"), and [Mataram](/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom "Mataram Kingdom"), among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of the [Spice Islands](/wiki/Maluku_islands "Maluku islands"), as well as maritime trade\-routes between [India](/wiki/India "India") and [China](/wiki/China "China").{{cite journal \|last1\= Sulistiyono \|first1\= Singgih Tri \|last2\= Masruroh \|first2\= Noor Naelil \|last3\= Rochwulaningsih \|first3\= Yety \|title\= Contest For Seascape: Local Thalassocracies and Sino\-Indian Trade Expansion in the Maritime Southeast Asia During the Early Premodern Period \|journal\= Journal of Marine and Island Cultures \|date\= 2018 \|volume\= 7 \|issue\= 2 \|doi\= 10\.21463/jmic.2018\.07\.2\.05 \|url\= http://jmic.online/issues/v7n2/5/\|doi\-access\= free }} The [Butuan boat burials](/wiki/Balangay "Balangay") of the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), which feature eleven [lashed\-lug boat](/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat "Lashed-lug boat") remains of the [Austronesian boatbuilding traditions](/wiki/Austronesian_vessels "Austronesian vessels") (individually dated from 689 CE to 988 CE), were found in association with large amounts of trade goods from [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") ([Haripunjaya](/wiki/Haripunjaya "Haripunjaya") and [Satingpra](/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district "Sathing Phra district")), [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), and as far as [Persia](/wiki/Persia "Persia"), indicating they traded as far as the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East").{{cite web \|title\=Butuan Archeological Sites \|url\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2071/ \|website\=UNESCO \|access\-date\=16 June 2024}}{{Cite journal\|title \= The Butuan Two boat known as a balangay in the National Museum, Manila, Philippines\|last1 \= Clark\|first1 \= Paul\|date \= 1993\|journal \= The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology\|doi \= 10\.1111/j.1095\-9270\.1993\.tb00403\.x\|last2 \= Green\|first2 \= Jeremy\|last3 \= Santiago\|first3 \= Rey\|last4 \= Vosmer\|first4 \= Tom\|volume\=22\|issue \= 2\|pages\=143–159\| bibcode\=1993IJNAr..22\..143C }}{{cite book \|last1\=Lacsina \|first1\=Ligaya \|title\=Re\-examining the Butuan Boats: Pre\-colonial Philippine watercraft \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=National Museum of the Philippines \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/31015958}} These maritime routes persisted (with increasing participation of other maritime cultures) into the [medieval era](/wiki/Post-classical_history "Post-classical history"), before declining and being replaced with European trade routes during the [colonial era](/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia "Western imperialism in Asia") in the 15th century.{{cite book \|last1\=Manguin \|first1\=Pierre\-Yves \|editor1\-last\=Reid \|editor1\-first\=Anthony \|chapter\=The Vanishing Jong: Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War (Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries) \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=Cornell University Press \|pages\=197–213 \|title\=Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era \|jstor\=10\.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8014\-8093\-5 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Manguin \|first1\=Pierre\-Yves \|title\=The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach \|journal\=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies \|date\=September 1980 \|volume\=11 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=266–276 \|doi\=10\.1017/S002246340000446X}} #### Indian subcontinent {{Main\|Indian maritime history\|Maritime history of Odisha}}In the [Indian maritime history](/wiki/Indian_maritime_history "Indian maritime history"), the world's first [tidal dock](/wiki/Tidal_dock "Tidal dock") was built in phase II of [Lothal](/wiki/Lothal "Lothal")Science and Technology in Ancient India. Vijnan Bharati, 2002\. Page 18\.Shikaripur Ranganatha Rao. Lothal, a Harappan Port Town (1955–62\). 1979\. Page 44\. during the [Harappan civilisation](/wiki/Harappan_civilisation "Harappan civilisation") near the present day [Mangrol harbour](/wiki/Mangrol_harbour "Mangrol harbour") on the [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat "Gujarat") coast. Other ports were probably at [Balakot](/wiki/Balakot "Balakot") and [Dwarka](/wiki/Dwarka "Dwarka"). However, it is probable that many small\-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.[Possehl, Gregory](/wiki/Gregory_Possehl "Gregory Possehl"). Meluhha. in: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996, 133–208 Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established [trade](/wiki/Trade "Trade") with [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia"),(e.g. Lal 1997: 182–188\) where the Indus Valley was known as [Meluhha](/wiki/Meluhha "Meluhha"). Emperor [Chandragupta Maurya](/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya "Chandragupta Maurya")'s [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister "Prime Minister") [Kautilya](/wiki/Kautilya "Kautilya")'s [Arthashastra](/wiki/Arthashastra "Arthashastra") devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under *nāvādhyakṣa* ([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") for [Superintendent](/wiki/Public_administration "Public administration") of ships) {{Ref\|Kautilya}}. The terms, *nāvā dvīpāntaragamanam* ([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") for sailing to other lands by ships) and *samudrasaṁyānam* (maritime travel) appear in the work. The [Maritime history](/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha "Maritime history of Odisha") of [Kalinga](/wiki/Kalinga_%28historical_kingdom%29 "Kalinga (historical kingdom)") (now [Odisha](/wiki/Odisha "Odisha")) is an important highlight of the traditions of Indian maritime history as it was influential in establishing trading links with Southeast Asia along the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road "Maritime Silk Road"). The people of this region of eastern [India](/wiki/India "India") along the coast of the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal") sailed up and down the [Indian coast](/wiki/Coastal_India "Coastal India"), and travelled to [Indo China](/wiki/Indo_China "Indo China") and throughout [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia "Maritime Southeast Asia"), [introducing elements](/wiki/Indosphere "Indosphere") of [their culture](/wiki/Hinduism_in_Southeast_Asia "Hinduism in Southeast Asia") to the [people with whom they traded](/wiki/Greater_India "Greater India"). The 6th century *[Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa](/wiki/Ma%C3%B1ju%C5%9Br%C4%AB-m%C5%ABla-kalpa "Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa")* mentions the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal") as 'Kaliṅgodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kaliṅga Sāgara' (both Kaliṅgodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the [maritime trade](/wiki/Indian_maritime_history "Indian maritime history").{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=H\-IbAQAAMAAJ \|title\=The Journal of Orissan History, Volumes 13\-15 \|publisher\=Orissa History Congress \|year\=1995 \|page\=54 }} #### Japan {{Main\|Naval history of Japan}} [thumb\|right\|200px\|A clay figure of a *[haniwa](/wiki/Haniwa "Haniwa")* model of a ship, from [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan")'s [Kofun period](/wiki/Kofun_period "Kofun period") (250–538\); during the [Three Kingdoms of Korea](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea "Three Kingdoms of Korea"), the Japanese sided with [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje "Baekje") against a naval alliance between the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") and Korean [Silla](/wiki/Silla "Silla").](/wiki/File:Funagata-haniwa_01%28trim%29.JPG "Funagata-haniwa 01(trim).JPG") [Japan](/wiki/Asuka_period "Asuka period") had a navy by at least the 6th century, with their invasions and involvement in political alliances during the [Three Kingdoms of Korea](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea "Three Kingdoms of Korea"). A joint alliance between the Korean [Silla](/wiki/Silla "Silla") Kingdom and the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") (618–907 AD) heavily defeated the Japanese and their Korean allies of [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje "Baekje") in the [Battle of Baekgang](/wiki/Battle_of_Baekgang "Battle of Baekgang") on August 27 to August 28 of the year 663 AD. This decisive victory expelled the Japanese force from Korea and allowed the Tang and Silla to conquer [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo "Goguryeo"). {{Clear}}
[ "### Ancient routes and locations", "Ancient maritime routes usually began in the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\") or down river from [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh \"Madhya Pradesh\") with [transshipment](/wiki/Transshipment \"Transshipment\") via historic [Bharuch](/wiki/Bharuch \"Bharuch\") (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today's [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") then split around [Hadhramaut](/wiki/Hadhramaut \"Hadhramaut\") into two streams north into the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden \"Gulf of Aden\") and thence into the [Levant](/wiki/Levant \"Levant\"), or south into [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\") via [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\") ports such as [Axum](/wiki/Axum \"Axum\"). Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates.See: [Arabian Sea Trade routes](/wiki/Arabian_Sea%23Trade_routes \"Arabian Sea#Trade routes\")", "[thumb\\|center\\|555px\\|Names, routes and locations of the *[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea](/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea \"Periplus of the Erythraean Sea\")* at the turn of the first millennium.](/wiki/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg \"Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg\")", "[right\\|thumbnail\\|250px\\|Much of the [Radhanites](/wiki/Radhanite \"Radhanite\")' [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\") trade would have depended on coastal cargo\\-ships such as this [dhow](/wiki/Dhow \"Dhow\").](/wiki/File:Dhow.jpg \"Dhow.jpg\")", "Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the utilization of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea \"Arabian Sea\") and the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\").Denemark 2000: 107\\. [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\") had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia \"Southeast Asia\"), thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult. Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes. By making use of the maritime trade routes, [bulk commodity trade](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Commercial_infrastructure \"Roman commerce#Commercial infrastructure\") became possible for the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Romans \"Ancient Romans\") in the 2nd century BC.Toutain 1979: 243\\. A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at [one\\-sixtieth the cost](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Sea_routes \"Roman commerce#Sea routes\") of [over\\-land routes](/wiki/Roman_commerce%23Land_routes \"Roman commerce#Land routes\").Scarre 1995\\.", "{{see also\\|Ship transport}}", "#### Egypt", "[thumb\\|222px\\|Egyptian ship, 1250 BC](/wiki/File:Wells_egyptian_ship_red_sea.png \"Wells egyptian ship red sea.png\")\n[thumb\\|222px\\|World's oldest depiction of a [stern](/wiki/Stern \"Stern\")\\-mounted steering rudder (c. 1420 BC)](/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Menna_013.jpg \"Maler der Grabkammer des Menna 013.jpg\")", "The [Ancient Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") had knowledge of [sail](/wiki/Sail \"Sail\") construction.[Hatshepsut](/wiki/Hatshepsut \"Hatshepsut\") oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and *with several sails*. Various others exist, also.", "The first warships of [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") were constructed during the early [Middle Kingdom](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt \"Middle Kingdom of Egypt\"), and perhaps – at the end of the [Old Kingdom](/wiki/Old_Kingdom \"Old Kingdom\"), but the first mention and a detailed description of a large enough and heavily armed ship dates from 16th century BC.\n\"And I ordered to build twelve warships with rams, dedicated to [Amun](/wiki/Amun \"Amun\") or [Sobek](/wiki/Sobek \"Sobek\"), or [Maat](/wiki/Maat \"Maat\") and [Sekhmet](/wiki/Sekhmet \"Sekhmet\"), whose image was crowned best bronze noses. Carport and equipped outside rook over the waters, for many paddlers, having covered rowers deck not only from the side, but and top. and they were on board eighteen oars in two rows on the top and sat on two rowers, and the lower – one, a hundred and eight rowers were. And twelve rowers aft worked on three steering oars. And blocked Our Majesty ship inside three partitions ([bulkheads](/wiki/Bulkhead_%28partition%29 \"Bulkhead (partition)\")) so as not to drown it by ramming the wicked, and the sailors had time to repair the hole. And Our Majesty arranged four towers for archers – two behind, and two on the nose and one above the other small – on the mast with narrow loopholes. they are covered with [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") in the fifth finger (3\\.2mm), as well as a canopy roof and its rowers. and they have (carried) on the nose three assault heavy crossbow arrows so they lit resin or oil with a salt of Seth (probably nitrate) tore a special blend and punched (?) lead ball with a lot of holes (?), and one of the same at the stern. and long ship seventy five cubits (41m), and the breadth sixteen, and in battle can go three\\-quarters of iteru per hour (about 6\\.5 knots)...\" The text of the tomb of [Amenhotep I](/wiki/Amenhotep_I \"Amenhotep I\") ([KV39](/wiki/KV39 \"KV39\")). \nWhen [Thutmose III](/wiki/Thutmose_III \"Thutmose III\") achieved warships [displacement](/wiki/Displacement_%28ship%29 \"Displacement (ship)\") up to 360 tons and carried up to ten new heavy and light to seventeen catapults based bronze springs, called \"siege crossbow\" – more precisely, siege bows. Still appeared giant catamarans that are heavy warships and times of [Ramesses III](/wiki/Ramesses_III \"Ramesses III\") used even when the Ptolemaic dynasty.Nelson Harold Hayden, Allen Thomas George and Dr [Raymond O. Faulkner](/wiki/Raymond_O._Faulkner \"Raymond O. Faulkner\").\n«Tuthmosis III. First Emperor in the History of Mankind. His Regal companions\nand a Great assistants» Oxford UNV Publishing, 1921 p.127\\.", "[thumb\\|222px\\|The world according to [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus \"Herodotus\"), 440 BC](/wiki/File:Herodotus5m1.jpg \"Herodotus5m1.jpg\")\nAccording to the [Greek](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\") historian [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus \"Herodotus\"), [Necho II](/wiki/Necho%C2%A0II \"Necho II\") sent out an expedition of [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians \"Phoenicians\"), which reputedly, at some point between 610 and before 594 BC, sailed in three years from the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\") around [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\") to the mouth of the [Nile](/wiki/Nile \"Nile\"). Some Egyptologists dispute that an Egyptian Pharaoh would authorize such an expedition,For instance, the Egyptologist Alan Lloyd wrote \"Given the context of [Egyptian thought](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy \"Ancient Egyptian philosophy\"), [economic life](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade \"Ancient Egyptian trade\"), and [military](/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt \"Military of ancient Egypt\") interests, it is impossible for one to imagine what stimulus could have motivated Necho in such a scheme and if we cannot provide a reason which is sound within Egyptian terms of reference, then we have good reason to doubt the historicity of the entire episode.\" {{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Lloyd \\| first1 \\= Alan B. \\| year \\= 1977 \\| title \\= Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations \\| journal \\= Journal of Egyptian Archaeology \\| volume \\= 63 \\| page \\= 149 \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/3856314\\| jstor \\= 3856314 }} except for the reason of trade in the ancient maritime routes.", "The belief in Herodotus' account, handed down to him by [oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition \"Oral tradition\"),M. J. Cary. The Ancient Explorers. Penguin Books, 1963\\. Page 114 is primarily because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians \"*as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right – to northward of them*\" (*The Histories* 4\\.42\\) – in [Herodotus' time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean](/wiki/History_of_geography%23Greco-Roman_world \"History of geography#Greco-Roman world\") (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to AsiaDie umsegelung Asiens und Europas auf der Vega. Volume 2\\. By Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. [p148](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8-SfAAAAMAAJ/page/n173)). So fantastic an assertion is this of a typical example of some seafarers' story and Herodotus therefore may never have mentioned it, at all, had it not been based on facts and made with the according insistence.[Heinz Gartmann](/wiki/Heinz_Gartmann \"Heinz Gartmann\"): Sonst stünde die Welt still. Das große Ringen um das Neue. *Econ*, Düsseldorf 1957", "This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject;The Cambridge History of the British Empire. CUP Archive, 1963\\. [p56](https://books.google.com/books?id=ISg9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA56) but [Strabo](/wiki/Strabo \"Strabo\"), [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius \"Polybius\"), and [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy \"Ptolemy\") doubted the description. Egyptologist [A. B. Lloyd](/wiki/Alan_B._Lloyd \"Alan B. Lloyd\") suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the Sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that \"It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing\" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure of [Sataspes](/wiki/Sataspes \"Sataspes\")' attempt to circumnavigate Africa under [Xerxes the Great](/wiki/Xerxes_the_Great \"Xerxes the Great\").{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Lloyd \\| first1 \\= Alan B \\| year \\= 1977 \\| title \\= Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations \\| journal \\= Journal of Egyptian Archaeology \\| volume \\= 63 \\| pages \\= 142–155 \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/3856314\\| jstor \\= 3856314 }} Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus and [Pliny](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder \"Pliny the Elder\").The Geographical system of Herodotus By James Rennel. [p348](https://books.google.com/books?id=6C0waiOScrEC&pg=PA348)\\+", "Much earlier, the [Sea Peoples](/wiki/Sea_Peoples \"Sea Peoples\") was a [confederacy](/wiki/Confederation \"Confederation\") of seafaring raiders who sailed into the eastern shores of the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\"), caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") territory during the late [19th dynasty](/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt \"Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt\"), and especially during Year 8 of [Ramesses III](/wiki/Ramesses%C2%A0III \"Ramesses III\") of the [20th Dynasty](/wiki/Twentieth_dynasty_of_Egypt \"Twentieth dynasty of Egypt\").A convenient table of sea peoples in [hieroglyphics](/wiki/Hieroglyphics \"Hieroglyphics\"), transliteration and English is given in the dissertation of Woodhuizen, 2006, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there The Egyptian Pharaoh [Merneptah](/wiki/Merneptah \"Merneptah\") explicitly refers to them by the term \"the foreign\\-countries (or 'peoples'As noted by Gardiner V.1 p.196, other texts have \"foreign\\-peoples\"; both terms can refer to the concept of \"foreigners\" as well. Zangger in the external link below expresses a commonly held view that \"sea peoples\" does not translate this and other expressions but is an academic innovation. The Woudhuizen dissertation and the Morris paper identify [Gaston Maspero](/wiki/Gaston_Maspero \"Gaston Maspero\") as the first to use the term \"peuples de la mer\" in 1881\\.) of the sea\"Gardiner V.1 p.196\\.Manassa p.55\\. in his [Great Karnak Inscription](/wiki/Great_Karnak_Inscription \"Great Karnak Inscription\").Line 52\\. The inscription is shown in Manassa p.55 plate 12\\. Although some scholars believe that they \"invaded\" [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\") and the [Levant](/wiki/Levant \"Levant\"), this hypothesis is disputed.", "##### Kingdom of Punt", "{{main\\|Somali maritime history}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|Historical [Somali commercial enterprise](/wiki/Somali_maritime_history \"Somali maritime history\") in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\"), the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\"), the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"), and the [straits of Malacca](/wiki/Straits_of_Malacca \"Straits of Malacca\").](/wiki/File:Somali_Enterprise.JPG \"Somali Enterprise.JPG\")\nIn ancient times the [Kingdom of Punt](/wiki/Land_of_Punt \"Land of Punt\"), which is believed by several Egyptologists to have been situated in the area of modern\\-day [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"), had a steady trade link with the Ancient Egyptians and exported the precious natural resources such as [myrrh](/wiki/Myrrh \"Myrrh\"), [frankincense](/wiki/Frankincense \"Frankincense\") and [gum](/wiki/Natural_gum \"Natural gum\"). This trade network continued all the way into the [classical era](/wiki/Classical_antiquity \"Classical antiquity\"). The city states of [Mossylon](/wiki/Bosaso \"Bosaso\"), [Opone](/wiki/Opone \"Opone\"), [Malao](/wiki/Malao_%28ancient%29 \"Malao (ancient)\"), [Mundus](/wiki/Mundus_%28city%29 \"Mundus (city)\") and [Tabae](/wiki/Tabae \"Tabae\") in Somalia engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting [Somali](/wiki/Somali_people \"Somali people\") merchants with [Phoenicia](/wiki/Phoenicia \"Phoenicia\"), [Ptolemic Egypt](/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom \"Ptolemaic Kingdom\"), [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\"), [Parthian Persia](/wiki/Parthia \"Parthia\"), [Saba](/wiki/Sabaeans \"Sabaeans\"), [Nabataea](/wiki/Nabataea \"Nabataea\") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"). Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the [beden](/wiki/Beden \"Beden\") to transport their cargo.", "#### The Mediterranean", "[Minoan](/wiki/Minoan_civilization \"Minoan civilization\") traders from [Crete](/wiki/Crete \"Crete\") were active in the eastern Mediterranean by the 2nd millennium BC. The [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicia \"Phoenicia\") were an ancient [civilization](/wiki/Civilization \"Civilization\") centered in the north of ancient [Canaan](/wiki/Canaan \"Canaan\"), with its heartland along the coast of modern\\-day [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), Western [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") and northern [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\"). Phoenician civilization was an enterprising [maritime trading culture](/wiki/Thalassocracy \"Thalassocracy\") that spread across the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") during the first millennium BC, between the period of 1200 BC to 900 BC. Though ancient boundaries of such city\\-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of [Tyre](/wiki/Tyre_%28Lebanon%29 \"Tyre (Lebanon)\") seems to have been the southernmost. [Sarepta](/wiki/Sarepta \"Sarepta\") between [Sidon](/wiki/Sidon \"Sidon\") and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. The Phoenicians often traded by means of a [galley](/wiki/Galley \"Galley\"), a man\\-powered sailing vessel. They were the first civilization to create the [bireme](/wiki/Bireme \"Bireme\"). There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not.", "The [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") was the source of the vessel, [galley](/wiki/Galley \"Galley\"), developed before 1000 BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. The [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") [trireme](/wiki/Trireme \"Trireme\") was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the propulsion power of [oarsmen](/wiki/Oar \"Oar\"). Mediterranean peoples developed [lighthouse](/wiki/Lighthouse \"Lighthouse\") technology and built large fire\\-based lighthouses, most notably the [Lighthouse of Alexandria](/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria \"Lighthouse of Alexandria\"), built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt.", "Many in ancient western societies, such as [Ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\"), were in awe of the seas and deified them, believing that man no longer belonged to himself when once he embarked on a sea voyage. They believed that he was liable to be sacrificed at any time to the anger of the great [Sea God](/wiki/Water_deity \"Water deity\"). Before the Greeks, the [Carians](/wiki/Carians \"Carians\") were an early Mediterranean seagoing people that travelled far. Early writers do not give a good idea about the progress of navigation nor that of the man's seamanship. One of the early stories of seafaring was that of [Odysseus](/wiki/Odysseus \"Odysseus\").", "In [Greek mythology](/wiki/Greek_mythology \"Greek mythology\"), the [Argonauts](/wiki/Argonauts \"Argonauts\") were a band of heroes who, in the years before the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War \"Trojan War\"), accompanied [Jason](/wiki/Jason \"Jason\") to [Colchis](/wiki/Colchis \"Colchis\") in his quest to find the [Golden Fleece](/wiki/Golden_Fleece \"Golden Fleece\"). Their name comes from their ship, the [Argo](/wiki/Argo \"Argo\") which in turn was named after its builder [Argus](/wiki/Argus_%28son_of_Arestor%29 \"Argus (son of Arestor)\"). Thus, \"Argonauts\" literally means \"Argo sailors\". The voyage of the Greek navigator [Pytheas of Massalia](/wiki/Pytheas \"Pytheas\") is an example of a very early voyage. A competent astronomer and geographer, Pytheas ventured from Greece to Western Europe and the British Isles.{{Cite EB1911\\|wstitle\\=Pytheas\\|volume\\=22\\|pages\\=703–704\\|first1\\=Edward Herbert\\|last1\\=Bunbury\\|author\\-link1\\=Edward Bunbury\\|first2\\=Charles Raymond\\|last2\\=Beazley\\|author\\-link2\\=Raymond Beazley}}", "The *[periplus](/wiki/Periplus \"Periplus\")*, literally \"a sailing\\-around', in the ancient navigation of [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians \"Phoenicians\"), [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\"), and [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") was a manuscript document that listed in order the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate distances between, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. Several examples of *periploi* have survived.", "*[Piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\")*, which is a [robbery](/wiki/Robbery \"Robbery\") committed at sea or sometimes on the shore, dates back to [Classical Antiquity](/wiki/Classical_Antiquity \"Classical Antiquity\") and, in all likelihood, much further. The [Tyrrhenians](/wiki/Tyrrhenians \"Tyrrhenians\"), [Illyrians](/wiki/Illyrians \"Illyrians\")Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, {{ISBN\\|0\\-631\\-19807\\-5}}, page 185 and [Thracians](/wiki/Thracians \"Thracians\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2009}} were known as [pirates](/wiki/Pirate \"Pirate\") in ancient times. The island of [Lemnos](/wiki/Lemnos \"Lemnos\") long resisted [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") influence and remained a haven for Thracian pirates. By the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the [Anatolian](/wiki/Anatolia \"Anatolia\") coast, threatening the [commerce](/wiki/Commerce \"Commerce\") of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\").", "The earliest seagoing culture in the Mediterranean is associated with [Cardium pottery](/wiki/Cardium_pottery \"Cardium pottery\"). Their earliest impressed ware sites, dating to 6400–6200 BC, are in [Epirus](/wiki/Epirus \"Epirus\") and [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu \"Corfu\"). Settlements then appear in [Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\") and [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia \"Dalmatia\") on the eastern Adriatic coast dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC.Barry Cunliffe, *Europe Between the Oceans* (2008\\), pp.115–6; Staso Forenbaher and Preston Miracle, The spread of farming in the Eastern Adriatic, *Antiquity*, vol. 79, no. 305 (September 2005\\), [additional tables](http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/forenbaher305/). The earliest date in Italy comes from [Coppa Nevigata](/wiki/Coppa_Nevigata \"Coppa Nevigata\") on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, perhaps as early as 6000 cal B.C. Also during Su Carroppu culture in Sardinia, already in its early stages (low strata into Su Coloru cave, c. 6000 BC) early examples of cardium pottery appear.Showcase 3 in the Archeological Museum G. A. Sanna in Sassari Northward and westward all secure radiocarbon dates are identical to those for Iberia c. 5500 cal BC, which indicates a rapid spread of cardium and related cultures: 2,000 km from the gulf of Genoa to the estuary of the Mondego in probably no more than 100–200 years. This suggests a seafaring expansion by planting colonies along the coast.{{Cite journal\\|author\\=Zilhão\\|year\\=2001\\|title\\=Radiocarbon evidence for maritime pioneer colonization at the origins of farming in west Mediterranean Europe\\|journal\\=PNAS\\|volume\\=98\\|issue\\=24\\|pages\\=14180–14185\\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.241522898\\|pmid\\=11707599\\|pmc\\=61188\\|bibcode\\=2001PNAS...9814180Z\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "##### The Persian Wars", "{{Main\\|Greco\\-Persian Wars\\|Peloponnesian War}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|222px\\|Greek Trireme](/wiki/File:Trireme.jpg \"Trireme.jpg\")\nIn [Ionia](/wiki/Ionia \"Ionia\") (the modern Aegean coast of [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\")) the Greek cities, which included great centres such as [Miletus](/wiki/Miletus \"Miletus\") and [Halicarnassus](/wiki/Halicarnassus \"Halicarnassus\"), were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of the [Persian Empire](/wiki/Persian_Empire \"Persian Empire\") in the mid\\-6th century BC. In 499 BC the [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\") rose in the [Ionian Revolt](/wiki/Ionian_Revolt \"Ionian Revolt\"), and [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\") and some other Greek cities went to their aid. In 490 BC, the Persian Great King, [Darius I](/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia \"Darius I of Persia\"), having suppressed the Ionian cities, sent a fleet to punish the Greeks. The Persians landed in [Attica](/wiki/Attica \"Attica\"), but were defeated at the [Battle of Marathon](/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon \"Battle of Marathon\") by a Greek army led by the Athenian general [Miltiades](/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger \"Miltiades the Younger\"). The burial mound of the Athenian dead can still be seen at Marathon. Ten years later Darius' successor, [Xerxes I](/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia \"Xerxes I of Persia\"), sent a much more powerful force by land. After being delayed by the Spartan King [Leonidas I](/wiki/Leonidas%C2%A0I \"Leonidas I\") at [Thermopylae](/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae \"Battle of Thermopylae\"), Xerxes advanced into Attica, where he captured and burned Athens. But the Athenians had evacuated the city by sea, and under [Themistocles](/wiki/Themistocles \"Themistocles\") they defeated the Persian fleet at the [Battle of Salamis](/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis \"Battle of Salamis\"). A year later, the Greeks, under the Spartan [Pausanias](/wiki/Pausanias_%28general%29 \"Pausanias (general)\"), defeated the Persian army at [Plataea](/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea \"Battle of Plataea\"). The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians out of the Aegean Sea, and in 478 BC they captured [Byzantium](/wiki/Byzantium \"Byzantium\"). In the course of doing so Athens enrolled all the island states and some mainland allies into an alliance, called the [Delian League](/wiki/Delian_League \"Delian League\") because its treasury was kept on the sacred island of [Delos](/wiki/Delos \"Delos\"). The [Spartans](/wiki/Sparta \"Sparta\"), although they had taken part in the war, withdrew into isolation after it, allowing Athens to establish unchallenged naval and [commercial](/wiki/Commerce \"Commerce\") power.", "[thumb\\|right\\|275px\\|[Athenian warship](/wiki/Athenian_warship \"Athenian warship\") ([Trireme](/wiki/Trireme \"Trireme\")), c. 400 BC](/wiki/File:AthenianWarship400BC.png \"AthenianWarship400BC.png\")", "##### Punic Wars", "{{Main\\|Punic Wars}}", "The [Punic Wars](/wiki/Punic_Wars \"Punic Wars\") were a series of three wars fought between [Rome](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") and [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage \"Carthage\"). The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman sphere of influence. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\"), part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the [first Punic War](/wiki/First_Punic_War \"First Punic War\"), Carthage was the dominant power of the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\"), with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). By the end of the third war, after the deaths of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming in the process the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. With the end of the [Macedonian wars](/wiki/Macedonian_wars \"Macedonian wars\") – which ran concurrently with the Punic wars – and the defeat of the [Seleucid Emperor](/wiki/Seleucid_Empire \"Seleucid Empire\") [Antiochus III the Great](/wiki/Antiochus%C2%A0III_the_Great \"Antiochus III the Great\") in the [Roman\\-Syrian War](/wiki/Roman-Syrian_War \"Roman-Syrian War\") ([Treaty of Apamea](/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea \"Treaty of Apamea\"), 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world. This was a turning point that meant that the civilization of the ancient [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa.", "#### Pre\\-Roman Britain", "[thumb\\|250px\\|Ancient British canoe](/wiki/File:0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg \"0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg\")\nThe [Coracle](/wiki/Coracle \"Coracle\"), a small single\\-passenger\\-sized float, has been used in Britain since before the first Roman invasion as noted by the invaders. Coracles are round or oval in shape, made of a wooden frame with a hide stretched over it then [tarred](/wiki/Tar \"Tar\") to provide waterproofing. Being so light, an operator can carry the light craft over the shoulder. They are capable of operating in mere inches of water due to the keel\\-less hull. The early people of Wales used these boats for fishing and light travel and updated models are still in use to this day on the rivers of [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") and [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\").", "Early [Britons](/wiki/Britons_%28historic%29 \"Britons (historic)\") also used the [dugout canoe](/wiki/Dugout_canoe \"Dugout canoe\"). Examples of these canoes have been found buried in marshes and mud banks of rivers at lengths of upward eight feet.[57\\.—Ancient British Canoes. (500x225\\)](http://www.fromoldbooks.org/OldEngland/pages/0057-Ancient-British-Canoes/)", "In 1992 a notable archaeological find, named the \"[Dover Bronze Age Boat](/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat \"Dover Bronze Age Boat\")\", was unearthed from beneath what is modern day [Dover, England](/wiki/Dover%2C_England \"Dover, England\"). The [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") boat which is about 9\\.5 meters long × 2\\.3 meters wide is believed to have been a seagoing vessel. [Carbon dating](/wiki/Carbon_dating \"Carbon dating\") reveals that the craft dating from approximately 1600 BC might be the oldest known sea\\-going boat. The hull was of half [oak](/wiki/Oak \"Oak\") logs and side panels also of oak were stitched on with [yew](/wiki/Taxus \"Taxus\") lashings. Both the straight\\-grained oak and yew bindings are now extinct as a shipbuilding method in [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). A reconstruction in 1996 proved that a crew between four and sixteen paddlers could have easily propelled the boat during Force 4 winds upwards of four knots but with a maximum of {{convert\\|5\\|kn\\|km/h\\|0}}. The boat could have easily carried a significant amount of cargo and with a strong crew may have been able to traverse near thirty nautical miles in a day.[Canterbury Archaeological Trust: Buckland Anglo\\-Saxon Cemetery](http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d_boat.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509090417/http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d\\_boat.htm \\|date\\=May 9, 2008 }}", "#### Northern Europe", "The *[Norsemen](/wiki/Norsemen \"Norsemen\")*, or 'people from the North', were people from southern and central [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\") which established states and settlements Northern Europe from the late 8th century to the 11th century. [Vikings](/wiki/Viking \"Viking\") has been a common term for Norsemen in the early [medieval period](/wiki/Medieval_period \"Medieval period\"), especially in connection with raids and [monastic](/wiki/Monastic \"Monastic\") plundering made by Norsemen in Great Britain and Ireland.", "[Leif Ericson](/wiki/Leif_Ericson \"Leif Ericson\") was an [Icelandic](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\") [explorer](/wiki/Explorer \"Explorer\") known to be the first [European](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") to have landed in [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") (presumably in [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_%28island%29 \"Newfoundland (island)\"), [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\")). During a stay in [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\"), Leif Ericsson converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"), like many Norse of that time. He also went to Norway to serve the [King of Norway](/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_monarchs \"List of Norwegian monarchs\"), [Olaf Tryggvason](/wiki/Olaf_I_of_Norway \"Olaf I of Norway\"). When he returned to [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland \"Greenland\"), he bought the boat of [Bjarni Herjólfsson](/wiki/Bjarni_Herj%C3%B3lfsson \"Bjarni Herjólfsson\") and set out to explore the land that Bjarni had found (located [west](/wiki/West \"West\") of Greenland), which was, in fact, Newfoundland, in Canada. The *[Saga of the Greenlanders](/wiki/Saga_of_the_Greenlanders \"Saga of the Greenlanders\")* tells that Leif set out around the year 1000 to follow Bjarni's route with 15 crew members, but going north.Another saga, *[The Saga of Eric the Red](/wiki/The_Saga_of_Eric_the_Red \"The Saga of Eric the Red\")*, relates that Leif discovered the American mainland while returning from Norway to Greenland in 1000 (or possibly 1001\\), but does not mention any attempts to settle there. However, the *Saga of the Greenlanders* is usually considered the more reliable of the two.", "#### Maritime Southeast Asia", "{{Main\\|Austronesian maritime trade network\\|Maritime Jade Road\\|Maritime Silk Road}}\n[thumb\\|300px\\|Distribution of [nephrite jade](/wiki/Nephrite_jade \"Nephrite jade\") artifacts ([lingling\\-o](/wiki/Lingling-o \"Lingling-o\")) sourced from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Aborigines \"Taiwanese Aborigines\") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") and transported via a [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") [Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesians \"Austronesians\") [maritime trade network](/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture \"Philippine jade culture\"), starting from at least {{circa\\|2000 BCE}}](/wiki/File:Jade_culture_distribution.jpg \"Jade culture distribution.jpg\")", "[Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesians \"Austronesians\") in [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia \"Maritime Southeast Asia\") developed very early [maritime trade networks](/wiki/Austronesian_maritime_trade_network \"Austronesian maritime trade network\") in the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\"). The first of which is the [Maritime Jade Road](/wiki/Maritime_Jade_Road \"Maritime Jade Road\"). It lasted for around 3,000 years, from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. It was initially established by the indigenous peoples of [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwanese_Aborigines \"Taiwanese Aborigines\") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"). Raw jade was sourced from deposits in Taiwan and worked into ornaments in the Philippines (the most notable and most numerous of which are double\\-headed pendants known as [lingling\\-o](/wiki/Lingling-o \"Lingling-o\")). This network later included parts of [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\"), and other areas in Southeast Asia where these jade ornaments, along with other trade goods, were exchanged (also known as the [Sa Huynh](/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture \"Sa Huỳnh culture\")\\-[Kalanay](/wiki/Kalanay_Cave \"Kalanay Cave\") Interaction Sphere).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Tsang \\|first1\\=Cheng\\-hwa \\|title\\=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan \\|journal\\=Bulletin of the Indo\\-Pacific Prehistory Association \\|date\\=2000 \\|volume\\=20 \\|pages\\=153–158 \\|doi\\=10\\.7152/bippa.v20i0\\.11751 \\|doi\\-broken\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-12 \\|issn\\=1835\\-1794}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Turton \\|first1\\= M. \\|title\\=Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south \\|url\\=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2021 \\|work\\=Taipei Times \\|date\\=17 May 2021}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Everington \\|first1\\= K. \\|title\\=Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar \\|url\\=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3247203 \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2021\\|work\\=Taiwan News \\|date\\=6 September 2017}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bellwood \\|first1\\=Peter \\|last2\\=Hung \\|first2\\=H. \\|last3\\=Lizuka \\|first3\\=Yoshiyuki \\|chapter\\=Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long\\-distance Interaction \\|year\\=2011 \\|editor\\-last\\=Benitez\\-Johannot \\|editor\\-first\\=P. \\|title\\=Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde \\|publisher\\=ArtPostAsia \\|isbn\\=978\\-971\\-94292\\-0\\-3}} The wide distribution throughout [Island Southeast Asia](/wiki/Island_Southeast_Asia \"Island Southeast Asia\") of the ceremonial [bronze drums](/wiki/Dong_Son_drums \"Dong Son drums\") ({{circa\\|600 BCE to 400 CE}}) sourced from the [Dong Son culture](/wiki/Dong_Son_culture \"Dong Son culture\") of northern Vietnam is also evidence of the antiquity and density of this prehistoric Southeast Asian maritime network.", "Austronesians also established very early connections (part of the early [spice trade](/wiki/Spice_trade \"Spice trade\") networks) with [Dravidian\\-speaking](/wiki/Dravidians \"Dravidians\") regions in [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\") and [Southern India](/wiki/Southern_India \"Southern India\") by around 1500 to 600 BCE.{{cite book\\|first1\\=Bérénice\\|last1\\= Bellina \\|editor1\\-first\\=John\\|editor1\\-last\\=Guy\\|title \\=Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu\\-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century\\|chapter \\=Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road\\|publisher \\=Yale University Press\\|year \\=2014\\|pages\\=22–25\\|isbn \\=9781588395245\\|url \\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Glover \\|first1\\=Ian C. \\|last2\\=Bellina \\|first2\\=Bérénice \\|title\\=Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross\\-Cultural Exchange \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute \\|isbn\\=9789814311175 \\|pages\\=17–46 \\|chapter\\=Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo: The Earliest Indian Contacts Re\\-assessed \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/early\\-interactions\\-between\\-south\\-and\\-southeast\\-asia/ban\\-don\\-ta\\-phet\\-and\\-khao\\-sam\\-kaeo\\-the\\-earliest\\-indian\\-contacts\\-reassessed/DE7A8037FF8B50870077C3EDF4865A4E\\|editor1\\=Manguin, Pierre\\-Yves\\|editor2\\=Mani, A.\\|editor3\\=Wade, Geoff}} These early contacts resulted in the introduction of Austronesian crops and material culture to South Asia,{{cite book \\|editor\\=Tripati, Sila \\|last1\\=Fuller \\|first1\\=Dorian Q. \\|last2\\=Boivin \\|first2\\=Nicole \\|last3\\=Castillo \\|first3\\=Cristina Cobo \\|last4\\=Hoogervorst \\|first4\\=Tom \\|last5\\=Allaby \\|first5\\=Robin G. \\|title\\=Maritime Contacts of the Past: Deciphering Connections Amongst Communities \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Kaveri Books \\|location\\=Delhi \\|isbn\\=9788192624433 \\|pages\\=1–23 \\|chapter\\=The archaeobiology of Indian Ocean translocations: Current outlines of cultural exchanges by proto\\-historic seafarers \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272434953}} including [betel nut chewing](/wiki/Betel_nut_chewing \"Betel nut chewing\"), [coconuts](/wiki/Coconuts \"Coconuts\"), [sandalwood](/wiki/Sandalwood \"Sandalwood\"), domesticated [bananas](/wiki/Banana \"Banana\"),{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Zumbroich \\|first1\\=Thomas J. \\|date\\=2007–2008 \\|title\\=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond \\|url\\=https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=eJournal of Indian Medicine \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=87–140 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323014003/https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2019 }} [sugarcane](/wiki/Sugarcane \"Sugarcane\"),{{cite book\\|editor1\\-first\\=Joseph\\|editor1\\-last\\=Needham\\|first1\\=Christian\\|last1\\=Daniels\\|first2\\=Nicholas K.\\|last2\\=Menzies\\|title\\=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 3, Agro\\-Industries and Forestry\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|year\\=1996\\|pages\\=177–185\\|isbn\\=9780521419994\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DzqPvHlFkV4C\\&pg\\=PR8}} [cloves](/wiki/Clove \"Clove\"), and [nutmeg](/wiki/Nutmeg \"Nutmeg\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Olivera \\|first1\\=Baldomero \\|last2\\=Hall \\|first2\\=Zach \\|last3\\=Granberg \\|first3\\=Bertrand \\|title\\=Reconstructing Philippine history before 1521: the Kalaga Putuan Crescent and the Austronesian maritime trade network \\|journal\\=SciEnggJ \\|date\\=31 March 2024 \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=71–85 \\|doi\\=10\\.54645/2024171ZAK\\-61}} It also introduced Austronesian sailing technologies like [outrigger boats](/wiki/Outrigger_boat \"Outrigger boat\") which are still utilized in Sri Lanka and southern India. During this period, the distribution of Austronesian trade goods like *[kapur barus](/wiki/Camphor \"Camphor\")* and cloves also reached beyond South Asia to [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Mahdi \\|first1\\=Waruno \\|editor1\\-last\\=Blench \\|editor1\\-first\\=Roger \\|editor2\\-last\\=Spriggs \\|editor2\\-first\\=Matthew \\|title\\=Archaeology and Language IV: Language Change and Cultural Transformation \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-81624\\-8 \\|pages\\=160–240 \\|chapter\\=Linguistic and philological data towards a chronology of Austronesian activity in India and Sri Lanka}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Nugroho \\|first\\=Irawan Djoko \\|title\\=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim \\|publisher\\=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti \\|year\\=2011 \\|isbn\\=978\\-602\\-9346\\-00\\-8}}{{Rp\\|1}} There is also indirect evidence of very early Austronesian contacts with [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), based on the presence and spread of Austronesian domesticates like bananas, [taro](/wiki/Taro \"Taro\"), [chickens](/wiki/Chicken \"Chicken\"), and [purple yam](/wiki/Purple_yam \"Purple yam\") in Africa in the first millennium BCE.", "By around the 2nd century BCE, the prehistoric Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia fully connected with the [maritime trade routes](/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations \"Indo-Roman trade relations\") of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\"), eastern [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), and the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\"), becoming what is now known as the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road \"Maritime Silk Road\"). Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive [sewn\\-plank](/wiki/Sewn-plank \"Sewn-plank\") and [lashed\\-lug](/wiki/Lashed_lug_boat \"Lashed lug boat\") ships, although [Persian](/wiki/Persian_people \"Persian people\") and [Tamil](/wiki/Tamil_people \"Tamil people\") traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Guan \\|first1\\=Kwa Chong \\|title\\=The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea \\|journal\\=NSC Working Paper \\|date\\=2016 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=1–30 \\|url\\=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23\\.pdf}} It allowed the exchange of goods from [East](/wiki/East_Asia \"East Asia\") and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and eastern Africa on the other.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Ariane \\|last1\\=de Saxcé \\|editor1\\=Billé, Franck\\|editor2\\=Mehendale, Sanjyot\\|editor3\\=Lankton, James\\|title\\=The Maritime Silk Road: Global Connectivities, Regional Nodes, Localities \\|date\\=2022 \\|publisher\\=Amsterdam University Press \\|location\\=Amsterdam \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-4855\\-242\\-9 \\|series\\=Asian Borderlands \\|pages\\=129–148 \\|chapter\\=Networks and Cultural Mapping of South Asian Maritime Trade \\|url\\=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3\\-2dfa\\-4a0d\\-b04b\\-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429\\.pdf}}", "[thumb\\|left\\|One of the [Borobudur ships](/wiki/Borobudur_ship \"Borobudur ship\") from the 8th century, they were depictions of large [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_people \"Javanese people\") [outrigger vessels](/wiki/Outrigger_vessel \"Outrigger vessel\"). Shown with the characteristic [tanja sail](/wiki/Tanja_sail \"Tanja sail\") of Southeast Asian [Austronesians](/wiki/Austronesians \"Austronesians\")](/wiki/File:Borobudur_ship.JPG \"Borobudur ship.JPG\")\nAustronesian [thalassocracies](/wiki/Thalassocracies \"Thalassocracies\") controlled the flow of trade in the eastern regions of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the [polities](/wiki/Polities \"Polities\") around the [straits](/wiki/Straits \"Straits\") of [Malacca](/wiki/Malacca_Strait \"Malacca Strait\") and [Bangka](/wiki/Bangka_Strait \"Bangka Strait\"), the [Malay Peninsula](/wiki/Malay_Peninsula \"Malay Peninsula\"), and the [Mekong Delta](/wiki/Mekong_Delta \"Mekong Delta\"); through which passed the main routes of the Austronesian trade ships to [Giao Chỉ](/wiki/Jiaozhi \"Jiaozhi\") (in the [Tonkin Gulf](/wiki/Tonkin_Gulf \"Tonkin Gulf\")) and [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\") (southern [China](/wiki/China \"China\")), the endpoints. Secondary routes also passed through the coastlines of the [Gulf of Thailand](/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand \"Gulf of Thailand\");{{cite book \\|last1\\=Li \\|first1\\=Tana \\|editor1\\-last\\=Cooke \\|editor1\\-first\\=Nola \\|editor2\\-last\\=Li \\|editor2\\-first\\=Tana \\|editor3\\-last\\=Anderson \\|editor3\\-first\\=James A. \\|title\\=The Tongking Gulf Through History \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania Press \\|isbn\\=9780812205022 \\|pages\\=39–44 \\|chapter\\=Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) in the Han period Tongking Gulf}} as well as through the [Java Sea](/wiki/Java_Sea \"Java Sea\"), [Celebes Sea](/wiki/Celebes_Sea \"Celebes Sea\"), [Banda Sea](/wiki/Banda_Sea \"Banda Sea\"), and the [Sulu Sea](/wiki/Sulu_Sea \"Sulu Sea\"), reconnecting with the main route through the northern Philippines and Taiwan. The secondary routes also continue onward to the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea \"East China Sea\") and the [Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea \"Yellow Sea\") for a limited extent.", "[300px\\|thumb\\|[Austronesian](/wiki/Austronesian_peoples \"Austronesian peoples\") [proto\\-historic](/wiki/Spice_trade \"Spice trade\") and [historic](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road \"Maritime Silk Road\") maritime trade network in the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"){{cite book\\|first1\\=Pierre\\-Yves \\|last1\\=Manguin\\|editor1\\-first\\=Gwyn \\|editor1\\-last\\=Campbell\\|title \\=Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World \\|chapter \\=Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships\\|publisher \\=Palgrave Macmillan\\|year \\=2016\\|pages\\=51–76\\|isbn \\=978\\-3\\-319\\-33822\\-4\\|chapter\\-url \\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XsvDDQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA50}}](/wiki/File:Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png \"Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png\")\nThe main route of the western regions of the Maritime Silk Road directly crosses the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\") from the northern tip of [Sumatra](/wiki/Sumatra \"Sumatra\") (or through the [Sunda Strait](/wiki/Sunda_Strait \"Sunda Strait\")) to [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\"), southern [India](/wiki/India \"India\") and [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"), and the [Maldives](/wiki/Maldives \"Maldives\"). It branches from here into routes through the [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea \"Arabian Sea\") entering the [Gulf of Oman](/wiki/Gulf_of_Oman \"Gulf of Oman\") (into the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\")), and the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden \"Gulf of Aden\") (into the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\")). Secondary routes also pass through the coastlines of the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\"), the Arabian Sea, and southwards along the coast of [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\") to [Zanzibar](/wiki/Zanzibar \"Zanzibar\"), the [Comoros](/wiki/Comoros_Islands \"Comoros Islands\"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\"), and the [Seychelles](/wiki/Seychelles \"Seychelles\").{{cite book \\|first1\\=Shadreck \\|last1\\=Chirikure \\|editor1\\=Billé, Franck\\|editor2\\=Mehendale, Sanjyot\\|editor3\\=Lankton, James\\|title\\=The Maritime Silk Road: Global Connectivities, Regional Nodes, Localities \\|date\\=2022 \\|publisher\\=Amsterdam University Press \\|location\\=Amsterdam \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-4855\\-242\\-9 \\|series\\=Asian Borderlands \\|pages\\=149–176 \\|chapter\\=Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean World \\|url\\=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3\\-2dfa\\-4a0d\\-b04b\\-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429\\.pdf}} The Maldives was of particular importance as a major hub for Austronesian sailors venturing through the western routes. The Austronesian people also reached [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\") in the early 1st millennium AD and colonized it.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dewar \\|first1\\=Robert E. \\|last2\\=Wright \\|first2\\=Henry T. \\|date\\=1993 \\|title\\=The culture history of Madagascar \\|journal\\=Journal of World Prehistory \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=417–466 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/bf00997802 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=2027\\.42/45256 \\|s2cid\\=21753825}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Herrera \\|first1\\=Michael B. \\|last2\\=Thomson \\|first2\\=Vicki A. \\|last3\\=Wadley \\|first3\\=Jessica J. \\|last4\\=Piper \\|first4\\=Philip J. \\|last5\\=Sulandari \\|first5\\=Sri \\|last6\\=Dharmayanthi \\|first6\\=Anik Budhi \\|last7\\=Kraitsek \\|first7\\=Spiridoula \\|last8\\=Gongora \\|first8\\=Jaime \\|last9\\=Austin \\|first9\\=Jeremy J. \\|title\\=East African origins for Madagascan chickens as indicated by mitochondrial DNA \\|journal\\=Royal Society Open Science \\|date\\=March 2017 \\|volume\\=4 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=160787 \\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rsos.160787\\|pmid\\=28405364 \\|pmc\\=5383821 \\|bibcode\\=2017RSOS....460787H \\|hdl\\=2440/104470 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Tofanelli \\|first1\\=S. \\|last2\\=Bertoncini \\|first2\\=S. \\|last3\\=Castri \\|first3\\=L. \\|last4\\=Luiselli \\|first4\\=D. \\|last5\\=Calafell \\|first5\\=F. \\|last6\\=Donati \\|first6\\=G. \\|last7\\=Paoli \\|first7\\=G. \\|title\\=On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High\\-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages \\|journal\\=Molecular Biology and Evolution \\|date\\=1 September 2009 \\|volume\\=26 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=2109–2124 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/molbev/msp120\\|pmid\\=19535740 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Adelaar \\|first1\\=Alexander \\|title\\=Malagasy Phonological History and Bantu Influence \\|journal\\=Oceanic Linguistics \\|date\\=June 2012 \\|volume\\=51 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=123–159 \\|doi\\=10\\.1353/ol.2012\\.0003\\|hdl\\=11343/121829 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}", "[Han](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\") and [Tang](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") dynasty Chinese records also indicate that the early Chinese Buddhist [pilgrims](/wiki/Pilgrim \"Pilgrim\") to South Asia booked passage with the Austronesian ships (which they called the *[k'un\\-lun po](/wiki/K%27un-lun_po \"K'un-lun po\")*) that traded in the Chinese port city of [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\"). Books written by Chinese monks like Wan Chen and Hui\\-Lin contain detailed accounts of the large trading vessels from Southeast Asia dating back to at least the 3rd century CE.{{cite book \\|last1\\=McGrail \\|first1\\=Seán \\|title\\=Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to the Medieval Times \\|date\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=9780199271863 \\|pages\\=289–293 \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/39591350}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Christie \\|first\\=Anthony \\|date\\=1957 \\|title\\=An Obscure Passage from the \"Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟΦΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ\" \\|journal\\=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London \\|volume\\=19 \\|pages\\=345–353 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0041977X00133105 \\|s2cid\\=162840685 \\|via\\=JSTOR}}{{Rp\\|347}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Manguin \\|first\\=Pierre\\-Yves \\|date\\=1993 \\|title\\=Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks \\|journal\\=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient \\|pages\\=253–280}}{{Rp\\|262}}", "[Srivijaya](/wiki/Srivijaya \"Srivijaya\"), a [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\")\\-[Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist \"Buddhist\") Austronesian polity founded at [Palembang](/wiki/Palembang \"Palembang\") in 682 CE, rose to dominate the trade in the region around the straits of [Malacca](/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca \"Strait of Malacca\") and [Sunda](/wiki/Sunda_Strait \"Sunda Strait\") and the South China Sea [emporium](/wiki/Emporium_%28antiquity%29 \"Emporium (antiquity)\") by controlling the trade in luxury aromatics and Buddhist artifacts from West Asia to a thriving Tang market.{{rp\\|page\\=12}} It emerged through the conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These included [Melayu](/wiki/Melayu_Kingdom \"Melayu Kingdom\"), [Kedah](/wiki/Kedah \"Kedah\"), [Tarumanagara](/wiki/Tarumanagara \"Tarumanagara\"), and [Mataram](/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom \"Mataram Kingdom\"), among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of the [Spice Islands](/wiki/Maluku_islands \"Maluku islands\"), as well as maritime trade\\-routes between [India](/wiki/India \"India\") and [China](/wiki/China \"China\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\= Sulistiyono \\|first1\\= Singgih Tri \\|last2\\= Masruroh \\|first2\\= Noor Naelil \\|last3\\= Rochwulaningsih \\|first3\\= Yety \\|title\\= Contest For Seascape: Local Thalassocracies and Sino\\-Indian Trade Expansion in the Maritime Southeast Asia During the Early Premodern Period \\|journal\\= Journal of Marine and Island Cultures \\|date\\= 2018 \\|volume\\= 7 \\|issue\\= 2 \\|doi\\= 10\\.21463/jmic.2018\\.07\\.2\\.05 \\|url\\= http://jmic.online/issues/v7n2/5/\\|doi\\-access\\= free }}", "The [Butuan boat burials](/wiki/Balangay \"Balangay\") of the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), which feature eleven [lashed\\-lug boat](/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat \"Lashed-lug boat\") remains of the [Austronesian boatbuilding traditions](/wiki/Austronesian_vessels \"Austronesian vessels\") (individually dated from 689 CE to 988 CE), were found in association with large amounts of trade goods from [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") ([Haripunjaya](/wiki/Haripunjaya \"Haripunjaya\") and [Satingpra](/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district \"Sathing Phra district\")), [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), and as far as [Persia](/wiki/Persia \"Persia\"), indicating they traded as far as the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Butuan Archeological Sites \\|url\\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2071/ \\|website\\=UNESCO \\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2024}}{{Cite journal\\|title \\= The Butuan Two boat known as a balangay in the National Museum, Manila, Philippines\\|last1 \\= Clark\\|first1 \\= Paul\\|date \\= 1993\\|journal \\= The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology\\|doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1095\\-9270\\.1993\\.tb00403\\.x\\|last2 \\= Green\\|first2 \\= Jeremy\\|last3 \\= Santiago\\|first3 \\= Rey\\|last4 \\= Vosmer\\|first4 \\= Tom\\|volume\\=22\\|issue \\= 2\\|pages\\=143–159\\| bibcode\\=1993IJNAr..22\\..143C }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Lacsina \\|first1\\=Ligaya \\|title\\=Re\\-examining the Butuan Boats: Pre\\-colonial Philippine watercraft \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=National Museum of the Philippines \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/31015958}}", "These maritime routes persisted (with increasing participation of other maritime cultures) into the [medieval era](/wiki/Post-classical_history \"Post-classical history\"), before declining and being replaced with European trade routes during the [colonial era](/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia \"Western imperialism in Asia\") in the 15th century.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Manguin \\|first1\\=Pierre\\-Yves \\|editor1\\-last\\=Reid \\|editor1\\-first\\=Anthony \\|chapter\\=The Vanishing Jong: Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War (Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries) \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press \\|pages\\=197–213 \\|title\\=Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era \\|jstor\\=10\\.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8014\\-8093\\-5 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\\.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Manguin \\|first1\\=Pierre\\-Yves \\|title\\=The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach \\|journal\\=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies \\|date\\=September 1980 \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=266–276 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S002246340000446X}}", "#### Indian subcontinent", "{{Main\\|Indian maritime history\\|Maritime history of Odisha}}In the [Indian maritime history](/wiki/Indian_maritime_history \"Indian maritime history\"), the world's first [tidal dock](/wiki/Tidal_dock \"Tidal dock\") was built in phase II of [Lothal](/wiki/Lothal \"Lothal\")Science and Technology in Ancient India. Vijnan Bharati, 2002\\. Page 18\\.Shikaripur Ranganatha Rao. Lothal, a Harappan Port Town (1955–62\\). 1979\\. Page 44\\. during the [Harappan civilisation](/wiki/Harappan_civilisation \"Harappan civilisation\") near the present day [Mangrol harbour](/wiki/Mangrol_harbour \"Mangrol harbour\") on the [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat \"Gujarat\") coast. Other ports were probably at [Balakot](/wiki/Balakot \"Balakot\") and [Dwarka](/wiki/Dwarka \"Dwarka\"). However, it is probable that many small\\-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.[Possehl, Gregory](/wiki/Gregory_Possehl \"Gregory Possehl\"). Meluhha. in: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996, 133–208 Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established [trade](/wiki/Trade \"Trade\") with [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\"),(e.g. Lal 1997: 182–188\\) where the Indus Valley was known as [Meluhha](/wiki/Meluhha \"Meluhha\").", "Emperor [Chandragupta Maurya](/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya \"Chandragupta Maurya\")'s [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister \"Prime Minister\") [Kautilya](/wiki/Kautilya \"Kautilya\")'s [Arthashastra](/wiki/Arthashastra \"Arthashastra\") devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under *nāvādhyakṣa* ([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit \"Sanskrit\") for [Superintendent](/wiki/Public_administration \"Public administration\") of ships) {{Ref\\|Kautilya}}. The terms, *nāvā dvīpāntaragamanam* ([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit \"Sanskrit\") for sailing to other lands by ships) and *samudrasaṁyānam* (maritime travel) appear in the work.", "The [Maritime history](/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha \"Maritime history of Odisha\") of [Kalinga](/wiki/Kalinga_%28historical_kingdom%29 \"Kalinga (historical kingdom)\") (now [Odisha](/wiki/Odisha \"Odisha\")) is an important highlight of the traditions of Indian maritime history as it was influential in establishing trading links with Southeast Asia along the [Maritime Silk Road](/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road \"Maritime Silk Road\"). The people of this region of eastern [India](/wiki/India \"India\") along the coast of the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\") sailed up and down the [Indian coast](/wiki/Coastal_India \"Coastal India\"), and travelled to [Indo China](/wiki/Indo_China \"Indo China\") and throughout [Maritime Southeast Asia](/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia \"Maritime Southeast Asia\"), [introducing elements](/wiki/Indosphere \"Indosphere\") of [their culture](/wiki/Hinduism_in_Southeast_Asia \"Hinduism in Southeast Asia\") to the [people with whom they traded](/wiki/Greater_India \"Greater India\"). The 6th century *[Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa](/wiki/Ma%C3%B1ju%C5%9Br%C4%AB-m%C5%ABla-kalpa \"Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa\")* mentions the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\") as 'Kaliṅgodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kaliṅga Sāgara' (both Kaliṅgodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the [maritime trade](/wiki/Indian_maritime_history \"Indian maritime history\").{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=H\\-IbAQAAMAAJ \\|title\\=The Journal of Orissan History, Volumes 13\\-15 \\|publisher\\=Orissa History Congress \\|year\\=1995 \\|page\\=54 }}", "#### Japan", "{{Main\\|Naval history of Japan}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|A clay figure of a *[haniwa](/wiki/Haniwa \"Haniwa\")* model of a ship, from [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\")'s [Kofun period](/wiki/Kofun_period \"Kofun period\") (250–538\\); during the [Three Kingdoms of Korea](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea \"Three Kingdoms of Korea\"), the Japanese sided with [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje \"Baekje\") against a naval alliance between the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") and Korean [Silla](/wiki/Silla \"Silla\").](/wiki/File:Funagata-haniwa_01%28trim%29.JPG \"Funagata-haniwa 01(trim).JPG\")", "[Japan](/wiki/Asuka_period \"Asuka period\") had a navy by at least the 6th century, with their invasions and involvement in political alliances during the [Three Kingdoms of Korea](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea \"Three Kingdoms of Korea\"). A joint alliance between the Korean [Silla](/wiki/Silla \"Silla\") Kingdom and the Chinese [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") (618–907 AD) heavily defeated the Japanese and their Korean allies of [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje \"Baekje\") in the [Battle of Baekgang](/wiki/Battle_of_Baekgang \"Battle of Baekgang\") on August 27 to August 28 of the year 663 AD. This decisive victory expelled the Japanese force from Korea and allowed the Tang and Silla to conquer [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo \"Goguryeo\").\n{{Clear}}", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|right\|Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon](/wiki/File:M%C5%82oda_Scarron.jpg "Młoda Scarron.jpg") ### Maintenon's wishes The origins of the Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis were strongly linked to the youth of [Madame de Maintenon](/wiki/Madame_de_Maintenon "Madame de Maintenon"). She was herself from a noble family which had fallen on hard times; she received only a limited education, administered via the [convents](/wiki/Convent "Convent"), which were then the only institutions educating noble girls.Jacques Prévot, *La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon* Their curricula were minimal, with lessons in French, Latin, mathematics and domestic work. The main emphasis was on religion and liturgy, with no opening onto the real world. Madame de Maintenon later moved in intellectual circles, thanks to her first husband, [Scarron](/wiki/Scarron "Scarron"), before becoming governess to the children of [Madame de Montespan](/wiki/Madame_de_Montespan "Madame de Montespan"), giving her exposure to education and a vocation as an educator. Once beside Louis XIV, de Maintenon wished to improve the education available to girls from impoverished noble families, who were becoming increasingly numerous because many provincial noblemen died in Louis's wars or expended their fortunes in his service.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2009}} ### Founding In 1680, Madame de Maintenon took on two nuns, the former [ursuline](/wiki/Ursulines "Ursulines") Madame de Brinon and her relation Madame de Saint\-Pierre, who was the head of a small school established to train poor girls for jobs in domestic service. In 1686 she set the nuns up in a house at [Rueil](/wiki/Rueil-Malmaison "Rueil-Malmaison") which she had rented and fitted out.Éric Le Nabour, *La Marquise de Maintenon \- L'épouse secrète de Louis XIV* She added twenty girls from poor noble families to students drawn from among the people, who were taught a different curriculum. In 1684 the Maison Royale was visited by the Chinese Catholic convert [Michael Shen Fu\-Tsung](/wiki/Michael_Shen_Fu-Tsung "Michael Shen Fu-Tsung"). Also that year, on 3 February 1684, the school for daughters of impoverished noble families was moved to [Noisy\-le\-Roi](/wiki/Noisy-le-Roi "Noisy-le-Roi"), with help from the king, who offered the Château de Noisy, acquiring it and fitting it out to house more than 180 'pensionnaires'.Françoise Chandernagor, *L'Allée du Roi* On 15 August 1684, in [Grand Conseil](/wiki/Conseil_du_Roi "Conseil du Roi"), Louis XIV decreed the founding of {{cquote\|a house and community where a considerable number of young girls, from noble families and particularly those whose fathers have died in the service ... are housed for free ... and receive all the educations suited to their birth and their sex ... so that after having studied in this community, those who leave it can be examples of modesty and virtue in all the provinces of our kingdom...}} [300px\|thumb\|Plan of the ground floor of the Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis.](/wiki/File:Plan_maison_royale.png "Plan maison royale.png") The *domaine* of Saint\-Cyr was assigned to the Maison in 1685, and the King ordered major building work on the domain next to [Versailles](/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles "Palace of Versailles"), led by [Jules Hardouin\-Mansart](/wiki/Jules_Hardouin-Mansart "Jules Hardouin-Mansart").{{sfn\|Bryant\|2004\|p\=83}} The project cost the King 1,400,000 [livres](/wiki/French_livre "French livre").{{sfn\|Bryant\|2004\|p\=83}} Hardouin\-Mansart's designs for the Maison used the U\-shaped plan he often used elsewhere, with the buildings reserved for the mistresses and students forming an H, to which the school chapel had to be added to the west. The classrooms and students' dormitories were on the first and second floors respectively, the dormitories just above the classrooms for the corresponding classes. Each dormitory held 40 beds and was surrounded by two cells for the mistresses. Each classroom was also juxtaposed with a small supplementary dormitory with 20 beds, itself next to two cells for the mistresses. The infirmary was sited away from the dormitories to allow the sick to be isolated and thus avoid the spread of contagious diseases. The rooms reserved for pensionnaires were situated to the east of the buildings, to put them as far as possible from the visitor entrance, situated to the west at the level of the external courtyard.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2009}} In June 1686, after 15 months of work, Louis XIV gave the domain to the Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis, in [letters patent](/wiki/Letters_patent "Letters patent") of 18 and 26 June 1686 confirming the founding of the establishment.Jean\-Paul Desprat, *Madame de Maintenon (1635\-1719\), ou le prix de la réputation* From 26 July to 1 August 1686, the pensionnaires, known as the "Demoiselles de Saint\-Cyr", entered the establishment in a grand procession thanks to Louis, who lent them his carriages and his [Swiss guards](/wiki/Swiss_Guard%23Swiss_Guards_in_France "Swiss Guard#Swiss Guards in France"). Madame de Brinon was made the institution's superior for life, and Madame de Maintenon was given the title of "Institutrice de la Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis", which gave her total authority over the Maison. The King also granted her an apartment at Saint\-Cyr which she could use when she wished. The school's chapel was consecrated to [Our Lady](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary "Blessed Virgin Mary") on 2 August that year and the relics of St Candide, previously held at the chapel of Noisy, were transferred there. The King made his first visit to Saint\-Cyr in September 1686, when he was welcomed by the ladies and pensionnaires in a major ceremony. Major figures became interested in the foundation of the Maison Royale. At the start of 1687, [Fontenelle](/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bouyer_de_Fontenelle "Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle"), competing for an eloquence prize at the Académie, sang of "les Demoiselles de Saint\-Cyr" and "\[their] famous model of beauty united with innocence." ### Organisation [thumb\|left\|Two "Demoiselles de Saint\-Cyr".](/wiki/File:DemoisellesDeSaintCyr.jpg "DemoisellesDeSaintCyr.jpg") The Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis was opened "to the daughters of gentlemen who have been killed or exhausted their health or their fortune in the service of the State", who would enter the school aged between 7 and 12\. The King himself decided on who the school admitted, after consulting with experts on French genealogy who could guarantee that applicants possessed at least four generations of noble birth on their father's side. Many pensionnaires were daughters, nieces or orphans of soldiers and, though many of them were from Paris and its outskirts, the school had students from every province of France[List of students at Saint\-Cyr by département](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/Listedem/index.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20110721025233/http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/Listedem/index.htm \|date\=2011\-07\-21 }} \- from the archives of the Conseil général des Yvelines and even from abroad (*e.g.*, three [Québécoises](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec") in the 1750s). The school buildings housed 250 students, cared for by 36 female educators or "professes", 24 "converses" sisters carrying out domestic tasks, some priests, and lay personnel. The students, aged 7 to 20, were divided by age into four "classes". They wore a uniform in the form of a brown muslin robe akin to court robes, tied with ribbons whose colour indicated the wearer's class—red for 7 to 10 years old; green for 11 to 14; yellow for 15\-16; and blue for 17\-20\. They also wore a white bonnet which left their hair partly uncovered. Each class had its own room.[Register of the "red class"](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/guide-et-inventaires/serieD/db/notices/304.htm){{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} \- archives of the Conseil général des Yvelines. This uniform and division by age were echoed in Noisy: {{Cquote\|\[Madame de Maintenon] had a grand morning meeting one day in Noisy, carrying a basket full of blue, yellow, green and red ribbons by which she designated each Demoiselle in the class to which she was suited ... They were separated out into different bedrooms and thus called according to the name of their ribbon, the Red class, the Blue class, etc. There was some question of giving the students clothing that was uniform, simple, modest, but noble ... it was decided that they were to dress in brown Mans muslin, then more fashionable than it is today. This dress consisted of a coat and a skirt, the bonnet being of white canvas with a lace piece, all decorated with a ribbon.''Mémoires des Dames de Noisy'', cited in ''La première institutrice de France: Madame de Maintenon''}} Each class was headed by a "maîtresse de classe", who was herself supported by a second mistress and sub\-mistresses. Some of the oldest and most talented students were deputised for these mistresses and wore black ribbons. Indeed, the role of the "blacks" was wider. Chosen from among the most talented and disciplined of the "blues", they were in charge of helping the teachers and in the hospital, refectory, accounts, etc.Jacques Prévot, *La première institutrice de France: Madame de Maintenon* The class mistresses were led by a "Maîtresse générale des classes", who not only coordinated the different classes but also had responsibility for the students outside of school hours. The mistresses and other ladies were not nuns but took "simples" or temporary religious vows of [poverty, chastity and obedience](/wiki/Poverty%2C_chastity_and_obedience "Poverty, chastity and obedience"), as well as vows to "devote their life to the education and instruction of the demoiselles", which Madame de Maintenon judged to be the most important vow of all. They were uniformly dressed in black muslin, with a black bonnet. The students were housed at Saint\-Cyr until they reached 20 and were not supposed to leave it until that age, unless in cases of dismissal, marriage or "exceptional family circumstances." When they left the school at the end of their studies, they received a [dowry](/wiki/Dowry "Dowry") of 3,000 livres either for a suitable marriage or to allow them to enter a convent. However, some ex\-students did not leave and remained there as teachers. To guarantee the quality of teaching, students who wished to become teachers followed a "noviciate" of 6 years during which they were trained in teaching by the "Maîtresse des novices". The revenues to maintain the establishment came from rents and exploitation of its *domaines*, subsidies from the [Généralité de Paris](/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ralit%C3%A9_de_Paris "Généralité de Paris") and revenues of the [Abbaye de Saint\-Denis](/wiki/Abbaye_de_Saint-Denis "Abbaye de Saint-Denis") to which it was attached. ### Teaching [thumb\|left\|Rules of the Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis.](/wiki/File:R%C3%A8glement_a_l%27usage_de_Saint-Louis_de_Saint-Cyr.jpg "Règlement a l'usage de Saint-Louis de Saint-Cyr.jpg") The school's rules, often called *les Constitutions*, stated in article 54 "what to teach young ladies":[Exhibition on the Maison Royale](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/info_mn.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20110721025309/http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/info\_mn.htm \|date\=2011\-07\-21 }} {{Cquote\|First to learn of God and religion (...) They must be inspired with a great horror of vice and a great love of virtue \[...]. They must learn the duties of an honest woman in her household, as regards her husband, children and servants \[...]. They must learn to bear themselves with a good grace \[...] they must learn to read perfectly, to write, spelling, arithmetic \[...] Those meant for service must learn to comb, to dress hair ...}} Each class had a timetable appropriate to its students' age: * the "reds" learned reading, writing, [arithmetic](/wiki/Arithmetic "Arithmetic") and [geometry](/wiki/Geometry "Geometry"), receiving their first lessons in the [catechism](/wiki/Catechism "Catechism") and the rudiments of religious history and [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin") * the "greens" continued in these subjects, along with history and [geography](/wiki/Geography "Geography") * the "yellows" also learned drawing, singing, dance and music * the "blues" were initiated into heraldry, the history of the Catholic Church and more detailed teaching in [morality](/wiki/Morality "Morality") All the pensionnaires' days played out according to the same timetable : they got up at 6am and went to their classrooms at 7 with the first prayers of the days, before having their morning meal in the refectory. They then studied from 8 until 12 before having lunch. The lunch break lasted until 2pm, when classes began again. These lasted until 6pm, when they had supper. They finally went to bed at 9pm. Each moment of the day was punctuated by a prayer. This timetable was shorter than that of most convents, where students had to get up at 4am for [Matins](/wiki/Matins "Matins"). Helping in the domestic tasks at the Maison Royale formed part of the students' education. The eldest, especially the "blues" and "blacks", had to assist at the refectory or the infirmary, or sewing clothes and dresses for their fellow students or the teachers. Their leisure time was also important and Madame de Maintenon encouraged the students to use them for intellectual games such as chess and checkers, though card games were banned. The 1709 *Mémoires des Dames de Saint\-Cyr* wrote that: {{cquote\|Madame \[de Maintenon] was gracious to give to the classes a large number of sets of checkers, chess etc. and also strongly recommended that they be trained as regularly on them as on their books, because it was of great consequence to busy youth innocently and usefully, and that these sorts of games were proper to them.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\-Cyr'' (1709\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''}} According to the wishes of Madame de Maintenon, the education provided at Saint\-Cyr was different from that traditionally practiced in convents, where education was minimal and principally centred on religion. The Maison's students were educated to be the future wives and ladies of the nobility, receiving an education that was severe but showed proof of the era's modernity, in particular in its refusal to neglect secular education to make time for religious education. The arts were also taught at Saint\-Cyr — in particular theatre, which Madame de Maintenon appreciated \- when convents generally did not teach these things, disapproving of actors. The personnel of the Maison were lay and not religious, which was unique for the era. This uniqueness did not prevent the Maison from imposing strict discipline \- its students had no holidays and were not allowed to see their families more than four times a year, in the parlour. The dormitories were not heated, the beds were voluntarily hard in order not to 'soften' the pensionnaires, and they washed in cold water only. From 1698, Madame de Maintenon made unprecedented modifications to the Maison \- each class was no longer placed entirely under the leadership of its mistresses, but split up into "families" of eight to ten students, each with a "mother", generally the eldest student in the group, and made the responsibility of one of the class mistresses. Each family had a banked semi\-circular bench, with the students placed around the convex part and the mistress at the centre: {{Cquote\|Madame de Maintenon, to better improve their conduct, thought of separating them into bands and substituting for the two big tables six or seven smaller ones, which would each have a fixed number of Demoiselles, with the students not allowed to sit anywhere else without instructions from the Mistresses. She made a first attempt at a small class size, and when this proved a success, the same thing was observed by the other classes and still remains to be seen to this day.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\-Cyr'' (1699\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''".}} ### Controversy over Racine's *Esther* [300px\|thumb\|Racine puts on a repeat performance of *Esther* by the students of Saint\-Cyr in the presence of Louis XIV and Madame de Maintenon.](/wiki/File:RacineFait_RepeterEsther.jpg "RacineFait RepeterEsther.jpg") The students at Saint\-Cyr first learned theatre in plays written by Madame de Brinon, then in the *Conversations* written for them by Madame de Maintenon on different moral subjects. They then played in tragedies by [Corneille](/wiki/Pierre_Corneille "Pierre Corneille") and [Racine](/wiki/Jean_Racine "Jean Racine"). However, Madame de Maintenon was unhappy to see the Demoiselles playing scenes of amorous passion with too much ardour, and so Racine wrote the students a religious piece, *[Esther](/wiki/Esther_%28drama%29 "Esther (drama)")*, which Madame de Maintenon planned to put on before the King and court. This gave rise to a deep dispute between Madame de Maintenon and Madame de Brinon, with the latter opposed to a production that she suspected was only for Madame de Maintenon's own glory. This dispute was not new \- since 1687, Madame de Brinon frequently reproached Madame de Maintenon for being around the establishment too much and imposing on Madame de Brinon, its superior. Being its superior for life, Madame de Brinon could not be replaced, but a [lettre de cachet](/wiki/Lettres_de_cachet "Lettres de cachet") sealed on 10 December 1688 allowed the play to be put on. Madame de Loubert, previously secretary to Madame de Maintenon and aged only 22, replaced Madame de Brinon as secretary on 19 May 1689\. *Esther* was premiered on 26 January 1689 at Saint\-Cyr in the presence of Louis XIV, Madame de Maintenon and many other courtiers. The girls who acted in the play, mostly "blues", received from Madame de Maintenon costumes decorated with diamonds and precious stones and, moreover, : {{Cquote\|so that nothing in this spectacle might be disagreeable to this Prince, she had \[\[Persia]]n clothes made for all the Demoiselles who were to appear on the stage : they were very brilliant, ornamented with pearls and diamonds from the Temple, which had previously been used in the ballets.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\-Cyr'' (1690\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''}} The sets were designed by Borin, the set designer of the court spectacles, and the play's music was played by the King's musicians. The preparations for the production cost a total of more than 14,000 livres. There were four more productions of the play in February 1690, with the last on 19 February. [Marguerite de Villette](/wiki/Marthe-Marguerite_Le_Valois_de_Villette_de_Mursay%2C_marquise_de_Caylus "Marthe-Marguerite Le Valois de Villette de Mursay, marquise de Caylus"), aged 16 and recently married to the marquis de Caylus, played the rôle of Esther. The production's success was important to the King and his courtiers, so much so that they considered a great honour to be invited to it. However it quickly displeased Madame de Maintenon, who feared that the school's students would fall prey to courtiers and above all that the production would make them too proud: {{Cquote\|So innocent and pious was the spectacle that attracted the whole world, it could by frequent visits become prejudicial to the Demoiselles ; it was this that brought criticism from the M. l'abbé des Marais and the Messieurs des Missions Etrangères : they believed that the applause of the King and the whole Court could form a trap capable of undoing the good Madame de Maintenon wanted to establish, that \[the students] might give themselves over to vanity and love of the world from which they might find it difficult to return.}} ### Further controversy [thumb\|left\|View of the Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis at the start of the 18th century.](/wiki/File:Vue_maison_royale_XVIII.jpg "Vue maison royale XVIII.jpg") After the production of *Esther*, Madame de Maintenon thought of cancelling all plays at Saint\-Cyr, but the King demanded that they put on Racine's new play, *[Athalie](/wiki/Athalie "Athalie")* \- their production began on 5 January 1691 and took place in an atmosphere of great discretion, with no costume other than the Saint\-Cyr uniforms and in the presence of nobody but the royal family, except for 22 January when they were joined by [James](/wiki/James_II_of_England "James II of England") and [Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Modena "Mary of Modena") (former king and queen of England), [Fénelon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_F%C3%A9nelon "François Fénelon") and some bishops. The two guides of Madame de Maintenon's conscience, Fénelon and Abbé [Paul Godet des Marais](/wiki/Paul_Godet_des_Marais "Paul Godet des Marais") (who had become bishop of Chartres), demanded she renounce glory and return to Saint\-Cyr its "humility and simplicity". The school's discipline became stricter, with bans on coquetterie and on books that had at first been allowed into Saint\-Cyr but were now judged to be too profane for it. {{Cquote\|(…) In the classes all the manuscripts not treating on pious subjects were sought out and removed. Moreover, to humble the Demoiselles, a show was made of neglecting them (...) the ribbon was diminished, only being given with prodigality once each quarter \[ie trimester]}} Madame de Maintenon also recommended that teachers should not hesitate to punish students and contain their pride, stating: {{Cquote\|Our girls were too considered, too caressed, too contrived ; they must forget themselves in their classes, be made to obey the rules of the day and not speak of anything else.}} She also demanded that all males except priests be banned from the Maison, with even priests only allowed to meet the students in the confessional. ### Conversion to a convent The church and the [Jansenists](/wiki/Jansenist "Jansenist") condemned the production of *Esther* and the lack of discipline which seemed to reign at Saint\-Cyr, adding that girls' education should not be entrusted to lay people. Moreover, it was held to be incongruous that the Maison was a secular house, not a convent, and yet was financed by revenues from the [Abbey of Saint\-Denis](/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint-Denis "Basilica of Saint-Denis"). Although neither Madame de Maintenon nor the King wanted the Maison to become a convent, she admitted that her attempt at secular education at Saint\-Cyr had failed and accepted its transformation into a convent. Thus, in November 1692, the pope pronounced the extinction of the abbatial title of Saint\-Denis, and the Maison's transformation into a convent was decided on in September 1692 – the pope's request was made via Godet des Marais: {{Cquote\|the bishop of Chartres made supplication to His Holiness in the name of the Ladies of the Maison de Saint\-Louis to obtain \[permission for their] change from a secular state into a regular \[\[Augustinians\|Augustinian]] one. All signed this request that the Bishop sent to Rome, a favour which it was not difficult to obtain, seeing the regard in which the King founder and Madame de Maintenon were held in this court.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\-Cyr'' (1692\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''}} The conversion became effective from 1 December and the teachers were given the choice between taking solemn vows and thus becoming nuns, and leaving the Maison altogether. From 1692 to 1694, mother Priolo, from the Chaillot convent, was put in charge of their teaching during their time as novices. At the start of 1694, Madame de Loubert was replaced by Madame de Fontaines, but Madame de Maintenon \- more and more present at Saint\-Cyr – was recognised as honorary superior in spiritual and temporal charge of the Maison. The Maison then found itself right at the heart of the [quietism](/wiki/Quietism_%28Christian_philosophy%29 "Quietism (Christian philosophy)") affair, when [Madame Guyon](/wiki/Madame_Guyon "Madame Guyon"), who was linked in friendship with Madame de Maintenon and welcomed at Saint\-Cyr by her from 1689\. The example of her ecstasies very quickly influenced the students, worrying Madame de Maintenon \- moreover, she was being roundly criticised by the Jansenists, who accused her of allowing heretical thoughts to spread. She ended by sending the mystic away from Saint\-Cyr in 1694, before separating herself from Fénelon (who still supported Madame Guyon) in 1696 and withdrawing his books from the Maison. Finally, in 1698, she sent down the last adepts of quietism still present at Saint\-Cyr, Madame de la Maisonfort, cousin of Madame Guyon, and Madame du Tourp, putting an end to the quietism affair at Saint\-Cyr: {{Cquote\|Madame du Tourp was sent by lettre de cachet on 7 August 1698 to the Visitation de Grenoble and Madame de la Maisonfort to the daughters of the Visitation de Meaux. (…) Since this important visit by His Majesty, there were no longer any question of quietism, it was wholly extinct, and the bishop of Chartres took all possible precautions that there remained not the slightest trace of it.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\-Cyr'' (1698\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''}} ### Closure [200px\|thumb\|Marguerite de Guillermin, last abbess of Saint Cyr.](/wiki/File:Marguerite_de_Guillermin_last_abbess_of_Saint_Cyr.jpg "Marguerite de Guillermin last abbess of Saint Cyr.jpg") On the death of Louis XIV in 1715, Madame de Maintenon retired to Saint\-Cyr until her death on 15 April 1719\. She was embalmed and buried in the school chapel on 18 August. The Maison continued to function with great discretion, though the death of Madame de Maintenon and the succession of Louis XIV by his great\-grandson [Louis XV](/wiki/Louis_XV "Louis XV") took away the school's fashionable status. Even so, on 6 September 1715, the [regent](/wiki/Philippe_II%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Philippe II, Duke of Orléans") had visited Madame de Maintenon at Saint\-Cyr and guaranteed her that all the privileges acquired by the Maison would be maintained. Under Louis XV, in the absence of Madame de Maintenon, the new ideas of the Maison weakened and the education it provided was criticised,Rebecca Rogers, *Les demoiselles de la Légion d'honneur* at first by Louis XV himself in the 1730s \- he refused to send his daughters to Saint\-Cyr. The *Mémoires* of Madame du Hausset (Paris, 1824\) stated "These girls are prudes. (...) They are taught a manner that would make them all ladies of the palace, or they are unhappy and impertinent". In 1750, the [marquis d'Argenson](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson "René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson") even affirmed "We know the establishment at Saint\-Cyr is good for nothing. It produces nothing but prudes, who only marry in their provinces or are made to enrage their husbands.*Journal et mémoires du marquis d'Argenson* In 1786, [Élisabeth de France](/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_de_France "Élisabeth de France"), sister of [Louis XVI](/wiki/Louis_XVI "Louis XVI"), celebrated the centenary of the Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis, and a firework display was put on in its courtyard,[History of Saint\-Cyr](http://pagesperso-orange.fr/coldo/Historique/HistoireStCyr.htm), 1692/1786 though Louis XVI did not attend in person, watching it from the terraces at Versailles. The French Revolution and in particular its abolition of the clergy's and nobility's privileges put the Maison's raison d'être into doubt. In compensation, a decree of Louis XVI in 1790 authorised the school to admit non\-noble girls, but the [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_%28France%29 "Legislative Assembly (France)") decreed the school's closure on 16 August 1792, effective from March 1793 with the departure of its personnel and remaining students. From October 1793, the buildings were turned into a military hospital and remained so until 1798\. Later, in 1808, when its original buildings proved too small, Napoleon moved his [École spéciale militaire de Saint\-Cyr](/wiki/%C3%89cole_sp%C3%A9ciale_militaire_de_Saint-Cyr "École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr") there, taking over the old buildings of the Maison Royale,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.st\-cyr.terre.defense.gouv.fr/ressources/10102/97/1\.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010112059/http://www.st\-cyr.terre.defense.gouv.fr/ressources/10102/97/1\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=2008\-10\-10\|title\=Historique des Ecoles\|publisher\=\[\[École spéciale militaire de Saint\-Cyr]]\|language\=French\|accessdate\=2009\-11\-16}} where it remained until the Second World War. Since the second half of the 20th century the buildings of the Maison have been restored and now house the [Lycée militaire de Saint\-Cyr](/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_militaire_de_Saint-Cyr "Lycée militaire de Saint-Cyr").
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|right\\|Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon](/wiki/File:M%C5%82oda_Scarron.jpg \"Młoda Scarron.jpg\")", "### Maintenon's wishes", "The origins of the Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis were strongly linked to the youth of [Madame de Maintenon](/wiki/Madame_de_Maintenon \"Madame de Maintenon\"). She was herself from a noble family which had fallen on hard times; she received only a limited education, administered via the [convents](/wiki/Convent \"Convent\"), which were then the only institutions educating noble girls.Jacques Prévot, *La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon* Their curricula were minimal, with lessons in French, Latin, mathematics and domestic work. The main emphasis was on religion and liturgy, with no opening onto the real world.", "Madame de Maintenon later moved in intellectual circles, thanks to her first husband, [Scarron](/wiki/Scarron \"Scarron\"), before becoming governess to the children of [Madame de Montespan](/wiki/Madame_de_Montespan \"Madame de Montespan\"), giving her exposure to education and a vocation as an educator. Once beside Louis XIV, de Maintenon wished to improve the education available to girls from impoverished noble families, who were becoming increasingly numerous because many provincial noblemen died in Louis's wars or expended their fortunes in his service.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2009}}", "### Founding", "In 1680, Madame de Maintenon took on two nuns, the former [ursuline](/wiki/Ursulines \"Ursulines\") Madame de Brinon and her relation Madame de Saint\\-Pierre, who was the head of a small school established to train poor girls for jobs in domestic service. In 1686 she set the nuns up in a house at [Rueil](/wiki/Rueil-Malmaison \"Rueil-Malmaison\") which she had rented and fitted out.Éric Le Nabour, *La Marquise de Maintenon \\- L'épouse secrète de Louis XIV* She added twenty girls from poor noble families to students drawn from among the people, who were taught a different curriculum. In 1684 the Maison Royale was visited by the Chinese Catholic convert [Michael Shen Fu\\-Tsung](/wiki/Michael_Shen_Fu-Tsung \"Michael Shen Fu-Tsung\"). Also that year, on 3 February 1684, the school for daughters of impoverished noble families was moved to [Noisy\\-le\\-Roi](/wiki/Noisy-le-Roi \"Noisy-le-Roi\"), with help from the king, who offered the Château de Noisy, acquiring it and fitting it out to house more than 180 'pensionnaires'.Françoise Chandernagor, *L'Allée du Roi* On 15 August 1684, in [Grand Conseil](/wiki/Conseil_du_Roi \"Conseil du Roi\"), Louis XIV decreed the founding of {{cquote\\|a house and community where a considerable number of young girls, from noble families and particularly those whose fathers have died in the service ... are housed for free ... and receive all the educations suited to their birth and their sex ... so that after having studied in this community, those who leave it can be examples of modesty and virtue in all the provinces of our kingdom...}}", "[300px\\|thumb\\|Plan of the ground floor of the Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis.](/wiki/File:Plan_maison_royale.png \"Plan maison royale.png\")\nThe *domaine* of Saint\\-Cyr was assigned to the Maison in 1685, and the King ordered major building work on the domain next to [Versailles](/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles \"Palace of Versailles\"), led by [Jules Hardouin\\-Mansart](/wiki/Jules_Hardouin-Mansart \"Jules Hardouin-Mansart\").{{sfn\\|Bryant\\|2004\\|p\\=83}} The project cost the King 1,400,000 [livres](/wiki/French_livre \"French livre\").{{sfn\\|Bryant\\|2004\\|p\\=83}} Hardouin\\-Mansart's designs for the Maison used the U\\-shaped plan he often used elsewhere, with the buildings reserved for the mistresses and students forming an H, to which the school chapel had to be added to the west. The classrooms and students' dormitories were on the first and second floors respectively, the dormitories just above the classrooms for the corresponding classes. Each dormitory held 40 beds and was surrounded by two cells for the mistresses. Each classroom was also juxtaposed with a small supplementary dormitory with 20 beds, itself next to two cells for the mistresses. The infirmary was sited away from the dormitories to allow the sick to be isolated and thus avoid the spread of contagious diseases. The rooms reserved for pensionnaires were situated to the east of the buildings, to put them as far as possible from the visitor entrance, situated to the west at the level of the external courtyard.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2009}}", "In June 1686, after 15 months of work, Louis XIV gave the domain to the Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis, in [letters patent](/wiki/Letters_patent \"Letters patent\") of 18 and 26 June 1686 confirming the founding of the establishment.Jean\\-Paul Desprat, *Madame de Maintenon (1635\\-1719\\), ou le prix de la réputation* From 26 July to 1 August 1686, the pensionnaires, known as the \"Demoiselles de Saint\\-Cyr\", entered the establishment in a grand procession thanks to Louis, who lent them his carriages and his [Swiss guards](/wiki/Swiss_Guard%23Swiss_Guards_in_France \"Swiss Guard#Swiss Guards in France\"). Madame de Brinon was made the institution's superior for life, and Madame de Maintenon was given the title of \"Institutrice de la Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis\", which gave her total authority over the Maison. The King also granted her an apartment at Saint\\-Cyr which she could use when she wished. The school's chapel was consecrated to [Our Lady](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary \"Blessed Virgin Mary\") on 2 August that year and the relics of St Candide, previously held at the chapel of Noisy, were transferred there. The King made his first visit to Saint\\-Cyr in September 1686, when he was welcomed by the ladies and pensionnaires in a major ceremony.", "Major figures became interested in the foundation of the Maison Royale. At the start of 1687, [Fontenelle](/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bouyer_de_Fontenelle \"Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle\"), competing for an eloquence prize at the Académie, sang of \"les Demoiselles de Saint\\-Cyr\" and \"\\[their] famous model of beauty united with innocence.\"", "### Organisation", "[thumb\\|left\\|Two \"Demoiselles de Saint\\-Cyr\".](/wiki/File:DemoisellesDeSaintCyr.jpg \"DemoisellesDeSaintCyr.jpg\")", "The Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis was opened \"to the daughters of gentlemen who have been killed or exhausted their health or their fortune in the service of the State\", who would enter the school aged between 7 and 12\\. The King himself decided on who the school admitted, after consulting with experts on French genealogy who could guarantee that applicants possessed at least four generations of noble birth on their father's side. Many pensionnaires were daughters, nieces or orphans of soldiers and, though many of them were from Paris and its outskirts, the school had students from every province of France[List of students at Saint\\-Cyr by département](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/Listedem/index.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20110721025233/http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/Listedem/index.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-21 }} \\- from the archives of the Conseil général des Yvelines and even from abroad (*e.g.*, three [Québécoises](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\") in the 1750s). The school buildings housed 250 students, cared for by 36 female educators or \"professes\", 24 \"converses\" sisters carrying out domestic tasks, some priests, and lay personnel.", "The students, aged 7 to 20, were divided by age into four \"classes\". They wore a uniform in the form of a brown muslin robe akin to court robes, tied with ribbons whose colour indicated the wearer's class—red for 7 to 10 years old; green for 11 to 14; yellow for 15\\-16; and blue for 17\\-20\\. They also wore a white bonnet which left their hair partly uncovered. Each class had its own room.[Register of the \"red class\"](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/guide-et-inventaires/serieD/db/notices/304.htm){{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} \\- archives of the Conseil général des Yvelines. This uniform and division by age were echoed in Noisy:\n{{Cquote\\|\\[Madame de Maintenon] had a grand morning meeting one day in Noisy, carrying a basket full of blue, yellow, green and red ribbons by which she designated each Demoiselle in the class to which she was suited ... They were separated out into different bedrooms and thus called according to the name of their ribbon, the Red class, the Blue class, etc. There was some question of giving the students clothing that was uniform, simple, modest, but noble ... it was decided that they were to dress in brown Mans muslin, then more fashionable than it is today. This dress consisted of a coat and a skirt, the bonnet being of white canvas with a lace piece, all decorated with a ribbon.''Mémoires des Dames de Noisy'', cited in ''La première institutrice de France: Madame de Maintenon''}}", "Each class was headed by a \"maîtresse de classe\", who was herself supported by a second mistress and sub\\-mistresses. Some of the oldest and most talented students were deputised for these mistresses and wore black ribbons. Indeed, the role of the \"blacks\" was wider. Chosen from among the most talented and disciplined of the \"blues\", they were in charge of helping the teachers and in the hospital, refectory, accounts, etc.Jacques Prévot, *La première institutrice de France: Madame de Maintenon* The class mistresses were led by a \"Maîtresse générale des classes\", who not only coordinated the different classes but also had responsibility for the students outside of school hours.", "The mistresses and other ladies were not nuns but took \"simples\" or temporary religious vows of [poverty, chastity and obedience](/wiki/Poverty%2C_chastity_and_obedience \"Poverty, chastity and obedience\"), as well as vows to \"devote their life to the education and instruction of the demoiselles\", which Madame de Maintenon judged to be the most important vow of all. They were uniformly dressed in black muslin, with a black bonnet.", "The students were housed at Saint\\-Cyr until they reached 20 and were not supposed to leave it until that age, unless in cases of dismissal, marriage or \"exceptional family circumstances.\" When they left the school at the end of their studies, they received a [dowry](/wiki/Dowry \"Dowry\") of 3,000 livres either for a suitable marriage or to allow them to enter a convent. However, some ex\\-students did not leave and remained there as teachers. To guarantee the quality of teaching, students who wished to become teachers followed a \"noviciate\" of 6 years during which they were trained in teaching by the \"Maîtresse des novices\".", "The revenues to maintain the establishment came from rents and exploitation of its *domaines*, subsidies from the [Généralité de Paris](/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ralit%C3%A9_de_Paris \"Généralité de Paris\") and revenues of the [Abbaye de Saint\\-Denis](/wiki/Abbaye_de_Saint-Denis \"Abbaye de Saint-Denis\") to which it was attached.", "### Teaching", "[thumb\\|left\\|Rules of the Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis.](/wiki/File:R%C3%A8glement_a_l%27usage_de_Saint-Louis_de_Saint-Cyr.jpg \"Règlement a l'usage de Saint-Louis de Saint-Cyr.jpg\")", "The school's rules, often called *les Constitutions*, stated in article 54 \"what to teach young ladies\":[Exhibition on the Maison Royale](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/info_mn.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20110721025309/http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/info\\_mn.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-21 }}\n{{Cquote\\|First to learn of God and religion (...) They must be inspired with a great horror of vice and a great love of virtue \\[...]. They must learn the duties of an honest woman in her household, as regards her husband, children and servants \\[...]. They must learn to bear themselves with a good grace \\[...] they must learn to read perfectly, to write, spelling, arithmetic \\[...] Those meant for service must learn to comb, to dress hair ...}}", "Each class had a timetable appropriate to its students' age:\n* the \"reds\" learned reading, writing, [arithmetic](/wiki/Arithmetic \"Arithmetic\") and [geometry](/wiki/Geometry \"Geometry\"), receiving their first lessons in the [catechism](/wiki/Catechism \"Catechism\") and the rudiments of religious history and [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\")\n* the \"greens\" continued in these subjects, along with history and [geography](/wiki/Geography \"Geography\")\n* the \"yellows\" also learned drawing, singing, dance and music\n* the \"blues\" were initiated into heraldry, the history of the Catholic Church and more detailed teaching in [morality](/wiki/Morality \"Morality\")", "All the pensionnaires' days played out according to the same timetable : they got up at 6am and went to their classrooms at 7 with the first prayers of the days, before having their morning meal in the refectory. They then studied from 8 until 12 before having lunch. The lunch break lasted until 2pm, when classes began again. These lasted until 6pm, when they had supper. They finally went to bed at 9pm. Each moment of the day was punctuated by a prayer. This timetable was shorter than that of most convents, where students had to get up at 4am for [Matins](/wiki/Matins \"Matins\").", "Helping in the domestic tasks at the Maison Royale formed part of the students' education. The eldest, especially the \"blues\" and \"blacks\", had to assist at the refectory or the infirmary, or sewing clothes and dresses for their fellow students or the teachers. Their leisure time was also important and Madame de Maintenon encouraged the students to use them for intellectual games such as chess and checkers, though card games were banned. The 1709 *Mémoires des Dames de Saint\\-Cyr* wrote that:\n{{cquote\\|Madame \\[de Maintenon] was gracious to give to the classes a large number of sets of checkers, chess etc. and also strongly recommended that they be trained as regularly on them as on their books, because it was of great consequence to busy youth innocently and usefully, and that these sorts of games were proper to them.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\\-Cyr'' (1709\\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''}}", "According to the wishes of Madame de Maintenon, the education provided at Saint\\-Cyr was different from that traditionally practiced in convents, where education was minimal and principally centred on religion. The Maison's students were educated to be the future wives and ladies of the nobility, receiving an education that was severe but showed proof of the era's modernity, in particular in its refusal to neglect secular education to make time for religious education. The arts were also taught at Saint\\-Cyr — in particular theatre, which Madame de Maintenon appreciated \\- when convents generally did not teach these things, disapproving of actors. The personnel of the Maison were lay and not religious, which was unique for the era.", "This uniqueness did not prevent the Maison from imposing strict discipline \\- its students had no holidays and were not allowed to see their families more than four times a year, in the parlour. The dormitories were not heated, the beds were voluntarily hard in order not to 'soften' the pensionnaires, and they washed in cold water only.", "From 1698, Madame de Maintenon made unprecedented modifications to the Maison \\- each class was no longer placed entirely under the leadership of its mistresses, but split up into \"families\" of eight to ten students, each with a \"mother\", generally the eldest student in the group, and made the responsibility of one of the class mistresses. Each family had a banked semi\\-circular bench, with the students placed around the convex part and the mistress at the centre:\n{{Cquote\\|Madame de Maintenon, to better improve their conduct, thought of separating them into bands and substituting for the two big tables six or seven smaller ones, which would each have a fixed number of Demoiselles, with the students not allowed to sit anywhere else without instructions from the Mistresses. She made a first attempt at a small class size, and when this proved a success, the same thing was observed by the other classes and still remains to be seen to this day.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\\-Cyr'' (1699\\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''\".}}", "### Controversy over Racine's *Esther*", "[300px\\|thumb\\|Racine puts on a repeat performance of *Esther* by the students of Saint\\-Cyr in the presence of Louis XIV and Madame de Maintenon.](/wiki/File:RacineFait_RepeterEsther.jpg \"RacineFait RepeterEsther.jpg\")\nThe students at Saint\\-Cyr first learned theatre in plays written by Madame de Brinon, then in the *Conversations* written for them by Madame de Maintenon on different moral subjects. They then played in tragedies by [Corneille](/wiki/Pierre_Corneille \"Pierre Corneille\") and [Racine](/wiki/Jean_Racine \"Jean Racine\"). However, Madame de Maintenon was unhappy to see the Demoiselles playing scenes of amorous passion with too much ardour, and so Racine wrote the students a religious piece, *[Esther](/wiki/Esther_%28drama%29 \"Esther (drama)\")*, which Madame de Maintenon planned to put on before the King and court. This gave rise to a deep dispute between Madame de Maintenon and Madame de Brinon, with the latter opposed to a production that she suspected was only for Madame de Maintenon's own glory. This dispute was not new \\- since 1687, Madame de Brinon frequently reproached Madame de Maintenon for being around the establishment too much and imposing on Madame de Brinon, its superior. Being its superior for life, Madame de Brinon could not be replaced, but a [lettre de cachet](/wiki/Lettres_de_cachet \"Lettres de cachet\") sealed on 10 December 1688 allowed the play to be put on. Madame de Loubert, previously secretary to Madame de Maintenon and aged only 22, replaced Madame de Brinon as secretary on 19 May 1689\\.", "*Esther* was premiered on 26 January 1689 at Saint\\-Cyr in the presence of Louis XIV, Madame de Maintenon and many other courtiers. The girls who acted in the play, mostly \"blues\", received from Madame de Maintenon costumes decorated with diamonds and precious stones and, moreover, :\n{{Cquote\\|so that nothing in this spectacle might be disagreeable to this Prince, she had \\[\\[Persia]]n clothes made for all the Demoiselles who were to appear on the stage : they were very brilliant, ornamented with pearls and diamonds from the Temple, which had previously been used in the ballets.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\\-Cyr'' (1690\\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''}}", "The sets were designed by Borin, the set designer of the court spectacles, and the play's music was played by the King's musicians. The preparations for the production cost a total of more than 14,000 livres. There were four more productions of the play in February 1690, with the last on 19 February. [Marguerite de Villette](/wiki/Marthe-Marguerite_Le_Valois_de_Villette_de_Mursay%2C_marquise_de_Caylus \"Marthe-Marguerite Le Valois de Villette de Mursay, marquise de Caylus\"), aged 16 and recently married to the marquis de Caylus, played the rôle of Esther.", "The production's success was important to the King and his courtiers, so much so that they considered a great honour to be invited to it. However it quickly displeased Madame de Maintenon, who feared that the school's students would fall prey to courtiers and above all that the production would make them too proud:\n{{Cquote\\|So innocent and pious was the spectacle that attracted the whole world, it could by frequent visits become prejudicial to the Demoiselles ; it was this that brought criticism from the M. l'abbé des Marais and the Messieurs des Missions Etrangères : they believed that the applause of the King and the whole Court could form a trap capable of undoing the good Madame de Maintenon wanted to establish, that \\[the students] might give themselves over to vanity and love of the world from which they might find it difficult to return.}}", "### Further controversy", "[thumb\\|left\\|View of the Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis at the start of the 18th century.](/wiki/File:Vue_maison_royale_XVIII.jpg \"Vue maison royale XVIII.jpg\")", "After the production of *Esther*, Madame de Maintenon thought of cancelling all plays at Saint\\-Cyr, but the King demanded that they put on Racine's new play, *[Athalie](/wiki/Athalie \"Athalie\")* \\- their production began on 5 January 1691 and took place in an atmosphere of great discretion, with no costume other than the Saint\\-Cyr uniforms and in the presence of nobody but the royal family, except for 22 January when they were joined by [James](/wiki/James_II_of_England \"James II of England\") and [Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Modena \"Mary of Modena\") (former king and queen of England), [Fénelon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_F%C3%A9nelon \"François Fénelon\") and some bishops.", "The two guides of Madame de Maintenon's conscience, Fénelon and Abbé [Paul Godet des Marais](/wiki/Paul_Godet_des_Marais \"Paul Godet des Marais\") (who had become bishop of Chartres), demanded she renounce glory and return to Saint\\-Cyr its \"humility and simplicity\". The school's discipline became stricter, with bans on coquetterie and on books that had at first been allowed into Saint\\-Cyr but were now judged to be too profane for it.\n{{Cquote\\|(…) In the classes all the manuscripts not treating on pious subjects were sought out and removed. Moreover, to humble the Demoiselles, a show was made of neglecting them (...) the ribbon was diminished, only being given with prodigality once each quarter \\[ie trimester]}}\nMadame de Maintenon also recommended that teachers should not hesitate to punish students and contain their pride, stating:\n{{Cquote\\|Our girls were too considered, too caressed, too contrived ; they must forget themselves in their classes, be made to obey the rules of the day and not speak of anything else.}}\nShe also demanded that all males except priests be banned from the Maison, with even priests only allowed to meet the students in the confessional.", "### Conversion to a convent", "The church and the [Jansenists](/wiki/Jansenist \"Jansenist\") condemned the production of *Esther* and the lack of discipline which seemed to reign at Saint\\-Cyr, adding that girls' education should not be entrusted to lay people. Moreover, it was held to be incongruous that the Maison was a secular house, not a convent, and yet was financed by revenues from the [Abbey of Saint\\-Denis](/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint-Denis \"Basilica of Saint-Denis\"). Although neither Madame de Maintenon nor the King wanted the Maison to become a convent, she admitted that her attempt at secular education at Saint\\-Cyr had failed and accepted its transformation into a convent. Thus, in November 1692, the pope pronounced the extinction of the abbatial title of Saint\\-Denis, and the Maison's transformation into a convent was decided on in September 1692 – the pope's request was made via Godet des Marais:\n{{Cquote\\|the bishop of Chartres made supplication to His Holiness in the name of the Ladies of the Maison de Saint\\-Louis to obtain \\[permission for their] change from a secular state into a regular \\[\\[Augustinians\\|Augustinian]] one. All signed this request that the Bishop sent to Rome, a favour which it was not difficult to obtain, seeing the regard in which the King founder and Madame de Maintenon were held in this court.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\\-Cyr'' (1692\\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''}} \nThe conversion became effective from 1 December and the teachers were given the choice between taking solemn vows and thus becoming nuns, and leaving the Maison altogether. From 1692 to 1694, mother Priolo, from the Chaillot convent, was put in charge of their teaching during their time as novices.", "At the start of 1694, Madame de Loubert was replaced by Madame de Fontaines, but Madame de Maintenon \\- more and more present at Saint\\-Cyr – was recognised as honorary superior in spiritual and temporal charge of the Maison. The Maison then found itself right at the heart of the [quietism](/wiki/Quietism_%28Christian_philosophy%29 \"Quietism (Christian philosophy)\") affair, when [Madame Guyon](/wiki/Madame_Guyon \"Madame Guyon\"), who was linked in friendship with Madame de Maintenon and welcomed at Saint\\-Cyr by her from 1689\\. The example of her ecstasies very quickly influenced the students, worrying Madame de Maintenon \\- moreover, she was being roundly criticised by the Jansenists, who accused her of allowing heretical thoughts to spread. She ended by sending the mystic away from Saint\\-Cyr in 1694, before separating herself from Fénelon (who still supported Madame Guyon) in 1696 and withdrawing his books from the Maison. Finally, in 1698, she sent down the last adepts of quietism still present at Saint\\-Cyr, Madame de la Maisonfort, cousin of Madame Guyon, and Madame du Tourp, putting an end to the quietism affair at Saint\\-Cyr:\n{{Cquote\\|Madame du Tourp was sent by lettre de cachet on 7 August 1698 to the Visitation de Grenoble and Madame de la Maisonfort to the daughters of the Visitation de Meaux. (…) Since this important visit by His Majesty, there were no longer any question of quietism, it was wholly extinct, and the bishop of Chartres took all possible precautions that there remained not the slightest trace of it.''Mémoires des Dames de Saint\\-Cyr'' (1698\\), cited in ''La première institutrice de France : Madame de Maintenon''}}", "### Closure", "[200px\\|thumb\\|Marguerite de Guillermin, last abbess of Saint Cyr.](/wiki/File:Marguerite_de_Guillermin_last_abbess_of_Saint_Cyr.jpg \"Marguerite de Guillermin last abbess of Saint Cyr.jpg\")", "On the death of Louis XIV in 1715, Madame de Maintenon retired to Saint\\-Cyr until her death on 15 April 1719\\. She was embalmed and buried in the school chapel on 18 August. The Maison continued to function with great discretion, though the death of Madame de Maintenon and the succession of Louis XIV by his great\\-grandson [Louis XV](/wiki/Louis_XV \"Louis XV\") took away the school's fashionable status. Even so, on 6 September 1715, the [regent](/wiki/Philippe_II%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Philippe II, Duke of Orléans\") had visited Madame de Maintenon at Saint\\-Cyr and guaranteed her that all the privileges acquired by the Maison would be maintained.", "Under Louis XV, in the absence of Madame de Maintenon, the new ideas of the Maison weakened and the education it provided was criticised,Rebecca Rogers, *Les demoiselles de la Légion d'honneur* at first by Louis XV himself in the 1730s \\- he refused to send his daughters to Saint\\-Cyr. The *Mémoires* of Madame du Hausset (Paris, 1824\\) stated \"These girls are prudes. (...) They are taught a manner that would make them all ladies of the palace, or they are unhappy and impertinent\". In 1750, the [marquis d'Argenson](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson \"René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson\") even affirmed \"We know the establishment at Saint\\-Cyr is good for nothing. It produces nothing but prudes, who only marry in their provinces or are made to enrage their husbands.*Journal et mémoires du marquis d'Argenson*", "In 1786, [Élisabeth de France](/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_de_France \"Élisabeth de France\"), sister of [Louis XVI](/wiki/Louis_XVI \"Louis XVI\"), celebrated the centenary of the Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis, and a firework display was put on in its courtyard,[History of Saint\\-Cyr](http://pagesperso-orange.fr/coldo/Historique/HistoireStCyr.htm), 1692/1786 though Louis XVI did not attend in person, watching it from the terraces at Versailles. The French Revolution and in particular its abolition of the clergy's and nobility's privileges put the Maison's raison d'être into doubt. In compensation, a decree of Louis XVI in 1790 authorised the school to admit non\\-noble girls, but the [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_%28France%29 \"Legislative Assembly (France)\") decreed the school's closure on 16 August 1792, effective from March 1793 with the departure of its personnel and remaining students. From October 1793, the buildings were turned into a military hospital and remained so until 1798\\. Later, in 1808, when its original buildings proved too small, Napoleon moved his [École spéciale militaire de Saint\\-Cyr](/wiki/%C3%89cole_sp%C3%A9ciale_militaire_de_Saint-Cyr \"École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr\") there, taking over the old buildings of the Maison Royale,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.st\\-cyr.terre.defense.gouv.fr/ressources/10102/97/1\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010112059/http://www.st\\-cyr.terre.defense.gouv.fr/ressources/10102/97/1\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-10\\|title\\=Historique des Ecoles\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[École spéciale militaire de Saint\\-Cyr]]\\|language\\=French\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-11\\-16}} where it remained until the Second World War. Since the second half of the 20th century the buildings of the Maison have been restored and now house the [Lycée militaire de Saint\\-Cyr](/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_militaire_de_Saint-Cyr \"Lycée militaire de Saint-Cyr\").", "" ]
### Organisation [thumb\|left\|Two "Demoiselles de Saint\-Cyr".](/wiki/File:DemoisellesDeSaintCyr.jpg "DemoisellesDeSaintCyr.jpg") The Maison Royale de Saint\-Louis was opened "to the daughters of gentlemen who have been killed or exhausted their health or their fortune in the service of the State", who would enter the school aged between 7 and 12\. The King himself decided on who the school admitted, after consulting with experts on French genealogy who could guarantee that applicants possessed at least four generations of noble birth on their father's side. Many pensionnaires were daughters, nieces or orphans of soldiers and, though many of them were from Paris and its outskirts, the school had students from every province of France[List of students at Saint\-Cyr by département](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/Listedem/index.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20110721025233/http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/Listedem/index.htm \|date\=2011\-07\-21 }} \- from the archives of the Conseil général des Yvelines and even from abroad (*e.g.*, three [Québécoises](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec") in the 1750s). The school buildings housed 250 students, cared for by 36 female educators or "professes", 24 "converses" sisters carrying out domestic tasks, some priests, and lay personnel. The students, aged 7 to 20, were divided by age into four "classes". They wore a uniform in the form of a brown muslin robe akin to court robes, tied with ribbons whose colour indicated the wearer's class—red for 7 to 10 years old; green for 11 to 14; yellow for 15\-16; and blue for 17\-20\. They also wore a white bonnet which left their hair partly uncovered. Each class had its own room.[Register of the "red class"](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/guide-et-inventaires/serieD/db/notices/304.htm){{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} \- archives of the Conseil général des Yvelines. This uniform and division by age were echoed in Noisy: {{Cquote\|\[Madame de Maintenon] had a grand morning meeting one day in Noisy, carrying a basket full of blue, yellow, green and red ribbons by which she designated each Demoiselle in the class to which she was suited ... They were separated out into different bedrooms and thus called according to the name of their ribbon, the Red class, the Blue class, etc. There was some question of giving the students clothing that was uniform, simple, modest, but noble ... it was decided that they were to dress in brown Mans muslin, then more fashionable than it is today. This dress consisted of a coat and a skirt, the bonnet being of white canvas with a lace piece, all decorated with a ribbon.''Mémoires des Dames de Noisy'', cited in ''La première institutrice de France: Madame de Maintenon''}} Each class was headed by a "maîtresse de classe", who was herself supported by a second mistress and sub\-mistresses. Some of the oldest and most talented students were deputised for these mistresses and wore black ribbons. Indeed, the role of the "blacks" was wider. Chosen from among the most talented and disciplined of the "blues", they were in charge of helping the teachers and in the hospital, refectory, accounts, etc.Jacques Prévot, *La première institutrice de France: Madame de Maintenon* The class mistresses were led by a "Maîtresse générale des classes", who not only coordinated the different classes but also had responsibility for the students outside of school hours. The mistresses and other ladies were not nuns but took "simples" or temporary religious vows of [poverty, chastity and obedience](/wiki/Poverty%2C_chastity_and_obedience "Poverty, chastity and obedience"), as well as vows to "devote their life to the education and instruction of the demoiselles", which Madame de Maintenon judged to be the most important vow of all. They were uniformly dressed in black muslin, with a black bonnet. The students were housed at Saint\-Cyr until they reached 20 and were not supposed to leave it until that age, unless in cases of dismissal, marriage or "exceptional family circumstances." When they left the school at the end of their studies, they received a [dowry](/wiki/Dowry "Dowry") of 3,000 livres either for a suitable marriage or to allow them to enter a convent. However, some ex\-students did not leave and remained there as teachers. To guarantee the quality of teaching, students who wished to become teachers followed a "noviciate" of 6 years during which they were trained in teaching by the "Maîtresse des novices". The revenues to maintain the establishment came from rents and exploitation of its *domaines*, subsidies from the [Généralité de Paris](/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ralit%C3%A9_de_Paris "Généralité de Paris") and revenues of the [Abbaye de Saint\-Denis](/wiki/Abbaye_de_Saint-Denis "Abbaye de Saint-Denis") to which it was attached.
[ "### Organisation", "[thumb\\|left\\|Two \"Demoiselles de Saint\\-Cyr\".](/wiki/File:DemoisellesDeSaintCyr.jpg \"DemoisellesDeSaintCyr.jpg\")", "The Maison Royale de Saint\\-Louis was opened \"to the daughters of gentlemen who have been killed or exhausted their health or their fortune in the service of the State\", who would enter the school aged between 7 and 12\\. The King himself decided on who the school admitted, after consulting with experts on French genealogy who could guarantee that applicants possessed at least four generations of noble birth on their father's side. Many pensionnaires were daughters, nieces or orphans of soldiers and, though many of them were from Paris and its outskirts, the school had students from every province of France[List of students at Saint\\-Cyr by département](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/Listedem/index.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20110721025233/http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/actu/1999/Listedem/index.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-21 }} \\- from the archives of the Conseil général des Yvelines and even from abroad (*e.g.*, three [Québécoises](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\") in the 1750s). The school buildings housed 250 students, cared for by 36 female educators or \"professes\", 24 \"converses\" sisters carrying out domestic tasks, some priests, and lay personnel.", "The students, aged 7 to 20, were divided by age into four \"classes\". They wore a uniform in the form of a brown muslin robe akin to court robes, tied with ribbons whose colour indicated the wearer's class—red for 7 to 10 years old; green for 11 to 14; yellow for 15\\-16; and blue for 17\\-20\\. They also wore a white bonnet which left their hair partly uncovered. Each class had its own room.[Register of the \"red class\"](http://www.yvelines.fr/archives/guide-et-inventaires/serieD/db/notices/304.htm){{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} \\- archives of the Conseil général des Yvelines. This uniform and division by age were echoed in Noisy:\n{{Cquote\\|\\[Madame de Maintenon] had a grand morning meeting one day in Noisy, carrying a basket full of blue, yellow, green and red ribbons by which she designated each Demoiselle in the class to which she was suited ... They were separated out into different bedrooms and thus called according to the name of their ribbon, the Red class, the Blue class, etc. There was some question of giving the students clothing that was uniform, simple, modest, but noble ... it was decided that they were to dress in brown Mans muslin, then more fashionable than it is today. This dress consisted of a coat and a skirt, the bonnet being of white canvas with a lace piece, all decorated with a ribbon.''Mémoires des Dames de Noisy'', cited in ''La première institutrice de France: Madame de Maintenon''}}", "Each class was headed by a \"maîtresse de classe\", who was herself supported by a second mistress and sub\\-mistresses. Some of the oldest and most talented students were deputised for these mistresses and wore black ribbons. Indeed, the role of the \"blacks\" was wider. Chosen from among the most talented and disciplined of the \"blues\", they were in charge of helping the teachers and in the hospital, refectory, accounts, etc.Jacques Prévot, *La première institutrice de France: Madame de Maintenon* The class mistresses were led by a \"Maîtresse générale des classes\", who not only coordinated the different classes but also had responsibility for the students outside of school hours.", "The mistresses and other ladies were not nuns but took \"simples\" or temporary religious vows of [poverty, chastity and obedience](/wiki/Poverty%2C_chastity_and_obedience \"Poverty, chastity and obedience\"), as well as vows to \"devote their life to the education and instruction of the demoiselles\", which Madame de Maintenon judged to be the most important vow of all. They were uniformly dressed in black muslin, with a black bonnet.", "The students were housed at Saint\\-Cyr until they reached 20 and were not supposed to leave it until that age, unless in cases of dismissal, marriage or \"exceptional family circumstances.\" When they left the school at the end of their studies, they received a [dowry](/wiki/Dowry \"Dowry\") of 3,000 livres either for a suitable marriage or to allow them to enter a convent. However, some ex\\-students did not leave and remained there as teachers. To guarantee the quality of teaching, students who wished to become teachers followed a \"noviciate\" of 6 years during which they were trained in teaching by the \"Maîtresse des novices\".", "The revenues to maintain the establishment came from rents and exploitation of its *domaines*, subsidies from the [Généralité de Paris](/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ralit%C3%A9_de_Paris \"Généralité de Paris\") and revenues of the [Abbaye de Saint\\-Denis](/wiki/Abbaye_de_Saint-Denis \"Abbaye de Saint-Denis\") to which it was attached.", "" ]
Swimming career --------------- Hosszú is renowned throughout the swimming world for swimming many events well in a short space of time. During the third leg of the 2014 FINA/MASTBANK Swimming World Cup, organised in the Victoria Park Swimming Pool of Hong Kong, she got an unprecedented achievement winning 12 medals out of the 17 individual events for the two\-day meet. 10 gold (200 m, 400 m and 800 m free, 50 m, 100 m and 200 m backstroke, 200 m butterfly, 100 m, 200 m and 400 m individual medley) and 2 silver (50 m free and 50 m butterfly).{{cite news\|last\=Zaccardi\|first\=Nick\|url\=https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2014/09/29/katinka\-hosszu\-swimming\-fina\-world\-cup\-hong\-kong/\|title\=Katinka Hosszu wins 5 events in one night at FINA World Cup\|date\=29 September 2014\|work\=NBC Sports}}{{cite news\|last\=Hoare\|first\=Michael\|url\=http://www.fina.org/news/swc\-2014\-hong\-kong\-day\-1\-hosszu\-hun\-continues\-impress\|title\=SWC 2014, Hong Kong Day 1: Hosszu (HUN) continues to impress\|date\=29 September 2014\|work\=FINA}}{{cite news\|last\=Hoare\|first\=Michael\|url\=http://www.fina.org/news/swc\-2014\-hong\-kong\-day\-2\-hosszu\-hun\-finishes\-show\-five\-gold\-medals\|title\=SWC 2014, Hong Kong Day 2: Hosszu (HUN) finishes show with five gold medals\|date\=30 September 2014}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.swimmersdaily.com/2014/10/01/ten\-gold\-medals\-for\-katinka\-hosszu\-hun\-in\-hong\-kong/\|title\=Ten gold medals for Katinka Hosszu (HUN) in Hong Kong\|date\=1 October 2014\|work\=Swimmer′s Daily}} Hosszú is an active part of the swimming community as well. She is one of those 30 swimmers who have founded the Global Association of Professional Swimmers in 2017\.{{cite news\|last\=Carlson\|first\=Reid\|date\=4 July 2017\|title\=Katinka Hosszu Launches Pro Swimmers Union\|url\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\-hosszu\-launches\-pro\-swimmers\-union/\|work\=SwimSwam}} She is also working on reforming swimming as an entertainment by being the ambassador for the International Swimming League, a new initiative with the aim of organizing and reorganizing swimming competitions.{{cite news\|last\=Hart\|first\=Torrey\|date\=18 February 2019\|title\=Katinka Hosszu Signs On an ISL Ambassador \& Team Owner\|url\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\-hosszu\-signs\-on\-as\-isl\-ambassador\-team\-owner/\|work\=SwimSwam}} ### 2004 #### 2004 Summer Olympics {{See also\|Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics}} Hosszú made her international debut at the age of 15 representing Hungary at the [2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2004_Summer_Olympics "2004 Summer Olympics") where she competed in a single event [200\-meter freestyle](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_freestyle "Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre freestyle") finishing in position number 31 (2:04\.22\). #### 2004 European Short Course Swimming Championships She won her first medal at the [2004 European Short Course Swimming Championships](/wiki/2004_European_Short_Course_Swimming_Championships "2004 European Short Course Swimming Championships"), a bronze in the 400\-meter individual medley (4:35,41\). ### 2005 European Junior Swimming Championships At the [2005 European Junior Swimming Championships](/wiki/2005_European_Junior_Swimming_Championships "2005 European Junior Swimming Championships") held in Budapest she won three gold medals in 200\-meter freestyle, 400\-meter individual medley and the 4×100\-meter freestyle relay. Two silver medals in 400\-meter freestyle and the 4×200\-meter freestyle relay. And a bronze medal in the 800\-meter freestyle. ### 2008 European Championships She won her first long course medal at the [2008 European Championships](/wiki/2008_European_Aquatics_Championships "2008 European Aquatics Championships"), a silver in 400\-meter individual medley (4:37\.43\). ### 2009 World Championships {{See also\|Swimming at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships}} At the [2009 World Championships](/wiki/2009_World_Aquatics_Championships "2009 World Aquatics Championships") she won two bronze medals in the [200\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2009_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley") and [200\-meter butterfly](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2009_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_butterfly "Swimming at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre butterfly") before becoming World Champion in the [400\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2009_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley"). She was elected Hungarian Sportswoman of the Year for her achievements. ### 2010 European Championships At the [2010 European Championships](/wiki/2010_European_Aquatics_Championships "2010 European Aquatics Championships") held in her home country, she won a silver medal in 400\-meter medley and became European Champion in 200\-meter butterfly, 200\-meter medley and as a member of the 4 × 200\-meter freestyle relay team. ### 2011 NCAA Championships In 2011 Hosszú had one of the finest seasons in college history winning 3 individual National Championships: 200y IM (1:53\.39\), 400y IM (3:59\.75\) and 200y fly (1:51\.69\). She was named Pac\-10 Swimmer of the Year,{{cite news\|date\=7 April 2011\|title\=2011 Pac\-10 Women's Swimming Awards\|url\=https://pac\-12\.com/article/2011/04/07/2011\-pac\-10\-womens\-swimming\-awards\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731224201/https://pac\-12\.com/article/2011/04/07/2011\-pac\-10\-womens\-swimming\-awards\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=31 July 2019\|work\=Pac\-12 Conference}} CSCAA Swimmer of the Year{{cite web\|title\=CSCAA Swimmers and Divers\-of\-the\-Year\|url\=http://www.cscaa.org/athletes\-of\-the\-year\|work\=CSCAA\|access\-date\=31 July 2019}} and got the [Honda Sports Award](/wiki/Honda_Sports_Award "Honda Sports Award") in swimming and diving, designating her as the nation's top collegiate female athlete for this year in this sport.{{cite news\|last\=Keith\|first\=Braden\|date\=31 March 2011\|title\=USC's Katinka Hosszu Takes Home Honda Award as Top Female Swimmer\|url\=https://swimswam.com/uscs\-katinka\-hosszu\-takes\-home\-honda\-award\-as\-top\-female\-swimmer/\|work\=SwimSwam}}{{cite news\|date\=31 March 2011\|title\=Katinka Hosszu wins Honda Award\|url\=https://www.espn.com/college\-sports/news/story?id\=6278157\|work\=ESPN}}{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.collegiatewomensportsawards.com/archives/swimdive\|title\=Swimming \& Diving\|website\=CWSA\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-23}} ### 2012 Summer Olympics {{See also\|Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics}} Competing in the [2012 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics "2012 Summer Olympics"), she finished fourth in the [400\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre individual medley") with a time of 4:33\.49, just outside of the medals. She also finished eighth in the [200\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre individual medley") and missed the finals for the [200\-meter butterfly](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_butterfly "Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre butterfly"). Despite that after the disappointment at the 2012 London Olympics, Tamás Gyárfás, the then president of the [Hungarian Swimming Association](/wiki/Hungarian_Swimming_Association "Hungarian Swimming Association") even advised her to retire, she decided not to give up her swimming career and since then she has been coached by her husband Shane Tusup, a former American professional swimmer himself. ### 2013 In 2013, Hosszú set out to redeem herself after her medal\-less performance at the 2012 Olympics. She attended numerous competitions and swam highly rigorous programs at each one, earning herself the nickname of the "Iron Lady". She earned three medals (two gold, one bronze) at the World Championships and a gold and two silvers at the European Championships. She also amassed a total of 24 golds and broke 6 world records during the World Cup series.{{cite web\|last1\=Anderson\|first1\=Jared\|title\=2013 Swammy Awards: Female Swimmer of the Year Katinka Hosszu\|url\=https://swimswam.com/2013\-swammy\-award\-female\-swimmer\-year\-katinka\-hosszu/\|website\=SwimSwam\|date\=8 January 2014 \|access\-date\=14 August 2016}} #### 2013 World Championships {{See also\| Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships}} {{MedalTableTop\|name\=no\|header\=\[\[2013 World Aquatics Championships\|2013 World Championships]]}} {{MedalGold \| \[\[Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\|200 m individual medley]]\| 2:07\.92}} {{MedalGold \| \[\[Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\|400 m individual medley]]\| 4:30\.41}} {{MedalBronze \| \[\[Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre butterfly\|200 m butterfly]] \| 2:05\.59}} {{MedalBottom}} At the [2013 World Championships](/wiki/2013_World_Aquatics_Championships "2013 World Aquatics Championships"), she pulled out of the [100\-meter backstroke](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2013_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_backstroke "Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 100 metre backstroke") after qualifying second in the heats (preliminary races), to concentrate on the final of the [200\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2013_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley") which she subsequently won with a time of 2:07\.92\. She then touched third in the [200\-meter butterfly](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2013_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_butterfly "Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre butterfly") behind [Liu Zige](/wiki/Liu_Zige "Liu Zige") and [Mireia Belmonte](/wiki/Mireia_Belmonte "Mireia Belmonte"). She capped off her competition with a final gold in the [400\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2013_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley"), finishing in 4:30\.41\. #### 2013 World Cup Series [thumbnail\|230px\|left\|Hosszú in 2013](/wiki/File:Hossz%C3%BA_Katinka_2013.jpg "Hosszú Katinka 2013.jpg") Throughout the [2013 World Cup series](/wiki/2013_FINA_Swimming_World_Cup "2013 FINA Swimming World Cup"), she set world records in 100\-meter IM, 200\-meter IM, and 400\-meter IM, breaking the 200\-meter record twice and 100\-meter record three times. ### 2014 In 2014, Hosszú broke the short course world records in the 100\-meter and 200\-meter individual backstroke events and in 100\-, 200\-, and 400\-meter individual medleys. ### 2015 #### 2015 World Championships {{See also\|Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships}} {{MedalTableTop\|name\=no\|header\=\[\[2015 World Aquatics Championships\|2015 World Championships]]}} {{MedalGold \| \[\[Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\|200 m individual medley]]\| 2:06\.12 (WR)}} {{MedalGold \| \[\[Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\|400 m individual medley]]\| 4:30\.39}} {{MedalBronze \| \[\[Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre backstroke\|200 m backstroke]] \| 2:06\.84}} {{MedalBottom}} [Hosszú (right), Emily Seebohm of Australia, and Missy Franklin of U.S in the victory ceremony of 2015 World Aquatics Championships\|220px\|thumbnail\|left](/wiki/File:Kazan_2015_-_Victory_Ceremony_200m_backstroke_W.JPG "Kazan 2015 - Victory Ceremony 200m backstroke W.JPG") At the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Aquatics_Championships "2015 World Aquatics Championships") in Kazan, Hosszú again dealt with a monster programme, competing in the 200\- and 400\-meter individual medley, 100\- and 200\-meter backstroke, 100\- and 200\-meter freestyle, and 200\-meter butterfly. She posted the top time in the prelims of the [100\-meter backstroke](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2015_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_backstroke "Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 100 metre backstroke"), but elected to pull out of the semifinal to concentrate on the [200\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2015_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley") final, a decision which ultimately paid off. She broke the previous world record set by [Ariana Kukors](/wiki/Ariana_Kukors "Ariana Kukors") back in 2009 in a stunning time of 2:06\.12\. Hosszú's time of 58\.78 in the prelims of the 100\-meter backstroke would have earned her a bronze medal in the final; however the 200\-meter individual medley final was 30 minutes after the backstroke semifinal and swimming it might have cost her the gold medal and the world record in the 200\-meter individual medley. In addition, Hosszú won bronze in the 200\-meter backstroke, placed fifth in the 200\-meter freestyle, and capped it off with a victory in the 400\-meter individual medley on the last day. #### 2015 European Short Course Championships Hosszú won six gold medals at the [2015 European Short Course Championships](/wiki/2015_European_Short_Course_Swimming_Championships "2015 European Short Course Swimming Championships"), sweeping all three backstroke and three individual medley events. She broke world records in the 100\- and 400\-meter individual medleys. ### 2016 #### 2016 Summer Olympics {{See also\|Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics}} {{MedalTableTop\|name\=no\|header\=\[\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics\|2016 Olympics]]}} {{MedalGold\| \[\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics \- Women's 100 metre backstroke\|100 m backstroke]] \| 58\.45}} {{MedalGold\| \[\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics \- Women's 200 metre individual medley\|200 m individual medley]] \| 2:06\.58 (OR)}} {{MedalGold\| \[\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics \- Women's 400 metre individual medley\|400 m individual medley]] \| 4:26\.36 (WR)}} {{MedalSilver\| \[\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics \- Women's 200 metre backstroke\|200 m backstroke]] \| 2:06\.05}} {{MedalBottom}} [thumbnail\|250px\|Katinka Hosszú in Rio 2016\|right](/wiki/File:Hossz%C3%BA_Katinka_Rio_2016.jpg "Hosszú Katinka Rio 2016.jpg") At the [2016 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2016_Summer_Olympics "2016 Summer Olympics") in Rio de Janeiro, Hosszú won the gold medal and broke the world record in the [400\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre individual medley"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com/olympics/story/katinka\-hosszu\-crushes\-world\-record\-in\-400m\-im\-win\-080616\|title\=Katinka Hosszu crushes world record in 400m IM win\|work\=\[\[Fox Sports]]}} won the gold medal and broke the Olympic record in the [200\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre individual medley"), and won a third gold medal in the [100\-meter backstroke](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_backstroke "Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 100 metre backstroke").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rio2016\.com/en/swimming\-womens\-100m\-backstroke\-final \|title\=Swimming – 100m Backstroke Women's Final \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808165017/https://www.rio2016\.com/en/swimming\-womens\-100m\-backstroke\-final \|archive\-date\=8 August 2016 }} She also won a silver in the [200\-meter backstroke](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_backstroke "Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre backstroke") behind American [Maya DiRado](/wiki/Maya_DiRado "Maya DiRado").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rio2016\.com/en/swimming\-womens\-200m\-backstroke\-final \|title\=Swimming – 200m Backstroke Women's Final \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827020214/https://www.rio2016\.com/en/swimming\-womens\-200m\-backstroke\-final \|archive\-date\=27 August 2016 }} With 3 gold medals and 1 silver, Hosszú won more medals in individual events than any other swimmer in the 2016 Summer Olympics. #### 2016 World Short Course Championships In the [World Short Course Championships](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29 "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m)") in [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario "Windsor, Ontario"), Hosszú won a record 9 individual medals (7 gold and 2 silver) and reached 11 individual finals. She won the [100\-](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_individual_medley "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 100 metre individual medley"), [200\-](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 200 metre individual medley"), and [400\-meter individual medley](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 400 metre individual medley"), [100\-](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_butterfly "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 100 metre butterfly") and [200\-meter butterfly](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_butterfly "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 200 metre butterfly"), and [100\-](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_backstroke "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 100 metre backstroke") and [200\-meter backstroke](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_backstroke "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 200 metre backstroke"). Additionally, she took silver in the [200\-meter freestyle](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_freestyle "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 200 metre freestyle") and [50\-meter backstroke](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_50_metre_backstroke "2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 50 metre backstroke"). ### 2017 #### 2017 Swim Open Stockholm In April, Hosszú competed in Swim Open Stockholm and won the 1500\-meter freestyle event with a time of 16:22\.30\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.livetiming.se/results.php?cid\=3302\&session\=2\&round\=F\&event\=8\|title\=IC Control LiveTiming – Swim Open Stockholm 2017\|website\=livetiming.se\|access\-date\=8 April 2017}} She came second in the 200\-meter freestyle with a time of 1:57\.01, finishing behind [Michelle Coleman](/wiki/Michelle_Coleman "Michelle Coleman"). She also came second in the 50\-meter backstroke event with a time of 28\.54\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.livetiming.se/results.php?cid\=3302\&session\=2\&round\=F\&event\=4\|title\=IC Control LiveTiming – Swim Open Stockholm 2017\|website\=livetiming.se\|access\-date\=8 April 2017}} #### 2017 World Championships {{See also\| Swimming at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships}} [thumb\|Katinka Hosszú won gold in the 400\-meter individual medley](/wiki/File:Hossz%C3%BA_Katinka_-_a_400_m%C3%A9teres_vegyes%C3%BAsz%C3%A1s_gy%C5%91ztese%2C_2017.07.30.ogg "Hosszú Katinka - a 400 méteres vegyesúszás győztese, 2017.07.30.ogg") At the [2017 World Championships](/wiki/2017_World_Aquatics_Championships "2017 World Aquatics Championships") in her home country [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary"), Hosszú swam another rigorous schedule. She won her first gold medal in the [200\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2017_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley") with a time of 2:07\.00\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://swimswam.com/womens\-200\-im\-race\-video\-hosszu\-wins\-big\-front\-home\-crowd/\|title\=Women's 200 IM Race Video: Hosszu Wins Big in Front of Home Crowd\|work\=SwimSwam\|date\=24 July 2017}} She also won the gold medal and broke the Championships record in the [400\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2017_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley") with a time of 4:29\.33\.{{cite news\|url\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\-hosszu\-breaks\-cr\-wins\-400\-im\-in\-front\-of\-adoring\-budapest\-crowd\-race\-video/\|title\=Katinka Hosszu Breaks CR, Wins 400 IM in front of Adoring Budapest Crowd\|work\=SwimSwam\|date\=30 July 2017}} ### 2018 #### 2018 European Championships At the [2018 European Championship](/wiki/2018_European_Aquatics_Championships "2018 European Aquatics Championships") in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow") Hosszú won the gold medal in the [200\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2018_European_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2018 European Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley") becoming the first female swimmer to win the same event in five consecutive editions (2010\-2018\). She joined her compatriot [László Cseh](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Cseh "László Cseh") who achieved the same twice, in the 400m IM (2004\-2012\) and in the 200m IM (2006\-2014\).{{cite news\|title\=Sarah Sjostrom, Katinka Hosszu strike gold at Europeans\|url\=https://www.eurosport.com/swimming/european\-championships/2018/swimming\-peaty\-and\-sjoestroem\-strike\-triple\-gold\-at\-europeans\_sto6879958/story.shtml\|work\=Eurosport\|date\=8 August 2018}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www2\.len.eu/?p\=13156\|title\=European Championships 2018 – Swimming facts \& figures\|website\=LEN\|access\-date\=22 July 2019}} ### 2019 #### 2019 World Championships {{See also\|Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships}} {{MedalTableTop\|name\=no\|header\=\[\[2019 World Aquatics Championships\|2019 World Championships]]}} {{MedalGold \| \[\[Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\|200 m individual medley]]\| 2:07\.53}} {{MedalGold \| \[\[Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\|400 m individual medley]]\| 4:30\.39}} {{MedalBottom}} At the [2019 World Championships](/wiki/2019_World_Aquatics_Championships "2019 World Aquatics Championships") held in [Gwangju](/wiki/Gwangju "Gwangju"), South Korea, Hosszú became the first female swimmer ever to win four straight world titles (2013\-2019\) in a single event ([200m IM](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2019_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley")).{{cite news\|last\=Hart\|first\=Torrey\|date\=22 July 2019\|title\=Katinka Hosszu became the first woman to win four straight world titles in a single event\|url\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\-hosszu\-becomes\-1st\-woman\-to\-win\-4\-straight\-world\-titles\-in\-one\-event/\|work\=SwimSwam}}{{cite news\|date\=23 July 2019\|title\=Hosszu writes history with 4th straight 200m IM title as McNeil upsets Sjostrom\|url\=http://www.fina.org/news/hosszu\-writes\-history\-4th\-straight\-200m\-im\-title\-mcneil\-upsets\-sjostrom\|work\=FINA}} Six days later she also won the gold medal in the [400\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2019_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley "Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley") to become the first woman to win five world titles in the same event{{cite news\|last\=Ross\|first\=Andy\|date\=28 July 2019\|title\=Katinka Hosszu Becomes First Woman to Win Five World Titles in Same Event With 4:30 400 IM\|url\=https://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/news/katinka\-hosszu\-becomes\-first\-woman\-to\-win\-five\-world\-titles\-in\-same\-event\-with\-430\-400\-im/\|work\=Swimming World}} and only the second swimmer after [Michael Phelps](/wiki/Michael_Phelps "Michael Phelps") who achieved the same feat in the 200m fly.{{cite news\|date\=29 July 2019\|title\=Day of doubles: open water\-pool for Wellbrock, 4th straight IM 200\-400 for Hosszu, two titles in an hour for Manuel\|url\=https://www.fina.org/news/day\-doubles\-open\-water\-pool\-wellbrock\-4th\-straight\-im\-200\-400\-hosszu\-two\-titles\-hour\-manuel\|work\=FINA}} #### FINA World Cup On November the 1st Hosszú claimed her 300th overall gold medal at the FINA Swimming World Cup.{{cite news\|last\=Race\|first\=Retta\|date\=1 November 2019\|title\=Katinka Hosszu wraps up 300th gold medal with 200 fly win at World Cup in Kazan\|url\= https://swimswam.com/katinka\-hosszu\-wraps\-up\-300th\-gold\-medal\-with\-200fly\-win\-at\-world\-cup\-kazan/\|work\=SwimSwam}} #### International Swimming League The Hosszú\-owned professional swim team, [Team Iron](/wiki/Team_Iron "Team Iron") was founding member of the [International Swimming League](/wiki/International_Swimming_League "International Swimming League"). She was co\-captain of the team alongside [Peter John Stevens](/wiki/Peter_John_Stevens "Peter John Stevens"). During the [2019 International Swimming League](/wiki/2019_International_Swimming_League "2019 International Swimming League") season, Hosszú won the 200IM, 400IM and 200 fly events all 3 times the team competed. She also earned MVP title{{Cite web\|title\=Katinka Hosszu Becomes First Non\-Skins Winner to Earn ISL MVP\|url\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\-hosszu\-becomes\-first\-non\-skins\-winner\-to\-earn\-isl\-mvp/\|date\=2019\-10\-28\|website\=SwimSwam\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-15}} in the ISL Budapest match in [Duna Arena.](/wiki/Danube_Arena "Danube Arena"){{Cite web\|title\=ISL Global\|url\=https://isl.global/results/\|access\-date\=15 May 2020\|archive\-date\=31 October 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031115835/https://isl.global/results/\|url\-status\=dead}} ### 2020 #### 2020 European Championships At the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Aquatics_Championships "2020 European Aquatics Championships") Hosszú became the female swimmer with the most medals in the history of the European Championships. After winning one gold (400 IM) one silver (200 fly) and one bronze (200 IM) in Budapest, she now has 24 medals dating back to 2008 (15 gold, 6 silver, 3 bronze). Overall, she is ranked only behind [Alexander Popov](/wiki/Alexander_Popov_%28swimmer%29 "Alexander Popov (swimmer)") who won 26 medals (21 gold) in his European Champs career.{{cite news\|last\=Takata\|first\=Daniel\|date\=21 May 2021\|title\=Hosszu, Peaty among history\-makers at 2021 European Championships\|url\=https://swimswam.com/hosszu\-peaty\-among\-history\-makers\-at\-2021\-european\-championships/\|work\=SwimSwam}} #### 2020 Summer Olympics {{See also\|Swimming at the 2020 Summer Olympics}} Hosszú did not perform well in the [2020 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics "2020 Summer Olympics"), failing to reach the 200m backstroke final and finishing only fifth in the 400m medley and seventh in the 200m one. She would attribute this to the standstill in the one year delay caused by the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), cancelling the tournaments she entered to keep herself in competition rhythm, while analysts added that Hosszú was not helped by being among the oldest swimmers and constantly changing coaches starting with her 2018 split with Tusup.{{cite news \|url\=https://hungarytoday.hu/tokyo\-olympics\-swimming\-legend\-katinka\-hosszu\-performance/ \|title\=Tokyo Olympics: What Happened to Swimming Legend Katinka Hosszú? \|date\=30 July 2021 \|work\= Hungary today}} ### 2022\-24 In the [2022 World Aquatics Championships](/wiki/2022_World_Aquatics_Championships "2022 World Aquatics Championships"), Hosszú failed to medal by finishing 7th in the 200m individual medley and 5th in the 400m individual medley. In the [2022 European Championships](/wiki/2022_European_Aquatics_Championships "2022 European Aquatics Championships") that followed, Hosszú only medaled once, as part of Hungary's 4x200m freestyle relay, while only reaching the 200 individual medley final and finishing 8th. Afterwards she claimed that she would probably not be swimming by the [2024 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2024_Summer_Olympics "2024 Summer Olympics"), instead settling down with coach Máté Gelencsér, who she married a few weeks after the European Championship.{{cite news\|last\=Attila\|first\=Ághassi\|date\=17 August 2023\|title\=It's hard to see Katinka Hosszú like this\|url\=https://telex.hu/english/2022/08/17/its\-hard\-to\-see\-katinka\-hosszu\-like\-this\|work\=Telex}} Hosszú gave birth to daughter in August 2023,[Hungarian Iron Lady Hosszú and husband welcome first child](https://dailynewshungary.com/hungarian-iron-lady-hosszu-and-husband-welcome-first-child/#google_vignette), Daily News Hungary and a few months later started training hoping to enter her sixth Olympics.[New Mom Katinka Hosszu, 34, Returns to Training With Goal of Making 6th Olympics in Paris](https://swimswam.com/new-mom-katinka-hosszu-34-returns-to-training-with-goal-of-making-6th-olympics-in-paris/) but she wound up not reaching the necessary qualifying times.[Katinka Hosszu Fails to Qualify for Sixth Olympics in Paris at Sette Colli Trophy](https://swimswam.com/katinka-hosszu-fails-to-qualify-for-sixth-olympics-in-paris-at-sette-colli-trophy/)
[ "Swimming career\n---------------", "Hosszú is renowned throughout the swimming world for swimming many events well in a short space of time. During the third leg of the 2014 FINA/MASTBANK Swimming World Cup, organised in the Victoria Park Swimming Pool of Hong Kong, she got an unprecedented achievement winning 12 medals out of the 17 individual events for the two\\-day meet. 10 gold (200 m, 400 m and 800 m free, 50 m, 100 m and 200 m backstroke, 200 m butterfly, 100 m, 200 m and 400 m individual medley) and 2 silver (50 m free and 50 m butterfly).{{cite news\\|last\\=Zaccardi\\|first\\=Nick\\|url\\=https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2014/09/29/katinka\\-hosszu\\-swimming\\-fina\\-world\\-cup\\-hong\\-kong/\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu wins 5 events in one night at FINA World Cup\\|date\\=29 September 2014\\|work\\=NBC Sports}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Hoare\\|first\\=Michael\\|url\\=http://www.fina.org/news/swc\\-2014\\-hong\\-kong\\-day\\-1\\-hosszu\\-hun\\-continues\\-impress\\|title\\=SWC 2014, Hong Kong Day 1: Hosszu (HUN) continues to impress\\|date\\=29 September 2014\\|work\\=FINA}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Hoare\\|first\\=Michael\\|url\\=http://www.fina.org/news/swc\\-2014\\-hong\\-kong\\-day\\-2\\-hosszu\\-hun\\-finishes\\-show\\-five\\-gold\\-medals\\|title\\=SWC 2014, Hong Kong Day 2: Hosszu (HUN) finishes show with five gold medals\\|date\\=30 September 2014}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.swimmersdaily.com/2014/10/01/ten\\-gold\\-medals\\-for\\-katinka\\-hosszu\\-hun\\-in\\-hong\\-kong/\\|title\\=Ten gold medals for Katinka Hosszu (HUN) in Hong Kong\\|date\\=1 October 2014\\|work\\=Swimmer′s Daily}}", "Hosszú is an active part of the swimming community as well. She is one of those 30 swimmers who have founded the Global Association of Professional Swimmers in 2017\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Carlson\\|first\\=Reid\\|date\\=4 July 2017\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu Launches Pro Swimmers Union\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\\-hosszu\\-launches\\-pro\\-swimmers\\-union/\\|work\\=SwimSwam}} She is also working on reforming swimming as an entertainment by being the ambassador for the International Swimming League, a new initiative with the aim of organizing and reorganizing swimming competitions.{{cite news\\|last\\=Hart\\|first\\=Torrey\\|date\\=18 February 2019\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu Signs On an ISL Ambassador \\& Team Owner\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\\-hosszu\\-signs\\-on\\-as\\-isl\\-ambassador\\-team\\-owner/\\|work\\=SwimSwam}}", "### 2004", "#### 2004 Summer Olympics", "{{See also\\|Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics}}", "Hosszú made her international debut at the age of 15 representing Hungary at the [2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2004_Summer_Olympics \"2004 Summer Olympics\") where she competed in a single event [200\\-meter freestyle](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_freestyle \"Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre freestyle\") finishing in position number 31 (2:04\\.22\\).", "#### 2004 European Short Course Swimming Championships", "She won her first medal at the [2004 European Short Course Swimming Championships](/wiki/2004_European_Short_Course_Swimming_Championships \"2004 European Short Course Swimming Championships\"), a bronze in the 400\\-meter individual medley (4:35,41\\).", "### 2005 European Junior Swimming Championships", "At the [2005 European Junior Swimming Championships](/wiki/2005_European_Junior_Swimming_Championships \"2005 European Junior Swimming Championships\") held in Budapest she won three gold medals in 200\\-meter freestyle, 400\\-meter individual medley and the 4×100\\-meter freestyle relay. Two silver medals in 400\\-meter freestyle and the 4×200\\-meter freestyle relay. And a bronze medal in the 800\\-meter freestyle.", "### 2008 European Championships", "She won her first long course medal at the [2008 European Championships](/wiki/2008_European_Aquatics_Championships \"2008 European Aquatics Championships\"), a silver in 400\\-meter individual medley (4:37\\.43\\).", "### 2009 World Championships", "{{See also\\|Swimming at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships}}\nAt the [2009 World Championships](/wiki/2009_World_Aquatics_Championships \"2009 World Aquatics Championships\") she won two bronze medals in the [200\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2009_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\") and [200\\-meter butterfly](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2009_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_butterfly \"Swimming at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre butterfly\") before becoming World Champion in the [400\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2009_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\"). She was elected Hungarian Sportswoman of the Year for her achievements.", "### 2010 European Championships", "At the [2010 European Championships](/wiki/2010_European_Aquatics_Championships \"2010 European Aquatics Championships\") held in her home country, she won a silver medal in 400\\-meter medley and became European Champion in 200\\-meter butterfly, 200\\-meter medley and as a member of the 4 × 200\\-meter freestyle relay team.", "### 2011 NCAA Championships", "In 2011 Hosszú had one of the finest seasons in college history winning 3 individual National Championships: 200y IM (1:53\\.39\\), 400y IM (3:59\\.75\\) and 200y fly (1:51\\.69\\). She was named Pac\\-10 Swimmer of the Year,{{cite news\\|date\\=7 April 2011\\|title\\=2011 Pac\\-10 Women's Swimming Awards\\|url\\=https://pac\\-12\\.com/article/2011/04/07/2011\\-pac\\-10\\-womens\\-swimming\\-awards\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731224201/https://pac\\-12\\.com/article/2011/04/07/2011\\-pac\\-10\\-womens\\-swimming\\-awards\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2019\\|work\\=Pac\\-12 Conference}} CSCAA Swimmer of the Year{{cite web\\|title\\=CSCAA Swimmers and Divers\\-of\\-the\\-Year\\|url\\=http://www.cscaa.org/athletes\\-of\\-the\\-year\\|work\\=CSCAA\\|access\\-date\\=31 July 2019}} and got the [Honda Sports Award](/wiki/Honda_Sports_Award \"Honda Sports Award\") in swimming and diving, designating her as the nation's top collegiate female athlete for this year in this sport.{{cite news\\|last\\=Keith\\|first\\=Braden\\|date\\=31 March 2011\\|title\\=USC's Katinka Hosszu Takes Home Honda Award as Top Female Swimmer\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/uscs\\-katinka\\-hosszu\\-takes\\-home\\-honda\\-award\\-as\\-top\\-female\\-swimmer/\\|work\\=SwimSwam}}{{cite news\\|date\\=31 March 2011\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu wins Honda Award\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/college\\-sports/news/story?id\\=6278157\\|work\\=ESPN}}{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.collegiatewomensportsawards.com/archives/swimdive\\|title\\=Swimming \\& Diving\\|website\\=CWSA\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-23}}", "### 2012 Summer Olympics", "{{See also\\|Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics}}", "Competing in the [2012 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics \"2012 Summer Olympics\"), she finished fourth in the [400\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre individual medley\") with a time of 4:33\\.49, just outside of the medals. She also finished eighth in the [200\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre individual medley\") and missed the finals for the [200\\-meter butterfly](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_butterfly \"Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre butterfly\").", "Despite that after the disappointment at the 2012 London Olympics, Tamás Gyárfás, the then president of the [Hungarian Swimming Association](/wiki/Hungarian_Swimming_Association \"Hungarian Swimming Association\") even advised her to retire, she decided not to give up her swimming career and since then she has been coached by her husband Shane Tusup, a former American professional swimmer himself.", "### 2013", "In 2013, Hosszú set out to redeem herself after her medal\\-less performance at the 2012 Olympics. She attended numerous competitions and swam highly rigorous programs at each one, earning herself the nickname of the \"Iron Lady\". She earned three medals (two gold, one bronze) at the World Championships and a gold and two silvers at the European Championships. She also amassed a total of 24 golds and broke 6 world records during the World Cup series.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Anderson\\|first1\\=Jared\\|title\\=2013 Swammy Awards: Female Swimmer of the Year Katinka Hosszu\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/2013\\-swammy\\-award\\-female\\-swimmer\\-year\\-katinka\\-hosszu/\\|website\\=SwimSwam\\|date\\=8 January 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2016}}", "#### 2013 World Championships", "{{See also\\| Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships}}", "{{MedalTableTop\\|name\\=no\\|header\\=\\[\\[2013 World Aquatics Championships\\|2013 World Championships]]}}\n{{MedalGold \\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\\|200 m individual medley]]\\| 2:07\\.92}}\n{{MedalGold \\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\\|400 m individual medley]]\\| 4:30\\.41}}\n{{MedalBronze \\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre butterfly\\|200 m butterfly]] \\| 2:05\\.59}}\n{{MedalBottom}}", "At the [2013 World Championships](/wiki/2013_World_Aquatics_Championships \"2013 World Aquatics Championships\"), she pulled out of the [100\\-meter backstroke](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2013_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_backstroke \"Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 100 metre backstroke\") after qualifying second in the heats (preliminary races), to concentrate on the final of the [200\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2013_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\") which she subsequently won with a time of 2:07\\.92\\. She then touched third in the [200\\-meter butterfly](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2013_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_butterfly \"Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre butterfly\") behind [Liu Zige](/wiki/Liu_Zige \"Liu Zige\") and [Mireia Belmonte](/wiki/Mireia_Belmonte \"Mireia Belmonte\"). She capped off her competition with a final gold in the [400\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2013_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\"), finishing in 4:30\\.41\\.", "#### 2013 World Cup Series", "[thumbnail\\|230px\\|left\\|Hosszú in 2013](/wiki/File:Hossz%C3%BA_Katinka_2013.jpg \"Hosszú Katinka 2013.jpg\")\nThroughout the [2013 World Cup series](/wiki/2013_FINA_Swimming_World_Cup \"2013 FINA Swimming World Cup\"), she set world records in 100\\-meter IM, 200\\-meter IM, and 400\\-meter IM, breaking the 200\\-meter record twice and 100\\-meter record three times.", "### 2014", "In 2014, Hosszú broke the short course world records in the 100\\-meter and 200\\-meter individual backstroke events and in 100\\-, 200\\-, and 400\\-meter individual medleys.", "### 2015", "#### 2015 World Championships", "{{See also\\|Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships}}", "{{MedalTableTop\\|name\\=no\\|header\\=\\[\\[2015 World Aquatics Championships\\|2015 World Championships]]}}\n{{MedalGold \\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\\|200 m individual medley]]\\| 2:06\\.12 (WR)}}\n{{MedalGold \\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\\|400 m individual medley]]\\| 4:30\\.39}}\n{{MedalBronze \\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre backstroke\\|200 m backstroke]] \\| 2:06\\.84}}\n{{MedalBottom}}\n[Hosszú (right), Emily Seebohm of Australia, and Missy Franklin of U.S in the victory ceremony of 2015 World Aquatics Championships\\|220px\\|thumbnail\\|left](/wiki/File:Kazan_2015_-_Victory_Ceremony_200m_backstroke_W.JPG \"Kazan 2015 - Victory Ceremony 200m backstroke W.JPG\")\nAt the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Aquatics_Championships \"2015 World Aquatics Championships\") in Kazan, Hosszú again dealt with a monster programme, competing in the 200\\- and 400\\-meter individual medley, 100\\- and 200\\-meter backstroke, 100\\- and 200\\-meter freestyle, and 200\\-meter butterfly. She posted the top time in the prelims of the [100\\-meter backstroke](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2015_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_backstroke \"Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 100 metre backstroke\"), but elected to pull out of the semifinal to concentrate on the [200\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2015_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\") final, a decision which ultimately paid off. She broke the previous world record set by [Ariana Kukors](/wiki/Ariana_Kukors \"Ariana Kukors\") back in 2009 in a stunning time of 2:06\\.12\\. Hosszú's time of 58\\.78 in the prelims of the 100\\-meter backstroke would have earned her a bronze medal in the final; however the 200\\-meter individual medley final was 30 minutes after the backstroke semifinal and swimming it might have cost her the gold medal and the world record in the 200\\-meter individual medley. In addition, Hosszú won bronze in the 200\\-meter backstroke, placed fifth in the 200\\-meter freestyle, and capped it off with a victory in the 400\\-meter individual medley on the last day.", "#### 2015 European Short Course Championships", "Hosszú won six gold medals at the [2015 European Short Course Championships](/wiki/2015_European_Short_Course_Swimming_Championships \"2015 European Short Course Swimming Championships\"), sweeping all three backstroke and three individual medley events. She broke world records in the 100\\- and 400\\-meter individual medleys.", "### 2016", "#### 2016 Summer Olympics", "{{See also\\|Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics}}", "{{MedalTableTop\\|name\\=no\\|header\\=\\[\\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics\\|2016 Olympics]]}}\n{{MedalGold\\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics \\- Women's 100 metre backstroke\\|100 m backstroke]] \\| 58\\.45}}\n{{MedalGold\\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics \\- Women's 200 metre individual medley\\|200 m individual medley]] \\| 2:06\\.58 (OR)}}\n{{MedalGold\\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics \\- Women's 400 metre individual medley\\|400 m individual medley]] \\| 4:26\\.36 (WR)}}\n{{MedalSilver\\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics \\- Women's 200 metre backstroke\\|200 m backstroke]] \\| 2:06\\.05}}\n{{MedalBottom}}\n[thumbnail\\|250px\\|Katinka Hosszú in Rio 2016\\|right](/wiki/File:Hossz%C3%BA_Katinka_Rio_2016.jpg \"Hosszú Katinka Rio 2016.jpg\")\nAt the [2016 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2016_Summer_Olympics \"2016 Summer Olympics\") in Rio de Janeiro, Hosszú won the gold medal and broke the world record in the [400\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre individual medley\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com/olympics/story/katinka\\-hosszu\\-crushes\\-world\\-record\\-in\\-400m\\-im\\-win\\-080616\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu crushes world record in 400m IM win\\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports]]}} won the gold medal and broke the Olympic record in the [200\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre individual medley\"), and won a third gold medal in the [100\\-meter backstroke](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_backstroke \"Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 100 metre backstroke\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rio2016\\.com/en/swimming\\-womens\\-100m\\-backstroke\\-final \\|title\\=Swimming – 100m Backstroke Women's Final \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808165017/https://www.rio2016\\.com/en/swimming\\-womens\\-100m\\-backstroke\\-final \\|archive\\-date\\=8 August 2016 }} She also won a silver in the [200\\-meter backstroke](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_backstroke \"Swimming at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 200 metre backstroke\") behind American [Maya DiRado](/wiki/Maya_DiRado \"Maya DiRado\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rio2016\\.com/en/swimming\\-womens\\-200m\\-backstroke\\-final \\|title\\=Swimming – 200m Backstroke Women's Final \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827020214/https://www.rio2016\\.com/en/swimming\\-womens\\-200m\\-backstroke\\-final \\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2016 }} With 3 gold medals and 1 silver, Hosszú won more medals in individual events than any other swimmer in the 2016 Summer Olympics.", "#### 2016 World Short Course Championships", "In the [World Short Course Championships](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29 \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m)\") in [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario \"Windsor, Ontario\"), Hosszú won a record 9 individual medals (7 gold and 2 silver) and reached 11 individual finals. She won the [100\\-](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_individual_medley \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 100 metre individual medley\"), [200\\-](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 200 metre individual medley\"), and [400\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 400 metre individual medley\"), [100\\-](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_butterfly \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 100 metre butterfly\") and [200\\-meter butterfly](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_butterfly \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 200 metre butterfly\"), and [100\\-](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_100_metre_backstroke \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 100 metre backstroke\") and [200\\-meter backstroke](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_backstroke \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 200 metre backstroke\"). Additionally, she took silver in the [200\\-meter freestyle](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_freestyle \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 200 metre freestyle\") and [50\\-meter backstroke](/wiki/2016_FINA_World_Swimming_Championships_%2825_m%29_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_50_metre_backstroke \"2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) – Women's 50 metre backstroke\").", "### 2017", "#### 2017 Swim Open Stockholm", "In April, Hosszú competed in Swim Open Stockholm and won the 1500\\-meter freestyle event with a time of 16:22\\.30\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.livetiming.se/results.php?cid\\=3302\\&session\\=2\\&round\\=F\\&event\\=8\\|title\\=IC Control LiveTiming – Swim Open Stockholm 2017\\|website\\=livetiming.se\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2017}} She came second in the 200\\-meter freestyle with a time of 1:57\\.01, finishing behind [Michelle Coleman](/wiki/Michelle_Coleman \"Michelle Coleman\"). She also came second in the 50\\-meter backstroke event with a time of 28\\.54\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.livetiming.se/results.php?cid\\=3302\\&session\\=2\\&round\\=F\\&event\\=4\\|title\\=IC Control LiveTiming – Swim Open Stockholm 2017\\|website\\=livetiming.se\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2017}}", "#### 2017 World Championships", "{{See also\\| Swimming at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships}}\n[thumb\\|Katinka Hosszú won gold in the 400\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/File:Hossz%C3%BA_Katinka_-_a_400_m%C3%A9teres_vegyes%C3%BAsz%C3%A1s_gy%C5%91ztese%2C_2017.07.30.ogg \"Hosszú Katinka - a 400 méteres vegyesúszás győztese, 2017.07.30.ogg\")\nAt the [2017 World Championships](/wiki/2017_World_Aquatics_Championships \"2017 World Aquatics Championships\") in her home country [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\"), Hosszú swam another rigorous schedule. She won her first gold medal in the [200\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2017_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\") with a time of 2:07\\.00\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/womens\\-200\\-im\\-race\\-video\\-hosszu\\-wins\\-big\\-front\\-home\\-crowd/\\|title\\=Women's 200 IM Race Video: Hosszu Wins Big in Front of Home Crowd\\|work\\=SwimSwam\\|date\\=24 July 2017}} She also won the gold medal and broke the Championships record in the [400\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2017_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\") with a time of 4:29\\.33\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\\-hosszu\\-breaks\\-cr\\-wins\\-400\\-im\\-in\\-front\\-of\\-adoring\\-budapest\\-crowd\\-race\\-video/\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu Breaks CR, Wins 400 IM in front of Adoring Budapest Crowd\\|work\\=SwimSwam\\|date\\=30 July 2017}}", "### 2018", "#### 2018 European Championships", "At the [2018 European Championship](/wiki/2018_European_Aquatics_Championships \"2018 European Aquatics Championships\") in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\") Hosszú won the gold medal in the [200\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2018_European_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2018 European Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\") becoming the first female swimmer to win the same event in five consecutive editions (2010\\-2018\\). She joined her compatriot [László Cseh](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Cseh \"László Cseh\") who achieved the same twice, in the 400m IM (2004\\-2012\\) and in the 200m IM (2006\\-2014\\).{{cite news\\|title\\=Sarah Sjostrom, Katinka Hosszu strike gold at Europeans\\|url\\=https://www.eurosport.com/swimming/european\\-championships/2018/swimming\\-peaty\\-and\\-sjoestroem\\-strike\\-triple\\-gold\\-at\\-europeans\\_sto6879958/story.shtml\\|work\\=Eurosport\\|date\\=8 August 2018}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www2\\.len.eu/?p\\=13156\\|title\\=European Championships 2018 – Swimming facts \\& figures\\|website\\=LEN\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019}}", "### 2019", "#### 2019 World Championships", "{{See also\\|Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships}}", "{{MedalTableTop\\|name\\=no\\|header\\=\\[\\[2019 World Aquatics Championships\\|2019 World Championships]]}}\n{{MedalGold \\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\\|200 m individual medley]]\\| 2:07\\.53}}\n{{MedalGold \\| \\[\\[Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\\|400 m individual medley]]\\| 4:30\\.39}}\n{{MedalBottom}}", "At the [2019 World Championships](/wiki/2019_World_Aquatics_Championships \"2019 World Aquatics Championships\") held in [Gwangju](/wiki/Gwangju \"Gwangju\"), South Korea, Hosszú became the first female swimmer ever to win four straight world titles (2013\\-2019\\) in a single event ([200m IM](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2019_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_200_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 200 metre individual medley\")).{{cite news\\|last\\=Hart\\|first\\=Torrey\\|date\\=22 July 2019\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu became the first woman to win four straight world titles in a single event\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\\-hosszu\\-becomes\\-1st\\-woman\\-to\\-win\\-4\\-straight\\-world\\-titles\\-in\\-one\\-event/\\|work\\=SwimSwam}}{{cite news\\|date\\=23 July 2019\\|title\\=Hosszu writes history with 4th straight 200m IM title as McNeil upsets Sjostrom\\|url\\=http://www.fina.org/news/hosszu\\-writes\\-history\\-4th\\-straight\\-200m\\-im\\-title\\-mcneil\\-upsets\\-sjostrom\\|work\\=FINA}} Six days later she also won the gold medal in the [400\\-meter individual medley](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_2019_World_Aquatics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_400_metre_individual_medley \"Swimming at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships – Women's 400 metre individual medley\") to become the first woman to win five world titles in the same event{{cite news\\|last\\=Ross\\|first\\=Andy\\|date\\=28 July 2019\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu Becomes First Woman to Win Five World Titles in Same Event With 4:30 400 IM\\|url\\=https://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/news/katinka\\-hosszu\\-becomes\\-first\\-woman\\-to\\-win\\-five\\-world\\-titles\\-in\\-same\\-event\\-with\\-430\\-400\\-im/\\|work\\=Swimming World}} and only the second swimmer after [Michael Phelps](/wiki/Michael_Phelps \"Michael Phelps\") who achieved the same feat in the 200m fly.{{cite news\\|date\\=29 July 2019\\|title\\=Day of doubles: open water\\-pool for Wellbrock, 4th straight IM 200\\-400 for Hosszu, two titles in an hour for Manuel\\|url\\=https://www.fina.org/news/day\\-doubles\\-open\\-water\\-pool\\-wellbrock\\-4th\\-straight\\-im\\-200\\-400\\-hosszu\\-two\\-titles\\-hour\\-manuel\\|work\\=FINA}}", "#### FINA World Cup", "On November the 1st Hosszú claimed her 300th overall gold medal at the FINA Swimming World Cup.{{cite news\\|last\\=Race\\|first\\=Retta\\|date\\=1 November 2019\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu wraps up 300th gold medal with 200 fly win at World Cup in Kazan\\|url\\= https://swimswam.com/katinka\\-hosszu\\-wraps\\-up\\-300th\\-gold\\-medal\\-with\\-200fly\\-win\\-at\\-world\\-cup\\-kazan/\\|work\\=SwimSwam}}", "#### International Swimming League", "The Hosszú\\-owned professional swim team, [Team Iron](/wiki/Team_Iron \"Team Iron\") was founding member of the [International Swimming League](/wiki/International_Swimming_League \"International Swimming League\"). She was co\\-captain of the team alongside [Peter John Stevens](/wiki/Peter_John_Stevens \"Peter John Stevens\"). During the [2019 International Swimming League](/wiki/2019_International_Swimming_League \"2019 International Swimming League\") season, Hosszú won the 200IM, 400IM and 200 fly events all 3 times the team competed. She also earned MVP title{{Cite web\\|title\\=Katinka Hosszu Becomes First Non\\-Skins Winner to Earn ISL MVP\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/katinka\\-hosszu\\-becomes\\-first\\-non\\-skins\\-winner\\-to\\-earn\\-isl\\-mvp/\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-28\\|website\\=SwimSwam\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-15}} in the ISL Budapest match in [Duna Arena.](/wiki/Danube_Arena \"Danube Arena\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=ISL Global\\|url\\=https://isl.global/results/\\|access\\-date\\=15 May 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031115835/https://isl.global/results/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### 2020", "#### 2020 European Championships", "At the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Aquatics_Championships \"2020 European Aquatics Championships\") Hosszú became the female swimmer with the most medals in the history of the European Championships. After winning one gold (400 IM) one silver (200 fly) and one bronze (200 IM) in Budapest, she now has 24 medals dating back to 2008 (15 gold, 6 silver, 3 bronze). Overall, she is ranked only behind [Alexander Popov](/wiki/Alexander_Popov_%28swimmer%29 \"Alexander Popov (swimmer)\") who won 26 medals (21 gold) in his European Champs career.{{cite news\\|last\\=Takata\\|first\\=Daniel\\|date\\=21 May 2021\\|title\\=Hosszu, Peaty among history\\-makers at 2021 European Championships\\|url\\=https://swimswam.com/hosszu\\-peaty\\-among\\-history\\-makers\\-at\\-2021\\-european\\-championships/\\|work\\=SwimSwam}}", "#### 2020 Summer Olympics", "{{See also\\|Swimming at the 2020 Summer Olympics}}", "Hosszú did not perform well in the [2020 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics \"2020 Summer Olympics\"), failing to reach the 200m backstroke final and finishing only fifth in the 400m medley and seventh in the 200m one. She would attribute this to the standstill in the one year delay caused by the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), cancelling the tournaments she entered to keep herself in competition rhythm, while analysts added that Hosszú was not helped by being among the oldest swimmers and constantly changing coaches starting with her 2018 split with Tusup.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://hungarytoday.hu/tokyo\\-olympics\\-swimming\\-legend\\-katinka\\-hosszu\\-performance/ \\|title\\=Tokyo Olympics: What Happened to Swimming Legend Katinka Hosszú? \\|date\\=30 July 2021 \\|work\\= Hungary today}}\n### 2022\\-24", "In the [2022 World Aquatics Championships](/wiki/2022_World_Aquatics_Championships \"2022 World Aquatics Championships\"), Hosszú failed to medal by finishing 7th in the 200m individual medley and 5th in the 400m individual medley. In the [2022 European Championships](/wiki/2022_European_Aquatics_Championships \"2022 European Aquatics Championships\") that followed, Hosszú only medaled once, as part of Hungary's 4x200m freestyle relay, while only reaching the 200 individual medley final and finishing 8th. Afterwards she claimed that she would probably not be swimming by the [2024 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2024_Summer_Olympics \"2024 Summer Olympics\"), instead settling down with coach Máté Gelencsér, who she married a few weeks after the European Championship.{{cite news\\|last\\=Attila\\|first\\=Ághassi\\|date\\=17 August 2023\\|title\\=It's hard to see Katinka Hosszú like this\\|url\\=https://telex.hu/english/2022/08/17/its\\-hard\\-to\\-see\\-katinka\\-hosszu\\-like\\-this\\|work\\=Telex}}", "Hosszú gave birth to daughter in August 2023,[Hungarian Iron Lady Hosszú and husband welcome first child](https://dailynewshungary.com/hungarian-iron-lady-hosszu-and-husband-welcome-first-child/#google_vignette), Daily News Hungary and a few months later started training hoping to enter her sixth Olympics.[New Mom Katinka Hosszu, 34, Returns to Training With Goal of Making 6th Olympics in Paris](https://swimswam.com/new-mom-katinka-hosszu-34-returns-to-training-with-goal-of-making-6th-olympics-in-paris/) but she wound up not reaching the necessary qualifying times.[Katinka Hosszu Fails to Qualify for Sixth Olympics in Paris at Sette Colli Trophy](https://swimswam.com/katinka-hosszu-fails-to-qualify-for-sixth-olympics-in-paris-at-sette-colli-trophy/)", "" ]
Rival claimants --------------- The [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 "Catholic League (French)")'s candidate for the crown of France in 1589 was [Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon](/wiki/Charles%2C_Cardinal_de_Bourbon_%28born_1523%29 "Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon (born 1523)"). The brother of Antoine of Bourbon (and Henry of Navarre's uncle), he was the last surviving Catholic prince of the blood. However, two factors made him an unconvincing choice: he was 66 years old, and he was firmly in the custody of first Henry III and then Henry IV. The cardinal found himself imprisoned in 1588, when Henry III ordered the murder of [Henry, Duke of Guise](/wiki/Henry_I%2C_Duke_of_Guise "Henry I, Duke of Guise"), at the [Château of Blois](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Blois "Château de Blois") and rounded up those he regarded as a threat to his crown, including the Cardinal of Bourbon. On Henry III's death, Henry IV assumed responsibility for his captive rival. The League proved unable to free the cardinal, and when he died on 9 May 1590, they were left without a plausible successor as claimant to the throne. That proved fatal to their opposition to Henry's rule.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2022}} During the period between the succession of Henry IV and the death of the Cardinal of Bourbon, the city of Paris had achieved a degree of independence. While acknowledging the Catholic League and accepting a Spanish garrison, the authorities there had championed their liberties against those of the crown so much that some citizens openly opposed the institution of monarchy altogether. In October 1589, a Parisian lawyer complained publicly, "Our civil disorder and factions have opened the door to a crowd of corrupt little men who, with effrontery, have attacked authority with such licence and audacity that those who have not seen it would not believe it. In so doing, they have wanted to jump from a monarchy to a democracy".Quoted in Greengrass, 56\. The death of the Cardinal of Bourbon prompted measures to elect a new [anti\-king](/wiki/Anti-king "Anti-king"). Although the French monarchy was [hereditary](/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy "Hereditary monarchy"), the League's lawyers searched the early history of France for precedents to legitimise the election of a king.Greengrass, 56\. The Protestant scholar and ideologue [François Hotman](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hotman "François Hotman") had argued in his *Francogallia* that France was once a free country, whose liberties had been eroded over time, including the right to elect kings.Greengrass, 12\. Hotman had asserted the right of the Estates\-General to perform this function. Though Hotman was a [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant"), his argument also influenced Catholic jurists searching for a means to replace the Cardinal of Bourbon at the beginning of the 1590s and the decision to summon the Estates\-General to elect a new "king".Greengrass, 13\. The meeting of the [Estates General that opened on 26 January 1593](/wiki/Estates_General_of_1593 "Estates General of 1593") proved far from representative. Many royalist delegates refused to attend, and other delegates were blocked by royalist troops from reaching Paris. By then, deep divisions in the League had become apparent. The League's leader, [Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne](/wiki/Charles_of_Lorraine%2C_Duke_of_Mayenne "Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne"), had repeatedly disputed the strategy of the [Duke of Parma](/wiki/Alexander_Farnese%2C_Duke_of_Parma "Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma"), the Governor of the [Spanish Netherlands](/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands "Spanish Netherlands"), whom Philip II sent into northern France to reinforce the League.Buisseret, 42\. Mayenne had also quarrelled with his nephew, [Charles, Duke of Guise](/wiki/Charles%2C_Duke_of_Guise "Charles, Duke of Guise"), whom some wanted to elect king. Finally, Mayenne was at odds with many Parisian leaders, particularly with the *Sixteen*, a group of city representatives who pursued their own libertarian agenda and often worked with the Spanish behind Mayenne's back.Buisseret, 42\. In November 1591, when the Sixteen executed a group of moderates from the Paris *parlement*, Mayenne hanged or imprisoned the ringleaders. Mayenne, who nursed ambitions to be king himself, saw his grand alliance of Catholic nobles, French towns and Spain crumbling from a growing disunity of purpose and the absence of an obvious claimant to the throne.Buisseret, 42\. It was widely believed among Catholics that the pope's blessing was essential to the legitimacy of a king of France because of the Protestant faith of Henry.Mousnier, 108\. There was also a belief in some quarters that the original papal blessing of Charlemagne was conferred automatically on his descendants, including Henry. At the time of his succession, Henry IV was under a papal [excommunication](/wiki/Excommunication "Excommunication"), which had been imposed by [Pope Sixtus V](/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_V "Pope Sixtus V") on 21 September 1585, and so the papacy considered it legitimate for Henry's subjects to oppose his rule, both as King of Navarre and, after 1589, as King of France. The persistence of rebellion and civil war in the early years of Henry's reign owed much to the papacy's refusal to accept anyone but a Catholic on the French throne.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2022}} [thumb\|[Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne](/wiki/Charles_of_Lorraine%2C_Duke_of_Mayenne "Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne")](/wiki/File:Mayenne-charles.jpg "Mayenne-charles.jpg") Mayenne was opposed to the idea of summoning the Estates\-General to elect a king, but in 1592, he finally caved in to Spanish pressure to do so. Mayenne opened the assembly with a symbolically empty chair beside him.Buisseret, 43\. The influence of Spain on the assembly soon proved problematic. Spain sought the election of the [Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain](/wiki/Infanta_Isabella_Clara_Eugenia_of_Spain "Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain"), the daughter of [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain "Philip II of Spain") and Henry III's niece and would\-be\-heiress under male\-preference primogeniture. The Spanish urged the Estates\-General to repeal the [Salic law](/wiki/Salic_law "Salic law"), which prevented the rule of a [queen regnant](/wiki/Queen_regnant "Queen regnant"), but in so doing, they failed to grasp a fundamental principle of the French royal succession.Greengrass, 56–57; Mousnier, 119\. The Spanish ambassador in Paris had instructions to "insinuate cleverly" the rights of the Infanta to the French throne. His brief also stated that the Salic Law "was a pure invention... as the most learned and discerning of their lawyers recognise".Greengrass, 56–57\. The Estates\-General of the Catholic League insisted that if Clara Isabella Eugenia were to be chosen, she should marry a French prince. Philip II, however, wanted her to marry [Archduke Ernest of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Ernest_of_Austria "Archduke Ernest of Austria").Mousnier, 119\. The Estates replied that "our laws and customs prevent us from calling forward as king any prince not of our nation".Buisseret, 43\. On 28 June 1593, the Paris *parlement* followed up by resolving "to preserve the realm which depends on God alone and recognizes no other ruler of its temporal affairs, no matter what his status, and to prevent it from being overrun by foreigners in the fair name of religion".Mousnier, 119–120\. While the delegates of the Estates\-General dithered in Paris, Henry IV dealt a well\-timed blow to their deliberations by announcing his wish to be converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, a move that effectively cut the ground from under the Catholic League's feet. The Estates\-General sent delegates to treat with Henry's representatives, and on 8 August, most of the members of the assembly returned home.Buisseret, 43\.
[ "Rival claimants\n---------------", "The [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 \"Catholic League (French)\")'s candidate for the crown of France in 1589 was [Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon](/wiki/Charles%2C_Cardinal_de_Bourbon_%28born_1523%29 \"Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon (born 1523)\"). The brother of Antoine of Bourbon (and Henry of Navarre's uncle), he was the last surviving Catholic prince of the blood. However, two factors made him an unconvincing choice: he was 66 years old, and he was firmly in the custody of first Henry III and then Henry IV. The cardinal found himself imprisoned in 1588, when Henry III ordered the murder of [Henry, Duke of Guise](/wiki/Henry_I%2C_Duke_of_Guise \"Henry I, Duke of Guise\"), at the [Château of Blois](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Blois \"Château de Blois\") and rounded up those he regarded as a threat to his crown, including the Cardinal of Bourbon. On Henry III's death, Henry IV assumed responsibility for his captive rival. The League proved unable to free the cardinal, and when he died on 9 May 1590, they were left without a plausible successor as claimant to the throne. That proved fatal to their opposition to Henry's rule.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2022}}", "During the period between the succession of Henry IV and the death of the Cardinal of Bourbon, the city of Paris had achieved a degree of independence. While acknowledging the Catholic League and accepting a Spanish garrison, the authorities there had championed their liberties against those of the crown so much that some citizens openly opposed the institution of monarchy altogether. In October 1589, a Parisian lawyer complained publicly, \"Our civil disorder and factions have opened the door to a crowd of corrupt little men who, with effrontery, have attacked authority with such licence and audacity that those who have not seen it would not believe it. In so doing, they have wanted to jump from a monarchy to a democracy\".Quoted in Greengrass, 56\\.", "The death of the Cardinal of Bourbon prompted measures to elect a new [anti\\-king](/wiki/Anti-king \"Anti-king\"). Although the French monarchy was [hereditary](/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy \"Hereditary monarchy\"), the League's lawyers searched the early history of France for precedents to legitimise the election of a king.Greengrass, 56\\. The Protestant scholar and ideologue [François Hotman](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hotman \"François Hotman\") had argued in his *Francogallia* that France was once a free country, whose liberties had been eroded over time, including the right to elect kings.Greengrass, 12\\. Hotman had asserted the right of the Estates\\-General to perform this function. Though Hotman was a [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\"), his argument also influenced Catholic jurists searching for a means to replace the Cardinal of Bourbon at the beginning of the 1590s and the decision to summon the Estates\\-General to elect a new \"king\".Greengrass, 13\\.", "The meeting of the [Estates General that opened on 26 January 1593](/wiki/Estates_General_of_1593 \"Estates General of 1593\") proved far from representative. Many royalist delegates refused to attend, and other delegates were blocked by royalist troops from reaching Paris. By then, deep divisions in the League had become apparent. The League's leader, [Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne](/wiki/Charles_of_Lorraine%2C_Duke_of_Mayenne \"Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne\"), had repeatedly disputed the strategy of the [Duke of Parma](/wiki/Alexander_Farnese%2C_Duke_of_Parma \"Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma\"), the Governor of the [Spanish Netherlands](/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands \"Spanish Netherlands\"), whom Philip II sent into northern France to reinforce the League.Buisseret, 42\\. Mayenne had also quarrelled with his nephew, [Charles, Duke of Guise](/wiki/Charles%2C_Duke_of_Guise \"Charles, Duke of Guise\"), whom some wanted to elect king. Finally, Mayenne was at odds with many Parisian leaders, particularly with the *Sixteen*, a group of city representatives who pursued their own libertarian agenda and often worked with the Spanish behind Mayenne's back.Buisseret, 42\\.", "In November 1591, when the Sixteen executed a group of moderates from the Paris *parlement*, Mayenne hanged or imprisoned the ringleaders. Mayenne, who nursed ambitions to be king himself, saw his grand alliance of Catholic nobles, French towns and Spain crumbling from a growing disunity of purpose and the absence of an obvious claimant to the throne.Buisseret, 42\\.", "It was widely believed among Catholics that the pope's blessing was essential to the legitimacy of a king of France because of the Protestant faith of Henry.Mousnier, 108\\. There was also a belief in some quarters that the original papal blessing of Charlemagne was conferred automatically on his descendants, including Henry. At the time of his succession, Henry IV was under a papal [excommunication](/wiki/Excommunication \"Excommunication\"), which had been imposed by [Pope Sixtus V](/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_V \"Pope Sixtus V\") on 21 September 1585, and so the papacy considered it legitimate for Henry's subjects to oppose his rule, both as King of Navarre and, after 1589, as King of France. The persistence of rebellion and civil war in the early years of Henry's reign owed much to the papacy's refusal to accept anyone but a Catholic on the French throne.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2022}}", "[thumb\\|[Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne](/wiki/Charles_of_Lorraine%2C_Duke_of_Mayenne \"Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne\")](/wiki/File:Mayenne-charles.jpg \"Mayenne-charles.jpg\")\nMayenne was opposed to the idea of summoning the Estates\\-General to elect a king, but in 1592, he finally caved in to Spanish pressure to do so. Mayenne opened the assembly with a symbolically empty chair beside him.Buisseret, 43\\. The influence of Spain on the assembly soon proved problematic. Spain sought the election of the [Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain](/wiki/Infanta_Isabella_Clara_Eugenia_of_Spain \"Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain\"), the daughter of [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\") and Henry III's niece and would\\-be\\-heiress under male\\-preference primogeniture. The Spanish urged the Estates\\-General to repeal the [Salic law](/wiki/Salic_law \"Salic law\"), which prevented the rule of a [queen regnant](/wiki/Queen_regnant \"Queen regnant\"), but in so doing, they failed to grasp a fundamental principle of the French royal succession.Greengrass, 56–57; Mousnier, 119\\.", "The Spanish ambassador in Paris had instructions to \"insinuate cleverly\" the rights of the Infanta to the French throne. His brief also stated that the Salic Law \"was a pure invention... as the most learned and discerning of their lawyers recognise\".Greengrass, 56–57\\. The Estates\\-General of the Catholic League insisted that if Clara Isabella Eugenia were to be chosen, she should marry a French prince. Philip II, however, wanted her to marry [Archduke Ernest of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Ernest_of_Austria \"Archduke Ernest of Austria\").Mousnier, 119\\. The Estates replied that \"our laws and customs prevent us from calling forward as king any prince not of our nation\".Buisseret, 43\\. On 28 June 1593, the Paris *parlement* followed up by resolving \"to preserve the realm which depends on God alone and recognizes no other ruler of its temporal affairs, no matter what his status, and to prevent it from being overrun by foreigners in the fair name of religion\".Mousnier, 119–120\\.", "While the delegates of the Estates\\-General dithered in Paris, Henry IV dealt a well\\-timed blow to their deliberations by announcing his wish to be converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, a move that effectively cut the ground from under the Catholic League's feet. The Estates\\-General sent delegates to treat with Henry's representatives, and on 8 August, most of the members of the assembly returned home.Buisseret, 43\\.", "" ]
Career ------ Born in Thessaloniki, Pozatzidis came through the academy at PAOK, making his first team debut at age 20 in August 2014\. He would make five Super League 1 appearances in the 2014/15 season before moving on from his hometown club. After gaining experience in a series of short stints at Panionios, Kalamaria, Kalloni, and Lamia, Pozatzidis would become a regular starter for the first time in his career in the 2017/18 season, splitting the season between Karditsa and Panserraikos. In summer 2018, Pozatzidis signed for Platanias, and he would be a key player in the team that made a run for promotion in 2018/19, ultimately finishing in second place and losing 3\-2 on aggregate to Super League 1 club OFI Crete in a promotion\-relegation playoff. Pozatzidis spent two seasons at Platanias followed by two seasons at Ergotelis, before joining Kifisia last summer. In the 2022/23 season, Pozatzidis made 16 appearances (13 starts) as Kifisia edged out AKFC by one point to achieve promotion to the first division. In July 2023, Pozatzidis signed with [Athens Kallithea FC](/wiki/Athens_Kallithea_F.C. "Athens Kallithea F.C.").{{cite news\|url\=https://akfc66\.gr/men/news/stelios\-pozatzidis\-joins\-athens\-kallithea\-fc\|title\=Stelios Pozatzidis joins Athens Kallithea FC\|publisher\=Athens Kallithea FC\|access\-date\=2023\-07\-03}}
[ "Career\n------", "Born in Thessaloniki, Pozatzidis came through the academy at PAOK, making his first team debut at age 20 in August 2014\\. He would make five Super League 1 appearances in the 2014/15 season before moving on from his hometown club.", "After gaining experience in a series of short stints at Panionios, Kalamaria, Kalloni, and Lamia, Pozatzidis would become a regular starter for the first time in his career in the 2017/18 season, splitting the season between Karditsa and Panserraikos.", "In summer 2018, Pozatzidis signed for Platanias, and he would be a key player in the team that made a run for promotion in 2018/19, ultimately finishing in second place and losing 3\\-2 on aggregate to Super League 1 club OFI Crete in a promotion\\-relegation playoff.", "Pozatzidis spent two seasons at Platanias followed by two seasons at Ergotelis, before joining Kifisia last summer.", "In the 2022/23 season, Pozatzidis made 16 appearances (13 starts) as Kifisia edged out AKFC by one point to achieve promotion to the first division.", "In July 2023, Pozatzidis signed with [Athens Kallithea FC](/wiki/Athens_Kallithea_F.C. \"Athens Kallithea F.C.\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://akfc66\\.gr/men/news/stelios\\-pozatzidis\\-joins\\-athens\\-kallithea\\-fc\\|title\\=Stelios Pozatzidis joins Athens Kallithea FC\\|publisher\\=Athens Kallithea FC\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-03}}", "" ]
Grey North by\-election ----------------------- During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") the [Liberals](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada "Liberal Party of Canada") and [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada_%28historic%29 "Conservative Party of Canada (historic)") parties agreed not to run candidates against each other in by\-elections and to allow whichever party had held the riding before the by\-election to run without opposition. This pact was strained in 1942 when [William Lyon Mackenzie King](/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King "William Lyon Mackenzie King")'s Liberals allegedly backed [Joseph Noseworthy](/wiki/Joseph_Noseworthy "Joseph Noseworthy") of the [Co\-operative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Co-operative_Commonwealth_Federation "Co-operative Commonwealth Federation") (which had refused to agree to the "truce") in his candidacy against new Conservative leader [Arthur Meighen](/wiki/Arthur_Meighen "Arthur Meighen") who was attempting to enter the House of Commons via a by\-election in [York South](/wiki/York_South_%28federal_electoral_district%29 "York South (federal electoral district)"). Noseworthy upset Meighen in the vote leaving the Tories leaderless. On 1 November 1944, General McNaughton was appointed to Mackenzie King's cabinet as [Minister of Defence](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28Canada%29 "Minister of Defence (Canada)") replacing [James Ralston](/wiki/James_Ralston "James Ralston") who had resigned as a result of the [Conscription Crisis of 1944](/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1944 "Conscription Crisis of 1944"). Ralston, who was pro\-conscription, had quit because the King government refused to go as far as he wanted in sending conscripts overseas and was also encouraged to quit as he was distrusted in Quebec where conscription was unpopular. McNaughton had been a believer in an all volunteer military and was appointed to replace Ralston but soon found himself under pressure from the government to enact a limited conscription policy. By constitutional convention, McNaughton, as a minister of the crown, needed to seek a seat in parliament as soon as possible. The sitting Liberal MP, [William P. Telford](/wiki/William_Pattison_Telford%2C_Jr. "William Pattison Telford, Jr."), had been unable to attend sittings of the House of Commons for a year due to illness and was persuaded to resign in order to enable McNaugton to contest a seat in a by\-election. The Tories, who had renamed themselves the [Progressive Conservative Party of Canada](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Canada "Progressive Conservative Party of Canada") decided to stand Wilfrid Case against McNaughton in the by\-election. In June 1944, Case was nominated as the Progressive Conservative candidate for the projected [1945 federal election](/wiki/1945_Canadian_federal_election "1945 Canadian federal election") and when the incumbent Liberal MP resigned his seat in favour of General McNaughton, the Tories decided to run Case in the by\-election after party leader [John Bracken](/wiki/John_Bracken "John Bracken") decided to not run as a candidate himself. During the campaign, Case charged that the former Liberal MP had been forced to resign to make way for McNaughton despite the fact that there were several other vacancies in the House of Commons that needed to be filled. He also accused all of his opponents of being outsiders and [parachute candidates](/wiki/Parachute_candidate "Parachute candidate") and used the slogan "Send a Grey North man to Ottawa, not an Ottawa man to Grey North" in order to press the point. However, the principal issue of the campaign was conscription."W. Garfield Case – Upset McNaughton in Conscription Row", *The Globe and Mail*, 24 September 1959 The rationale the Conservatives used when deciding to run a candidate against McNaughton was that it had opposed, in the House of Commons, McNaughton's policy of "limited conscription" calling instead for a "full conscription" policy in order to address the shortage of Canadian troops fighting in the war. Thus, the 5 February 1945, by\-election became a test of the government's military policy."The Issue in Grey North" (editorial), *The Globe and Mail*, 14 December 1944"'Is Not For Sale'" (editorial), *The Globe and Mail*, 10 January 1945 Case, however, was viewed as a weak candidate and it was thought that McNaughton would easily carry the riding, not having to face the Leader of the Opposition."I don't choose to run, Bracken says it too", *Toronto Daily Star*, 15 December 1944 Despite calls from some quarters of labour that they should not contest the by\-election, the [Co\-operative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Co-operative_Commonwealth_Federation "Co-operative Commonwealth Federation") also stood a candidate, retired [Air Vice\-Marshal](/wiki/Air_Vice-Marshal "Air Vice-Marshal") [Albert Earl Godfrey](/wiki/Albert_Earl_Godfrey "Albert Earl Godfrey"), a World War I flying ace. The CCF shared McNaughton's policy of "limited conscription" thus, arguably, Godfrey acted as a [spoiler](/wiki/Spoiler_effect "Spoiler effect") in the vote. Case defeated McNaughton in an upset victory, the margin of which was smaller than the number of votes received by the third place CCF candidate. After his defeat in Grey North, McNaughton attempted to enter the House of Commons from a [Saskatchewan](/wiki/Saskatchewan "Saskatchewan") riding in the June federal election but was again defeated. He resigned as Minister of Defence in August 1945\.
[ "Grey North by\\-election\n-----------------------", "During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") the [Liberals](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada \"Liberal Party of Canada\") and [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada_%28historic%29 \"Conservative Party of Canada (historic)\") parties agreed not to run candidates against each other in by\\-elections and to allow whichever party had held the riding before the by\\-election to run without opposition. This pact was strained in 1942 when [William Lyon Mackenzie King](/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King \"William Lyon Mackenzie King\")'s Liberals allegedly backed [Joseph Noseworthy](/wiki/Joseph_Noseworthy \"Joseph Noseworthy\") of the [Co\\-operative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Co-operative_Commonwealth_Federation \"Co-operative Commonwealth Federation\") (which had refused to agree to the \"truce\") in his candidacy against new Conservative leader [Arthur Meighen](/wiki/Arthur_Meighen \"Arthur Meighen\") who was attempting to enter the House of Commons via a by\\-election in [York South](/wiki/York_South_%28federal_electoral_district%29 \"York South (federal electoral district)\"). Noseworthy upset Meighen in the vote leaving the Tories leaderless.", "On 1 November 1944, General McNaughton was appointed to Mackenzie King's cabinet as [Minister of Defence](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28Canada%29 \"Minister of Defence (Canada)\") replacing [James Ralston](/wiki/James_Ralston \"James Ralston\") who had resigned as a result of the [Conscription Crisis of 1944](/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1944 \"Conscription Crisis of 1944\"). Ralston, who was pro\\-conscription, had quit because the King government refused to go as far as he wanted in sending conscripts overseas and was also encouraged to quit as he was distrusted in Quebec where conscription was unpopular. McNaughton had been a believer in an all volunteer military and was appointed to replace Ralston but soon found himself under pressure from the government to enact a limited conscription policy.", "By constitutional convention, McNaughton, as a minister of the crown, needed to seek a seat in parliament as soon as possible. The sitting Liberal MP, [William P. Telford](/wiki/William_Pattison_Telford%2C_Jr. \"William Pattison Telford, Jr.\"), had been unable to attend sittings of the House of Commons for a year due to illness and was persuaded to resign in order to enable McNaugton to contest a seat in a by\\-election. The Tories, who had renamed themselves the [Progressive Conservative Party of Canada](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Canada \"Progressive Conservative Party of Canada\") decided to stand Wilfrid Case against McNaughton in the by\\-election.", "In June 1944, Case was nominated as the Progressive Conservative candidate for the projected [1945 federal election](/wiki/1945_Canadian_federal_election \"1945 Canadian federal election\") and when the incumbent Liberal MP resigned his seat in favour of General McNaughton, the Tories decided to run Case in the by\\-election after party leader [John Bracken](/wiki/John_Bracken \"John Bracken\") decided to not run as a candidate himself.", "During the campaign, Case charged that the former Liberal MP had been forced to resign to make way for McNaughton despite the fact that there were several other vacancies in the House of Commons that needed to be filled. He also accused all of his opponents of being outsiders and [parachute candidates](/wiki/Parachute_candidate \"Parachute candidate\") and used the slogan \"Send a Grey North man to Ottawa, not an Ottawa man to Grey North\" in order to press the point. However, the principal issue of the campaign was conscription.\"W. Garfield Case – Upset McNaughton in Conscription Row\", *The Globe and Mail*, 24 September 1959", "The rationale the Conservatives used when deciding to run a candidate against McNaughton was that it had opposed, in the House of Commons, McNaughton's policy of \"limited conscription\" calling instead for a \"full conscription\" policy in order to address the shortage of Canadian troops fighting in the war. Thus, the 5 February 1945, by\\-election became a test of the government's military policy.\"The Issue in Grey North\" (editorial), *The Globe and Mail*, 14 December 1944\"'Is Not For Sale'\" (editorial), *The Globe and Mail*, 10 January 1945 Case, however, was viewed as a weak candidate and it was thought that McNaughton would easily carry the riding, not having to face the Leader of the Opposition.\"I don't choose to run, Bracken says it too\", *Toronto Daily Star*, 15 December 1944", "Despite calls from some quarters of labour that they should not contest the by\\-election, the [Co\\-operative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Co-operative_Commonwealth_Federation \"Co-operative Commonwealth Federation\") also stood a candidate, retired [Air Vice\\-Marshal](/wiki/Air_Vice-Marshal \"Air Vice-Marshal\") [Albert Earl Godfrey](/wiki/Albert_Earl_Godfrey \"Albert Earl Godfrey\"), a World War I flying ace. The CCF shared McNaughton's policy of \"limited conscription\" thus, arguably, Godfrey acted as a [spoiler](/wiki/Spoiler_effect \"Spoiler effect\") in the vote.", "Case defeated McNaughton in an upset victory, the margin of which was smaller than the number of votes received by the third place CCF candidate.", "After his defeat in Grey North, McNaughton attempted to enter the House of Commons from a [Saskatchewan](/wiki/Saskatchewan \"Saskatchewan\") riding in the June federal election but was again defeated. He resigned as Minister of Defence in August 1945\\.", "" ]
Law --- ### Media authorities Formerly, three statutory bodies regulated media in Hong Kong, with another statutory body acting as an independent broadcaster: * [Hong Kong Broadcasting Authority](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Broadcasting_Authority "Hong Kong Broadcasting Authority") (BA) regulates broadcasters in Hong Kong by licensing and penalties according to the Broadcasting Regulation. * [Television and Entertainment Licensing Authority](/wiki/Television_and_Entertainment_Licensing_Authority "Television and Entertainment Licensing Authority") (TELA) is responsible for monitoring television and radio broadcasting to secure proper standards. * [Telecommunications Authority](/wiki/Office_of_the_Communications_Authority "Office of the Communications Authority"), (OFCA) the regulatory agency which applied held legislative power over antitrust, spectrum allocation and telecommunications legislation. * [Radio Television Hong Kong](/wiki/Radio_Television_Hong_Kong "Radio Television Hong Kong") operates as an independent government broadcaster with 7 radio channels and 3 television channels, whilst also producing programmes for public dissemination. In 2012, BA, OFCA and TELA were merged into one to form the new [Communications Authority](/wiki/Communications_Authority "Communications Authority"), which combined all the functions of its three predecessor organisations in one.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.coms\-auth.hk/en/about\_us/message/index.html\|title\=Communications Authority \- Welcome Message\|website\=www.coms\-auth.hk\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008231252/https://www.coms\-auth.hk/en/about\_us/message/index.html\|archive\-date\=8 October 2018\|url\-status\=live}} Non\-Governmental bodies: * [Press Council](https://web.archive.org/web/20071011075533/http://presscouncil.org.hk/en/web_index.php) was established in July 2000\. The objective of the council is to promote the professional and ethical standards of the newspaper industry, defend press freedom, and deal with public complaints against local newspapers. It is an independent organisation.Presscouncil.org.hk "[Presscouncil](http://www.presscouncil.org.hk) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030928163147/http://www.presscouncil.org.hk/ \|date\=28 September 2003 }}." *Hong Kong Press Council.* Retrieved on 5 May 2007\. ### Media regulation [Freedom of the press](/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press "Freedom of the press") and publication are enshrined in Article 27 of the [Basic Law](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law "Hong Kong Basic Law"), Hong Kong's mini\-constitution, and are also protected by the [International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights") (ICCPR) under Article 39 of the Basic Law. There is no law called "media law" in Hong Kong. Instead, the media are governed by [statutory laws](/wiki/Statutory_law "Statutory law"). In brief, there are 31 Ordinances that are directly related to mass media. Six of which are highlighted below. * *Registration of Local Newspapers Ordinance (Cap. 268\)*, provides for the registration of local newspapers and news agencies and the licensing of newspaper distributors. * *Books Registration Ordinance (Cap. 142\) (Cap. 106\)*, provides for the registration and preservation of copies of books first printed, produced or published in Hong Kong. * *Telecommunications Ordinance (Cap. 106\)*, makes better provision for the licensing and control of telecommunications, telecommunications services and telecommunications apparatus and equipment. * *Control of Obscene and Indecent Articles Ordinance (Cap. 390\)* controls and classifies articles which consist of or contain material that is obscene or indecent. Obscene Articles Tribunals are established to determine whether an article is obscene or indecent. * *Broadcasting Authority Ordinance (Cap. 391\)*, provides for the establishment and functions of a Broadcasting Authority. * *Broadcasting Ordinance (Cap. 562\)*, licenses companies to provide broadcasting services and regulate the provision of broadcasting services by licensees. The rest of the Ordinances are of less importance since they do not aim at regulating mass media, but some of their provisions do affect the operation of media organisations and also the freedom of press. The passing of *Bill of Rights Ordinance (BORO)* in 1986 strengthened the protection of fundamental human rights like press freedom or [freedom of speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_speech "Freedom of speech"). This has been reflected in the loosening of control over mass media. Laws that violate the principle of press freedom are gradually amended. For example, section 27 of Public Order Ordinance, which criminalised the publishing of false news, was repealed in 1989\. Nonetheless, there are still concerns among the media sector that some existing laws may still undermine the freedom of the press and publication, e.g. *Official Secrets Ordinance (Cap. 521\)* and *Public Order Ordinance (Cap. 245\)*.
[ "Law\n---", "### Media authorities", "Formerly, three statutory bodies regulated media in Hong Kong, with another statutory body acting as an independent broadcaster:\n* [Hong Kong Broadcasting Authority](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Broadcasting_Authority \"Hong Kong Broadcasting Authority\") (BA) regulates broadcasters in Hong Kong by licensing and penalties according to the Broadcasting Regulation.\n* [Television and Entertainment Licensing Authority](/wiki/Television_and_Entertainment_Licensing_Authority \"Television and Entertainment Licensing Authority\") (TELA) is responsible for monitoring television and radio broadcasting to secure proper standards.\n* [Telecommunications Authority](/wiki/Office_of_the_Communications_Authority \"Office of the Communications Authority\"), (OFCA) the regulatory agency which applied held legislative power over antitrust, spectrum allocation and telecommunications legislation.\n* [Radio Television Hong Kong](/wiki/Radio_Television_Hong_Kong \"Radio Television Hong Kong\") operates as an independent government broadcaster with 7 radio channels and 3 television channels, whilst also producing programmes for public dissemination.", "In 2012, BA, OFCA and TELA were merged into one to form the new [Communications Authority](/wiki/Communications_Authority \"Communications Authority\"), which combined all the functions of its three predecessor organisations in one.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.coms\\-auth.hk/en/about\\_us/message/index.html\\|title\\=Communications Authority \\- Welcome Message\\|website\\=www.coms\\-auth.hk\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008231252/https://www.coms\\-auth.hk/en/about\\_us/message/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=8 October 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Non\\-Governmental bodies:", "* [Press Council](https://web.archive.org/web/20071011075533/http://presscouncil.org.hk/en/web_index.php) was established in July 2000\\. The objective of the council is to promote the professional and ethical standards of the newspaper industry, defend press freedom, and deal with public complaints against local newspapers. It is an independent organisation.Presscouncil.org.hk \"[Presscouncil](http://www.presscouncil.org.hk) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030928163147/http://www.presscouncil.org.hk/ \\|date\\=28 September 2003 }}.\" *Hong Kong Press Council.* Retrieved on 5 May 2007\\.", "### Media regulation", "[Freedom of the press](/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press \"Freedom of the press\") and publication are enshrined in Article 27 of the [Basic Law](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law \"Hong Kong Basic Law\"), Hong Kong's mini\\-constitution, and are also protected by the [International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights \"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\") (ICCPR) under Article 39 of the Basic Law.", "There is no law called \"media law\" in Hong Kong. Instead, the media are governed by [statutory laws](/wiki/Statutory_law \"Statutory law\"). In brief, there are 31 Ordinances that are directly related to mass media. Six of which are highlighted below.", "* *Registration of Local Newspapers Ordinance (Cap. 268\\)*, provides for the registration of local newspapers and news agencies and the licensing of newspaper distributors.\n* *Books Registration Ordinance (Cap. 142\\) (Cap. 106\\)*, provides for the registration and preservation of copies of books first printed, produced or published in Hong Kong.\n* *Telecommunications Ordinance (Cap. 106\\)*, makes better provision for the licensing and control of telecommunications, telecommunications services and telecommunications apparatus and equipment.\n* *Control of Obscene and Indecent Articles Ordinance (Cap. 390\\)* controls and classifies articles which consist of or contain material that is obscene or indecent. Obscene Articles Tribunals are established to determine whether an article is obscene or indecent.\n* *Broadcasting Authority Ordinance (Cap. 391\\)*, provides for the establishment and functions of a Broadcasting Authority.\n* *Broadcasting Ordinance (Cap. 562\\)*, licenses companies to provide broadcasting services and regulate the provision of broadcasting services by licensees.", "The rest of the Ordinances are of less importance since they do not aim at regulating mass media, but some of their provisions do affect the operation of media organisations and also the freedom of press.", "The passing of *Bill of Rights Ordinance (BORO)* in 1986 strengthened the protection of fundamental human rights like press freedom or [freedom of speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_speech \"Freedom of speech\"). This has been reflected in the loosening of control over mass media. Laws that violate the principle of press freedom are gradually amended. For example, section 27 of Public Order Ordinance, which criminalised the publishing of false news, was repealed in 1989\\.", "Nonetheless, there are still concerns among the media sector that some existing laws may still undermine the freedom of the press and publication, e.g. *Official Secrets Ordinance (Cap. 521\\)* and *Public Order Ordinance (Cap. 245\\)*.", "" ]
Notable cases ------------- ### Tardis and Trinity College, Dublin In October 2002, one of the earliest known cases of time server misuse resulted in problems for a web server at [Trinity College, Dublin](/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Dublin "Trinity College, Dublin"). The traffic was ultimately traced to misbehaving copies of a program called Tardis{{Cite web \|title\=Tardis 2000 \|url\=http://www.mingham\-smith.com/tardis.htm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817104633/http://www.mingham\-smith.com/tardis.htm \|archive\-date\=2019\-08\-17 \|access\-date\=2019\-06\-13}} with thousands of copies around the world contacting the web server and obtaining a timestamp via HTTP. Ultimately, the solution was to modify the web server configuration so as to deliver a customized version of the home page (greatly reduced in size) and to return a bogus time value, which caused most of the clients to choose a different time server.{{Cite journal \|last\=Malone \|first\=David \|date\=April 2006 \|title\=Unwanted HTTP: Who Has the Time? \|url\=https://c59951\.ssl.cf2\.rackcdn.com/790\-malone.pdf \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=\[\[;login:]] \|publisher\=\[\[USENIX\|USENIX Association]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728194922/https://c59951\.ssl.cf2\.rackcdn.com/790\-malone.pdf \|archive\-date\=2013\-07\-28 \|access\-date\=2012\-07\-24}} ### Netgear and the University of Wisconsin–Madison The first widely known case of NTP server problems began in May 2003, when [Netgear](/wiki/Netgear "Netgear")'s hardware products flooded the [University of Wisconsin–Madison](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison "University of Wisconsin–Madison")'s [NTP server](/wiki/NTP_server "NTP server") with requests.{{Cite web \|title\=Flawed Routers Flood University of Wisconsin Internet Time Server, Netgear Cooperating with University on a Resolution \|url\=http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/\~plonka/netgear\-sntp/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060410200249/http://www.cs.wisc.edu/\~plonka/netgear\-sntp/ \|archive\-date\=2006\-04\-10 \|access\-date\=2020\-07\-06 \|publisher\=\[\[University of Wisconsin–Madison]]}} University personnel initially assumed this was a malicious [distributed denial of service](/wiki/Distributed_denial_of_service "Distributed denial of service") attack and took actions to block the flood at their network border. Rather than abating (as most DDOS attacks do) the flow increased, reaching 250,000 packets\-per\-second (150 megabits per second) by June. Subsequent investigation revealed that four models of Netgear routers were the source of the problem. It was found that the SNTP (Simple NTP) client in the routers has two serious flaws. First, it relies on a single NTP server (at the University of Wisconsin–Madison) whose IP address was hard\-coded in the firmware. Second, it polls the server at one second intervals until it receives a response. A total of 707,147 products with the faulty client were produced. Netgear has released firmware updates for the affected products (DG814, HR314, MR814 and RP614\) which query Netgear's own servers, poll only once every ten minutes, and give up after five failures. While this update fixes the flaws in the original SNTP client, it does not solve the larger problem. Most consumers will never update their router's firmware, particularly if the device seems to be operating properly. ### SMC and CSIRO Also in 2003, another case forced the NTP servers of the [Australian](/wiki/Australia "Australia") Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation's ([CSIRO](/wiki/CSIRO "CSIRO")) National Measurement Laboratory to close to the public.{{Cite web \|date\=2003\-07\-11 \|title\=Network Devices Almost Take Down Atomic Clock \|url\=http://www.taborcommunications.com/hpcwire/hpcwireWWW/03/0711/105537\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130204005630/http://www.taborcommunications.com/hpcwire/hpcwireWWW/03/0711/105537\.html \|archive\-date\=2013\-02\-04 \|access\-date\=2009\-07\-21 \|publisher\=Taborcommunications.com}} The traffic was shown to come from a bad [NTP](/wiki/Network_Time_Protocol "Network Time Protocol") implementation in some [SMC](/wiki/SMC_Networks "SMC Networks") router models where the IP address of the CSIRO server was embedded in the firmware. SMC has released firmware updates for the products: the 7004VBR and 7004VWBR models are known to be affected. ### D\-Link and Poul\-Henning Kamp In 2005 [Poul\-Henning Kamp](/wiki/Poul-Henning_Kamp "Poul-Henning Kamp"), the manager of the only [Danish](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") Stratum 1 NTP server available to the general public, observed a huge rise in traffic and discovered that between 75 and 90% was originating with D\-Link's router products. Stratum 1 NTP servers receive their time signal from an accurate external source, such as a GPS receiver, radio clock, or a calibrated atomic clock. By convention, Stratum 1 time servers should only be used by applications requiring extremely precise time measurements, such as scientific applications or Stratum 2 servers with a large number of clients.{{Cite web \|last\=Lester \|first\=Andy \|date\=2006\-02\-19 \|title\=Help save the endangered time servers \|url\=http://www.oreillynet.com/onlamp/blog/2006/02/help\_save\_the\_endangered\_time.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818090323/http://www.oreillynet.com/onlamp/blog/2006/02/help\_save\_the\_endangered\_time.html \|archive\-date\=2007\-08\-18 \|access\-date\=2007\-08\-07 \|publisher\=O'Reilly Net}} A home networking router does not meet either of these criteria. In addition, Kamp's server's access policy explicitly limited it to servers directly connected to the [Danish Internet Exchange](/wiki/Danish_Internet_Exchange_Point "Danish Internet Exchange Point") (DIX). The direct use of this and other Stratum 1 servers by D\-Link's routers resulted in a huge rise in traffic, increasing bandwidth costs and server load. In many countries, official timekeeping services are provided by a government agency (such as [NIST](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology "National Institute of Standards and Technology") in the U.S.). Since there is no Danish equivalent, Kamp provides his time service "*[pro bono publico](/wiki/Pro_bono_publico "Pro bono publico")*". In return, DIX agreed to provide a free connection for his time server under the assumption that the bandwidth involved would be relatively low, given the limited number of servers and potential clients. With the increased traffic caused by the D\-Link routers, DIX requested he pay a yearly connection fee of {{nowrap\|54,000 \[\[Danish krone\|DKK]]}}{{citation needed\|date\=May 2014}} (approximately {{nowrap\|US$9,920}} or {{nowrap\|€7,230}}{{Cite web \|title\=Currency Converter \- Google Finance \|url\=https://www.google.com/finance/converter?a\=54000\&from\=DKK\&to\=USD \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331212315/https://www.google.com/finance/converter?a\=54000\&from\=DKK\&to\=USD \|archive\-date\=2017\-03\-31 \|access\-date\=2016\-11\-11}}{{Cite web \|title\=Currency Converter \- Google Finance \|url\=https://www.google.com/finance/converter?a\=54000\&from\=DKK\&to\=EUR \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331212312/https://www.google.com/finance/converter?a\=54000\&from\=DKK\&to\=EUR \|archive\-date\=2017\-03\-31 \|access\-date\=2016\-11\-11}}). Kamp contacted D\-Link in November 2005, hoping to get them to fix the problem and compensate him for the time and money he spent tracking down the problem and the bandwidth charges caused by D\-Link products. The company denied any problem, accused him of extortion, and offered an amount in compensation which Kamp asserted did not cover his expenses. On 7 April 2006, Kamp posted the story on his website.{{Cite web \|last\=Kamp \|first\=Poul\-Henning \|date\=2006\-04\-27 \|title\=Open Letter to D\-Link about their NTP Vandalism: 2006\-04\-27 Update \|url\=http://people.freebsd.org/\~phk/dlink/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427213343/http://people.freebsd.org/\~phk/dlink/ \|archive\-date\=2006\-04\-27 \|access\-date\=2007\-08\-07 \|publisher\=\[\[FreeBSD]]}} The story was picked up by [Slashdot](/wiki/Slashdot "Slashdot"), [Reddit](/wiki/Reddit "Reddit") and other news sites. After going public, Kamp realized that D\-Link routers were directly querying other Stratum 1 time servers, violating the access policies of at least 43 of them in the process. On April 27, 2006, D\-Link and Kamp announced that they had "amicably resolved" their dispute.{{Cite news \|last\=Leyden \|first\=John \|date\=2006\-05\-11 \|title\=D\-Link settles dispute with 'time geek' \|work\=\[\[The Register]] \|url\=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/05/11/d\-link\_time\_dispute\_settlement/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=2020\-05\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510194542/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/05/11/d\-link\_time\_dispute\_settlement/ \|archive\-date\=2019\-05\-10}} ### IT providers and swisstime.ethz.ch For over 20 years [ETH Zurich](/wiki/ETH_Zurich "ETH Zurich") has provided open access to the time server swisstime.ethz.ch for operational time synchronization. Due to excessive bandwidth usage, averaging upwards of 20 GB / day, it has become necessary to direct external usage to public time server pools, such as ch.[pool.ntp.org](/wiki/NTP_pool "NTP pool"). Misuse, caused mostly by IT\-providers synchronizing their client infrastructures, has made unusually high demands on network traffic, thereby causing ETH to take effective measures. {{As of\|2012\|10\|alt\=As of Fall 2012}}, the availability of swisstime.ethz.ch has been changed to closed access. {{As of\|2013\|07\|alt\=Since beginning of July 2013}}, access to the server is blocked entirely for the NTP protocol. ### Snapchat on iOS In December 2016, the operator community NTPPool.org noticed a significant increase in NTP traffic, starting December 13\.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-10 \|title\=Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\-12\-20 \|url\=https://community.ntppool.org/t/recent\-ntp\-pool\-traffic\-increase/18 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221091034/https://community.ntppool.org/t/recent\-ntp\-pool\-traffic\-increase/18 \|archive\-date\=2016\-12\-21 \|access\-date\=2016\-12\-20 \|website\=NTP Pool}} Investigation showed that the [Snapchat](/wiki/Snapchat "Snapchat") application running on [iOS](/wiki/IOS "IOS") was prone to querying *all* NTP servers that were hardcoded into a third party iOS NTP library, and that a request to a Snapchat\-owned domain followed the NTP request flood.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-19 \|title\=NANOG mailing list archive: Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\-12\-19 \|url\=http://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\-December/089588\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924013506/https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\-December/089588\.html \|archive\-date\=2017\-09\-24 \|access\-date\=2016\-12\-20 \|publisher\=NANOG/opendac from shaw.ca}} After Snap Inc. was contacted,{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-20 \|title\=NANOG mailing list archive: Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\-12\-20 18:58:57 \|url\=https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\-December/089605\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419194356/https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\-December/089605\.html \|archive\-date\=2017\-04\-19 \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-19 \|publisher\=NANOG/Jad Boutros from Snap inc.}} their developers resolved the problem within 24 hours after notification with an update to their application.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-20 \|title\=NANOG mailing list archive: Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\-12\-20 22:37:04 \|url\=https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\-December/089612\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420045513/https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\-December/089612\.html \|archive\-date\=2017\-04\-20 \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-20 \|publisher\=NANOG/Jad Boutros from Snap inc.}} As an apology and to assist in dealing with the load they generated, Snap also contributed timeservers to the Australia and South America NTP pools.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-21 \|title\=NANOG mailing list archive: Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\-12\-21 02:21:23 \|url\=https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\-December/089620\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419193920/https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\-December/089620\.html \|archive\-date\=2017\-04\-19 \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-19 \|publisher\=NANOG/Jad Boutros from Snap inc.}} The error\-prone default settings were improved{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-20 \|title\=iOS NTP library: advance to v1\.1\.4; git commit on github.com \|url\=https://github.com/jbenet/ios\-ntp/commit/f08758851ffd1804561e10693129a189a36ad620 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706010720/https://github.com/jbenet/ios\-ntp/commit/f08758851ffd1804561e10693129a189a36ad620 \|archive\-date\=2020\-07\-06 \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-19 \|website\=\[\[GitHub]]}} after feedback from the NTP community.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-19 \|title\=iOS NTP library: Issue \#47: Hardcoded NTP Pool names; github.com \|url\=https://github.com/jbenet/ios\-ntp/issues/47 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706010827/https://github.com/jbenet/ios\-ntp/issues/47 \|archive\-date\=2020\-07\-06 \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-19 \|website\=\[\[GitHub]]}}{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-30 \|title\=NTP Pool Incident Log \- Excessive load on NTP servers \|url\=https://status.ntppool.org/incidents/vps6y4mm0m69 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419193635/https://status.ntppool.org/incidents/vps6y4mm0m69 \|archive\-date\=2017\-04\-19 \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-19 \|website\=NTP Pool}}{{full citation needed\|date\=December 2018}} ### Connectivity testing on TP\-Link Wi‑Fi extenders Firmware for [TP\-Link](/wiki/TP-Link "TP-Link") [Wi‑Fi extenders](/wiki/Wireless_repeater "Wireless repeater") in 2016 and 2017 hardcoded five NTP servers, including [Fukuoka University](/wiki/Fukuoka_University "Fukuoka University") in Japan and the Australia and New Zealand NTP server pools, and would repeatedly issue one NTP request and five [DNS](/wiki/DNS "DNS") requests every five seconds consuming 0\.72 GB per month per device.{{Cite web \|last\=Aleksandersen \|first\=Daniel \|date\=2017\-11\-23 \|title\=TP\-Link repeater firmware squanders 715 MB/month \|url\=https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/tplink\-aggressive\-ntp \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220023316/https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/tplink\-aggressive\-ntp \|archive\-date\=2017\-12\-20 \|access\-date\=2017\-12\-21 \|website\=Ctrl Blog}} The excessive requests were misused to power an Internet connectivity check that displayed the device's connectivity status in their web administration interface. The issue was acknowledged by TP\-Link's branch in Japan who pushed the company to redesign the connectivity test and issue firmware updates addressing the issue for affected devices.{{Cite web \|date\=2017\-12\-20 \|title\=TP\-Link製無線LAN中継器によるNTPサーバーへのアクセスに関して \|url\=http://www.tp\-link.jp/news\-details\-17792\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220144247/http://www.tp\-link.jp/news\-details\-17792\.html \|archive\-date\=2017\-12\-20 \|access\-date\=2017\-12\-21 \|publisher\=\[\[TP\-Link]] \|language\=ja}} The affected devices are unlikely to install the new firmware as WiFi extenders from TP\-Link does not install firmware updates automatically, nor do they notify the owner about firmware update availability.{{Cite web \|last\=Aleksandersen \|first\=Daniel \|date\=2017\-11\-20 \|title\=TP\-Link serves outdated or no firmware at all on 30% of its European websites \|url\=https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/tplink\-firmware\-outdated\-downloads \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051022/https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/tplink\-firmware\-outdated\-downloads \|archive\-date\=2017\-12\-22 \|access\-date\=2017\-12\-21 \|website\=Ctrl Blog}} TP\-Link firmware update availability also varies by country, even though the issue affects all WiFi range extenders sold globally. The servers of Fukuoka University are reported as being shut down sometime between February and April 2018, and should be removed from the NTP Public Time Server Lists.{{Cite web \|title\=福岡大学における公開用NTPサービスの現状と課題 \|url\=https://www.janog.gr.jp/meeting/janog41/application/files/9815/1692/5488/janog41\-sp10ntp\-fujimura\-03\.pdf \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129053728/https://www.janog.gr.jp/meeting/janog41/application/files/9815/1692/5488/janog41\-sp10ntp\-fujimura\-03\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2018\-01\-29 \|access\-date\=2018\-01\-29 \|publisher\=\[\[Fukuoka University]] \|language\=ja }}
[ "Notable cases\n-------------", "### Tardis and Trinity College, Dublin", "In October 2002, one of the earliest known cases of time server misuse resulted in problems for a web server at [Trinity College, Dublin](/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Dublin \"Trinity College, Dublin\"). The traffic was ultimately traced to misbehaving copies of a program called Tardis{{Cite web \\|title\\=Tardis 2000 \\|url\\=http://www.mingham\\-smith.com/tardis.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817104633/http://www.mingham\\-smith.com/tardis.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-17 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-06\\-13}} with thousands of copies around the world contacting the web server and obtaining a timestamp via HTTP. Ultimately, the solution was to modify the web server configuration so as to deliver a customized version of the home page (greatly reduced in size) and to return a bogus time value, which caused most of the clients to choose a different time server.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Malone \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=April 2006 \\|title\\=Unwanted HTTP: Who Has the Time? \\|url\\=https://c59951\\.ssl.cf2\\.rackcdn.com/790\\-malone.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=\\[\\[;login:]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[USENIX\\|USENIX Association]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728194922/https://c59951\\.ssl.cf2\\.rackcdn.com/790\\-malone.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-28 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-24}}", "### Netgear and the University of Wisconsin–Madison", "The first widely known case of NTP server problems began in May 2003, when [Netgear](/wiki/Netgear \"Netgear\")'s hardware products flooded the [University of Wisconsin–Madison](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison \"University of Wisconsin–Madison\")'s [NTP server](/wiki/NTP_server \"NTP server\") with requests.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Flawed Routers Flood University of Wisconsin Internet Time Server, Netgear Cooperating with University on a Resolution \\|url\\=http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/\\~plonka/netgear\\-sntp/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060410200249/http://www.cs.wisc.edu/\\~plonka/netgear\\-sntp/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-04\\-10 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-06 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Wisconsin–Madison]]}} University personnel initially assumed this was a malicious [distributed denial of service](/wiki/Distributed_denial_of_service \"Distributed denial of service\") attack and took actions to block the flood at their network border. Rather than abating (as most DDOS attacks do) the flow increased, reaching 250,000 packets\\-per\\-second (150 megabits per second) by June. Subsequent investigation revealed that four models of Netgear routers were the source of the problem. It was found that the SNTP (Simple NTP) client in the routers has two serious flaws. First, it relies on a single NTP server (at the University of Wisconsin–Madison) whose IP address was hard\\-coded in the firmware. Second, it polls the server at one second intervals until it receives a response. A total of 707,147 products with the faulty client were produced.", "Netgear has released firmware updates for the affected products (DG814, HR314, MR814 and RP614\\) which query Netgear's own servers, poll only once every ten minutes, and give up after five failures. While this update fixes the flaws in the original SNTP client, it does not solve the larger problem. Most consumers will never update their router's firmware, particularly if the device seems to be operating properly.", "### SMC and CSIRO", "Also in 2003, another case forced the NTP servers of the [Australian](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation's ([CSIRO](/wiki/CSIRO \"CSIRO\")) National Measurement Laboratory to close to the public.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2003\\-07\\-11 \\|title\\=Network Devices Almost Take Down Atomic Clock \\|url\\=http://www.taborcommunications.com/hpcwire/hpcwireWWW/03/0711/105537\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130204005630/http://www.taborcommunications.com/hpcwire/hpcwireWWW/03/0711/105537\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-02\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-21 \\|publisher\\=Taborcommunications.com}} The traffic was shown to come from a bad [NTP](/wiki/Network_Time_Protocol \"Network Time Protocol\") implementation in some [SMC](/wiki/SMC_Networks \"SMC Networks\") router models where the IP address of the CSIRO server was embedded in the firmware. SMC has released firmware updates for the products: the 7004VBR and 7004VWBR models are known to be affected.", "### D\\-Link and Poul\\-Henning Kamp", "In 2005 [Poul\\-Henning Kamp](/wiki/Poul-Henning_Kamp \"Poul-Henning Kamp\"), the manager of the only [Danish](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") Stratum 1 NTP server available to the general public, observed a huge rise in traffic and discovered that between 75 and 90% was originating with D\\-Link's router products. Stratum 1 NTP servers receive their time signal from an accurate external source, such as a GPS receiver, radio clock, or a calibrated atomic clock. By convention, Stratum 1 time servers should only be used by applications requiring extremely precise time measurements, such as scientific applications or Stratum 2 servers with a large number of clients.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lester \\|first\\=Andy \\|date\\=2006\\-02\\-19 \\|title\\=Help save the endangered time servers \\|url\\=http://www.oreillynet.com/onlamp/blog/2006/02/help\\_save\\_the\\_endangered\\_time.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818090323/http://www.oreillynet.com/onlamp/blog/2006/02/help\\_save\\_the\\_endangered\\_time.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-07 \\|publisher\\=O'Reilly Net}} A home networking router does not meet either of these criteria. In addition, Kamp's server's access policy explicitly limited it to servers directly connected to the [Danish Internet Exchange](/wiki/Danish_Internet_Exchange_Point \"Danish Internet Exchange Point\") (DIX). The direct use of this and other Stratum 1 servers by D\\-Link's routers resulted in a huge rise in traffic, increasing bandwidth costs and server load.", "In many countries, official timekeeping services are provided by a government agency (such as [NIST](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology \"National Institute of Standards and Technology\") in the U.S.). Since there is no Danish equivalent, Kamp provides his time service \"*[pro bono publico](/wiki/Pro_bono_publico \"Pro bono publico\")*\". In return, DIX agreed to provide a free connection for his time server under the assumption that the bandwidth involved would be relatively low, given the limited number of servers and potential clients. With the increased traffic caused by the D\\-Link routers, DIX requested he pay a yearly connection fee of {{nowrap\\|54,000 \\[\\[Danish krone\\|DKK]]}}{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2014}} (approximately {{nowrap\\|US$9,920}} or {{nowrap\\|€7,230}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Currency Converter \\- Google Finance \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/finance/converter?a\\=54000\\&from\\=DKK\\&to\\=USD \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331212315/https://www.google.com/finance/converter?a\\=54000\\&from\\=DKK\\&to\\=USD \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-31 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-11}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Currency Converter \\- Google Finance \\|url\\=https://www.google.com/finance/converter?a\\=54000\\&from\\=DKK\\&to\\=EUR \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331212312/https://www.google.com/finance/converter?a\\=54000\\&from\\=DKK\\&to\\=EUR \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-31 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-11}}).", "Kamp contacted D\\-Link in November 2005, hoping to get them to fix the problem and compensate him for the time and money he spent tracking down the problem and the bandwidth charges caused by D\\-Link products. The company denied any problem, accused him of extortion, and offered an amount in compensation which Kamp asserted did not cover his expenses. On 7 April 2006, Kamp posted the story on his website.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kamp \\|first\\=Poul\\-Henning \\|date\\=2006\\-04\\-27 \\|title\\=Open Letter to D\\-Link about their NTP Vandalism: 2006\\-04\\-27 Update \\|url\\=http://people.freebsd.org/\\~phk/dlink/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427213343/http://people.freebsd.org/\\~phk/dlink/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-04\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-08\\-07 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[FreeBSD]]}} The story was picked up by [Slashdot](/wiki/Slashdot \"Slashdot\"), [Reddit](/wiki/Reddit \"Reddit\") and other news sites. After going public, Kamp realized that D\\-Link routers were directly querying other Stratum 1 time servers, violating the access policies of at least 43 of them in the process. On April 27, 2006, D\\-Link and Kamp announced that they had \"amicably resolved\" their dispute.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Leyden \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=2006\\-05\\-11 \\|title\\=D\\-Link settles dispute with 'time geek' \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Register]] \\|url\\=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/05/11/d\\-link\\_time\\_dispute\\_settlement/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510194542/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/05/11/d\\-link\\_time\\_dispute\\_settlement/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-10}}", "### IT providers and swisstime.ethz.ch", "For over 20 years [ETH Zurich](/wiki/ETH_Zurich \"ETH Zurich\") has provided open access to the time server swisstime.ethz.ch for operational time synchronization. Due to excessive bandwidth usage, averaging upwards of 20 GB / day, it has become necessary to direct external usage to public time server pools, such as ch.[pool.ntp.org](/wiki/NTP_pool \"NTP pool\"). Misuse, caused mostly by IT\\-providers synchronizing their client infrastructures, has made unusually high demands on network traffic, thereby causing ETH to take effective measures. {{As of\\|2012\\|10\\|alt\\=As of Fall 2012}}, the availability of swisstime.ethz.ch has been changed to closed access. {{As of\\|2013\\|07\\|alt\\=Since beginning of July 2013}}, access to the server is blocked entirely for the NTP protocol.", "### Snapchat on iOS", "In December 2016, the operator community NTPPool.org noticed a significant increase in NTP traffic, starting December 13\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-10 \\|title\\=Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\\-12\\-20 \\|url\\=https://community.ntppool.org/t/recent\\-ntp\\-pool\\-traffic\\-increase/18 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221091034/https://community.ntppool.org/t/recent\\-ntp\\-pool\\-traffic\\-increase/18 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-21 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-20 \\|website\\=NTP Pool}}", "Investigation showed that the [Snapchat](/wiki/Snapchat \"Snapchat\") application running on [iOS](/wiki/IOS \"IOS\") was prone to querying *all* NTP servers that were hardcoded into a third party iOS NTP library, and that a request to a Snapchat\\-owned domain followed the NTP request flood.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-19 \\|title\\=NANOG mailing list archive: Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\\-12\\-19 \\|url\\=http://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\\-December/089588\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924013506/https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\\-December/089588\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-09\\-24 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-20 \\|publisher\\=NANOG/opendac from shaw.ca}}\nAfter Snap Inc. was contacted,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-20 \\|title\\=NANOG mailing list archive: Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\\-12\\-20 18:58:57 \\|url\\=https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\\-December/089605\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419194356/https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\\-December/089605\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-19 \\|publisher\\=NANOG/Jad Boutros from Snap inc.}} their developers resolved the problem within 24 hours after notification with an update to their application.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-20 \\|title\\=NANOG mailing list archive: Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\\-12\\-20 22:37:04 \\|url\\=https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\\-December/089612\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420045513/https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\\-December/089612\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-20 \\|publisher\\=NANOG/Jad Boutros from Snap inc.}} As an apology and to assist in dealing with the load they generated, Snap also contributed timeservers to the Australia and South America NTP pools.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-21 \\|title\\=NANOG mailing list archive: Recent NTP pool traffic increase: 2016\\-12\\-21 02:21:23 \\|url\\=https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\\-December/089620\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419193920/https://mailman.nanog.org/pipermail/nanog/2016\\-December/089620\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-19 \\|publisher\\=NANOG/Jad Boutros from Snap inc.}}", "The error\\-prone default settings were improved{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-20 \\|title\\=iOS NTP library: advance to v1\\.1\\.4; git commit on github.com \\|url\\=https://github.com/jbenet/ios\\-ntp/commit/f08758851ffd1804561e10693129a189a36ad620 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706010720/https://github.com/jbenet/ios\\-ntp/commit/f08758851ffd1804561e10693129a189a36ad620 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-19 \\|website\\=\\[\\[GitHub]]}} after feedback from the NTP community.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-19 \\|title\\=iOS NTP library: Issue \\#47: Hardcoded NTP Pool names; github.com \\|url\\=https://github.com/jbenet/ios\\-ntp/issues/47 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706010827/https://github.com/jbenet/ios\\-ntp/issues/47 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-19 \\|website\\=\\[\\[GitHub]]}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-30 \\|title\\=NTP Pool Incident Log \\- Excessive load on NTP servers \\|url\\=https://status.ntppool.org/incidents/vps6y4mm0m69 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419193635/https://status.ntppool.org/incidents/vps6y4mm0m69 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-19 \\|website\\=NTP Pool}}{{full citation needed\\|date\\=December 2018}}", "### Connectivity testing on TP\\-Link Wi‑Fi extenders", "Firmware for [TP\\-Link](/wiki/TP-Link \"TP-Link\") [Wi‑Fi extenders](/wiki/Wireless_repeater \"Wireless repeater\") in 2016 and 2017 hardcoded five NTP servers, including [Fukuoka University](/wiki/Fukuoka_University \"Fukuoka University\") in Japan and the Australia and New Zealand NTP server pools, and would repeatedly issue one NTP request and five [DNS](/wiki/DNS \"DNS\") requests every five seconds consuming 0\\.72 GB per month per device.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Aleksandersen \\|first\\=Daniel \\|date\\=2017\\-11\\-23 \\|title\\=TP\\-Link repeater firmware squanders 715 MB/month \\|url\\=https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/tplink\\-aggressive\\-ntp \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220023316/https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/tplink\\-aggressive\\-ntp \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Ctrl Blog}} The excessive requests were misused to power an Internet connectivity check that displayed the device's connectivity status in their web administration interface.", "The issue was acknowledged by TP\\-Link's branch in Japan who pushed the company to redesign the connectivity test and issue firmware updates addressing the issue for affected devices.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2017\\-12\\-20 \\|title\\=TP\\-Link製無線LAN中継器によるNTPサーバーへのアクセスに関して \\|url\\=http://www.tp\\-link.jp/news\\-details\\-17792\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220144247/http://www.tp\\-link.jp/news\\-details\\-17792\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-21 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TP\\-Link]] \\|language\\=ja}} The affected devices are unlikely to install the new firmware as WiFi extenders from TP\\-Link does not install firmware updates automatically, nor do they notify the owner about firmware update availability.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Aleksandersen \\|first\\=Daniel \\|date\\=2017\\-11\\-20 \\|title\\=TP\\-Link serves outdated or no firmware at all on 30% of its European websites \\|url\\=https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/tplink\\-firmware\\-outdated\\-downloads \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051022/https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/tplink\\-firmware\\-outdated\\-downloads \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-22 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Ctrl Blog}} TP\\-Link firmware update availability also varies by country, even though the issue affects all WiFi range extenders sold globally.", "The servers of Fukuoka University are reported as being shut down sometime between February and April 2018, and should be removed from the NTP Public Time Server Lists.{{Cite web \\|title\\=福岡大学における公開用NTPサービスの現状と課題 \\|url\\=https://www.janog.gr.jp/meeting/janog41/application/files/9815/1692/5488/janog41\\-sp10ntp\\-fujimura\\-03\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129053728/https://www.janog.gr.jp/meeting/janog41/application/files/9815/1692/5488/janog41\\-sp10ntp\\-fujimura\\-03\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-29 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-29 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fukuoka University]] \\|language\\=ja }}", "" ]
Plot ---- The story begins on the streets of [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague") on a grey morning busy with commuters. A colourless figure ([Petr Čepek](/wiki/Petr_%C4%8Cepek "Petr Čepek")) emerges from a metro station. On his way home, the man encounters two men handing out flyers. It is a map of the city with a location marked. He shrugs and discards it, returning to his lodging. As he opens the door, a black [cockerel](/wiki/Cockerel "Cockerel") runs out. The man sits down to eat, cutting himself a slice of bread. He discovers an egg concealed inside the loaf. He cracks it open but it is empty. Suddenly the lights go out and the wind rises. Objects are thrown about the room. The commotion ceases; the man goes to the window and looks down to where the two men from earlier are staring up at him. One of them holds the cockerel. The man closes the blind and returns to the table, where he finds the map and traces out the location marked using his own map of the city,. The next day, he goes to the spot indicated and enters a dilapidated building just as a man rushes from it in fear. He continues into the interior and descends to a dressing room, where he finds a charred script, a robe embroidered with [sigils](/wiki/Seal_%28emblem%29 "Seal (emblem)"), [greasepaint](/wiki/Greasepaint "Greasepaint"), a wig with a beard and a cap. Sitting down, he addresses himself as "[Faust](/wiki/Faust "Faust")" and speaks to himself (the first words spoken in the film) Faust's opening declaration of intent to follow black magic. As the opening curtain is signalled, Faust finds himself on a stage, a performance about to begin. Ripping off his costume, he breaks through the stage backdrop into a vault where an alchemist's laboratory is revealed; with the aid of a book of spells, he brings to life a clay child which grows horrifyingly into his own image before he smashes it. Warned by a marionette angel not to experiment further but encouraged by a demon to do as he pleases, he is sent by a wooden messenger to a café meeting with the two street\-map men, identified as "Cornelius" and "Valdes", who gives him a briefcase of magical devices. Returning to the vault, he uses these to summon Mephisto, offering Lucifer his soul in return for 24 years of self\-indulgence. At another café, Faust is entertained by Cornelius and Valdes, who provide a fountain of wine from a table\-top. He watches as a tramp, carrying a severed human leg, is pestered by a large black dog until he throws the limb into the river. Faust finds a key in his food, uses it on a shop\-front shutter, and is dragged back on stage by waiting stagehands. He mimes a scene from Gounod's opera, in which Mephisto returns and the pact with Lucifer is signed in blood. After the interval, Faust visits Portugal to demonstrate his supernatural powers to the King: when a requested restaging of the David and Goliath contest is poorly received, he drowns the entire Portuguese court. Faust is distracted from repentance by Helen of Troy, whom he seduces before realising she is a wooden demon in disguise. Lucifer arrives earlier than expected to claim his soul, and Faust rushes in panic from the theatre, meeting a newcomer in at the doorway as he bursts into the street. He is felled by a red car, and Cornelius and Valdes watch in amusement as a tramp carries away a severed leg from the scene of the accident. A policeman checks the car, but it is without a driver.
[ "Plot\n----", "The story begins on the streets of [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\") on a grey morning busy with commuters. A colourless figure ([Petr Čepek](/wiki/Petr_%C4%8Cepek \"Petr Čepek\")) emerges from a metro station. On his way home, the man encounters two men handing out flyers. It is a map of the city with a location marked. He shrugs and discards it, returning to his lodging. As he opens the door, a black [cockerel](/wiki/Cockerel \"Cockerel\") runs out. The man sits down to eat, cutting himself a slice of bread. He discovers an egg concealed inside the loaf. He cracks it open but it is empty. Suddenly the lights go out and the wind rises. Objects are thrown about the room. The commotion ceases; the man goes to the window and looks down to where the two men from earlier are staring up at him. One of them holds the cockerel. The man closes the blind and returns to the table, where he finds the map and traces out the location marked using his own map of the city,.", "The next day, he goes to the spot indicated and enters a dilapidated building just as a man rushes from it in fear. He continues into the interior and descends to a dressing room, where he finds a charred script, a robe embroidered with [sigils](/wiki/Seal_%28emblem%29 \"Seal (emblem)\"), [greasepaint](/wiki/Greasepaint \"Greasepaint\"), a wig with a beard and a cap. Sitting down, he addresses himself as \"[Faust](/wiki/Faust \"Faust\")\" and speaks to himself (the first words spoken in the film) Faust's opening declaration of intent to follow black magic.", "As the opening curtain is signalled, Faust finds himself on a stage, a performance about to begin. Ripping off his costume, he breaks through the stage backdrop into a vault where an alchemist's laboratory is revealed; with the aid of a book of spells, he brings to life a clay child which grows horrifyingly into his own image before he smashes it. Warned by a marionette angel not to experiment further but encouraged by a demon to do as he pleases, he is sent by a wooden messenger to a café meeting with the two street\\-map men, identified as \"Cornelius\" and \"Valdes\", who gives him a briefcase of magical devices. Returning to the vault, he uses these to summon Mephisto, offering Lucifer his soul in return for 24 years of self\\-indulgence.", "At another café, Faust is entertained by Cornelius and Valdes, who provide a fountain of wine from a table\\-top. He watches as a tramp, carrying a severed human leg, is pestered by a large black dog until he throws the limb into the river. Faust finds a key in his food, uses it on a shop\\-front shutter, and is dragged back on stage by waiting stagehands. He mimes a scene from Gounod's opera, in which Mephisto returns and the pact with Lucifer is signed in blood. After the interval, Faust visits Portugal to demonstrate his supernatural powers to the King: when a requested restaging of the David and Goliath contest is poorly received, he drowns the entire Portuguese court.", "Faust is distracted from repentance by Helen of Troy, whom he seduces before realising she is a wooden demon in disguise. Lucifer arrives earlier than expected to claim his soul, and Faust rushes in panic from the theatre, meeting a newcomer in at the doorway as he bursts into the street. He is felled by a red car, and Cornelius and Valdes watch in amusement as a tramp carries away a severed leg from the scene of the accident. A policeman checks the car, but it is without a driver.", "" ]
Career ------ Lisa Loomer began her career as an actress and comedienne. Her first work for theater was *A Crowd of Two* at the [American Place Theatre](/wiki/American_Place_Theatre "American Place Theatre"). This was followed by a one\-woman show, *All By Herselves*, at the [Westside Arts Theatre](/wiki/Westside_Theatre "Westside Theatre"). She began writing plays at the [Intar Playwrights Lab](/wiki/INTAR_Theatre "INTAR Theatre"), under the direction of [Maria Irene Fornes](/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Irene_Forn%C3%A9s "María Irene Fornés"). Her first play *Birds* was produced by [South Coast Rep](/wiki/South_Coast_Repertory "South Coast Repertory"). Lisa Loomer's play *Roe*, about [Roe v. Wade](/wiki/Roe_v._Wade "Roe v. Wade"), was originally commissioned through the [Oregon Shakespeare Festival](/wiki/Oregon_Shakespeare_Festival "Oregon Shakespeare Festival")'s American Revolutions program.[ROE](https://www.osfashland.org/productions/2016-plays/roe.aspx) It was first produced at OSF in a production that traveled to Arena Stage{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.arenastage.org/tickets/201617\-season/roe/\|title\=Roe\|website\=www.arenastage.org\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-11\-06}} and Berkeley Rep.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.berkeleyrep.org/season/1617/10665\.asp\|title\=Roe at Berkeley Rep\|website\=www.berkeleyrep.org}} It received the Jane Chambers Playwriting Award{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.athe.org/page/Jane\_Chambers? \|title\=Jane Chambers Playwriting Award \- ATHE \- Association for Theatre in Higher Education }} and the Pen Award.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.osfashland.org/press\-room/press\-releases/roe\-pen\-award.aspx}} Her play *Homefree* was commissioned and developed at [Denver Center Theater Company](/wiki/Denver_Center_Theater_Company "Denver Center Theater Company") before receiving its world premiere in Los Angeles at the Road Theatre.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/la\-et\-cm\-homefree\-at\-the\-road\-on\-magnolia\-20150923\-story.html\|title\=Review: Scenes from the street life of the young and untethered\|date\=September 25, 2015\|website\=Los Angeles Times}} *Café Vida*, about female gang members, was presented at the [Los Angeles Theatre Center](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Theatre_Center "Los Angeles Theatre Center") by the [Cornerstone Theatre Company](/wiki/Cornerstone_Theatre_Company "Cornerstone Theatre Company") in partnership with [Homeboy Industries](/wiki/Homeboy_Industries "Homeboy Industries"), and was nominated for an [Ovation Award](/wiki/Ovation_Award "Ovation Award") for Best Play.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.homeboyindustries.org/?gclid\=Cj0KCQiAlIXfBRCpARIsAKvManyoHz7RjWwSy644HYa9EL8qCiQIjNC4BQL473JoFTmVv2Tsx9oQQh8aAuNUEALw\_wcB\|title\=Café Vida\|website\=Homeboy Industries\|access\-date\=2018\-11\-06\|archive\-date\=2020\-10\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025100150/https://homeboyindustries.org/?gclid\=Cj0KCQiAlIXfBRCpARIsAKvManyoHz7RjWwSy644HYa9EL8qCiQIjNC4BQL473JoFTmVv2Tsx9oQQh8aAuNUEALw\_wcB\|url\-status\=dead}} *Two Things You Don't Talk About at Dinner* had its world premiere at the [Denver Center for the Performing Arts](/wiki/Denver_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts "Denver Center for the Performing Arts"). *Distracted* had its world premiere at the [Mark Taper Forum](/wiki/Mark_Taper_Forum "Mark Taper Forum") and was subsequently produced at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival. The play was produced at the [Roundabout Theatre Company](/wiki/Roundabout_Theatre_Company "Roundabout Theatre Company") in New York in a production starring [Cynthia Nixon](/wiki/Cynthia_Nixon "Cynthia Nixon") and has subsequently been produced in theatres throughout the U.S. *Living Out* had its world premiere at the Mark Taper Forum and was produced at the [Second Stage Theater](/wiki/Second_Stage_Theater "Second Stage Theater") in New York. It has been produced at such theaters as [Seattle Rep](/wiki/Seattle_Repertory_Theatre "Seattle Repertory Theatre"), [Milwaukee Rep](/wiki/Milwaukee_Repertory_Theater "Milwaukee Repertory Theater"), The Denver Center, and [Theatreworks](/wiki/TheatreWorks_%28Silicon_Valley%29 "TheatreWorks (Silicon Valley)"), often in bi\-lingual productions, as well as in Israel, Europe, and Mexico. Her play *The Waiting Room* went from the [Williamstown Theater Festival](/wiki/Williamstown_Theater_Festival "Williamstown Theater Festival") to the Mark Taper Forum to highly successful productions at [Arena Stage](/wiki/Arena_Stage "Arena Stage") and [Trinity Rep](/wiki/Trinity_Repertory_Company "Trinity Repertory Company"), and then to the [Vineyard Theatre](/wiki/Vineyard_Theatre "Vineyard Theatre") in New York. It has been widely produced nationally and internationally. *Expecting Isabell* had its world premiere at Arena Stage and its west coast premiere at the Mark Taper Forum. It has been produced in New York and nationally. *Bocón!*, a political fable for young audiences, began at the Taper and has been seen throughout the country, from the [Kennedy Center](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts "John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts"), to Seattle's Group Theater and the [La Jolla Playhouse](/wiki/La_Jolla_Playhouse "La Jolla Playhouse"), as well as in Germany, Alaska, and Mexico. For the Cornerstone Theatre Company, she also wrote *Broken Hearts*, produced at the [Los Angeles Theatre Center](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Theatre_Center "Los Angeles Theatre Center"). Other plays by Loomer which have been performed publicly include *Maria, Maria, Maria, Maria!* ([Mixed Blood](/wiki/Mixed_Blood_Theatre_Company "Mixed Blood Theatre Company")), *Accelerando* ([Odyssey Theatre Ensemble](/wiki/Odyssey_Theatre_Ensemble "Odyssey Theatre Ensemble")), and *Looking for Angels* ([The Public Theater](/wiki/The_Public_Theater "The Public Theater")). Loomer is an alumna of [New Dramatists](/wiki/New_Dramatists "New Dramatists") and the recipient of two grants from the [National Endowment for the Arts](/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts "National Endowment for the Arts") and a grant from the [New York Foundation for the Arts](/wiki/New_York_Foundation_for_the_Arts "New York Foundation for the Arts"). Awards include the Jane Chambers Award{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.athe.org/page/19conf\_home \|title\=ATHE 2019 Annual Conference—Orlando \- Association for Theatre in Higher Education }} (twice), the [Susan Smith Blackburn Prize](/wiki/Susan_Smith_Blackburn_Prize "Susan Smith Blackburn Prize"), the Kennedy Center Fund for New American Plays Award,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/article/playwrights\-regionals\-reap\-kennedy\-center\-new\-play\-grants\-com\-77813\|title\=Playwrights, Regionals Reap Kennedy Center New Play Grants\|date\=October 12, 1998\|website\=Playbill}} a [Garland Award](/wiki/Back_Stage_Garland_Awards "Back Stage Garland Awards"), a Lurie Foundation Award, an Ovation Award, and the American Theatre Critics Association Award{{Cite web\|url\=https://americantheatrecritics.org/\|title\=Home\|website\=American Theatre Critics Association}} (twice). She has also received an [Imagen Award](/wiki/Imagen_Awards "Imagen Awards") for positive portrayals of Latinos in all media. Her plays have been selected for the [Otis Guernsey Jr.](/wiki/Otis_Guernsey_Jr. "Otis Guernsey Jr.")/[Burns Mantle](/wiki/Burns_Mantle "Burns Mantle") anthologies *The Best Plays of 1994–1995*, *The Best Plays of 1998–1999*, and *The Best Plays of 2003\-2004*. Loomer's works have been published by [Dramatists Play Service](/wiki/Dramatists_Play_Service "Dramatists Play Service"), [TCG](/wiki/Theatre_Communications_Group "Theatre Communications Group"), [Dramatic Publishing](/wiki/Dramatists_Play_Service "Dramatists Play Service"), and [Arte Publico Press](/wiki/Arte_P%C3%BAblico_Press "Arte Público Press"). *Roe*, *The Waiting Room*, and *Living Out* are widely taught in university drama programs, Women's Studies programs, and Latino Studies programs. Loomer also writes for film and television, both comedy and drama. She was a supervising producer for the second season of [*Love Is…*](/wiki/Love_Is_%28TV_series%29 "Love Is (TV series)") on [OWN](/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey_Network_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 "Oprah Winfrey Network (U.S. TV channel)"). Her films include *[Girl, Interrupted](/wiki/Girl%2C_Interrupted_%28film%29 "Girl, Interrupted (film)")*, and *[Nappily Ever After](/wiki/Nappily_Ever_After "Nappily Ever After")* for [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix"). Loomer has written TV pilots for [HBO](/wiki/HBO "HBO"), [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS"), [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company "Fox Broadcasting Company"), and [Showtime](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 "Showtime (TV network)"). Loomer adapted the play *[Real Women Have Curves](/wiki/Real_Women_Have_Curves_%28play%29 "Real Women Have Curves (play)")* into a stage musical [of the same name](/wiki/Real_Women_Have_Curves_%28musical%29 "Real Women Have Curves (musical)") that premiered in 2023\.{{cite web \| url\=https://americanrepertorytheater.org/shows\-events/real\-women\-have\-curves/ \| title\=Real Women Have Curves at A.R.T. }}
[ "Career\n------", "Lisa Loomer began her career as an actress and comedienne. Her first work for theater was *A Crowd of Two* at the [American Place Theatre](/wiki/American_Place_Theatre \"American Place Theatre\"). This was followed by a one\\-woman show, *All By Herselves*, at the [Westside Arts Theatre](/wiki/Westside_Theatre \"Westside Theatre\"). She began writing plays at the [Intar Playwrights Lab](/wiki/INTAR_Theatre \"INTAR Theatre\"), under the direction of [Maria Irene Fornes](/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Irene_Forn%C3%A9s \"María Irene Fornés\"). Her first play *Birds* was produced by [South Coast Rep](/wiki/South_Coast_Repertory \"South Coast Repertory\").", "Lisa Loomer's play *Roe*, about [Roe v. Wade](/wiki/Roe_v._Wade \"Roe v. Wade\"), was originally commissioned through the [Oregon Shakespeare Festival](/wiki/Oregon_Shakespeare_Festival \"Oregon Shakespeare Festival\")'s American Revolutions program.[ROE](https://www.osfashland.org/productions/2016-plays/roe.aspx) It was first produced at OSF in a production that traveled to Arena Stage{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.arenastage.org/tickets/201617\\-season/roe/\\|title\\=Roe\\|website\\=www.arenastage.org\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-06}} and Berkeley Rep.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.berkeleyrep.org/season/1617/10665\\.asp\\|title\\=Roe at Berkeley Rep\\|website\\=www.berkeleyrep.org}} It received the Jane Chambers Playwriting Award{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.athe.org/page/Jane\\_Chambers? \\|title\\=Jane Chambers Playwriting Award \\- ATHE \\- Association for Theatre in Higher Education }} and the Pen Award.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.osfashland.org/press\\-room/press\\-releases/roe\\-pen\\-award.aspx}}", "Her play *Homefree* was commissioned and developed at [Denver Center Theater Company](/wiki/Denver_Center_Theater_Company \"Denver Center Theater Company\") before receiving its world premiere in Los Angeles at the Road Theatre.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/la\\-et\\-cm\\-homefree\\-at\\-the\\-road\\-on\\-magnolia\\-20150923\\-story.html\\|title\\=Review: Scenes from the street life of the young and untethered\\|date\\=September 25, 2015\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times}}", "*Café Vida*, about female gang members, was presented at the [Los Angeles Theatre Center](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Theatre_Center \"Los Angeles Theatre Center\") by the [Cornerstone Theatre Company](/wiki/Cornerstone_Theatre_Company \"Cornerstone Theatre Company\") in partnership with [Homeboy Industries](/wiki/Homeboy_Industries \"Homeboy Industries\"), and was nominated for an [Ovation Award](/wiki/Ovation_Award \"Ovation Award\") for Best Play.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.homeboyindustries.org/?gclid\\=Cj0KCQiAlIXfBRCpARIsAKvManyoHz7RjWwSy644HYa9EL8qCiQIjNC4BQL473JoFTmVv2Tsx9oQQh8aAuNUEALw\\_wcB\\|title\\=Café Vida\\|website\\=Homeboy Industries\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-06\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025100150/https://homeboyindustries.org/?gclid\\=Cj0KCQiAlIXfBRCpARIsAKvManyoHz7RjWwSy644HYa9EL8qCiQIjNC4BQL473JoFTmVv2Tsx9oQQh8aAuNUEALw\\_wcB\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "*Two Things You Don't Talk About at Dinner* had its world premiere at the [Denver Center for the Performing Arts](/wiki/Denver_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts \"Denver Center for the Performing Arts\").", "*Distracted* had its world premiere at the [Mark Taper Forum](/wiki/Mark_Taper_Forum \"Mark Taper Forum\") and was subsequently produced at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival. The play was produced at the [Roundabout Theatre Company](/wiki/Roundabout_Theatre_Company \"Roundabout Theatre Company\") in New York in a production starring [Cynthia Nixon](/wiki/Cynthia_Nixon \"Cynthia Nixon\") and has subsequently been produced in theatres throughout the U.S.", "*Living Out* had its world premiere at the Mark Taper Forum and was produced at the [Second Stage Theater](/wiki/Second_Stage_Theater \"Second Stage Theater\") in New York. It has been produced at such theaters as [Seattle Rep](/wiki/Seattle_Repertory_Theatre \"Seattle Repertory Theatre\"), [Milwaukee Rep](/wiki/Milwaukee_Repertory_Theater \"Milwaukee Repertory Theater\"), The Denver Center, and [Theatreworks](/wiki/TheatreWorks_%28Silicon_Valley%29 \"TheatreWorks (Silicon Valley)\"), often in bi\\-lingual productions, as well as in Israel, Europe, and Mexico.", "Her play *The Waiting Room* went from the [Williamstown Theater Festival](/wiki/Williamstown_Theater_Festival \"Williamstown Theater Festival\") to the Mark Taper Forum to highly successful productions at [Arena Stage](/wiki/Arena_Stage \"Arena Stage\") and [Trinity Rep](/wiki/Trinity_Repertory_Company \"Trinity Repertory Company\"), and then to the [Vineyard Theatre](/wiki/Vineyard_Theatre \"Vineyard Theatre\") in New York. It has been widely produced nationally and internationally.", "*Expecting Isabell* had its world premiere at Arena Stage and its west coast premiere at the Mark Taper Forum. It has been produced in New York and nationally.", "*Bocón!*, a political fable for young audiences, began at the Taper and has been seen throughout the country, from the [Kennedy Center](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts \"John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts\"), to Seattle's Group Theater and the [La Jolla Playhouse](/wiki/La_Jolla_Playhouse \"La Jolla Playhouse\"), as well as in Germany, Alaska, and Mexico.", "For the Cornerstone Theatre Company, she also wrote *Broken Hearts*, produced at the [Los Angeles Theatre Center](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Theatre_Center \"Los Angeles Theatre Center\").", "Other plays by Loomer which have been performed publicly include *Maria, Maria, Maria, Maria!* ([Mixed Blood](/wiki/Mixed_Blood_Theatre_Company \"Mixed Blood Theatre Company\")), *Accelerando* ([Odyssey Theatre Ensemble](/wiki/Odyssey_Theatre_Ensemble \"Odyssey Theatre Ensemble\")), and *Looking for Angels* ([The Public Theater](/wiki/The_Public_Theater \"The Public Theater\")).", "Loomer is an alumna of [New Dramatists](/wiki/New_Dramatists \"New Dramatists\") and the recipient of two grants from the [National Endowment for the Arts](/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts \"National Endowment for the Arts\") and a grant from the [New York Foundation for the Arts](/wiki/New_York_Foundation_for_the_Arts \"New York Foundation for the Arts\"). Awards include the Jane Chambers Award{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.athe.org/page/19conf\\_home \\|title\\=ATHE 2019 Annual Conference—Orlando \\- Association for Theatre in Higher Education }} (twice), the [Susan Smith Blackburn Prize](/wiki/Susan_Smith_Blackburn_Prize \"Susan Smith Blackburn Prize\"), the Kennedy Center Fund for New American Plays Award,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/article/playwrights\\-regionals\\-reap\\-kennedy\\-center\\-new\\-play\\-grants\\-com\\-77813\\|title\\=Playwrights, Regionals Reap Kennedy Center New Play Grants\\|date\\=October 12, 1998\\|website\\=Playbill}} a [Garland Award](/wiki/Back_Stage_Garland_Awards \"Back Stage Garland Awards\"), a Lurie Foundation Award, an Ovation Award, and the American Theatre Critics Association Award{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://americantheatrecritics.org/\\|title\\=Home\\|website\\=American Theatre Critics Association}} (twice). She has also received an [Imagen Award](/wiki/Imagen_Awards \"Imagen Awards\") for positive portrayals of Latinos in all media. Her plays have been selected for the [Otis Guernsey Jr.](/wiki/Otis_Guernsey_Jr. \"Otis Guernsey Jr.\")/[Burns Mantle](/wiki/Burns_Mantle \"Burns Mantle\") anthologies *The Best Plays of 1994–1995*, *The Best Plays of 1998–1999*, and *The Best Plays of 2003\\-2004*. Loomer's works have been published by [Dramatists Play Service](/wiki/Dramatists_Play_Service \"Dramatists Play Service\"), [TCG](/wiki/Theatre_Communications_Group \"Theatre Communications Group\"), [Dramatic Publishing](/wiki/Dramatists_Play_Service \"Dramatists Play Service\"), and [Arte Publico Press](/wiki/Arte_P%C3%BAblico_Press \"Arte Público Press\"). *Roe*, *The Waiting Room*, and *Living Out* are widely taught in university drama programs, Women's Studies programs, and Latino Studies programs.", "Loomer also writes for film and television, both comedy and drama. She was a supervising producer for the second season of [*Love Is…*](/wiki/Love_Is_%28TV_series%29 \"Love Is (TV series)\") on [OWN](/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey_Network_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 \"Oprah Winfrey Network (U.S. TV channel)\"). Her films include *[Girl, Interrupted](/wiki/Girl%2C_Interrupted_%28film%29 \"Girl, Interrupted (film)\")*, and *[Nappily Ever After](/wiki/Nappily_Ever_After \"Nappily Ever After\")* for [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\"). Loomer has written TV pilots for [HBO](/wiki/HBO \"HBO\"), [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\"), [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company \"Fox Broadcasting Company\"), and [Showtime](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 \"Showtime (TV network)\").", "Loomer adapted the play *[Real Women Have Curves](/wiki/Real_Women_Have_Curves_%28play%29 \"Real Women Have Curves (play)\")* into a stage musical [of the same name](/wiki/Real_Women_Have_Curves_%28musical%29 \"Real Women Have Curves (musical)\") that premiered in 2023\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://americanrepertorytheater.org/shows\\-events/real\\-women\\-have\\-curves/ \\| title\\=Real Women Have Curves at A.R.T. }}", "" ]
Orbit ----- [upright\=1\.36\|thumb\|Diagram of the orbits of Bennu and the inner planets around the Sun](/wiki/File:Bennu_Orbit.png "Bennu Orbit.png") Bennu orbits the Sun with a period of {{convert\|1\.19\|years\|days\|abbr\=off\|sigfig\=3}} {{as of\|2022\|lc\=y}}. Earth gets as close as about 480,000 km (0\.0032 [au](/wiki/Astronomical_unit "Astronomical unit")) from its orbit around 23 to 25 September. On 22 September 1999 Bennu passed 0\.0147 au from Earth, and six years later on 20 September 2005 it passed 0\.033 au from Earth. The next close approaches of less than 0\.04 au will be 30 September 2054 and then 23 September 2060, which will perturb the orbit slightly. Between the close approach of 1999 and that of 2060, Earth completes 61 orbits and Bennu 51\. An even closer approach will occur on 25 September 2135 around 0\.0014 au (see table). In the 75 years between the 2060 and 2135 approaches, Bennu completes 64 orbits, meaning its period will have changed to {{convert\|427\|days\|years\|abbr\=off\|sigfig\=3\|order\=flip}}. The Earth approach of 2135 will increase the orbital period to about {{convert\|452\|days\|years\|abbr\=off\|sigfig\=3\|order\=flip}}. Before the 2135 Earth approach, Bennu will be at its maximum distance from Earth on 27 November 2045 at a distance of {{Convert\|2\.34\|AU\|e6km\|abbr\=unit}}. | \+Bennu approaches less than 0\.05AUPosition uncertainty and increasing divergence | Date | [JPL SBDB](/wiki/JPL_SBDB "JPL SBDB")[nominal](/wiki/Curve_fitting "Curve fitting") geocentricdistance ([AU](/wiki/Astronomical_unit "Astronomical unit")) | uncertaintyregion([3\-sigma](/wiki/3-sigma "3-sigma")) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2054\-09\-30 | {{Convert\|0\.039299\|AU\|e6km\|abbr\=unit}} | ±7 km | | 2060\-09\-23 | {{Convert\|0\.005008\|AU\|e3km\|abbr\=unit}} | ±5 km | | 2080\-09\-22 | {{Convert\|0\.015630\|AU\|e6km\|abbr\=unit}} | ±3 thousand km | | 2135\-09\-25 | {{Convert\|0\.001364\|AU\|e3km\|abbr\=unit}} | ±20 thousand km | (virtual impactor)2182\-09\-24 | ≈{{Convert\|0\.3\|AU\|e6km\|abbr\=unit\|sigfig\=1}} (Gravity Simulator)[Gravity Simulator Solution for Sept 2182](http://orbitsimulator.com/gravitySimulatorCloud/simulations/1629595706133_bennu_2182.html) by Tony Dunn{{Convert\|1\.1\|AU\|e6km\|abbr\=unit}} ([NEODyS](/wiki/NEODyS "NEODyS")) | ±370 million km | ### Possible Earth impact On average, an asteroid with a diameter of {{convert\|500\|m\|ft mi\|sigfig\=2\|abbr\=on}} can be expected to impact Earth about every 130,000 years or so. A 2010 dynamical study by [Andrea Milani](/wiki/Andrea_Milani_%28mathematician%29 "Andrea Milani (mathematician)") and collaborators predicted a series of eight potential Earth impacts by Bennu between 2169 and 2199\. The cumulative probability of impact is dependent on physical properties of Bennu that were poorly known at the time, but was found to not exceed 0\.071% for all eight encounters. The authors recognized that an accurate assessment of {{mp\|101955 Bennu}}'s probability of Earth impact would require a detailed shape model and additional observations (either from the ground or from spacecraft visiting the object) to determine the magnitude and direction of the [Yarkovsky effect](/wiki/Yarkovsky_effect "Yarkovsky effect"). The publication of the shape model and of astrometry based on radar observations obtained in 1999, 2005, and 2011 made possible an improved estimate of the Yarkovsky acceleration and a revised assessment of the impact probability. In 2014, the best estimate of the impact probability was a cumulative probability of 0\.037% in the interval 2175 to 2196\. This corresponds to a cumulative score on the [Palermo scale](/wiki/Palermo_Technical_Impact_Hazard_Scale "Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale") of −1\.71\. If an impact were to occur, the expected kinetic energy associated with the collision would be 1,200 megatons in [TNT equivalent](/wiki/TNT_equivalent "TNT equivalent") (for comparison, TNT equivalent of [Tsar Bomba](/wiki/Tsar_Bomba "Tsar Bomba"), the most powerful nuclear weapon ever tested, was approximately 54 megatons, and that of the [Tunguska event](/wiki/Tunguska_event "Tunguska event"), the most energetic [impact event](/wiki/Impact_event "Impact event") in recorded history, has been estimated at 3–5 megatons,{{cite news\|url\=https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/releases/2007/asteroid.html\|title\=Sandia supercomputers offer new explanation of Tunguska disaster\|date\=17 December 2007\|publisher\=\[\[Sandia National Laboratories]]\|access\-date\=22 December 2007\|archive\-date\=19 February 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219203913/https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/releases/2007/asteroid.html}} though another estimate is 20–30 megatons{{cite journal\|title\=Probabilistic assessment of Tunguska\-scale asteroid impacts\|journal\=Icarus\|volume\=327\|pages\=83–96\|doi\=10\.1016/j.icarus.2018\.12\.017\|year\=2019\|last1\=Wheeler\|first1\=Lorien F.\|last2\=Mathias\|first2\=Donovan L.\|bibcode\=2019Icar..327\...83W\|doi\-access\=free}}). The 2021 orbit solution extended the virtual impactors from the year 2200 to the year 2300 and slightly increased the cumulative Palermo impact scale to −1\.42\. The solution even included the estimated masses of 343 other asteroids and represents about 90% of the total mass of the [main asteroid belt](/wiki/Main_asteroid_belt "Main asteroid belt"). ### 2060/2135 close approaches [upright\=1\.36\|thumb\|right\|Animation of 101955 Bennu{{'s}} position relative to the Earth, as both orbit the Sun, in the years 2128 to 2138\. 2135 close approach is shown near the end of the animation. {{legend2\| RoyalBlue\| Earth}}{{·}}{{legend2\|Magenta\|101955 Bennu}}](/wiki/File:Animation_of_101955_Bennu_orbit_around_Earth_2128-2138.gif "Animation of 101955 Bennu orbit around Earth 2128-2138.gif") Bennu will pass {{convert\|0\.005\|au\|km mi\|abbr\=on}} from Earth on 23 September 2060, while for comparison the [Moon](/wiki/Moon "Moon")'s average orbital distance (*[lunar distance](/wiki/Lunar_distance_%28astronomy%29 "Lunar distance (astronomy)"))* is {{convert\|384,402\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} and will only change to 384,404 km in 50 years time. Bennu will be too dim to be seen with common binoculars. The close approach of 2060 causes divergence in the close approach of 2135\. On 25 September 2135, the Earth approach distance is {{convert\|0\.00136\|au\|km mi\|abbr\=on}} ±20 thousand km. There is no chance of an Earth impact in 2135\. The 2135 approach will create many lines of variations and Bennu may pass through a [gravitational keyhole](/wiki/Gravitational_keyhole "Gravitational keyhole") during the 2135 passage which could create an impact scenario at a future encounter. The keyholes are all less than \~20 km wide with some keyholes being only 5 meters wide. #### 2182 The most threatening virtual impactor is on Tuesday, 24 September 2182 when there is a 1 in 2,700 chance of an Earth impact, but the asteroid could be as far as the Sun is from Earth. To impact Earth on 24 September 2182 Bennu must pass through a keyhole roughly 5 km wide on 25 September 2135\.[Table 3\. Impact dates, keyhole centers and widths in the 2135 B\-plane](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103521002591#tbl3) (Farnocchia2021\) The table reports the zeta coordinate on the B\-plane, which is not the same thing as the miss distance during the 2135 encounter. The next two biggest risks occur in 2187 (1:14,000\) and 2192 (1:26,000\). There is a cumulative 1 in 1,800 chance of an Earth impact between 2178 and 2290\. ### Long term Lauretta et al. reported in 2015 their results of a computer simulation, concluding that it is more likely that 101955 Bennu will be destroyed by some other cause: > The orbit of Bennu is intrinsically dynamically unstable, as are those of all [NEOs](/wiki/Near-Earth_object "Near-Earth object"). In order to glean probabilistic insights into the future evolution and likely fate of Bennu beyond a few hundred years, we tracked 1,000 virtual "Bennus" for an interval of 300 [Myr](/wiki/Myr "Myr") with the gravitational perturbations of the planets Mercury–Neptune included. Our results ... indicate that Bennu has a 48% chance of falling into the Sun. There is a 10% probability that Bennu will be ejected out of the inner Solar System, most likely after a close encounter with Jupiter. The highest impact probability for a planet is with Venus (26%), followed by the Earth (10%) and Mercury (3%). The odds of Bennu striking Mars are only 0\.8% and there is a 0\.2% chance that Bennu will eventually collide with Jupiter. | \+{{nowrap\|Asteroids of \[\[absolute magnitude]] less than 21 passing less than 1 \[\[Lunar distance (astronomy)\|lunar distance]] from Earth}} | Asteroid |Date Nominal approach distance ([LD](/wiki/Lunar_distance_%28astronomy%29 "Lunar distance (astronomy)")) | Min. distance (LD) | Max. distance (LD) | [Absolute magnitude](/wiki/Absolute_magnitude "Absolute magnitude") (H) | Size (meters) | {{mpl\|(152680\) 1998 KJ\|9}} | 1914\-12\-31 | 0\.606 | 0\.604 | 0\.608 | 19\.4 | 279–900 | {{mpl\|(458732\) 2011 MD\|5}} | 1918\-09\-17 | 0\.911 | 0\.909 | 0\.913 | 17\.9 | 556–1795 | {{mpl\|(163132\) 2002 CU\|11}} | 1925\-08\-30 | 0\.903 | 0\.901 | 0\.905 | 18\.5 | *443–477* | {{mpl\|2017 VW\|13}} | 2001\-11\-08 | 0\.373 | 0\.316 | 3\.236 | 20\.7 | 153–494 | {{mpl\|(153814\) 2001 WN\|5}} | 2028\-06\-26 | 0\.647 | 0\.647 | 0\.647 | 18\.2 | *921–943* | [99942 Apophis](/wiki/99942_Apophis "99942 Apophis") | 2029\-04\-13 | 0\.0989 | 0\.0989 | 0\.0989 | 19\.7 | *310–340* | {{mpl\|2005 WY\|55}} | 2065\-05\-28 | 0\.865 | 0\.856 | 0\.874 | 20\.7 | 153–494 | **101955 Bennu** | **2135\-09\-25** | **0\.531** | **0\.507** | **0\.555** | **20\.19** | ***472–512*** | {{mpl\|(153201\) 2000 WO\|107}} | 2140\-12\-01 | 0\.634 | 0\.631 | 0\.637 | 19\.3 | *427–593* | ### Meteor shower As an active asteroid with a small [minimum orbit intersection distance](/wiki/Minimum_orbit_intersection_distance "Minimum orbit intersection distance") from Earth, Bennu may be the [parent body](/wiki/Parent_body "Parent body") of a weak [meteor shower](/wiki/Meteor_shower "Meteor shower"). Bennu particles would [radiate](/wiki/Radiant_%28meteor_shower%29 "Radiant (meteor shower)") around 25 September from the southern [constellation](/wiki/Constellation "Constellation") of [Sculptor](/wiki/Sculptor_%28constellation%29 "Sculptor (constellation)"). The meteors are expected to be near the naked eye visibility limit and only produce a [Zenith hourly rate](/wiki/Zenith_hourly_rate "Zenith hourly rate") of less than 1\.
[ "Orbit\n-----", "[upright\\=1\\.36\\|thumb\\|Diagram of the orbits of Bennu and the inner planets around the Sun](/wiki/File:Bennu_Orbit.png \"Bennu Orbit.png\")", "Bennu orbits the Sun with a period of {{convert\\|1\\.19\\|years\\|days\\|abbr\\=off\\|sigfig\\=3}} {{as of\\|2022\\|lc\\=y}}. Earth gets as close as about 480,000 km (0\\.0032 [au](/wiki/Astronomical_unit \"Astronomical unit\")) from its orbit around 23 to 25 September. On 22 September 1999 Bennu passed 0\\.0147 au from Earth, and six years later on 20 September 2005 it passed 0\\.033 au from Earth. The next close approaches of less than 0\\.04 au will be 30 September 2054 and then 23 September 2060, which will perturb the orbit slightly. Between the close approach of 1999 and that of 2060, Earth completes 61 orbits and Bennu 51\\. An even closer approach will occur on 25 September 2135 around 0\\.0014 au (see table). In the 75 years between the 2060 and 2135 approaches, Bennu completes 64 orbits, meaning its period will have changed to {{convert\\|427\\|days\\|years\\|abbr\\=off\\|sigfig\\=3\\|order\\=flip}}. The Earth approach of 2135 will increase the orbital period to about {{convert\\|452\\|days\\|years\\|abbr\\=off\\|sigfig\\=3\\|order\\=flip}}. Before the 2135 Earth approach, Bennu will be at its maximum distance from Earth on 27 November 2045 at a distance of {{Convert\\|2\\.34\\|AU\\|e6km\\|abbr\\=unit}}.", "", "| \\+Bennu approaches less than 0\\.05AUPosition uncertainty and increasing divergence | Date | [JPL SBDB](/wiki/JPL_SBDB \"JPL SBDB\")[nominal](/wiki/Curve_fitting \"Curve fitting\") geocentricdistance ([AU](/wiki/Astronomical_unit \"Astronomical unit\")) | uncertaintyregion([3\\-sigma](/wiki/3-sigma \"3-sigma\")) |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2054\\-09\\-30 | {{Convert\\|0\\.039299\\|AU\\|e6km\\|abbr\\=unit}} | ±7 km |\n| 2060\\-09\\-23 | {{Convert\\|0\\.005008\\|AU\\|e3km\\|abbr\\=unit}} | ±5 km |\n| 2080\\-09\\-22 | {{Convert\\|0\\.015630\\|AU\\|e6km\\|abbr\\=unit}} | ±3 thousand km |\n| 2135\\-09\\-25 | {{Convert\\|0\\.001364\\|AU\\|e3km\\|abbr\\=unit}} | ±20 thousand km |", "(virtual impactor)2182\\-09\\-24 | ≈{{Convert\\|0\\.3\\|AU\\|e6km\\|abbr\\=unit\\|sigfig\\=1}} (Gravity Simulator)[Gravity Simulator Solution for Sept 2182](http://orbitsimulator.com/gravitySimulatorCloud/simulations/1629595706133_bennu_2182.html) by Tony Dunn{{Convert\\|1\\.1\\|AU\\|e6km\\|abbr\\=unit}} ([NEODyS](/wiki/NEODyS \"NEODyS\")) | ±370 million km |", "### Possible Earth impact", "On average, an asteroid with a diameter of {{convert\\|500\\|m\\|ft mi\\|sigfig\\=2\\|abbr\\=on}} can be expected to impact Earth about every 130,000 years or so. A 2010 dynamical study by [Andrea Milani](/wiki/Andrea_Milani_%28mathematician%29 \"Andrea Milani (mathematician)\") and collaborators predicted a series of eight potential Earth impacts by Bennu between 2169 and 2199\\. The cumulative probability of impact is dependent on physical properties of Bennu that were poorly known at the time, but was found to not exceed 0\\.071% for all eight encounters. The authors recognized that an accurate assessment of {{mp\\|101955 Bennu}}'s probability of Earth impact would require a detailed shape model and additional observations (either from the ground or from spacecraft visiting the object) to determine the magnitude and direction of the [Yarkovsky effect](/wiki/Yarkovsky_effect \"Yarkovsky effect\").", "The publication of the shape model and of astrometry based on radar observations obtained in 1999, 2005, and 2011 made possible an improved estimate of the Yarkovsky acceleration and a revised assessment of the impact probability. In 2014, the best estimate of the impact probability was a cumulative probability of 0\\.037% in the interval 2175 to 2196\\. This corresponds to a cumulative score on the [Palermo scale](/wiki/Palermo_Technical_Impact_Hazard_Scale \"Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale\") of −1\\.71\\. If an impact were to occur, the expected kinetic energy associated with the collision would be 1,200 megatons in [TNT equivalent](/wiki/TNT_equivalent \"TNT equivalent\") (for comparison, TNT equivalent of [Tsar Bomba](/wiki/Tsar_Bomba \"Tsar Bomba\"), the most powerful nuclear weapon ever tested, was approximately 54 megatons, and that of the [Tunguska event](/wiki/Tunguska_event \"Tunguska event\"), the most energetic [impact event](/wiki/Impact_event \"Impact event\") in recorded history, has been estimated at 3–5 megatons,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/releases/2007/asteroid.html\\|title\\=Sandia supercomputers offer new explanation of Tunguska disaster\\|date\\=17 December 2007\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sandia National Laboratories]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2007\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219203913/https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/releases/2007/asteroid.html}} though another estimate is 20–30 megatons{{cite journal\\|title\\=Probabilistic assessment of Tunguska\\-scale asteroid impacts\\|journal\\=Icarus\\|volume\\=327\\|pages\\=83–96\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.icarus.2018\\.12\\.017\\|year\\=2019\\|last1\\=Wheeler\\|first1\\=Lorien F.\\|last2\\=Mathias\\|first2\\=Donovan L.\\|bibcode\\=2019Icar..327\\...83W\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}).", "The 2021 orbit solution extended the virtual impactors from the year 2200 to the year 2300 and slightly increased the cumulative Palermo impact scale to −1\\.42\\. The solution even included the estimated masses of 343 other asteroids and represents about 90% of the total mass of the [main asteroid belt](/wiki/Main_asteroid_belt \"Main asteroid belt\").", "### 2060/2135 close approaches", "[upright\\=1\\.36\\|thumb\\|right\\|Animation of 101955 Bennu{{'s}} position relative to the Earth, as both orbit the Sun, in the years 2128 to 2138\\. 2135 close approach is shown near the end of the animation. \n{{legend2\\| RoyalBlue\\| Earth}}{{·}}{{legend2\\|Magenta\\|101955 Bennu}}](/wiki/File:Animation_of_101955_Bennu_orbit_around_Earth_2128-2138.gif \"Animation of 101955 Bennu orbit around Earth 2128-2138.gif\")\nBennu will pass {{convert\\|0\\.005\\|au\\|km mi\\|abbr\\=on}} from Earth on 23 September 2060, while for comparison the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\")'s average orbital distance (*[lunar distance](/wiki/Lunar_distance_%28astronomy%29 \"Lunar distance (astronomy)\"))* is {{convert\\|384,402\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} and will only change to 384,404 km in 50 years time. Bennu will be too dim to be seen with common binoculars. The close approach of 2060 causes divergence in the close approach of 2135\\. On 25 September 2135, the Earth approach distance is {{convert\\|0\\.00136\\|au\\|km mi\\|abbr\\=on}} ±20 thousand km. There is no chance of an Earth impact in 2135\\. The 2135 approach will create many lines of variations and Bennu may pass through a [gravitational keyhole](/wiki/Gravitational_keyhole \"Gravitational keyhole\") during the 2135 passage which could create an impact scenario at a future encounter. The keyholes are all less than \\~20 km wide with some keyholes being only 5 meters wide.", "#### 2182", "The most threatening virtual impactor is on Tuesday, 24 September 2182 when there is a 1 in 2,700 chance of an Earth impact, but the asteroid could be as far as the Sun is from Earth. To impact Earth on 24 September 2182 Bennu must pass through a keyhole roughly 5 km wide on 25 September 2135\\.[Table 3\\. Impact dates, keyhole centers and widths in the 2135 B\\-plane](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103521002591#tbl3) (Farnocchia2021\\) The table reports the zeta coordinate on the B\\-plane, which is not the same thing as the miss distance during the 2135 encounter. The next two biggest risks occur in 2187 (1:14,000\\) and 2192 (1:26,000\\). There is a cumulative 1 in 1,800 chance of an Earth impact between 2178 and 2290\\.", "### Long term", "Lauretta et al. reported in 2015 their results of a computer simulation, concluding that it is more likely that 101955 Bennu will be destroyed by some other cause:", "", "> The orbit of Bennu is intrinsically dynamically unstable, as are those of all [NEOs](/wiki/Near-Earth_object \"Near-Earth object\"). In order to glean probabilistic insights into the future evolution and likely fate of Bennu beyond a few hundred years, we tracked 1,000 virtual \"Bennus\" for an interval of 300 [Myr](/wiki/Myr \"Myr\") with the gravitational perturbations of the planets Mercury–Neptune included. Our results ... indicate that Bennu has a 48% chance of falling into the Sun. There is a 10% probability that Bennu will be ejected out of the inner Solar System, most likely after a close encounter with Jupiter. The highest impact probability for a planet is with Venus (26%), followed by the Earth (10%) and Mercury (3%). The odds of Bennu striking Mars are only 0\\.8% and there is a 0\\.2% chance that Bennu will eventually collide with Jupiter.", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Asteroids of \\[\\[absolute magnitude]] less than 21 passing less than 1 \\[\\[Lunar distance (astronomy)\\|lunar distance]] from Earth}} | Asteroid |Date", "Nominal approach distance ([LD](/wiki/Lunar_distance_%28astronomy%29 \"Lunar distance (astronomy)\")) |\n Min. distance (LD) |\n Max. distance (LD) |\n [Absolute magnitude](/wiki/Absolute_magnitude \"Absolute magnitude\") (H) |\n Size (meters) |", "{{mpl\\|(152680\\) 1998 KJ\\|9}} | 1914\\-12\\-31 | 0\\.606 | 0\\.604 | 0\\.608 | 19\\.4 | 279–900 |\n {{mpl\\|(458732\\) 2011 MD\\|5}} | 1918\\-09\\-17 | 0\\.911 | 0\\.909 | 0\\.913 | 17\\.9 | 556–1795 |\n {{mpl\\|(163132\\) 2002 CU\\|11}} | 1925\\-08\\-30 | 0\\.903 | 0\\.901 | 0\\.905 | 18\\.5 | *443–477* |\n {{mpl\\|2017 VW\\|13}} | 2001\\-11\\-08 | 0\\.373 | 0\\.316 | 3\\.236 | 20\\.7 | 153–494 |\n {{mpl\\|(153814\\) 2001 WN\\|5}} | 2028\\-06\\-26 | 0\\.647 | 0\\.647 | 0\\.647 | 18\\.2 | *921–943* |\n [99942 Apophis](/wiki/99942_Apophis \"99942 Apophis\") | 2029\\-04\\-13 | 0\\.0989 | 0\\.0989 | 0\\.0989 | 19\\.7 | *310–340* |\n {{mpl\\|2005 WY\\|55}} | 2065\\-05\\-28 | 0\\.865 | 0\\.856 | 0\\.874 | 20\\.7 | 153–494 |\n **101955 Bennu** | **2135\\-09\\-25** | **0\\.531** | **0\\.507** | **0\\.555** | **20\\.19** | ***472–512*** |\n {{mpl\\|(153201\\) 2000 WO\\|107}} | 2140\\-12\\-01 | 0\\.634 | 0\\.631 | 0\\.637 | 19\\.3 | *427–593* |\n### Meteor shower", "As an active asteroid with a small [minimum orbit intersection distance](/wiki/Minimum_orbit_intersection_distance \"Minimum orbit intersection distance\") from Earth, Bennu may be the [parent body](/wiki/Parent_body \"Parent body\") of a weak [meteor shower](/wiki/Meteor_shower \"Meteor shower\"). Bennu particles would [radiate](/wiki/Radiant_%28meteor_shower%29 \"Radiant (meteor shower)\") around 25 September from the southern [constellation](/wiki/Constellation \"Constellation\") of [Sculptor](/wiki/Sculptor_%28constellation%29 \"Sculptor (constellation)\"). The meteors are expected to be near the naked eye visibility limit and only produce a [Zenith hourly rate](/wiki/Zenith_hourly_rate \"Zenith hourly rate\") of less than 1\\.", "" ]
Exploration ----------- ### OSIRIS\-REx {{main\|OSIRIS\-REx}} [thumb\|upright\|The successful October 2020 sample collection, showing OSIRIS\-REx touching down on the Nightingale sample site](/wiki/File:OSIRIS-REX_SamCam_TAGSAM_Event_2020-10-20_small.gif "OSIRIS-REX SamCam TAGSAM Event 2020-10-20 small.gif") The [OSIRIS\-REx](/wiki/OSIRIS-REx "OSIRIS-REx") mission of NASA's [New Frontiers program](/wiki/New_Frontiers_program "New Frontiers program") was launched towards {{mp\|101955 Bennu}} on 8 September 2016\. On 3 December 2018, the spacecraft arrived at the asteroid Bennu after a two\-year journey.{{cite news\|last\=Chang\|first\=Kenneth\|date\=3 December 2018\|title\=NASA's Osiris\-Rex Arrives at Asteroid Bennu After a Two\-Year Journey\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/03/science/osiris\-rex\-bennu\-asteroid\-arrival.html\|access\-date\=12 February 2021}} One week later, at the [American Geophysical Union](/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union "American Geophysical Union") Fall Meeting, investigators announced that OSIRIS\-REx had discovered spectroscopic evidence for [hydrated minerals](/wiki/Mineral_hydration "Mineral hydration") on the surface of the asteroid, implying that liquid water was present in Bennu's parent body before it split off.{{cite news \| url \= https://www.space.com/42690\-asteroid\-bennu\-had\-water\-nasa\-osiris\-rex\-discovery.html \| title\= Asteroid Bennu Had Water! NASA Probe Makes Tantalizing Find \| first\= Mike \| last \= Wall \| date \= 10 December 2018 \| access\-date \= 6 January 2019 \| website \= \[\[Space.com]] }} On 20 October 2020, OSIRIS\-REx descended to the asteroid and "[pogo\-sticked](/wiki/Pogo_stick "Pogo stick") off" it while successfully collecting a sample.["Touching the Asteroid" (video, 54:03 min.)](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/touching-the-asteroid/), *[Nova](/wiki/Nova_%28American_TV_program%29 "Nova (American TV program)")* on [PBS](/wiki/PBS "PBS"), 21 October 2020\. Retrieved 20\-10\-22\. On 7 April 2021, OSIRIS\-REx completed its final flyover of the asteroid and began slowly drifting away from it.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa\-osiris\-rex\-completes\-final\-tour\-of\-asteroid\-bennu\|title\=NASA's OSIRIS\-REx Completes Final Tour of Asteroid Bennu\|publisher\=NASA\|date\=7 April 2021\|access\-date\=10 May 2021}} On 10 May 2021, the departure was completed with OSIRIS\-REx while still managing to contain the asteroid sample. OSIRIS\-REx returned samples to Earth in 2023 via a capsule\-drop by parachute, ultimately, from the spacecraft to the Earth's surface in [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah") on 24 September 2023\. Shortly after the sample container was retrieved and transferred to an airtight chamber at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, the lid on the container was opened. Scientists commented that they "found black dust and debris on the avionics deck of the OSIRIS\-REx science canister" on the initial opening. Further study is planned. On 11 October 2023, the recovered capsule was opened to reveal a "first look" at the asteroid sample contents.{{cite news \|last\=Chang \|first\=Kenneth \|title\=NASA Unveils First Glimpse of 'Scientific Treasure' Collected From Asteroid – Scientists said they got more material than expected from the Osiris\-Rex mission during its seven\-year journey to the asteroid Bennu. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/11/science/nasa\-asteroid\-osiris\-rex\-bennu.html \|date\=11 October 2023 \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20231011174611/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/11/science/nasa\-asteroid\-osiris\-rex\-bennu.html \|archive\-date\=11 October 2023 \|access\-date\=12 October 2023 }} On 13 December 2023, further studies of the returned sample were reported and revealed [organic molecules](/wiki/Organic_molecule "Organic molecule") as well as unknown materials which require more study to have a better idea of their composition and makeup.{{cite news \|last\=Kuthunur \|first\=Sharmila \|title\='What is that material?': Potentially hazardous asteroid Bennu stumps scientists with its odd makeup – Scientists found signs of organic molecules in the first samples of potentially hazardous asteroid Bennu, as well as a 'head scratching' material that has yet to be identified. \|url\=https://www.livescience.com/space/space\-exploration/what\-is\-that\-material\-potentially\-hazardous\-asteroid\-bennu\-stumps\-scientists\-with\-its\-odd\-makeup \|date\=13 December 2023 \|work\=\[\[LiveScience]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20231214014121/https://www.livescience.com/space/space\-exploration/what\-is\-that\-material\-potentially\-hazardous\-asteroid\-bennu\-stumps\-scientists\-with\-its\-odd\-makeup \|archive\-date\=14 December 2023 \|access\-date\=13 December 2023 }}{{cite news \|last\=Rabie \|first\=Passant \|title\=It's Been 2 Months. Why Can't NASA Open the Asteroid Sample Container? – The space agency is having to develop new tools to crack open the canister containing bits from asteroid Bennu \|url\=https://gizmodo.com/nasa\-osiris\-rex\-asteroid\-samples\-bennu\-stuck\-container\-1851102598 \|date\=15 December 2023 \|work\=\[\[Gizmodo]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20231215230642/https://gizmodo.com/nasa\-osiris\-rex\-asteroid\-samples\-bennu\-stuck\-container\-1851102598 \|archive\-date\=15 December 2023 \|access\-date\=16 December 2023 }} On 11 January 2024, NASA reported finally fully opening, after three months of trying, the recovered container with samples from the Bennu asteroid.{{cite web \| url \= https://blogs.nasa.gov/osiris\-rex/2024/01/11/nasas\-osiris\-rex\-team\-clears\-hurdle\-to\-access\-remaining\-bennu\-sample/ \| title \= NASA's OSIRIS\-REx Team Clears Hurdle to Access Remaining Bennu Sample \| last \= Barry \| first \= Rachel Ann \| date \= 2024\-01\-11 \| website \= OSIRIS\-REx Mission \| publisher \= NASA }}{{cite news \|last\=MacDonald \|first\=Cheyenne \|title\=NASA finally got the stuck lid off its asteroid Bennu sample container – Thanks to some stubborn fasteners, the agency spent three months locked out of the sample OSIRIS\-REx dropped off. \|url\=https://www.engadget.com/nasa\-finally\-got\-the\-stuck\-lid\-off\-its\-asteroid\-bennu\-sample\-container\-185814782\.html \|date\=13 January 2024 \|work\=\[\[Engadget]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240114015754/https://www.engadget.com/nasa\-finally\-got\-the\-stuck\-lid\-off\-its\-asteroid\-bennu\-sample\-container\-185814782\.html \|archive\-date\=14 January 2024 \|access\-date\=13 January 2024 }}{{cite news \|last\=Rabie \|first\=Passant \|title\=NASA Finally Opened the Asteroid Container and Holy Crap That's a Lot of Asteroid – After months of struggling to get to the bulk of the OSIRIS\-REx asteroid sample, the space agency has unveiled a treasure trove of ancient rocks and dust. \|url\=https://gizmodo.com/nasa\-osiris\-rex\-canister\-reveal\-asteroid\-sample\-trove\-1851184737 \|date\=22 January 2024 \|work\=\[\[Gizmodo]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240123011843/https://gizmodo.com/nasa\-osiris\-rex\-canister\-reveal\-asteroid\-sample\-trove\-1851184737 \|archive\-date\=23 January 2024 \|access\-date\=22 January 2024 }} The total weight of the recovered material weighed {{convert\|121\.6\|g\|oz\|abbr\=on}}, over twice the mission's goal.{{cite news \|last\=Rabie \|first\=Passant \|title\=We Finally Know How Much of That Asteroid OSIRIS\-REx Grabbed in Space – Engineers struggled to open the sample canister for months, but it was all worth it for twice the amount of asteroid they thought they were getting. \|url\=https://gizmodo.com/how\-much\-nasa\-osiris\-rex\-collected\-asteroid\-space\-1851261317 \|date\=15 February 2024 \|work\=\[\[Gizmodo]] \|url\-status\=live \|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20240216145102/https://gizmodo.com/how\-much\-nasa\-osiris\-rex\-collected\-asteroid\-space\-1851261317 \|archivedate\=16 February 2024 \|accessdate\=16 February 2024 }} On 15 May 2024, an overview of preliminary analytical studies on the returned samples was reported.{{cite news \|last\=Nicitopoulos \|first\=Theo \|title\=NASA's asteroid Bennu samples have rocks unlike any meteorite ever found – Early results from NASA's OSIRIS\-REx mission to Bennu have uncovered exotic versions of chondrules – rocks commonly found in meteorites. \|url\=https://www.astronomy.com/science/nasas\-asteroid\-bennu\-samples\-have\-rocks\-unlike\-any\-meteorite\-ever\-found/ \|date\=15 May 2024 \|work\=\[\[Astronomy (magazine)\|Astronomy]] \|url\-status\=live \|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20240516190933/https://www.astronomy.com/science/nasas\-asteroid\-bennu\-samples\-have\-rocks\-unlike\-any\-meteorite\-ever\-found/ \|archivedate\=16 May 2024 }} ### Selection The asteroid Bennu was selected from over half a million known asteroids by the OSIRIS\-REx selection committee. The primary constraint for selection was close proximity to Earth, since proximity implies low [impulse](/wiki/Delta-v "Delta-v") (Δv) required to reach an object from Earth orbit. The criteria stipulated an asteroid in an orbit with low eccentricity, low inclination, and an orbital radius of {{val\|0\.8\|\-\|1\.6\|ul\=au}}. Furthermore, the candidate asteroid for a sample\-return mission must have loose regolith on its surface, which implies a diameter greater than 200 meters. Asteroids smaller than this typically spin too fast to retain dust or small particles. Finally, a desire to find an asteroid with pristine carbon material from the early Solar System, possibly including volatile molecules and [organic compounds](/wiki/Organic_compound "Organic compound"), reduced the list further. With the above criteria applied, five asteroids remained as candidates for the OSIRIS\-REx mission, and Bennu was chosen, in part for its potentially hazardous orbit. File:Animation of OSIRIS\-REx trajectory.gif\|Trajectory in the Solar System from 9 August 2016 to 24 September 2023 File:Animation of OSIRIS\-Rex trajectory around 101955 Bennu.gif\|Trajectory around 101955 Bennu from 25 December 2018 File:Animation of OSIRIS\-REx around Bennu \- touch down on Bennu.gif\|Touchdown on Bennu ### Returned samples [thumb\|The bulk Bennu sample in the glovebox. (a) Sample obtained from the top of the Mylar flap (left two trays) and scooped from beneath it (right two trays). (b) Sample poured from the TAGSAM into eight trays.](/wiki/File:Maps14227-fig-0005-m.jpg "Maps14227-fig-0005-m.jpg") [thumb\|Phosphate in a mottled particle (OREX\-803009\-101\). (a) Visible light microscopy image of a dark particle with an outer crust of high\-reflectance material. (b–d) SEM images showing progressively zoomed view of a fragment of the particle that split off along a high\-reflectance vein, revealing material similar to the outer crust, with a blocky friable texture and consisting of Na, Mg, and P.](/wiki/File:Maps14227-fig-0017-m.jpg "Maps14227-fig-0017-m.jpg") The OSIRIS\-REx mission successfully returned approximately 120 grams of material from Bennu to Earth in September 2023\. The returned material is predominantly very dark, with reflectance values consistent with observations of Bennu's surface, though it contains some brighter inclusions and particles. Particle sizes in the sample span a wide range, from submicron dust to rocks measuring about 3\.5 cm in length. Mineralogical analysis shows that the sample is rich in hydrated minerals, particularly Mg\-rich phyllosilicates, confirming predictions from remote sensing data. Other major components include magnetite, sulfides, carbonates, and organic compounds. An unexpected discovery was the presence of phosphate minerals in some samples, including Mg,Na\-rich phosphates found as veins and crusts in some particles.{{cite journal \|last1\=Lauretta \|first1\=Dante S. \|last2\=Connolly \|first2\=Harold C. \|last3\=Aebersold \|first3\=Joseph E. \|title\=Asteroid (101955\) Bennu in the laboratory: Properties of the sample collected by OSIRIS\-REx \|journal\=Meteoritics \& Planetary Science \|date\=26 June 2024 \|volume\=59 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=2453–2486 \|doi\=10\.1111/maps.14227 \|display\-authors\=1\|doi\-access\=free }} The elemental composition of the Bennu samples closely resembles that of CI chondrite meteorites. However, the Bennu material shows some distinct isotopic ratios. The average oxygen isotopic composition places Bennu in the same region of oxygen three\-isotope space as CI and CY chondrites, as well as samples from asteroid Ryugu. The carbon content of the samples (4\.5–4\.7 wt%) is higher than that found in known meteorites and Ryugu samples. The presence of presolar grains in the samples indicates that some of the material has remained largely unprocessed since the formation of the solar system. Presolar silicon carbide and graphite were identified, with abundances of {{val\|52\|12\|10\|u\=ppm}} and {{val\|12\|7\|5\|u\=ppm}} respectively, similar to unheated chondrite samples. Evidence suggests that the samples come from at least two different lithologies on Bennu's surface. Three predominant types of particles were identified: hummocky, angular, and mottled. These show distinct densities, with hummocky particles having the lowest average density ({{val\|1\.55\|0\.07\|u\=g/cm3}}) and mottled particles the highest ({{val\|1\.77\|0\.04\|u\=g/cm3}}). Spectral analysis of the samples shows a redder slope from 0\.4 to 2\.5 μm compared to Bennu's global spectrum, potentially indicating differences in particle size, surface texture, or space weathering between the sampled material and the asteroid's surface. Since 3 November 2023, a part of the sample is exhibited at the Hall of Meteorites of the [National Museum of Natural History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History "National Museum of Natural History") (Washington, DC).{{cite web \|last1\=Pearlman \|first1\=Robert Z. \|title\=Smithsonian debuts 1st display of asteroid Bennu sample brought back by OSIRIS\-REx \|url\=https://www.space.com/smithsonian\-osiris\-rex\-bennu\-asteroid\-unveiling \|website\=space.com \|access\-date\=6 November 2023 \|date\=3 November 2023}}
[ "Exploration\n-----------", "### OSIRIS\\-REx", "{{main\\|OSIRIS\\-REx}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|The successful October 2020 sample collection, showing OSIRIS\\-REx touching down on the Nightingale sample site](/wiki/File:OSIRIS-REX_SamCam_TAGSAM_Event_2020-10-20_small.gif \"OSIRIS-REX SamCam TAGSAM Event 2020-10-20 small.gif\")\nThe [OSIRIS\\-REx](/wiki/OSIRIS-REx \"OSIRIS-REx\") mission of NASA's [New Frontiers program](/wiki/New_Frontiers_program \"New Frontiers program\") was launched towards {{mp\\|101955 Bennu}} on 8 September 2016\\. On 3 December 2018, the spacecraft arrived at the asteroid Bennu after a two\\-year journey.{{cite news\\|last\\=Chang\\|first\\=Kenneth\\|date\\=3 December 2018\\|title\\=NASA's Osiris\\-Rex Arrives at Asteroid Bennu After a Two\\-Year Journey\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/03/science/osiris\\-rex\\-bennu\\-asteroid\\-arrival.html\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021}} One week later, at the [American Geophysical Union](/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union \"American Geophysical Union\") Fall Meeting, investigators announced that OSIRIS\\-REx had discovered spectroscopic evidence for [hydrated minerals](/wiki/Mineral_hydration \"Mineral hydration\") on the surface of the asteroid, implying that liquid water was present in Bennu's parent body before it split off.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://www.space.com/42690\\-asteroid\\-bennu\\-had\\-water\\-nasa\\-osiris\\-rex\\-discovery.html \\| title\\= Asteroid Bennu Had Water! NASA Probe Makes Tantalizing Find \\| first\\= Mike \\| last \\= Wall \\| date \\= 10 December 2018 \\| access\\-date \\= 6 January 2019 \\| website \\= \\[\\[Space.com]] }}", "On 20 October 2020, OSIRIS\\-REx descended to the asteroid and \"[pogo\\-sticked](/wiki/Pogo_stick \"Pogo stick\") off\" it while successfully collecting a sample.[\"Touching the Asteroid\" (video, 54:03 min.)](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/touching-the-asteroid/), *[Nova](/wiki/Nova_%28American_TV_program%29 \"Nova (American TV program)\")* on [PBS](/wiki/PBS \"PBS\"), 21 October 2020\\. Retrieved 20\\-10\\-22\\. On 7 April 2021, OSIRIS\\-REx completed its final flyover of the asteroid and began slowly drifting away from it.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa\\-osiris\\-rex\\-completes\\-final\\-tour\\-of\\-asteroid\\-bennu\\|title\\=NASA's OSIRIS\\-REx Completes Final Tour of Asteroid Bennu\\|publisher\\=NASA\\|date\\=7 April 2021\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2021}} On 10 May 2021, the departure was completed with OSIRIS\\-REx while still managing to contain the asteroid sample. OSIRIS\\-REx returned samples to Earth in 2023 via a capsule\\-drop by parachute, ultimately, from the spacecraft to the Earth's surface in [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\") on 24 September 2023\\.", "Shortly after the sample container was retrieved and transferred to an airtight chamber at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, the lid on the container was opened. Scientists commented that they \"found black dust and debris on the avionics deck of the OSIRIS\\-REx science canister\" on the initial opening. Further study is planned. On 11 October 2023, the recovered capsule was opened to reveal a \"first look\" at the asteroid sample contents.{{cite news \\|last\\=Chang \\|first\\=Kenneth \\|title\\=NASA Unveils First Glimpse of 'Scientific Treasure' Collected From Asteroid – Scientists said they got more material than expected from the Osiris\\-Rex mission during its seven\\-year journey to the asteroid Bennu. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/11/science/nasa\\-asteroid\\-osiris\\-rex\\-bennu.html \\|date\\=11 October 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20231011174611/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/11/science/nasa\\-asteroid\\-osiris\\-rex\\-bennu.html \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2023 }} On 13 December 2023, further studies of the returned sample were reported and revealed [organic molecules](/wiki/Organic_molecule \"Organic molecule\") as well as unknown materials which require more study to have a better idea of their composition and makeup.{{cite news \\|last\\=Kuthunur \\|first\\=Sharmila \\|title\\='What is that material?': Potentially hazardous asteroid Bennu stumps scientists with its odd makeup – Scientists found signs of organic molecules in the first samples of potentially hazardous asteroid Bennu, as well as a 'head scratching' material that has yet to be identified. \\|url\\=https://www.livescience.com/space/space\\-exploration/what\\-is\\-that\\-material\\-potentially\\-hazardous\\-asteroid\\-bennu\\-stumps\\-scientists\\-with\\-its\\-odd\\-makeup \\|date\\=13 December 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[LiveScience]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20231214014121/https://www.livescience.com/space/space\\-exploration/what\\-is\\-that\\-material\\-potentially\\-hazardous\\-asteroid\\-bennu\\-stumps\\-scientists\\-with\\-its\\-odd\\-makeup \\|archive\\-date\\=14 December 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2023 }}{{cite news \\|last\\=Rabie \\|first\\=Passant \\|title\\=It's Been 2 Months. Why Can't NASA Open the Asteroid Sample Container? – The space agency is having to develop new tools to crack open the canister containing bits from asteroid Bennu \\|url\\=https://gizmodo.com/nasa\\-osiris\\-rex\\-asteroid\\-samples\\-bennu\\-stuck\\-container\\-1851102598 \\|date\\=15 December 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Gizmodo]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20231215230642/https://gizmodo.com/nasa\\-osiris\\-rex\\-asteroid\\-samples\\-bennu\\-stuck\\-container\\-1851102598 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 December 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2023 }} On 11 January 2024, NASA reported finally fully opening, after three months of trying, the recovered container with samples from the Bennu asteroid.{{cite web\n \\| url \\= https://blogs.nasa.gov/osiris\\-rex/2024/01/11/nasas\\-osiris\\-rex\\-team\\-clears\\-hurdle\\-to\\-access\\-remaining\\-bennu\\-sample/\n \\| title \\= NASA's OSIRIS\\-REx Team Clears Hurdle to Access Remaining Bennu Sample\n \\| last \\= Barry\n \\| first \\= Rachel Ann\n \\| date \\= 2024\\-01\\-11\n \\| website \\= OSIRIS\\-REx Mission \n \\| publisher \\= NASA\n}}{{cite news \\|last\\=MacDonald \\|first\\=Cheyenne \\|title\\=NASA finally got the stuck lid off its asteroid Bennu sample container – Thanks to some stubborn fasteners, the agency spent three months locked out of the sample OSIRIS\\-REx dropped off. \\|url\\=https://www.engadget.com/nasa\\-finally\\-got\\-the\\-stuck\\-lid\\-off\\-its\\-asteroid\\-bennu\\-sample\\-container\\-185814782\\.html \\|date\\=13 January 2024 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Engadget]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240114015754/https://www.engadget.com/nasa\\-finally\\-got\\-the\\-stuck\\-lid\\-off\\-its\\-asteroid\\-bennu\\-sample\\-container\\-185814782\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=13 January 2024 }}{{cite news \\|last\\=Rabie \\|first\\=Passant \\|title\\=NASA Finally Opened the Asteroid Container and Holy Crap That's a Lot of Asteroid – After months of struggling to get to the bulk of the OSIRIS\\-REx asteroid sample, the space agency has unveiled a treasure trove of ancient rocks and dust. \\|url\\=https://gizmodo.com/nasa\\-osiris\\-rex\\-canister\\-reveal\\-asteroid\\-sample\\-trove\\-1851184737 \\|date\\=22 January 2024 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Gizmodo]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240123011843/https://gizmodo.com/nasa\\-osiris\\-rex\\-canister\\-reveal\\-asteroid\\-sample\\-trove\\-1851184737 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 January 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2024 }} The total weight of the recovered material weighed {{convert\\|121\\.6\\|g\\|oz\\|abbr\\=on}}, over twice the mission's goal.{{cite news \\|last\\=Rabie \\|first\\=Passant \\|title\\=We Finally Know How Much of That Asteroid OSIRIS\\-REx Grabbed in Space – Engineers struggled to open the sample canister for months, but it was all worth it for twice the amount of asteroid they thought they were getting. \\|url\\=https://gizmodo.com/how\\-much\\-nasa\\-osiris\\-rex\\-collected\\-asteroid\\-space\\-1851261317 \\|date\\=15 February 2024 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Gizmodo]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20240216145102/https://gizmodo.com/how\\-much\\-nasa\\-osiris\\-rex\\-collected\\-asteroid\\-space\\-1851261317 \\|archivedate\\=16 February 2024 \\|accessdate\\=16 February 2024 }} On 15 May 2024, an overview of preliminary analytical studies on the returned samples was reported.{{cite news \\|last\\=Nicitopoulos \\|first\\=Theo \\|title\\=NASA's asteroid Bennu samples have rocks unlike any meteorite ever found – Early results from NASA's OSIRIS\\-REx mission to Bennu have uncovered exotic versions of chondrules – rocks commonly found in meteorites. \\|url\\=https://www.astronomy.com/science/nasas\\-asteroid\\-bennu\\-samples\\-have\\-rocks\\-unlike\\-any\\-meteorite\\-ever\\-found/ \\|date\\=15 May 2024 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Astronomy (magazine)\\|Astronomy]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20240516190933/https://www.astronomy.com/science/nasas\\-asteroid\\-bennu\\-samples\\-have\\-rocks\\-unlike\\-any\\-meteorite\\-ever\\-found/ \\|archivedate\\=16 May 2024 }}", "### Selection", "The asteroid Bennu was selected from over half a million known asteroids by the OSIRIS\\-REx selection committee. The primary constraint for selection was close proximity to Earth, since proximity implies low [impulse](/wiki/Delta-v \"Delta-v\") (Δv) required to reach an object from Earth orbit. The criteria stipulated an asteroid in an orbit with low eccentricity, low inclination, and an orbital radius of {{val\\|0\\.8\\|\\-\\|1\\.6\\|ul\\=au}}. Furthermore, the candidate asteroid for a sample\\-return mission must have loose regolith on its surface, which implies a diameter greater than 200 meters. Asteroids smaller than this typically spin too fast to retain dust or small particles. Finally, a desire to find an asteroid with pristine carbon material from the early Solar System, possibly including volatile molecules and [organic compounds](/wiki/Organic_compound \"Organic compound\"), reduced the list further.", "With the above criteria applied, five asteroids remained as candidates for the OSIRIS\\-REx mission, and Bennu was chosen, in part for its potentially hazardous orbit.", "", "File:Animation of OSIRIS\\-REx trajectory.gif\\|Trajectory in the Solar System from 9 August 2016 to 24 September 2023\nFile:Animation of OSIRIS\\-Rex trajectory around 101955 Bennu.gif\\|Trajectory around 101955 Bennu from 25 December 2018\nFile:Animation of OSIRIS\\-REx around Bennu \\- touch down on Bennu.gif\\|Touchdown on Bennu", "", "### Returned samples", "[thumb\\|The bulk Bennu sample in the glovebox. (a) Sample obtained from the top of the Mylar flap (left two trays) and scooped from beneath it (right two trays). (b) Sample poured from the TAGSAM into eight trays.](/wiki/File:Maps14227-fig-0005-m.jpg \"Maps14227-fig-0005-m.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Phosphate in a mottled particle (OREX\\-803009\\-101\\). (a) Visible light microscopy image of a dark particle with an outer crust of high\\-reflectance material. (b–d) SEM images showing progressively zoomed view of a fragment of the particle that split off along a high\\-reflectance vein, revealing material similar to the outer crust, with a blocky friable texture and consisting of Na, Mg, and P.](/wiki/File:Maps14227-fig-0017-m.jpg \"Maps14227-fig-0017-m.jpg\")\nThe OSIRIS\\-REx mission successfully returned approximately 120 grams of material from Bennu to Earth in September 2023\\. The returned material is predominantly very dark, with reflectance values consistent with observations of Bennu's surface, though it contains some brighter inclusions and particles. Particle sizes in the sample span a wide range, from submicron dust to rocks measuring about 3\\.5 cm in length. Mineralogical analysis shows that the sample is rich in hydrated minerals, particularly Mg\\-rich phyllosilicates, confirming predictions from remote sensing data. Other major components include magnetite, sulfides, carbonates, and organic compounds. An unexpected discovery was the presence of phosphate minerals in some samples, including Mg,Na\\-rich phosphates found as veins and crusts in some particles.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Lauretta \\|first1\\=Dante S. \\|last2\\=Connolly \\|first2\\=Harold C. \\|last3\\=Aebersold \\|first3\\=Joseph E. \\|title\\=Asteroid (101955\\) Bennu in the laboratory: Properties of the sample collected by OSIRIS\\-REx \\|journal\\=Meteoritics \\& Planetary Science \\|date\\=26 June 2024 \\|volume\\=59 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=2453–2486 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/maps.14227 \\|display\\-authors\\=1\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "The elemental composition of the Bennu samples closely resembles that of CI chondrite meteorites. However, the Bennu material shows some distinct isotopic ratios. The average oxygen isotopic composition places Bennu in the same region of oxygen three\\-isotope space as CI and CY chondrites, as well as samples from asteroid Ryugu. The carbon content of the samples (4\\.5–4\\.7 wt%) is higher than that found in known meteorites and Ryugu samples. The presence of presolar grains in the samples indicates that some of the material has remained largely unprocessed since the formation of the solar system. Presolar silicon carbide and graphite were identified, with abundances of {{val\\|52\\|12\\|10\\|u\\=ppm}} and {{val\\|12\\|7\\|5\\|u\\=ppm}} respectively, similar to unheated chondrite samples.", "Evidence suggests that the samples come from at least two different lithologies on Bennu's surface. Three predominant types of particles were identified: hummocky, angular, and mottled. These show distinct densities, with hummocky particles having the lowest average density ({{val\\|1\\.55\\|0\\.07\\|u\\=g/cm3}}) and mottled particles the highest ({{val\\|1\\.77\\|0\\.04\\|u\\=g/cm3}}). Spectral analysis of the samples shows a redder slope from 0\\.4 to 2\\.5 μm compared to Bennu's global spectrum, potentially indicating differences in particle size, surface texture, or space weathering between the sampled material and the asteroid's surface.", "Since 3 November 2023, a part of the sample is exhibited at the Hall of Meteorites of the [National Museum of Natural History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History \"National Museum of Natural History\") (Washington, DC).{{cite web \\|last1\\=Pearlman \\|first1\\=Robert Z. \\|title\\=Smithsonian debuts 1st display of asteroid Bennu sample brought back by OSIRIS\\-REx \\|url\\=https://www.space.com/smithsonian\\-osiris\\-rex\\-bennu\\-asteroid\\-unveiling \\|website\\=space.com \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2023 \\|date\\=3 November 2023}}", "" ]
History ------- She was named in honor of [Albert D. Sturtevant](/wiki/Albert_D._Sturtevant "Albert D. Sturtevant") who was awarded the [Navy Cross](/wiki/Navy_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Navy Cross (United States)") posthumously during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") when he, a pilot, was shot down by [German](/wiki/Germany "Germany") fighter planes. *Sturtevant* was laid down on 15 July 1942 by the [Brown Shipbuilding](/wiki/Brown_Shipbuilding "Brown Shipbuilding") Co., at [Houston](/wiki/Houston "Houston"), Texas; launched on 3 December 1942; sponsored by Mrs. William North Sturtevant; and commissioned on 16 June 1943\. ### World War II North Atlantic operations After [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise "Shakedown cruise") in the vicinity of [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda") and training off the [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island "Rhode Island") coast, *Sturtevant* began 21 months of [convoy](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") escort duty in the Atlantic. On 24 September, she got underway to screen her first convoy to [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca "Casablanca") and [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar"). After two more such Atlantic crossings, she was assigned to [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool")\-bound convoys and made five voyages to [Derry](/wiki/Derry "Derry") in Northern Ireland, the principal escort base in the UK and home to US NOB Londonderry. *Sturtevant* rounded out her Atlantic service with two convoys each to [Liverpool, England](/wiki/Liverpool%2C_England "Liverpool, England"), and [Cardiff, Wales](/wiki/Cardiff%2C_Wales "Cardiff, Wales"), and one to [Southampton, England](/wiki/Southampton%2C_England "Southampton, England"). Between crossings, the destroyer escort was repaired and overhauled at the [New York Navy Yard](/wiki/New_York_Navy_Yard "New York Navy Yard") and trained at [Casco Bay](/wiki/Casco_Bay "Casco Bay"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine "Maine"), and at [Montauk Point](/wiki/Montauk_Point "Montauk Point"), [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island"). In all, *Sturtevant* made 13 successful round\-trip voyages across the Atlantic and back. ### Pacific War On 9 June 1945, she entered the [New York Navy Yard](/wiki/New_York_Navy_Yard "New York Navy Yard") for post\-voyage availability. *Sturtevant* emerged from the yard 38 days later with her [antiaircraft](/wiki/Antiaircraft "Antiaircraft") defenses strengthened considerably. En route to [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor"), she trained for 14 days in the [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay "Guantánamo Bay") area and stopped briefly at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), California. By the time Sturtevant arrived in San Diego, the war was already over and the city had already quit celebrating. Capt. Mertz, knowing that the ship could be ordered to stay in San Diego, shipped out to Hawaii before all the ship repairs, e.g. the air conditioning, were completed. ### Post\-war operations No longer needed in the Pacific Ocean, the destroyer escort was ordered back to the Atlantic Fleet, carrying passengers to [San Pedro, Los Angeles](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_Los_Angeles "San Pedro, Los Angeles"), on the first leg and reaching [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina "Charleston, South Carolina"), on 25 September. There she started preparations for decommissioning and inactivation with the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet "Atlantic Reserve Fleet"). In October, she shifted to the inactive fleet berthing area at [Green Cove Springs, Florida](/wiki/Green_Cove_Springs%2C_Florida "Green Cove Springs, Florida"), where she was decommissioned on 24 March 1946\. ### Reactivation in 1951 After six years of inactivity in [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida"), *Sturtevant* was recommissioned on 3 August 1951\. For the next four years, she operated along the Atlantic coast of the United States and in the [Caribbean Sea](/wiki/Caribbean_Sea "Caribbean Sea"). Her operations carried her as far north as the coast of [Labrador](/wiki/Labrador "Labrador") and as far south as [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"). Much of the time she spent in the Caribbean was devoted to work in conjunction with the Fleet Sonar School at [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida "Key West, Florida"), and with the [hunter\-killer](/wiki/Hunter-killer_Group "Hunter-killer Group") Forces of the Atlantic Fleet. After visiting ports in northern [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") during a [midshipman](/wiki/Midshipman "Midshipman") cruise conducted in the summer of 1955, she resumed her training duties with the Fleet Sonar School and normal operations for another year. She joined another midshipman cruise, in July and August 1956; this time to [Panama](/wiki/Panama "Panama") and the [Guantanamo Bay Naval Base](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base "Guantanamo Bay Naval Base") in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"). ### Conversion to radar picket ship On 31 October 1956, *Sturtevant* entered the [Philadelphia Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Philadelphia_Naval_Shipyard "Philadelphia Naval Shipyard") for conversion to a [radar picket](/wiki/Radar_picket "Radar picket") destroyer escort ship. The conversion process lasted until 5 October 1957, when she was recommissioned as DER\-239\. On 7 February 1958, she departed [Philadelphia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania"), for the Pacific Ocean, calling at [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island "Newport, Rhode Island"); [San Juan, Puerto Rico](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico "San Juan, Puerto Rico"); [Rodman](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone "Panama Canal Zone") in the [Panama Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone "Panama Canal Zone"); [Acapulco, Mexico](/wiki/Acapulco%2C_Mexico "Acapulco, Mexico"); and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), California, before arriving in [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") on 18 March. Upon completion of further training in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii"), she became one of the original ships of the [Pacific Early Warning Barrier](/wiki/BMEWS "BMEWS"). ### Final decommissioning and fate She continued to so serve in the Pacific Fleet until June 1960, when she was placed out of commission and berthed with the [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), California, Group of the [Pacific Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Pacific_Reserve_Fleet "Pacific Reserve Fleet"). There she remained until the fall of 1972 when an inspection and survey board found her to be unfit for further naval service. Her name was struck from the [Navy list](/wiki/Navy_list "Navy list") on 1 December 1972; and, on 20 September 1973, her hulk was sold to the National Metal and Steel Corp., [Terminal Island, California](/wiki/Terminal_Island%2C_California "Terminal Island, California"), for scrapping.
[ "History\n-------", "She was named in honor of [Albert D. Sturtevant](/wiki/Albert_D._Sturtevant \"Albert D. Sturtevant\") who was awarded the [Navy Cross](/wiki/Navy_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Navy Cross (United States)\") posthumously during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") when he, a pilot, was shot down by [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") fighter planes. *Sturtevant* was laid down on 15 July 1942 by the [Brown Shipbuilding](/wiki/Brown_Shipbuilding \"Brown Shipbuilding\") Co., at [Houston](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\"), Texas; launched on 3 December 1942; sponsored by Mrs. William North Sturtevant; and commissioned on 16 June 1943\\.", "### World War II North Atlantic operations", "After [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise \"Shakedown cruise\") in the vicinity of [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda \"Bermuda\") and training off the [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\") coast, *Sturtevant* began 21 months of [convoy](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") escort duty in the Atlantic. On 24 September, she got underway to screen her first convoy to [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca \"Casablanca\") and [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\"). After two more such Atlantic crossings, she was assigned to [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\")\\-bound convoys and made five voyages to [Derry](/wiki/Derry \"Derry\") in Northern Ireland, the principal escort base in the UK and home to US NOB Londonderry. *Sturtevant* rounded out her Atlantic service with two convoys each to [Liverpool, England](/wiki/Liverpool%2C_England \"Liverpool, England\"), and [Cardiff, Wales](/wiki/Cardiff%2C_Wales \"Cardiff, Wales\"), and one to [Southampton, England](/wiki/Southampton%2C_England \"Southampton, England\"). Between crossings, the destroyer escort was repaired and overhauled at the [New York Navy Yard](/wiki/New_York_Navy_Yard \"New York Navy Yard\") and trained at [Casco Bay](/wiki/Casco_Bay \"Casco Bay\"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\"), and at [Montauk Point](/wiki/Montauk_Point \"Montauk Point\"), [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\"). In all, *Sturtevant* made 13 successful round\\-trip voyages across the Atlantic and back.", "### Pacific War", "On 9 June 1945, she entered the [New York Navy Yard](/wiki/New_York_Navy_Yard \"New York Navy Yard\") for post\\-voyage availability. *Sturtevant* emerged from the yard 38 days later with her [antiaircraft](/wiki/Antiaircraft \"Antiaircraft\") defenses strengthened considerably. En route to [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"), she trained for 14 days in the [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay \"Guantánamo Bay\") area and stopped briefly at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), California. By the time Sturtevant arrived in San Diego, the war was already over and the city had already quit celebrating. Capt. Mertz, knowing that the ship could be ordered to stay in San Diego, shipped out to Hawaii before all the ship repairs, e.g. the air conditioning, were completed.", "### Post\\-war operations", "No longer needed in the Pacific Ocean, the destroyer escort was ordered back to the Atlantic Fleet, carrying passengers to [San Pedro, Los Angeles](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_Los_Angeles \"San Pedro, Los Angeles\"), on the first leg and reaching [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston, South Carolina\"), on 25 September. There she started preparations for decommissioning and inactivation with the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet \"Atlantic Reserve Fleet\"). In October, she shifted to the inactive fleet berthing area at [Green Cove Springs, Florida](/wiki/Green_Cove_Springs%2C_Florida \"Green Cove Springs, Florida\"), where she was decommissioned on 24 March 1946\\.", "### Reactivation in 1951", "After six years of inactivity in [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\"), *Sturtevant* was recommissioned on 3 August 1951\\. For the next four years, she operated along the Atlantic coast of the United States and in the [Caribbean Sea](/wiki/Caribbean_Sea \"Caribbean Sea\"). Her operations carried her as far north as the coast of [Labrador](/wiki/Labrador \"Labrador\") and as far south as [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"). Much of the time she spent in the Caribbean was devoted to work in conjunction with the Fleet Sonar School at [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida \"Key West, Florida\"), and with the [hunter\\-killer](/wiki/Hunter-killer_Group \"Hunter-killer Group\") Forces of the Atlantic Fleet.", "After visiting ports in northern [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") during a [midshipman](/wiki/Midshipman \"Midshipman\") cruise conducted in the summer of 1955, she resumed her training duties with the Fleet Sonar School and normal operations for another year. She joined another midshipman cruise, in July and August 1956; this time to [Panama](/wiki/Panama \"Panama\") and the [Guantanamo Bay Naval Base](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base \"Guantanamo Bay Naval Base\") in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\").", "### Conversion to radar picket ship", "On 31 October 1956, *Sturtevant* entered the [Philadelphia Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Philadelphia_Naval_Shipyard \"Philadelphia Naval Shipyard\") for conversion to a [radar picket](/wiki/Radar_picket \"Radar picket\") destroyer escort ship. The conversion process lasted until 5 October 1957, when she was recommissioned as DER\\-239\\. On 7 February 1958, she departed [Philadelphia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania \"Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\"), for the Pacific Ocean, calling at [Newport, Rhode Island](/wiki/Newport%2C_Rhode_Island \"Newport, Rhode Island\"); [San Juan, Puerto Rico](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\"); [Rodman](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone \"Panama Canal Zone\") in the [Panama Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone \"Panama Canal Zone\"); [Acapulco, Mexico](/wiki/Acapulco%2C_Mexico \"Acapulco, Mexico\"); and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), California, before arriving in [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") on 18 March. Upon completion of further training in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"), she became one of the original ships of the [Pacific Early Warning Barrier](/wiki/BMEWS \"BMEWS\").", "### Final decommissioning and fate", "She continued to so serve in the Pacific Fleet until June 1960, when she was placed out of commission and berthed with the [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), California, Group of the [Pacific Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Pacific_Reserve_Fleet \"Pacific Reserve Fleet\"). There she remained until the fall of 1972 when an inspection and survey board found her to be unfit for further naval service. Her name was struck from the [Navy list](/wiki/Navy_list \"Navy list\") on 1 December 1972; and, on 20 September 1973, her hulk was sold to the National Metal and Steel Corp., [Terminal Island, California](/wiki/Terminal_Island%2C_California \"Terminal Island, California\"), for scrapping.", "" ]
Summary ------- ### Queue The attraction is housed inside a replica of [30 Rockefeller Plaza](/wiki/30_Rockefeller_Plaza "30 Rockefeller Plaza"), where *The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon* is taped, with the corridors of [NBC Studios](/wiki/NBC_Studios_%28New_York_City%29 "NBC Studios (New York City)") replicated in the queue. Divided in two parts, the queue is composed of one in a lower level and the second in the upper. As guests enter the lobby in the lower level, they receive a ticket from [NBC pages](/wiki/NBC_page "NBC page") that matches one of the six colors in the [NBC peacock](/wiki/Logo_of_NBC "Logo of NBC") logo. This level features displays of items from the history of *[The Tonight Show](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show "The Tonight Show")*, dedicated to each of its past hosts, including television sets from each era of the show, suits and desk props used by the hosts, admittance tickets from each host's tenure, and an NBC video camera used for the show's taping in the golden age, all adjacent to a display of Jimmy Fallon as the current host. Guests continue to the upper level once the lobby's lighting changes to the color of the NBC ticket they were given. In the upper level of the queue, guests are entertained with live daily performances from [The Ragtime Gals](/wiki/The_Ragtime_Gals "The Ragtime Gals") barbershop quartet onstage a replica of the *Tonight Show* stage. When they're not performing, screens in the stage area play Jimmy's monologues, popular interviews and sketches, such as "[History of Rap](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23History_of_Rap_in_3_Minutes "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#History of Rap in 3 Minutes")" and "Lip Sync Battle". The upper level also has interactive desks throughout the waiting area where guests can send personalized [*Tonight Show* Thank You Notes](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Thank_You_Notes "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Thank You Notes"), play retro\-style Fallon video games and have a meet\-and\-greet with [Hashtag the Panda](/wiki/Hashtag_the_Panda "Hashtag the Panda").{{efn\|When the attraction is a walk\-on, some queue experiences are preempted: receiving the colored NBC ticket, changes in the lighting, performances by The Ragtime Gals and meet\-and\-greet with Hashtag the Panda.}} ### Pre\-show Guests are called in to enter Studio 6B once the lighting in the upper level waiting area changes to the color of the NBC ticket they were given at the receptionist desk. After guests are ushered into the doors that lead to Studio 6B, *The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon* begins on the screens. The show begins with its intro and music played by [The Roots](/wiki/The_Roots "The Roots"), as [Steve Higgins](/wiki/Steve_Higgins "Steve Higgins") announces the guests for this episode: you (the audience) "and featuring the Legendary Roots Crew". The shot cuts to The Roots' drummer and bandleader [Questlove](/wiki/Questlove "Questlove"), who shouts "Universal Studios!" followed by Higgins as he introduces Jimmy Fallon. As Fallon emerges from behind the curtains, studio applause lights flash, indicating the guests to do so as the show intro continues. After the intro ends, Fallon begins the show with a quick monologue about the sights the audience will get to see in the race through [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") and requests the help of Roots rapper and lead vocalist [Tariq Trotter](/wiki/Black_Thought "Black Thought") to rap the safety precautions of the ride, instead of reciting them because "that's boring". After the applause lights flash again for The Roots, [Sara](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Ew%21 "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Ew!") and her stepdad, Gary, make an appearance as the only people in the studio audience, who later leave the studio for the ride's gift shop. After they leave, Fallon ushers guests to step inside Studio 6B to begin the race, then goes backstage through the curtains so he can board his vehicle, "The Tonight Rider" (a nod to [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC")’s *[Knight Rider](/wiki/Knight_Rider_%281982_TV_series%29 "Knight Rider (1982 TV series)")*). ### Ride [thumb\|right\|The Comcast Building recreated at Universal Studios Florida, where Race Through New York Starring Jimmy Fallon is housed in.](/wiki/File:Race_Through_New_York_with_Jimmy_Fallon_%2832831664510%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "Race Through New York with Jimmy Fallon (32831664510) (cropped).jpg") Steve Higgins once again introduces Jimmy Fallon, who re\-emerges from backstage through the stage curtains, this time driving "The Tonight Rider", challenging the audience to the race through New York. The Roots can be seen providing the music as Higgins counts down the start of the race, while also serving as the race's commentator. The race kicks off through Studio 6B's backstage hallways, racing through NBC personnel and passing by [Tight Pants](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Tight_Pants "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Tight Pants") and [Hashtag the Panda](/wiki/Hashtag_the_Panda "Hashtag the Panda"). After almost crashing into Hashtag, Jimmy's vehicle spins\-out at a corner and crashes through the wall along with the audience, landing at West [50th Street](/wiki/50th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "50th Street (Manhattan)") next to [Radio City Music Hall](/wiki/Radio_City_Music_Hall "Radio City Music Hall"). Shortly after, Jimmy crashes into a taxi driven by [Travis Bickle](/wiki/Travis_Bickle "Travis Bickle") (Fallon). The race continues through [Times Square](/wiki/Times_Square "Times Square"), where Jimmy and the audience speed under the [Hard Rock Cafe](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Cafe "Hard Rock Cafe") marquee and head into the [New York City Subway](/wiki/New_York_City_Subway "New York City Subway")'s [Times Square–42nd Street station](/wiki/Times_Square%E2%80%9342nd_Street_station "Times Square–42nd Street station"), where the audience encounters [The Ragtime Gals](/wiki/The_Ragtime_Gals "The Ragtime Gals") singing a melody before turning to the subway tracks. After almost crashing with an oncoming train (operated by Fallon), the audience is able to escape by reversing and turning into a tunnel under construction, exiting to the street at the first checkpoint. [Sara](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Ew%21 "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Ew!") is crossing the street with her stepdad, Gary, who's carrying a basket full of the [*Tonight Show* Golden Retriever puppies](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23If_Puppies_Could_Vote/Puppy_Predictors "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#If Puppies Could Vote/Puppy Predictors"). Jimmy's wife, [Nancy Juvonen](/wiki/Nancy_Juvonen "Nancy Juvonen") makes a cameo appearance with their daughters, Winnie and Frances. The race now takes the skies as Jimmy's vehicle converts into a hovercraft, soaring through the city, throwing pizza to the audience and t\-shirts out of a [t\-shirt cannon](/wiki/T-shirt_cannon "T-shirt cannon") after flying by the [Flatiron Building](/wiki/Flatiron_Building "Flatiron Building"). The race then dives into the [East River](/wiki/East_River "East River") for the second checkpoint, where a shark rapidly swims up and jump\-scares Jimmy and the audience (a reference to *[Jaws](/wiki/Jaws_%28film%29 "Jaws (film)")*).{{cite news\|last1\=Hochwald\|first1\=Lambeth\|title\=Jimmy Fallon Takes Us Along for the Ride as He Races Through New York\|url\=https://parade.com/557324/lhochwald/jimmy\-fallon\-takes\-us\-along\-for\-the\-ride\-as\-he\-races\-through\-new\-york/\|access\-date\=April 3, 2017\|work\=Parade Magazine\|publisher\=Athlon Media Group\|date\=March 24, 2017\|location\=\[\[New York City]]\|language\=en}} After resurfacing, the race reaches the [Statue of Liberty](/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty "Statue of Liberty") for the third checkpoint. As fireworks explode around Lady Liberty, the race heads towards the [Empire State Building](/wiki/Empire_State_Building "Empire State Building") where a giant [Hashtag the Panda](/wiki/Hashtag_the_Panda "Hashtag the Panda"), who is trying to swat away airplanes (a reference to [King Kong](/wiki/King_Kong "King Kong")), grabs the audience and launches them straight to the [Moon](/wiki/Moon "Moon"). There, Jimmy remarks The Roots, who are all dressed up in spacesuits, as "the first band on the moon". He then asks the band's keyboardist [James Poyser](/wiki/James_Poyser "James Poyser") to play his thank you note\-writing music, to write a [thank you note](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Thank_You_Notes "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Thank You Notes") addressed to the moon. The race reaches the [Space Train](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Space_Train "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Space Train"), a roller coaster launcher on the moon, which is under construction, that launches Jimmy and then the audience back to Earth. Coming in too hot, Jimmy opens up a hyperdrive in the form of a tube that leads directly to 30 Rock and back inside Studio 6B, where the audience wins the race after Jimmy crashes his "Tonight Rider" just before the finish line. The *Tonight Show's* real\-life stage manager, Niclana Tolmasoff, makes a cameo appearance at the end of the ride as well as one of the show's real\-life former writers, Mike DiCenzo, who appears as a stage crew member. ### The Tonight Shop After the ride concludes, guests exit downstairs to *The Tonight Shop*, with merchandise from both the ride and Fallon's *Tonight Show* and other NBC shows, much like in the real [NBC Studio Shop](/wiki/NBC_Studios_%28New_York_City%29 "NBC Studios (New York City)") in New York City.
[ "Summary\n-------", "### Queue", "The attraction is housed inside a replica of [30 Rockefeller Plaza](/wiki/30_Rockefeller_Plaza \"30 Rockefeller Plaza\"), where *The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon* is taped, with the corridors of [NBC Studios](/wiki/NBC_Studios_%28New_York_City%29 \"NBC Studios (New York City)\") replicated in the queue. Divided in two parts, the queue is composed of one in a lower level and the second in the upper. As guests enter the lobby in the lower level, they receive a ticket from [NBC pages](/wiki/NBC_page \"NBC page\") that matches one of the six colors in the [NBC peacock](/wiki/Logo_of_NBC \"Logo of NBC\") logo. This level features displays of items from the history of *[The Tonight Show](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show \"The Tonight Show\")*, dedicated to each of its past hosts, including television sets from each era of the show, suits and desk props used by the hosts, admittance tickets from each host's tenure, and an NBC video camera used for the show's taping in the golden age, all adjacent to a display of Jimmy Fallon as the current host. Guests continue to the upper level once the lobby's lighting changes to the color of the NBC ticket they were given.", "In the upper level of the queue, guests are entertained with live daily performances from [The Ragtime Gals](/wiki/The_Ragtime_Gals \"The Ragtime Gals\") barbershop quartet onstage a replica of the *Tonight Show* stage. When they're not performing, screens in the stage area play Jimmy's monologues, popular interviews and sketches, such as \"[History of Rap](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23History_of_Rap_in_3_Minutes \"List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#History of Rap in 3 Minutes\")\" and \"Lip Sync Battle\". The upper level also has interactive desks throughout the waiting area where guests can send personalized [*Tonight Show* Thank You Notes](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Thank_You_Notes \"List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Thank You Notes\"), play retro\\-style Fallon video games and have a meet\\-and\\-greet with [Hashtag the Panda](/wiki/Hashtag_the_Panda \"Hashtag the Panda\").{{efn\\|When the attraction is a walk\\-on, some queue experiences are preempted: receiving the colored NBC ticket, changes in the lighting, performances by The Ragtime Gals and meet\\-and\\-greet with Hashtag the Panda.}}", "### Pre\\-show", "Guests are called in to enter Studio 6B once the lighting in the upper level waiting area changes to the color of the NBC ticket they were given at the receptionist desk. After guests are ushered into the doors that lead to Studio 6B, *The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon* begins on the screens. The show begins with its intro and music played by [The Roots](/wiki/The_Roots \"The Roots\"), as [Steve Higgins](/wiki/Steve_Higgins \"Steve Higgins\") announces the guests for this episode: you (the audience) \"and featuring the Legendary Roots Crew\". The shot cuts to The Roots' drummer and bandleader [Questlove](/wiki/Questlove \"Questlove\"), who shouts \"Universal Studios!\" followed by Higgins as he introduces Jimmy Fallon. As Fallon emerges from behind the curtains, studio applause lights flash, indicating the guests to do so as the show intro continues.", "After the intro ends, Fallon begins the show with a quick monologue about the sights the audience will get to see in the race through [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") and requests the help of Roots rapper and lead vocalist [Tariq Trotter](/wiki/Black_Thought \"Black Thought\") to rap the safety precautions of the ride, instead of reciting them because \"that's boring\". After the applause lights flash again for The Roots, [Sara](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Ew%21 \"List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Ew!\") and her stepdad, Gary, make an appearance as the only people in the studio audience, who later leave the studio for the ride's gift shop. After they leave, Fallon ushers guests to step inside Studio 6B to begin the race, then goes backstage through the curtains so he can board his vehicle, \"The Tonight Rider\" (a nod to [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\")’s *[Knight Rider](/wiki/Knight_Rider_%281982_TV_series%29 \"Knight Rider (1982 TV series)\")*).", "### Ride", "[thumb\\|right\\|The Comcast Building recreated at Universal Studios Florida, where Race Through New York Starring Jimmy Fallon is housed in.](/wiki/File:Race_Through_New_York_with_Jimmy_Fallon_%2832831664510%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Race Through New York with Jimmy Fallon (32831664510) (cropped).jpg\")\nSteve Higgins once again introduces Jimmy Fallon, who re\\-emerges from backstage through the stage curtains, this time driving \"The Tonight Rider\", challenging the audience to the race through New York. The Roots can be seen providing the music as Higgins counts down the start of the race, while also serving as the race's commentator. The race kicks off through Studio 6B's backstage hallways, racing through NBC personnel and passing by [Tight Pants](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Tight_Pants \"List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Tight Pants\") and [Hashtag the Panda](/wiki/Hashtag_the_Panda \"Hashtag the Panda\"). After almost crashing into Hashtag, Jimmy's vehicle spins\\-out at a corner and crashes through the wall along with the audience, landing at West [50th Street](/wiki/50th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"50th Street (Manhattan)\") next to [Radio City Music Hall](/wiki/Radio_City_Music_Hall \"Radio City Music Hall\"). Shortly after, Jimmy crashes into a taxi driven by [Travis Bickle](/wiki/Travis_Bickle \"Travis Bickle\") (Fallon).", "The race continues through [Times Square](/wiki/Times_Square \"Times Square\"), where Jimmy and the audience speed under the [Hard Rock Cafe](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Cafe \"Hard Rock Cafe\") marquee and head into the [New York City Subway](/wiki/New_York_City_Subway \"New York City Subway\")'s [Times Square–42nd Street station](/wiki/Times_Square%E2%80%9342nd_Street_station \"Times Square–42nd Street station\"), where the audience encounters [The Ragtime Gals](/wiki/The_Ragtime_Gals \"The Ragtime Gals\") singing a melody before turning to the subway tracks. After almost crashing with an oncoming train (operated by Fallon), the audience is able to escape by reversing and turning into a tunnel under construction, exiting to the street at the first checkpoint. [Sara](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Ew%21 \"List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Ew!\") is crossing the street with her stepdad, Gary, who's carrying a basket full of the [*Tonight Show* Golden Retriever puppies](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23If_Puppies_Could_Vote/Puppy_Predictors \"List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#If Puppies Could Vote/Puppy Predictors\"). Jimmy's wife, [Nancy Juvonen](/wiki/Nancy_Juvonen \"Nancy Juvonen\") makes a cameo appearance with their daughters, Winnie and Frances.", "The race now takes the skies as Jimmy's vehicle converts into a hovercraft, soaring through the city, throwing pizza to the audience and t\\-shirts out of a [t\\-shirt cannon](/wiki/T-shirt_cannon \"T-shirt cannon\") after flying by the [Flatiron Building](/wiki/Flatiron_Building \"Flatiron Building\"). The race then dives into the [East River](/wiki/East_River \"East River\") for the second checkpoint, where a shark rapidly swims up and jump\\-scares Jimmy and the audience (a reference to *[Jaws](/wiki/Jaws_%28film%29 \"Jaws (film)\")*).{{cite news\\|last1\\=Hochwald\\|first1\\=Lambeth\\|title\\=Jimmy Fallon Takes Us Along for the Ride as He Races Through New York\\|url\\=https://parade.com/557324/lhochwald/jimmy\\-fallon\\-takes\\-us\\-along\\-for\\-the\\-ride\\-as\\-he\\-races\\-through\\-new\\-york/\\|access\\-date\\=April 3, 2017\\|work\\=Parade Magazine\\|publisher\\=Athlon Media Group\\|date\\=March 24, 2017\\|location\\=\\[\\[New York City]]\\|language\\=en}} After resurfacing, the race reaches the [Statue of Liberty](/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty \"Statue of Liberty\") for the third checkpoint.", "As fireworks explode around Lady Liberty, the race heads towards the [Empire State Building](/wiki/Empire_State_Building \"Empire State Building\") where a giant [Hashtag the Panda](/wiki/Hashtag_the_Panda \"Hashtag the Panda\"), who is trying to swat away airplanes (a reference to [King Kong](/wiki/King_Kong \"King Kong\")), grabs the audience and launches them straight to the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\"). There, Jimmy remarks The Roots, who are all dressed up in spacesuits, as \"the first band on the moon\". He then asks the band's keyboardist [James Poyser](/wiki/James_Poyser \"James Poyser\") to play his thank you note\\-writing music, to write a [thank you note](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Thank_You_Notes \"List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Thank You Notes\") addressed to the moon. The race reaches the [Space Train](/wiki/List_of_Jimmy_Fallon_games_and_sketches%23Space_Train \"List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches#Space Train\"), a roller coaster launcher on the moon, which is under construction, that launches Jimmy and then the audience back to Earth. Coming in too hot, Jimmy opens up a hyperdrive in the form of a tube that leads directly to 30 Rock and back inside Studio 6B, where the audience wins the race after Jimmy crashes his \"Tonight Rider\" just before the finish line.", "The *Tonight Show's* real\\-life stage manager, Niclana Tolmasoff, makes a cameo appearance at the end of the ride as well as one of the show's real\\-life former writers, Mike DiCenzo, who appears as a stage crew member.", "### The Tonight Shop", "After the ride concludes, guests exit downstairs to *The Tonight Shop*, with merchandise from both the ride and Fallon's *Tonight Show* and other NBC shows, much like in the real [NBC Studio Shop](/wiki/NBC_Studios_%28New_York_City%29 \"NBC Studios (New York City)\") in New York City.", "" ]
Episodes -------- ### Season 1 (1980\) {{Episode table \|background\=\#FF9933 \|overall\= \|season\= \|title\= \|airdate\= \|episodes\= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 56a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1a \| Title \= Big Foot \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|13}} \| ShortSummary \= Apache Chief and few of his fellow braves are captured by alien creatures resembling the legendary Bigfoot. Batman and Robin try to help, but are also captured. After they escape and defeat the creatures, the Super Friends learn that they were merely trying to seek information to repair their spacecraft.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Hanna\-Barbera\_Studios/S/Super\_Friends\_II\_/\|title\=Super Friends (II) Episode Guide \-Hanna\-Barbera @ BCDB}}{{dead link\|date\=January 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} Cameos: Superman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 56b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1b \| Title \= The Ice Demon \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|13}} \| ShortSummary \= While on a skiing vacation, the Wonder Twins literally bump into a pair of reckless teenagers and wind up in an ice cave inhabited by an Ice Demon. Only Superman can save them. Luckily, Clark Kent and Lois Lane are nearby. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 56c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1c \| Title \= The Make\-Up Monster \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|13}} \| ShortSummary \= A disgruntled make\-up man on the set of a movie discovers a formula that allows him to make himself up into any powerful monster he chooses. With the formula, he wreaks havoc and wrecks the movie studio and only Batman, Robin, and the Flash dare to challenge him. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 57a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2a \| Title \= Journey Into Blackness \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|20}} \| ShortSummary \= While monitoring the galaxy from his impenetrable Fortress of Solitude, Superman notices a black hole that is going to suck up the Earth. Superman attempts to stop it, but gets himself pulled into the black hole. Using the Bat\-Rocket, Batman and Samurai set out to accomplish what Superman failed to do. However, the two heroes end up getting pulled into an asteroid planet in the center of the black hole. Upon finding Superman imprisoned, the heroes are attacked by a Star Energy Creature. The Super Friends must break free and stop the Star Creature from absorbing Earth. Note: This is the first out of ten episodes where Batman began appearing in various episodes without Robin. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 57b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2b \| Title \= The Cycle Gang \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|20}} \| ShortSummary \= The Highway Angels, a motorcycle gang, start tormenting a senior citizen and his grandson. When Zan, Janya, and Gleek try to help them, they were having a hard time dealing with the cycle gang and the danger at hand. Wonder Woman sees the Wonder Twins and gives them assistance. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 57c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2c \| Title \= Dive to Disaster \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|20}} \| ShortSummary \= Several miles off the coast of Hawaii, a routine Navy mission becomes a nightmare when a submarine's controls short circuits and the nuclear reactor starts to overload. Black Vulcan and Aquaman try to help, but are attacked by nuclear mutated sea creatures. Black Vulcan actually gets eaten by a mutated whale in which Aquaman must come to his rescue. When the two heroes get free, they make it aboard the submarine, whose communication transmitter went dead. Now their only chance is to launch Aquaman out of a torpedo tube to clear the beach, while Black Vulcan uses his electrical powers. Cameos: Superman and Wonder Woman \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 58a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3a \| Title \= Yuna the Terrible \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|27}} \| ShortSummary \= A group of archaeologists accidentally releases Yuna the Terrible and her barbarian warriors. Batman and Robin responds to a distress call but get captured by Yuna's warriors. Wonder Woman and Apache Chief respond to the Batman's distress call. During an encounter with Yuna, Apache Chief gets put into a trance and joins Yuna and her warriors. Wonder Woman tries to save them and must prove her strength against Yuna. Cameos: Superman \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 58b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3b \| Title \= Rock and Roll Space Bandits \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|27}} \| ShortSummary \= A group of Rock and Roll Space Bandits paralyze the Super Friends and invade a major city on Earth using their hypnotic music. The Wonder Twins come to the rescue, but get hypnotized. Wonder Woman helps the rest of the Super Friends get free and they rush off to stop the musical menaces. Batman uses a device to stop the sound waves. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 58c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3c \| Title \= Elevator to Nowhere \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|27}} \| ShortSummary \= Streaking in the Invisible Jet, Wonder Woman and the Atom answer a distress call on the emergency scanner from a Dr. Wells. Wells' call was actually a trap to get Wonder Woman and the Atom to test out his new time machine. Wonder Woman starts pressing buttons attempting to escape, but actually starts the time machine to send the Atom and herself to the American Revolution in 1776\. General \[\[George Washington]] mistakes Wonder Woman for a British spy. The two heroes escape (but the Atom gives a quick message to George Washington to keep fighting in the Revolution), then move further back into the past to a 17th\-century galleon, where they are confronted by \[\[Blackbeard]]. After saving the Atom, Wonder Woman and Atom escape in the time machine. The Atom decides to shrink down to microscopic size to rewire the circuits in the time machine to go back to 1980\. When they come back, Dr. Wells tries to elude them by using the time machine to escape. The heroes travel millions of years into the prehistoric past to capture him. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 59a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4a \| Title \= One Small Step for Mars \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|4}} \| ShortSummary \= Green Lantern and Superman must stop the reign of terror caused by Martians who traveled to Earth in a returning space probe. They are finally tricked into returning to Mars. Cameos: Batman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 59b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4b \| Title \= Haunted House \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|4}} \| ShortSummary \= A group of teens dare each other to go into the old Brimstone mansion in the cemetery, a place that is said to be haunted. Two of them go in the mansion and get trapped inside. The other two ask the Wonder Twins go inside to look for the other boys, but get captured by old man Holmes, the cemetery's paranoid caretaker. Gleek informs Batman and Robin who come to the rescue and stop Holmes cold in his tracks. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 59c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4c \| Title \= The Incredible Crude Oil Monster \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|4}} \| ShortSummary \= Not far off the Alaska coastline, millions of gallons of crude oil spill out from a ruptured supertanker. Suddenly, the crude oil comes alive in the form of a giant monster. Aquaman sees the oil monster and helps the supertanker to stop the creature by using a harpoon with a net wrapped around to contain the monster. When that plain did not work, the captain called Hawkman and Hawkgirl for assistance, while Aquaman handles the creature. Hawkman and Hawkgirl arrive, but by the time they got there, the oil monster had already taken off for the coast. Later, the oil monster attacks the Alaskan Pipeline and grows even larger. Hawkman and Hawkgirl try to stop the monster, but they get covered in oil and get captured and eaten by the monster. Aquaman acts fast and saves the winged avengers by going inside the monster and using his telepathy as radar. After Hawkman gets an idea of how to stop the monster, the three heroes go to a small general store to get all of the detergent soap so they can put the plan in motion. They arrive at the nearby harbor to find the monster feeding on the first storage tank. Aquaman leads the monster to the empty storage tank, while Hawkman and Hawkgirl pour the detergent on the monster, turning it back into plain crude oil. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 60a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5a \| Title \= Voodoo Vampire \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|11}} \| ShortSummary \= Vampiress, the Voodoo Vampire from Africa, goes after the Super Friends and seeks to make them her vampire slaves. It is now up to Wonder Woman and Black Vulcan to go to her underground tomb and stop her. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 60b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5b \| Title \= Invasion of the Gleeks \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|11}} \| ShortSummary \= A group of Exxorian monkeys arrive on Earth to invade the planet. The monkeys want to defeat the Super Friends by putting Gleek under their control. The Wonder Twins must use their powers to help Gleek and the Super Friends. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 60c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5c \| Title \= Mxyzptlk Strikes Again \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|11}} \| ShortSummary \= The impish villain Mr. Mxyzptlk uses his magic typewriter to force Superman, Aquaman, and the Green Lantern into destroying each other. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 61a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6a \| Title \= The Man in the Moon \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|18}} \| ShortSummary \= Superman, Batman, and Apache Chief must save Earth from a giant alien beast that "hatched" out of the moon like an "egg". Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 61b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6b \| Title \= Circus of Horrors \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|18}} \| ShortSummary \= While at the circus, the Wonder Twins and Gleek witness the revenge of circus animals as they zap the audience in a trance. The animals capture Gleek and zap the Wonder Twins as well, who they send off to lure Superman and Wonder Woman into a trap at the circus. The circus animals eventually turn the Super Friends into Super Animals. Gleek frees the Wonder Twins from the trance, and now it is up to them to save their friends and put an end to this circus once and for all. Cameos: Batman and Robin \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 61c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6c \| Title \= Around the World in 80 Riddles \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|18}} \| ShortSummary \= Superman brings a new engine for the Bat\-jet to the Bat\-Cave. However, when Batman opens it up, he finds the Riddler hiding inside. He hops out and spritzes Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Robin with stupid spray. There is only one antidote and the Riddler has hidden it somewhere. If the Super Friends do not find it before the time limit is up, they will be super\-stupid forever. Before he hops away, the Riddler gives the Super Friends their first riddle clue. The Super Friends arrive at the Mayan ruins in Chichen Itza; there Superman spots what he believes is the antidote in the pyramid by using his X\-ray vision. The Super Friends enter the pyramid, only to be caught in a Riddler trap. They escape the trap, then find the Riddler's second clue, but by that time they need the assistance of the Bat\-Computer because they have become too stupid to figure out the riddles. The computer tells them to go to Mt. Everest and there they defeat the Riddler, who is in a zeppelin, and get the antidote. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 62a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7a \| Title \= Termites from Venus \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|25}} \| ShortSummary \= Termites come from a meteorite sent from Venus to Earth by a volcanic eruption. They start consuming the world. Superman, Batman and Robin, and Samurai defeat them, finally sending them into space. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 62b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7b \| Title \= Eruption \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|25}} \| ShortSummary \= The Wonder Twins rescue a part of reckless hang gliders who fell into a volcano. Soon after the volcano starts erupting. Jayna calls Batman and Robin, who help the Wonder Twins rescue the rest of the town and stop the lava flow. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 62c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7c \| Title \= Return of Atlantis \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|25}} \| ShortSummary \= Hundreds of miles off the East Coast of North America, a routine Trans\-Atlantic trip turns into a nightmare when a ship gets caught between some jagged rocks and takes on water. Aquaman was in the area assists by using his telepathy to summon two manta rays to seal the hole as he pushes the ship out of danger. As he attempts to head back to the Hall of Justice, a larger island arises from the sea. Aquaman recognizes it as the Lost Island of Ancient Atlantis (not to be confused with Aquaman's home in modern Atlantis) that has thought to have been destroyed thousands of years ago. Upon checking out the island, Aquaman is captured by female Atlantean Warriors who seek world domination. The \[\[U.S. Coast Guards]] who were on the ship Aquaman saved send a distress call to Wonder Woman and Rima about an island moving towards shore. Meanwhile, the Atlantean Warriors arrive at Washington D.C. and attack the Army. Wonder Woman and Rima arrive and are confronted by Ocina, Queen of Atlantis, and are offered to join the group of Warriors. When the two heroes refuse, they are captured and put in the water dungeon where Aquaman is imprisoned. Wonder Woman uses her telepathic mind line to summon help from her mother \[\[Hippolyta (DC Comics)\|Hippolyta]] and the Amazons of \[\[Themyscira (DC Comics)\|Paradise Island]]. The Amazons of Paradise Island travel to Washington D.C. to fight an epic battle against these femme fatales. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 63a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8a \| Title \= The Killer Machines \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|11\|1}} \| ShortSummary \= The IBN computer research facility creates Romac, the most advanced computer the world has ever known. When tested, Romac turns on his IBN creators and tries to destroy the Super Friends by turning the Justice League Computer and the Supermobile against them. Batman, Robin, and Black Vulcan have to shut Romac down before he can do any more damage. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 63b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8b \| Title \= Garden of Doom \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|11\|1}} \| ShortSummary \= A scientific experiment accidentally turns plants into monsters. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 63c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8c \| Title \= Revenge of Bizarro \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|11\|1}} \| ShortSummary \= Bizarro takes revenge on Batman, Robin, Wonder Woman, Hawkman, and Hawkgirl by turning them into his "Super Bizarro slaves" and exposing Superman to red kryptonite. The red kryptonite's horrible effects cause Superman to grow extra arms and legs. Now Superman's only chance to stop Bizarro and return to normal is blue kryptonite, which affects only Bizarros adversely. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} }} ### Season 2 (1981\) {{Episode table \|background\=\#AE1C26 \|overall\= \|season\= \|title\= \|airdate\= \|episodes\= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 64a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1a \| Title \= The Outlaws of Orion \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|9\|26}} \| ShortSummary \= When chasing a burglar in Gotham City, Batman and Robin are captured by Pack and Stardust, bounty hunters from Orion. Batman attempts to call for help using the Justice League beeper, but he did not realize the Bounty Hunters know help is coming and are ready to ambush them. Wonder Woman and Green Lantern come to save Batman and Robin but instead gets captured and imprisoned as well. The Bounty Hunters tries to take their captives to The Orion Territorial Prison but on the way the Super Friends make a break and go after the Bounty Hunters.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Hanna\-Barbera\_Studios/S/Super\_Friends\_II\_/\|title\=Super Friends (II) Episode Guide \-Hanna\-Barbera @ BCDB}}{{dead link\|date\=January 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 64b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1b \| Title \= Three Wishes \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|9\|26}} \| ShortSummary \= The Wonder Twins find a magic lamp, the evil Space Genie of it gives them three wishes, which lead to trouble. However with the last wish, they never used the lamp. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 64c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1c \| Title \= Scorpio \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|9\|26}} \| ShortSummary \= Wonder Woman receives a distress call from a scientist who was working on a way to end world hunger by a substance that makes vegetables grow to huge proportions. However, the scientist also says that an earlier failed experiment on a scorpion make it grow and gave it the power of speech. Scorpio is also stealing the growth formula to use on insects for his bug army, with intent of overthrowing humanity as Earth's dominant species. Scorpio learns of Wonder Woman's presence and orders another attack from his bug army to steal the rest of the growth serum. Wonder Woman and the Flash goes after the bugs to save Robin while Batman and the scientist must create an antidote to return the bugs back to normal. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 65a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2a \| Title \= Mxyzptlk's Flick \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|3}} \| ShortSummary \= Batman, Robin, and the Wonder Twins are thrown into a movie by Mr. Mxyzptlk. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 65b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2b \| Title \= The Sink Hole \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|3}} \| ShortSummary \= Wonder Woman arrives to help a sheriff from the hills of \[\[West Virginia]] and investigate why a giant cobra is creating \[\[sink holes]]. Shortly after, Wonder Woman and the Sheriff are captured by a giant mechanical cobra. Diamond Jack invents the mechanical Cobra to change coal into diamonds. Superman and The Atom rush to the aid of Wonder Woman and help her defeat Diamond Jack and his mechanical cobra. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 65c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2c \| Title \= The Alien Mummy \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|3}} \| ShortSummary \= While accompanying Professor Naska and his students on a field trip to Ancient Aztec ruins in Mexico, \[\[El Dorado (superhero)\|El Dorado]] is attacked by alien invaders. When El Dorado scares them off, an angered Alien Mummy attacks El Dorado and the others. Meanwhile at the Hall of Justice, Superman and Wonder Woman receive a U.F.O. alert and head out to Mexico. When the two Super Friends arrived, they saw the Alien Mummy having El Dorado and the others have been put under mind control. When Superman and Wonder Woman confront the Alien Mummy, he turns both of them into golden statues. Wonder Woman's attempt to communicate telepathically with El Dorado was a success when he breaks free of the Alien Mummy's mind control and distracts the Alien Mummy with a hologram Beast. Meanwhile he transports himself to find his Super Friends turned to gold. El Dorado brings them back to the Alien Mummy who gets his power source broken by Superman's X\-Ray vision which returns everyone to normal. El Dorado leads the Alien Mummy into his spacecraft and Superman sends him off. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 66a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3a \| Title \= The Evil from Krypton \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|10}} \| ShortSummary \= Zy\-Kree, an escapee from the Phantom Zone (who is very similar to \[\[General Zod]] in his appearance and backstory) seeks revenge on Superman by turning the Earth's sun red and thus depowering the man of steel while hiding in the \[\[Fortress of Solitude]]. It's up to Green Lantern and Aquaman to help their friend defeat the evil Kryptonian who has the same powers as Superman. Finally, he is sent back to the Phantom Zone. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 66b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3b \| Title \= The Creature from the Dump \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|10}} \| ShortSummary \= A junk creature forms after two kids hanging around a dump inadvertently made a mysterious chemical reaction occur. When Batman gets infected by the chemicals, he also turns into a junk creature. The Junior Super Friends try to find a way to get Batman back to normal. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 66c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3c \| Title \= The Aircraft Terror \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|10}} \| ShortSummary \= A meteor hits an aircraft and turns it into a winged beast. When the Wonder Twins respond to a Trouble Alert, they find out that the aircraft creatures had the ability to turn other aircraft into living beasts. Batman and Robin trailed the beasts from the Batjet and try to stop the attack by taking out the ringleader of the beasts. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 67a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4a \| Title \= The Lava Men \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|17}} \| ShortSummary \= After saving a \[\[killer whale]], Aquaman notices the water is on fire and radios Wonder Woman for help who then tells Superman. Meanwhile, Aquaman, with the help of his whale friend, helps move a ship from the path of the flaming water. Superman arrives stops the flames with a concrete road and his super breath. The Super Friends find out that a group of Lava Men are the ones who are causing the trouble. Solderath, King of the Lava Men, wreaks havoc on the surface world because he feels that the Lava Men have been living underground for too long while the humans occupy the surface. While Wonder Woman fights the Lava Men, Superman stops a fire ball over the \[\[North Pole]] and Aquaman stops a giant whirlpool from draining the ocean. When the three Super Friends rejoin each other they defeat the Lava Men and return them back to the center of the Earth. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 67b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4b \| Title \= Bazarowurld \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|17}} \| ShortSummary \= Superman and Black Vulcan are tricked by Bizarro into going to Bizarro\-World. Black Vulcan is tricked into a Maze of Mirrors, while Superman is tricked into a Red Kryptonite Mine, turning him into a skinny figure while Bizarro is immune to it. However he uses the rays passing through his blue suit to his advantage, turning them to Blue Kryptonite, which weakens Bizarro, and restores Superman. Black Vulcan smashes through the mirrors, he and Superman leave Bizarro\-World. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 67c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4c \| Title \= The Warlord's Amulet \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|17}} \| ShortSummary \= After receiving a Trouble Alert from Samurai's homeland, Samurai responds to the call at once and finds an ancient fugitive warlord that escaped his time period using his Amulet. When the warlord tries to steal the village treasures and causes havoc, Samurai calls Batman and Robin to handle the disasters while he sends the warlord back to 13th\-century Japan. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 68a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5a \| Title \= The Iron Cyclops \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|24}} \| ShortSummary \= Superman finds a mysterious purple ray that is lifting objects in downtown Metropolis. Batman uses the Justice League computer from the Hall of Justice and try to control the beam while Black Vulcan and the Atom joins Superman in Metropolis. They find out that the Iron Cyclops who is projecting the ray lives on a planet which has no gravity and he wants to steal the Earth's. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 68b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5b \| Title \= Palette's Perils \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|24}} \| ShortSummary \= Wonder Woman and \[\[El Dorado (superhero)\|El Dorado]] responds a series of art gallery robberies in Metropolis. They confront John Palette, a painter whose invention can turn paintings of his design into real life monsters that can steal for him. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 68c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5c \| Title \= Colossus \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|24}} \| ShortSummary \= Colossus, a reckless and destructive cosmic barbarian many times larger than the Earth, turns his attention to Earth's solar system. Apache Chief charges into action using a shrink ray to reduce the giant to ordinary Earth mortal size; Colossus then plummets to Earth. Still very strong, Colossus goes on a rampage and tries to destroy the Hall of Justice, prompting Superman and Apache Chief to send him back to space. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 69a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6a \| Title \= The Stowaways from Space \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|31}} \| ShortSummary \= The Wonder Twins encounter two hostile aliens that were stowaways on an unmanned space station returning to Earth. The Wonder Twins join Superman to put the aliens out of commission for good. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 69b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6b \| Title \= The Scaraghosta Sea \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|31}} \| ShortSummary \= Two scientists encounter a whirlpool and call the Justice League for help. The whirlpool throws them into an eerie undersea harbor deep beneath the ocean floor. A pirate ghost named Keelhaul Kelly hijacks the scientists' mini\-sub with plans to escape from his ghost world to resume his piracy in today's above water world. Aquaman, Batman and Robin arrived to save the innocent scientists from the clutches of those who would do them harm. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 69c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6c \| Title \= The Witch's Arcade \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1981\|10\|31}} \| ShortSummary \= In an arcade, the Wonder Twins and Gleek encountered a witch who shrinks them. As Zan and Jayna elude danger, they called Wonder Woman for help. Now Wonder Woman and the Wonder Twins must stop the witch before she shrinks all of the customers. \| LineColor \= AE1C26 }} }} ### Season 3 (1983\) This season didn't air during a regularly scheduled Saturday morning time\-slot, but did get aired when the series began to get aired in repeats/reruns on other networks. In prior series, The Wonder Twins were only paired up with Superman, Batman and Robin or Wonder Woman. This series found them teaming up with other Justice Leaguers. In "Roller Coaster", they're paired with Atom. In "Two Gleeks", they're paired with Wonder Woman and Green Lantern. In "Unexpected Treasure", they're paired with Hawkman and Hawkgirl. In "Space Racers", they're paired with Wonder Woman \& Flash. In "Pint of Life", they're paired with Aquaman. In "Invasion of The Space Dolls" and "Bully for You", they're paired with Batman and Robin. In "One Small Step for Superman", they're paired with Superman and Batman. This is the final season that Olan Soule voices Batman and Shannon Farnon voices Wonder Woman. {{Episode table \|background\=\#FBEC5D \|overall\= \|season\= \|title\= \|airdate\= \|episodes\= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 70a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1a \| Title \= Mxyzptlk's Revenge \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|10}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= A doorway appears inside the Hall of Justice. Superman and Batman wonder where it originated from and where it leads. Then the voice of Mxyzptlk is heard and Superman realizes who's responsible. The door opens up, sucking everything inside, including Batman and Superman. The doorway is a warp between Earth and the Fifth Dimension. Once in the mixed up world of Mr. Mxyzptlk, the two heroes are put through a series of comical and offbeat challenges once the imp removes Superman's cape and Batman's utility belt. Superman is "sentenced" to life in a vegetable garden where green beans are the equivalent to kryptonite. Batman is "sentenced" to life upside down. Superman eventually finds a way to get himself and Batman out of the Fifth Dimension and back to Earth. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 70b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1b \| Title \= Roller Coaster \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|10}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Three kids ride a condemned roller coaster that gradually falls apart. The Wonder Twins and Gleek, exiting a movie theater, respond to the crisis. After Zan accidentally breaks a rusted power control and realizing that they need additional help in the rescue attempt they send Gleek to the Hall of Justice and find Atom. Atom soon arrives and shrinks himself even more smaller so he can enter the power box and manually shut down the roller coaster. Note: As the Wonder Twins and Gleek made their way outside the theater, they passed by a movie poster promoting Superman. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 70c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1c \| Title \= Once Upon a Poltergeist \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|10}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= At the Wayne Building in Gotham City, a confused spirit of a Mohawk Indian terrorizes the area due to his belief that the building sits on top of an ancient burial site. Batman, Robin, and Apache Chief battle the spirit but its power is greater. Apache Chief eventually finds the true burial ground and instantly the Indian spirit apologizes for his destruction and peacefully fades away. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 71a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2a \| Title \= Warpland \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|17}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Superman and Batman are pulled into a space warp where they come across a strange planet inhabited by aliens known as Zoons. The leader of the group, Super Frog, plans on keeping who he sees as invaders as prisoners. He then turns Superman into an eagle and Batman into a real bat. The aliens' headquarters is referred to as the Hall of Zoon. Fortunately Batman and Superman are able to warp into their own galaxy and the effects wear off. Batman remarks that Superman would have made a great eagle. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 71b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2b \| Title \= Two Gleeks Are Deadlier Than One \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|17}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Wonder Woman and Green Lantern think the Legion of Doom will strike since the entire Justice League is going to meet in the Hall of Justice the next day. Jayna and Zan are put in charge of security during the night. Giganta sets a trap and captures Gleek with bananas and takes him to Gorillia Grodd miles away on the outskirts of Metropolis. Because so many Justice League members were going to meet in one place, they tried to take precautions but a mechanical duplicate of Gleek arrives at the Hall of Justice to use his killer laser eyes on the Justice League and help Grodd and Giganta take over the Hall of Justice. However, the Super Friends then reveal they used androids, knowing such a meeting would probably cause an attack by villains. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 71c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2c \| Title \= Bulgor the Behemoth \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|17}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= A writer turns into the creature he created after a lightning bolt electrocutes an electrical tower nearby. \[\[Apache Chief]] and Superman are on hand to stop the \[\[behemoth]] from continuing his destructive ways. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 72a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3a \| Title \= The Krypton Syndrome \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|24}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Superman travels through a time warp and is taken back to the hours leading up to Krypton's explosion. He saves the planet by stopping the solar flares using the Super\-Mobile core and then returns to the present to find Earth a very different place. Robin confronts him and has no idea who Superman is and then remarks that the Justice League was defeated by the Legion of Doom, he is the only one alive. He soon realizes that by saving Krypton that it erased his time on Earth and that nobody had ever heard of Superman before. He goes back into the time warp and makes sure Krypton explodes by removing the Super\-Mobile Core because he figures that Earth would need a person like ''Superman'' to protect it. Note: This marks the first episode that Robin appears without Batman. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 72b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3b \| Title \= Invasion of the Space Dolls \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|24}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Space dolls try to take over the world but run out of batteries. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 72c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3c \| Title \= Terror on the Titanic \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|24}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Two divers find the Titanic which has become inhabited by a mutated form of Algae. Aquaman and Black Vulcan respond to the danger. After a lightning blast from Black Vulcan, the Titanic comes alive from the result of the mutated Algae and begins to destroy everything in its path. Ultimately, the ship sinks back into the ocean after the two heroes were tricked it into slamming into a jagged iceberg. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 73a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4a \| Title \= Revenge of Doom \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|1}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Batman and Robin foil some building constructors' plans to revive a destroyed Hall of Doom and turn it into a Museum. When Batman figures something is wrong, the building constructors reveal themselves to be Lex Luthor, Soloman Grundy, Sinestro and the rest of the Legion of Doom. Batman and Robin are captured immediately. The Legion restores the Hall of Doom and they pick up where they left off, plotting crimes and world domination. When the Legion of Doom attacks Metropolis, Superman and Wonder Woman attempt to stop them only to get crystallized by Lex Luthor's Crystallization Ray. With the Super Friends defeated, the Legion of Doom take over the Hall of Justice to make their demands. Meanwhile, Superman and Wonder Woman are able to move again, thanks to Superman's X\-Ray vision, and are off to stop the Legion of Doom. Batman and Robin must find a way to reverse the polarity of Luthor's Crystallization Ray to transform Superman and Wonder Woman back to normal so the Legion of Doom's raid on Fort Knox can be put to an end. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 73b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4b \| Title \= A Pint of Life \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|1}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= The Wonder Twins and Aquaman search the Amazon River for Doctor Marks who's on an expedition. The doctor's son needs a blood transfusion and there's only a moment of hours left for the Super Friends to locate the doctor. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 73c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4c \| Title \= Day of the Dinosaurs \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|1}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= The Hall of Justice, with Wonder Woman and Samurai inside, gets swallowed up into the Earth. After tumbling through layers of rock, the Hall of Justices comes to a stop at a strange forgotten world beneath our own. When Wonder Woman and Samurai explore the strange subterranean world, they are attacked by prehistoric creatures called Slarums. Technos saves the two Super Friends and offers to show them the world of the Volti. During the tour Technos gets mad because the two Super Friends asked him why the Volti have not helped the Slarums and as a result, Technos imprisons them. Wonder Woman and Samurai escaped and headed over to the Hall of Justice to contact the other Super Friends only to be met by Slarums. Wonder Woman, Samurai, and the Slarums decide to pay the Volti a visit to unite the two races and lift the Hall of Justice back to the surface. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 74a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5a \| Title \= Return of the Phantoms \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|8}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= The three Phantom Zone villains: Logar, Hol, and Romlok are freed by an alien who doesn't realize they are criminals. In this episode they force the alien to travel back in time with them in an attempt to alter Superboy's life—hoping that he will never grow up to become Superman. Meanwhile, in the future, Superman and Green Lantern learn of the plot from the alien and travel back in time to save Superman's own past and capture the Phantom Zone villains. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 74b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5b \| Title \= Bully for You \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|8}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Teen angst and bullying are spotlighted at the start of this episode. In the meantime, after a daring mission on a skyscraper, Batman loses his utility belt. The boy who was being bullied finds the belt and seeks revenge. However, the boy doesn't know what all power that the belt contains and he accidentally switches on a high frequency signal that leads to Earth shaking effects and building destruction. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 74c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5c \| Title \= Superclones \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|8}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= After obtaining living cells from Aquaman and El Dorado's skin, Brainiac creates clones of the two heroes. Brainiac programs the Aquaman and El Dorado clones to their counterparts bring them back to Brainiac's laboratory. After attempting to rob a ship, the clones are apprehended. The next day in court the clones say the Super Friends have turned against the people. The real El Dorado and Aquaman trick Brainiac into freeing them and they're all transported to the Metropolis courthouse. There, they clear up the situation and incarcerate Brainiac. Cameos: Superman, Batman, Robin, Wonder Woman, Wonder Twins, Green Lantern, Flash, Hawkman, Atom, Black Vulcan, and the Atom Note 1: Superman has a small speaking role despite his cameo. Note 2: Stanley Ralph Ross takes over for the late Ted Cassidy as the voice of Brainiac, and in a rare instance of show created characters returning for a second appearance, the Kryptonian villains from "Terror from the Phantom Zone" return, although their appearance was drastically altered from their previous appearance. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 75a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6a \| Title \= Prisoners of Sleep \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|15}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= While investigating a strange electrified spiked metal pod, Superman and Batman unwittingly unleashed the cloud\-like prisoner inside named Sleep, and are then trapped in a dream world. Superman dreams that everything he touches turns to kryptonite. Batman's nightmare involves a building's ledge turning to dust as he falls into the awaiting jaws of the vicious monster. Wonder Woman tries to save them by wrapping her golden lasso around her waist and entering the dream world. She instructs a miner to wake her in five minutes by tugging on the lasso and it works. Superman then breathes the creature into his lungs and blows him back into the pod. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 75b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6b \| Title \= An Unexpected Treasure \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|15}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Two teenagers discover an ancient warship buried underneath the desert sands and they take off in it. The Wonder Twins and Gleek attempt to rescue the teens and they ultimately seek the help of Hawkman and Hawkgirl. The teens, the Wonder Twins, and Gleek are trapped inside the ship as it makes its way to its own galaxy. Zan eventually discovers how to open up the ship's hatch and everyone is safe from certain danger. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 75c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6c \| Title \= The Malusian Blob \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|15}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Space shuttle astronauts unwittingly load an alien chemical blob into their cargo bay (assuming it to be space junk). The blob starts eating metal and the astronauts call for help. Batman, Robin, and Black Vulcan arrived and rescued the astronauts. Assuming the blob burned up in the atmosphere, they return to Earth, but then the blob reappears and after some failed attempts, they figure out that the substance may have an unstable reaction to sugar. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 76a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7a \| Title \= Attack of the Cats \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|22}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Batman, Robin, and El Dorado investigate a series of crimes which lead them to the conclusion that the culprits are not human. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 76b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7b \| Title \= One Small Step for Superman \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|22}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= A boy loses his pet dog during an accident in the wilderness. After being taken to the hospital, he's given a clean bill of health, but yet he insists he's paralyzed. It's then up to Batman and the Wonder Twins to convince the boy that his paralysis isn't real and that it is more than likely an emotional response to the traumatic incident and the loss of his pet dog. During a bird's eye view of the city, courtesy of Superman, a gigantic metallic monster starts to destroy the city. It ultimately fires out kryptonite, which leaves Superman weakened. Superman pleads for the boy, who still believes he can't walk, to get rid of the kryptonite. The boy struggles to make himself walk again in an attempt to save Superman. There's an emotional twist at the end of the story, though. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 76c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7c \| Title \= Video Victims \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|22}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Bizarro creates trouble by zapping several of the Super Friends into an arcade game reminiscent of \[\[Pac\-Man]] and Bizarro is in control of the hungry muncher. Midway through the game, the giant creature turns green—a kryptonite creature that swallows a severely weakened Superman. Ultimately, Bizarro becomes a victim of his own plan. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 77a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8a \| Title \= Playground of Doom \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|29}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Giant children arrive on Earth and create destruction all over the city. Superman, Batman and Robin have their hands full while trying to prevent them from causing trouble. A call to the children's home planet and a visit from some influential individuals put a stop to the children's pranks. Note: This is the final episode that Olan Soule voices Batman. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 77b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8b \| Title \= Space Racers \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|29}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= The Wonder Twins and Gleek are on weekend patrol duty when the Justice League patrol craft is invaded by space racing punks. After the Wonder Twins decide to teach them to respect the law, the space racing punks decide to retreat by dematerializing. They take Jayna along with them and hold her hostage. At the Hall of Justice, Wonder Woman and The Flash notice there are three spacecraft violating lightspeed in the Saturn sector and decide to check it out. When they arrive they see the space punks have hit a space mining ship. Wonder Woman and The Flash save the two space miners and The Wonder Twins saves the out of control space ship. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 77c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8c \| Title \= The Recruiter \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|29}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Superman and Wonder Woman are abducted by a race of alien beings and are forced to play intergalactic football which is referred to as ''space ball'' in this episode. By the end of the episode, the heroes teach the aliens that the key to success is to work together. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} }}
[ "Episodes\n--------", "### Season 1 (1980\\)", "{{Episode table \\|background\\=\\#FF9933 \\|overall\\= \\|season\\= \\|title\\= \\|airdate\\= \\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 56a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1a\n\\| Title \\= Big Foot\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|13}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Apache Chief and few of his fellow braves are captured by alien creatures resembling the legendary Bigfoot. Batman and Robin try to help, but are also captured. After they escape and defeat the creatures, the Super Friends learn that they were merely trying to seek information to repair their spacecraft.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Hanna\\-Barbera\\_Studios/S/Super\\_Friends\\_II\\_/\\|title\\=Super Friends (II) Episode Guide \\-Hanna\\-Barbera @ BCDB}}{{dead link\\|date\\=January 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}", "Cameos: Superman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 56b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1b\n\\| Title \\= The Ice Demon\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|13}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While on a skiing vacation, the Wonder Twins literally bump into a pair of reckless teenagers and wind up in an ice cave inhabited by an Ice Demon. Only Superman can save them. Luckily, Clark Kent and Lois Lane are nearby.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 56c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1c\n\\| Title \\= The Make\\-Up Monster\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|13}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A disgruntled make\\-up man on the set of a movie discovers a formula that allows him to make himself up into any powerful monster he chooses. With the formula, he wreaks havoc and wrecks the movie studio and only Batman, Robin, and the Flash dare to challenge him.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 57a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2a\n\\| Title \\= Journey Into Blackness\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|20}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While monitoring the galaxy from his impenetrable Fortress of Solitude, Superman notices a black hole that is going to suck up the Earth. Superman attempts to stop it, but gets himself pulled into the black hole. Using the Bat\\-Rocket, Batman and Samurai set out to accomplish what Superman failed to do. However, the two heroes end up getting pulled into an asteroid planet in the center of the black hole. Upon finding Superman imprisoned, the heroes are attacked by a Star Energy Creature. The Super Friends must break free and stop the Star Creature from absorbing Earth.", "Note: This is the first out of ten episodes where Batman began appearing in various episodes without Robin.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 57b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2b\n\\| Title \\= The Cycle Gang\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|20}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Highway Angels, a motorcycle gang, start tormenting a senior citizen and his grandson. When Zan, Janya, and Gleek try to help them, they were having a hard time dealing with the cycle gang and the danger at hand. Wonder Woman sees the Wonder Twins and gives them assistance.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 57c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2c\n\\| Title \\= Dive to Disaster\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|20}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Several miles off the coast of Hawaii, a routine Navy mission becomes a nightmare when a submarine's controls short circuits and the nuclear reactor starts to overload. Black Vulcan and Aquaman try to help, but are attacked by nuclear mutated sea creatures. Black Vulcan actually gets eaten by a mutated whale in which Aquaman must come to his rescue. When the two heroes get free, they make it aboard the submarine, whose communication transmitter went dead. Now their only chance is to launch Aquaman out of a torpedo tube to clear the beach, while Black Vulcan uses his electrical powers.", "Cameos: Superman and Wonder Woman\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 58a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3a\n\\| Title \\= Yuna the Terrible\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|27}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A group of archaeologists accidentally releases Yuna the Terrible and her barbarian warriors. Batman and Robin responds to a distress call but get captured by Yuna's warriors. Wonder Woman and Apache Chief respond to the Batman's distress call. During an encounter with Yuna, Apache Chief gets put into a trance and joins Yuna and her warriors. Wonder Woman tries to save them and must prove her strength against Yuna.", "Cameos: Superman\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 58b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3b\n\\| Title \\= Rock and Roll Space Bandits\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|27}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A group of Rock and Roll Space Bandits paralyze the Super Friends and invade a major city on Earth using their hypnotic music. The Wonder Twins come to the rescue, but get hypnotized. Wonder Woman helps the rest of the Super Friends get free and they rush off to stop the musical menaces. Batman uses a device to stop the sound waves.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 58c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3c\n\\| Title \\= Elevator to Nowhere\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|27}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Streaking in the Invisible Jet, Wonder Woman and the Atom answer a distress call on the emergency scanner from a Dr. Wells. Wells' call was actually a trap to get Wonder Woman and the Atom to test out his new time machine. Wonder Woman starts pressing buttons attempting to escape, but actually starts the time machine to send the Atom and herself to the American Revolution in 1776\\. General \\[\\[George Washington]] mistakes Wonder Woman for a British spy. The two heroes escape (but the Atom gives a quick message to George Washington to keep fighting in the Revolution), then move further back into the past to a 17th\\-century galleon, where they are confronted by \\[\\[Blackbeard]]. After saving the Atom, Wonder Woman and Atom escape in the time machine. The Atom decides to shrink down to microscopic size to rewire the circuits in the time machine to go back to 1980\\. When they come back, Dr. Wells tries to elude them by using the time machine to escape. The heroes travel millions of years into the prehistoric past to capture him.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 59a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4a\n\\| Title \\= One Small Step for Mars\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|4}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Green Lantern and Superman must stop the reign of terror caused by Martians who traveled to Earth in a returning space probe. They are finally tricked into returning to Mars. Cameos: Batman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 59b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4b\n\\| Title \\= Haunted House\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|4}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A group of teens dare each other to go into the old Brimstone mansion in the cemetery, a place that is said to be haunted. Two of them go in the mansion and get trapped inside. The other two ask the Wonder Twins go inside to look for the other boys, but get captured by old man Holmes, the cemetery's paranoid caretaker. Gleek informs Batman and Robin who come to the rescue and stop Holmes cold in his tracks.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 59c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4c\n\\| Title \\= The Incredible Crude Oil Monster\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|4}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Not far off the Alaska coastline, millions of gallons of crude oil spill out from a ruptured supertanker. Suddenly, the crude oil comes alive in the form of a giant monster. Aquaman sees the oil monster and helps the supertanker to stop the creature by using a harpoon with a net wrapped around to contain the monster. When that plain did not work, the captain called Hawkman and Hawkgirl for assistance, while Aquaman handles the creature. Hawkman and Hawkgirl arrive, but by the time they got there, the oil monster had already taken off for the coast. Later, the oil monster attacks the Alaskan Pipeline and grows even larger. Hawkman and Hawkgirl try to stop the monster, but they get covered in oil and get captured and eaten by the monster. Aquaman acts fast and saves the winged avengers by going inside the monster and using his telepathy as radar. After Hawkman gets an idea of how to stop the monster, the three heroes go to a small general store to get all of the detergent soap so they can put the plan in motion. They arrive at the nearby harbor to find the monster feeding on the first storage tank. Aquaman leads the monster to the empty storage tank, while Hawkman and Hawkgirl pour the detergent on the monster, turning it back into plain crude oil.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 60a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5a\n\\| Title \\= Voodoo Vampire\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|11}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Vampiress, the Voodoo Vampire from Africa, goes after the Super Friends and seeks to make them her vampire slaves. It is now up to Wonder Woman and Black Vulcan to go to her underground tomb and stop her.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 60b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5b\n\\| Title \\= Invasion of the Gleeks\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|11}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A group of Exxorian monkeys arrive on Earth to invade the planet. The monkeys want to defeat the Super Friends by putting Gleek under their control. The Wonder Twins must use their powers to help Gleek and the Super Friends.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 60c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5c\n\\| Title \\= Mxyzptlk Strikes Again\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|11}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The impish villain Mr. Mxyzptlk uses his magic typewriter to force Superman, Aquaman, and the Green Lantern into destroying each other.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 61a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6a\n\\| Title \\= The Man in the Moon\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|18}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman, Batman, and Apache Chief must save Earth from a giant alien beast that \"hatched\" out of the moon like an \"egg\".", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 61b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6b\n\\| Title \\= Circus of Horrors\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|18}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While at the circus, the Wonder Twins and Gleek witness the revenge of circus animals as they zap the audience in a trance. The animals capture Gleek and zap the Wonder Twins as well, who they send off to lure Superman and Wonder Woman into a trap at the circus. The circus animals eventually turn the Super Friends into Super Animals. Gleek frees the Wonder Twins from the trance, and now it is up to them to save their friends and put an end to this circus once and for all.", "Cameos: Batman and Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 61c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6c\n\\| Title \\= Around the World in 80 Riddles\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|18}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman brings a new engine for the Bat\\-jet to the Bat\\-Cave. However, when Batman opens it up, he finds the Riddler hiding inside. He hops out and spritzes Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Robin with stupid spray. There is only one antidote and the Riddler has hidden it somewhere. If the Super Friends do not find it before the time limit is up, they will be super\\-stupid forever. Before he hops away, the Riddler gives the Super Friends their first riddle clue. The Super Friends arrive at the Mayan ruins in Chichen Itza; there Superman spots what he believes is the antidote in the pyramid by using his X\\-ray vision. The Super Friends enter the pyramid, only to be caught in a Riddler trap. They escape the trap, then find the Riddler's second clue, but by that time they need the assistance of the Bat\\-Computer because they have become too stupid to figure out the riddles. The computer tells them to go to Mt. Everest and there they defeat the Riddler, who is in a zeppelin, and get the antidote.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 62a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7a\n\\| Title \\= Termites from Venus\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|25}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Termites come from a meteorite sent from Venus to Earth by a volcanic eruption. They start consuming the world. Superman, Batman and Robin, and Samurai defeat them, finally sending them into space.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 62b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7b\n\\| Title \\= Eruption\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|25}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Wonder Twins rescue a part of reckless hang gliders who fell into a volcano. Soon after the volcano starts erupting. Jayna calls Batman and Robin, who help the Wonder Twins rescue the rest of the town and stop the lava flow.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 62c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7c\n\\| Title \\= Return of Atlantis\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|25}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hundreds of miles off the East Coast of North America, a routine Trans\\-Atlantic trip turns into a nightmare when a ship gets caught between some jagged rocks and takes on water. Aquaman was in the area assists by using his telepathy to summon two manta rays to seal the hole as he pushes the ship out of danger. As he attempts to head back to the Hall of Justice, a larger island arises from the sea. Aquaman recognizes it as the Lost Island of Ancient Atlantis (not to be confused with Aquaman's home in modern Atlantis) that has thought to have been destroyed thousands of years ago. Upon checking out the island, Aquaman is captured by female Atlantean Warriors who seek world domination. The \\[\\[U.S. Coast Guards]] who were on the ship Aquaman saved send a distress call to Wonder Woman and Rima about an island moving towards shore. Meanwhile, the Atlantean Warriors arrive at Washington D.C. and attack the Army. Wonder Woman and Rima arrive and are confronted by Ocina, Queen of Atlantis, and are offered to join the group of Warriors. When the two heroes refuse, they are captured and put in the water dungeon where Aquaman is imprisoned. Wonder Woman uses her telepathic mind line to summon help from her mother \\[\\[Hippolyta (DC Comics)\\|Hippolyta]] and the Amazons of \\[\\[Themyscira (DC Comics)\\|Paradise Island]]. The Amazons of Paradise Island travel to Washington D.C. to fight an epic battle against these femme fatales.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 63a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8a\n\\| Title \\= The Killer Machines\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|11\\|1}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The IBN computer research facility creates Romac, the most advanced computer the world has ever known. When tested, Romac turns on his IBN creators and tries to destroy the Super Friends by turning the Justice League Computer and the Supermobile against them. Batman, Robin, and Black Vulcan have to shut Romac down before he can do any more damage.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 63b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8b\n\\| Title \\= Garden of Doom\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|11\\|1}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A scientific experiment accidentally turns plants into monsters.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 63c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8c\n\\| Title \\= Revenge of Bizarro\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|11\\|1}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Bizarro takes revenge on Batman, Robin, Wonder Woman, Hawkman, and Hawkgirl by turning them into his \"Super Bizarro slaves\" and exposing Superman to red kryptonite. The red kryptonite's horrible effects cause Superman to grow extra arms and legs. Now Superman's only chance to stop Bizarro and return to normal is blue kryptonite, which affects only Bizarros adversely.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n}}", "### Season 2 (1981\\)", "{{Episode table \\|background\\=\\#AE1C26 \\|overall\\= \\|season\\= \\|title\\= \\|airdate\\= \\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 64a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1a\n\\| Title \\= The Outlaws of Orion\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|9\\|26}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= When chasing a burglar in Gotham City, Batman and Robin are captured by Pack and Stardust, bounty hunters from Orion. Batman attempts to call for help using the Justice League beeper, but he did not realize the Bounty Hunters know help is coming and are ready to ambush them. Wonder Woman and Green Lantern come to save Batman and Robin but instead gets captured and imprisoned as well. The Bounty Hunters tries to take their captives to The Orion Territorial Prison but on the way the Super Friends make a break and go after the Bounty Hunters.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Hanna\\-Barbera\\_Studios/S/Super\\_Friends\\_II\\_/\\|title\\=Super Friends (II) Episode Guide \\-Hanna\\-Barbera @ BCDB}}{{dead link\\|date\\=January 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 64b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1b\n\\| Title \\= Three Wishes\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|9\\|26}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Wonder Twins find a magic lamp, the evil Space Genie of it gives them three wishes, which lead to trouble. However with the last wish, they never used the lamp.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 64c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1c\n\\| Title \\= Scorpio\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|9\\|26}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Wonder Woman receives a distress call from a scientist who was working on a way to end world hunger by a substance that makes vegetables grow to huge proportions. However, the scientist also says that an earlier failed experiment on a scorpion make it grow and gave it the power of speech. Scorpio is also stealing the growth formula to use on insects for his bug army, with intent of overthrowing humanity as Earth's dominant species. Scorpio learns of Wonder Woman's presence and orders another attack from his bug army to steal the rest of the growth serum. Wonder Woman and the Flash goes after the bugs to save Robin while Batman and the scientist must create an antidote to return the bugs back to normal.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 65a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2a\n\\| Title \\= Mxyzptlk's Flick\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|3}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Batman, Robin, and the Wonder Twins are thrown into a movie by Mr. Mxyzptlk.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 65b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2b\n\\| Title \\= The Sink Hole\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|3}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Wonder Woman arrives to help a sheriff from the hills of \\[\\[West Virginia]] and investigate why a giant cobra is creating \\[\\[sink holes]]. Shortly after, Wonder Woman and the Sheriff are captured by a giant mechanical cobra. Diamond Jack invents the mechanical Cobra to change coal into diamonds. Superman and The Atom rush to the aid of Wonder Woman and help her defeat Diamond Jack and his mechanical cobra.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 65c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2c\n\\| Title \\= The Alien Mummy\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|3}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While accompanying Professor Naska and his students on a field trip to Ancient Aztec ruins in Mexico, \\[\\[El Dorado (superhero)\\|El Dorado]] is attacked by alien invaders. When El Dorado scares them off, an angered Alien Mummy attacks El Dorado and the others. Meanwhile at the Hall of Justice, Superman and Wonder Woman receive a U.F.O. alert and head out to Mexico. When the two Super Friends arrived, they saw the Alien Mummy having El Dorado and the others have been put under mind control. When Superman and Wonder Woman confront the Alien Mummy, he turns both of them into golden statues. Wonder Woman's attempt to communicate telepathically with El Dorado was a success when he breaks free of the Alien Mummy's mind control and distracts the Alien Mummy with a hologram Beast. Meanwhile he transports himself to find his Super Friends turned to gold. El Dorado brings them back to the Alien Mummy who gets his power source broken by Superman's X\\-Ray vision which returns everyone to normal. El Dorado leads the Alien Mummy into his spacecraft and Superman sends him off.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 66a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3a\n\\| Title \\= The Evil from Krypton\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|10}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Zy\\-Kree, an escapee from the Phantom Zone (who is very similar to \\[\\[General Zod]] in his appearance and backstory) seeks revenge on Superman by turning the Earth's sun red and thus depowering the man of steel while hiding in the \\[\\[Fortress of Solitude]]. It's up to Green Lantern and Aquaman to help their friend defeat the evil Kryptonian who has the same powers as Superman. Finally, he is sent back to the Phantom Zone.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 66b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3b\n\\| Title \\= The Creature from the Dump\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|10}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A junk creature forms after two kids hanging around a dump inadvertently made a mysterious chemical reaction occur. When Batman gets infected by the chemicals, he also turns into a junk creature. The Junior Super Friends try to find a way to get Batman back to normal.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 66c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3c\n\\| Title \\= The Aircraft Terror\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|10}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A meteor hits an aircraft and turns it into a winged beast. When the Wonder Twins respond to a Trouble Alert, they find out that the aircraft creatures had the ability to turn other aircraft into living beasts. Batman and Robin trailed the beasts from the Batjet and try to stop the attack by taking out the ringleader of the beasts.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 67a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4a\n\\| Title \\= The Lava Men\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|17}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= After saving a \\[\\[killer whale]], Aquaman notices the water is on fire and radios Wonder Woman for help who then tells Superman. Meanwhile, Aquaman, with the help of his whale friend, helps move a ship from the path of the flaming water. Superman arrives stops the flames with a concrete road and his super breath. The Super Friends find out that a group of Lava Men are the ones who are causing the trouble. Solderath, King of the Lava Men, wreaks havoc on the surface world because he feels that the Lava Men have been living underground for too long while the humans occupy the surface. While Wonder Woman fights the Lava Men, Superman stops a fire ball over the \\[\\[North Pole]] and Aquaman stops a giant whirlpool from draining the ocean. When the three Super Friends rejoin each other they defeat the Lava Men and return them back to the center of the Earth.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 67b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4b\n\\| Title \\= Bazarowurld\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|17}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman and Black Vulcan are tricked by Bizarro into going to Bizarro\\-World. Black Vulcan is tricked into a Maze of Mirrors, while Superman is tricked into a Red Kryptonite Mine, turning him into a skinny figure while Bizarro is immune to it. However he uses the rays passing through his blue suit to his advantage, turning them to Blue Kryptonite, which weakens Bizarro, and restores Superman. Black Vulcan smashes through the mirrors, he and Superman leave Bizarro\\-World.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 67c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4c\n\\| Title \\= The Warlord's Amulet\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|17}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= After receiving a Trouble Alert from Samurai's homeland, Samurai responds to the call at once and finds an ancient fugitive warlord that escaped his time period using his Amulet. When the warlord tries to steal the village treasures and causes havoc, Samurai calls Batman and Robin to handle the disasters while he sends the warlord back to 13th\\-century Japan.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 68a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5a\n\\| Title \\= The Iron Cyclops\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|24}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman finds a mysterious purple ray that is lifting objects in downtown Metropolis. Batman uses the Justice League computer from the Hall of Justice and try to control the beam while Black Vulcan and the Atom joins Superman in Metropolis. They find out that the Iron Cyclops who is projecting the ray lives on a planet which has no gravity and he wants to steal the Earth's.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 68b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5b\n\\| Title \\= Palette's Perils\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|24}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Wonder Woman and \\[\\[El Dorado (superhero)\\|El Dorado]] responds a series of art gallery robberies in Metropolis. They confront John Palette, a painter whose invention can turn paintings of his design into real life monsters that can steal for him.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 68c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5c\n\\| Title \\= Colossus\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|24}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Colossus, a reckless and destructive cosmic barbarian many times larger than the Earth, turns his attention to Earth's solar system. Apache Chief charges into action using a shrink ray to reduce the giant to ordinary Earth mortal size; Colossus then plummets to Earth. Still very strong, Colossus goes on a rampage and tries to destroy the Hall of Justice, prompting Superman and Apache Chief to send him back to space.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 69a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6a\n\\| Title \\= The Stowaways from Space\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|31}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Wonder Twins encounter two hostile aliens that were stowaways on an unmanned space station returning to Earth. The Wonder Twins join Superman to put the aliens out of commission for good.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 69b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6b\n\\| Title \\= The Scaraghosta Sea\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|31}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Two scientists encounter a whirlpool and call the Justice League for help. The whirlpool throws them into an eerie undersea harbor deep beneath the ocean floor. A pirate ghost named Keelhaul Kelly hijacks the scientists' mini\\-sub with plans to escape from his ghost world to resume his piracy in today's above water world. Aquaman, Batman and Robin arrived to save the innocent scientists from the clutches of those who would do them harm.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 69c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6c\n\\| Title \\= The Witch's Arcade\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1981\\|10\\|31}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= In an arcade, the Wonder Twins and Gleek encountered a witch who shrinks them. As Zan and Jayna elude danger, they called Wonder Woman for help. Now Wonder Woman and the Wonder Twins must stop the witch before she shrinks all of the customers.\n\\| LineColor \\= AE1C26\n}}\n}}", "### Season 3 (1983\\)", "This season didn't air during a regularly scheduled Saturday morning time\\-slot, but did get aired when the series began to get aired in repeats/reruns on other networks. In prior series, The Wonder Twins were only paired up with Superman, Batman and Robin or Wonder Woman. This series found them teaming up with other Justice Leaguers. In \"Roller Coaster\", they're paired with Atom. In \"Two Gleeks\", they're paired with Wonder Woman and Green Lantern. In \"Unexpected Treasure\", they're paired with Hawkman and Hawkgirl. In \"Space Racers\", they're paired with Wonder Woman \\& Flash. In \"Pint of Life\", they're paired with Aquaman. In \"Invasion of The Space Dolls\" and \"Bully for You\", they're paired with Batman and Robin. In \"One Small Step for Superman\", they're paired with Superman and Batman. This is the final season that Olan Soule voices Batman and Shannon Farnon voices Wonder Woman.", "{{Episode table \\|background\\=\\#FBEC5D \\|overall\\= \\|season\\= \\|title\\= \\|airdate\\= \\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 70a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1a\n\\| Title \\= Mxyzptlk's Revenge\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|10}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A doorway appears inside the Hall of Justice. Superman and Batman wonder where it originated from and where it leads. Then the voice of Mxyzptlk is heard and Superman realizes who's responsible. The door opens up, sucking everything inside, including Batman and Superman. The doorway is a warp between Earth and the Fifth Dimension. Once in the mixed up world of Mr. Mxyzptlk, the two heroes are put through a series of comical and offbeat challenges once the imp removes Superman's cape and Batman's utility belt. Superman is \"sentenced\" to life in a vegetable garden where green beans are the equivalent to kryptonite. Batman is \"sentenced\" to life upside down. Superman eventually finds a way to get himself and Batman out of the Fifth Dimension and back to Earth.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 70b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1b\n\\| Title \\= Roller Coaster\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|10}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Three kids ride a condemned roller coaster that gradually falls apart. The Wonder Twins and Gleek, exiting a movie theater, respond to the crisis. After Zan accidentally breaks a rusted power control and realizing that they need additional help in the rescue attempt they send Gleek to the Hall of Justice and find Atom. Atom soon arrives and shrinks himself even more smaller so he can enter the power box and manually shut down the roller coaster.", "Note: As the Wonder Twins and Gleek made their way outside the theater, they passed by a movie poster promoting Superman.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 70c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1c\n\\| Title \\= Once Upon a Poltergeist\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|10}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= At the Wayne Building in Gotham City, a confused spirit of a Mohawk Indian terrorizes the area due to his belief that the building sits on top of an ancient burial site. Batman, Robin, and Apache Chief battle the spirit but its power is greater. Apache Chief eventually finds the true burial ground and instantly the Indian spirit apologizes for his destruction and peacefully fades away.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 71a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2a\n\\| Title \\= Warpland\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|17}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman and Batman are pulled into a space warp where they come across a strange planet inhabited by aliens known as Zoons. The leader of the group, Super Frog, plans on keeping who he sees as invaders as prisoners. He then turns Superman into an eagle and Batman into a real bat. The aliens' headquarters is referred to as the Hall of Zoon. Fortunately Batman and Superman are able to warp into their own galaxy and the effects wear off. Batman remarks that Superman would have made a great eagle.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 71b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2b\n\\| Title \\= Two Gleeks Are Deadlier Than One\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|17}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Wonder Woman and Green Lantern think the Legion of Doom will strike since the entire Justice League is going to meet in the Hall of Justice the next day. Jayna and Zan are put in charge of security during the night. Giganta sets a trap and captures Gleek with bananas and takes him to Gorillia Grodd miles away on the outskirts of Metropolis. Because so many Justice League members were going to meet in one place, they tried to take precautions but a mechanical duplicate of Gleek arrives at the Hall of Justice to use his killer laser eyes on the Justice League and help Grodd and Giganta take over the Hall of Justice. However, the Super Friends then reveal they used androids, knowing such a meeting would probably cause an attack by villains.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 71c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2c\n\\| Title \\= Bulgor the Behemoth\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|17}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A writer turns into the creature he created after a lightning bolt electrocutes an electrical tower nearby. \\[\\[Apache Chief]] and Superman are on hand to stop the \\[\\[behemoth]] from continuing his destructive ways.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 72a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3a\n\\| Title \\= The Krypton Syndrome\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|24}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman travels through a time warp and is taken back to the hours leading up to Krypton's explosion. He saves the planet by stopping the solar flares using the Super\\-Mobile core and then returns to the present to find Earth a very different place. Robin confronts him and has no idea who Superman is and then remarks that the Justice League was defeated by the Legion of Doom, he is the only one alive. He soon realizes that by saving Krypton that it erased his time on Earth and that nobody had ever heard of Superman before. He goes back into the time warp and makes sure Krypton explodes by removing the Super\\-Mobile Core because he figures that Earth would need a person like ''Superman'' to protect it.", "Note: This marks the first episode that Robin appears without Batman.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 72b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3b\n\\| Title \\= Invasion of the Space Dolls\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|24}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Space dolls try to take over the world but run out of batteries.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 72c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3c\n\\| Title \\= Terror on the Titanic\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|24}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Two divers find the Titanic which has become inhabited by a mutated form of Algae. Aquaman and Black Vulcan respond to the danger. After a lightning blast from Black Vulcan, the Titanic comes alive from the result of the mutated Algae and begins to destroy everything in its path. Ultimately, the ship sinks back into the ocean after the two heroes were tricked it into slamming into a jagged iceberg.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 73a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4a\n\\| Title \\= Revenge of Doom\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|1}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Batman and Robin foil some building constructors' plans to revive a destroyed Hall of Doom and turn it into a Museum. When Batman figures something is wrong, the building constructors reveal themselves to be Lex Luthor, Soloman Grundy, Sinestro and the rest of the Legion of Doom. Batman and Robin are captured immediately. The Legion restores the Hall of Doom and they pick up where they left off, plotting crimes and world domination. When the Legion of Doom attacks Metropolis, Superman and Wonder Woman attempt to stop them only to get crystallized by Lex Luthor's Crystallization Ray. With the Super Friends defeated, the Legion of Doom take over the Hall of Justice to make their demands. Meanwhile, Superman and Wonder Woman are able to move again, thanks to Superman's X\\-Ray vision, and are off to stop the Legion of Doom. Batman and Robin must find a way to reverse the polarity of Luthor's Crystallization Ray to transform Superman and Wonder Woman back to normal so the Legion of Doom's raid on Fort Knox can be put to an end.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 73b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4b\n\\| Title \\= A Pint of Life\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|1}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Wonder Twins and Aquaman search the Amazon River for Doctor Marks who's on an expedition. The doctor's son needs a blood transfusion and there's only a moment of hours left for the Super Friends to locate the doctor.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 73c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4c\n\\| Title \\= Day of the Dinosaurs\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|1}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Hall of Justice, with Wonder Woman and Samurai inside, gets swallowed up into the Earth. After tumbling through layers of rock, the Hall of Justices comes to a stop at a strange forgotten world beneath our own. When Wonder Woman and Samurai explore the strange subterranean world, they are attacked by prehistoric creatures called Slarums. Technos saves the two Super Friends and offers to show them the world of the Volti. During the tour Technos gets mad because the two Super Friends asked him why the Volti have not helped the Slarums and as a result, Technos imprisons them. Wonder Woman and Samurai escaped and headed over to the Hall of Justice to contact the other Super Friends only to be met by Slarums. Wonder Woman, Samurai, and the Slarums decide to pay the Volti a visit to unite the two races and lift the Hall of Justice back to the surface.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 74a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5a\n\\| Title \\= Return of the Phantoms\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|8}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The three Phantom Zone villains: Logar, Hol, and Romlok are freed by an alien who doesn't realize they are criminals. In this episode they force the alien to travel back in time with them in an attempt to alter Superboy's life—hoping that he will never grow up to become Superman. Meanwhile, in the future, Superman and Green Lantern learn of the plot from the alien and travel back in time to save Superman's own past and capture the Phantom Zone villains.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 74b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5b\n\\| Title \\= Bully for You\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|8}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Teen angst and bullying are spotlighted at the start of this episode. In the meantime, after a daring mission on a skyscraper, Batman loses his utility belt. The boy who was being bullied finds the belt and seeks revenge. However, the boy doesn't know what all power that the belt contains and he accidentally switches on a high frequency signal that leads to Earth shaking effects and building destruction.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 74c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5c\n\\| Title \\= Superclones\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|8}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= After obtaining living cells from Aquaman and El Dorado's skin, Brainiac creates clones of the two heroes. Brainiac programs the Aquaman and El Dorado clones to their counterparts bring them back to Brainiac's laboratory. After attempting to rob a ship, the clones are apprehended. The next day in court the clones say the Super Friends have turned against the people. The real El Dorado and Aquaman trick Brainiac into freeing them and they're all transported to the Metropolis courthouse. There, they clear up the situation and incarcerate Brainiac.", "Cameos: Superman, Batman, Robin, Wonder Woman, Wonder Twins, Green Lantern, Flash, Hawkman, Atom, Black Vulcan, and the Atom", "Note 1: Superman has a small speaking role despite his cameo.\nNote 2: Stanley Ralph Ross takes over for the late Ted Cassidy as the voice of Brainiac, and in a rare instance of show created characters returning for a second appearance, the Kryptonian villains from \"Terror from the Phantom Zone\" return, although their appearance was drastically altered from their previous appearance.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 75a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6a\n\\| Title \\= Prisoners of Sleep\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|15}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While investigating a strange electrified spiked metal pod, Superman and Batman unwittingly unleashed the cloud\\-like prisoner inside named Sleep, and are then trapped in a dream world. Superman dreams that everything he touches turns to kryptonite. Batman's nightmare involves a building's ledge turning to dust as he falls into the awaiting jaws of the vicious monster. Wonder Woman tries to save them by wrapping her golden lasso around her waist and entering the dream world. She instructs a miner to wake her in five minutes by tugging on the lasso and it works. Superman then breathes the creature into his lungs and blows him back into the pod.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 75b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6b\n\\| Title \\= An Unexpected Treasure\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|15}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Two teenagers discover an ancient warship buried underneath the desert sands and they take off in it. The Wonder Twins and Gleek attempt to rescue the teens and they ultimately seek the help of Hawkman and Hawkgirl. The teens, the Wonder Twins, and Gleek are trapped inside the ship as it makes its way to its own galaxy. Zan eventually discovers how to open up the ship's hatch and everyone is safe from certain danger.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 75c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6c\n\\| Title \\= The Malusian Blob\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|15}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Space shuttle astronauts unwittingly load an alien chemical blob into their cargo bay (assuming it to be space junk). The blob starts eating metal and the astronauts call for help. Batman, Robin, and Black Vulcan arrived and rescued the astronauts. Assuming the blob burned up in the atmosphere, they return to Earth, but then the blob reappears and after some failed attempts, they figure out that the substance may have an unstable reaction to sugar.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 76a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7a\n\\| Title \\= Attack of the Cats\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|22}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Batman, Robin, and El Dorado investigate a series of crimes which lead them to the conclusion that the culprits are not human.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 76b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7b\n\\| Title \\= One Small Step for Superman\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|22}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A boy loses his pet dog during an accident in the wilderness. After being taken to the hospital, he's given a clean bill of health, but yet he insists he's paralyzed. It's then up to Batman and the Wonder Twins to convince the boy that his paralysis isn't real and that it is more than likely an emotional response to the traumatic incident and the loss of his pet dog. During a bird's eye view of the city, courtesy of Superman, a gigantic metallic monster starts to destroy the city. It ultimately fires out kryptonite, which leaves Superman weakened. Superman pleads for the boy, who still believes he can't walk, to get rid of the kryptonite. The boy struggles to make himself walk again in an attempt to save Superman. There's an emotional twist at the end of the story, though.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 76c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7c\n\\| Title \\= Video Victims\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|22}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Bizarro creates trouble by zapping several of the Super Friends into an arcade game reminiscent of \\[\\[Pac\\-Man]] and Bizarro is in control of the hungry muncher. Midway through the game, the giant creature turns green—a kryptonite creature that swallows a severely weakened Superman. Ultimately, Bizarro becomes a victim of his own plan.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 77a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8a\n\\| Title \\= Playground of Doom\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|29}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Giant children arrive on Earth and create destruction all over the city. Superman, Batman and Robin have their hands full while trying to prevent them from causing trouble. A call to the children's home planet and a visit from some influential individuals put a stop to the children's pranks.", "Note: This is the final episode that Olan Soule voices Batman.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 77b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8b\n\\| Title \\= Space Racers\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|29}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Wonder Twins and Gleek are on weekend patrol duty when the Justice League patrol craft is invaded by space racing punks. After the Wonder Twins decide to teach them to respect the law, the space racing punks decide to retreat by dematerializing. They take Jayna along with them and hold her hostage. At the Hall of Justice, Wonder Woman and The Flash notice there are three spacecraft violating lightspeed in the Saturn sector and decide to check it out. When they arrive they see the space punks have hit a space mining ship. Wonder Woman and The Flash save the two space miners and The Wonder Twins saves the out of control space ship.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 77c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8c\n\\| Title \\= The Recruiter\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|29}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman and Wonder Woman are abducted by a race of alien beings and are forced to play intergalactic football which is referred to as ''space ball'' in this episode. By the end of the episode, the heroes teach the aliens that the key to success is to work together.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n}}", "" ]
### Season 1 (1980\) {{Episode table \|background\=\#FF9933 \|overall\= \|season\= \|title\= \|airdate\= \|episodes\= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 56a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1a \| Title \= Big Foot \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|13}} \| ShortSummary \= Apache Chief and few of his fellow braves are captured by alien creatures resembling the legendary Bigfoot. Batman and Robin try to help, but are also captured. After they escape and defeat the creatures, the Super Friends learn that they were merely trying to seek information to repair their spacecraft.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Hanna\-Barbera\_Studios/S/Super\_Friends\_II\_/\|title\=Super Friends (II) Episode Guide \-Hanna\-Barbera @ BCDB}}{{dead link\|date\=January 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} Cameos: Superman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 56b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1b \| Title \= The Ice Demon \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|13}} \| ShortSummary \= While on a skiing vacation, the Wonder Twins literally bump into a pair of reckless teenagers and wind up in an ice cave inhabited by an Ice Demon. Only Superman can save them. Luckily, Clark Kent and Lois Lane are nearby. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 56c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1c \| Title \= The Make\-Up Monster \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|13}} \| ShortSummary \= A disgruntled make\-up man on the set of a movie discovers a formula that allows him to make himself up into any powerful monster he chooses. With the formula, he wreaks havoc and wrecks the movie studio and only Batman, Robin, and the Flash dare to challenge him. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 57a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2a \| Title \= Journey Into Blackness \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|20}} \| ShortSummary \= While monitoring the galaxy from his impenetrable Fortress of Solitude, Superman notices a black hole that is going to suck up the Earth. Superman attempts to stop it, but gets himself pulled into the black hole. Using the Bat\-Rocket, Batman and Samurai set out to accomplish what Superman failed to do. However, the two heroes end up getting pulled into an asteroid planet in the center of the black hole. Upon finding Superman imprisoned, the heroes are attacked by a Star Energy Creature. The Super Friends must break free and stop the Star Creature from absorbing Earth. Note: This is the first out of ten episodes where Batman began appearing in various episodes without Robin. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 57b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2b \| Title \= The Cycle Gang \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|20}} \| ShortSummary \= The Highway Angels, a motorcycle gang, start tormenting a senior citizen and his grandson. When Zan, Janya, and Gleek try to help them, they were having a hard time dealing with the cycle gang and the danger at hand. Wonder Woman sees the Wonder Twins and gives them assistance. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 57c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2c \| Title \= Dive to Disaster \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|20}} \| ShortSummary \= Several miles off the coast of Hawaii, a routine Navy mission becomes a nightmare when a submarine's controls short circuits and the nuclear reactor starts to overload. Black Vulcan and Aquaman try to help, but are attacked by nuclear mutated sea creatures. Black Vulcan actually gets eaten by a mutated whale in which Aquaman must come to his rescue. When the two heroes get free, they make it aboard the submarine, whose communication transmitter went dead. Now their only chance is to launch Aquaman out of a torpedo tube to clear the beach, while Black Vulcan uses his electrical powers. Cameos: Superman and Wonder Woman \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 58a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3a \| Title \= Yuna the Terrible \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|27}} \| ShortSummary \= A group of archaeologists accidentally releases Yuna the Terrible and her barbarian warriors. Batman and Robin responds to a distress call but get captured by Yuna's warriors. Wonder Woman and Apache Chief respond to the Batman's distress call. During an encounter with Yuna, Apache Chief gets put into a trance and joins Yuna and her warriors. Wonder Woman tries to save them and must prove her strength against Yuna. Cameos: Superman \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 58b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3b \| Title \= Rock and Roll Space Bandits \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|27}} \| ShortSummary \= A group of Rock and Roll Space Bandits paralyze the Super Friends and invade a major city on Earth using their hypnotic music. The Wonder Twins come to the rescue, but get hypnotized. Wonder Woman helps the rest of the Super Friends get free and they rush off to stop the musical menaces. Batman uses a device to stop the sound waves. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 58c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3c \| Title \= Elevator to Nowhere \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|9\|27}} \| ShortSummary \= Streaking in the Invisible Jet, Wonder Woman and the Atom answer a distress call on the emergency scanner from a Dr. Wells. Wells' call was actually a trap to get Wonder Woman and the Atom to test out his new time machine. Wonder Woman starts pressing buttons attempting to escape, but actually starts the time machine to send the Atom and herself to the American Revolution in 1776\. General \[\[George Washington]] mistakes Wonder Woman for a British spy. The two heroes escape (but the Atom gives a quick message to George Washington to keep fighting in the Revolution), then move further back into the past to a 17th\-century galleon, where they are confronted by \[\[Blackbeard]]. After saving the Atom, Wonder Woman and Atom escape in the time machine. The Atom decides to shrink down to microscopic size to rewire the circuits in the time machine to go back to 1980\. When they come back, Dr. Wells tries to elude them by using the time machine to escape. The heroes travel millions of years into the prehistoric past to capture him. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 59a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4a \| Title \= One Small Step for Mars \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|4}} \| ShortSummary \= Green Lantern and Superman must stop the reign of terror caused by Martians who traveled to Earth in a returning space probe. They are finally tricked into returning to Mars. Cameos: Batman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 59b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4b \| Title \= Haunted House \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|4}} \| ShortSummary \= A group of teens dare each other to go into the old Brimstone mansion in the cemetery, a place that is said to be haunted. Two of them go in the mansion and get trapped inside. The other two ask the Wonder Twins go inside to look for the other boys, but get captured by old man Holmes, the cemetery's paranoid caretaker. Gleek informs Batman and Robin who come to the rescue and stop Holmes cold in his tracks. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 59c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4c \| Title \= The Incredible Crude Oil Monster \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|4}} \| ShortSummary \= Not far off the Alaska coastline, millions of gallons of crude oil spill out from a ruptured supertanker. Suddenly, the crude oil comes alive in the form of a giant monster. Aquaman sees the oil monster and helps the supertanker to stop the creature by using a harpoon with a net wrapped around to contain the monster. When that plain did not work, the captain called Hawkman and Hawkgirl for assistance, while Aquaman handles the creature. Hawkman and Hawkgirl arrive, but by the time they got there, the oil monster had already taken off for the coast. Later, the oil monster attacks the Alaskan Pipeline and grows even larger. Hawkman and Hawkgirl try to stop the monster, but they get covered in oil and get captured and eaten by the monster. Aquaman acts fast and saves the winged avengers by going inside the monster and using his telepathy as radar. After Hawkman gets an idea of how to stop the monster, the three heroes go to a small general store to get all of the detergent soap so they can put the plan in motion. They arrive at the nearby harbor to find the monster feeding on the first storage tank. Aquaman leads the monster to the empty storage tank, while Hawkman and Hawkgirl pour the detergent on the monster, turning it back into plain crude oil. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 60a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5a \| Title \= Voodoo Vampire \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|11}} \| ShortSummary \= Vampiress, the Voodoo Vampire from Africa, goes after the Super Friends and seeks to make them her vampire slaves. It is now up to Wonder Woman and Black Vulcan to go to her underground tomb and stop her. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 60b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5b \| Title \= Invasion of the Gleeks \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|11}} \| ShortSummary \= A group of Exxorian monkeys arrive on Earth to invade the planet. The monkeys want to defeat the Super Friends by putting Gleek under their control. The Wonder Twins must use their powers to help Gleek and the Super Friends. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 60c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5c \| Title \= Mxyzptlk Strikes Again \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|11}} \| ShortSummary \= The impish villain Mr. Mxyzptlk uses his magic typewriter to force Superman, Aquaman, and the Green Lantern into destroying each other. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 61a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6a \| Title \= The Man in the Moon \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|18}} \| ShortSummary \= Superman, Batman, and Apache Chief must save Earth from a giant alien beast that "hatched" out of the moon like an "egg". Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 61b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6b \| Title \= Circus of Horrors \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|18}} \| ShortSummary \= While at the circus, the Wonder Twins and Gleek witness the revenge of circus animals as they zap the audience in a trance. The animals capture Gleek and zap the Wonder Twins as well, who they send off to lure Superman and Wonder Woman into a trap at the circus. The circus animals eventually turn the Super Friends into Super Animals. Gleek frees the Wonder Twins from the trance, and now it is up to them to save their friends and put an end to this circus once and for all. Cameos: Batman and Robin \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 61c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6c \| Title \= Around the World in 80 Riddles \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|18}} \| ShortSummary \= Superman brings a new engine for the Bat\-jet to the Bat\-Cave. However, when Batman opens it up, he finds the Riddler hiding inside. He hops out and spritzes Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Robin with stupid spray. There is only one antidote and the Riddler has hidden it somewhere. If the Super Friends do not find it before the time limit is up, they will be super\-stupid forever. Before he hops away, the Riddler gives the Super Friends their first riddle clue. The Super Friends arrive at the Mayan ruins in Chichen Itza; there Superman spots what he believes is the antidote in the pyramid by using his X\-ray vision. The Super Friends enter the pyramid, only to be caught in a Riddler trap. They escape the trap, then find the Riddler's second clue, but by that time they need the assistance of the Bat\-Computer because they have become too stupid to figure out the riddles. The computer tells them to go to Mt. Everest and there they defeat the Riddler, who is in a zeppelin, and get the antidote. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 62a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7a \| Title \= Termites from Venus \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|25}} \| ShortSummary \= Termites come from a meteorite sent from Venus to Earth by a volcanic eruption. They start consuming the world. Superman, Batman and Robin, and Samurai defeat them, finally sending them into space. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 62b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7b \| Title \= Eruption \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|25}} \| ShortSummary \= The Wonder Twins rescue a part of reckless hang gliders who fell into a volcano. Soon after the volcano starts erupting. Jayna calls Batman and Robin, who help the Wonder Twins rescue the rest of the town and stop the lava flow. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 62c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7c \| Title \= Return of Atlantis \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|10\|25}} \| ShortSummary \= Hundreds of miles off the East Coast of North America, a routine Trans\-Atlantic trip turns into a nightmare when a ship gets caught between some jagged rocks and takes on water. Aquaman was in the area assists by using his telepathy to summon two manta rays to seal the hole as he pushes the ship out of danger. As he attempts to head back to the Hall of Justice, a larger island arises from the sea. Aquaman recognizes it as the Lost Island of Ancient Atlantis (not to be confused with Aquaman's home in modern Atlantis) that has thought to have been destroyed thousands of years ago. Upon checking out the island, Aquaman is captured by female Atlantean Warriors who seek world domination. The \[\[U.S. Coast Guards]] who were on the ship Aquaman saved send a distress call to Wonder Woman and Rima about an island moving towards shore. Meanwhile, the Atlantean Warriors arrive at Washington D.C. and attack the Army. Wonder Woman and Rima arrive and are confronted by Ocina, Queen of Atlantis, and are offered to join the group of Warriors. When the two heroes refuse, they are captured and put in the water dungeon where Aquaman is imprisoned. Wonder Woman uses her telepathic mind line to summon help from her mother \[\[Hippolyta (DC Comics)\|Hippolyta]] and the Amazons of \[\[Themyscira (DC Comics)\|Paradise Island]]. The Amazons of Paradise Island travel to Washington D.C. to fight an epic battle against these femme fatales. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 63a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8a \| Title \= The Killer Machines \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|11\|1}} \| ShortSummary \= The IBN computer research facility creates Romac, the most advanced computer the world has ever known. When tested, Romac turns on his IBN creators and tries to destroy the Super Friends by turning the Justice League Computer and the Supermobile against them. Batman, Robin, and Black Vulcan have to shut Romac down before he can do any more damage. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 63b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8b \| Title \= Garden of Doom \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|11\|1}} \| ShortSummary \= A scientific experiment accidentally turns plants into monsters. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 63c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8c \| Title \= Revenge of Bizarro \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1980\|11\|1}} \| ShortSummary \= Bizarro takes revenge on Batman, Robin, Wonder Woman, Hawkman, and Hawkgirl by turning them into his "Super Bizarro slaves" and exposing Superman to red kryptonite. The red kryptonite's horrible effects cause Superman to grow extra arms and legs. Now Superman's only chance to stop Bizarro and return to normal is blue kryptonite, which affects only Bizarros adversely. \| LineColor \= FF9933 }} }}
[ "### Season 1 (1980\\)", "{{Episode table \\|background\\=\\#FF9933 \\|overall\\= \\|season\\= \\|title\\= \\|airdate\\= \\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 56a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1a\n\\| Title \\= Big Foot\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|13}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Apache Chief and few of his fellow braves are captured by alien creatures resembling the legendary Bigfoot. Batman and Robin try to help, but are also captured. After they escape and defeat the creatures, the Super Friends learn that they were merely trying to seek information to repair their spacecraft.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Hanna\\-Barbera\\_Studios/S/Super\\_Friends\\_II\\_/\\|title\\=Super Friends (II) Episode Guide \\-Hanna\\-Barbera @ BCDB}}{{dead link\\|date\\=January 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}", "Cameos: Superman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 56b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1b\n\\| Title \\= The Ice Demon\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|13}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While on a skiing vacation, the Wonder Twins literally bump into a pair of reckless teenagers and wind up in an ice cave inhabited by an Ice Demon. Only Superman can save them. Luckily, Clark Kent and Lois Lane are nearby.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 56c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1c\n\\| Title \\= The Make\\-Up Monster\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|13}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A disgruntled make\\-up man on the set of a movie discovers a formula that allows him to make himself up into any powerful monster he chooses. With the formula, he wreaks havoc and wrecks the movie studio and only Batman, Robin, and the Flash dare to challenge him.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 57a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2a\n\\| Title \\= Journey Into Blackness\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|20}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While monitoring the galaxy from his impenetrable Fortress of Solitude, Superman notices a black hole that is going to suck up the Earth. Superman attempts to stop it, but gets himself pulled into the black hole. Using the Bat\\-Rocket, Batman and Samurai set out to accomplish what Superman failed to do. However, the two heroes end up getting pulled into an asteroid planet in the center of the black hole. Upon finding Superman imprisoned, the heroes are attacked by a Star Energy Creature. The Super Friends must break free and stop the Star Creature from absorbing Earth.", "Note: This is the first out of ten episodes where Batman began appearing in various episodes without Robin.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 57b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2b\n\\| Title \\= The Cycle Gang\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|20}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Highway Angels, a motorcycle gang, start tormenting a senior citizen and his grandson. When Zan, Janya, and Gleek try to help them, they were having a hard time dealing with the cycle gang and the danger at hand. Wonder Woman sees the Wonder Twins and gives them assistance.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 57c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2c\n\\| Title \\= Dive to Disaster\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|20}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Several miles off the coast of Hawaii, a routine Navy mission becomes a nightmare when a submarine's controls short circuits and the nuclear reactor starts to overload. Black Vulcan and Aquaman try to help, but are attacked by nuclear mutated sea creatures. Black Vulcan actually gets eaten by a mutated whale in which Aquaman must come to his rescue. When the two heroes get free, they make it aboard the submarine, whose communication transmitter went dead. Now their only chance is to launch Aquaman out of a torpedo tube to clear the beach, while Black Vulcan uses his electrical powers.", "Cameos: Superman and Wonder Woman\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 58a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3a\n\\| Title \\= Yuna the Terrible\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|27}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A group of archaeologists accidentally releases Yuna the Terrible and her barbarian warriors. Batman and Robin responds to a distress call but get captured by Yuna's warriors. Wonder Woman and Apache Chief respond to the Batman's distress call. During an encounter with Yuna, Apache Chief gets put into a trance and joins Yuna and her warriors. Wonder Woman tries to save them and must prove her strength against Yuna.", "Cameos: Superman\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 58b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3b\n\\| Title \\= Rock and Roll Space Bandits\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|27}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A group of Rock and Roll Space Bandits paralyze the Super Friends and invade a major city on Earth using their hypnotic music. The Wonder Twins come to the rescue, but get hypnotized. Wonder Woman helps the rest of the Super Friends get free and they rush off to stop the musical menaces. Batman uses a device to stop the sound waves.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 58c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3c\n\\| Title \\= Elevator to Nowhere\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|9\\|27}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Streaking in the Invisible Jet, Wonder Woman and the Atom answer a distress call on the emergency scanner from a Dr. Wells. Wells' call was actually a trap to get Wonder Woman and the Atom to test out his new time machine. Wonder Woman starts pressing buttons attempting to escape, but actually starts the time machine to send the Atom and herself to the American Revolution in 1776\\. General \\[\\[George Washington]] mistakes Wonder Woman for a British spy. The two heroes escape (but the Atom gives a quick message to George Washington to keep fighting in the Revolution), then move further back into the past to a 17th\\-century galleon, where they are confronted by \\[\\[Blackbeard]]. After saving the Atom, Wonder Woman and Atom escape in the time machine. The Atom decides to shrink down to microscopic size to rewire the circuits in the time machine to go back to 1980\\. When they come back, Dr. Wells tries to elude them by using the time machine to escape. The heroes travel millions of years into the prehistoric past to capture him.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 59a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4a\n\\| Title \\= One Small Step for Mars\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|4}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Green Lantern and Superman must stop the reign of terror caused by Martians who traveled to Earth in a returning space probe. They are finally tricked into returning to Mars. Cameos: Batman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 59b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4b\n\\| Title \\= Haunted House\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|4}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A group of teens dare each other to go into the old Brimstone mansion in the cemetery, a place that is said to be haunted. Two of them go in the mansion and get trapped inside. The other two ask the Wonder Twins go inside to look for the other boys, but get captured by old man Holmes, the cemetery's paranoid caretaker. Gleek informs Batman and Robin who come to the rescue and stop Holmes cold in his tracks.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 59c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4c\n\\| Title \\= The Incredible Crude Oil Monster\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|4}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Not far off the Alaska coastline, millions of gallons of crude oil spill out from a ruptured supertanker. Suddenly, the crude oil comes alive in the form of a giant monster. Aquaman sees the oil monster and helps the supertanker to stop the creature by using a harpoon with a net wrapped around to contain the monster. When that plain did not work, the captain called Hawkman and Hawkgirl for assistance, while Aquaman handles the creature. Hawkman and Hawkgirl arrive, but by the time they got there, the oil monster had already taken off for the coast. Later, the oil monster attacks the Alaskan Pipeline and grows even larger. Hawkman and Hawkgirl try to stop the monster, but they get covered in oil and get captured and eaten by the monster. Aquaman acts fast and saves the winged avengers by going inside the monster and using his telepathy as radar. After Hawkman gets an idea of how to stop the monster, the three heroes go to a small general store to get all of the detergent soap so they can put the plan in motion. They arrive at the nearby harbor to find the monster feeding on the first storage tank. Aquaman leads the monster to the empty storage tank, while Hawkman and Hawkgirl pour the detergent on the monster, turning it back into plain crude oil.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 60a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5a\n\\| Title \\= Voodoo Vampire\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|11}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Vampiress, the Voodoo Vampire from Africa, goes after the Super Friends and seeks to make them her vampire slaves. It is now up to Wonder Woman and Black Vulcan to go to her underground tomb and stop her.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 60b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5b\n\\| Title \\= Invasion of the Gleeks\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|11}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A group of Exxorian monkeys arrive on Earth to invade the planet. The monkeys want to defeat the Super Friends by putting Gleek under their control. The Wonder Twins must use their powers to help Gleek and the Super Friends.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 60c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5c\n\\| Title \\= Mxyzptlk Strikes Again\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|11}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The impish villain Mr. Mxyzptlk uses his magic typewriter to force Superman, Aquaman, and the Green Lantern into destroying each other.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 61a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6a\n\\| Title \\= The Man in the Moon\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|18}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman, Batman, and Apache Chief must save Earth from a giant alien beast that \"hatched\" out of the moon like an \"egg\".", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 61b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6b\n\\| Title \\= Circus of Horrors\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|18}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While at the circus, the Wonder Twins and Gleek witness the revenge of circus animals as they zap the audience in a trance. The animals capture Gleek and zap the Wonder Twins as well, who they send off to lure Superman and Wonder Woman into a trap at the circus. The circus animals eventually turn the Super Friends into Super Animals. Gleek frees the Wonder Twins from the trance, and now it is up to them to save their friends and put an end to this circus once and for all.", "Cameos: Batman and Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 61c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6c\n\\| Title \\= Around the World in 80 Riddles\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|18}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman brings a new engine for the Bat\\-jet to the Bat\\-Cave. However, when Batman opens it up, he finds the Riddler hiding inside. He hops out and spritzes Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Robin with stupid spray. There is only one antidote and the Riddler has hidden it somewhere. If the Super Friends do not find it before the time limit is up, they will be super\\-stupid forever. Before he hops away, the Riddler gives the Super Friends their first riddle clue. The Super Friends arrive at the Mayan ruins in Chichen Itza; there Superman spots what he believes is the antidote in the pyramid by using his X\\-ray vision. The Super Friends enter the pyramid, only to be caught in a Riddler trap. They escape the trap, then find the Riddler's second clue, but by that time they need the assistance of the Bat\\-Computer because they have become too stupid to figure out the riddles. The computer tells them to go to Mt. Everest and there they defeat the Riddler, who is in a zeppelin, and get the antidote.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 62a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7a\n\\| Title \\= Termites from Venus\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|25}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Termites come from a meteorite sent from Venus to Earth by a volcanic eruption. They start consuming the world. Superman, Batman and Robin, and Samurai defeat them, finally sending them into space.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 62b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7b\n\\| Title \\= Eruption\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|25}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Wonder Twins rescue a part of reckless hang gliders who fell into a volcano. Soon after the volcano starts erupting. Jayna calls Batman and Robin, who help the Wonder Twins rescue the rest of the town and stop the lava flow.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 62c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7c\n\\| Title \\= Return of Atlantis\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|10\\|25}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Hundreds of miles off the East Coast of North America, a routine Trans\\-Atlantic trip turns into a nightmare when a ship gets caught between some jagged rocks and takes on water. Aquaman was in the area assists by using his telepathy to summon two manta rays to seal the hole as he pushes the ship out of danger. As he attempts to head back to the Hall of Justice, a larger island arises from the sea. Aquaman recognizes it as the Lost Island of Ancient Atlantis (not to be confused with Aquaman's home in modern Atlantis) that has thought to have been destroyed thousands of years ago. Upon checking out the island, Aquaman is captured by female Atlantean Warriors who seek world domination. The \\[\\[U.S. Coast Guards]] who were on the ship Aquaman saved send a distress call to Wonder Woman and Rima about an island moving towards shore. Meanwhile, the Atlantean Warriors arrive at Washington D.C. and attack the Army. Wonder Woman and Rima arrive and are confronted by Ocina, Queen of Atlantis, and are offered to join the group of Warriors. When the two heroes refuse, they are captured and put in the water dungeon where Aquaman is imprisoned. Wonder Woman uses her telepathic mind line to summon help from her mother \\[\\[Hippolyta (DC Comics)\\|Hippolyta]] and the Amazons of \\[\\[Themyscira (DC Comics)\\|Paradise Island]]. The Amazons of Paradise Island travel to Washington D.C. to fight an epic battle against these femme fatales.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 63a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8a\n\\| Title \\= The Killer Machines\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|11\\|1}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The IBN computer research facility creates Romac, the most advanced computer the world has ever known. When tested, Romac turns on his IBN creators and tries to destroy the Super Friends by turning the Justice League Computer and the Supermobile against them. Batman, Robin, and Black Vulcan have to shut Romac down before he can do any more damage.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 63b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8b\n\\| Title \\= Garden of Doom\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|11\\|1}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A scientific experiment accidentally turns plants into monsters.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 63c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8c\n\\| Title \\= Revenge of Bizarro\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1980\\|11\\|1}}\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Bizarro takes revenge on Batman, Robin, Wonder Woman, Hawkman, and Hawkgirl by turning them into his \"Super Bizarro slaves\" and exposing Superman to red kryptonite. The red kryptonite's horrible effects cause Superman to grow extra arms and legs. Now Superman's only chance to stop Bizarro and return to normal is blue kryptonite, which affects only Bizarros adversely.\n\\| LineColor \\= FF9933\n}}\n}}", "" ]
### Season 3 (1983\) This season didn't air during a regularly scheduled Saturday morning time\-slot, but did get aired when the series began to get aired in repeats/reruns on other networks. In prior series, The Wonder Twins were only paired up with Superman, Batman and Robin or Wonder Woman. This series found them teaming up with other Justice Leaguers. In "Roller Coaster", they're paired with Atom. In "Two Gleeks", they're paired with Wonder Woman and Green Lantern. In "Unexpected Treasure", they're paired with Hawkman and Hawkgirl. In "Space Racers", they're paired with Wonder Woman \& Flash. In "Pint of Life", they're paired with Aquaman. In "Invasion of The Space Dolls" and "Bully for You", they're paired with Batman and Robin. In "One Small Step for Superman", they're paired with Superman and Batman. This is the final season that Olan Soule voices Batman and Shannon Farnon voices Wonder Woman. {{Episode table \|background\=\#FBEC5D \|overall\= \|season\= \|title\= \|airdate\= \|episodes\= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 70a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1a \| Title \= Mxyzptlk's Revenge \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|10}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= A doorway appears inside the Hall of Justice. Superman and Batman wonder where it originated from and where it leads. Then the voice of Mxyzptlk is heard and Superman realizes who's responsible. The door opens up, sucking everything inside, including Batman and Superman. The doorway is a warp between Earth and the Fifth Dimension. Once in the mixed up world of Mr. Mxyzptlk, the two heroes are put through a series of comical and offbeat challenges once the imp removes Superman's cape and Batman's utility belt. Superman is "sentenced" to life in a vegetable garden where green beans are the equivalent to kryptonite. Batman is "sentenced" to life upside down. Superman eventually finds a way to get himself and Batman out of the Fifth Dimension and back to Earth. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 70b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1b \| Title \= Roller Coaster \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|10}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Three kids ride a condemned roller coaster that gradually falls apart. The Wonder Twins and Gleek, exiting a movie theater, respond to the crisis. After Zan accidentally breaks a rusted power control and realizing that they need additional help in the rescue attempt they send Gleek to the Hall of Justice and find Atom. Atom soon arrives and shrinks himself even more smaller so he can enter the power box and manually shut down the roller coaster. Note: As the Wonder Twins and Gleek made their way outside the theater, they passed by a movie poster promoting Superman. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 70c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 1c \| Title \= Once Upon a Poltergeist \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|10}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= At the Wayne Building in Gotham City, a confused spirit of a Mohawk Indian terrorizes the area due to his belief that the building sits on top of an ancient burial site. Batman, Robin, and Apache Chief battle the spirit but its power is greater. Apache Chief eventually finds the true burial ground and instantly the Indian spirit apologizes for his destruction and peacefully fades away. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 71a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2a \| Title \= Warpland \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|17}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Superman and Batman are pulled into a space warp where they come across a strange planet inhabited by aliens known as Zoons. The leader of the group, Super Frog, plans on keeping who he sees as invaders as prisoners. He then turns Superman into an eagle and Batman into a real bat. The aliens' headquarters is referred to as the Hall of Zoon. Fortunately Batman and Superman are able to warp into their own galaxy and the effects wear off. Batman remarks that Superman would have made a great eagle. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 71b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2b \| Title \= Two Gleeks Are Deadlier Than One \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|17}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Wonder Woman and Green Lantern think the Legion of Doom will strike since the entire Justice League is going to meet in the Hall of Justice the next day. Jayna and Zan are put in charge of security during the night. Giganta sets a trap and captures Gleek with bananas and takes him to Gorillia Grodd miles away on the outskirts of Metropolis. Because so many Justice League members were going to meet in one place, they tried to take precautions but a mechanical duplicate of Gleek arrives at the Hall of Justice to use his killer laser eyes on the Justice League and help Grodd and Giganta take over the Hall of Justice. However, the Super Friends then reveal they used androids, knowing such a meeting would probably cause an attack by villains. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 71c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 2c \| Title \= Bulgor the Behemoth \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|17}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= A writer turns into the creature he created after a lightning bolt electrocutes an electrical tower nearby. \[\[Apache Chief]] and Superman are on hand to stop the \[\[behemoth]] from continuing his destructive ways. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 72a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3a \| Title \= The Krypton Syndrome \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|24}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Superman travels through a time warp and is taken back to the hours leading up to Krypton's explosion. He saves the planet by stopping the solar flares using the Super\-Mobile core and then returns to the present to find Earth a very different place. Robin confronts him and has no idea who Superman is and then remarks that the Justice League was defeated by the Legion of Doom, he is the only one alive. He soon realizes that by saving Krypton that it erased his time on Earth and that nobody had ever heard of Superman before. He goes back into the time warp and makes sure Krypton explodes by removing the Super\-Mobile Core because he figures that Earth would need a person like ''Superman'' to protect it. Note: This marks the first episode that Robin appears without Batman. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 72b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3b \| Title \= Invasion of the Space Dolls \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|24}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Space dolls try to take over the world but run out of batteries. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 72c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 3c \| Title \= Terror on the Titanic \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|9\|24}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Two divers find the Titanic which has become inhabited by a mutated form of Algae. Aquaman and Black Vulcan respond to the danger. After a lightning blast from Black Vulcan, the Titanic comes alive from the result of the mutated Algae and begins to destroy everything in its path. Ultimately, the ship sinks back into the ocean after the two heroes were tricked it into slamming into a jagged iceberg. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 73a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4a \| Title \= Revenge of Doom \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|1}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Batman and Robin foil some building constructors' plans to revive a destroyed Hall of Doom and turn it into a Museum. When Batman figures something is wrong, the building constructors reveal themselves to be Lex Luthor, Soloman Grundy, Sinestro and the rest of the Legion of Doom. Batman and Robin are captured immediately. The Legion restores the Hall of Doom and they pick up where they left off, plotting crimes and world domination. When the Legion of Doom attacks Metropolis, Superman and Wonder Woman attempt to stop them only to get crystallized by Lex Luthor's Crystallization Ray. With the Super Friends defeated, the Legion of Doom take over the Hall of Justice to make their demands. Meanwhile, Superman and Wonder Woman are able to move again, thanks to Superman's X\-Ray vision, and are off to stop the Legion of Doom. Batman and Robin must find a way to reverse the polarity of Luthor's Crystallization Ray to transform Superman and Wonder Woman back to normal so the Legion of Doom's raid on Fort Knox can be put to an end. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 73b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4b \| Title \= A Pint of Life \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|1}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= The Wonder Twins and Aquaman search the Amazon River for Doctor Marks who's on an expedition. The doctor's son needs a blood transfusion and there's only a moment of hours left for the Super Friends to locate the doctor. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 73c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 4c \| Title \= Day of the Dinosaurs \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|1}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= The Hall of Justice, with Wonder Woman and Samurai inside, gets swallowed up into the Earth. After tumbling through layers of rock, the Hall of Justices comes to a stop at a strange forgotten world beneath our own. When Wonder Woman and Samurai explore the strange subterranean world, they are attacked by prehistoric creatures called Slarums. Technos saves the two Super Friends and offers to show them the world of the Volti. During the tour Technos gets mad because the two Super Friends asked him why the Volti have not helped the Slarums and as a result, Technos imprisons them. Wonder Woman and Samurai escaped and headed over to the Hall of Justice to contact the other Super Friends only to be met by Slarums. Wonder Woman, Samurai, and the Slarums decide to pay the Volti a visit to unite the two races and lift the Hall of Justice back to the surface. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 74a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5a \| Title \= Return of the Phantoms \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|8}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= The three Phantom Zone villains: Logar, Hol, and Romlok are freed by an alien who doesn't realize they are criminals. In this episode they force the alien to travel back in time with them in an attempt to alter Superboy's life—hoping that he will never grow up to become Superman. Meanwhile, in the future, Superman and Green Lantern learn of the plot from the alien and travel back in time to save Superman's own past and capture the Phantom Zone villains. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 74b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5b \| Title \= Bully for You \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|8}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Teen angst and bullying are spotlighted at the start of this episode. In the meantime, after a daring mission on a skyscraper, Batman loses his utility belt. The boy who was being bullied finds the belt and seeks revenge. However, the boy doesn't know what all power that the belt contains and he accidentally switches on a high frequency signal that leads to Earth shaking effects and building destruction. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 74c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 5c \| Title \= Superclones \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|8}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= After obtaining living cells from Aquaman and El Dorado's skin, Brainiac creates clones of the two heroes. Brainiac programs the Aquaman and El Dorado clones to their counterparts bring them back to Brainiac's laboratory. After attempting to rob a ship, the clones are apprehended. The next day in court the clones say the Super Friends have turned against the people. The real El Dorado and Aquaman trick Brainiac into freeing them and they're all transported to the Metropolis courthouse. There, they clear up the situation and incarcerate Brainiac. Cameos: Superman, Batman, Robin, Wonder Woman, Wonder Twins, Green Lantern, Flash, Hawkman, Atom, Black Vulcan, and the Atom Note 1: Superman has a small speaking role despite his cameo. Note 2: Stanley Ralph Ross takes over for the late Ted Cassidy as the voice of Brainiac, and in a rare instance of show created characters returning for a second appearance, the Kryptonian villains from "Terror from the Phantom Zone" return, although their appearance was drastically altered from their previous appearance. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 75a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6a \| Title \= Prisoners of Sleep \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|15}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= While investigating a strange electrified spiked metal pod, Superman and Batman unwittingly unleashed the cloud\-like prisoner inside named Sleep, and are then trapped in a dream world. Superman dreams that everything he touches turns to kryptonite. Batman's nightmare involves a building's ledge turning to dust as he falls into the awaiting jaws of the vicious monster. Wonder Woman tries to save them by wrapping her golden lasso around her waist and entering the dream world. She instructs a miner to wake her in five minutes by tugging on the lasso and it works. Superman then breathes the creature into his lungs and blows him back into the pod. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 75b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6b \| Title \= An Unexpected Treasure \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|15}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Two teenagers discover an ancient warship buried underneath the desert sands and they take off in it. The Wonder Twins and Gleek attempt to rescue the teens and they ultimately seek the help of Hawkman and Hawkgirl. The teens, the Wonder Twins, and Gleek are trapped inside the ship as it makes its way to its own galaxy. Zan eventually discovers how to open up the ship's hatch and everyone is safe from certain danger. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 75c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 6c \| Title \= The Malusian Blob \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|15}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Space shuttle astronauts unwittingly load an alien chemical blob into their cargo bay (assuming it to be space junk). The blob starts eating metal and the astronauts call for help. Batman, Robin, and Black Vulcan arrived and rescued the astronauts. Assuming the blob burned up in the atmosphere, they return to Earth, but then the blob reappears and after some failed attempts, they figure out that the substance may have an unstable reaction to sugar. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 76a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7a \| Title \= Attack of the Cats \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|22}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Batman, Robin, and El Dorado investigate a series of crimes which lead them to the conclusion that the culprits are not human. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 76b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7b \| Title \= One Small Step for Superman \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|22}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= A boy loses his pet dog during an accident in the wilderness. After being taken to the hospital, he's given a clean bill of health, but yet he insists he's paralyzed. It's then up to Batman and the Wonder Twins to convince the boy that his paralysis isn't real and that it is more than likely an emotional response to the traumatic incident and the loss of his pet dog. During a bird's eye view of the city, courtesy of Superman, a gigantic metallic monster starts to destroy the city. It ultimately fires out kryptonite, which leaves Superman weakened. Superman pleads for the boy, who still believes he can't walk, to get rid of the kryptonite. The boy struggles to make himself walk again in an attempt to save Superman. There's an emotional twist at the end of the story, though. Absent: Robin \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 76c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 7c \| Title \= Video Victims \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|22}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Bizarro creates trouble by zapping several of the Super Friends into an arcade game reminiscent of \[\[Pac\-Man]] and Bizarro is in control of the hungry muncher. Midway through the game, the giant creature turns green—a kryptonite creature that swallows a severely weakened Superman. Ultimately, Bizarro becomes a victim of his own plan. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 77a \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8a \| Title \= Playground of Doom \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|29}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Giant children arrive on Earth and create destruction all over the city. Superman, Batman and Robin have their hands full while trying to prevent them from causing trouble. A call to the children's home planet and a visit from some influential individuals put a stop to the children's pranks. Note: This is the final episode that Olan Soule voices Batman. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 77b \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8b \| Title \= Space Racers \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|29}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= The Wonder Twins and Gleek are on weekend patrol duty when the Justice League patrol craft is invaded by space racing punks. After the Wonder Twins decide to teach them to respect the law, the space racing punks decide to retreat by dematerializing. They take Jayna along with them and hold her hostage. At the Hall of Justice, Wonder Woman and The Flash notice there are three spacecraft violating lightspeed in the Saturn sector and decide to check it out. When they arrive they see the space punks have hit a space mining ship. Wonder Woman and The Flash save the two space miners and The Wonder Twins saves the out of control space ship. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber \= 77c \| EpisodeNumber2 \= 8c \| Title \= The Recruiter \| OriginalAirDate \= {{Start date\|1983\|10\|29}} (AU) \| ShortSummary \= Superman and Wonder Woman are abducted by a race of alien beings and are forced to play intergalactic football which is referred to as ''space ball'' in this episode. By the end of the episode, the heroes teach the aliens that the key to success is to work together. \| LineColor \= FBEC5D }} }}
[ "### Season 3 (1983\\)", "This season didn't air during a regularly scheduled Saturday morning time\\-slot, but did get aired when the series began to get aired in repeats/reruns on other networks. In prior series, The Wonder Twins were only paired up with Superman, Batman and Robin or Wonder Woman. This series found them teaming up with other Justice Leaguers. In \"Roller Coaster\", they're paired with Atom. In \"Two Gleeks\", they're paired with Wonder Woman and Green Lantern. In \"Unexpected Treasure\", they're paired with Hawkman and Hawkgirl. In \"Space Racers\", they're paired with Wonder Woman \\& Flash. In \"Pint of Life\", they're paired with Aquaman. In \"Invasion of The Space Dolls\" and \"Bully for You\", they're paired with Batman and Robin. In \"One Small Step for Superman\", they're paired with Superman and Batman. This is the final season that Olan Soule voices Batman and Shannon Farnon voices Wonder Woman.", "{{Episode table \\|background\\=\\#FBEC5D \\|overall\\= \\|season\\= \\|title\\= \\|airdate\\= \\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 70a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1a\n\\| Title \\= Mxyzptlk's Revenge\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|10}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A doorway appears inside the Hall of Justice. Superman and Batman wonder where it originated from and where it leads. Then the voice of Mxyzptlk is heard and Superman realizes who's responsible. The door opens up, sucking everything inside, including Batman and Superman. The doorway is a warp between Earth and the Fifth Dimension. Once in the mixed up world of Mr. Mxyzptlk, the two heroes are put through a series of comical and offbeat challenges once the imp removes Superman's cape and Batman's utility belt. Superman is \"sentenced\" to life in a vegetable garden where green beans are the equivalent to kryptonite. Batman is \"sentenced\" to life upside down. Superman eventually finds a way to get himself and Batman out of the Fifth Dimension and back to Earth.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 70b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1b\n\\| Title \\= Roller Coaster\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|10}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Three kids ride a condemned roller coaster that gradually falls apart. The Wonder Twins and Gleek, exiting a movie theater, respond to the crisis. After Zan accidentally breaks a rusted power control and realizing that they need additional help in the rescue attempt they send Gleek to the Hall of Justice and find Atom. Atom soon arrives and shrinks himself even more smaller so he can enter the power box and manually shut down the roller coaster.", "Note: As the Wonder Twins and Gleek made their way outside the theater, they passed by a movie poster promoting Superman.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 70c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 1c\n\\| Title \\= Once Upon a Poltergeist\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|10}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= At the Wayne Building in Gotham City, a confused spirit of a Mohawk Indian terrorizes the area due to his belief that the building sits on top of an ancient burial site. Batman, Robin, and Apache Chief battle the spirit but its power is greater. Apache Chief eventually finds the true burial ground and instantly the Indian spirit apologizes for his destruction and peacefully fades away.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 71a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2a\n\\| Title \\= Warpland\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|17}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman and Batman are pulled into a space warp where they come across a strange planet inhabited by aliens known as Zoons. The leader of the group, Super Frog, plans on keeping who he sees as invaders as prisoners. He then turns Superman into an eagle and Batman into a real bat. The aliens' headquarters is referred to as the Hall of Zoon. Fortunately Batman and Superman are able to warp into their own galaxy and the effects wear off. Batman remarks that Superman would have made a great eagle.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 71b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2b\n\\| Title \\= Two Gleeks Are Deadlier Than One\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|17}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Wonder Woman and Green Lantern think the Legion of Doom will strike since the entire Justice League is going to meet in the Hall of Justice the next day. Jayna and Zan are put in charge of security during the night. Giganta sets a trap and captures Gleek with bananas and takes him to Gorillia Grodd miles away on the outskirts of Metropolis. Because so many Justice League members were going to meet in one place, they tried to take precautions but a mechanical duplicate of Gleek arrives at the Hall of Justice to use his killer laser eyes on the Justice League and help Grodd and Giganta take over the Hall of Justice. However, the Super Friends then reveal they used androids, knowing such a meeting would probably cause an attack by villains.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 71c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 2c\n\\| Title \\= Bulgor the Behemoth\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|17}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A writer turns into the creature he created after a lightning bolt electrocutes an electrical tower nearby. \\[\\[Apache Chief]] and Superman are on hand to stop the \\[\\[behemoth]] from continuing his destructive ways.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 72a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3a\n\\| Title \\= The Krypton Syndrome\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|24}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman travels through a time warp and is taken back to the hours leading up to Krypton's explosion. He saves the planet by stopping the solar flares using the Super\\-Mobile core and then returns to the present to find Earth a very different place. Robin confronts him and has no idea who Superman is and then remarks that the Justice League was defeated by the Legion of Doom, he is the only one alive. He soon realizes that by saving Krypton that it erased his time on Earth and that nobody had ever heard of Superman before. He goes back into the time warp and makes sure Krypton explodes by removing the Super\\-Mobile Core because he figures that Earth would need a person like ''Superman'' to protect it.", "Note: This marks the first episode that Robin appears without Batman.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 72b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3b\n\\| Title \\= Invasion of the Space Dolls\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|24}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Space dolls try to take over the world but run out of batteries.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 72c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 3c\n\\| Title \\= Terror on the Titanic\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|9\\|24}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Two divers find the Titanic which has become inhabited by a mutated form of Algae. Aquaman and Black Vulcan respond to the danger. After a lightning blast from Black Vulcan, the Titanic comes alive from the result of the mutated Algae and begins to destroy everything in its path. Ultimately, the ship sinks back into the ocean after the two heroes were tricked it into slamming into a jagged iceberg.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 73a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4a\n\\| Title \\= Revenge of Doom\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|1}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Batman and Robin foil some building constructors' plans to revive a destroyed Hall of Doom and turn it into a Museum. When Batman figures something is wrong, the building constructors reveal themselves to be Lex Luthor, Soloman Grundy, Sinestro and the rest of the Legion of Doom. Batman and Robin are captured immediately. The Legion restores the Hall of Doom and they pick up where they left off, plotting crimes and world domination. When the Legion of Doom attacks Metropolis, Superman and Wonder Woman attempt to stop them only to get crystallized by Lex Luthor's Crystallization Ray. With the Super Friends defeated, the Legion of Doom take over the Hall of Justice to make their demands. Meanwhile, Superman and Wonder Woman are able to move again, thanks to Superman's X\\-Ray vision, and are off to stop the Legion of Doom. Batman and Robin must find a way to reverse the polarity of Luthor's Crystallization Ray to transform Superman and Wonder Woman back to normal so the Legion of Doom's raid on Fort Knox can be put to an end.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 73b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4b\n\\| Title \\= A Pint of Life\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|1}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Wonder Twins and Aquaman search the Amazon River for Doctor Marks who's on an expedition. The doctor's son needs a blood transfusion and there's only a moment of hours left for the Super Friends to locate the doctor.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 73c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 4c\n\\| Title \\= Day of the Dinosaurs\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|1}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Hall of Justice, with Wonder Woman and Samurai inside, gets swallowed up into the Earth. After tumbling through layers of rock, the Hall of Justices comes to a stop at a strange forgotten world beneath our own. When Wonder Woman and Samurai explore the strange subterranean world, they are attacked by prehistoric creatures called Slarums. Technos saves the two Super Friends and offers to show them the world of the Volti. During the tour Technos gets mad because the two Super Friends asked him why the Volti have not helped the Slarums and as a result, Technos imprisons them. Wonder Woman and Samurai escaped and headed over to the Hall of Justice to contact the other Super Friends only to be met by Slarums. Wonder Woman, Samurai, and the Slarums decide to pay the Volti a visit to unite the two races and lift the Hall of Justice back to the surface.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 74a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5a\n\\| Title \\= Return of the Phantoms\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|8}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The three Phantom Zone villains: Logar, Hol, and Romlok are freed by an alien who doesn't realize they are criminals. In this episode they force the alien to travel back in time with them in an attempt to alter Superboy's life—hoping that he will never grow up to become Superman. Meanwhile, in the future, Superman and Green Lantern learn of the plot from the alien and travel back in time to save Superman's own past and capture the Phantom Zone villains.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 74b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5b\n\\| Title \\= Bully for You\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|8}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Teen angst and bullying are spotlighted at the start of this episode. In the meantime, after a daring mission on a skyscraper, Batman loses his utility belt. The boy who was being bullied finds the belt and seeks revenge. However, the boy doesn't know what all power that the belt contains and he accidentally switches on a high frequency signal that leads to Earth shaking effects and building destruction.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 74c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 5c\n\\| Title \\= Superclones\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|8}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= After obtaining living cells from Aquaman and El Dorado's skin, Brainiac creates clones of the two heroes. Brainiac programs the Aquaman and El Dorado clones to their counterparts bring them back to Brainiac's laboratory. After attempting to rob a ship, the clones are apprehended. The next day in court the clones say the Super Friends have turned against the people. The real El Dorado and Aquaman trick Brainiac into freeing them and they're all transported to the Metropolis courthouse. There, they clear up the situation and incarcerate Brainiac.", "Cameos: Superman, Batman, Robin, Wonder Woman, Wonder Twins, Green Lantern, Flash, Hawkman, Atom, Black Vulcan, and the Atom", "Note 1: Superman has a small speaking role despite his cameo.\nNote 2: Stanley Ralph Ross takes over for the late Ted Cassidy as the voice of Brainiac, and in a rare instance of show created characters returning for a second appearance, the Kryptonian villains from \"Terror from the Phantom Zone\" return, although their appearance was drastically altered from their previous appearance.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 75a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6a\n\\| Title \\= Prisoners of Sleep\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|15}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= While investigating a strange electrified spiked metal pod, Superman and Batman unwittingly unleashed the cloud\\-like prisoner inside named Sleep, and are then trapped in a dream world. Superman dreams that everything he touches turns to kryptonite. Batman's nightmare involves a building's ledge turning to dust as he falls into the awaiting jaws of the vicious monster. Wonder Woman tries to save them by wrapping her golden lasso around her waist and entering the dream world. She instructs a miner to wake her in five minutes by tugging on the lasso and it works. Superman then breathes the creature into his lungs and blows him back into the pod.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 75b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6b\n\\| Title \\= An Unexpected Treasure\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|15}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Two teenagers discover an ancient warship buried underneath the desert sands and they take off in it. The Wonder Twins and Gleek attempt to rescue the teens and they ultimately seek the help of Hawkman and Hawkgirl. The teens, the Wonder Twins, and Gleek are trapped inside the ship as it makes its way to its own galaxy. Zan eventually discovers how to open up the ship's hatch and everyone is safe from certain danger.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 75c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 6c\n\\| Title \\= The Malusian Blob\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|15}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Space shuttle astronauts unwittingly load an alien chemical blob into their cargo bay (assuming it to be space junk). The blob starts eating metal and the astronauts call for help. Batman, Robin, and Black Vulcan arrived and rescued the astronauts. Assuming the blob burned up in the atmosphere, they return to Earth, but then the blob reappears and after some failed attempts, they figure out that the substance may have an unstable reaction to sugar.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 76a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7a\n\\| Title \\= Attack of the Cats\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|22}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Batman, Robin, and El Dorado investigate a series of crimes which lead them to the conclusion that the culprits are not human.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 76b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7b\n\\| Title \\= One Small Step for Superman\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|22}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= A boy loses his pet dog during an accident in the wilderness. After being taken to the hospital, he's given a clean bill of health, but yet he insists he's paralyzed. It's then up to Batman and the Wonder Twins to convince the boy that his paralysis isn't real and that it is more than likely an emotional response to the traumatic incident and the loss of his pet dog. During a bird's eye view of the city, courtesy of Superman, a gigantic metallic monster starts to destroy the city. It ultimately fires out kryptonite, which leaves Superman weakened. Superman pleads for the boy, who still believes he can't walk, to get rid of the kryptonite. The boy struggles to make himself walk again in an attempt to save Superman. There's an emotional twist at the end of the story, though.", "Absent: Robin\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 76c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 7c\n\\| Title \\= Video Victims\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|22}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Bizarro creates trouble by zapping several of the Super Friends into an arcade game reminiscent of \\[\\[Pac\\-Man]] and Bizarro is in control of the hungry muncher. Midway through the game, the giant creature turns green—a kryptonite creature that swallows a severely weakened Superman. Ultimately, Bizarro becomes a victim of his own plan.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 77a\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8a\n\\| Title \\= Playground of Doom\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|29}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Giant children arrive on Earth and create destruction all over the city. Superman, Batman and Robin have their hands full while trying to prevent them from causing trouble. A call to the children's home planet and a visit from some influential individuals put a stop to the children's pranks.", "Note: This is the final episode that Olan Soule voices Batman.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 77b\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8b\n\\| Title \\= Space Racers\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|29}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= The Wonder Twins and Gleek are on weekend patrol duty when the Justice League patrol craft is invaded by space racing punks. After the Wonder Twins decide to teach them to respect the law, the space racing punks decide to retreat by dematerializing. They take Jayna along with them and hold her hostage. At the Hall of Justice, Wonder Woman and The Flash notice there are three spacecraft violating lightspeed in the Saturn sector and decide to check it out. When they arrive they see the space punks have hit a space mining ship. Wonder Woman and The Flash save the two space miners and The Wonder Twins saves the out of control space ship.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| EpisodeNumber \\= 77c\n\\| EpisodeNumber2 \\= 8c\n\\| Title \\= The Recruiter\n\\| OriginalAirDate \\= {{Start date\\|1983\\|10\\|29}} (AU)\n\\| ShortSummary \\= Superman and Wonder Woman are abducted by a race of alien beings and are forced to play intergalactic football which is referred to as ''space ball'' in this episode. By the end of the episode, the heroes teach the aliens that the key to success is to work together.\n\\| LineColor \\= FBEC5D\n}}\n}}", "" ]
The legend ---------- On 17 June 1826 an [English](/wiki/England "England")\-born Australian farmer from Campbelltown named Frederick Fisher (born 28 August 1792 in [London](/wiki/London "London")) suddenly disappeared. His friend and neighbour George Worrall claimed that Fisher had returned to his native [England](/wiki/England "England"), and that before departing had given him [power of attorney](/wiki/Power_of_attorney "Power of attorney") over his property and general affairs. Later, Worrall claimed that Fisher had written to him to advise that he was not intending to return to Australia, and giving his farm to Worrall. Four months after Fisher's disappearance a respectable local man named John Farley, ran into the local hotel in a very agitated state. He told the astonished patrons that he had seen the ghost of Fred Fisher sitting on the rail of a nearby bridge. Farley related that the ghost had not spoken, but had merely pointed to a paddock beyond the creek, before disappearing. Initially Farley's tale was dismissed, but the circumstances surrounding Fisher's disappearance eventually aroused sufficient suspicion that a police search of the paddock to which the ghost had pointed was undertaken \- during which the remains of the murdered Fisher were discovered buried by the side of a creek. George Worrall was arrested for the crime, confessed, and subsequently hanged. Fred Fisher, whose lands he had coveted, was buried in the cemetery at St. Peter's Anglican Church in Campbelltown. It has been suggested that Farley invented the ghost story as a way of concealing some other speculated source of his knowledge about the whereabouts of Fisher's body, but this cannot be confirmed. [Joe Nickell](/wiki/Joe_Nickell "Joe Nickell") has written the ghost story may have originated from an anonymous poem in 1832 which fictionalised Fisher and Worrall. The poem, "The Sprite of the Creek!", has since been identified as the work of James Riley (1795\-ca.1860\), who would republish it with explanatory footnotes in 1846 under the pseudonym "Felix".See entry under Riley's alternative pseudonym [Harry Dashboard](/wiki/Harry_Dashboard "Harry Dashboard"). Contemporary police and court records do not mention the ghost story. The legend of Fisher's ghost has since entered popular folklore and the creek beside which the body was discovered is known as Fisher's Ghost Creek, although it has now, however, been converted into mostly a storm water drain.
[ "The legend\n----------", "On 17 June 1826 an [English](/wiki/England \"England\")\\-born Australian farmer from Campbelltown named Frederick Fisher (born 28 August 1792 in [London](/wiki/London \"London\")) suddenly disappeared. His friend and neighbour George Worrall claimed that Fisher had returned to his native [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), and that before departing had given him [power of attorney](/wiki/Power_of_attorney \"Power of attorney\") over his property and general affairs. Later, Worrall claimed that Fisher had written to him to advise that he was not intending to return to Australia, and giving his farm to Worrall.", "Four months after Fisher's disappearance a respectable local man named John Farley, ran into the local hotel in a very agitated state. He told the astonished patrons that he had seen the ghost of Fred Fisher sitting on the rail of a nearby bridge. Farley related that the ghost had not spoken, but had merely pointed to a paddock beyond the creek, before disappearing.", "Initially Farley's tale was dismissed, but the circumstances surrounding Fisher's disappearance eventually aroused sufficient suspicion that a police search of the paddock to which the ghost had pointed was undertaken \\- during which the remains of the murdered Fisher were discovered buried by the side of a creek. George Worrall was arrested for the crime, confessed, and subsequently hanged. Fred Fisher, whose lands he had coveted, was buried in the cemetery at St. Peter's Anglican Church in Campbelltown.", "It has been suggested that Farley invented the ghost story as a way of concealing some other speculated source of his knowledge about the whereabouts of Fisher's body, but this cannot be confirmed. [Joe Nickell](/wiki/Joe_Nickell \"Joe Nickell\") has written the ghost story may have originated from an anonymous poem in 1832 which fictionalised Fisher and Worrall. The poem, \"The Sprite of the Creek!\", has since been identified as the work of James Riley (1795\\-ca.1860\\), who would republish it with explanatory footnotes in 1846 under the pseudonym \"Felix\".See entry under Riley's alternative pseudonym [Harry Dashboard](/wiki/Harry_Dashboard \"Harry Dashboard\").", "Contemporary police and court records do not mention the ghost story. The legend of Fisher's ghost has since entered popular folklore and the creek beside which the body was discovered is known as Fisher's Ghost Creek, although it has now, however, been converted into mostly a storm water drain.", "" ]
History ------- ### Founding and early history {{Gallery \|title\=Presidents of Chemical Bank \|width\=160 \| height\=170 \|align\=center \|File:Balthazar Melick founder of Chemical Bank.png \|alt1\=Balthazar Melick \|\[\[Balthazar P. Melick\|Balthazar P. "Baltus" Melick]], founder and first president of Chemical Bank (1824–1831\). \|File:John Mason President of Chemical Bank c.1830s.png \|alt2\=John Mason \|\[\[John Mason (businessman)\|John Mason]], early shareholder and second president of Chemical Bank (1831–1839\). \|File:Head\_silhouette.svg \|alt3\=Isaac Jones \|Isaac Jones, third president of Chemical Bank (1839–1844\). \|File:John Q Jones, chemical bank.png \|alt4\=John Q. Jones \|John Q. Jones, fourth president of Chemical Bank (1844–1878\). }} {{clear}} [thumb\|200px\|Certificate of Stock of the Chemical Manufacturing Company, c. 1824\.](/wiki/File:Certificate_of_Stock_of_Chemical_Mfg_Company_1824.png "Certificate of Stock of Chemical Mfg Company 1824.png") [thumb\|200px\|Chemical Bank $5 note, c. 1835\.](/wiki/File:Chemical_bank_Note_1835.png "Chemical bank Note 1835.png") In 1823, the New York Chemical Manufacturing Company was founded by [Balthazar P. Melick](/wiki/Balthazar_P._Melick "Balthazar P. Melick") and directors John C. Morrison, Mark Spenser, Gerardus Post, James Jenkins, William A. Seely, and William Stebbins.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.chasealum.org/article.html?aid\=197 \| title\=The History of Chemical Bank \| work\=Chase Alumni Association}}Additionally, [Joseph Sampson](/wiki/Joseph_Sampson "Joseph Sampson"), although not a director, was among the largest of the original shareholders of the later bank. During the 1820s, prospective bankers found that they were more likely to be able to successfully secure a [state bank](/wiki/State_bank_%28United_States%29 "State bank (United States)") charter if the bank was part of a larger business. Accordingly, the founders used the manufacturing company (which produced [chemicals](/wiki/Chemical "Chemical") such as [blue vitriol](/wiki/Blue_vitriol "Blue vitriol"), [alum](/wiki/Alum "Alum"), [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid "Nitric acid"), [camphor](/wiki/Camphor "Camphor"), and [saltpeter](/wiki/Potassium_nitrate "Potassium nitrate"), as well as medicines, paints, and [dyes](/wiki/Dye "Dye")) as a means of securing a charter from the New York State legislature. In April 1824, the company amended its charter to allow Chemical to enter into banking, creating a separate division for the new activity.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.jpmorganchase.com/about/our\-history \| title\=225 years of history \| publisher\=\[\[JPMorgan Chase]]}} Melick was named the first president of the bank, which catered to merchants in New York City. Early investments by the bank were the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal "Erie Canal") and new roads. In 1826, [John Mason](/wiki/John_Mason_%28businessman%29 "John Mason (businessman)"), one of the richest merchants in New York, \\ became a shareholder of the bank. Mason succeeded Baltus Melick in 1831 as president. Mason was responsible for leading Chemical through the [Panic of 1837](/wiki/Panic_of_1837 "Panic of 1837"). When a speculative bubble collapsed on May 10, 1837, banks suspended payment of gold and silver specie ([coin](/wiki/Coin "Coin")). Although in the 1837 crisis Chemical followed others in suspending payments, Chemical was one of the earliest to resume payments in specie. Mason served as president until his death in 1839\. Isaac Jones, Mason's son in law, then took over. In 1844, when New York Chemical Manufacturing Company's original charter expired, the chemical company was liquidated and was reincorporated as a bank only, taking advantage of the Free Banking Act of 1838 and becoming the Chemical Bank of New York in 1844\. By 1851, the company sold all remaining inventories from the chemical division as well as the corresponding real\-estate holdings. During the [Panic of 1857](/wiki/Panic_of_1857 "Panic of 1857"), while 18 New York banks closed in a single day, Chemical continued to make payments in specie. For a few days, it was the only bank to redeem notes in gold instead of in loan certificates; the bank got a nickname, "Old Bullion". The panic, which had hit banks and caused a number of failures, led banks across the country to suspend specie payments and turn to issuing paper promissory notes.{{cite magazine \| url\=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,748374,00\.html \| title\=Business \& Finance: Old Bullion's Team \| magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]]\| date\=January 28, 1935}}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1924/07/30/archives/bank\-100\-years\-old\-today\-chemical\-national\-known\-as\-old\-bullion.html \| title\=Bank 100 Years Old Today.; Chemical National, Known as "Old Bullion," Celebrates \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=July 30, 1924 \| url\-access\=subscription }} Chemical's decision was highly unpopular among its fellow banks and led to the bank's temporary suspension from the [New York Clearing House](/wiki/New_York_Clearing_House "New York Clearing House"), of which Chemical was a charter member since 1853\.{{cite book \| author\-link\=Jerry Markham \| last\=Markham \| first\=Jerry \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Uazpff00Y5EC\&pg\=PA201 \| title\=A financial history of the United States; Volume I: From Christopher Columbus through the Robber Barrons \| isbn\=978\-0765607300 \| publisher\=\[\[M.E. Sharpe]] \| date\=November 1, 2001}} Chemical developed a reputation for stability. This reputation proved extremely important in Chemical's growth during subsequent recessions during the 1860s.{{Cite journal \| url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25604009 \| title\=New York Free Banks and the Role of Reputations \| first\=Michael J. \| last\=Haupert \| journal\=The American Economist \| date\=Fall 1994 \| volume\=38}} In 1865, after the passage of the [National Bank Act](/wiki/National_Bank_Act "National Bank Act"), Chemical received its [national charter](/wiki/National_bank_%28United_States%29 "National bank (United States)") as the Chemical National Bank of New York, at the urging of the secretary of the treasury. This allowed Chemical to issue government\-backed national bank notes, the forerunner to paper money. In 1857, the bank had deposits of $1\.6 million, which grew to $3\.5 million in 1861 and to $5\.1 million by 1871\. Among the bank's first directors under its new charter were [Cornelius Roosevelt](/wiki/Cornelius_Roosevelt "Cornelius Roosevelt"), John D. Wolfe, Isaac Platt, and [Bradish Johnson](/wiki/Bradish_Johnson "Bradish Johnson"), as well as bank president John Q. Jones. By December 1873, the bank had 35 employees, including eleven tellers, eight clerks and four bookkeepers. Isaac Jones's cousin, John Quentin Jones, led Chemical through 1878\. The Mason and Jones families maintained effective control of Chemical for much of its first 50 years.{{cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=K8aMN50YOvkC\&pg\=PA41 \| title\=Around Washington Square: an illustrated history of Greenwich Village \| first\=Luther S. \| last\=Harris \| publisher\=\[\[Johns Hopkins University Press]] \| date\=October 9, 2003 \| isbn\=978\-0801873416}} John Q. Jones was succeeded in 1878 by George G. Williams, who had joined the bank in 1842 and served as cashier of the bank from 1855 onward. In that position, Williams was also inculcated in Chemical's conservative style of banking. Williams served as president from 1878 through 1903\. ### 1900–1946 [thumb\|220px\|right\|The 1917\-1924 Chemical National Bank logo](/wiki/File:Chemical_National_Bank_1917_logo.png "Chemical National Bank 1917 logo.png") {{multiple image \| align \= right \| image1 \= Percy H. Johnston c1920\.png \| width1 \= 107 \| alt1 \= \| caption1 \= Percy H. Johnston, president of Chemical 1920–1946, responsible for building Chemical into one of the largest U.S. banks \| image2 \= Herbert K Twitchell, c1920\.png \| width2 \= 107 \| alt2 \= \| caption2 \= Herbert K. Twitchell, president of Chemical 1917–1920 and responsible for initiating major changes at the bank \| footer \= }} By the 1900s, Chemical had one of the strongest reputations in banking but as a business was in decline, losing accounts each year. Unlike many of its peers, Chemical had been reluctant to expand into securities and other businesses and had not paid interest on bank accounts. Both practices, considered to be highly conservative, had allowed Chemical to develop a large capital reserve but were not attracting customers. [William H. Porter](/wiki/William_H._Porter "William H. Porter"), a prominent banker of the era, was named president of the bank in 1903 after the death of the previous president George G. Williams. Porter left Chemical seven years later to become a partner at [J.P. Morgan \& Co.](/wiki/J.P._Morgan_%26_Co. "J.P. Morgan & Co.") in 1910 and was succeeded by Joseph B. Martindale, who was named president in 1911\.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2024}} In 1917, Chemical named a new president of the bank, Herbert Twitchell,{{Cite news \| url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1917/07/17/102355269\.pdf \| title\=To Head Chemical Bank.; Herbert K. Twitchell Elected Successor to Joseph B. Martindale \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=July 17, 1917}} after the death of Joseph B. Martindale. Months after Martindale's death, it was discovered that he had stolen as much as $300,000 from the account of Ellen D. Hunt, a niece of Wilson G. Hunt.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1917/09/16/archives/martindale\-theft\-still\-in\-a\-maze\-victim\-of\-300000\-defalcation\-said.html \| title\=Martindale Theft Still in a Maze \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=September 16, 1917}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1917/09/12/archives/martindale\-short\-300000\-as\-head\-of\-chemical\-bank\-united\-states.html \| title\=Martindale Short $300,000 as Head of Chemical Bank \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=September 12, 1917}} Twitchell initiated a major turnaround of Chemical, setting up a trust business and reversing Chemical's policy of not paying interest on cash accounts. These steps along with other initiatives, resulted in an increase in deposits from $35 million in September 1917 to $63 million in December 1917 to $81 million by 1920\. In 1920, Twitchell was succeeded by Percy H. Johnston, then aged 39, and remained with the bank as chairman of the board.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1942/08/26/archives/with\-bank\-25\-years\-p\-h\-johnston\-of\-the\-chemical\-to\-celebrate.html \| title\=WITH BANK 25 YEARS; P. H. Johnston of the Chemical to Celebrate Tomorrow \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=August 26, 1942}} Johnston held the presidency of the bank through 1946 at which time the bank had grown to become the seventh largest in the U.S.{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company\-histories/JP\-Morgan\-Chase\-amp;\-Co\-Company\-History.html \| title\=History of J.P. Morgan Chase \& Co. \| work\=Funding Universe}} In 1920, Chemical completed its first major acquisition, merging with Citizens National Bank. The acquisition of Citizens National, a small New York commercial bank, increased Chemical's assets to more than $200 million with more than $140 million of deposits.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1920/03/19/archives/chemical\-bank\-to\-absorb\-citizens\-directors\-of\-both\-institutions.html \| title\=CHEMICAL BANK TO ABSORB CITIZENS' \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 19, 1920 \| url\-access\=subscription}} In 1923, Chemical established its first branch and by the end of the 1920s had opened a dozen branches in Manhattan and Brooklyn as well as a branch in London, its first international presence.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2024}} In 1929, Chemical reincorporated as a state bank in New York as Chemical Bank \& Trust Company and merged with the United States Mortgage \& Trust Company, headquartered on the [Madison Avenue](/wiki/Madison_Avenue "Madison Avenue") and [74th Street](/wiki/74th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "74th Street (Manhattan)").{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/25/realestate/25scapes.html \| title\=Depression\-Era Alternatives to the Mattress Stash \| first\=Christopher \| last\=Gray \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=January 23, 2009 \| url\-access\=limited}}{{cite book \| first\=Barrie A. \| last\=Wigmore \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=I\_Bs3s3rdHwC\&pg\=PA100\| title\=The crash and its aftermath: a history of securities markets in the United States \| publisher\=Greenwood Publishing Group \| date\=December 23, 1985 \| page\=100\| isbn\=978\-0313245749}} During the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), Chemical's deposits grew by more than 40% and in 1941, the bank reached $1 billion of assets. During this period, Chemical also established Chemical National Company, a securities underwriting business.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2024}} ### 1947–1979 [thumb\|right\|210px\|The [Corn Exchange Bank](/wiki/Corn_Exchange_Bank "Corn Exchange Bank"), acquired in 1954, expanded the bank's branch network](/wiki/File:Corn_Exchange_Bank_letterhead_1922.png "Corn Exchange Bank letterhead 1922.png") [210px\|thumb\|The New York Trust Company merged in 1959 increasing the bank's wholesale banking business](/wiki/File:New_York_Trust_Company.png "New York Trust Company.png") In 1947, after the retirement of Percy Johnston, [Harold Holmes Helm](/wiki/Harold_Holmes_Helm "Harold Holmes Helm") was named the president of Chemical and served first as president and later as chairman of the bank for the next 18 years until his retirement in 1965\. In 1947, Chemical merged with [Continental Bank and Trust Company](/wiki/Continental_Bank_and_Trust_Company "Continental Bank and Trust Company"). In 1954, Chemical merged with the [Corn Exchange Bank](/wiki/Corn_Exchange_Bank "Corn Exchange Bank") in its largest acquisition to date, becoming the **Chemical Corn Exchange Bank**. Founded in 1853, the Corn Exchange Bank, based in New York City, had built a network of 98 branches in several states and $774 million in deposits through the acquisition of community banks.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/01/realestate/streetscape\-corn\-exchange\-bank\-noble\-monument\-thrift\-with\-unusually\-modern\-air.html \| title\=Streetscape: The Corn Exchange Bank; A 'Noble Monument to Thrift' With an Unusually Modern Air \| first\=Christopher \| last\=Gray \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=November 1, 1987}} In 1959, the bank merged with [New York Trust Company](/wiki/New_York_Trust_Company "New York Trust Company"), effectively doubling the size of the company.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1959/06/03/archives/chemical\-corn\-exchange\-bank\-and\-new\-york\-trust\-set\-merger\-merger.html \| title\=Chemical Corn Exchange Bank And New York Trust Set Merger; MERGER PLANNED BY TWO BIG BANKS \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=June 3, 1959}} New York Trust Company, which had a large trust and wholesale\-banking business, specialized in servicing large industrial accounts.{{cite magazine \| url\=https://time.com/archive/6827733/banking\-helm\-at\-the\-helm/ \| title\=Helm at the Helm \| magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \| date\=June 15, 1959 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201073231/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,892707,00\.html \| archive\-date\=February 1, 2011 \| url\-status\=live}} At the time of the merger, Chemical Corn was the fourth largest bank in New York and New York Trust was the ninth largest bank and the merger created the third largest bank in New York, and the fourth largest in the U.S. with $3\.8 billion of assets.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/09/nyregion/hulbert\-aldrich\-87\-banking\-executive\-led\-new\-york\-trust.html \| last\=Kennedy \| first\=Randy \| title\=Hulbert Aldrich, 87; Banking Executive Led New York Trust \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=January 9, 1995}} Following the merger, the bank dropped the usage of the "corn exchange" from the corporate name to become the Chemical Bank New York Trust Company.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2024}} Throughout the early 1960s, Chemical had begun to expand into New York's suburbs, opening branches on [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island") and in [Westchester County](/wiki/Westchester_County "Westchester County").{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2024}} In early 1968, the bank acquired L. F. Dommerich, a [factoring](/wiki/Factoring_%28finance%29 "Factoring (finance)") company.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/01/26/archives/dommerich\-purchase\-set\-chemical\-bank\-to\-buy\-a\-factor.html \| title\=Dommerich Purchase Set; CHEMICAL BANK TO BUY A FACTOR \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=January 26, 1968}} In November 1968, Chemical reorganized itself as a bank holding company, **Chemical New York Corporation**, which allowed for more rapid expansion.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/11/30/archives/new\-status\-cleared\-for\-chemical\-bank.html \| title\=New Status for Chemical Bank \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=November 30, 1968}} By the late 1960s and early 1970s, Chemical opened new offices in [Frankfurt, Germany](/wiki/Frankfurt%2C_Germany "Frankfurt, Germany") (1969\), [Zurich, Switzerland](/wiki/Zurich%2C_Switzerland "Zurich, Switzerland") (1971\),{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/04/08/archives/chemical\-plans\-zurich\-unit.html \| title\=Chemical Plans Zurich Unit \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=April 8, 1971}} [Brussels, Belgium](/wiki/Brussels%2C_Belgium "Brussels, Belgium") (1971\), [Paris, France](/wiki/Paris%2C_France "Paris, France") (1971\) and [Tokyo, Japan](/wiki/Tokyo%2C_Japan "Tokyo, Japan") (1972\). In 1970, it formed a venture in London focused on Eurocurrency financing.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/07/04/archives/chemical\-opening\-a\-bank\-in\-london.html \| title\=CHEMICAL OPENING A BANK IN LONDON \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=July 4, 1970}} In 1975, Chemical acquired Security National Bank, which had a 96\-branch network on Long Island, for $40 million in cash.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/01/20/archives/pressed\-security\-national\-bought\-by\-chemical\-bank\-40million.html \| title\=Pressed Security National Bought by Chemical Bank \| first\=Clare M. \| last\=Reckert \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=January 20, 1975}} ### 1980s [thumb\|right\|210px\|Chemical Bank's 1970\-1992 logo, in use until the bank's merger with [Manufacturers Hanover](/wiki/Manufacturers_Hanover "Manufacturers Hanover")](/wiki/File:Chemical_Bank_1971_logo.png "Chemical Bank 1971 logo.png") Chemical continued pursuing acquisitions, throughout the 1980s notably its acquisitions of [Texas Commerce Bank](/wiki/Texas_Commerce_Bank "Texas Commerce Bank") (1986\) and [Horizon Bancorp](/wiki/Horizon_Bancorp "Horizon Bancorp") (1986\) as well as its attempted takeover of [Florida National Bank](/wiki/Florida_National_Bank "Florida National Bank") (1982\).{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2024}} Chemical and Florida National Bank agreed, in 1982, to enter into a merger, after laws preventing interstate banking were lifted, giving Chemical an option to acquire the business.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/20/business/florida\-bank\-s\-special\-meeting.html \| title\=Florida Bank's Special Meeting \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=May 20, 1982}} In February 1982, [Southeast Banking Corporation](/wiki/Southeast_Banking_Corporation "Southeast Banking Corporation") (SBC), which had been rebuffed in its attempted to acquire Florida National sued to obtain an injunction against the Chemical merger.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/09/business/florida\-bank\-merger\-fought.html \| title\=Florida Bank Merger Fought \| agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=February 9, 1982}} In early 1983, Southeast Banking Corporation dropped its takeover attempt and agreed to exchange their Florida National shares for 24 FNB branch offices and other consideration.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/03/business/southeast\-banking.html \| title\=Southeast Banking \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 3, 1983}} Following the deal with SBC, Florida National was cleared to merge with Chemical, however interstate banking acquisitions were still prohibited by Federal law and required state legislative approval.{{cite news\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/03/02/business/fed\-will\-accept\-florida\-bank\-plan.html \| title\=Fed Will Accept Florida Bank Plan \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 2, 1984 \| url\-access\=limited}} With the 1990 deadline running out for its option to buy Florida National and no sign of state legislative approval, Chemical Bank sold its 4\.9% interest to [First Union](/wiki/First_Union "First Union") for $115 million.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/08/business/first\-union\-to\-acquire\-florida\-national\-bank.html \| title\=First Union to Acquire Florida National Bank \| first\=Michael \| last\=Quint \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 8, 1989}} In 1983, the bank sold its [stock transfer agent](/wiki/Stock_transfer_agent "Stock transfer agent") business to Harris Bancorp.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/04/business/sale\-by\-chemical\-bank.html \| title\=SALE BY CHEMICAL BANK \| first\=Robert A. \| last\=Bennett \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=November 4, 1983}} [210px\|thumb\|right\|[Texas Commerce Bank](/wiki/Texas_Commerce_Bank "Texas Commerce Bank"), acquired by Chemical in 1986 in the largest interstate banking merger at that time](/wiki/Image:Texas_Commerce_Bancshares_Logo.png "Texas Commerce Bancshares Logo.png") In December 1986, the bank agreed to acquire Texas Commerce Bank for $1\.1 billion in the largest interstate banking merger in U.S. history to that time; the transaction was completed in May 1987\.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/16/business/chemical\-is\-buying\-a\-big\-texas\-bank.html \| title\=Chemical is Buying a Big Texas Bank \| first\=Robert A. \| last\=Bennett \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=December 16, 1986}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/31/opinion/l\-texas\-commerce\-bancshares\-alive\-and\-thriving\-221088\.html \| title\=Texas Commerce Bancshares Alive and Thriving \| first\=Walter V. \| last\=Shipley \| authorlink\=Walter V. Shipley \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 31, 1988}} Texas Commerce was one of the largest bank holding companies in the Southwestern U.S., with a strong presence in corporate banking for small and medium\-sized businesses. Ultimately Chemical contributed $300 million to shore Texas Commerce as it continued to suffer losses.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/11/business/profile\-marc\-j\-shapiro\-this\-banker\-may\-be\-too\-big\-for\-texas.html \| title\=This Banker May Be Too Big for Texas \| first\=Thomas C. \| last\=Hayes \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=July 11, 1993}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/14/business/in\-texas\-2\-paths\-to\-bank\-profits.html \| title\=In Texas, 2 Paths to Bank Profits \| first\=Thomas C. \| last\=Hayes \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 14, 1989 \| url\-access\=limited}} Also in 1986, Chemical agreed to a merger with New Jersey–based Horizon Bancorp; the merger was delayed until 1989, due to interstate banking rules.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/06/business/jersey\-banks\-await\-mergers.html \| title\=Jersey Banks Await Mergers \| first\=Eric N. \| last\=Berg \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=June 6, 1987}} The bank's holding company, Chemical New York Corporation, was renamed the **Chemical Banking Corporation** in 1988 following its series of out of state mergers and acquisitions, including Texas Commerce Bank and Horizon Bancorp.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/17/business/company\-news\-chemical\-s\-name.html \| title\=Chemical's Name \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| agency\=\[\[Reuters]] \| date\=March 17, 1988}} In the 1980s and early 1990s, Chemical became one of the leaders in the financing of [leveraged buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout "Leveraged buyout") transactions. By the late 1980s, Chemical developed its reputation for financing buyouts, building a syndicated [leveraged finance](/wiki/Leveraged_finance "Leveraged finance") business and related advisory businesses under the auspices of pioneering investment banker, [Jimmy Lee](/wiki/Jimmy_Lee_%28banker%29 "Jimmy Lee (banker)").{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/1997\-04\-13/jimmy\-lees\-global\-chase \| title\=Jimmy Lee's Global Chase \| first\=Alison \| last\=Rea \| work\=\[\[Bloomberg News]] \| date\=April 14, 1997 \| url\-access\=subscription}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/11/business/kingpin\-of\-the\-big\-time\-loan.html \| title\=Kingpin of the Big\-Time Loan \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=August 11, 1995}} It was not until 1993 that Chemical received permission to underwrite corporate bonds, however within a few years, Chemical (and later Chase) became a major underwriter of below\-investment\-grade debt under Lee. Additionally, in 1984, Chemical launched [Chemical Venture Partners](/wiki/Chemical_Venture_Partners "Chemical Venture Partners") to invest in [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity "Private equity") transactions alongside various [financial sponsors](/wiki/Financial_sponsor "Financial sponsor").{{Cite news \| url\=http://www.harbus.org/2003/Interview\-with\-Jeff\-Walker\-1924/ \| title\=Interview with Jeff Walker, Managing Partner of JP Morgan Partners \| work\=\[\[Harvard Business School]] \| date\=February 10, 2003}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/30/business/chase\-capital\-partners\-is\-planning\-a\-new\-venture\-fund.html \| title\=Chase Capital Partners Is Planning a New Venture Fund \| first\=Jonathan \| last\=Fuerbringer \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=November 30, 2000}} ### 1990s In July 1991, Chemical announced the acquisition of [Manufacturers Hanover Corporation](/wiki/Manufacturers_Hanover_Corporation "Manufacturers Hanover Corporation") in a $135 billion merger transaction.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/16/business/the\-bank\-merger\-manny\-hanny\-a\-name\-for\-history\-books.html \| title\='Manny Hanny': A Name for History Books \| first\=Richard D. \| last\=Hylton \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=July 16, 1991 \| url\-access\=limited}} At the time of the merger, Chemical and Manufacturers Hanover were the sixth and ninth largest banks, respectively, by assets. The transaction, when it closed at the end of 1991, made the combined bank, which retained the Chemical name, the second largest bank in the U.S., behind [Citicorp](/wiki/Citicorp "Citicorp") both in terms of assets and customers, with approximately 1\.2 million household accounts in 1991\.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/22/business/manufacturers\-hanover\-fades\-out.html \| title\=Manufacturers Hanover Fades Out \| first\=Michael \| last\=Quint \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=June 22, 1992 \| url\-access\=limited}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/16/business/the\-bank\-merger\-big\-bank\-merger\-to\-join\-chemical\-manufacturers.html \| title\=The Bank Merger; Big Bank Merger To Join Chemical, Manufacturers \| first\=Michael \| last\=Quint \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=July 16, 1991 \| url\-access\=limited}} Chemical adopted Manufacturers Hanover's logo design and moved into its headquarters at [270 Park Avenue](/wiki/270_Park_Avenue_%281960%E2%80%932021%29 "270 Park Avenue (1960–2021)") in New York. The "Manny Hanny" name was eliminated in 1993\.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/04/05/Chemical\-completes\-merger\-with\-Manny\-Hanny/3989733982400/ \| title\=Chemical completes merger with Manny Hanny \| first\=VIRGINIA MAIDA \| last\=RANDALL \| work\=\[\[United Press International]] \| date\=April 5, 1993}} In corporate banking, Manufacturers Hanover was better established with larger, blue\-chip companies, whereas Chemical had been stronger with small\- and medium\-sized businesses.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/11/business/a\-market\-where\-chemical\-is\-king.html \| title\=A Market Where Chemical is King \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=January 11, 1987}} Nationally, the combined Chemical Bank became one of the largest lenders to U.S. companies and one of the leaders in loan syndication globally. Additionally, Chemical took a leading role providing foreign exchange, interest rate and currency swaps, corporate finance services, cash management, corporate and institutional trust, trade services and funds transfer. Chemical operated one of the nation's largest bank credit card franchises and was a major originator and servicer of home mortgages. In 1994, the bank closed 50 branches in the [New York metropolitan area](/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area "New York metropolitan area") and laid off 650 people.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/26/business/chemical\-bank\-to\-cut\-650\-jobs\-and\-50\-offices.html \| title\=Chemical Bank to Cut 650 Jobs and 50 Offices \| first\=Saul \| last\=Hansell \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 26, 1994}} In 1996, Chemical acquired [Chase Bank](/wiki/Chase_Bank "Chase Bank") in a merger valued at $10 billion, creating the largest financial institution in the United States. Although Chemical was the acquiring company and the nominal survivor, the merged bank adopted the Chase name, which was considered to be better known, particularly internationally. Chase, which at its height had been the largest bank in the U.S., had fallen to sixth, while Chemical was the third largest bank at the time of the merger.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/29/us/banking\-s\-new\-giant\-deal\-chase\-chemical\-agree\-merge\-10\-billion\-deal\-creating.html \| title\=Banking's New Giant: The Deal; Chase and Chemical Agree to Merge in $10 Billion Deal Creating Largest U.S. Bank \| last\=Hansell \| first\=Saul \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=August 29, 1995}}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/29/business/market\-place\-as\-more\-banks\-vanish\-wall\-st\-cheers.html \| title\=As More Banks Vanish, Wall St. Cheers \| last\=Norris \| first\=Floyd \| authorlink\=Floyd Norris \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=August 29, 1995}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/30/opinion/the\-nation\-s\-biggest\-bank.html \| title\=The Nation's Biggest Bank \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=August 30, 1995}}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/29/business/chemical\-wins\-most\-top\-posts\-in\-chase\-merger.html \| title\=Chemical Wins Most Top Posts In Chase Merger\| last\=Hansell \| first\=Saul \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=September 29, 1995}}{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/04/business/50\-years\-of\-blockbuster\-bank\-mergers.html \| title\=50 Years of Blockbuster Bank Mergers \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=September 4, 1995}} The merger resulted in the reduction of more than 12,000 jobs between the two banks and merger related expenses of approximately $1\.9 billion.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/22/business/chase\-and\-chemical\-see\-higher\-merger\-cost.html \| title\=Chase and Chemical See Higher Merger Cost \| agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 22, 1996}}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/29/business/a\-new\-chase\-tries\-to\-lead\-will\-the\-merged\-bank\-be\-greater\-than\-its\-parts.html \| title\=A New Chase Tries to Lead; Will the Merged Bank Be Greater Than Its Parts? \| last\=Hansell \| first\=Saul \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 29, 1996}} The bank continued to operate under the Chase brand until its acquisition of J.P. Morgan \& Co. in December 2000 to form [JPMorgan Chase](/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase "JPMorgan Chase") Throughout all of these acquisitions, Chemical's original management team, led by [Walter V. Shipley](/wiki/Walter_V._Shipley "Walter V. Shipley"), remained in charge of the bank. When the combined bank purchased J.P. Morgan \& Co., [William B. Harrison Jr.](/wiki/William_B._Harrison_Jr. "William B. Harrison Jr."), who had been a longtime Chemical executive, was named CEO of the combined firm. Chemical's [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity "Private equity") group was renamed [CCMP Capital](/wiki/CCMP_Capital "CCMP Capital"); the bank completed the [corporate spin\-off](/wiki/Corporate_spin-off "Corporate spin-off") of the division in 2006 after it acquired [Bank One](/wiki/Bank_One "Bank One") in 2004\. JPMorgan Chase retains Chemical's pre\-1996 stock price history, as well as Chemical's old headquarters at 270 Park Avenue.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2020}} ### Acquisition history {{chart top\|Major mergers, acquisitions, and historical predecessors of Chemical Bank}} {{chart/start}} {{chart\| CBN \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|CBN\='''The Chemical Bank of New York''' established 1823\|border\=3\|boxstyle\=background\-color: \#EEE;}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| CNB \| \| CEB \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|CNB\=Citizens National Bank established 1851 acquired 1920\|CEB\=\[\[Corn Exchange Bank]] established 1852 acquired 1954\|border\=1\|boxstyle\=background\-color: \#F0F0F0;}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| TCB \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|TCB\=\[\[Texas Commerce Bank]] established 1866 acquired 1986\|border\=1\|boxstyle\=background\-color: \#F0F0F0;}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| HB \|HB\=Hanover Bank established 1873\|border\=1\|boxstyle\=background\-color: \#F0F0F0;}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|!\| \|}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| MTC \| \| \|!\| \|MTC\=Manufacturers Trust Company established 1905\|border\=1\|boxstyle\=background\-color: \#F0F0F0;}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \|}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \|}} {{chart\| \|)\|\-\|\-\|\-\|'\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \|}} {{chart\| \|)\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|'\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|!\| \|}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|\`\|\-\|v\|\-\|'\| \|}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \| \| MH \| \| \|MH\=\[\[Manufacturers Hanover]] merged 1961\|border\=1\|boxstyle\=background\-color: \#F0F0F0;}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|}} {{chart\| \|)\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|'\| \| \| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|}} {{chart\| CBC \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|!\| \| \| \|CBC\='''Chemical Banking Corporation''' reorganized 1988\|border\=3\|boxstyle\=background\-color: \#EEE;}} {{chart\| \|\`\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|v\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|\-\|'\| \| \| \|}} {{chart\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| CB \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|CB\='''Chemical Bank''' merged 1991\|border\=3\|boxstyle\=background\-color: \#EEE;}} {{chart/end}} {{chart bottom}} ### Electronic banking history Chemical was among the pioneers of electronic [online banking](/wiki/Online_banking "Online banking"). On September 2, 1969, Chemical installed the first [automated teller machine](/wiki/Automated_teller_machine "Automated teller machine") (ATM) at its branch in [Rockville Centre, New York](/wiki/Rockville_Centre%2C_New_York "Rockville Centre, New York"). The first ATMs were designed to dispense a fixed amount of cash when a user inserted a specially coded card.{{cite book \| last\=Kirkpatrick\| first\=Rob \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XZMrIchANY4C\&pg\=PA266 \| title\=1969: The Year Everything Changed\| publisher\=Skyhorse Publishing Inc. \| date\=January 15, 2009 \| isbn\=978\-1602393660}} A Chemical Bank advertisement boasted "On Sept. 2 our bank will open at 9:00 and never close again."{{cite journal \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BtEDAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA84 \| title\=In Their Words \| journal\=\[\[Popular Mechanics]]\| date\=December 2005 \| page\=84}} Chemical's ATM, initially known as a Docuteller, was designed by [Donald Wetzel](/wiki/Donald_Wetzel "Donald Wetzel") and his company [Docutel](/wiki/Docutel "Docutel"). Chemical executives were initially hesitant about the electronic banking transition given the high cost of the early machines. Additionally, executives were concerned that customers would resist having machines handling their money.{{Cite web \| url\=https://americanhistory.si.edu/comphist/wetzel.htm \| title\=''Smithsonian'': Interview with Don Wetzel \| work\=\[\[Smithsonian Institution]] \| date\=September 21, 1995 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220000000/http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/comphist/wetzel.htm \| archive\-date\=February 20, 2011 \| url\-status\=live}} In 1982, Chemical initiated the first personal computer–based banking system when it launched a pilot electronic banking program called Pronto.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/29/business/home\-banking\-by\-computer.html \| title\=Home Banking by Computer \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 29, 1983}}{{Failed verification\|date\=October 2024\|reason\=This source validates that Chemical Bank launched an electronic banking product called Pronto, but it does not say it was the first to do so (it wasn't), and it says it was scheduled to launch in May 1983, not 1982\.}} Chemical had spent $20 million to develop the software for Pronto. The system, which worked with the [Atari](/wiki/Atari "Atari") console, began in New York and served 200 Chemical Bank customers. Pronto was an extension of other electronic banking services offered by Chemical that included a corporate cash\-management system and its growing ATM network and was one of the largest early forays by a bank into home computer–based banking.{{Cite news \| url\=https://time.com/archive/6883870/home\-finance\-in\-an\-electronic\-age/ \| title\=Home Finance in an Electronic Age \| work\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \| date\=September 20, 1982}} However, a year after launching Pronto only 21,000 of Chemical's 1\.15 million customers were using the system, in large part due to the high monthly subscription costs that Chemical charged customers to use it.{{cite news \| url\=https://time.com/archive/6704456/brave\-new\-piggy\-bank/ \| title\=Brave New Piggy Bank \| first\=Philip \| last\=Elmer\-Dewitt \| work\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \| date\=July 15, 1985}} By 1985, it was clear that Pronto, which was heavily promoted by Chemical, was growing much slower than anticipated.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/09/business/the\-executive\-computer\-when\-technology\-outpaces\-needs.html \| title\=The Executive Computer; When Technology Outpaces Needs \| first\=Erik \| last\=Sandberg\-Diment \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=June 9, 1985}} In 1985, Chemical and [BankAmerica](/wiki/BankAmerica "BankAmerica"), another pioneer in electronic banking, entered into a joint venture with [AT\&T](/wiki/AT%26T "AT&T") and [Time Inc.](/wiki/Time_Inc. "Time Inc."), known as Covidea, to market banking and discount stock\-brokerage services to computer\-equipped households. By combining resources and sharing costs, the four firms hoped to reduce the risk of large and protracted losses.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1985\-06\-04\-fi\-6668\-story.html \| title\=B of A, Chemical, AT\&T and Time Plan Home Banking \| work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \| date\=June 4, 1985 \| url\-access\=limited}} Eventually Chemical discontinued its efforts in 1989 at a loss of nearly $30 million.{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/07/business/banks\-plea\-drop\-that\-checkbook.html \| title\=Banks' Plea: Drop That Checkbook \| first\=Michael \| last\=Quint \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=March 7, 1992}} ### Offices history [thumb\|155px\|Chemical's offices at [277 Park Avenue](/wiki/277_Park_Avenue "277 Park Avenue") from 1979 until its 1991 merger with [Manufacturers Hanover Corporation](/wiki/Manufacturers_Hanover_Corporation "Manufacturers Hanover Corporation"), when the bank moved across the street](/wiki/File:277parkave.jpg "277parkave.jpg") [thumb\|155px\|right\|Chemical National Bank offices at 270 Broadway, {{circa\|1913}}](/wiki/File:Chemical_National_Bank_270_Broadway.png "Chemical National Bank 270 Broadway.png") [thumb\|130px\|left\|Interior of Chemical National Bank offices at 270 Broadway, c. 1913](/wiki/File:Chemical_National_Bank_Interior_270_Broadway.png "Chemical National Bank Interior 270 Broadway.png") In 1824, the bank opened its first offices at 216 Broadway in [Lower Manhattan](/wiki/Lower_Manhattan "Lower Manhattan") at the corner of [Ann Street](/wiki/Ann_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Ann Street (Manhattan)"). In 1848, the bank agreed to sell its building to its neighbor [Barnum's American Museum](/wiki/Barnum%27s_American_Museum "Barnum's American Museum"). The building collapsed during Barnum's subsequent remodeling. In 1850, the bank moved into its newly constructed headquarters at [270 Broadway](/wiki/270_Broadway "270 Broadway").{{cite news \| url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1928/09/21/95621215\.pdf \| title\=Plan $2,500,000 Building at Broadway and Chambers \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=September 21, 1928}} Chemical bought additional land next to its building in 1879 and 1887 but its offices remained modest through the start of the 20th century. In 1907, the bank constructed a new headquarters on the original and adjacent properties at 270 Broadway, designed by architect [Goodhue Livingston](/wiki/Goodhue_Livingston "Goodhue Livingston") of [Trowbridge \& Livingston](/wiki/Trowbridge_%26_Livingston "Trowbridge & Livingston").{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1951/06/04/archives/g\-livingston\-dies\-long\-an\-architect\-practitioner\-here\-for\-50\-years.html \| title\=G. Livingston Dies; Long an Architect; Practitioner Here for 50 Years Included Hayden Planetarium, Oregon Capitol in His Work \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=June 4, 1951 \| url\-access\=subscription}} In 1921, Chemical acquired the adjacent 13\-story building from the Shoe \& Leather Bank.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1921/01/29/archives/chemical\-bank\-buys\-broadway\-corner\-acquires\-the\-13story\-shoe.html \| title\=CHEMICAL BANK BUYS BROADWAY CORNER; Acquires the 13\-Story Shoe \& Leather Bank Building Next Door in a Deal in Millions. DEAL PENDING FOR MONTHS Seller Has Leased Citizens' National Quarters at 320Broadway. \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=January 29, 1921 \| url\-access\=subscription}} Despite expanding its 1907 headquarters over the years, by the mid\-1920s Chemical needed more space to accommodate its growth and reflect its increasing profile.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2024}} In 1926, the bank constructed a six\-story building at 165 Broadway, on the corner of [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 "Broadway (Manhattan)") and [Cortlandt Street](/wiki/Cortlandt_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Cortlandt Street (Manhattan)"), closer to the [Financial District](/wiki/Financial_District%2C_Manhattan "Financial District, Manhattan"). Chemical moved in after the building was completed in 1928, and the bank's headquarters remained there for more than 50 years.{{cite news \| title\=CHEMICAL NATIONAL'S MOVE; Bank to Be at 165 Broadway After New Building is Erected. \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1926/12/22/archives/chemical\-nationals\-move\-bank\-to\-be\-at\-165\-broadway\-after\-new.html \| newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=December 22, 1926 \| url\-access\=limited}} Under Chairman Donald Platten, in 1979, Chemical moved its headquarters to 277 Park Avenue.{{cite news \| last\=Barron \| first\=James \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/27/nyregion/donald\-c\-platten\-ex\-chairman\-of\-chemical\-bank\-is\-dead\-at\-72\.html \| title\=Donald C. Platten, Ex\-Chairman Of Chemical Bank, Is Dead at 72 \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=August 27, 1991}}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/10/business/company\-newa\-chemical\-bank\-selling\-building.html \| title\=Chemical Bank Selling Building \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=April 10, 1981}} In 1991, the bank moved across Park Avenue to occupy the former headquarters of Manufacturers Hanover Corporation at 270 Park Avenue, which remained the headquarters of Chemical's successor, [JPMorgan Chase](/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase "JPMorgan Chase"), until the building was vacated in 2018 in preparation for demolition and construction of a new JPMorgan Chase headquarters on the same site. JPMorgan Chase returned to [277 Park Avenue](/wiki/277_Park_Avenue "277 Park Avenue") in 2000, following the departure of its previous tenant, [Donaldson Lufkin \& Jenrette](/wiki/Donaldson_Lufkin_%26_Jenrette "Donaldson Lufkin & Jenrette").{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/12/02/nyregion/chase\-says\-it\-has\-deal\-for\-park\-avenue\-spot.html \| title\=Chase Says It Has Deal for Park Avenue Spot \| last\=Bagli \| first\=Charles V. \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=December 2, 2000}} In 2008, after JPMorgan acquired [Bear Stearns](/wiki/Bear_Stearns "Bear Stearns"), the bank moved its investment banking groups from Chemical's old headquarters to [383 Madison Avenue](/wiki/383_Madison_Avenue "383 Madison Avenue").{{Cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/03/business/03blocks.html \| last\=Tarquinio \|first\=J. Alex \|title\=Manhattan Awash in Open Office Space \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=December 2, 2008 \| issn\=0362\-4331 \| archive\-date\=July 10, 2021 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710011534/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/03/business/03blocks.html \| url\-status\=live}} After the old [270 Park Avenue](/wiki/270_Park_Avenue_%281960%E2%80%932021%29 "270 Park Avenue (1960–2021)") was closed and demolished in 2018, JPMorgan moved its headquarters temporarily to 383 Madison Avenue;{{Cite news \| title\=JPMorgan weighs shifting thousands of jobs out of New York area \| url\=https://www.americanbanker.com/articles/jpmorgan\-weighs\-shifting\-thousands\-of\-jobs\-out\-of\-new\-york\-area \| work\=\[\[American Banker]] \| date\=October 28, 2019 \| url\-access\=subscription \| archive\-date\=November 12, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031809/https://www.americanbanker.com/articles/jpmorgan\-weighs\-shifting\-thousands\-of\-jobs\-out\-of\-new\-york\-area \| url\-status\=live}} the headquarters was scheduled to be relocated to a new tower at [270 Park Avenue](/wiki/270_Park_Avenue_%282021%E2%80%93present%29 "270 Park Avenue (2021–present)") upon completion of the structure, scheduled in 2025\.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/jpmorgan\-chase\-nyc\-skyscraper\-plans/index.html \| last\=Holland \| first\=Oscar \| title\=Plans for JPMorgan Chase's NYC 'all\-electric' skyscraper unveiled \| work\=\[\[CNN]] \| date\=April 19, 2022 \| archive\-date\=April 25, 2022 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425093153/https://www.cnn.com/style/article/jpmorgan\-chase\-nyc\-skyscraper\-plans/index.html/ \| url\-status\=live}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Founding and early history", "{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Presidents of Chemical Bank\n\\|width\\=160 \\| height\\=170\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Balthazar Melick founder of Chemical Bank.png\n \\|alt1\\=Balthazar Melick\n \\|\\[\\[Balthazar P. Melick\\|Balthazar P. \"Baltus\" Melick]], founder and first president of Chemical Bank (1824–1831\\).\n\\|File:John Mason President of Chemical Bank c.1830s.png\n \\|alt2\\=John Mason\n \\|\\[\\[John Mason (businessman)\\|John Mason]], early shareholder and second president of Chemical Bank (1831–1839\\).\n\\|File:Head\\_silhouette.svg\n \\|alt3\\=Isaac Jones\n \\|Isaac Jones, third president of Chemical Bank (1839–1844\\).\n\\|File:John Q Jones, chemical bank.png\n \\|alt4\\=John Q. Jones\n \\|John Q. Jones, fourth president of Chemical Bank (1844–1878\\).\n}}\n{{clear}}\n[thumb\\|200px\\|Certificate of Stock of the Chemical Manufacturing Company, c. 1824\\.](/wiki/File:Certificate_of_Stock_of_Chemical_Mfg_Company_1824.png \"Certificate of Stock of Chemical Mfg Company 1824.png\")\n[thumb\\|200px\\|Chemical Bank $5 note, c. 1835\\.](/wiki/File:Chemical_bank_Note_1835.png \"Chemical bank Note 1835.png\")", "In 1823, the New York Chemical Manufacturing Company was founded by [Balthazar P. Melick](/wiki/Balthazar_P._Melick \"Balthazar P. Melick\") and directors John C. Morrison, Mark Spenser, Gerardus Post, James Jenkins, William A. Seely, and William Stebbins.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.chasealum.org/article.html?aid\\=197 \\| title\\=The History of Chemical Bank \\| work\\=Chase Alumni Association}}Additionally, [Joseph Sampson](/wiki/Joseph_Sampson \"Joseph Sampson\"), although not a director, was among the largest of the original shareholders of the later bank. During the 1820s, prospective bankers found that they were more likely to be able to successfully secure a [state bank](/wiki/State_bank_%28United_States%29 \"State bank (United States)\") charter if the bank was part of a larger business. Accordingly, the founders used the manufacturing company (which produced [chemicals](/wiki/Chemical \"Chemical\") such as [blue vitriol](/wiki/Blue_vitriol \"Blue vitriol\"), [alum](/wiki/Alum \"Alum\"), [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid \"Nitric acid\"), [camphor](/wiki/Camphor \"Camphor\"), and [saltpeter](/wiki/Potassium_nitrate \"Potassium nitrate\"), as well as medicines, paints, and [dyes](/wiki/Dye \"Dye\")) as a means of securing a charter from the New York State legislature. In April 1824, the company amended its charter to allow Chemical to enter into banking, creating a separate division for the new activity.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.jpmorganchase.com/about/our\\-history \\| title\\=225 years of history \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[JPMorgan Chase]]}} Melick was named the first president of the bank, which catered to merchants in New York City. Early investments by the bank were the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal \"Erie Canal\") and new roads.", "In 1826, [John Mason](/wiki/John_Mason_%28businessman%29 \"John Mason (businessman)\"), one of the richest merchants in New York, \\\\ became a shareholder of the bank. Mason succeeded Baltus Melick in 1831 as president. Mason was responsible for leading Chemical through the [Panic of 1837](/wiki/Panic_of_1837 \"Panic of 1837\"). When a speculative bubble collapsed on May 10, 1837, banks suspended payment of gold and silver specie ([coin](/wiki/Coin \"Coin\")). Although in the 1837 crisis Chemical followed others in suspending payments, Chemical was one of the earliest to resume payments in specie. Mason served as president until his death in 1839\\.", "Isaac Jones, Mason's son in law, then took over. In 1844, when New York Chemical Manufacturing Company's original charter expired, the chemical company was liquidated and was reincorporated as a bank only, taking advantage of the Free Banking Act of 1838 and becoming the Chemical Bank of New York in 1844\\.", "By 1851, the company sold all remaining inventories from the chemical division as well as the corresponding real\\-estate holdings.", "During the [Panic of 1857](/wiki/Panic_of_1857 \"Panic of 1857\"), while 18 New York banks closed in a single day, Chemical continued to make payments in specie. For a few days, it was the only bank to redeem notes in gold instead of in loan certificates; the bank got a nickname, \"Old Bullion\". The panic, which had hit banks and caused a number of failures, led banks across the country to suspend specie payments and turn to issuing paper promissory notes.{{cite magazine \\| url\\=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,748374,00\\.html \\| title\\=Business \\& Finance: Old Bullion's Team \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]]\\| date\\=January 28, 1935}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1924/07/30/archives/bank\\-100\\-years\\-old\\-today\\-chemical\\-national\\-known\\-as\\-old\\-bullion.html \\| title\\=Bank 100 Years Old Today.; Chemical National, Known as \"Old Bullion,\" Celebrates \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=July 30, 1924 \\| url\\-access\\=subscription }} Chemical's decision was highly unpopular among its fellow banks and led to the bank's temporary suspension from the [New York Clearing House](/wiki/New_York_Clearing_House \"New York Clearing House\"), of which Chemical was a charter member since 1853\\.{{cite book \\| author\\-link\\=Jerry Markham \\| last\\=Markham \\| first\\=Jerry \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Uazpff00Y5EC\\&pg\\=PA201 \\| title\\=A financial history of the United States; Volume I: From Christopher Columbus through the Robber Barrons \\| isbn\\=978\\-0765607300 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[M.E. Sharpe]] \\| date\\=November 1, 2001}} Chemical developed a reputation for stability. This reputation proved extremely important in Chemical's growth during subsequent recessions during the 1860s.{{Cite journal \\| url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25604009 \\| title\\=New York Free Banks and the Role of Reputations \\| first\\=Michael J. \\| last\\=Haupert \\| journal\\=The American Economist \\| date\\=Fall 1994 \\| volume\\=38}}", "In 1865, after the passage of the [National Bank Act](/wiki/National_Bank_Act \"National Bank Act\"), Chemical received its [national charter](/wiki/National_bank_%28United_States%29 \"National bank (United States)\") as the Chemical National Bank of New York, at the urging of the secretary of the treasury. This allowed Chemical to issue government\\-backed national bank notes, the forerunner to paper money. In 1857, the bank had deposits of $1\\.6 million, which grew to $3\\.5 million in 1861 and to $5\\.1 million by 1871\\. Among the bank's first directors under its new charter were [Cornelius Roosevelt](/wiki/Cornelius_Roosevelt \"Cornelius Roosevelt\"), John D. Wolfe, Isaac Platt, and [Bradish Johnson](/wiki/Bradish_Johnson \"Bradish Johnson\"), as well as bank president John Q. Jones.", "By December 1873, the bank had 35 employees, including eleven tellers, eight clerks and four bookkeepers.", "Isaac Jones's cousin, John Quentin Jones, led Chemical through 1878\\. The Mason and Jones families maintained effective control of Chemical for much of its first 50 years.{{cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=K8aMN50YOvkC\\&pg\\=PA41 \\| title\\=Around Washington Square: an illustrated history of Greenwich Village \\| first\\=Luther S. \\| last\\=Harris \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Johns Hopkins University Press]] \\| date\\=October 9, 2003 \\| isbn\\=978\\-0801873416}}", "John Q. Jones was succeeded in 1878 by George G. Williams, who had joined the bank in 1842 and served as cashier of the bank from 1855 onward. In that position, Williams was also inculcated in Chemical's conservative style of banking. Williams served as president from 1878 through 1903\\.", "### 1900–1946", "[thumb\\|220px\\|right\\|The 1917\\-1924 Chemical National Bank logo](/wiki/File:Chemical_National_Bank_1917_logo.png \"Chemical National Bank 1917 logo.png\")", "{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| image1 \\= Percy H. Johnston c1920\\.png\n\\| width1 \\= 107\n\\| alt1 \\= \n\\| caption1 \\= Percy H. Johnston, president of Chemical 1920–1946, responsible for building Chemical into one of the largest U.S. banks\n\\| image2 \\= Herbert K Twitchell, c1920\\.png\n\\| width2 \\= 107\n\\| alt2 \\= \n\\| caption2 \\= Herbert K. Twitchell, president of Chemical 1917–1920 and responsible for initiating major changes at the bank\n\\| footer \\= \n}}", "By the 1900s, Chemical had one of the strongest reputations in banking but as a business was in decline, losing accounts each year. Unlike many of its peers, Chemical had been reluctant to expand into securities and other businesses and had not paid interest on bank accounts. Both practices, considered to be highly conservative, had allowed Chemical to develop a large capital reserve but were not attracting customers. [William H. Porter](/wiki/William_H._Porter \"William H. Porter\"), a prominent banker of the era, was named president of the bank in 1903 after the death of the previous president George G. Williams. Porter left Chemical seven years later to become a partner at [J.P. Morgan \\& Co.](/wiki/J.P._Morgan_%26_Co. \"J.P. Morgan & Co.\") in 1910 and was succeeded by Joseph B. Martindale, who was named president in 1911\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "In 1917, Chemical named a new president of the bank, Herbert Twitchell,{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1917/07/17/102355269\\.pdf \\| title\\=To Head Chemical Bank.; Herbert K. Twitchell Elected Successor to Joseph B. Martindale \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=July 17, 1917}} after the death of Joseph B. Martindale. Months after Martindale's death, it was discovered that he had stolen as much as $300,000 from the account of Ellen D. Hunt, a niece of Wilson G. Hunt.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1917/09/16/archives/martindale\\-theft\\-still\\-in\\-a\\-maze\\-victim\\-of\\-300000\\-defalcation\\-said.html \\| title\\=Martindale Theft Still in a Maze \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=September 16, 1917}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1917/09/12/archives/martindale\\-short\\-300000\\-as\\-head\\-of\\-chemical\\-bank\\-united\\-states.html \\| title\\=Martindale Short $300,000 as Head of Chemical Bank \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=September 12, 1917}}", "Twitchell initiated a major turnaround of Chemical, setting up a trust business and reversing Chemical's policy of not paying interest on cash accounts. These steps along with other initiatives, resulted in an increase in deposits from $35 million in September 1917 to $63 million in December 1917 to $81 million by 1920\\. In 1920, Twitchell was succeeded by Percy H. Johnston, then aged 39, and remained with the bank as chairman of the board.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1942/08/26/archives/with\\-bank\\-25\\-years\\-p\\-h\\-johnston\\-of\\-the\\-chemical\\-to\\-celebrate.html \\| title\\=WITH BANK 25 YEARS; P. H. Johnston of the Chemical to Celebrate Tomorrow \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=August 26, 1942}} Johnston held the presidency of the bank through 1946 at which time the bank had grown to become the seventh largest in the U.S.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company\\-histories/JP\\-Morgan\\-Chase\\-amp;\\-Co\\-Company\\-History.html \\| title\\=History of J.P. Morgan Chase \\& Co. \\| work\\=Funding Universe}}", "In 1920, Chemical completed its first major acquisition, merging with Citizens National Bank. The acquisition of Citizens National, a small New York commercial bank, increased Chemical's assets to more than $200 million with more than $140 million of deposits.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1920/03/19/archives/chemical\\-bank\\-to\\-absorb\\-citizens\\-directors\\-of\\-both\\-institutions.html \\| title\\=CHEMICAL BANK TO ABSORB CITIZENS' \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 19, 1920 \\| url\\-access\\=subscription}} In 1923, Chemical established its first branch and by the end of the 1920s had opened a dozen branches in Manhattan and Brooklyn as well as a branch in London, its first international presence.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "In 1929, Chemical reincorporated as a state bank in New York as Chemical Bank \\& Trust Company and merged with the United States Mortgage \\& Trust Company, headquartered on the [Madison Avenue](/wiki/Madison_Avenue \"Madison Avenue\") and [74th Street](/wiki/74th_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"74th Street (Manhattan)\").{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/25/realestate/25scapes.html \\| title\\=Depression\\-Era Alternatives to the Mattress Stash \\| first\\=Christopher \\| last\\=Gray \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=January 23, 2009 \\| url\\-access\\=limited}}{{cite book \\| first\\=Barrie A. \\| last\\=Wigmore \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=I\\_Bs3s3rdHwC\\&pg\\=PA100\\| title\\=The crash and its aftermath: a history of securities markets in the United States \\| publisher\\=Greenwood Publishing Group \\| date\\=December 23, 1985 \\| page\\=100\\| isbn\\=978\\-0313245749}} During the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), Chemical's deposits grew by more than 40% and in 1941, the bank reached $1 billion of assets. During this period, Chemical also established Chemical National Company, a securities underwriting business.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "### 1947–1979", "[thumb\\|right\\|210px\\|The [Corn Exchange Bank](/wiki/Corn_Exchange_Bank \"Corn Exchange Bank\"), acquired in 1954, expanded the bank's branch network](/wiki/File:Corn_Exchange_Bank_letterhead_1922.png \"Corn Exchange Bank letterhead 1922.png\")\n[210px\\|thumb\\|The New York Trust Company merged in 1959 increasing the bank's wholesale banking business](/wiki/File:New_York_Trust_Company.png \"New York Trust Company.png\")", "In 1947, after the retirement of Percy Johnston, [Harold Holmes Helm](/wiki/Harold_Holmes_Helm \"Harold Holmes Helm\") was named the president of Chemical and served first as president and later as chairman of the bank for the next 18 years until his retirement in 1965\\. In 1947, Chemical merged with [Continental Bank and Trust Company](/wiki/Continental_Bank_and_Trust_Company \"Continental Bank and Trust Company\").", "In 1954, Chemical merged with the [Corn Exchange Bank](/wiki/Corn_Exchange_Bank \"Corn Exchange Bank\") in its largest acquisition to date, becoming the **Chemical Corn Exchange Bank**. Founded in 1853, the Corn Exchange Bank, based in New York City, had built a network of 98 branches in several states and $774 million in deposits through the acquisition of community banks.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/01/realestate/streetscape\\-corn\\-exchange\\-bank\\-noble\\-monument\\-thrift\\-with\\-unusually\\-modern\\-air.html \\| title\\=Streetscape: The Corn Exchange Bank; A 'Noble Monument to Thrift' With an Unusually Modern Air \\| first\\=Christopher \\| last\\=Gray \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=November 1, 1987}}", "In 1959, the bank merged with [New York Trust Company](/wiki/New_York_Trust_Company \"New York Trust Company\"), effectively doubling the size of the company.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1959/06/03/archives/chemical\\-corn\\-exchange\\-bank\\-and\\-new\\-york\\-trust\\-set\\-merger\\-merger.html \\| title\\=Chemical Corn Exchange Bank And New York Trust Set Merger; MERGER PLANNED BY TWO BIG BANKS \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=June 3, 1959}} New York Trust Company, which had a large trust and wholesale\\-banking business, specialized in servicing large industrial accounts.{{cite magazine \\| url\\=https://time.com/archive/6827733/banking\\-helm\\-at\\-the\\-helm/ \\| title\\=Helm at the Helm \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\| date\\=June 15, 1959 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201073231/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,892707,00\\.html \\| archive\\-date\\=February 1, 2011 \\| url\\-status\\=live}} At the time of the merger, Chemical Corn was the fourth largest bank in New York and New York Trust was the ninth largest bank and the merger created the third largest bank in New York, and the fourth largest in the U.S. with $3\\.8 billion of assets.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/09/nyregion/hulbert\\-aldrich\\-87\\-banking\\-executive\\-led\\-new\\-york\\-trust.html \\| last\\=Kennedy \\| first\\=Randy \\| title\\=Hulbert Aldrich, 87; Banking Executive Led New York Trust \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=January 9, 1995}} Following the merger, the bank dropped the usage of the \"corn exchange\" from the corporate name to become the Chemical Bank New York Trust Company.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "Throughout the early 1960s, Chemical had begun to expand into New York's suburbs, opening branches on [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\") and in [Westchester County](/wiki/Westchester_County \"Westchester County\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "In early 1968, the bank acquired L. F. Dommerich, a [factoring](/wiki/Factoring_%28finance%29 \"Factoring (finance)\") company.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/01/26/archives/dommerich\\-purchase\\-set\\-chemical\\-bank\\-to\\-buy\\-a\\-factor.html \\| title\\=Dommerich Purchase Set; CHEMICAL BANK TO BUY A FACTOR \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=January 26, 1968}}", "In November 1968, Chemical reorganized itself as a bank holding company, **Chemical New York Corporation**, which allowed for more rapid expansion.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/11/30/archives/new\\-status\\-cleared\\-for\\-chemical\\-bank.html \\| title\\=New Status for Chemical Bank \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=November 30, 1968}}", "By the late 1960s and early 1970s, Chemical opened new offices in [Frankfurt, Germany](/wiki/Frankfurt%2C_Germany \"Frankfurt, Germany\") (1969\\), [Zurich, Switzerland](/wiki/Zurich%2C_Switzerland \"Zurich, Switzerland\") (1971\\),{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/04/08/archives/chemical\\-plans\\-zurich\\-unit.html \\| title\\=Chemical Plans Zurich Unit \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=April 8, 1971}} [Brussels, Belgium](/wiki/Brussels%2C_Belgium \"Brussels, Belgium\") (1971\\), [Paris, France](/wiki/Paris%2C_France \"Paris, France\") (1971\\) and [Tokyo, Japan](/wiki/Tokyo%2C_Japan \"Tokyo, Japan\") (1972\\). In 1970, it formed a venture in London focused on Eurocurrency financing.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/07/04/archives/chemical\\-opening\\-a\\-bank\\-in\\-london.html \\| title\\=CHEMICAL OPENING A BANK IN LONDON \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=July 4, 1970}}", "In 1975, Chemical acquired Security National Bank, which had a 96\\-branch network on Long Island, for $40 million in cash.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/01/20/archives/pressed\\-security\\-national\\-bought\\-by\\-chemical\\-bank\\-40million.html \\| title\\=Pressed Security National Bought by Chemical Bank \\| first\\=Clare M. \\| last\\=Reckert \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=January 20, 1975}}", "### 1980s", "[thumb\\|right\\|210px\\|Chemical Bank's 1970\\-1992 logo, in use until the bank's merger with [Manufacturers Hanover](/wiki/Manufacturers_Hanover \"Manufacturers Hanover\")](/wiki/File:Chemical_Bank_1971_logo.png \"Chemical Bank 1971 logo.png\")\nChemical continued pursuing acquisitions, throughout the 1980s notably its acquisitions of [Texas Commerce Bank](/wiki/Texas_Commerce_Bank \"Texas Commerce Bank\") (1986\\) and [Horizon Bancorp](/wiki/Horizon_Bancorp \"Horizon Bancorp\") (1986\\) as well as its attempted takeover of [Florida National Bank](/wiki/Florida_National_Bank \"Florida National Bank\") (1982\\).{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "Chemical and Florida National Bank agreed, in 1982, to enter into a merger, after laws preventing interstate banking were lifted, giving Chemical an option to acquire the business.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/20/business/florida\\-bank\\-s\\-special\\-meeting.html \\| title\\=Florida Bank's Special Meeting \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=May 20, 1982}} In February 1982, [Southeast Banking Corporation](/wiki/Southeast_Banking_Corporation \"Southeast Banking Corporation\") (SBC), which had been rebuffed in its attempted to acquire Florida National sued to obtain an injunction against the Chemical merger.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/09/business/florida\\-bank\\-merger\\-fought.html \\| title\\=Florida Bank Merger Fought \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=February 9, 1982}} In early 1983, Southeast Banking Corporation dropped its takeover attempt and agreed to exchange their Florida National shares for 24 FNB branch offices and other consideration.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/03/business/southeast\\-banking.html \\| title\\=Southeast Banking \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 3, 1983}} Following the deal with SBC, Florida National was cleared to merge with Chemical, however interstate banking acquisitions were still prohibited by Federal law and required state legislative approval.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/03/02/business/fed\\-will\\-accept\\-florida\\-bank\\-plan.html \\| title\\=Fed Will Accept Florida Bank Plan \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 2, 1984 \\| url\\-access\\=limited}} With the 1990 deadline running out for its option to buy Florida National and no sign of state legislative approval, Chemical Bank sold its 4\\.9% interest to [First Union](/wiki/First_Union \"First Union\") for $115 million.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/08/business/first\\-union\\-to\\-acquire\\-florida\\-national\\-bank.html \\| title\\=First Union to Acquire Florida National Bank \\| first\\=Michael \\| last\\=Quint \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 8, 1989}}", "In 1983, the bank sold its [stock transfer agent](/wiki/Stock_transfer_agent \"Stock transfer agent\") business to Harris Bancorp.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/04/business/sale\\-by\\-chemical\\-bank.html \\| title\\=SALE BY CHEMICAL BANK \\| first\\=Robert A. \\| last\\=Bennett \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=November 4, 1983}}", "[210px\\|thumb\\|right\\|[Texas Commerce Bank](/wiki/Texas_Commerce_Bank \"Texas Commerce Bank\"), acquired by Chemical in 1986 in the largest interstate banking merger at that time](/wiki/Image:Texas_Commerce_Bancshares_Logo.png \"Texas Commerce Bancshares Logo.png\")\nIn December 1986, the bank agreed to acquire Texas Commerce Bank for $1\\.1 billion in the largest interstate banking merger in U.S. history to that time; the transaction was completed in May 1987\\.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/16/business/chemical\\-is\\-buying\\-a\\-big\\-texas\\-bank.html \\| title\\=Chemical is Buying a Big Texas Bank \\| first\\=Robert A. \\| last\\=Bennett \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=December 16, 1986}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/31/opinion/l\\-texas\\-commerce\\-bancshares\\-alive\\-and\\-thriving\\-221088\\.html \\| title\\=Texas Commerce Bancshares Alive and Thriving \\| first\\=Walter V. \\| last\\=Shipley \\| authorlink\\=Walter V. Shipley \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 31, 1988}} Texas Commerce was one of the largest bank holding companies in the Southwestern U.S., with a strong presence in corporate banking for small and medium\\-sized businesses. Ultimately Chemical contributed $300 million to shore Texas Commerce as it continued to suffer losses.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/11/business/profile\\-marc\\-j\\-shapiro\\-this\\-banker\\-may\\-be\\-too\\-big\\-for\\-texas.html \\| title\\=This Banker May Be Too Big for Texas \\| first\\=Thomas C. \\| last\\=Hayes \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=July 11, 1993}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/14/business/in\\-texas\\-2\\-paths\\-to\\-bank\\-profits.html \\| title\\=In Texas, 2 Paths to Bank Profits \\| first\\=Thomas C. \\| last\\=Hayes \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 14, 1989 \\| url\\-access\\=limited}}", "Also in 1986, Chemical agreed to a merger with New Jersey–based Horizon Bancorp; the merger was delayed until 1989, due to interstate banking rules.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/06/business/jersey\\-banks\\-await\\-mergers.html \\| title\\=Jersey Banks Await Mergers \\| first\\=Eric N. \\| last\\=Berg \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=June 6, 1987}}", "The bank's holding company, Chemical New York Corporation, was renamed the **Chemical Banking Corporation** in 1988 following its series of out of state mergers and acquisitions, including Texas Commerce Bank and Horizon Bancorp.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/17/business/company\\-news\\-chemical\\-s\\-name.html \\| title\\=Chemical's Name \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\| date\\=March 17, 1988}}", "In the 1980s and early 1990s, Chemical became one of the leaders in the financing of [leveraged buyout](/wiki/Leveraged_buyout \"Leveraged buyout\") transactions. By the late 1980s, Chemical developed its reputation for financing buyouts, building a syndicated [leveraged finance](/wiki/Leveraged_finance \"Leveraged finance\") business and related advisory businesses under the auspices of pioneering investment banker, [Jimmy Lee](/wiki/Jimmy_Lee_%28banker%29 \"Jimmy Lee (banker)\").{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/1997\\-04\\-13/jimmy\\-lees\\-global\\-chase \\| title\\=Jimmy Lee's Global Chase \\| first\\=Alison \\| last\\=Rea \\| work\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg News]] \\| date\\=April 14, 1997 \\| url\\-access\\=subscription}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/11/business/kingpin\\-of\\-the\\-big\\-time\\-loan.html \\| title\\=Kingpin of the Big\\-Time Loan \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=August 11, 1995}} It was not until 1993 that Chemical received permission to underwrite corporate bonds, however within a few years, Chemical (and later Chase) became a major underwriter of below\\-investment\\-grade debt under Lee. Additionally, in 1984, Chemical launched [Chemical Venture Partners](/wiki/Chemical_Venture_Partners \"Chemical Venture Partners\") to invest in [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity \"Private equity\") transactions alongside various [financial sponsors](/wiki/Financial_sponsor \"Financial sponsor\").{{Cite news \\| url\\=http://www.harbus.org/2003/Interview\\-with\\-Jeff\\-Walker\\-1924/ \\| title\\=Interview with Jeff Walker, Managing Partner of JP Morgan Partners \\| work\\=\\[\\[Harvard Business School]] \\| date\\=February 10, 2003}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/30/business/chase\\-capital\\-partners\\-is\\-planning\\-a\\-new\\-venture\\-fund.html \\| title\\=Chase Capital Partners Is Planning a New Venture Fund \\| first\\=Jonathan \\| last\\=Fuerbringer \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=November 30, 2000}}", "### 1990s", "In July 1991, Chemical announced the acquisition of [Manufacturers Hanover Corporation](/wiki/Manufacturers_Hanover_Corporation \"Manufacturers Hanover Corporation\") in a $135 billion merger transaction.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/16/business/the\\-bank\\-merger\\-manny\\-hanny\\-a\\-name\\-for\\-history\\-books.html \\| title\\='Manny Hanny': A Name for History Books \\| first\\=Richard D. \\| last\\=Hylton \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=July 16, 1991 \\| url\\-access\\=limited}} At the time of the merger, Chemical and Manufacturers Hanover were the sixth and ninth largest banks, respectively, by assets. The transaction, when it closed at the end of 1991, made the combined bank, which retained the Chemical name, the second largest bank in the U.S., behind [Citicorp](/wiki/Citicorp \"Citicorp\") both in terms of assets and customers, with approximately 1\\.2 million household accounts in 1991\\.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/22/business/manufacturers\\-hanover\\-fades\\-out.html \\| title\\=Manufacturers Hanover Fades Out \\| first\\=Michael \\| last\\=Quint \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=June 22, 1992 \\| url\\-access\\=limited}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/16/business/the\\-bank\\-merger\\-big\\-bank\\-merger\\-to\\-join\\-chemical\\-manufacturers.html \\| title\\=The Bank Merger; Big Bank Merger To Join Chemical, Manufacturers \\| first\\=Michael \\| last\\=Quint \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=July 16, 1991 \\| url\\-access\\=limited}} Chemical adopted Manufacturers Hanover's logo design and moved into its headquarters at [270 Park Avenue](/wiki/270_Park_Avenue_%281960%E2%80%932021%29 \"270 Park Avenue (1960–2021)\") in New York. The \"Manny Hanny\" name was eliminated in 1993\\.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/04/05/Chemical\\-completes\\-merger\\-with\\-Manny\\-Hanny/3989733982400/ \\| title\\=Chemical completes merger with Manny Hanny \\| first\\=VIRGINIA MAIDA \\| last\\=RANDALL \\| work\\=\\[\\[United Press International]] \\| date\\=April 5, 1993}} In corporate banking, Manufacturers Hanover was better established with larger, blue\\-chip companies, whereas Chemical had been stronger with small\\- and medium\\-sized businesses.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/11/business/a\\-market\\-where\\-chemical\\-is\\-king.html \\| title\\=A Market Where Chemical is King \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=January 11, 1987}} Nationally, the combined Chemical Bank became one of the largest lenders to U.S. companies and one of the leaders in loan syndication globally. Additionally, Chemical took a leading role providing foreign exchange, interest rate and currency swaps, corporate finance services, cash management, corporate and institutional trust, trade services and funds transfer. Chemical operated one of the nation's largest bank credit card franchises and was a major originator and servicer of home mortgages.", "In 1994, the bank closed 50 branches in the [New York metropolitan area](/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area \"New York metropolitan area\") and laid off 650 people.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/26/business/chemical\\-bank\\-to\\-cut\\-650\\-jobs\\-and\\-50\\-offices.html \\| title\\=Chemical Bank to Cut 650 Jobs and 50 Offices \\| first\\=Saul \\| last\\=Hansell \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 26, 1994}}", "In 1996, Chemical acquired [Chase Bank](/wiki/Chase_Bank \"Chase Bank\") in a merger valued at $10 billion, creating the largest financial institution in the United States. Although Chemical was the acquiring company and the nominal survivor, the merged bank adopted the Chase name, which was considered to be better known, particularly internationally. Chase, which at its height had been the largest bank in the U.S., had fallen to sixth, while Chemical was the third largest bank at the time of the merger.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/29/us/banking\\-s\\-new\\-giant\\-deal\\-chase\\-chemical\\-agree\\-merge\\-10\\-billion\\-deal\\-creating.html \\| title\\=Banking's New Giant: The Deal; Chase and Chemical Agree to Merge in $10 Billion Deal Creating Largest U.S. Bank \\| last\\=Hansell \\| first\\=Saul \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=August 29, 1995}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/29/business/market\\-place\\-as\\-more\\-banks\\-vanish\\-wall\\-st\\-cheers.html \\| title\\=As More Banks Vanish, Wall St. Cheers \\| last\\=Norris \\| first\\=Floyd \\| authorlink\\=Floyd Norris \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=August 29, 1995}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/30/opinion/the\\-nation\\-s\\-biggest\\-bank.html \\| title\\=The Nation's Biggest Bank \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=August 30, 1995}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/29/business/chemical\\-wins\\-most\\-top\\-posts\\-in\\-chase\\-merger.html \\| title\\=Chemical Wins Most Top Posts In Chase Merger\\| last\\=Hansell \\| first\\=Saul \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=September 29, 1995}}{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/04/business/50\\-years\\-of\\-blockbuster\\-bank\\-mergers.html \\| title\\=50 Years of Blockbuster Bank Mergers \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=September 4, 1995}} The merger resulted in the reduction of more than 12,000 jobs between the two banks and merger related expenses of approximately $1\\.9 billion.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/22/business/chase\\-and\\-chemical\\-see\\-higher\\-merger\\-cost.html \\| title\\=Chase and Chemical See Higher Merger Cost \\| agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 22, 1996}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/29/business/a\\-new\\-chase\\-tries\\-to\\-lead\\-will\\-the\\-merged\\-bank\\-be\\-greater\\-than\\-its\\-parts.html \\| title\\=A New Chase Tries to Lead; Will the Merged Bank Be Greater Than Its Parts? \\| last\\=Hansell \\| first\\=Saul \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 29, 1996}}", "The bank continued to operate under the Chase brand until its acquisition of J.P. Morgan \\& Co. in December 2000 to form [JPMorgan Chase](/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase \"JPMorgan Chase\") Throughout all of these acquisitions, Chemical's original management team, led by [Walter V. Shipley](/wiki/Walter_V._Shipley \"Walter V. Shipley\"), remained in charge of the bank. When the combined bank purchased J.P. Morgan \\& Co., [William B. Harrison Jr.](/wiki/William_B._Harrison_Jr. \"William B. Harrison Jr.\"), who had been a longtime Chemical executive, was named CEO of the combined firm. Chemical's [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity \"Private equity\") group was renamed [CCMP Capital](/wiki/CCMP_Capital \"CCMP Capital\"); the bank completed the [corporate spin\\-off](/wiki/Corporate_spin-off \"Corporate spin-off\") of the division in 2006 after it acquired [Bank One](/wiki/Bank_One \"Bank One\") in 2004\\. JPMorgan Chase retains Chemical's pre\\-1996 stock price history, as well as Chemical's old headquarters at 270 Park Avenue.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2020}}", "### Acquisition history", "{{chart top\\|Major mergers, acquisitions, and historical predecessors of Chemical Bank}}\n{{chart/start}}\n{{chart\\| CBN \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|CBN\\='''The Chemical Bank of New York''' \nestablished 1823\\|border\\=3\\|boxstyle\\=background\\-color: \\#EEE;}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| CNB \\| \\| CEB \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|CNB\\=Citizens National Bank \nestablished 1851 \nacquired 1920\\|CEB\\=\\[\\[Corn Exchange Bank]] \nestablished 1852 \nacquired 1954\\|border\\=1\\|boxstyle\\=background\\-color: \\#F0F0F0;}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| TCB \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|TCB\\=\\[\\[Texas Commerce Bank]] \nestablished 1866 \nacquired 1986\\|border\\=1\\|boxstyle\\=background\\-color: \\#F0F0F0;}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| HB \\|HB\\=Hanover Bank \nestablished 1873\\|border\\=1\\|boxstyle\\=background\\-color: \\#F0F0F0;}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| MTC \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\|MTC\\=Manufacturers Trust Company \nestablished 1905\\|border\\=1\\|boxstyle\\=background\\-color: \\#F0F0F0;}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\|)\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|'\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\|)\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|'\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|\\`\\|\\-\\|v\\|\\-\\|'\\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| MH \\| \\| \\|MH\\=\\[\\[Manufacturers Hanover]] \nmerged 1961\\|border\\=1\\|boxstyle\\=background\\-color: \\#F0F0F0;}}\n{{chart\\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\|)\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|'\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| CBC \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|!\\| \\| \\| \\|CBC\\='''Chemical Banking Corporation''' \nreorganized 1988\\|border\\=3\\|boxstyle\\=background\\-color: \\#EEE;}}\n{{chart\\| \\|\\`\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|v\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|\\-\\|'\\| \\| \\| \\|}}\n{{chart\\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| CB \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\| \\|CB\\='''Chemical Bank''' \nmerged 1991\\|border\\=3\\|boxstyle\\=background\\-color: \\#EEE;}}\n{{chart/end}}\n{{chart bottom}}", "### Electronic banking history", "Chemical was among the pioneers of electronic [online banking](/wiki/Online_banking \"Online banking\"). On September 2, 1969, Chemical installed the first [automated teller machine](/wiki/Automated_teller_machine \"Automated teller machine\") (ATM) at its branch in [Rockville Centre, New York](/wiki/Rockville_Centre%2C_New_York \"Rockville Centre, New York\"). The first ATMs were designed to dispense a fixed amount of cash when a user inserted a specially coded card.{{cite book \\| last\\=Kirkpatrick\\| first\\=Rob \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XZMrIchANY4C\\&pg\\=PA266 \\| title\\=1969: The Year Everything Changed\\| publisher\\=Skyhorse Publishing Inc. \\| date\\=January 15, 2009 \\| isbn\\=978\\-1602393660}} A Chemical Bank advertisement boasted \"On Sept. 2 our bank will open at 9:00 and never close again.\"{{cite journal \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BtEDAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA84 \\| title\\=In Their Words \\| journal\\=\\[\\[Popular Mechanics]]\\| date\\=December 2005 \\| page\\=84}} Chemical's ATM, initially known as a Docuteller, was designed by [Donald Wetzel](/wiki/Donald_Wetzel \"Donald Wetzel\") and his company [Docutel](/wiki/Docutel \"Docutel\"). Chemical executives were initially hesitant about the electronic banking transition given the high cost of the early machines. Additionally, executives were concerned that customers would resist having machines handling their money.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://americanhistory.si.edu/comphist/wetzel.htm \\| title\\=''Smithsonian'': Interview with Don Wetzel \\| work\\=\\[\\[Smithsonian Institution]] \\| date\\=September 21, 1995 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220000000/http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/comphist/wetzel.htm \\| archive\\-date\\=February 20, 2011 \\| url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 1982, Chemical initiated the first personal computer–based banking system when it launched a pilot electronic banking program called Pronto.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/29/business/home\\-banking\\-by\\-computer.html \\| title\\=Home Banking by Computer \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 29, 1983}}{{Failed verification\\|date\\=October 2024\\|reason\\=This source validates that Chemical Bank launched an electronic banking product called Pronto, but it does not say it was the first to do so (it wasn't), and it says it was scheduled to launch in May 1983, not 1982\\.}} Chemical had spent $20 million to develop the software for Pronto. The system, which worked with the [Atari](/wiki/Atari \"Atari\") console, began in New York and served 200 Chemical Bank customers. Pronto was an extension of other electronic banking services offered by Chemical that included a corporate cash\\-management system and its growing ATM network and was one of the largest early forays by a bank into home computer–based banking.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://time.com/archive/6883870/home\\-finance\\-in\\-an\\-electronic\\-age/ \\| title\\=Home Finance in an Electronic Age \\| work\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\| date\\=September 20, 1982}} However, a year after launching Pronto only 21,000 of Chemical's 1\\.15 million customers were using the system, in large part due to the high monthly subscription costs that Chemical charged customers to use it.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://time.com/archive/6704456/brave\\-new\\-piggy\\-bank/ \\| title\\=Brave New Piggy Bank \\| first\\=Philip \\| last\\=Elmer\\-Dewitt \\| work\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\| date\\=July 15, 1985}} By 1985, it was clear that Pronto, which was heavily promoted by Chemical, was growing much slower than anticipated.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/09/business/the\\-executive\\-computer\\-when\\-technology\\-outpaces\\-needs.html \\| title\\=The Executive Computer; When Technology Outpaces Needs \\| first\\=Erik \\| last\\=Sandberg\\-Diment \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=June 9, 1985}}", "In 1985, Chemical and [BankAmerica](/wiki/BankAmerica \"BankAmerica\"), another pioneer in electronic banking, entered into a joint venture with [AT\\&T](/wiki/AT%26T \"AT&T\") and [Time Inc.](/wiki/Time_Inc. \"Time Inc.\"), known as Covidea, to market banking and discount stock\\-brokerage services to computer\\-equipped households. By combining resources and sharing costs, the four firms hoped to reduce the risk of large and protracted losses.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1985\\-06\\-04\\-fi\\-6668\\-story.html \\| title\\=B of A, Chemical, AT\\&T and Time Plan Home Banking \\| work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\| date\\=June 4, 1985 \\| url\\-access\\=limited}} Eventually Chemical discontinued its efforts in 1989 at a loss of nearly $30 million.{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/07/business/banks\\-plea\\-drop\\-that\\-checkbook.html \\| title\\=Banks' Plea: Drop That Checkbook \\| first\\=Michael \\| last\\=Quint \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=March 7, 1992}}", "### Offices history", "[thumb\\|155px\\|Chemical's offices at [277 Park Avenue](/wiki/277_Park_Avenue \"277 Park Avenue\") from 1979 until its 1991 merger with [Manufacturers Hanover Corporation](/wiki/Manufacturers_Hanover_Corporation \"Manufacturers Hanover Corporation\"), when the bank moved across the street](/wiki/File:277parkave.jpg \"277parkave.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|155px\\|right\\|Chemical National Bank offices at 270 Broadway, {{circa\\|1913}}](/wiki/File:Chemical_National_Bank_270_Broadway.png \"Chemical National Bank 270 Broadway.png\")\n[thumb\\|130px\\|left\\|Interior of Chemical National Bank offices at 270 Broadway, c. 1913](/wiki/File:Chemical_National_Bank_Interior_270_Broadway.png \"Chemical National Bank Interior 270 Broadway.png\")\nIn 1824, the bank opened its first offices at 216 Broadway in [Lower Manhattan](/wiki/Lower_Manhattan \"Lower Manhattan\") at the corner of [Ann Street](/wiki/Ann_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Ann Street (Manhattan)\"). In 1848, the bank agreed to sell its building to its neighbor [Barnum's American Museum](/wiki/Barnum%27s_American_Museum \"Barnum's American Museum\"). The building collapsed during Barnum's subsequent remodeling. In 1850, the bank moved into its newly constructed headquarters at [270 Broadway](/wiki/270_Broadway \"270 Broadway\").{{cite news \\| url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1928/09/21/95621215\\.pdf \\| title\\=Plan $2,500,000 Building at Broadway and Chambers \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=September 21, 1928}} Chemical bought additional land next to its building in 1879 and 1887 but its offices remained modest through the start of the 20th century.", "In 1907, the bank constructed a new headquarters on the original and adjacent properties at 270 Broadway, designed by architect [Goodhue Livingston](/wiki/Goodhue_Livingston \"Goodhue Livingston\") of [Trowbridge \\& Livingston](/wiki/Trowbridge_%26_Livingston \"Trowbridge & Livingston\").{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1951/06/04/archives/g\\-livingston\\-dies\\-long\\-an\\-architect\\-practitioner\\-here\\-for\\-50\\-years.html \\| title\\=G. Livingston Dies; Long an Architect; Practitioner Here for 50 Years Included Hayden Planetarium, Oregon Capitol in His Work \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=June 4, 1951 \\| url\\-access\\=subscription}} In 1921, Chemical acquired the adjacent 13\\-story building from the Shoe \\& Leather Bank.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1921/01/29/archives/chemical\\-bank\\-buys\\-broadway\\-corner\\-acquires\\-the\\-13story\\-shoe.html \\| title\\=CHEMICAL BANK BUYS BROADWAY CORNER; Acquires the 13\\-Story Shoe \\& Leather Bank Building Next Door in a Deal in Millions. DEAL PENDING FOR MONTHS Seller Has Leased Citizens' National Quarters at 320Broadway. \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=January 29, 1921 \\| url\\-access\\=subscription}} Despite expanding its 1907 headquarters over the years, by the mid\\-1920s Chemical needed more space to accommodate its growth and reflect its increasing profile.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "In 1926, the bank constructed a six\\-story building at 165 Broadway, on the corner of [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_%28Manhattan%29 \"Broadway (Manhattan)\") and [Cortlandt Street](/wiki/Cortlandt_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Cortlandt Street (Manhattan)\"), closer to the [Financial District](/wiki/Financial_District%2C_Manhattan \"Financial District, Manhattan\"). Chemical moved in after the building was completed in 1928, and the bank's headquarters remained there for more than 50 years.{{cite news \\| title\\=CHEMICAL NATIONAL'S MOVE; Bank to Be at 165 Broadway After New Building is Erected. \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1926/12/22/archives/chemical\\-nationals\\-move\\-bank\\-to\\-be\\-at\\-165\\-broadway\\-after\\-new.html \\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=December 22, 1926 \\| url\\-access\\=limited}}", "Under Chairman Donald Platten, in 1979, Chemical moved its headquarters to 277 Park Avenue.{{cite news \\| last\\=Barron \\| first\\=James \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/27/nyregion/donald\\-c\\-platten\\-ex\\-chairman\\-of\\-chemical\\-bank\\-is\\-dead\\-at\\-72\\.html \\| title\\=Donald C. Platten, Ex\\-Chairman Of Chemical Bank, Is Dead at 72 \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=August 27, 1991}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/10/business/company\\-newa\\-chemical\\-bank\\-selling\\-building.html \\| title\\=Chemical Bank Selling Building \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=April 10, 1981}}", "In 1991, the bank moved across Park Avenue to occupy the former headquarters of Manufacturers Hanover Corporation at 270 Park Avenue, which remained the headquarters of Chemical's successor, [JPMorgan Chase](/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase \"JPMorgan Chase\"), until the building was vacated in 2018 in preparation for demolition and construction of a new JPMorgan Chase headquarters on the same site. JPMorgan Chase returned to [277 Park Avenue](/wiki/277_Park_Avenue \"277 Park Avenue\") in 2000, following the departure of its previous tenant, [Donaldson Lufkin \\& Jenrette](/wiki/Donaldson_Lufkin_%26_Jenrette \"Donaldson Lufkin & Jenrette\").{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/12/02/nyregion/chase\\-says\\-it\\-has\\-deal\\-for\\-park\\-avenue\\-spot.html \\| title\\=Chase Says It Has Deal for Park Avenue Spot \\| last\\=Bagli \\| first\\=Charles V. \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=December 2, 2000}} In 2008, after JPMorgan acquired [Bear Stearns](/wiki/Bear_Stearns \"Bear Stearns\"), the bank moved its investment banking groups from Chemical's old headquarters to [383 Madison Avenue](/wiki/383_Madison_Avenue \"383 Madison Avenue\").{{Cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/03/business/03blocks.html \\| last\\=Tarquinio \\|first\\=J. Alex \\|title\\=Manhattan Awash in Open Office Space \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=December 2, 2008 \\| issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\| archive\\-date\\=July 10, 2021 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710011534/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/03/business/03blocks.html \\| url\\-status\\=live}} After the old [270 Park Avenue](/wiki/270_Park_Avenue_%281960%E2%80%932021%29 \"270 Park Avenue (1960–2021)\") was closed and demolished in 2018, JPMorgan moved its headquarters temporarily to 383 Madison Avenue;{{Cite news \\| title\\=JPMorgan weighs shifting thousands of jobs out of New York area \\| url\\=https://www.americanbanker.com/articles/jpmorgan\\-weighs\\-shifting\\-thousands\\-of\\-jobs\\-out\\-of\\-new\\-york\\-area \\| work\\=\\[\\[American Banker]] \\| date\\=October 28, 2019 \\| url\\-access\\=subscription \\| archive\\-date\\=November 12, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031809/https://www.americanbanker.com/articles/jpmorgan\\-weighs\\-shifting\\-thousands\\-of\\-jobs\\-out\\-of\\-new\\-york\\-area \\| url\\-status\\=live}} the headquarters was scheduled to be relocated to a new tower at [270 Park Avenue](/wiki/270_Park_Avenue_%282021%E2%80%93present%29 \"270 Park Avenue (2021–present)\") upon completion of the structure, scheduled in 2025\\.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/jpmorgan\\-chase\\-nyc\\-skyscraper\\-plans/index.html \\| last\\=Holland \\| first\\=Oscar \\| title\\=Plans for JPMorgan Chase's NYC 'all\\-electric' skyscraper unveiled \\| work\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\| date\\=April 19, 2022 \\| archive\\-date\\=April 25, 2022 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425093153/https://www.cnn.com/style/article/jpmorgan\\-chase\\-nyc\\-skyscraper\\-plans/index.html/ \\| url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
### Founding and early history {{Gallery \|title\=Presidents of Chemical Bank \|width\=160 \| height\=170 \|align\=center \|File:Balthazar Melick founder of Chemical Bank.png \|alt1\=Balthazar Melick \|\[\[Balthazar P. Melick\|Balthazar P. "Baltus" Melick]], founder and first president of Chemical Bank (1824–1831\). \|File:John Mason President of Chemical Bank c.1830s.png \|alt2\=John Mason \|\[\[John Mason (businessman)\|John Mason]], early shareholder and second president of Chemical Bank (1831–1839\). \|File:Head\_silhouette.svg \|alt3\=Isaac Jones \|Isaac Jones, third president of Chemical Bank (1839–1844\). \|File:John Q Jones, chemical bank.png \|alt4\=John Q. Jones \|John Q. Jones, fourth president of Chemical Bank (1844–1878\). }} {{clear}} [thumb\|200px\|Certificate of Stock of the Chemical Manufacturing Company, c. 1824\.](/wiki/File:Certificate_of_Stock_of_Chemical_Mfg_Company_1824.png "Certificate of Stock of Chemical Mfg Company 1824.png") [thumb\|200px\|Chemical Bank $5 note, c. 1835\.](/wiki/File:Chemical_bank_Note_1835.png "Chemical bank Note 1835.png") In 1823, the New York Chemical Manufacturing Company was founded by [Balthazar P. Melick](/wiki/Balthazar_P._Melick "Balthazar P. Melick") and directors John C. Morrison, Mark Spenser, Gerardus Post, James Jenkins, William A. Seely, and William Stebbins.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.chasealum.org/article.html?aid\=197 \| title\=The History of Chemical Bank \| work\=Chase Alumni Association}}Additionally, [Joseph Sampson](/wiki/Joseph_Sampson "Joseph Sampson"), although not a director, was among the largest of the original shareholders of the later bank. During the 1820s, prospective bankers found that they were more likely to be able to successfully secure a [state bank](/wiki/State_bank_%28United_States%29 "State bank (United States)") charter if the bank was part of a larger business. Accordingly, the founders used the manufacturing company (which produced [chemicals](/wiki/Chemical "Chemical") such as [blue vitriol](/wiki/Blue_vitriol "Blue vitriol"), [alum](/wiki/Alum "Alum"), [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid "Nitric acid"), [camphor](/wiki/Camphor "Camphor"), and [saltpeter](/wiki/Potassium_nitrate "Potassium nitrate"), as well as medicines, paints, and [dyes](/wiki/Dye "Dye")) as a means of securing a charter from the New York State legislature. In April 1824, the company amended its charter to allow Chemical to enter into banking, creating a separate division for the new activity.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.jpmorganchase.com/about/our\-history \| title\=225 years of history \| publisher\=\[\[JPMorgan Chase]]}} Melick was named the first president of the bank, which catered to merchants in New York City. Early investments by the bank were the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal "Erie Canal") and new roads. In 1826, [John Mason](/wiki/John_Mason_%28businessman%29 "John Mason (businessman)"), one of the richest merchants in New York, \\ became a shareholder of the bank. Mason succeeded Baltus Melick in 1831 as president. Mason was responsible for leading Chemical through the [Panic of 1837](/wiki/Panic_of_1837 "Panic of 1837"). When a speculative bubble collapsed on May 10, 1837, banks suspended payment of gold and silver specie ([coin](/wiki/Coin "Coin")). Although in the 1837 crisis Chemical followed others in suspending payments, Chemical was one of the earliest to resume payments in specie. Mason served as president until his death in 1839\. Isaac Jones, Mason's son in law, then took over. In 1844, when New York Chemical Manufacturing Company's original charter expired, the chemical company was liquidated and was reincorporated as a bank only, taking advantage of the Free Banking Act of 1838 and becoming the Chemical Bank of New York in 1844\. By 1851, the company sold all remaining inventories from the chemical division as well as the corresponding real\-estate holdings. During the [Panic of 1857](/wiki/Panic_of_1857 "Panic of 1857"), while 18 New York banks closed in a single day, Chemical continued to make payments in specie. For a few days, it was the only bank to redeem notes in gold instead of in loan certificates; the bank got a nickname, "Old Bullion". The panic, which had hit banks and caused a number of failures, led banks across the country to suspend specie payments and turn to issuing paper promissory notes.{{cite magazine \| url\=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,748374,00\.html \| title\=Business \& Finance: Old Bullion's Team \| magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]]\| date\=January 28, 1935}}{{cite news \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1924/07/30/archives/bank\-100\-years\-old\-today\-chemical\-national\-known\-as\-old\-bullion.html \| title\=Bank 100 Years Old Today.; Chemical National, Known as "Old Bullion," Celebrates \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=July 30, 1924 \| url\-access\=subscription }} Chemical's decision was highly unpopular among its fellow banks and led to the bank's temporary suspension from the [New York Clearing House](/wiki/New_York_Clearing_House "New York Clearing House"), of which Chemical was a charter member since 1853\.{{cite book \| author\-link\=Jerry Markham \| last\=Markham \| first\=Jerry \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Uazpff00Y5EC\&pg\=PA201 \| title\=A financial history of the United States; Volume I: From Christopher Columbus through the Robber Barrons \| isbn\=978\-0765607300 \| publisher\=\[\[M.E. Sharpe]] \| date\=November 1, 2001}} Chemical developed a reputation for stability. This reputation proved extremely important in Chemical's growth during subsequent recessions during the 1860s.{{Cite journal \| url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25604009 \| title\=New York Free Banks and the Role of Reputations \| first\=Michael J. \| last\=Haupert \| journal\=The American Economist \| date\=Fall 1994 \| volume\=38}} In 1865, after the passage of the [National Bank Act](/wiki/National_Bank_Act "National Bank Act"), Chemical received its [national charter](/wiki/National_bank_%28United_States%29 "National bank (United States)") as the Chemical National Bank of New York, at the urging of the secretary of the treasury. This allowed Chemical to issue government\-backed national bank notes, the forerunner to paper money. In 1857, the bank had deposits of $1\.6 million, which grew to $3\.5 million in 1861 and to $5\.1 million by 1871\. Among the bank's first directors under its new charter were [Cornelius Roosevelt](/wiki/Cornelius_Roosevelt "Cornelius Roosevelt"), John D. Wolfe, Isaac Platt, and [Bradish Johnson](/wiki/Bradish_Johnson "Bradish Johnson"), as well as bank president John Q. Jones. By December 1873, the bank had 35 employees, including eleven tellers, eight clerks and four bookkeepers. Isaac Jones's cousin, John Quentin Jones, led Chemical through 1878\. The Mason and Jones families maintained effective control of Chemical for much of its first 50 years.{{cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=K8aMN50YOvkC\&pg\=PA41 \| title\=Around Washington Square: an illustrated history of Greenwich Village \| first\=Luther S. \| last\=Harris \| publisher\=\[\[Johns Hopkins University Press]] \| date\=October 9, 2003 \| isbn\=978\-0801873416}} John Q. Jones was succeeded in 1878 by George G. Williams, who had joined the bank in 1842 and served as cashier of the bank from 1855 onward. In that position, Williams was also inculcated in Chemical's conservative style of banking. Williams served as president from 1878 through 1903\.
[ "### Founding and early history", "{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Presidents of Chemical Bank\n\\|width\\=160 \\| height\\=170\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Balthazar Melick founder of Chemical Bank.png\n \\|alt1\\=Balthazar Melick\n \\|\\[\\[Balthazar P. Melick\\|Balthazar P. \"Baltus\" Melick]], founder and first president of Chemical Bank (1824–1831\\).\n\\|File:John Mason President of Chemical Bank c.1830s.png\n \\|alt2\\=John Mason\n \\|\\[\\[John Mason (businessman)\\|John Mason]], early shareholder and second president of Chemical Bank (1831–1839\\).\n\\|File:Head\\_silhouette.svg\n \\|alt3\\=Isaac Jones\n \\|Isaac Jones, third president of Chemical Bank (1839–1844\\).\n\\|File:John Q Jones, chemical bank.png\n \\|alt4\\=John Q. Jones\n \\|John Q. Jones, fourth president of Chemical Bank (1844–1878\\).\n}}\n{{clear}}\n[thumb\\|200px\\|Certificate of Stock of the Chemical Manufacturing Company, c. 1824\\.](/wiki/File:Certificate_of_Stock_of_Chemical_Mfg_Company_1824.png \"Certificate of Stock of Chemical Mfg Company 1824.png\")\n[thumb\\|200px\\|Chemical Bank $5 note, c. 1835\\.](/wiki/File:Chemical_bank_Note_1835.png \"Chemical bank Note 1835.png\")", "In 1823, the New York Chemical Manufacturing Company was founded by [Balthazar P. Melick](/wiki/Balthazar_P._Melick \"Balthazar P. Melick\") and directors John C. Morrison, Mark Spenser, Gerardus Post, James Jenkins, William A. Seely, and William Stebbins.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.chasealum.org/article.html?aid\\=197 \\| title\\=The History of Chemical Bank \\| work\\=Chase Alumni Association}}Additionally, [Joseph Sampson](/wiki/Joseph_Sampson \"Joseph Sampson\"), although not a director, was among the largest of the original shareholders of the later bank. During the 1820s, prospective bankers found that they were more likely to be able to successfully secure a [state bank](/wiki/State_bank_%28United_States%29 \"State bank (United States)\") charter if the bank was part of a larger business. Accordingly, the founders used the manufacturing company (which produced [chemicals](/wiki/Chemical \"Chemical\") such as [blue vitriol](/wiki/Blue_vitriol \"Blue vitriol\"), [alum](/wiki/Alum \"Alum\"), [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid \"Nitric acid\"), [camphor](/wiki/Camphor \"Camphor\"), and [saltpeter](/wiki/Potassium_nitrate \"Potassium nitrate\"), as well as medicines, paints, and [dyes](/wiki/Dye \"Dye\")) as a means of securing a charter from the New York State legislature. In April 1824, the company amended its charter to allow Chemical to enter into banking, creating a separate division for the new activity.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.jpmorganchase.com/about/our\\-history \\| title\\=225 years of history \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[JPMorgan Chase]]}} Melick was named the first president of the bank, which catered to merchants in New York City. Early investments by the bank were the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal \"Erie Canal\") and new roads.", "In 1826, [John Mason](/wiki/John_Mason_%28businessman%29 \"John Mason (businessman)\"), one of the richest merchants in New York, \\\\ became a shareholder of the bank. Mason succeeded Baltus Melick in 1831 as president. Mason was responsible for leading Chemical through the [Panic of 1837](/wiki/Panic_of_1837 \"Panic of 1837\"). When a speculative bubble collapsed on May 10, 1837, banks suspended payment of gold and silver specie ([coin](/wiki/Coin \"Coin\")). Although in the 1837 crisis Chemical followed others in suspending payments, Chemical was one of the earliest to resume payments in specie. Mason served as president until his death in 1839\\.", "Isaac Jones, Mason's son in law, then took over. In 1844, when New York Chemical Manufacturing Company's original charter expired, the chemical company was liquidated and was reincorporated as a bank only, taking advantage of the Free Banking Act of 1838 and becoming the Chemical Bank of New York in 1844\\.", "By 1851, the company sold all remaining inventories from the chemical division as well as the corresponding real\\-estate holdings.", "During the [Panic of 1857](/wiki/Panic_of_1857 \"Panic of 1857\"), while 18 New York banks closed in a single day, Chemical continued to make payments in specie. For a few days, it was the only bank to redeem notes in gold instead of in loan certificates; the bank got a nickname, \"Old Bullion\". The panic, which had hit banks and caused a number of failures, led banks across the country to suspend specie payments and turn to issuing paper promissory notes.{{cite magazine \\| url\\=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,748374,00\\.html \\| title\\=Business \\& Finance: Old Bullion's Team \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]]\\| date\\=January 28, 1935}}{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1924/07/30/archives/bank\\-100\\-years\\-old\\-today\\-chemical\\-national\\-known\\-as\\-old\\-bullion.html \\| title\\=Bank 100 Years Old Today.; Chemical National, Known as \"Old Bullion,\" Celebrates \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=July 30, 1924 \\| url\\-access\\=subscription }} Chemical's decision was highly unpopular among its fellow banks and led to the bank's temporary suspension from the [New York Clearing House](/wiki/New_York_Clearing_House \"New York Clearing House\"), of which Chemical was a charter member since 1853\\.{{cite book \\| author\\-link\\=Jerry Markham \\| last\\=Markham \\| first\\=Jerry \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Uazpff00Y5EC\\&pg\\=PA201 \\| title\\=A financial history of the United States; Volume I: From Christopher Columbus through the Robber Barrons \\| isbn\\=978\\-0765607300 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[M.E. Sharpe]] \\| date\\=November 1, 2001}} Chemical developed a reputation for stability. This reputation proved extremely important in Chemical's growth during subsequent recessions during the 1860s.{{Cite journal \\| url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25604009 \\| title\\=New York Free Banks and the Role of Reputations \\| first\\=Michael J. \\| last\\=Haupert \\| journal\\=The American Economist \\| date\\=Fall 1994 \\| volume\\=38}}", "In 1865, after the passage of the [National Bank Act](/wiki/National_Bank_Act \"National Bank Act\"), Chemical received its [national charter](/wiki/National_bank_%28United_States%29 \"National bank (United States)\") as the Chemical National Bank of New York, at the urging of the secretary of the treasury. This allowed Chemical to issue government\\-backed national bank notes, the forerunner to paper money. In 1857, the bank had deposits of $1\\.6 million, which grew to $3\\.5 million in 1861 and to $5\\.1 million by 1871\\. Among the bank's first directors under its new charter were [Cornelius Roosevelt](/wiki/Cornelius_Roosevelt \"Cornelius Roosevelt\"), John D. Wolfe, Isaac Platt, and [Bradish Johnson](/wiki/Bradish_Johnson \"Bradish Johnson\"), as well as bank president John Q. Jones.", "By December 1873, the bank had 35 employees, including eleven tellers, eight clerks and four bookkeepers.", "Isaac Jones's cousin, John Quentin Jones, led Chemical through 1878\\. The Mason and Jones families maintained effective control of Chemical for much of its first 50 years.{{cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=K8aMN50YOvkC\\&pg\\=PA41 \\| title\\=Around Washington Square: an illustrated history of Greenwich Village \\| first\\=Luther S. \\| last\\=Harris \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Johns Hopkins University Press]] \\| date\\=October 9, 2003 \\| isbn\\=978\\-0801873416}}", "John Q. Jones was succeeded in 1878 by George G. Williams, who had joined the bank in 1842 and served as cashier of the bank from 1855 onward. In that position, Williams was also inculcated in Chemical's conservative style of banking. Williams served as president from 1878 through 1903\\.", "" ]
Plot summary ------------ The book is narrated by 15 different characters over 59 chapters. It is the story of the death of Addie Bundren and her poor, rural family's quest to honor her wish to be buried in her hometown of [Jefferson, Mississippi](/wiki/Jefferson%2C_Mississippi "Jefferson, Mississippi") as well as the motives—noble or selfish—they show on the journey. In the novel's opening chapters, Addie is alive but in ill health. She expects to die soon and sits at a window watching as her firstborn child, Cash, builds her coffin. Anse, Addie's husband, waits on the porch, while their daughter, Dewey Dell, fans her mother in the July heat. The night after Addie dies, a heavy rainstorm sets in; rivers rise and wash out bridges that the family will need to cross to get to Jefferson. The family's trek by wagon begins, with Addie's non\-embalmed body in the [coffin](/wiki/Coffin "Coffin"). Along the way, Anse and the five children encounter various difficulties. Stubborn Anse frequently rejects any offers of assistance, including meals or lodging, so at times the family goes hungry and sleeps in barns. At other times he refuses to accept loans from people, claiming he wishes to "be beholden to no man", thus manipulating the would\-be lender into giving him charity as a gift not to be repaid. Jewel, Addie's middle child, tries to leave the family after Anse sells Jewel's most prized possession, his horse. Yet Jewel cannot turn his back on his father and siblings through the tribulations of the journey to Jefferson. Cash breaks a leg and winds up riding atop the coffin. He stoically refuses to admit to any discomfort but the family eventually puts a makeshift cast of concrete on his leg. Twice, the family almost loses Addie's coffin—first, while crossing a river on a washed\-out bridge (two mules are lost) and then when a fire of suspicious origin starts in the barn where the coffin is being stored for the night. After nine days, the family arrives in Jefferson, where the stench from the coffin is quickly smelled by the townspeople. In town, family members have different items of business to take care of. Cash's broken leg needs attention. Dewey Dell, for the second time in the novel, goes to a pharmacy, to obtain an abortion that she does not know how to ask for; clerk Skeet MacGowan coerces her into sex in the cellar in exchange for "abortion pills" which are just talcum powder. First, though, Anse wants to borrow some shovels to bury Addie, because that was the purpose of the trip and the family should be together for that. After that happens, Darl, the second eldest and thoughtful, poetic observer of the family, is seized for the arson of the barn and sent to the Mississippi State Insane Asylum in Jackson.*As I Lay Dying*, Norton Critical ed. Michael Gorra, ed. Footnote p. 134 ..."Jackson: Here, not the state capital per se but the Mississippi State Insane Hospital, which was located there". With Addie only just buried, Anse forces Dewey Dell to give up the money from Lafe (the man who got her pregnant) for an abortion, which he spends on getting "new teeth" and quickly marries the woman from whom he borrowed the shovels. As are many of Faulkner's works, the story is set in [Yoknapatawpha County](/wiki/Yoknapatawpha_County "Yoknapatawpha County"), Mississippi, which Faulkner referred to as "my apocryphal county", a fictional rendition of the [writer's home](/wiki/Writer%27s_home "Writer's home") of [Lafayette County](/wiki/Lafayette_County%2C_Mississippi "Lafayette County, Mississippi") in the same state.
[ "Plot summary\n------------", "The book is narrated by 15 different characters over 59 chapters. It is the story of the death of Addie Bundren and her poor, rural family's quest to honor her wish to be buried in her hometown of [Jefferson, Mississippi](/wiki/Jefferson%2C_Mississippi \"Jefferson, Mississippi\") as well as the motives—noble or selfish—they show on the journey.", "In the novel's opening chapters, Addie is alive but in ill health. She expects to die soon and sits at a window watching as her firstborn child, Cash, builds her coffin. Anse, Addie's husband, waits on the porch, while their daughter, Dewey Dell, fans her mother in the July heat. The night after Addie dies, a heavy rainstorm sets in; rivers rise and wash out bridges that the family will need to cross to get to Jefferson.", "The family's trek by wagon begins, with Addie's non\\-embalmed body in the [coffin](/wiki/Coffin \"Coffin\"). Along the way, Anse and the five children encounter various difficulties. Stubborn Anse frequently rejects any offers of assistance, including meals or lodging, so at times the family goes hungry and sleeps in barns. At other times he refuses to accept loans from people, claiming he wishes to \"be beholden to no man\", thus manipulating the would\\-be lender into giving him charity as a gift not to be repaid.", "Jewel, Addie's middle child, tries to leave the family after Anse sells Jewel's most prized possession, his horse. Yet Jewel cannot turn his back on his father and siblings through the tribulations of the journey to Jefferson. Cash breaks a leg and winds up riding atop the coffin. He stoically refuses to admit to any discomfort but the family eventually puts a makeshift cast of concrete on his leg. Twice, the family almost loses Addie's coffin—first, while crossing a river on a washed\\-out bridge (two mules are lost) and then when a fire of suspicious origin starts in the barn where the coffin is being stored for the night.", "After nine days, the family arrives in Jefferson, where the stench from the coffin is quickly smelled by the townspeople. In town, family members have different items of business to take care of. Cash's broken leg needs attention. Dewey Dell, for the second time in the novel, goes to a pharmacy, to obtain an abortion that she does not know how to ask for; clerk Skeet MacGowan coerces her into sex in the cellar in exchange for \"abortion pills\" which are just talcum powder. First, though, Anse wants to borrow some shovels to bury Addie, because that was the purpose of the trip and the family should be together for that. After that happens, Darl, the second eldest and thoughtful, poetic observer of the family, is seized for the arson of the barn and sent to the Mississippi State Insane Asylum in Jackson.*As I Lay Dying*, Norton Critical ed. Michael Gorra, ed. Footnote p. 134 ...\"Jackson: Here, not the state capital per se but the Mississippi State Insane Hospital, which was located there\". With Addie only just buried, Anse forces Dewey Dell to give up the money from Lafe (the man who got her pregnant) for an abortion, which he spends on getting \"new teeth\" and quickly marries the woman from whom he borrowed the shovels.", "As are many of Faulkner's works, the story is set in [Yoknapatawpha County](/wiki/Yoknapatawpha_County \"Yoknapatawpha County\"), Mississippi, which Faulkner referred to as \"my apocryphal county\", a fictional rendition of the [writer's home](/wiki/Writer%27s_home \"Writer's home\") of [Lafayette County](/wiki/Lafayette_County%2C_Mississippi \"Lafayette County, Mississippi\") in the same state.", "" ]
Mixed martial arts career ------------------------- After years competing in shoot style professional wrestling, Han switched to [mixed martial arts](/wiki/Mixed_martial_arts "Mixed martial arts") when RINGS adopted the King of Kings (KOK) format in 1999, thus fully transitioning to an MMA promotion. By this time, Han was considered past his athletic prime. Despite this, Han amassed an impressive 8–1 record under RINGS KOK rules. Following a winning debut against RINGS rookie [Yasuhito Namekawa](/wiki/Yasuhito_Namekawa "Yasuhito Namekawa"), Volk's skills were proven further against American wrestler and [Mark Coleman](/wiki/Mark_Coleman "Mark Coleman")'s teammate [Branden Lee Hinkle](/wiki/Branden_Lee_Hinkle "Branden Lee Hinkle"), 12 years his junior. Although Hinkle was able to take Han down and control him, the Russian grappler locked a tight [triangle armbar](/wiki/Armbar%23Sankaku_gatame "Armbar#Sankaku gatame") at the end of the first round and made him tap out. Han got a matchup closer in age and experience against Olympic freestyle alumni [Zaza Tkeshelashvili](/wiki/Zaza_Tkeshelashvili "Zaza Tkeshelashvili") in a special Russia vs Georgia fight, but again Han won by submission with a [guillotine choke](/wiki/Guillotine_choke "Guillotine choke"). In December, Han took part in the King of Kings tournament, where he was pitted in the first round against RINGS England leader [Lee Hasdell](/wiki/Lee_Hasdell "Lee Hasdell"). The Russian took him down and landed effective strikes before securing position, and also attempted triangle chokes and [armbars](/wiki/Armbars "Armbars"), but Hasdell's defense was strong. Han resumed using unorthodox [ground and pound](/wiki/Ground_and_pound "Ground and pound") from the [knee\-on\-stomach](/wiki/Knee-on-stomach "Knee-on-stomach") position every time the fight hit the ground, but it was in a standing segment where he got the finish, overpowering the British kickboxer with combinations and injuring Hasdell's eye for a TKO victory. In the second round, Volk fought [Bobby Hoffman](/wiki/Bobby_Hoffman "Bobby Hoffman"), who came to the bout with a 23–4 record. Hoffman controlled Han for the majority of the fight and tried to perform ground and pound, while Han worked in avoiding damage from the bottom. However, once in overtime, Han took Hoffman down in the corner and stood over him landing punches until the end of the time, winning the decision. During the semifinals, Han met young star [Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Rodrigo_Nogueira "Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira"), expert in [Brazilian jiu\-jitsu](/wiki/Brazilian_jiu-jitsu "Brazilian jiu-jitsu") and almost half of Volk's age. Despite his disadvantages, the Russian grappler was successful in stopping Nogueira from attempting submissions, even although Nogueira passed his guard and took his back at the end of the first round. When the second round arrived, Han [sprawled](/wiki/Sprawl_%28grappling%29 "Sprawl (grappling)") a takedown and gained his signature knee\-on\-stomach control, with the Brazilian coming back with a kneebar; the hold was completely extended, but Volk shockingly escaped. After a restart, Han came attacking with a [flying](/wiki/Sumi_gaeshi "Sumi gaeshi") [Kimura lock](/wiki/Kimura_lock "Kimura lock") which Nogueira answered with an [omoplata](/wiki/Omoplata "Omoplata")/[ankle hold](/wiki/Ankle_lock "Ankle lock") combination, but he was unable to submit Volk, and the match ended shortly after. Nogueira was given the unanimous decision, eliminating Han from the tournament. He has been out of competition since February 2002, but will return at the Lithuanian Bushido Association (Lithuania Bushido) convention on November 20, 2004\. When Sergei Kharitonov participated in HERO'S on September 17, 2007, he participated as Han's team (CLUB VOLK HAN), and Han himself came to Japan.
[ "Mixed martial arts career\n-------------------------", "After years competing in shoot style professional wrestling, Han switched to [mixed martial arts](/wiki/Mixed_martial_arts \"Mixed martial arts\") when RINGS adopted the King of Kings (KOK) format in 1999, thus fully transitioning to an MMA promotion. By this time, Han was considered past his athletic prime. Despite this, Han amassed an impressive 8–1 record under RINGS KOK rules.", "Following a winning debut against RINGS rookie [Yasuhito Namekawa](/wiki/Yasuhito_Namekawa \"Yasuhito Namekawa\"), Volk's skills were proven further against American wrestler and [Mark Coleman](/wiki/Mark_Coleman \"Mark Coleman\")'s teammate [Branden Lee Hinkle](/wiki/Branden_Lee_Hinkle \"Branden Lee Hinkle\"), 12 years his junior. Although Hinkle was able to take Han down and control him, the Russian grappler locked a tight [triangle armbar](/wiki/Armbar%23Sankaku_gatame \"Armbar#Sankaku gatame\") at the end of the first round and made him tap out. Han got a matchup closer in age and experience against Olympic freestyle alumni [Zaza Tkeshelashvili](/wiki/Zaza_Tkeshelashvili \"Zaza Tkeshelashvili\") in a special Russia vs Georgia fight, but again Han won by submission with a [guillotine choke](/wiki/Guillotine_choke \"Guillotine choke\").", "In December, Han took part in the King of Kings tournament, where he was pitted in the first round against RINGS England leader [Lee Hasdell](/wiki/Lee_Hasdell \"Lee Hasdell\"). The Russian took him down and landed effective strikes before securing position, and also attempted triangle chokes and [armbars](/wiki/Armbars \"Armbars\"), but Hasdell's defense was strong. Han resumed using unorthodox [ground and pound](/wiki/Ground_and_pound \"Ground and pound\") from the [knee\\-on\\-stomach](/wiki/Knee-on-stomach \"Knee-on-stomach\") position every time the fight hit the ground, but it was in a standing segment where he got the finish, overpowering the British kickboxer with combinations and injuring Hasdell's eye for a TKO victory. In the second round, Volk fought [Bobby Hoffman](/wiki/Bobby_Hoffman \"Bobby Hoffman\"), who came to the bout with a 23–4 record. Hoffman controlled Han for the majority of the fight and tried to perform ground and pound, while Han worked in avoiding damage from the bottom. However, once in overtime, Han took Hoffman down in the corner and stood over him landing punches until the end of the time, winning the decision.", "During the semifinals, Han met young star [Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Rodrigo_Nogueira \"Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira\"), expert in [Brazilian jiu\\-jitsu](/wiki/Brazilian_jiu-jitsu \"Brazilian jiu-jitsu\") and almost half of Volk's age. Despite his disadvantages, the Russian grappler was successful in stopping Nogueira from attempting submissions, even although Nogueira passed his guard and took his back at the end of the first round. When the second round arrived, Han [sprawled](/wiki/Sprawl_%28grappling%29 \"Sprawl (grappling)\") a takedown and gained his signature knee\\-on\\-stomach control, with the Brazilian coming back with a kneebar; the hold was completely extended, but Volk shockingly escaped. After a restart, Han came attacking with a [flying](/wiki/Sumi_gaeshi \"Sumi gaeshi\") [Kimura lock](/wiki/Kimura_lock \"Kimura lock\") which Nogueira answered with an [omoplata](/wiki/Omoplata \"Omoplata\")/[ankle hold](/wiki/Ankle_lock \"Ankle lock\") combination, but he was unable to submit Volk, and the match ended shortly after. Nogueira was given the unanimous decision, eliminating Han from the tournament.", "He has been out of competition since February 2002, but will return at the Lithuanian Bushido Association (Lithuania Bushido) convention on November 20, 2004\\. When Sergei Kharitonov participated in HERO'S on September 17, 2007, he participated as Han's team (CLUB VOLK HAN), and Han himself came to Japan.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1860\= 427 \|1870\= 475 \|1880\= 761 \|1890\= 1403 \|1900\= 1589 \|1910\= 2225 \|1920\= 3785 \|1930\= 4374 \|1940\= 4450 \|1950\= 6016 \|1960\= 6386 \|1970\= 7261 \|1980\= 6820 \|1990\= 5909 \|2000\= 5725 \|2010\= 5639 \|2020\= 5299 \|estyear\=2021 \|estimate\=5265 \|estref\= \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2020 census As of the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 5,186 people and 2,084 households residing in the city. There were 2,431 housing units in Buckhannon. The racial makeup of the city was 90% [White](/wiki/White_American "White American"), 3\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American "African American"), 1% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_American "Asian American"), 0\.07% [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States"), 0\.8% from [other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%23Race "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#Race"), and 4\.5% from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_American "Multiracial American"). [Hispanics or Latinos](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") of any race were 2\.6% of the population. There were 2,084 households, of which 37\.2% were married couples living together, 37\.2% had a female householder with no spouse present, 21\.8% had a male householder with no spouse present. The average household and family size was 2\.97\. The median age in the city was 37\.8 years with 14\.5% of the city's population under 18\. The median income for a household in the city was $46,602 and the poverty rate was 19\.5%.{{Cite web \|title\=Explore Census Data \|url\=https://data.census.gov/profile/Buckhannon\_city,\_West\_Virginia?g\=1600000US5411188 \|access\-date\=February 21, 2023 \|website\=data.census.gov}} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 24, 2013}} of 2010, there were 5,639 people, 2,148 households, and 1,149 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1992\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 2,398 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|847\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 94\.5% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 2\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.9% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.9% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.5% of the population. There were 2,148 households, of which 22\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 11\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46\.5% were non\-families. 39\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.13 and the average family size was 2\.84\. The median age in the city was 33\.1 years. 16\.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 25\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 18\.9% were from 25 to 44; 22\.5% were from 45 to 64; and 17\.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\.5% male and 52\.5% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 5,725 people, 2,159 households, and 1,180 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 2,314\.2 people per square mile (894\.9/km2). There were 2,424 housing units at an average density of 979\.8 per square mile (378\.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96\.16% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 2\.01% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.10% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.84% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.02% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.28% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.59% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.96% of the population. There were 2,159 households, out of which 22\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45\.3% were non\-families. 40\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.08 and the average family size was 2\.78\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 15\.5% under the age of 18, 28\.1% from 18 to 24, 19\.2% from 25 to 44, 19\.8% from 45 to 64, and 17\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 81\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78\.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $23,421, and the median income for a family was $36,975\. Males had a median income of $30,691 versus $18,041 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $12,959\. About 15\.8% of families and 24\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 32\.7% of those under age 18 and 11\.2% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1860\\= 427\n\\|1870\\= 475\n\\|1880\\= 761\n\\|1890\\= 1403\n\\|1900\\= 1589\n\\|1910\\= 2225\n\\|1920\\= 3785\n\\|1930\\= 4374\n\\|1940\\= 4450\n\\|1950\\= 6016\n\\|1960\\= 6386\n\\|1970\\= 7261\n\\|1980\\= 6820\n\\|1990\\= 5909\n\\|2000\\= 5725\n\\|2010\\= 5639\n\\|2020\\= 5299\n\\|estyear\\=2021\n\\|estimate\\=5265\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2020 census", "As of the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 5,186 people and 2,084 households residing in the city. There were 2,431 housing units in Buckhannon. The racial makeup of the city was 90% [White](/wiki/White_American \"White American\"), 3\\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\"), 1% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_American \"Asian American\"), 0\\.07% [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\"), 0\\.8% from [other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%23Race \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#Race\"), and 4\\.5% from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_American \"Multiracial American\"). [Hispanics or Latinos](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") of any race were 2\\.6% of the population.", "There were 2,084 households, of which 37\\.2% were married couples living together, 37\\.2% had a female householder with no spouse present, 21\\.8% had a male householder with no spouse present. The average household and family size was 2\\.97\\. The median age in the city was 37\\.8 years with 14\\.5% of the city's population under 18\\. The median income for a household in the city was $46,602 and the poverty rate was 19\\.5%.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Explore Census Data \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/profile/Buckhannon\\_city,\\_West\\_Virginia?g\\=1600000US5411188 \\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2023 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2013}} of 2010, there were 5,639 people, 2,148 households, and 1,149 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1992\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 2,398 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|847\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 94\\.5% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.9% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.9% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.5% of the population.", "There were 2,148 households, of which 22\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 11\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46\\.5% were non\\-families. 39\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.13 and the average family size was 2\\.84\\.", "The median age in the city was 33\\.1 years. 16\\.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 25\\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 18\\.9% were from 25 to 44; 22\\.5% were from 45 to 64; and 17\\.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\\.5% male and 52\\.5% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 5,725 people, 2,159 households, and 1,180 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 2,314\\.2 people per square mile (894\\.9/km2). There were 2,424 housing units at an average density of 979\\.8 per square mile (378\\.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.16% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.01% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.10% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.84% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.02% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.28% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.59% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.96% of the population.", "There were 2,159 households, out of which 22\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45\\.3% were non\\-families. 40\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.08 and the average family size was 2\\.78\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 15\\.5% under the age of 18, 28\\.1% from 18 to 24, 19\\.2% from 25 to 44, 19\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 17\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 81\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78\\.4 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $23,421, and the median income for a family was $36,975\\. Males had a median income of $30,691 versus $18,041 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $12,959\\. About 15\\.8% of families and 24\\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 32\\.7% of those under age 18 and 11\\.2% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Life ---- Józef Czechowicz came from a poor family living in Lublin. He was born in a basement flat, which has not survived to these days, at 3 Kapucyńska Street. His father, Paweł Czechowicz, worked as a janitor and, later, as a meter leader in the Warsaw Bank in Lublin. In 1912, he died due to a severe mental disease. Józef Czechowicz's mother, Małgorzata, née Sułek, was a good\-natured person of a tiny posture. 10 years older than her husband, she died in 1936\.Tomaszewski, Feliks. ["Józef Czechowicz"](http://literat.ug.edu.pl/autors/czechow.htm), *Virtual Library of Polish Literature*. The poet dedicated many of his poems to her. Apart from Józef, Paweł and Małgorzata had three more children: Janek, Katarzyna and Stanisław. In 1913 Czechowicz went to a Russian primary school in Lublin and graduated from the First Seven\-Form City School in 1917\. During the [Polish\-Soviet War](/wiki/Polish-Soviet_War "Polish-Soviet War"), in 1920, he volunteered to join the Polish Army but later came back home to continue his education. The poet attended the Teacher’s College, the Higher Teacher’s Course in Lublin and completed his education in 1929, graduating from the Institute of Special Pedagogy in Warsaw. At first, he worked as a teacher in Brasława, Słobódka and Włodzimierz ([Volodymyr\-Volynskyi](/wiki/Volodymyr-Volynskyi "Volodymyr-Volynskyi")); he also taught in a special school in Lublin, whose manager he eventually became. While his first volume of verse, *kamień* (*stone*) was printed in 1927, it is considered that he officially made his debut, publishing in the first issue of *Reflektor* the poetic prose story "Opowieść o papierowej koronie" (*A Story of a Paper Crown*), whose protagonist is Henryk, a disappointed homosexual lover who has attempted suicide. [thumb\|1931 sketch of Józef Czechowicz by [Roman Kramsztyk](/wiki/Roman_Kramsztyk "Roman Kramsztyk")](/wiki/File:Roman_Kramsztyk_-_Portret_J%C3%B3zefa_Czechowicza.jpg "Roman Kramsztyk - Portret Józefa Czechowicza.jpg") Józef Czechowicz was himself a homosexual. His sexual orientation significantly influenced his writingKaliściak, Tomasz. (2011\). *Katastrofy odmieńców*, p. 340\-41\. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Katowice. {{ISBN\|978\-83\-226\-1994\-0}} {{ISBN\|978\-83\-226\-2304\-6}}. but it also led him to face repression. He also worked as a journalist and an editor of newspapers and magazines based in Lublin. He followed this occupation after he moved to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw") in 1933\. He belonged to the [Polish Teachers' Union](/wiki/Polish_Teachers%27_Union "Polish Teachers' Union") and supported many of his writing friends, with both finances and publishing. He would take care of a group of poets who used to live at 9 Dobra St: Henryk Domiński, Wacław Mrozowski and Bronisław Ludwik Michalski. While he was living in Warsaw, he developed friendships with poets such as [Czesław Miłosz](/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz "Czesław Miłosz") and [Anna Świrszczyńska](/wiki/Anna_%C5%9Awirszczy%C5%84ska "Anna Świrszczyńska"). ### Death As Alina Kowalczykowa indicates, in the poetry volume *nuta człowiecza* Czechowicz envisioned himself being "struck by a bomb." Having heard about the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Czechowicz left Warsaw and returned to his native Lublin. He was convinced that being outside the capital city would keep him safe. On 9 September 1939, between 9 and 10 a.m., he was at a barber's shop at 46 Krakowskie Przedmieście St. when the building was bombarded and he died.
[ "Life\n----", "Józef Czechowicz came from a poor family living in Lublin. He was born in a basement flat, which has not survived to these days, at 3 Kapucyńska Street. His father, Paweł Czechowicz, worked as a janitor and, later, as a meter leader in the Warsaw Bank in Lublin. In 1912, he died due to a severe mental disease. Józef Czechowicz's mother, Małgorzata, née Sułek, was a good\\-natured person of a tiny posture. 10 years older than her husband, she died in 1936\\.Tomaszewski, Feliks. [\"Józef Czechowicz\"](http://literat.ug.edu.pl/autors/czechow.htm), *Virtual Library of Polish Literature*. The poet dedicated many of his poems to her. Apart from Józef, Paweł and Małgorzata had three more children: Janek, Katarzyna and Stanisław.", "In 1913 Czechowicz went to a Russian primary school in Lublin and graduated from the First Seven\\-Form City School in 1917\\. During the [Polish\\-Soviet War](/wiki/Polish-Soviet_War \"Polish-Soviet War\"), in 1920, he volunteered to join the Polish Army but later came back home to continue his education. The poet attended the Teacher’s College, the Higher Teacher’s Course in Lublin and completed his education in 1929, graduating from the Institute of Special Pedagogy in Warsaw.", "At first, he worked as a teacher in Brasława, Słobódka and Włodzimierz ([Volodymyr\\-Volynskyi](/wiki/Volodymyr-Volynskyi \"Volodymyr-Volynskyi\")); he also taught in a special school in Lublin, whose manager he eventually became.", "While his first volume of verse, *kamień* (*stone*) was printed in 1927, it is considered that he officially made his debut, publishing in the first issue of *Reflektor* the poetic prose story \"Opowieść o papierowej koronie\" (*A Story of a Paper Crown*), whose protagonist is Henryk, a disappointed homosexual lover who has attempted suicide.", "[thumb\\|1931 sketch of Józef Czechowicz by [Roman Kramsztyk](/wiki/Roman_Kramsztyk \"Roman Kramsztyk\")](/wiki/File:Roman_Kramsztyk_-_Portret_J%C3%B3zefa_Czechowicza.jpg \"Roman Kramsztyk - Portret Józefa Czechowicza.jpg\")\nJózef Czechowicz was himself a homosexual. His sexual orientation significantly influenced his writingKaliściak, Tomasz. (2011\\). *Katastrofy odmieńców*, p. 340\\-41\\. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Katowice. {{ISBN\\|978\\-83\\-226\\-1994\\-0}} {{ISBN\\|978\\-83\\-226\\-2304\\-6}}. but it also led him to face repression.", "He also worked as a journalist and an editor of newspapers and magazines based in Lublin. He followed this occupation after he moved to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\") in 1933\\. He belonged to the [Polish Teachers' Union](/wiki/Polish_Teachers%27_Union \"Polish Teachers' Union\") and supported many of his writing friends, with both finances and publishing. He would take care of a group of poets who used to live at 9 Dobra St: Henryk Domiński, Wacław Mrozowski and Bronisław Ludwik Michalski. While he was living in Warsaw, he developed friendships with poets such as [Czesław Miłosz](/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz \"Czesław Miłosz\") and [Anna Świrszczyńska](/wiki/Anna_%C5%9Awirszczy%C5%84ska \"Anna Świrszczyńska\").", "### Death", "As Alina Kowalczykowa indicates, in the poetry volume *nuta człowiecza* Czechowicz envisioned himself being \"struck by a bomb.\" Having heard about the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Czechowicz left Warsaw and returned to his native Lublin. He was convinced that being outside the capital city would keep him safe. On 9 September 1939, between 9 and 10 a.m., he was at a barber's shop at 46 Krakowskie Przedmieście St. when the building was bombarded and he died.", "" ]
Description and design ---------------------- The *Halifax*\-class frigate design, emerging from the [Canadian Patrol Frigate Project](/wiki/Canadian_Patrol_Frigate_Project "Canadian Patrol Frigate Project"), was ordered by the [Canadian Forces](/wiki/Canadian_Forces "Canadian Forces") in 1977 as a replacement for the aging {{sclass\|St. Laurent\|destroyer\|5}}, {{sclass\|Restigouche\|destroyer\|5}}, {{sclass\|Mackenzie\|destroyer\|5}}, and {{sclass\|Annapolis\|destroyer\|4}}es of [destroyer escorts](/wiki/Destroyer_escort "Destroyer escort"), which were all tasked with [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare").Milner, p. 284 *Charlottetown* was ordered in December 1987 as part of the second batch of frigates.Macpherson and Barrie, p. 291Gardiner and Chumbley, p. 47 To reflect the changing long term strategy of the Navy during the 1980s and 1990s, the *Halifax*\-class frigates was designed as a general purpose warship with particular focus on anti\-submarine capabilities. As built, the *Halifax*\-class vessels [displaced](/wiki/Displacement_%28ship%29 "Displacement (ship)") {{convert\|4750\|LT\|t\|0}} and were {{convert\|441\|ft\|9\|in\|m\|order\=flip\|1}} [long overall](/wiki/Length_overall "Length overall") and {{convert\|408\|ft\|5\|in\|m\|order\=flip\|1}} [between perpendiculars](/wiki/Length_between_perpendiculars "Length between perpendiculars") with a [beam](/wiki/Beam_%28nautical%29 "Beam (nautical)") of {{convert\|53\|ft\|8\|in\|m\|order\=flip\|1}} and a [draught](/wiki/Draft_%28hull%29 "Draft (hull)") of {{convert\|16\|ft\|4\|in\|m\|order\=flip\|1}}.Saunders, p. 90 That made them slightly larger than the *Iroquois*\-class destroyers. The vessels are propelled by two shafts with Escher Wyss controllable pitch [propellers](/wiki/Propeller "Propeller") driven by a [CODOG](/wiki/CODOG "CODOG") system of two [General Electric LM2500](/wiki/General_Electric_LM2500 "General Electric LM2500") gas turbines, generating {{convert\|47,500\|shp\|kW\|lk\=in\|0}} and one [SEMT Pielstick](/wiki/SEMT_Pielstick "SEMT Pielstick") 20 PA6 V 280 [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine"), generating {{convert\|8,800\|shp\|kW\|0}}. This gives the frigates a maximum speed of {{convert\|29\|kn\|lk\=in\|0}} and a range of {{convert\|7000\|nmi\|lk\=in\|0}} at {{convert\|15\|kn\|0}} while using their diesel engines. Using their gas turbines, the ships have a range of {{convert\|3930\|nmi\|0}} at {{convert\|18\|kn\|0}}. The *Halifax* class have a complement of 198 naval personnel of which 17 are officers and 17 aircrew of which 8 are officers. ### Armament and aircraft As built the *Halifax*\-class vessels deployed the [CH\-124 Sea King](/wiki/CH-124_Sea_King "CH-124 Sea King") helicopter, which acted in concert with shipboard sensors to seek out and destroy submarines at long distances from the ships. The ships have a helicopter deck fitted with a "[bear trap](/wiki/Beartrap_%28helicopter_device%29 "Beartrap (helicopter device)")" system allowing the launch and recovery of helicopters in up to [sea state 6](/wiki/Sea_State "Sea State"). The *Halifax* class also carries a close\-in anti\-submarine weapon in the form of the [Mark 46 torpedo](/wiki/Mark_46_torpedo "Mark 46 torpedo"), launched from twin Mark 32 Mod 9 torpedo tubes in launcher compartments either side of the forward end of the helicopter hangar. As built, the anti\-shipping role is supported by the [RGM\-84 Harpoon](/wiki/RGM-84_Harpoon "RGM-84 Harpoon") Block 1C [surface\-to\-surface missile](/wiki/Surface-to-surface_missile "Surface-to-surface missile"), mounted in two quadruple launch tubes at the main deck level between the funnel and the helicopter hangar. For [anti\-aircraft](/wiki/Anti-aircraft "Anti-aircraft") self\-defence the ships are armed with the [Sea Sparrow](/wiki/Sea_Sparrow "Sea Sparrow") [vertical launch](/wiki/Vertical_Launching_System "Vertical Launching System") [surface\-to\-air missile](/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile "Surface-to-air missile") in two Mk 48 Mod 0 eight\-cell launchers placed to port and starboard of the funnel. The vessels carry 16 missiles. A [Raytheon](/wiki/Raytheon "Raytheon")/[General Dynamics](/wiki/General_Dynamics "General Dynamics") [Phalanx](/wiki/Phalanx_CIWS "Phalanx CIWS") Mark 15 Mod 21 Close\-In Weapon System (CIWS) is mounted on top of the helicopter hangar for "last\-ditch" defence against targets that evade the Sea Sparrow. As built, the main gun on the [forecastle](/wiki/Forecastle "Forecastle") is a [{{convert\|57\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on\|1}}/70 calibre Mark 2 gun](/wiki/Bofors_57_mm_L/70_naval_artillery_gun "Bofors 57 mm L/70 naval artillery gun") from [Bofors](/wiki/Bofors "Bofors").{{efn\|name\=gun nomenclature}} The gun is capable of firing {{convert\|2\.4\|kg\|adj\=on}} shells at a rate of 220 rounds per minute at a range of more than {{convert\|17\|km}}. The vessels also carry eight {{convert\|12\.7\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on\|2}} machine guns. ### Countermeasures and sensors As built, the decoy system comprises Two [BAE Systems](/wiki/BAE_Systems "BAE Systems") Shield Mark 2 decoy launchers which fire [chaff](/wiki/Chaff_%28radar_countermeasure%29 "Chaff (radar countermeasure)") to {{convert\|2\|km}} and infrared rockets to {{convert\|169\|m\|yd}} in distraction, confusion and centroid seduction modes. The torpedo decoy is the [AN/SLQ\-25A Nixie](/wiki/SLQ-25_Nixie "SLQ-25 Nixie") towed acoustic decoy from Argon ST. The ship's radar warning receiver, the CANEWS (Canadian Electronic Warfare System), SLQ\-501, and the radar jammer, SLQ\-505, were developed by Thorn and Lockheed Martin Canada. Two [Thales Nederland](/wiki/Thales_Nederland "Thales Nederland") (formerly Signaal) SPG\-503 (STIR 1\.8\) fire control radars are installed one on the roof of the bridge and one on the raised radar platform immediately forward of the helicopter hangar. The ship is also fitted with Raytheon [AN/SPS\-49](/wiki/AN/SPS-49 "AN/SPS-49")(V)5 long\-range active air search radar operating at C and D bands, Ericsson HC150 Sea Giraffe medium\-range air and surface search radar operating at G and H bands, and Kelvin Hughes Type 1007 I\-band navigation radar. The sonar suite includes the CANTASS Canadian Towed Array and GD\-C AN/SQS\-510 hull mounted sonar and incorporates an acoustic range prediction system. The sonobuoy processing system is the GD\-C AN/UYS\-503\. ### Modernization The *Halifax* class underwent a modernization program, known as the Halifax Class Modernization (HCM) program, in order to update the frigates' capabilities in combatting modern smaller, faster and more mobile threats. This involved upgrading the command and control, radar, communications, electronic warfare and armament systems. Further improvements, such as modifying the vessel to accommodate the new [Sikorsky CH\-148 Cyclone](/wiki/Sikorsky_CH-148_Cyclone "Sikorsky CH-148 Cyclone") helicopter and satellite links will be done separately from the main Frigate Equipment Life Extension (FELEX) program.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/business\-equipment/halifax\-frigate.page \|title\=Halifax\-class Modernization / Frigate Life Extension \|publisher\=National Defence and the Canadian Armed Forces \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217141250/http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/business\-equipment/halifax\-frigate.page \|archive\-date\=17 February 2018 \|access\-date\=17 February 2018}} The FELEX program comprised upgrading the combat systems integration to CMS330\. The SPS\-49 2D long range air search radar was replaced by the [Thales Nederland](/wiki/Thales_Nederland "Thales Nederland") SMART\-S Mk 2 E/F\-band 3D surveillance radar, and the two STIR 1\.8 fire control radars were replaced by a pair of Saab Ceros 200 re\-control radars. A Telephonics IFF Mode 5/S interrogator was installed and the Elisra NS9003A\-V2HC ESM system replaced the SLQ\-501 CANEWS. An IBM multi\-link (Link 11, Link 16 and Link 22 enabled) datalink processing system was installed along with two [Raytheon](/wiki/Raytheon "Raytheon") Anschütz Pathfinder Mk II navigation radars. Furthermore, [Rheinmetall](/wiki/Rheinmetall "Rheinmetall")'s Multi\-Ammunition Soft kill System (MASS), known as MASS DUERAS was introduced to replace the Plessey Shield decoy system. The existing 57 mm Mk 2 guns were upgraded to the Mk 3 standard and the Harpoon missiles were improved to Block II levels, the Phalanx was upgraded to Block 1B and the obsolete Sea Sparrow system was replaced by the [Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile](/wiki/Evolved_Sea_Sparrow_Missile "Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.janes.com/article/60726/halifax\-class\-upgrade\-on\-finals\-cansec2016d2 \|title\=Halifax class upgrade on finals \[CANSEC2016D2] \|last\=Scott \|first\=Richard \|website\=janes.com \|date\=26 May 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217141122/http://www.janes.com/article/60726/halifax\-class\-upgrade\-on\-finals\-cansec2016d2 \|archive\-date\=17 February 2018 \|access\-date\=17 February 2018}}
[ "Description and design\n----------------------", "The *Halifax*\\-class frigate design, emerging from the [Canadian Patrol Frigate Project](/wiki/Canadian_Patrol_Frigate_Project \"Canadian Patrol Frigate Project\"), was ordered by the [Canadian Forces](/wiki/Canadian_Forces \"Canadian Forces\") in 1977 as a replacement for the aging {{sclass\\|St. Laurent\\|destroyer\\|5}}, {{sclass\\|Restigouche\\|destroyer\\|5}}, {{sclass\\|Mackenzie\\|destroyer\\|5}}, and {{sclass\\|Annapolis\\|destroyer\\|4}}es of [destroyer escorts](/wiki/Destroyer_escort \"Destroyer escort\"), which were all tasked with [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\").Milner, p. 284 *Charlottetown* was ordered in December 1987 as part of the second batch of frigates.Macpherson and Barrie, p. 291Gardiner and Chumbley, p. 47 To reflect the changing long term strategy of the Navy during the 1980s and 1990s, the *Halifax*\\-class frigates was designed as a general purpose warship with particular focus on anti\\-submarine capabilities.", "As built, the *Halifax*\\-class vessels [displaced](/wiki/Displacement_%28ship%29 \"Displacement (ship)\") {{convert\\|4750\\|LT\\|t\\|0}} and were {{convert\\|441\\|ft\\|9\\|in\\|m\\|order\\=flip\\|1}} [long overall](/wiki/Length_overall \"Length overall\") and {{convert\\|408\\|ft\\|5\\|in\\|m\\|order\\=flip\\|1}} [between perpendiculars](/wiki/Length_between_perpendiculars \"Length between perpendiculars\") with a [beam](/wiki/Beam_%28nautical%29 \"Beam (nautical)\") of {{convert\\|53\\|ft\\|8\\|in\\|m\\|order\\=flip\\|1}} and a [draught](/wiki/Draft_%28hull%29 \"Draft (hull)\") of {{convert\\|16\\|ft\\|4\\|in\\|m\\|order\\=flip\\|1}}.Saunders, p. 90 That made them slightly larger than the *Iroquois*\\-class destroyers. The vessels are propelled by two shafts with Escher Wyss controllable pitch [propellers](/wiki/Propeller \"Propeller\") driven by a [CODOG](/wiki/CODOG \"CODOG\") system of two [General Electric LM2500](/wiki/General_Electric_LM2500 \"General Electric LM2500\") gas turbines, generating {{convert\\|47,500\\|shp\\|kW\\|lk\\=in\\|0}} and one [SEMT Pielstick](/wiki/SEMT_Pielstick \"SEMT Pielstick\") 20 PA6 V 280 [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\"), generating {{convert\\|8,800\\|shp\\|kW\\|0}}.", "This gives the frigates a maximum speed of {{convert\\|29\\|kn\\|lk\\=in\\|0}} and a range of {{convert\\|7000\\|nmi\\|lk\\=in\\|0}} at {{convert\\|15\\|kn\\|0}} while using their diesel engines. Using their gas turbines, the ships have a range of {{convert\\|3930\\|nmi\\|0}} at {{convert\\|18\\|kn\\|0}}. The *Halifax* class have a complement of 198 naval personnel of which 17 are officers and 17 aircrew of which 8 are officers.", "### Armament and aircraft", "As built the *Halifax*\\-class vessels deployed the [CH\\-124 Sea King](/wiki/CH-124_Sea_King \"CH-124 Sea King\") helicopter, which acted in concert with shipboard sensors to seek out and destroy submarines at long distances from the ships. The ships have a helicopter deck fitted with a \"[bear trap](/wiki/Beartrap_%28helicopter_device%29 \"Beartrap (helicopter device)\")\" system allowing the launch and recovery of helicopters in up to [sea state 6](/wiki/Sea_State \"Sea State\"). The *Halifax* class also carries a close\\-in anti\\-submarine weapon in the form of the [Mark 46 torpedo](/wiki/Mark_46_torpedo \"Mark 46 torpedo\"), launched from twin Mark 32 Mod 9 torpedo tubes in launcher compartments either side of the forward end of the helicopter hangar.", "As built, the anti\\-shipping role is supported by the [RGM\\-84 Harpoon](/wiki/RGM-84_Harpoon \"RGM-84 Harpoon\") Block 1C [surface\\-to\\-surface missile](/wiki/Surface-to-surface_missile \"Surface-to-surface missile\"), mounted in two quadruple launch tubes at the main deck level between the funnel and the helicopter hangar. For [anti\\-aircraft](/wiki/Anti-aircraft \"Anti-aircraft\") self\\-defence the ships are armed with the [Sea Sparrow](/wiki/Sea_Sparrow \"Sea Sparrow\") [vertical launch](/wiki/Vertical_Launching_System \"Vertical Launching System\") [surface\\-to\\-air missile](/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile \"Surface-to-air missile\") in two Mk 48 Mod 0 eight\\-cell launchers placed to port and starboard of the funnel. The vessels carry 16 missiles. A [Raytheon](/wiki/Raytheon \"Raytheon\")/[General Dynamics](/wiki/General_Dynamics \"General Dynamics\") [Phalanx](/wiki/Phalanx_CIWS \"Phalanx CIWS\") Mark 15 Mod 21 Close\\-In Weapon System (CIWS) is mounted on top of the helicopter hangar for \"last\\-ditch\" defence against targets that evade the Sea Sparrow.", "As built, the main gun on the [forecastle](/wiki/Forecastle \"Forecastle\") is a [{{convert\\|57\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on\\|1}}/70 calibre Mark 2 gun](/wiki/Bofors_57_mm_L/70_naval_artillery_gun \"Bofors 57 mm L/70 naval artillery gun\") from [Bofors](/wiki/Bofors \"Bofors\").{{efn\\|name\\=gun nomenclature}} The gun is capable of firing {{convert\\|2\\.4\\|kg\\|adj\\=on}} shells at a rate of 220 rounds per minute at a range of more than {{convert\\|17\\|km}}. The vessels also carry eight {{convert\\|12\\.7\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on\\|2}} machine guns.", "### Countermeasures and sensors", "As built, the decoy system comprises Two [BAE Systems](/wiki/BAE_Systems \"BAE Systems\") Shield Mark 2 decoy launchers which fire [chaff](/wiki/Chaff_%28radar_countermeasure%29 \"Chaff (radar countermeasure)\") to {{convert\\|2\\|km}} and infrared rockets to {{convert\\|169\\|m\\|yd}} in distraction, confusion and centroid seduction modes. The torpedo decoy is the [AN/SLQ\\-25A Nixie](/wiki/SLQ-25_Nixie \"SLQ-25 Nixie\") towed acoustic decoy from Argon ST. The ship's radar warning receiver, the CANEWS (Canadian Electronic Warfare System), SLQ\\-501, and the radar jammer, SLQ\\-505, were developed by Thorn and Lockheed Martin Canada.", "Two [Thales Nederland](/wiki/Thales_Nederland \"Thales Nederland\") (formerly Signaal) SPG\\-503 (STIR 1\\.8\\) fire control radars are installed one on the roof of the bridge and one on the raised radar platform immediately forward of the helicopter hangar. The ship is also fitted with Raytheon [AN/SPS\\-49](/wiki/AN/SPS-49 \"AN/SPS-49\")(V)5 long\\-range active air search radar operating at C and D bands, Ericsson HC150 Sea Giraffe medium\\-range air and surface search radar operating at G and H bands, and Kelvin Hughes Type 1007 I\\-band navigation radar. The sonar suite includes the CANTASS Canadian Towed Array and GD\\-C AN/SQS\\-510 hull mounted sonar and incorporates an acoustic range prediction system. The sonobuoy processing system is the GD\\-C AN/UYS\\-503\\.", "### Modernization", "The *Halifax* class underwent a modernization program, known as the Halifax Class Modernization (HCM) program, in order to update the frigates' capabilities in combatting modern smaller, faster and more mobile threats. This involved upgrading the command and control, radar, communications, electronic warfare and armament systems. Further improvements, such as modifying the vessel to accommodate the new [Sikorsky CH\\-148 Cyclone](/wiki/Sikorsky_CH-148_Cyclone \"Sikorsky CH-148 Cyclone\") helicopter and satellite links will be done separately from the main Frigate Equipment Life Extension (FELEX) program.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/business\\-equipment/halifax\\-frigate.page \\|title\\=Halifax\\-class Modernization / Frigate Life Extension \\|publisher\\=National Defence and the Canadian Armed Forces \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217141250/http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/business\\-equipment/halifax\\-frigate.page \\|archive\\-date\\=17 February 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2018}}", "The FELEX program comprised upgrading the combat systems integration to CMS330\\. The SPS\\-49 2D long range air search radar was replaced by the [Thales Nederland](/wiki/Thales_Nederland \"Thales Nederland\") SMART\\-S Mk 2 E/F\\-band 3D surveillance radar, and the two STIR 1\\.8 fire control radars were replaced by a pair of Saab Ceros 200 re\\-control radars. A Telephonics IFF Mode 5/S interrogator was installed and the Elisra NS9003A\\-V2HC ESM system replaced the SLQ\\-501 CANEWS. An IBM multi\\-link (Link 11, Link 16 and Link 22 enabled) datalink processing system was installed along with two [Raytheon](/wiki/Raytheon \"Raytheon\") Anschütz Pathfinder Mk II navigation radars. Furthermore, [Rheinmetall](/wiki/Rheinmetall \"Rheinmetall\")'s Multi\\-Ammunition Soft kill System (MASS), known as MASS DUERAS was introduced to replace the Plessey Shield decoy system. The existing 57 mm Mk 2 guns were upgraded to the Mk 3 standard and the Harpoon missiles were improved to Block II levels, the Phalanx was upgraded to Block 1B and the obsolete Sea Sparrow system was replaced by the [Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile](/wiki/Evolved_Sea_Sparrow_Missile \"Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.janes.com/article/60726/halifax\\-class\\-upgrade\\-on\\-finals\\-cansec2016d2 \\|title\\=Halifax class upgrade on finals \\[CANSEC2016D2] \\|last\\=Scott \\|first\\=Richard \\|website\\=janes.com \\|date\\=26 May 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217141122/http://www.janes.com/article/60726/halifax\\-class\\-upgrade\\-on\\-finals\\-cansec2016d2 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 February 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2018}}", "" ]
History ------- {{For\|more detailed histories\|Czech lands in the High Middle Ages\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1348–1526\)\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1526–1648\)\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1648–1867\)\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1867–1918\)}} ### Přemyslids In the 10th and 11th century, the [Duchy of Bohemia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Bohemia "Duchy of Bohemia"), together with [Moravia](/wiki/Moravia "Moravia") (the [Margraviate of Moravia](/wiki/Margraviate_of_Moravia "Margraviate of Moravia") from 1182 on), and [Kłodzko Land](/wiki/K%C5%82odzko_Land "Kłodzko Land") were consolidated under the ruling [Přemyslid dynasty](/wiki/P%C5%99emyslid_dynasty "Přemyslid dynasty"). Duke [Ottokar I of Bohemia](/wiki/Ottokar_I_of_Bohemia "Ottokar I of Bohemia") gained the hereditary royal title to the Duchy of Bohemia in 1198, from the German (anti)−king [Philip of Swabia](/wiki/Philip_of_Swabia "Philip of Swabia"), for his support. Along with the title, Philip also raised the duchy to the Kingdom of Bohemia rank. The regality was ultimately confirmed by Philip's nephew the [German King](/wiki/King_of_Germany "King of Germany") [Frederick II](/wiki/Frederick_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor"), later the [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor "Holy Roman Emperor") (1220−1250\), in the [Golden Bull of Sicily](/wiki/Golden_Bull_of_Sicily "Golden Bull of Sicily") issued in 1212\. The Přemyslid king [Ottokar II of Bohemia](/wiki/Ottokar_II_of_Bohemia "Ottokar II of Bohemia") acquired the [Duchy of Austria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Austria "Duchy of Austria") in 1251, the [Duchy of Styria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Styria "Duchy of Styria") in 1261, the [Egerland](/wiki/Egerland "Egerland") in 1266, the [Duchy of Carinthia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Carinthia "Duchy of Carinthia") with the [March of Carniola](/wiki/March_of_Carniola "March of Carniola") and the [Windic March](/wiki/Windic_March "Windic March") in 1269 as well as the March of [Friuli](/wiki/Friuli "Friuli") in 1272\. His plans to turn Bohemia into the leading [Imperial State](/wiki/Imperial_State "Imperial State") were aborted by his [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg") rival King [Rudolph I of Germany](/wiki/Rudolph_I_of_Germany "Rudolph I of Germany"), who seized his acquisitions and finally defeated him in the 1278 [Battle on the Marchfeld](/wiki/Battle_on_the_Marchfeld "Battle on the Marchfeld"). ### Luxembourgers In 1306, the [House of Luxembourg](/wiki/House_of_Luxembourg "House of Luxembourg") began producing Bohemian kings upon the extinction of the Přemyslids. They significantly enlarged the Bohemian lands again, including when King [John the Blind](/wiki/John_of_Bohemia "John of Bohemia") vassalized most Polish [Piast](/wiki/Silesian_Piasts "Silesian Piasts") dukes of [Silesia](/wiki/Silesia "Silesia"). His suzerainty was acknowledged by the Polish king [Casimir III the Great](/wiki/Casimir_III_the_Great "Casimir III the Great") in the 1335 [Treaty of Trentschin](/wiki/Treaty_of_Trentschin "Treaty of Trentschin"). John also achieved the [enfeoffment](/wiki/Enfeoffment "Enfeoffment") with the [Upper Lusatian](/wiki/Upper_Lusatia "Upper Lusatia") lands of [Bautzen](/wiki/Bautzen "Bautzen") (1319\) and [Görlitz](/wiki/G%C3%B6rlitz "Görlitz") (1329\), by the [German king](/wiki/King_of_Germany "King of Germany") [Louis IV](/wiki/Louis_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor"). [thumb\|left\|upright\|Coats of arms of the Holy Roman Empire and the Bohemian Crown on the Tower of [Charles Bridge](/wiki/Charles_Bridge "Charles Bridge") in Prague.](/wiki/File:Statues_on_Old_Town_Bridge_Tower.jpg "Statues on Old Town Bridge Tower.jpg") King John's eldest son [Charles IV](/wiki/Charles_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor") was elected [king of the Romans](/wiki/King_of_the_Romans "King of the Romans") in 1346 and succeeded his father as king of Bohemia in the same year. In 1348, Charles IV introduced the concept of the *Crown of Bohemia* (*Corona regni Bohemiae* in Latin), a term which designated the whole state hereditarily ruled by the kings of Bohemia, not only its core territory of Bohemia but also the incorporated provinces.{{cite web \|last1\=Šitler \|first1\=Jiří \|title\=From Bohemia to Czechia \|url\=https://www.radio.cz/en/section/letter/from\-bohemia\-to\-czechia \|website\=Radio Prague International \|publisher\=Czech Radio \|access\-date\=26 January 2020 \|language\=en \|date\=12 July 2016}} The Luxembourg dynasty reached its high point, when Charles was crowned [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor "Holy Roman Emperor") in 1355\. By his Imperial authority he decreed that the united Bohemian lands should endure regardless of dynastic developments, even if the Luxembourgs should die out.{{cite book \|last\=Prinz \|first\=Friedrich \|language\=de\|title\=Deutsche Geschichte in Osten Europas: Böhmen und Mähren \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=MmwjAQAAIAAJ \|access\-date\= 25 February 2013 \|year\=1993 \|publisher\=Wolf Jobst Siedler Verlag GmbH \|location\=Berlin \|isbn\=3\-88680\-200\-0 \|page\=381 }} In 1367, he purchased [Lower Lusatia](/wiki/Lower_Lusatia "Lower Lusatia") from his stepson Margrave [Otto V of Brandenburg](/wiki/Otto_V%2C_Duke_of_Bavaria "Otto V, Duke of Bavaria") and the [Margraviate of Brandenburg](/wiki/Margraviate_of_Brandenburg "Margraviate of Brandenburg"). Beside their home [County of Luxembourg](/wiki/County_of_Luxembourg "County of Luxembourg") itself, the dynasty held further non\-contiguous Imperial fiefs in the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries "Low Countries"), such as: the [Duchy of Brabant](/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant "Duchy of Brabant") and [Duchy of Limburg](/wiki/Duchy_of_Limburg "Duchy of Limburg"), acquired through marriage by Charles' younger half\-brother [Wenceslaus of Luxembourg](/wiki/Wenceslaus_I%2C_Duke_of_Luxembourg "Wenceslaus I, Duke of Luxembourg") in 1355; as well as the Margraviate of Brandenburg, purchased in 1373\. As both the king of Bohemia and the margrave of Brandenburg had been designated [Prince\-electors](/wiki/Prince-elector "Prince-elector") in the [Golden Bull of 1356](/wiki/Golden_Bull_of_1356 "Golden Bull of 1356"), the Luxembourgs held two votes in the electoral college, securing the succession of Charles's son [Wenceslaus](/wiki/Wenceslaus%2C_King_of_the_Romans "Wenceslaus, King of the Romans") in 1376\. With King Wenceslaus, the decline of the Luxembourg dynasty began. He himself was deposed as king of the Romans in 1400\. The duchies of Brabant, Limburg (in 1406\), and even Luxembourg itself (in 1411\) were ceded to the French [House of Valois\-Burgundy](/wiki/House_of_Valois-Burgundy "House of Valois-Burgundy"); while the Margraviate of Brandenburg passed to the [House of Hohenzollern](/wiki/House_of_Hohenzollern "House of Hohenzollern") (in 1415\). Nevertheless, the joint rule of the Bohemian Lands outlived the [Hussite Wars](/wiki/Hussite_Wars "Hussite Wars") and the extinction of the Luxembourg male line upon the death of Emperor [Sigismund](/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor") in 1437\. ### Jagiellons [Vladislas II](/wiki/Vladislas_II_of_Hungary "Vladislas II of Hungary") of the [Jagiellon dynasty](/wiki/Jagiellon_dynasty "Jagiellon dynasty"), son of the Polish king [Casimir IV](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon "Casimir IV Jagiellon"), was designated king of Bohemia in 1471, while the crown lands of Moravia, Silesia, and the Lusatias were occupied by rivaling King [Matthias Corvinus](/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus "Matthias Corvinus") of Hungary. In 1479, both kings signed the [Treaty of Olomouc](/wiki/Treaty_of_Olomouc "Treaty of Olomouc"), whereby the unity of the Bohemian crown lands was officially retained unchanged and the monarchs appointed each other as sole heir. Upon the death of King Matthias in 1490, Vladislas ruled the Bohemian crown lands and the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary "Kingdom of Hungary") in personal union. ### Habsburgs [thumb\|upright\=0\.9\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown within Austria\-Hungary (1910\)](/wiki/File:Rakousko-Uhersko_1910.PNG "Rakousko-Uhersko 1910.PNG") When Vladislas' only son [Louis](/wiki/Louis_II_of_Hungary "Louis II of Hungary") was killed at the [Battle of Mohács](/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs "Battle of Mohács") in 1526, ending the Jagiellon dynasty rule in Bohemia, a convention of Bohemian nobles elected his brother\-in\-law, the [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg") archduke [Ferdinand I of Austria](/wiki/Ferdinand_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor"), as the new king of the Bohemian crown lands. Together with the [Archduchy of Austria](/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria "Archduchy of Austria") "[hereditary lands](/wiki/Erblande "Erblande")" and the [Hungarian kingdom](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281526%E2%80%931867%29 "Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)"), they formed the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy"), which in the following centuries grew out of the Holy Roman Empire into a separate European power. Attempts by the Bohemian [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation "Protestant Reformation") estates to build up an autonomous confederation were dashed at the 1620 [Battle of White Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain "Battle of White Mountain"), whereafter the administration was centralised at [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"). Moreover, the Habsburg rulers lost the Lusatias to the [Electorate of Saxony](/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony "Electorate of Saxony") after the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War") in the 1635 [Peace of Prague](/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_%281635%29 "Peace of Prague (1635)"), and also most of Silesia with Kladsko to the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia") after the [First Silesian War](/wiki/First_Silesian_War "First Silesian War") in the 1742 [Treaty of Breslau](/wiki/Treaty_of_Breslau "Treaty of Breslau"). In the modern era, the remaining crown lands of [Bohemia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia "Kingdom of Bohemia"), [Moravia](/wiki/Margraviate_of_Moravia "Margraviate of Moravia") and [Austrian Silesia](/wiki/Austrian_Silesia "Austrian Silesia") became constituent parts of the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire "Austrian Empire") in 1804, and later the [Cisleithanian](/wiki/Cisleithania "Cisleithania") half of [Austria\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary "Austria-Hungary") in 1867\. After [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and the [dissolution of the Austro\-Hungarian monarchy](/wiki/Dissolution_of_Austria-Hungary "Dissolution of Austria-Hungary"), these became the historic regions usually referred to as the [Czech lands](/wiki/Czech_lands "Czech lands") forming the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"). Austrian Silesia with the [Hlučín Region](/wiki/Hlu%C4%8D%C3%ADn_Region "Hlučín Region") is today known as [Czech Silesia](/wiki/Czech_Silesia "Czech Silesia"), with the exception of eastern [Cieszyn Silesia](/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia "Cieszyn Silesia") which passed to the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic") in 1920\.
[ "History\n-------", "{{For\\|more detailed histories\\|Czech lands in the High Middle Ages\\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1348–1526\\)\\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1526–1648\\)\\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1648–1867\\)\\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1867–1918\\)}}\n### Přemyslids", "In the 10th and 11th century, the [Duchy of Bohemia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Bohemia \"Duchy of Bohemia\"), together with [Moravia](/wiki/Moravia \"Moravia\") (the [Margraviate of Moravia](/wiki/Margraviate_of_Moravia \"Margraviate of Moravia\") from 1182 on), and [Kłodzko Land](/wiki/K%C5%82odzko_Land \"Kłodzko Land\") were consolidated under the ruling [Přemyslid dynasty](/wiki/P%C5%99emyslid_dynasty \"Přemyslid dynasty\").", "Duke [Ottokar I of Bohemia](/wiki/Ottokar_I_of_Bohemia \"Ottokar I of Bohemia\") gained the hereditary royal title to the Duchy of Bohemia in 1198, from the German (anti)−king [Philip of Swabia](/wiki/Philip_of_Swabia \"Philip of Swabia\"), for his support. Along with the title, Philip also raised the duchy to the Kingdom of Bohemia rank. The regality was ultimately confirmed by Philip's nephew the [German King](/wiki/King_of_Germany \"King of Germany\") [Frederick II](/wiki/Frederick_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor\"), later the [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Holy Roman Emperor\") (1220−1250\\), in the [Golden Bull of Sicily](/wiki/Golden_Bull_of_Sicily \"Golden Bull of Sicily\") issued in 1212\\.", "The Přemyslid king [Ottokar II of Bohemia](/wiki/Ottokar_II_of_Bohemia \"Ottokar II of Bohemia\") acquired the [Duchy of Austria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Austria \"Duchy of Austria\") in 1251, the [Duchy of Styria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Styria \"Duchy of Styria\") in 1261, the [Egerland](/wiki/Egerland \"Egerland\") in 1266, the [Duchy of Carinthia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Carinthia \"Duchy of Carinthia\") with the [March of Carniola](/wiki/March_of_Carniola \"March of Carniola\") and the [Windic March](/wiki/Windic_March \"Windic March\") in 1269 as well as the March of [Friuli](/wiki/Friuli \"Friuli\") in 1272\\. His plans to turn Bohemia into the leading [Imperial State](/wiki/Imperial_State \"Imperial State\") were aborted by his [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\") rival King [Rudolph I of Germany](/wiki/Rudolph_I_of_Germany \"Rudolph I of Germany\"), who seized his acquisitions and finally defeated him in the 1278 [Battle on the Marchfeld](/wiki/Battle_on_the_Marchfeld \"Battle on the Marchfeld\").", "### Luxembourgers", "In 1306, the [House of Luxembourg](/wiki/House_of_Luxembourg \"House of Luxembourg\") began producing Bohemian kings upon the extinction of the Přemyslids. They significantly enlarged the Bohemian lands again, including when King [John the Blind](/wiki/John_of_Bohemia \"John of Bohemia\") vassalized most Polish [Piast](/wiki/Silesian_Piasts \"Silesian Piasts\") dukes of [Silesia](/wiki/Silesia \"Silesia\"). His suzerainty was acknowledged by the Polish king [Casimir III the Great](/wiki/Casimir_III_the_Great \"Casimir III the Great\") in the 1335 [Treaty of Trentschin](/wiki/Treaty_of_Trentschin \"Treaty of Trentschin\"). John also achieved the [enfeoffment](/wiki/Enfeoffment \"Enfeoffment\") with the [Upper Lusatian](/wiki/Upper_Lusatia \"Upper Lusatia\") lands of [Bautzen](/wiki/Bautzen \"Bautzen\") (1319\\) and [Görlitz](/wiki/G%C3%B6rlitz \"Görlitz\") (1329\\), by the [German king](/wiki/King_of_Germany \"King of Germany\") [Louis IV](/wiki/Louis_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor\").\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Coats of arms of the Holy Roman Empire and the Bohemian Crown on the Tower of [Charles Bridge](/wiki/Charles_Bridge \"Charles Bridge\") in Prague.](/wiki/File:Statues_on_Old_Town_Bridge_Tower.jpg \"Statues on Old Town Bridge Tower.jpg\")", "King John's eldest son [Charles IV](/wiki/Charles_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor\") was elected [king of the Romans](/wiki/King_of_the_Romans \"King of the Romans\") in 1346 and succeeded his father as king of Bohemia in the same year. In 1348, Charles IV introduced the concept of the *Crown of Bohemia* (*Corona regni Bohemiae* in Latin), a term which designated the whole state hereditarily ruled by the kings of Bohemia, not only its core territory of Bohemia but also the incorporated provinces.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Šitler \\|first1\\=Jiří \\|title\\=From Bohemia to Czechia \\|url\\=https://www.radio.cz/en/section/letter/from\\-bohemia\\-to\\-czechia \\|website\\=Radio Prague International \\|publisher\\=Czech Radio \\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2020 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=12 July 2016}}", "The Luxembourg dynasty reached its high point, when Charles was crowned [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Holy Roman Emperor\") in 1355\\. By his Imperial authority he decreed that the united Bohemian lands should endure regardless of dynastic developments, even if the Luxembourgs should die out.{{cite book \\|last\\=Prinz \\|first\\=Friedrich \\|language\\=de\\|title\\=Deutsche Geschichte in Osten Europas: Böhmen und Mähren \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=MmwjAQAAIAAJ \\|access\\-date\\= 25 February 2013 \\|year\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Wolf Jobst Siedler Verlag GmbH \\|location\\=Berlin \\|isbn\\=3\\-88680\\-200\\-0 \\|page\\=381 }}", "In 1367, he purchased [Lower Lusatia](/wiki/Lower_Lusatia \"Lower Lusatia\") from his stepson Margrave [Otto V of Brandenburg](/wiki/Otto_V%2C_Duke_of_Bavaria \"Otto V, Duke of Bavaria\") and the [Margraviate of Brandenburg](/wiki/Margraviate_of_Brandenburg \"Margraviate of Brandenburg\"). Beside their home [County of Luxembourg](/wiki/County_of_Luxembourg \"County of Luxembourg\") itself, the dynasty held further non\\-contiguous Imperial fiefs in the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries \"Low Countries\"), such as: the [Duchy of Brabant](/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant \"Duchy of Brabant\") and [Duchy of Limburg](/wiki/Duchy_of_Limburg \"Duchy of Limburg\"), acquired through marriage by Charles' younger half\\-brother [Wenceslaus of Luxembourg](/wiki/Wenceslaus_I%2C_Duke_of_Luxembourg \"Wenceslaus I, Duke of Luxembourg\") in 1355; as well as the Margraviate of Brandenburg, purchased in 1373\\. As both the king of Bohemia and the margrave of Brandenburg had been designated [Prince\\-electors](/wiki/Prince-elector \"Prince-elector\") in the [Golden Bull of 1356](/wiki/Golden_Bull_of_1356 \"Golden Bull of 1356\"), the Luxembourgs held two votes in the electoral college, securing the succession of Charles's son [Wenceslaus](/wiki/Wenceslaus%2C_King_of_the_Romans \"Wenceslaus, King of the Romans\") in 1376\\.", "With King Wenceslaus, the decline of the Luxembourg dynasty began. He himself was deposed as king of the Romans in 1400\\. The duchies of Brabant, Limburg (in 1406\\), and even Luxembourg itself (in 1411\\) were ceded to the French [House of Valois\\-Burgundy](/wiki/House_of_Valois-Burgundy \"House of Valois-Burgundy\"); while the Margraviate of Brandenburg passed to the [House of Hohenzollern](/wiki/House_of_Hohenzollern \"House of Hohenzollern\") (in 1415\\). Nevertheless, the joint rule of the Bohemian Lands outlived the [Hussite Wars](/wiki/Hussite_Wars \"Hussite Wars\") and the extinction of the Luxembourg male line upon the death of Emperor [Sigismund](/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor\") in 1437\\.", "### Jagiellons", "[Vladislas II](/wiki/Vladislas_II_of_Hungary \"Vladislas II of Hungary\") of the [Jagiellon dynasty](/wiki/Jagiellon_dynasty \"Jagiellon dynasty\"), son of the Polish king [Casimir IV](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon \"Casimir IV Jagiellon\"), was designated king of Bohemia in 1471, while the crown lands of Moravia, Silesia, and the Lusatias were occupied by rivaling King [Matthias Corvinus](/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus \"Matthias Corvinus\") of Hungary. In 1479, both kings signed the [Treaty of Olomouc](/wiki/Treaty_of_Olomouc \"Treaty of Olomouc\"), whereby the unity of the Bohemian crown lands was officially retained unchanged and the monarchs appointed each other as sole heir. Upon the death of King Matthias in 1490, Vladislas ruled the Bohemian crown lands and the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary \"Kingdom of Hungary\") in personal union.", "### Habsburgs", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.9\\|Lands of the Bohemian Crown within Austria\\-Hungary (1910\\)](/wiki/File:Rakousko-Uhersko_1910.PNG \"Rakousko-Uhersko 1910.PNG\")\nWhen Vladislas' only son [Louis](/wiki/Louis_II_of_Hungary \"Louis II of Hungary\") was killed at the [Battle of Mohács](/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs \"Battle of Mohács\") in 1526, ending the Jagiellon dynasty rule in Bohemia, a convention of Bohemian nobles elected his brother\\-in\\-law, the [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\") archduke [Ferdinand I of Austria](/wiki/Ferdinand_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor\"), as the new king of the Bohemian crown lands. Together with the [Archduchy of Austria](/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria \"Archduchy of Austria\") \"[hereditary lands](/wiki/Erblande \"Erblande\")\" and the [Hungarian kingdom](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281526%E2%80%931867%29 \"Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)\"), they formed the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\"), which in the following centuries grew out of the Holy Roman Empire into a separate European power. Attempts by the Bohemian [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\") estates to build up an autonomous confederation were dashed at the 1620 [Battle of White Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain \"Battle of White Mountain\"), whereafter the administration was centralised at [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"). Moreover, the Habsburg rulers lost the Lusatias to the [Electorate of Saxony](/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony \"Electorate of Saxony\") after the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\") in the 1635 [Peace of Prague](/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_%281635%29 \"Peace of Prague (1635)\"), and also most of Silesia with Kladsko to the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") after the [First Silesian War](/wiki/First_Silesian_War \"First Silesian War\") in the 1742 [Treaty of Breslau](/wiki/Treaty_of_Breslau \"Treaty of Breslau\").", "In the modern era, the remaining crown lands of [Bohemia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia \"Kingdom of Bohemia\"), [Moravia](/wiki/Margraviate_of_Moravia \"Margraviate of Moravia\") and [Austrian Silesia](/wiki/Austrian_Silesia \"Austrian Silesia\") became constituent parts of the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire \"Austrian Empire\") in 1804, and later the [Cisleithanian](/wiki/Cisleithania \"Cisleithania\") half of [Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary \"Austria-Hungary\") in 1867\\.", "After [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") and the [dissolution of the Austro\\-Hungarian monarchy](/wiki/Dissolution_of_Austria-Hungary \"Dissolution of Austria-Hungary\"), these became the historic regions usually referred to as the [Czech lands](/wiki/Czech_lands \"Czech lands\") forming the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\"). Austrian Silesia with the [Hlučín Region](/wiki/Hlu%C4%8D%C3%ADn_Region \"Hlučín Region\") is today known as [Czech Silesia](/wiki/Czech_Silesia \"Czech Silesia\"), with the exception of eastern [Cieszyn Silesia](/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia \"Cieszyn Silesia\") which passed to the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\") in 1920\\.", "" ]
Switzerland ----------- [thumb\|A [ballot paper](/wiki/Ballot_paper "Ballot paper") of the votation, organised on 8 February 2009, on the extension of the [free movement](/wiki/Free_movement_of_citizens "Free movement of citizens") of persons to [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria") and [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania").](/wiki/File:Abstimmungszettel_Personenfreiz%C3%BCgigkeit_2009.jpg "Abstimmungszettel Personenfreizügigkeit 2009.jpg"){{See also\|Politics of Switzerland\|Voting in Switzerland\|Mandatory referendum in Switzerland}} In [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") the popular referendum is known as a **facultative referendum** ({{langx\|de\|fakultatives Referendum}}; {{langx\|fr\|référendum facultatif}}, {{langx\|it\|referendum facoltativo}}, {{langx\|rm\|referendum facultativ}}) It allows citizens to oppose laws voted by the [federal parliament](/wiki/Federal_Assembly_%28Switzerland%29 "Federal Assembly (Switzerland)"), [cantonal](/wiki/Cantonal "Cantonal") and/or [municipal](/wiki/Municipalities_of_Switzerland "Municipalities of Switzerland") decrees by legislative and/or executive bodies. It also allows them to propose new laws in a [popular initiative](/wiki/Popular_initiative_%28Switzerland%29 "Popular initiative (Switzerland)"). ### History The popular referendum was first introduced in the cantons (e.g. in the [Canton of Zurich](/wiki/Canton_of_Z%C3%BCrich "Canton of Zürich") since 1869\). At federal level, the optional referendum was introduced by the Federal Constitution of 1874 (Article 74\).{{in lang\|fr}} *Horizons*, magazine of the [Swiss National Science Foundation](/wiki/Swiss_National_Science_Foundation "Swiss National Science Foundation") and the [Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/Swiss_Academies_of_Arts_and_Sciences "Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences"), no. 99, 2013, p. 45\. The ratification of the Gotthard Treaty of 1909 triggered widespread protests and ultimately led to a [petition](/wiki/Petition "Petition") being submitted. In the referendum of 1921, the optional referendum for state treaties that are valid for more than 15 years or for an indefinite period of time was then introduced. The number of signatures required from Swiss voters for a popular referendum was initially 30,000\. Due to the massive increase in the number of voters due to population growth and the introduction of [women's suffrage in 1971](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland "Women's suffrage in Switzerland"), the number was increased to 50,000 valid signatures in 1977\. In Switzerland, a cantonal referendum was held for the first and only time in 2003\. It related to changes in marriage, family and housing taxation (the so\-called “tax package”). The contested bill was rejected in the referendum on May 16, 2004\.{{Cite book \|last\=Vatter \|first\=Adrian \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wNFfDwAAQBAJ\&dq\=2004\+swiss\+cantonal\+referendum\+tax\+package\&pg\=PA1977 \|title\=Swiss Federalism: The Transformation of a Federal Model \|date\=2018\-06\-12 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-351\-86582\-1 \|language\=en}} ### Federal level On a federal level a [vote](/wiki/Voting_in_Switzerland "Voting in Switzerland") will be organised on every law against which opponent collect 50,000 valid signatures during the period of 100 days after publication by the parliament. A referendum can also be requested by a minimum of eight [cantons](/wiki/Canton_%28Switzerland%29 "Canton (Switzerland)"), the so\-called **cantonal referendum** (not to be confused with a mandatory or optional referendum on a cantonal level). | \+Swiss optional referendum statistics | Optional referendums | 1874\-1950 | 1951\-1980 | 1981\- Nov. 2014 | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | {{Tick\|15}} Accepted | 20 | 19 | 59 | 98 | | {{Cross\|15}} Rejected | 34 | 18 | 26 | 78 | | **Total** | **54** | **37** | **85** | **176** | | Source: [Swiss Federal Statistical Office](/wiki/Federal_Statistical_Office_%28Switzerland%29 "Federal Statistical Office (Switzerland)"){{Cite web \|last\=statistique \|first\=Office fédéral de la \|title\=Votations \|url\=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiken/politik/abstimmungen.html \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-13 \|website\=www.bfs.admin.ch \|language\=fr}} | | | | |
[ "Switzerland\n-----------", "[thumb\\|A [ballot paper](/wiki/Ballot_paper \"Ballot paper\") of the votation, organised on 8 February 2009, on the extension of the [free movement](/wiki/Free_movement_of_citizens \"Free movement of citizens\") of persons to [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\") and [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\").](/wiki/File:Abstimmungszettel_Personenfreiz%C3%BCgigkeit_2009.jpg \"Abstimmungszettel Personenfreizügigkeit 2009.jpg\"){{See also\\|Politics of Switzerland\\|Voting in Switzerland\\|Mandatory referendum in Switzerland}}\nIn [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") the popular referendum is known as a **facultative referendum** ({{langx\\|de\\|fakultatives Referendum}}; {{langx\\|fr\\|référendum facultatif}}, {{langx\\|it\\|referendum facoltativo}}, {{langx\\|rm\\|referendum facultativ}}) It allows citizens to oppose laws voted by the [federal parliament](/wiki/Federal_Assembly_%28Switzerland%29 \"Federal Assembly (Switzerland)\"), [cantonal](/wiki/Cantonal \"Cantonal\") and/or [municipal](/wiki/Municipalities_of_Switzerland \"Municipalities of Switzerland\") decrees by legislative and/or executive bodies. It also allows them to propose new laws in a [popular initiative](/wiki/Popular_initiative_%28Switzerland%29 \"Popular initiative (Switzerland)\").", "### History", "The popular referendum was first introduced in the cantons (e.g. in the [Canton of Zurich](/wiki/Canton_of_Z%C3%BCrich \"Canton of Zürich\") since 1869\\). At federal level, the optional referendum was introduced by the Federal Constitution of 1874 (Article 74\\).{{in lang\\|fr}} *Horizons*, magazine of the [Swiss National Science Foundation](/wiki/Swiss_National_Science_Foundation \"Swiss National Science Foundation\") and the [Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/Swiss_Academies_of_Arts_and_Sciences \"Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences\"), no. 99, 2013, p. 45\\.", "The ratification of the Gotthard Treaty of 1909 triggered widespread protests and ultimately led to a [petition](/wiki/Petition \"Petition\") being submitted. In the referendum of 1921, the optional referendum for state treaties that are valid for more than 15 years or for an indefinite period of time was then introduced.", "The number of signatures required from Swiss voters for a popular referendum was initially 30,000\\. Due to the massive increase in the number of voters due to population growth and the introduction of [women's suffrage in 1971](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland \"Women's suffrage in Switzerland\"), the number was increased to 50,000 valid signatures in 1977\\.", "In Switzerland, a cantonal referendum was held for the first and only time in 2003\\. It related to changes in marriage, family and housing taxation (the so\\-called “tax package”). The contested bill was rejected in the referendum on May 16, 2004\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Vatter \\|first\\=Adrian \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wNFfDwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=2004\\+swiss\\+cantonal\\+referendum\\+tax\\+package\\&pg\\=PA1977 \\|title\\=Swiss Federalism: The Transformation of a Federal Model \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-12 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-351\\-86582\\-1 \\|language\\=en}}", "### Federal level", "On a federal level a [vote](/wiki/Voting_in_Switzerland \"Voting in Switzerland\") will be organised on every law against which opponent collect 50,000 valid signatures during the period of 100 days after publication by the parliament.", "A referendum can also be requested by a minimum of eight [cantons](/wiki/Canton_%28Switzerland%29 \"Canton (Switzerland)\"), the so\\-called **cantonal referendum** (not to be confused with a mandatory or optional referendum on a cantonal level).", "", "| \\+Swiss optional referendum statistics | Optional referendums | 1874\\-1950 | 1951\\-1980 | 1981\\- Nov. 2014 | Total |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{Tick\\|15}} Accepted | 20 | 19 | 59 | 98 |\n| {{Cross\\|15}} Rejected | 34 | 18 | 26 | 78 |\n| **Total** | **54** | **37** | **85** | **176** |\n| Source: [Swiss Federal Statistical Office](/wiki/Federal_Statistical_Office_%28Switzerland%29 \"Federal Statistical Office (Switzerland)\"){{Cite web \\|last\\=statistique \\|first\\=Office fédéral de la \\|title\\=Votations \\|url\\=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiken/politik/abstimmungen.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-13 \\|website\\=www.bfs.admin.ch \\|language\\=fr}} | | | | |", "" ]
History ------- The origin of the International Patent Classification is the "International Classification" created under the [European Convention on the International Classification of Patents for Invention](/wiki/European_Convention_on_the_International_Classification_of_Patents_for_Invention "European Convention on the International Classification of Patents for Invention"). The first edition of the International Classification became effective on September 1, 1968\.[Guide to IPC, Version 2012](http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/classifications/ipc/en/guide/guide_ipc.pdf) It consisted of eight sections, 103 classes, and 594 subclasses, as compared with the IPC eighth edition consisting of eight sections, 129 classes, 639 subclasses, 7,314 main groups, and 61,397 subgroups. In 1967, [BIRPI](/wiki/United_International_Bureaux_for_the_Protection_of_Intellectual_Property "United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property"), WIPO's predecessor, and the [Council of Europe](/wiki/Council_of_Europe "Council of Europe") began negotiations aiming to "internationalize" the International Classification. Their efforts bore the Strasbourg Agreement in 1971\. For the first seven editions of the IPC, the classification was updated approximately every five years. With the eighth edition, which came into force January 1, 2006, the system was revised and the classification was divided into "core" and "advanced" levels. The core level was to be updated on a three\-yearly basis. The advanced level provided more detailed classification and was updated more frequently (probably every three months).FAQ on IPC Reform. Hosted by the esp@cenet website, [http://www.epo.org/patents/patent\-information/ipc\-reform/faq.html\#16](http://www.epo.org/patents/patent-information/ipc-reform/faq.html#16) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101003180804/http://www.epo.org/patents/patent\-information/ipc\-reform/faq.html\#16 \|date\=2010\-10\-03 }}. (Internet Archive version dated October 12, 2007\). International Patent classification edition 8 was designed to allow patent offices the choice between a simpler to implement but more general classification using the core classifications, or a more detailed but more complex to maintain advanced classification.[Guide to the International Patent Classification (Eighth Edition)](https://web.archive.org/web/20071014011734/http://www.wipo.int/classifications/ipc/en/other/guide/guide_ipc8.pdf), WIPO Publication No 560E.5/8, {{ISBN\|92\-805\-1442\-3}}, paragraphs 29\-33 (Internet Archive version dated October 14, 2007\). This division into core and advanced levels was reversed with the 2011 version of IPC, IPC2011\.01\. The IPC is under continual revision, with new editions coming into force on January 1 of every year. The current version is IPC2021\.01\.
[ "History\n-------", "The origin of the International Patent Classification is the \"International Classification\" created under the [European Convention on the International Classification of Patents for Invention](/wiki/European_Convention_on_the_International_Classification_of_Patents_for_Invention \"European Convention on the International Classification of Patents for Invention\"). The first edition of the International Classification became effective on September 1, 1968\\.[Guide to IPC, Version 2012](http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/classifications/ipc/en/guide/guide_ipc.pdf) It consisted of eight sections, 103 classes, and 594 subclasses, as compared with the IPC eighth edition consisting of eight sections, 129 classes, 639 subclasses, 7,314 main groups, and 61,397 subgroups.", "In 1967, [BIRPI](/wiki/United_International_Bureaux_for_the_Protection_of_Intellectual_Property \"United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property\"), WIPO's predecessor, and the [Council of Europe](/wiki/Council_of_Europe \"Council of Europe\") began negotiations aiming to \"internationalize\" the International Classification. Their efforts bore the Strasbourg Agreement in 1971\\.", "For the first seven editions of the IPC, the classification was updated approximately every five years. With the eighth edition, which came into force January 1, 2006, the system was revised and the classification was divided into \"core\" and \"advanced\" levels. The core level was to be updated on a three\\-yearly basis. The advanced level provided more detailed classification and was updated more frequently (probably every three months).FAQ on IPC Reform. Hosted by the esp@cenet website, [http://www.epo.org/patents/patent\\-information/ipc\\-reform/faq.html\\#16](http://www.epo.org/patents/patent-information/ipc-reform/faq.html#16) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101003180804/http://www.epo.org/patents/patent\\-information/ipc\\-reform/faq.html\\#16 \\|date\\=2010\\-10\\-03 }}. (Internet Archive version dated October 12, 2007\\).", "International Patent classification edition 8 was designed to allow patent offices the choice between a simpler to implement but more general classification using the core classifications, or a more detailed but more complex to maintain advanced classification.[Guide to the International Patent Classification (Eighth Edition)](https://web.archive.org/web/20071014011734/http://www.wipo.int/classifications/ipc/en/other/guide/guide_ipc8.pdf), WIPO Publication No 560E.5/8, {{ISBN\\|92\\-805\\-1442\\-3}}, paragraphs 29\\-33 (Internet Archive version dated October 14, 2007\\).", "This division into core and advanced levels was reversed with the 2011 version of IPC, IPC2011\\.01\\. The IPC is under continual revision, with new editions coming into force on January 1 of every year. The current version is IPC2021\\.01\\.", "" ]
History ------- In 1969, USS Realty Development, a division of the [United States Steel Corporation](/wiki/United_States_Steel_Corporation "United States Steel Corporation"), wanted to find a more productive use for the slag heap, which had grown into an artificial mountain from years of industrial dumping. Locally known as Brown's Dump, the property encompassed 410 acres and overshadowed the landscape. The excavation and clearing of the slag was a monumental task that would span many years. As a result of the clearing, numerous businesses began to appear at the foot of the mountain by the mid\-1970s. In 1976, the Edward J. DeBartolo Corporation and USS Realty Corporation proposed a $100 million, 1\.6 million square foot shopping center. The mall's moniker Century III was chosen to allude to the 1976 United States Bicentennial. The first phase of 75 stores was dedicated on October 24, 1979\. This included two anchors; a two\-level 121,300 square foot, Pittsburgh\-based [Kaufmann's](/wiki/Kaufmann%27s "Kaufmann's"), and a two\-level 173,200 square foot [JCPenney](/wiki/JCPenney "JCPenney"). The [Kaufmann's](/wiki/Kaufmann%27s "Kaufmann's") unit was the chain's fourth shopping mall store and the first in the Pittsburgh region to anchor a mall\-type center. Phase two, with the two\-level 168,100 square foot [Montgomery Ward](/wiki/Montgomery_Ward "Montgomery Ward") and forty\-six stores debuted March 12, 1980\. The second phase of Century III Mall incorporated the third, fourth and fifth anchors to the complex, including a two\-level 126,000 square foot [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels "Gimbels")\-Pittsburgh, which began business in July 1980 and a two\-level 231,000 square foot [Sears](/wiki/Sears "Sears"), which opened in October 1980\. The [Montgomery Ward](/wiki/Montgomery_Ward "Montgomery Ward") location at Century III Mall was the first such location for the Chicago\-based chain in [Allegheny County](/wiki/Allegheny_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Allegheny County, Pennsylvania"). The Wards location only lasted a few years, however, and ultimately closed in 1986\. [The Joseph Horne Company](/wiki/Horne%27s "Horne's"), owned by the New York City\-based [Associated Dry Goods Corporation](/wiki/Associated_Dry_Goods "Associated Dry Goods"), took over the space, relocating their store from an older open\-air shopping center in [Brentwood](/wiki/Brentwood%2C_Pennsylvania "Brentwood, Pennsylvania") a few miles north. In 1994, the location changed names again when the [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati")\-based [Federated Department Stores](/wiki/Federated_Department_Stores "Federated Department Stores") purchased Horne's and converted the chain's locations into its own [Lazarus](/wiki/Lazarus_%28department_store%29 "Lazarus (department store)") regional [nameplate](/wiki/Nameplate "Nameplate"). In 1999, after operating a few years as Lazarus, Federated closed several locations, including the Century III store. The location then became a unit of [Kaufmann's](/wiki/Kaufmann%27s "Kaufmann's"), which opened a furniture showroom in that location. Kaufmann's was a division of the [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis")\-based [May Department Stores Company](/wiki/May_Department_Stores_Company "May Department Stores Company"). ### Anchors [thumb\|JCPenney, the last remaining store open, closed October 26, 2020](/wiki/File:Century_III_JCPenney_April_2019.jpg "Century III JCPenney April 2019.jpg") [thumb\|Entry E at the Mall](/wiki/File:Century_III_Mall_2018.jpg "Century III Mall 2018.jpg") [thumb\|Former Dick's Sporting Goods location](/wiki/File:Century_iii_closed_dicks_sporting_goods.jpg "Century iii closed dicks sporting goods.jpg") * [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels "Gimbels") – opened 1980, closed in 1988 due to the chain filing for bankruptcy. In 1994, the lower and upper levels were filled with [TJ Maxx](/wiki/TJ_Maxx "TJ Maxx") and [Marshalls](/wiki/Marshalls "Marshalls"), respectively. Marshalls closed in 1996, and in 1997, [Wickes Furniture](/wiki/Wickes_Furniture "Wickes Furniture") opened in its place. In 1998, TJ Maxx became TJ Maxx 'n More. In 2003, TJ Maxx 'n More closed, and [Steve \& Barry's](/wiki/Steve_%26_Barry%27s "Steve & Barry's") moved in its place. In 2004, Wickes closed and [Dick's Sporting Goods](/wiki/Dick%27s_Sporting_Goods "Dick's Sporting Goods") moved in. Steve \& Barry's closed in 2009 due to the chain filing for bankruptcy. On March 24, 2019, a bankruptcy judge granted approval to reject the lease of Dick's Sporting Goods. They announced their closure and closed on March 30, 2019\. * [Kaufmann's](/wiki/Kaufmann%27s "Kaufmann's") – became [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s "Macy's") in September 2006, closed in March 2016\. * [Montgomery Ward](/wiki/Montgomery_Ward "Montgomery Ward") – opened 1980, closed in 1986, and [Horne's](/wiki/Horne%27s "Horne's") moved into its place. In 1994, it became [Lazarus](/wiki/Lazarus_%28department_store%29 "Lazarus (department store)"). Lazarus closed in 1999 due to underperforming sales and became Kaufmann's Furniture Gallery, then in 2006, it became Macy's Furniture Gallery, which closed in 2009\. * [Sears](/wiki/Sears "Sears") – opened 1980, closed December 7, 2014\. * [JCPenney](/wiki/JCPenney "JCPenney") – opened in 1979 with Phase I. It closed on October 26, 2020\. At its peak throughout the 1980s, Century III Mall boasted over 200 stores, services, and eateries, which at the time, was the largest enclosed shopping center in the Pittsburgh tri\-state area by store count. [Simon Property Group](/wiki/Simon_Property_Group "Simon Property Group") acquired the mall when it merged with the DeBartolo Corporation in 1996\. Shortly thereafter, the mall underwent an $8 million face\-lift, which included the addition of skylights in the mall's common areas and the removal of the sunken\-stage site at the center court, which was completed by 1997\. ### Decline Several contributing factors beginning in the late 1990s would result in the eventual decline of the mall. The biggest of these factors was the development of [the Waterfront](/wiki/The_Waterfront "The Waterfront"), which opened in nearby Homestead in 1999\. The development had significantly expanded over the years, pulling shoppers away from Century III. [South Hills Village](/wiki/South_Hills_Village "South Hills Village"), a smaller mall located only five miles to the west in [Bethel Park](/wiki/Bethel_Park "Bethel Park"), also underwent a major renovation, incorporating a large food court among its amenities. Adding to the mall's woes, it lost its first anchor tenant in 1999 when Federated Department Stores closed the Lazarus store due to underperforming sales. Other major retailers, such as TJ Maxx 'n More and Wickes Furniture, also closed in 2003 and 2004, respectively. The former Wickes Furniture location was replaced by Dick's Sporting Goods, and TJ Maxx 'n More was filled with Steve and Barry's. As early as 2003, Century III Mall was about 20% vacant. By the late 2000s, several key retailers with locations at Century III Mall filed for bankruptcy, resulting in additional vacancies. On July 18, 2005, Federated Department Stores purchased the May Department Stores Company. That purchase brought the Kaufmann's nameplate under Federated ownership. On September 9, 2006, Federated converted all former [May Company](/wiki/The_May_Department_Stores_Company "The May Department Stores Company") regional department store nameplates, including Kaufmann's, into Macy's as part of a nationwide re\-branding program, resulting in the Kaufmann's Furniture Gallery location to be returned once again to Federated Department Stores ownership and subsequently renamed as [Macy's Furniture Gallery](/wiki/Macy%27s_Furniture_Gallery "Macy's Furniture Gallery"). Macy's Furniture only occupied the lower level. The mall went up for sale in 2006 as Simon refocused on its top\-performing properties, including South Hills Village and Ross Park Mall in Pittsburgh's northern suburbs. As the mall continued to languish, it affected the mall's assessment value, which stood at $66 million in April 2009, a 40 percent decrease from the previous $112 million in recent years. Prior to that, the mall was valued at $128 million. In June 2009, it decreased further to $58 million. The struggling mall was noted as being one of America's most endangered malls in a published report by [U.S. News \& World Report](/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report "U.S. News & World Report").{{Cite news\|last\=Newman\|first\=Rick\|url\=https://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/flowchart/2009/06/26/americas\-most\-endangered\-malls\|title\=America's Most Endangered Malls\|date\=June 26, 2009\|work\=U.S. News \& World Report\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020}} In April 2009, Macy's Furniture closed its Century III Mall location as a cost\-cutting measure.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.rosevilletoday.com/news/macys\-closing\-11\-stores/\|title\=Macy's Closing 11 Stores\|date\=January 8, 2009\|work\=Roseville Today\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020}} Just prior to the closing, the fountain near the food court was drained and filled with mulch. In 2010, La Hacienda opened in the former [Ruby Tuesday](/wiki/Ruby_Tuesday_%28restaurant%29 "Ruby Tuesday (restaurant)") space, but it closed and was eventually replaced with Old Mexico Restaurant in 2015\. Also during this time, certain sections of mall parking were permanently barricaded and blocked off to the general public, particularly in the parking deck, and the wing leading towards Macy's Furniture Gallery. [Simon Property Group](/wiki/Simon_Property_Group "Simon Property Group") defaulted on its $78 million loan for Century III Mall in August 2011, ultimately transferring ownership to its lenders.{{Cite news\|last\=Cloonan\|first\=Patrick\|url\=https://archive.triblive.com/news/century\-iii\-mall\-under\-new\-management\-now/\|title\=Century III Mall under new management now\|date\=September 1, 2011\|work\=Trib Live\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020}} From September 2011 to May 2013, the mall was managed by [Jones Lang LaSalle](/wiki/Jones_Lang_LaSalle "Jones Lang LaSalle"). On May 13, 2013, Century III Mall was purchased by Las Vegas\-based Moonbeam Capital Investments LLC, a real estate investment trust which operates other shopping centers across the United States.{{Cite news\|last\=Barnes\|first\=Tom\|url\=https://www.post\-gazette.com/local/south/2013/05/23/Nevada\-investors\-purchase\-Century\-III\-mall/stories/201305230292\|title\=Nevada investors purchase Century III mall\|date\=May 23, 2013\|work\=Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020}} In July 2014, a new double\-decker carousel opened in the center court. Sears closed on December 7, 2014\. By 2015, the mall had become 60% vacant. On January 6, 2016, [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s "Macy's") announced it would close its Century III store as part of a larger round of closings across the country.{{Cite news\|last1\=Fleisher\|first1\=Chris\|url\=https://archive.triblive.com/business/local\-stories/macys\-to\-close\-century\-iii\-mall\-store\-as\-part\-of\-national\-reorganization/\|title\=Macy's to close Century III Mall store as part of national reorganization\|date\=January 6, 2016\|work\=Trib Live\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020\|last2\=Parrish\|first2\=Tory}} [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s "Macy's") departure resulted in a mass exodus of retailers to leave the moribund mall. Its occupancy rate fell from 40 percent in January 2016 to 10 percent by December 2017\. The once\-sprawling food court, previously home to over 20 eateries, was now completely vacant after the last remaining food court tenant, Italian Village Pizza, closed on July 1, 2017\. The fast\-fading mall continued to see more departures in 2018\. Old Mexico, the last restaurant in the mall, closed in April, leaving the mall with no food tenant.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.upgruv.com/century\-iii\-last\-restaurant\-closing\-2419317629\.html\|title\=Say goodbye to the food court at Century III\|date\=23 May 2017\|work\=upgruv.com\|access\-date\=5 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604002026/http://www.upgruv.com/century\-iii\-last\-restaurant\-closing\-2419317629\.html\|archive\-date\=4 June 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} In addition, the double\-deck carousel was shut down and dismantled around the same time to be sent to an undisclosed location in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas"). Also in April, filming took place in the old Macy's Furniture Gallery wing for the [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") original series *[Mindhunter](/wiki/Mindhunter_%28TV_series%29 "Mindhunter (TV series)")*. On June 1, a walk\-through was held for former mall workers and patrons who wanted to tour the mall one last time due to a [sheriff's sale](/wiki/Sheriff%27s_sale "Sheriff's sale"). Over 200 people participated in the event. On September 4, 2018, a sheriff's sale of the mall was postponed after Moonbeam Capital Investments filed for bankruptcy for the mall at the last minute.{{cite news\|url\=https://triblive.com/local/allegheny/14044397\-74/century\-iii\-mall\-up\-for\-sheriffs\-sale\-today\|title\=Century III Mall sheriff's sale postponed yet again\|last\=Czbiniak\|first\=Madasyn\|date\=4 September 2018\|work\=\[\[Pittsburgh Tribune\-Review]]\|access\-date\=23 October 2018}} On January 1, 2019, Life Uniform, the last of the mall's chain tenants, departed from the Century III Mall. [thumb\|Century III Mall notice uninhabitable](/wiki/File:Century_III_Mall_notice_uninhabitable.jpg "Century III Mall notice uninhabitable.jpg") On February 6, 2019, [West Mifflin](/wiki/West_Mifflin "West Mifflin") fire code deemed Century III Mall to be "unsafe, uninhabitable" due to numerous code violations, such as a non\-functional sprinkler system, and no heat.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wpxi.com/news/top\-stories/century\-iii\-mall\-deemed\-unsafe\-and\-uninhabitable\-by\-code\-enforcement/915734045\|title\=Century 3 Mall: Century III Mall deemed 'unsafe and uninhabitable' by code enforcement\|date\=February 8, 2019\|website\=WPXI}} On February 15, 2019, after 15 years, New Dimension Comics said that they were moving to [The Waterfront](/wiki/The_Waterfront "The Waterfront") beside [Best Buy](/wiki/Best_Buy "Best Buy") and [Michael's](/wiki/Michael%27s "Michael's"). On February 12, 2019, Moonbeam's website said the mall was sold shortly after they took the sold banner off of their website. On February 16, 2019, the remaining mall tenants were issued eviction notices. [JCPenney](/wiki/JCPenney "JCPenney") and [Dick's Sporting Goods](/wiki/Dick%27s_Sporting_Goods "Dick's Sporting Goods") were the only remaining stores open at the time.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-mall\-leases\-terminated\-tenants\-told\-they\-have\-30\-days\-to\-vacate/26373533\|title\=Century III Mall leases terminated, tenants told they have 30 days to vacate\|date\=February 16, 2019\|website\=WTAE}} On March 24, 2019, Dick's Sporting Goods announced that they were closing and that their last day would be March 30, 2019\. This left one remaining original anchor, JCPenney.{{cite news \|title\=Dick's Sporting Goods store at Century III Mall is closing \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/dicks\-sporting\-goods\-store\-at\-century\-iii\-mall\-to\-close/26922175 \|access\-date\=26 March 2019 \|work\=Pittsburgh's Action News 4 \|date\=25 March 2019}} On April 17, 2019, it was announced that a redevelopment plan was coming to the mall.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wpxi.com/news/top\-stories/owner\-seeks\-extension\-for\-reorganization\-plan\-as\-it\-pursues\-redevelopment\-of\-century\-iii\-mall/940911882\|title\=Century III mall redevelopment coming\|date\=April 17, 2019\|website\=WPXI}} By June, it was reported that the mall was boarded up and the future of the mall remained unclear.{{cite news \|title\=Century III Mall in West Mifflin is boarded up; future of empty property unknown \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-mall\-boarded\-up\-west\-mifflin/27736029 \|access\-date\=7 June 2019 \|publisher\=WTAE \|date\=5 June 2019 \|ref\=2}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/news/2020/08/06/jcpenney\-to\-close\-at\-century\-iii\-mall.html\|title\=JCPenney adds Century III Mall location to closures in the regionaccess\-date\=2021\-04\-17\|website\=www.bizjournals.com}} Owners indicated that the largely vacant mall would be torn down in March 2020 with the exception of JCPenney which would have remained open. In place, a mixed\-use development was planned for the site. The plan called for incorporating retail, dining and entertainment attractions as well as a hotel, office space and residential units. ### Post closure Further information in the bankruptcy dockets revealed a timeline with various dates. The demolition of the mall was set to begin as early as March 2020 and last 6–12 months. Site remediation, which would include removing existing foundations as well as performing major excavation and bringing in massive amounts of fill to level the entirety of the mall site, would follow shortly after and take 18 months to complete. The first buildings would've been built in May 2022\.{{cite news \|title\=Plans revealed for demolition, redevelopment of Century III Mall \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/plans\-revealed\-for\-demolition\-redevelopment\-of\-century\-iii\-mall/28143844 \|access\-date\=22 June 2019 \|work\=WTAE \|date\=21 June 2019}} On August 7, 2019, a "motion to reject lease or executory contract of JCPenney Properties, Inc." was filed out by Debtor Century III Mall PA LLC, which is part of Moonbeam. By August 31, Moonbeam's website said that the mall was sold.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.inforuptcy.com/browse\-filings/pennsylvania\-western\-bankruptcy\-court/2:18\-bk\-23499/bankruptcy\-case\-century\-iii\-mall\-pa\-llc\|title\=Century III Mall PA LLC Bankruptcy Case \#: 2:18\-bk\-23499 \| Inforuptcy\|website\=www.inforuptcy.com\|access\-date\=December 13, 2023}} {{registration required}} In August 2020, JCPenney announced that it would close over 150 stores, including the Century III Mall location. It closed on October 26, the last tenant of the mall.{{Cite web\|last\=Sykes\|first\=Katelyn\|date\=2020\-10\-26\|title\=A JCPenney love story: Couple who met, married while working at department store decades ago visit on final day\|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/a\-jc\-penny\-love\-story\-couple\-who\-met\-married\-while\-working\-at\-department\-store\-decades\-ago\-visit\-on\-final\-day/34484296\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-17\|website\=WTAE\|language\=en}} In March 2023, home improvement chain [Menards](/wiki/Menards "Menards") reportedly declined on its offer to purchase Century III Mall.{{Cite web \|last\=Conway \|first\=Brian \|date\=2023\-03\-22 \|title\=Menards declines to purchase Century III Mall property \|url\=https://pghindependent.com/menards\-declines\-to\-purchase\-century\-iii\-mall\-property/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-11 \|website\=Pittsburgh Independent \|language\=en\-US}} As of early 2023, the water has been shut off in the section of the mall where it was previously kept running. [right\|thumb\|Century III Mall demolition in progress in May 2024](/wiki/File:Century_III_Mall_-_May_2024.jpg "Century III Mall - May 2024.jpg") On April 11, 2023, a fire broke out in the mall on the third floor above the food court area at 6:15 am, the fire was later extinguished around 9:40 am. The cause of the fire was determined to be arson.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-04\-11 \|title\=Century III: Fire Erupts Inside Abandoned Mall \|url\=https://patch.com/pennsylvania/pittsburgh/century\-iii\-fire\-erupts\-inside\-abandoned\-mall \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-11 \|website\=Pittsburgh, PA Patch \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-04\-11 \|title\=Firefighters responding to former Century III Mall in West Mifflin \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-mall\-fire\-activity\-west\-mifflin/43562075 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-11 \|website\=WTAE \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=Fire breaks out inside abandoned Century 3 Mall \|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/pittsburgh/news/abandoned\-century\-3\-mall\-catches\-fire\-in\-west\-mifflin/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-11 \|website\=www.cbsnews.com \|date\=11 April 2023 \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Zilka \|first\=Ashley \|date\=2023\-04\-11 \|title\=Fire breaks out inside former Century III Mall in West Mifflin \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-mall\-fire\-activity\-west\-mifflin/43562075 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-12 \|website\=WTAE \|language\=en\-US}} Power to the mall was also shut off. In the week following the fire, all entrances and exits to the mall were barricaded, including the parking lot. On June 3, 2023, a teenage boy fell through an opened roof hatch at the mall's former Macy's department store. The teenager was promptly taken to [UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh](/wiki/UPMC_Children%27s_Hospital_of_Pittsburgh "UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh") in critical condition.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-03 \|title\=Fall reported at Century III Mall, person taken to hospital \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-mall\-fall\-west\-mifflin/44081672 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-05 \|website\=WTAE \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-03 \|title\=Source: Teenager in critical condition after falling through roof at Century III Mall \|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/pittsburgh/news/century\-iii\-mall\-police\-presence\-west\-mifflin/ \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-05 \|website\=www.cbsnews.com \|language\=en\-US}} A hearing was held on June 14, 2023, to condemn the mall following numerous complaints from city officials.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-15 \|title\=West Mifflin holds condemnation hearing for Century III Mall \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-condemnation\-hearing/44202064 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-21 \|website\=WTAE \|language\=en}} Moonbeam Capital CEO Shawl Pryor attended the hearing, receiving criticism for the property's decline since 2019\. Pryor alleges that the company ceased funding towards maintenance in 2022 as the graffiti and damage was too expensive to clean.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-condemnation\-hearing/44202064\#\|title\=West Mifflin holds condemnation hearing for Century III Mall\|date\=15 June 2023 }} On July 18, 2023, West Mifflin Borough Council voted 6\-0 to condemn the abandoned Century III Mall.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-07\-18 \|title\=West Mifflin council votes to condemn Century III Mall \- CBS Pittsburgh \|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/pittsburgh/news/west\-mifflin\-council\-condemn\-century\-iii\-mall/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-18 \|website\=www.cbsnews.com \|language\=en\-US}} On January 30, 2024, Allegheny County District Attorney [Stephen A. Zappala Jr.](/wiki/Stephen_A._Zappala_Jr. "Stephen A. Zappala Jr.") filed criminal nuisance charges against the owners of the abandoned mall, calling it a "monument to blight." The Allegheny County Court of Common Pleas plans to seize the nearly 90\-acre site and demolish the dilapidated structure within 60 to 90 days. Demolition of the mall began on March 26, 2024, with the attached external parking garage structure.{{Cite news \|last\=Mautner \|first\=Chris \|date\=26 March 2024 \|title\=Demolition of abandoned, dilapidated Pa. mall to begin today \|url\=https://www.pennlive.com/news/2024/03/demolition\-of\-abandoned\-dilapidated\-pa\-mall\-to\-begin\-today.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240326174813/https://www.pennlive.com/news/2024/03/demolition\-of\-abandoned\-dilapidated\-pa\-mall\-to\-begin\-today.html \|archive\-date\=26 March 2024 \|access\-date\=26 March 2024 \|work\=PennLive}}
[ "History\n-------", "In 1969, USS Realty Development, a division of the [United States Steel Corporation](/wiki/United_States_Steel_Corporation \"United States Steel Corporation\"), wanted to find a more productive use for the slag heap, which had grown into an artificial mountain from years of industrial dumping. Locally known as Brown's Dump, the property encompassed 410 acres and overshadowed the landscape. The excavation and clearing of the slag was a monumental task that would span many years. As a result of the clearing, numerous businesses began to appear at the foot of the mountain by the mid\\-1970s.", "In 1976, the Edward J. DeBartolo Corporation and USS Realty Corporation proposed a $100 million, 1\\.6 million square foot shopping center. The mall's moniker Century III was chosen to allude to the 1976 United States Bicentennial. The first phase of 75 stores was dedicated on October 24, 1979\\. This included two anchors; a two\\-level 121,300 square foot, Pittsburgh\\-based [Kaufmann's](/wiki/Kaufmann%27s \"Kaufmann's\"), and a two\\-level 173,200 square foot [JCPenney](/wiki/JCPenney \"JCPenney\"). The [Kaufmann's](/wiki/Kaufmann%27s \"Kaufmann's\") unit was the chain's fourth shopping mall store and the first in the Pittsburgh region to anchor a mall\\-type center. Phase two, with the two\\-level 168,100 square foot [Montgomery Ward](/wiki/Montgomery_Ward \"Montgomery Ward\") and forty\\-six stores debuted March 12, 1980\\. The second phase of Century III Mall incorporated the third, fourth and fifth anchors to the complex, including a two\\-level 126,000 square foot [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels \"Gimbels\")\\-Pittsburgh, which began business in July 1980 and a two\\-level 231,000 square foot [Sears](/wiki/Sears \"Sears\"), which opened in October 1980\\.", "The [Montgomery Ward](/wiki/Montgomery_Ward \"Montgomery Ward\") location at Century III Mall was the first such location for the Chicago\\-based chain in [Allegheny County](/wiki/Allegheny_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Allegheny County, Pennsylvania\"). The Wards location only lasted a few years, however, and ultimately closed in 1986\\. [The Joseph Horne Company](/wiki/Horne%27s \"Horne's\"), owned by the New York City\\-based [Associated Dry Goods Corporation](/wiki/Associated_Dry_Goods \"Associated Dry Goods\"), took over the space, relocating their store from an older open\\-air shopping center in [Brentwood](/wiki/Brentwood%2C_Pennsylvania \"Brentwood, Pennsylvania\") a few miles north. In 1994, the location changed names again when the [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\")\\-based [Federated Department Stores](/wiki/Federated_Department_Stores \"Federated Department Stores\") purchased Horne's and converted the chain's locations into its own [Lazarus](/wiki/Lazarus_%28department_store%29 \"Lazarus (department store)\") regional [nameplate](/wiki/Nameplate \"Nameplate\"). In 1999, after operating a few years as Lazarus, Federated closed several locations, including the Century III store. The location then became a unit of [Kaufmann's](/wiki/Kaufmann%27s \"Kaufmann's\"), which opened a furniture showroom in that location. Kaufmann's was a division of the [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\")\\-based [May Department Stores Company](/wiki/May_Department_Stores_Company \"May Department Stores Company\").", "### Anchors", "[thumb\\|JCPenney, the last remaining store open, closed October 26, 2020](/wiki/File:Century_III_JCPenney_April_2019.jpg \"Century III JCPenney April 2019.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Entry E at the Mall](/wiki/File:Century_III_Mall_2018.jpg \"Century III Mall 2018.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Former Dick's Sporting Goods location](/wiki/File:Century_iii_closed_dicks_sporting_goods.jpg \"Century iii closed dicks sporting goods.jpg\")", "* [Gimbels](/wiki/Gimbels \"Gimbels\") – opened 1980, closed in 1988 due to the chain filing for bankruptcy. In 1994, the lower and upper levels were filled with [TJ Maxx](/wiki/TJ_Maxx \"TJ Maxx\") and [Marshalls](/wiki/Marshalls \"Marshalls\"), respectively. Marshalls closed in 1996, and in 1997, [Wickes Furniture](/wiki/Wickes_Furniture \"Wickes Furniture\") opened in its place. In 1998, TJ Maxx became TJ Maxx 'n More. In 2003, TJ Maxx 'n More closed, and [Steve \\& Barry's](/wiki/Steve_%26_Barry%27s \"Steve & Barry's\") moved in its place. In 2004, Wickes closed and [Dick's Sporting Goods](/wiki/Dick%27s_Sporting_Goods \"Dick's Sporting Goods\") moved in. Steve \\& Barry's closed in 2009 due to the chain filing for bankruptcy. On March 24, 2019, a bankruptcy judge granted approval to reject the lease of Dick's Sporting Goods. They announced their closure and closed on March 30, 2019\\.\n* [Kaufmann's](/wiki/Kaufmann%27s \"Kaufmann's\") – became [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s \"Macy's\") in September 2006, closed in March 2016\\.\n* [Montgomery Ward](/wiki/Montgomery_Ward \"Montgomery Ward\") – opened 1980, closed in 1986, and [Horne's](/wiki/Horne%27s \"Horne's\") moved into its place. In 1994, it became [Lazarus](/wiki/Lazarus_%28department_store%29 \"Lazarus (department store)\"). Lazarus closed in 1999 due to underperforming sales and became Kaufmann's Furniture Gallery, then in 2006, it became Macy's Furniture Gallery, which closed in 2009\\.\n* [Sears](/wiki/Sears \"Sears\") – opened 1980, closed December 7, 2014\\.\n* [JCPenney](/wiki/JCPenney \"JCPenney\") – opened in 1979 with Phase I. It closed on October 26, 2020\\.", "At its peak throughout the 1980s, Century III Mall boasted over 200 stores, services, and eateries, which at the time, was the largest enclosed shopping center in the Pittsburgh tri\\-state area by store count. [Simon Property Group](/wiki/Simon_Property_Group \"Simon Property Group\") acquired the mall when it merged with the DeBartolo Corporation in 1996\\. Shortly thereafter, the mall underwent an $8 million face\\-lift, which included the addition of skylights in the mall's common areas and the removal of the sunken\\-stage site at the center court, which was completed by 1997\\.", "### Decline", "Several contributing factors beginning in the late 1990s would result in the eventual decline of the mall. The biggest of these factors was the development of [the Waterfront](/wiki/The_Waterfront \"The Waterfront\"), which opened in nearby Homestead in 1999\\. The development had significantly expanded over the years, pulling shoppers away from Century III. [South Hills Village](/wiki/South_Hills_Village \"South Hills Village\"), a smaller mall located only five miles to the west in [Bethel Park](/wiki/Bethel_Park \"Bethel Park\"), also underwent a major renovation, incorporating a large food court among its amenities.", "Adding to the mall's woes, it lost its first anchor tenant in 1999 when Federated Department Stores closed the Lazarus store due to underperforming sales. Other major retailers, such as TJ Maxx 'n More and Wickes Furniture, also closed in 2003 and 2004, respectively. The former Wickes Furniture location was replaced by Dick's Sporting Goods, and TJ Maxx 'n More was filled with Steve and Barry's. As early as 2003, Century III Mall was about 20% vacant. By the late 2000s, several key retailers with locations at Century III Mall filed for bankruptcy, resulting in additional vacancies.", "On July 18, 2005, Federated Department Stores purchased the May Department Stores Company. That purchase brought the Kaufmann's nameplate under Federated ownership. On September 9, 2006, Federated converted all former [May Company](/wiki/The_May_Department_Stores_Company \"The May Department Stores Company\") regional department store nameplates, including Kaufmann's, into Macy's as part of a nationwide re\\-branding program, resulting in the Kaufmann's Furniture Gallery location to be returned once again to Federated Department Stores ownership and subsequently renamed as [Macy's Furniture Gallery](/wiki/Macy%27s_Furniture_Gallery \"Macy's Furniture Gallery\"). Macy's Furniture only occupied the lower level.", "The mall went up for sale in 2006 as Simon refocused on its top\\-performing properties, including South Hills Village and Ross Park Mall in Pittsburgh's northern suburbs. As the mall continued to languish, it affected the mall's assessment value, which stood at $66 million in April 2009, a 40 percent decrease from the previous $112 million in recent years. Prior to that, the mall was valued at $128 million. In June 2009, it decreased further to $58 million. The struggling mall was noted as being one of America's most endangered malls in a published report by [U.S. News \\& World Report](/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report \"U.S. News & World Report\").{{Cite news\\|last\\=Newman\\|first\\=Rick\\|url\\=https://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/flowchart/2009/06/26/americas\\-most\\-endangered\\-malls\\|title\\=America's Most Endangered Malls\\|date\\=June 26, 2009\\|work\\=U.S. News \\& World Report\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020}}", "In April 2009, Macy's Furniture closed its Century III Mall location as a cost\\-cutting measure.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.rosevilletoday.com/news/macys\\-closing\\-11\\-stores/\\|title\\=Macy's Closing 11 Stores\\|date\\=January 8, 2009\\|work\\=Roseville Today\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020}} Just prior to the closing, the fountain near the food court was drained and filled with mulch. In 2010, La Hacienda opened in the former [Ruby Tuesday](/wiki/Ruby_Tuesday_%28restaurant%29 \"Ruby Tuesday (restaurant)\") space, but it closed and was eventually replaced with Old Mexico Restaurant in 2015\\. Also during this time, certain sections of mall parking were permanently barricaded and blocked off to the general public, particularly in the parking deck, and the wing leading towards Macy's Furniture Gallery.", "[Simon Property Group](/wiki/Simon_Property_Group \"Simon Property Group\") defaulted on its $78 million loan for Century III Mall in August 2011, ultimately transferring ownership to its lenders.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Cloonan\\|first\\=Patrick\\|url\\=https://archive.triblive.com/news/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-under\\-new\\-management\\-now/\\|title\\=Century III Mall under new management now\\|date\\=September 1, 2011\\|work\\=Trib Live\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020}} From September 2011 to May 2013, the mall was managed by [Jones Lang LaSalle](/wiki/Jones_Lang_LaSalle \"Jones Lang LaSalle\"). On May 13, 2013, Century III Mall was purchased by Las Vegas\\-based Moonbeam Capital Investments LLC, a real estate investment trust which operates other shopping centers across the United States.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Barnes\\|first\\=Tom\\|url\\=https://www.post\\-gazette.com/local/south/2013/05/23/Nevada\\-investors\\-purchase\\-Century\\-III\\-mall/stories/201305230292\\|title\\=Nevada investors purchase Century III mall\\|date\\=May 23, 2013\\|work\\=Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020}} In July 2014, a new double\\-decker carousel opened in the center court. Sears closed on December 7, 2014\\.", "By 2015, the mall had become 60% vacant. On January 6, 2016, [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s \"Macy's\") announced it would close its Century III store as part of a larger round of closings across the country.{{Cite news\\|last1\\=Fleisher\\|first1\\=Chris\\|url\\=https://archive.triblive.com/business/local\\-stories/macys\\-to\\-close\\-century\\-iii\\-mall\\-store\\-as\\-part\\-of\\-national\\-reorganization/\\|title\\=Macy's to close Century III Mall store as part of national reorganization\\|date\\=January 6, 2016\\|work\\=Trib Live\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020\\|last2\\=Parrish\\|first2\\=Tory}} [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s \"Macy's\") departure resulted in a mass exodus of retailers to leave the moribund mall. Its occupancy rate fell from 40 percent in January 2016 to 10 percent by December 2017\\. The once\\-sprawling food court, previously home to over 20 eateries, was now completely vacant after the last remaining food court tenant, Italian Village Pizza, closed on July 1, 2017\\.", "The fast\\-fading mall continued to see more departures in 2018\\. Old Mexico, the last restaurant in the mall, closed in April, leaving the mall with no food tenant.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.upgruv.com/century\\-iii\\-last\\-restaurant\\-closing\\-2419317629\\.html\\|title\\=Say goodbye to the food court at Century III\\|date\\=23 May 2017\\|work\\=upgruv.com\\|access\\-date\\=5 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604002026/http://www.upgruv.com/century\\-iii\\-last\\-restaurant\\-closing\\-2419317629\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In addition, the double\\-deck carousel was shut down and dismantled around the same time to be sent to an undisclosed location in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\"). Also in April, filming took place in the old Macy's Furniture Gallery wing for the [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") original series *[Mindhunter](/wiki/Mindhunter_%28TV_series%29 \"Mindhunter (TV series)\")*. On June 1, a walk\\-through was held for former mall workers and patrons who wanted to tour the mall one last time due to a [sheriff's sale](/wiki/Sheriff%27s_sale \"Sheriff's sale\"). Over 200 people participated in the event.", "On September 4, 2018, a sheriff's sale of the mall was postponed after Moonbeam Capital Investments filed for bankruptcy for the mall at the last minute.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://triblive.com/local/allegheny/14044397\\-74/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-up\\-for\\-sheriffs\\-sale\\-today\\|title\\=Century III Mall sheriff's sale postponed yet again\\|last\\=Czbiniak\\|first\\=Madasyn\\|date\\=4 September 2018\\|work\\=\\[\\[Pittsburgh Tribune\\-Review]]\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2018}} On January 1, 2019, Life Uniform, the last of the mall's chain tenants, departed from the Century III Mall.", "[thumb\\|Century III Mall notice uninhabitable](/wiki/File:Century_III_Mall_notice_uninhabitable.jpg \"Century III Mall notice uninhabitable.jpg\")", "On February 6, 2019, [West Mifflin](/wiki/West_Mifflin \"West Mifflin\") fire code deemed Century III Mall to be \"unsafe, uninhabitable\" due to numerous code violations, such as a non\\-functional sprinkler system, and no heat.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wpxi.com/news/top\\-stories/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-deemed\\-unsafe\\-and\\-uninhabitable\\-by\\-code\\-enforcement/915734045\\|title\\=Century 3 Mall: Century III Mall deemed 'unsafe and uninhabitable' by code enforcement\\|date\\=February 8, 2019\\|website\\=WPXI}} On February 15, 2019, after 15 years, New Dimension Comics said that they were moving to [The Waterfront](/wiki/The_Waterfront \"The Waterfront\") beside [Best Buy](/wiki/Best_Buy \"Best Buy\") and [Michael's](/wiki/Michael%27s \"Michael's\").\nOn February 12, 2019, Moonbeam's website said the mall was sold shortly after they took the sold banner off of their website.\nOn February 16, 2019, the remaining mall tenants were issued eviction notices. [JCPenney](/wiki/JCPenney \"JCPenney\") and [Dick's Sporting Goods](/wiki/Dick%27s_Sporting_Goods \"Dick's Sporting Goods\") were the only remaining stores open at the time.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-leases\\-terminated\\-tenants\\-told\\-they\\-have\\-30\\-days\\-to\\-vacate/26373533\\|title\\=Century III Mall leases terminated, tenants told they have 30 days to vacate\\|date\\=February 16, 2019\\|website\\=WTAE}} On March 24, 2019, Dick's Sporting Goods announced that they were closing and that their last day would be March 30, 2019\\. This left one remaining original anchor, JCPenney.{{cite news \\|title\\=Dick's Sporting Goods store at Century III Mall is closing \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/dicks\\-sporting\\-goods\\-store\\-at\\-century\\-iii\\-mall\\-to\\-close/26922175 \\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2019 \\|work\\=Pittsburgh's Action News 4 \\|date\\=25 March 2019}}", "On April 17, 2019, it was announced that a redevelopment plan was coming to the mall.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wpxi.com/news/top\\-stories/owner\\-seeks\\-extension\\-for\\-reorganization\\-plan\\-as\\-it\\-pursues\\-redevelopment\\-of\\-century\\-iii\\-mall/940911882\\|title\\=Century III mall redevelopment coming\\|date\\=April 17, 2019\\|website\\=WPXI}} By June, it was reported that the mall was boarded up and the future of the mall remained unclear.{{cite news \\|title\\=Century III Mall in West Mifflin is boarded up; future of empty property unknown \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-boarded\\-up\\-west\\-mifflin/27736029 \\|access\\-date\\=7 June 2019 \\|publisher\\=WTAE \\|date\\=5 June 2019 \\|ref\\=2}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/news/2020/08/06/jcpenney\\-to\\-close\\-at\\-century\\-iii\\-mall.html\\|title\\=JCPenney adds Century III Mall location to closures in the regionaccess\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-17\\|website\\=www.bizjournals.com}} Owners indicated that the largely vacant mall would be torn down in March 2020 with the exception of JCPenney which would have remained open. In place, a mixed\\-use development was planned for the site. The plan called for incorporating retail, dining and entertainment attractions as well as a hotel, office space and residential units.", "### Post closure", "Further information in the bankruptcy dockets revealed a timeline with various dates. The demolition of the mall was set to begin as early as March 2020 and last 6–12 months. Site remediation, which would include removing existing foundations as well as performing major excavation and bringing in massive amounts of fill to level the entirety of the mall site, would follow shortly after and take 18 months to complete. The first buildings would've been built in May 2022\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Plans revealed for demolition, redevelopment of Century III Mall \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/plans\\-revealed\\-for\\-demolition\\-redevelopment\\-of\\-century\\-iii\\-mall/28143844 \\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2019 \\|work\\=WTAE \\|date\\=21 June 2019}}", "On August 7, 2019, a \"motion to reject lease or executory contract of JCPenney Properties, Inc.\" was filed out by Debtor Century III Mall PA LLC, which is part of Moonbeam. By August 31, Moonbeam's website said that the mall was sold.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.inforuptcy.com/browse\\-filings/pennsylvania\\-western\\-bankruptcy\\-court/2:18\\-bk\\-23499/bankruptcy\\-case\\-century\\-iii\\-mall\\-pa\\-llc\\|title\\=Century III Mall PA LLC Bankruptcy Case \\#: 2:18\\-bk\\-23499 \\| Inforuptcy\\|website\\=www.inforuptcy.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2023}} {{registration required}}", "In August 2020, JCPenney announced that it would close over 150 stores, including the Century III Mall location. It closed on October 26, the last tenant of the mall.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Sykes\\|first\\=Katelyn\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-26\\|title\\=A JCPenney love story: Couple who met, married while working at department store decades ago visit on final day\\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/a\\-jc\\-penny\\-love\\-story\\-couple\\-who\\-met\\-married\\-while\\-working\\-at\\-department\\-store\\-decades\\-ago\\-visit\\-on\\-final\\-day/34484296\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-17\\|website\\=WTAE\\|language\\=en}}", "In March 2023, home improvement chain [Menards](/wiki/Menards \"Menards\") reportedly declined on its offer to purchase Century III Mall.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Conway \\|first\\=Brian \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-22 \\|title\\=Menards declines to purchase Century III Mall property \\|url\\=https://pghindependent.com/menards\\-declines\\-to\\-purchase\\-century\\-iii\\-mall\\-property/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-11 \\|website\\=Pittsburgh Independent \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "As of early 2023, the water has been shut off in the section of the mall where it was previously kept running.\n[right\\|thumb\\|Century III Mall demolition in progress in May 2024](/wiki/File:Century_III_Mall_-_May_2024.jpg \"Century III Mall - May 2024.jpg\")\nOn April 11, 2023, a fire broke out in the mall on the third floor above the food court area at 6:15 am, the fire was later extinguished around 9:40 am. The cause of the fire was determined to be arson.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-11 \\|title\\=Century III: Fire Erupts Inside Abandoned Mall \\|url\\=https://patch.com/pennsylvania/pittsburgh/century\\-iii\\-fire\\-erupts\\-inside\\-abandoned\\-mall \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-11 \\|website\\=Pittsburgh, PA Patch \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-11 \\|title\\=Firefighters responding to former Century III Mall in West Mifflin \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-fire\\-activity\\-west\\-mifflin/43562075 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-11 \\|website\\=WTAE \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Fire breaks out inside abandoned Century 3 Mall \\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/pittsburgh/news/abandoned\\-century\\-3\\-mall\\-catches\\-fire\\-in\\-west\\-mifflin/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-11 \\|website\\=www.cbsnews.com \\|date\\=11 April 2023 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Zilka \\|first\\=Ashley \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-11 \\|title\\=Fire breaks out inside former Century III Mall in West Mifflin \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-fire\\-activity\\-west\\-mifflin/43562075 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-12 \\|website\\=WTAE \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Power to the mall was also shut off. In the week following the fire, all entrances and exits to the mall were barricaded, including the parking lot.", "On June 3, 2023, a teenage boy fell through an opened roof hatch at the mall's former Macy's department store. The teenager was promptly taken to [UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh](/wiki/UPMC_Children%27s_Hospital_of_Pittsburgh \"UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh\") in critical condition.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-03 \\|title\\=Fall reported at Century III Mall, person taken to hospital \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-fall\\-west\\-mifflin/44081672 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-05 \\|website\\=WTAE \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-03 \\|title\\=Source: Teenager in critical condition after falling through roof at Century III Mall \\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/pittsburgh/news/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-police\\-presence\\-west\\-mifflin/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-05 \\|website\\=www.cbsnews.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "A hearing was held on June 14, 2023, to condemn the mall following numerous complaints from city officials.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-15 \\|title\\=West Mifflin holds condemnation hearing for Century III Mall \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-condemnation\\-hearing/44202064 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=WTAE \\|language\\=en}} Moonbeam Capital CEO Shawl Pryor attended the hearing, receiving criticism for the property's decline since 2019\\. Pryor alleges that the company ceased funding towards maintenance in 2022 as the graffiti and damage was too expensive to clean.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-condemnation\\-hearing/44202064\\#\\|title\\=West Mifflin holds condemnation hearing for Century III Mall\\|date\\=15 June 2023 }}", "On July 18, 2023, West Mifflin Borough Council voted 6\\-0 to condemn the abandoned Century III Mall.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-18 \\|title\\=West Mifflin council votes to condemn Century III Mall \\- CBS Pittsburgh \\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/pittsburgh/news/west\\-mifflin\\-council\\-condemn\\-century\\-iii\\-mall/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-18 \\|website\\=www.cbsnews.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "On January 30, 2024, Allegheny County District Attorney [Stephen A. Zappala Jr.](/wiki/Stephen_A._Zappala_Jr. \"Stephen A. Zappala Jr.\") filed criminal nuisance charges against the owners of the abandoned mall, calling it a \"monument to blight.\" The Allegheny County Court of Common Pleas plans to seize the nearly 90\\-acre site and demolish the dilapidated structure within 60 to 90 days.", "Demolition of the mall began on March 26, 2024, with the attached external parking garage structure.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Mautner \\|first\\=Chris \\|date\\=26 March 2024 \\|title\\=Demolition of abandoned, dilapidated Pa. mall to begin today \\|url\\=https://www.pennlive.com/news/2024/03/demolition\\-of\\-abandoned\\-dilapidated\\-pa\\-mall\\-to\\-begin\\-today.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240326174813/https://www.pennlive.com/news/2024/03/demolition\\-of\\-abandoned\\-dilapidated\\-pa\\-mall\\-to\\-begin\\-today.html \\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2024 \\|work\\=PennLive}}", "" ]
### Decline Several contributing factors beginning in the late 1990s would result in the eventual decline of the mall. The biggest of these factors was the development of [the Waterfront](/wiki/The_Waterfront "The Waterfront"), which opened in nearby Homestead in 1999\. The development had significantly expanded over the years, pulling shoppers away from Century III. [South Hills Village](/wiki/South_Hills_Village "South Hills Village"), a smaller mall located only five miles to the west in [Bethel Park](/wiki/Bethel_Park "Bethel Park"), also underwent a major renovation, incorporating a large food court among its amenities. Adding to the mall's woes, it lost its first anchor tenant in 1999 when Federated Department Stores closed the Lazarus store due to underperforming sales. Other major retailers, such as TJ Maxx 'n More and Wickes Furniture, also closed in 2003 and 2004, respectively. The former Wickes Furniture location was replaced by Dick's Sporting Goods, and TJ Maxx 'n More was filled with Steve and Barry's. As early as 2003, Century III Mall was about 20% vacant. By the late 2000s, several key retailers with locations at Century III Mall filed for bankruptcy, resulting in additional vacancies. On July 18, 2005, Federated Department Stores purchased the May Department Stores Company. That purchase brought the Kaufmann's nameplate under Federated ownership. On September 9, 2006, Federated converted all former [May Company](/wiki/The_May_Department_Stores_Company "The May Department Stores Company") regional department store nameplates, including Kaufmann's, into Macy's as part of a nationwide re\-branding program, resulting in the Kaufmann's Furniture Gallery location to be returned once again to Federated Department Stores ownership and subsequently renamed as [Macy's Furniture Gallery](/wiki/Macy%27s_Furniture_Gallery "Macy's Furniture Gallery"). Macy's Furniture only occupied the lower level. The mall went up for sale in 2006 as Simon refocused on its top\-performing properties, including South Hills Village and Ross Park Mall in Pittsburgh's northern suburbs. As the mall continued to languish, it affected the mall's assessment value, which stood at $66 million in April 2009, a 40 percent decrease from the previous $112 million in recent years. Prior to that, the mall was valued at $128 million. In June 2009, it decreased further to $58 million. The struggling mall was noted as being one of America's most endangered malls in a published report by [U.S. News \& World Report](/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report "U.S. News & World Report").{{Cite news\|last\=Newman\|first\=Rick\|url\=https://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/flowchart/2009/06/26/americas\-most\-endangered\-malls\|title\=America's Most Endangered Malls\|date\=June 26, 2009\|work\=U.S. News \& World Report\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020}} In April 2009, Macy's Furniture closed its Century III Mall location as a cost\-cutting measure.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.rosevilletoday.com/news/macys\-closing\-11\-stores/\|title\=Macy's Closing 11 Stores\|date\=January 8, 2009\|work\=Roseville Today\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020}} Just prior to the closing, the fountain near the food court was drained and filled with mulch. In 2010, La Hacienda opened in the former [Ruby Tuesday](/wiki/Ruby_Tuesday_%28restaurant%29 "Ruby Tuesday (restaurant)") space, but it closed and was eventually replaced with Old Mexico Restaurant in 2015\. Also during this time, certain sections of mall parking were permanently barricaded and blocked off to the general public, particularly in the parking deck, and the wing leading towards Macy's Furniture Gallery. [Simon Property Group](/wiki/Simon_Property_Group "Simon Property Group") defaulted on its $78 million loan for Century III Mall in August 2011, ultimately transferring ownership to its lenders.{{Cite news\|last\=Cloonan\|first\=Patrick\|url\=https://archive.triblive.com/news/century\-iii\-mall\-under\-new\-management\-now/\|title\=Century III Mall under new management now\|date\=September 1, 2011\|work\=Trib Live\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020}} From September 2011 to May 2013, the mall was managed by [Jones Lang LaSalle](/wiki/Jones_Lang_LaSalle "Jones Lang LaSalle"). On May 13, 2013, Century III Mall was purchased by Las Vegas\-based Moonbeam Capital Investments LLC, a real estate investment trust which operates other shopping centers across the United States.{{Cite news\|last\=Barnes\|first\=Tom\|url\=https://www.post\-gazette.com/local/south/2013/05/23/Nevada\-investors\-purchase\-Century\-III\-mall/stories/201305230292\|title\=Nevada investors purchase Century III mall\|date\=May 23, 2013\|work\=Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020}} In July 2014, a new double\-decker carousel opened in the center court. Sears closed on December 7, 2014\. By 2015, the mall had become 60% vacant. On January 6, 2016, [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s "Macy's") announced it would close its Century III store as part of a larger round of closings across the country.{{Cite news\|last1\=Fleisher\|first1\=Chris\|url\=https://archive.triblive.com/business/local\-stories/macys\-to\-close\-century\-iii\-mall\-store\-as\-part\-of\-national\-reorganization/\|title\=Macy's to close Century III Mall store as part of national reorganization\|date\=January 6, 2016\|work\=Trib Live\|access\-date\=February 25, 2020\|last2\=Parrish\|first2\=Tory}} [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s "Macy's") departure resulted in a mass exodus of retailers to leave the moribund mall. Its occupancy rate fell from 40 percent in January 2016 to 10 percent by December 2017\. The once\-sprawling food court, previously home to over 20 eateries, was now completely vacant after the last remaining food court tenant, Italian Village Pizza, closed on July 1, 2017\. The fast\-fading mall continued to see more departures in 2018\. Old Mexico, the last restaurant in the mall, closed in April, leaving the mall with no food tenant.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.upgruv.com/century\-iii\-last\-restaurant\-closing\-2419317629\.html\|title\=Say goodbye to the food court at Century III\|date\=23 May 2017\|work\=upgruv.com\|access\-date\=5 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604002026/http://www.upgruv.com/century\-iii\-last\-restaurant\-closing\-2419317629\.html\|archive\-date\=4 June 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} In addition, the double\-deck carousel was shut down and dismantled around the same time to be sent to an undisclosed location in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas"). Also in April, filming took place in the old Macy's Furniture Gallery wing for the [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") original series *[Mindhunter](/wiki/Mindhunter_%28TV_series%29 "Mindhunter (TV series)")*. On June 1, a walk\-through was held for former mall workers and patrons who wanted to tour the mall one last time due to a [sheriff's sale](/wiki/Sheriff%27s_sale "Sheriff's sale"). Over 200 people participated in the event. On September 4, 2018, a sheriff's sale of the mall was postponed after Moonbeam Capital Investments filed for bankruptcy for the mall at the last minute.{{cite news\|url\=https://triblive.com/local/allegheny/14044397\-74/century\-iii\-mall\-up\-for\-sheriffs\-sale\-today\|title\=Century III Mall sheriff's sale postponed yet again\|last\=Czbiniak\|first\=Madasyn\|date\=4 September 2018\|work\=\[\[Pittsburgh Tribune\-Review]]\|access\-date\=23 October 2018}} On January 1, 2019, Life Uniform, the last of the mall's chain tenants, departed from the Century III Mall. [thumb\|Century III Mall notice uninhabitable](/wiki/File:Century_III_Mall_notice_uninhabitable.jpg "Century III Mall notice uninhabitable.jpg") On February 6, 2019, [West Mifflin](/wiki/West_Mifflin "West Mifflin") fire code deemed Century III Mall to be "unsafe, uninhabitable" due to numerous code violations, such as a non\-functional sprinkler system, and no heat.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wpxi.com/news/top\-stories/century\-iii\-mall\-deemed\-unsafe\-and\-uninhabitable\-by\-code\-enforcement/915734045\|title\=Century 3 Mall: Century III Mall deemed 'unsafe and uninhabitable' by code enforcement\|date\=February 8, 2019\|website\=WPXI}} On February 15, 2019, after 15 years, New Dimension Comics said that they were moving to [The Waterfront](/wiki/The_Waterfront "The Waterfront") beside [Best Buy](/wiki/Best_Buy "Best Buy") and [Michael's](/wiki/Michael%27s "Michael's"). On February 12, 2019, Moonbeam's website said the mall was sold shortly after they took the sold banner off of their website. On February 16, 2019, the remaining mall tenants were issued eviction notices. [JCPenney](/wiki/JCPenney "JCPenney") and [Dick's Sporting Goods](/wiki/Dick%27s_Sporting_Goods "Dick's Sporting Goods") were the only remaining stores open at the time.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-mall\-leases\-terminated\-tenants\-told\-they\-have\-30\-days\-to\-vacate/26373533\|title\=Century III Mall leases terminated, tenants told they have 30 days to vacate\|date\=February 16, 2019\|website\=WTAE}} On March 24, 2019, Dick's Sporting Goods announced that they were closing and that their last day would be March 30, 2019\. This left one remaining original anchor, JCPenney.{{cite news \|title\=Dick's Sporting Goods store at Century III Mall is closing \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/dicks\-sporting\-goods\-store\-at\-century\-iii\-mall\-to\-close/26922175 \|access\-date\=26 March 2019 \|work\=Pittsburgh's Action News 4 \|date\=25 March 2019}} On April 17, 2019, it was announced that a redevelopment plan was coming to the mall.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wpxi.com/news/top\-stories/owner\-seeks\-extension\-for\-reorganization\-plan\-as\-it\-pursues\-redevelopment\-of\-century\-iii\-mall/940911882\|title\=Century III mall redevelopment coming\|date\=April 17, 2019\|website\=WPXI}} By June, it was reported that the mall was boarded up and the future of the mall remained unclear.{{cite news \|title\=Century III Mall in West Mifflin is boarded up; future of empty property unknown \|url\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\-iii\-mall\-boarded\-up\-west\-mifflin/27736029 \|access\-date\=7 June 2019 \|publisher\=WTAE \|date\=5 June 2019 \|ref\=2}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/news/2020/08/06/jcpenney\-to\-close\-at\-century\-iii\-mall.html\|title\=JCPenney adds Century III Mall location to closures in the regionaccess\-date\=2021\-04\-17\|website\=www.bizjournals.com}} Owners indicated that the largely vacant mall would be torn down in March 2020 with the exception of JCPenney which would have remained open. In place, a mixed\-use development was planned for the site. The plan called for incorporating retail, dining and entertainment attractions as well as a hotel, office space and residential units.
[ "### Decline", "Several contributing factors beginning in the late 1990s would result in the eventual decline of the mall. The biggest of these factors was the development of [the Waterfront](/wiki/The_Waterfront \"The Waterfront\"), which opened in nearby Homestead in 1999\\. The development had significantly expanded over the years, pulling shoppers away from Century III. [South Hills Village](/wiki/South_Hills_Village \"South Hills Village\"), a smaller mall located only five miles to the west in [Bethel Park](/wiki/Bethel_Park \"Bethel Park\"), also underwent a major renovation, incorporating a large food court among its amenities.", "Adding to the mall's woes, it lost its first anchor tenant in 1999 when Federated Department Stores closed the Lazarus store due to underperforming sales. Other major retailers, such as TJ Maxx 'n More and Wickes Furniture, also closed in 2003 and 2004, respectively. The former Wickes Furniture location was replaced by Dick's Sporting Goods, and TJ Maxx 'n More was filled with Steve and Barry's. As early as 2003, Century III Mall was about 20% vacant. By the late 2000s, several key retailers with locations at Century III Mall filed for bankruptcy, resulting in additional vacancies.", "On July 18, 2005, Federated Department Stores purchased the May Department Stores Company. That purchase brought the Kaufmann's nameplate under Federated ownership. On September 9, 2006, Federated converted all former [May Company](/wiki/The_May_Department_Stores_Company \"The May Department Stores Company\") regional department store nameplates, including Kaufmann's, into Macy's as part of a nationwide re\\-branding program, resulting in the Kaufmann's Furniture Gallery location to be returned once again to Federated Department Stores ownership and subsequently renamed as [Macy's Furniture Gallery](/wiki/Macy%27s_Furniture_Gallery \"Macy's Furniture Gallery\"). Macy's Furniture only occupied the lower level.", "The mall went up for sale in 2006 as Simon refocused on its top\\-performing properties, including South Hills Village and Ross Park Mall in Pittsburgh's northern suburbs. As the mall continued to languish, it affected the mall's assessment value, which stood at $66 million in April 2009, a 40 percent decrease from the previous $112 million in recent years. Prior to that, the mall was valued at $128 million. In June 2009, it decreased further to $58 million. The struggling mall was noted as being one of America's most endangered malls in a published report by [U.S. News \\& World Report](/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report \"U.S. News & World Report\").{{Cite news\\|last\\=Newman\\|first\\=Rick\\|url\\=https://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/flowchart/2009/06/26/americas\\-most\\-endangered\\-malls\\|title\\=America's Most Endangered Malls\\|date\\=June 26, 2009\\|work\\=U.S. News \\& World Report\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020}}", "In April 2009, Macy's Furniture closed its Century III Mall location as a cost\\-cutting measure.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.rosevilletoday.com/news/macys\\-closing\\-11\\-stores/\\|title\\=Macy's Closing 11 Stores\\|date\\=January 8, 2009\\|work\\=Roseville Today\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020}} Just prior to the closing, the fountain near the food court was drained and filled with mulch. In 2010, La Hacienda opened in the former [Ruby Tuesday](/wiki/Ruby_Tuesday_%28restaurant%29 \"Ruby Tuesday (restaurant)\") space, but it closed and was eventually replaced with Old Mexico Restaurant in 2015\\. Also during this time, certain sections of mall parking were permanently barricaded and blocked off to the general public, particularly in the parking deck, and the wing leading towards Macy's Furniture Gallery.", "[Simon Property Group](/wiki/Simon_Property_Group \"Simon Property Group\") defaulted on its $78 million loan for Century III Mall in August 2011, ultimately transferring ownership to its lenders.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Cloonan\\|first\\=Patrick\\|url\\=https://archive.triblive.com/news/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-under\\-new\\-management\\-now/\\|title\\=Century III Mall under new management now\\|date\\=September 1, 2011\\|work\\=Trib Live\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020}} From September 2011 to May 2013, the mall was managed by [Jones Lang LaSalle](/wiki/Jones_Lang_LaSalle \"Jones Lang LaSalle\"). On May 13, 2013, Century III Mall was purchased by Las Vegas\\-based Moonbeam Capital Investments LLC, a real estate investment trust which operates other shopping centers across the United States.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Barnes\\|first\\=Tom\\|url\\=https://www.post\\-gazette.com/local/south/2013/05/23/Nevada\\-investors\\-purchase\\-Century\\-III\\-mall/stories/201305230292\\|title\\=Nevada investors purchase Century III mall\\|date\\=May 23, 2013\\|work\\=Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020}} In July 2014, a new double\\-decker carousel opened in the center court. Sears closed on December 7, 2014\\.", "By 2015, the mall had become 60% vacant. On January 6, 2016, [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s \"Macy's\") announced it would close its Century III store as part of a larger round of closings across the country.{{Cite news\\|last1\\=Fleisher\\|first1\\=Chris\\|url\\=https://archive.triblive.com/business/local\\-stories/macys\\-to\\-close\\-century\\-iii\\-mall\\-store\\-as\\-part\\-of\\-national\\-reorganization/\\|title\\=Macy's to close Century III Mall store as part of national reorganization\\|date\\=January 6, 2016\\|work\\=Trib Live\\|access\\-date\\=February 25, 2020\\|last2\\=Parrish\\|first2\\=Tory}} [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s \"Macy's\") departure resulted in a mass exodus of retailers to leave the moribund mall. Its occupancy rate fell from 40 percent in January 2016 to 10 percent by December 2017\\. The once\\-sprawling food court, previously home to over 20 eateries, was now completely vacant after the last remaining food court tenant, Italian Village Pizza, closed on July 1, 2017\\.", "The fast\\-fading mall continued to see more departures in 2018\\. Old Mexico, the last restaurant in the mall, closed in April, leaving the mall with no food tenant.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.upgruv.com/century\\-iii\\-last\\-restaurant\\-closing\\-2419317629\\.html\\|title\\=Say goodbye to the food court at Century III\\|date\\=23 May 2017\\|work\\=upgruv.com\\|access\\-date\\=5 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604002026/http://www.upgruv.com/century\\-iii\\-last\\-restaurant\\-closing\\-2419317629\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In addition, the double\\-deck carousel was shut down and dismantled around the same time to be sent to an undisclosed location in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\"). Also in April, filming took place in the old Macy's Furniture Gallery wing for the [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") original series *[Mindhunter](/wiki/Mindhunter_%28TV_series%29 \"Mindhunter (TV series)\")*. On June 1, a walk\\-through was held for former mall workers and patrons who wanted to tour the mall one last time due to a [sheriff's sale](/wiki/Sheriff%27s_sale \"Sheriff's sale\"). Over 200 people participated in the event.", "On September 4, 2018, a sheriff's sale of the mall was postponed after Moonbeam Capital Investments filed for bankruptcy for the mall at the last minute.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://triblive.com/local/allegheny/14044397\\-74/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-up\\-for\\-sheriffs\\-sale\\-today\\|title\\=Century III Mall sheriff's sale postponed yet again\\|last\\=Czbiniak\\|first\\=Madasyn\\|date\\=4 September 2018\\|work\\=\\[\\[Pittsburgh Tribune\\-Review]]\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2018}} On January 1, 2019, Life Uniform, the last of the mall's chain tenants, departed from the Century III Mall.", "[thumb\\|Century III Mall notice uninhabitable](/wiki/File:Century_III_Mall_notice_uninhabitable.jpg \"Century III Mall notice uninhabitable.jpg\")", "On February 6, 2019, [West Mifflin](/wiki/West_Mifflin \"West Mifflin\") fire code deemed Century III Mall to be \"unsafe, uninhabitable\" due to numerous code violations, such as a non\\-functional sprinkler system, and no heat.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wpxi.com/news/top\\-stories/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-deemed\\-unsafe\\-and\\-uninhabitable\\-by\\-code\\-enforcement/915734045\\|title\\=Century 3 Mall: Century III Mall deemed 'unsafe and uninhabitable' by code enforcement\\|date\\=February 8, 2019\\|website\\=WPXI}} On February 15, 2019, after 15 years, New Dimension Comics said that they were moving to [The Waterfront](/wiki/The_Waterfront \"The Waterfront\") beside [Best Buy](/wiki/Best_Buy \"Best Buy\") and [Michael's](/wiki/Michael%27s \"Michael's\").\nOn February 12, 2019, Moonbeam's website said the mall was sold shortly after they took the sold banner off of their website.\nOn February 16, 2019, the remaining mall tenants were issued eviction notices. [JCPenney](/wiki/JCPenney \"JCPenney\") and [Dick's Sporting Goods](/wiki/Dick%27s_Sporting_Goods \"Dick's Sporting Goods\") were the only remaining stores open at the time.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-leases\\-terminated\\-tenants\\-told\\-they\\-have\\-30\\-days\\-to\\-vacate/26373533\\|title\\=Century III Mall leases terminated, tenants told they have 30 days to vacate\\|date\\=February 16, 2019\\|website\\=WTAE}} On March 24, 2019, Dick's Sporting Goods announced that they were closing and that their last day would be March 30, 2019\\. This left one remaining original anchor, JCPenney.{{cite news \\|title\\=Dick's Sporting Goods store at Century III Mall is closing \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/dicks\\-sporting\\-goods\\-store\\-at\\-century\\-iii\\-mall\\-to\\-close/26922175 \\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2019 \\|work\\=Pittsburgh's Action News 4 \\|date\\=25 March 2019}}", "On April 17, 2019, it was announced that a redevelopment plan was coming to the mall.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wpxi.com/news/top\\-stories/owner\\-seeks\\-extension\\-for\\-reorganization\\-plan\\-as\\-it\\-pursues\\-redevelopment\\-of\\-century\\-iii\\-mall/940911882\\|title\\=Century III mall redevelopment coming\\|date\\=April 17, 2019\\|website\\=WPXI}} By June, it was reported that the mall was boarded up and the future of the mall remained unclear.{{cite news \\|title\\=Century III Mall in West Mifflin is boarded up; future of empty property unknown \\|url\\=https://www.wtae.com/article/century\\-iii\\-mall\\-boarded\\-up\\-west\\-mifflin/27736029 \\|access\\-date\\=7 June 2019 \\|publisher\\=WTAE \\|date\\=5 June 2019 \\|ref\\=2}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/news/2020/08/06/jcpenney\\-to\\-close\\-at\\-century\\-iii\\-mall.html\\|title\\=JCPenney adds Century III Mall location to closures in the regionaccess\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-17\\|website\\=www.bizjournals.com}} Owners indicated that the largely vacant mall would be torn down in March 2020 with the exception of JCPenney which would have remained open. In place, a mixed\\-use development was planned for the site. The plan called for incorporating retail, dining and entertainment attractions as well as a hotel, office space and residential units.", "" ]
Gameplay -------- [thumb\|A screenshot of *Forge of Empires* gameplay, showing the city management menu](/wiki/File:City_screen_forge_of_empires_s.png "City screen forge of empires s.png") The main goal of the game is to expand and develop a city, evolving from the [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age "Stone Age") to the future era of establishing a "Space Age Space Hub", presumably beyond the orbit of [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28moon%29 "Titan (moon)"). The city has houses that provide coins and population, production buildings that provide supplies, buildings that produce goods, and lastly the decorations and cultural buildings that provide happiness. Forge Points, with a meter that refills in time (one Forge Point per hour up to 10 at a time), allow players to research technologies, which unlock new buildings, more building space and other bonuses.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Basics\|title\=Basics\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} Happiness is important for city development because, the happier the city the better resource output. The happiness can be at 50%, 100% or 120%. There are special buildings as well, that may be acquired in special events, daily challenges, and the antiques dealer, that buys and sells items for trade coins, and gemstones.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Antiques\_Dealer\|title\=Antiques Dealer\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} Some may have to be purchased with diamonds, a [premium currency](/wiki/Virtual_economy%23Premium_currency "Virtual economy#Premium currency") that is harder to acquire or needs to be purchased for real currency.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Diamonds\|title\=Diamonds\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} Forge Points may be contributed to Great Buildings, based on historical structures and which can be assembled when a player finds the correct blueprints.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Great\_Buildings\|title\=Great Buildings\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} Great Buildings offer higher benefits but require goods to build and many forge points to advance. It is possible to speed up construction and research with diamonds. However, diamonds can sometimes be acquired upon the completion of certain quests and through some buildings like the Crows Nest{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=The\_Crow%27s\_Nest\_\-\_Lv.\_8\|title\=Crow's Nest\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} and Wishing Wells.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Wishing\_Well\|title\=Wishing Well\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} Some players with large cities start new worlds on the same server, and fill them with those types of buildings (such cities are called "diamond farms"),{{cite video\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=hSGflQqc6ZU\|title\=EVERYWHERE you can get Diamonds for Free! \|publisher\=UberNerd14 via YouTube\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} as diamonds are shared by the account's multiple cities on worlds of the same (language) server.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Worlds\|title\=Worlds\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} There are also buildings that allow the training of certain military units. Some military units can also be acquired by conquering certain territories. Combat takes place with [turn\-based tactics](/wiki/Turn-based_tactics "Turn-based tactics"), and unit types work in a [rock paper scissors](/wiki/Rock_paper_scissors "Rock paper scissors") style against each other.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=FAQ\#Army\_and\_battles\|title\=FAQ\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} Combat may be used to advance territory in a world map, and in [player versus player](/wiki/Player_versus_player "Player versus player") combats, including special tournaments. Those tournaments are held between guilds, groups of players that fight together against other guilds. *Forge of Empires* has a large combat element to progressing. Although one of the introductory screens says a player can be a fighter or a trader, there soon becomes a point where a player cannot progress without weaponising.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2023}} There is also a more social aspect to the game with Friends. The Friends Tavern makes Tavern Silver when a friend “sits” in the tavern and the player can collect the silver. It can be spent on upgrades to the Friends Tavern, or be spent on city boosts.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Friends\_Tavern\|title\=Friends Tavern\| publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} ### Guilds A player can choose to join a guild, which offers gameplay benefits including additional daily forge points, combat bonuses and social interactions, such as aiding and building progression. Several combat maps are also open for members of a guild to compete with other guilds.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Guilds\|title\=Guilds\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} #### Guild vs Guild In 2014, GvG (Guild v Guild) was introduced, taking place on the Guild Continent map. Guilds fight for control of sectors in different ages. There are twelve ages (Iron Age, aka IA, through Future Era, aka FE) represented on the map along with an All Ages (AA) continent. Players must use treasury goods which can be donated or medals for AA to set sieges or to place defensive armies (DAs). To win a sector, one must place a siege army and fight until all defending armies are defeated. Once conquered, players may place defensive armies.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Guild\_vs\_Guild\|title\=Guild vs Guild\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} GvG is only available on desktop version of the game and InnoGames announced its upcoming termination in 2023\.{{cite web\|url\=https://forum.us.forgeofempires.com/index.php?threads/big\-news\-for\-forge.45772/\|title\=Big news for Forge!\|date\=2023\-10\-23\|publisher\=Forge of Empires Official Forum (US) Announcement\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} #### Guild Expedition In 2016, Guild Expedition was introduced, a weekly event where up to eight guilds compete against each other for six days starting Tuesday. The percentage of guild participation affects final placement in the expedition, and the guilds that place first, second, and third receive an extra boost. There are five levels of progressive difficulty.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Guild\_Expeditions\|title\=Guild Expeditions\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} In addition to gaining guild power, guild expedition provides rewards at the end of each successful battle or negotiation. Players can also build a Great Building, Temple of Relics, from blueprints gained during the expedition which offers the chance of winning more substantial prizes while participating in Guild Expedition. #### Guild Battlegrounds Battlegrounds was released on 14 November 2019, serving as a hybrid between Guild Expeditions and Guild vs Guild. Every two weeks, guilds fight for provinces on the map that generate victory points to improve final ranking and to determine league participation. Higher leagues offer greater challenges and more competitive rivals.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Guild\_Battlegrounds\|title\=Guild Battlegrounds\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} Provinces can be conquered using stand\-alone battles or negotiations. Once a province is captured, the player can spend goods from the guild treasury to build buildings to improve the chances of advancing to the adhering provinces. Progress made on a province is shared throughout the guild. When the battleground ends, guild members earn a reward according to the performance of their guild and their current league. #### PvP Arena On May 28, 2021 the PVP Arena was released. The PvP Arena is a feature for all players of a server to compete and to show their battle progress against other players of the same server on a weekly basis. This feature is first unlocked when researching the technology Technology Mercenaries in the Early Middle Ages. Rewards are credited to all participating players in multiple ways: by chance when doing battles, according to their performance at the week's end, and progress in a monthly personal league.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=PvP\_Arena\|title\=PvP Arena\|publisher\=Forge of Empires\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22}} ### Great Buildings Great Buildings (GBs) can be built by a player if the player has collected all [blueprints](/wiki/Blueprint "Blueprint") of that building. The first set of blueprints will allow the player to level the GB to level 10\. All subsequent levels require a full set of blueprints for each level. Players from the guild of the Great Building's owner, as well as players on the owner's friend and neighbourhood tab can contribute forge points to the Great Building in return for medals, forge points and blueprints of the building. Each great building has five top contribution places that offer these rewards. Most buildings are based on well\-known (historical) buildings from real life, but some are also fictional and designed by InnoGames' own concept artists.{{cite web\|url\=https://gustavnordgren.artstation.com/projects/8elW16\|title\=Truce tower\|last\= Nordgren\|first\=Gustav}} As of 2023, there are 46 Great Buildings in the game: | No Age | Bronze Age | Iron Age | Early Middle Ages | High Middle Ages | Late Middle Ages | Colonial Age | Industrial Age | Progressive Era | Modern Era | Postmodern Era | Contemporary Era | Tomorrow Era | Future Era | Arctic Future | Oceanic Future | Virtual Future | Space Age Mars | Space Age Asteroid Belt | Space Age Venus | Space Age Jupiter Moon | Space Age Titan | Space Age: Space Hub | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Observatory | [Tower of Babel](/wiki/Tower_of_Babel "Tower of Babel") | [Colosseum](/wiki/Colosseum "Colosseum") | [Cathedral of Aachen](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Aachen "Cathedral of Aachen") | [St. Mark's Basilica](/wiki/St._Mark%27s_Basilica "St. Mark's Basilica") | [Saint Basil's Cathedral](/wiki/Saint_Basil%27s_Cathedral "Saint Basil's Cathedral") | [Deal Castle](/wiki/Deal_Castle "Deal Castle") | [Capitol](/wiki/United_States_Capitol "United States Capitol") | [Château Frontenac](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_Frontenac "Château Frontenac") | [Space Needle](/wiki/Space_Needle "Space Needle") | [Cape Canaveral](/wiki/Cape_Canaveral "Cape Canaveral") | [Innovation Tower](/wiki/Innovation_Tower "Innovation Tower") | [Voyager](/wiki/Voyager_program "Voyager program") [V1](/wiki/Voyager_1 "Voyager 1") | Rain Forest Project | [Gaea](/wiki/Gaia "Gaia") Statue | [Atlantis](/wiki/Atlantis "Atlantis") Museum | [Terracotta Army](/wiki/Terracotta_Army "Terracotta Army") | [The Virgo Project](/wiki/Virgo_interferometer "Virgo interferometer") | Space Carrier | Flying Island | [A.I. Core](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence%23Deep_learning "Artificial intelligence#Deep learning") | Saturn VI Gate CENTAURUS | Stellar Warship | | [Oracle of Delphi](/wiki/Oracle_of_Delphi "Oracle of Delphi") | [Statue of Zeus](/wiki/Statue_of_Zeus "Statue of Zeus") | [Lighthouse of Alexandria](/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria "Lighthouse of Alexandria") | [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia "Hagia Sophia") | [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris "Notre-Dame de Paris") | [Castel del Monte](/wiki/Castel_del_Monte%2C_Apulia "Castel del Monte, Apulia") | [Frauenkirche of Dresden](/wiki/Frauenkirche_of_Dresden "Frauenkirche of Dresden") | [Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall "Royal Albert Hall") | [Alcatraz](/wiki/Alcatraz "Alcatraz") | [Atomium](/wiki/Atomium "Atomium") | [The Habitat](/wiki/Habitat_67 "Habitat 67") | [Lotus Temple](/wiki/Lotus_Temple "Lotus Temple") | Truce Tower (formerly [Dynamic Tower](/wiki/Dynamic_Tower "Dynamic Tower")) | The Arc | Arctic Orangery | [The Kraken](/wiki/Kraken "Kraken") | [Himeji Castle](/wiki/Himeji_Castle "Himeji Castle") | [Star Gazer](/wiki/William_Herschel_Telescope "William Herschel Telescope") | | | | Saturn VI Gate PEGASUS | Cosmic Catalyst | | [Temple of Relics](/wiki/El_Castillo%2C_Chichen_Itza "El Castillo, Chichen Itza") | | | [Galata Tower](/wiki/Galata_Tower "Galata Tower") | | | | | | | | | | | [Seed Vault](/wiki/Seed_bank "Seed bank") | The Blue Galaxy | | | | | | Saturn VI Gate HYDRA | ### The Castle The Castle system was introduced on 13 October, 2021, and it involves a castle built off\-grid of the player's city, which tracks the player's everyday activities like fights, negotiations, advancing in the Guild Expeditions, as well as trading at the Antiques Dealer. It assigns points to each activity and gives out rewards upon leveling the castle, as well as a daily reward.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Castle\_System\|title\=Castle System\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22\|publisher\=Forge of Empires}} ### Cultural settlements Cultural settlements are mini\-settlements within the game that can be accessed from within the player's city. The feature can be unlocked in iron age, and the player can choose from building a village from the following cultures: [Vikings](/wiki/Viking_Age "Viking Age"), [Feudal Japan](/wiki/History_of_Japan%23Feudal_Japan "History of Japan#Feudal Japan"), [Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt"), [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec_Empire "Aztec Empire") and [Mughal Empire](/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire"). Each settlement offers a unique building with different bonuses and the player has to play through several instances of the same settlement to obtain all levels of the reward building.{{cite web\|url\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\=Cultural\_Settlements\|title\=Cultural Settlements\|accessdate\=2023\-12\-22\|publisher\=Forge of Empires}}
[ "Gameplay\n--------", "[thumb\\|A screenshot of *Forge of Empires* gameplay, showing the city management menu](/wiki/File:City_screen_forge_of_empires_s.png \"City screen forge of empires s.png\")\nThe main goal of the game is to expand and develop a city, evolving from the [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age \"Stone Age\") to the future era of establishing a \"Space Age Space Hub\", presumably beyond the orbit of [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28moon%29 \"Titan (moon)\"). The city has houses that provide coins and population, production buildings that provide supplies, buildings that produce goods, and lastly the decorations and cultural buildings that provide happiness. Forge Points, with a meter that refills in time (one Forge Point per hour up to 10 at a time), allow players to research technologies, which unlock new buildings, more building space and other bonuses.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Basics\\|title\\=Basics\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "Happiness is important for city development because, the happier the city the better resource output. The happiness can be at 50%, 100% or 120%.", "There are special buildings as well, that may be acquired in special events, daily challenges, and the antiques dealer, that buys and sells items for trade coins, and gemstones.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Antiques\\_Dealer\\|title\\=Antiques Dealer\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}} Some may have to be purchased with diamonds, a [premium currency](/wiki/Virtual_economy%23Premium_currency \"Virtual economy#Premium currency\") that is harder to acquire or needs to be purchased for real currency.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Diamonds\\|title\\=Diamonds\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "Forge Points may be contributed to Great Buildings, based on historical structures and which can be assembled when a player finds the correct blueprints.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Great\\_Buildings\\|title\\=Great Buildings\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}} Great Buildings offer higher benefits but require goods to build and many forge points to advance. It is possible to speed up construction and research with diamonds. However, diamonds can sometimes be acquired upon the completion of certain quests and through some buildings like the Crows Nest{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=The\\_Crow%27s\\_Nest\\_\\-\\_Lv.\\_8\\|title\\=Crow's Nest\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}} and Wishing Wells.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Wishing\\_Well\\|title\\=Wishing Well\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}} Some players with large cities start new worlds on the same server, and fill them with those types of buildings (such cities are called \"diamond farms\"),{{cite video\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=hSGflQqc6ZU\\|title\\=EVERYWHERE you can get Diamonds for Free! \\|publisher\\=UberNerd14 via YouTube\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}} as diamonds are shared by the account's multiple cities on worlds of the same (language) server.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Worlds\\|title\\=Worlds\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "There are also buildings that allow the training of certain military units. Some military units can also be acquired by conquering certain territories. Combat takes place with [turn\\-based tactics](/wiki/Turn-based_tactics \"Turn-based tactics\"), and unit types work in a [rock paper scissors](/wiki/Rock_paper_scissors \"Rock paper scissors\") style against each other.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=FAQ\\#Army\\_and\\_battles\\|title\\=FAQ\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}} Combat may be used to advance territory in a world map, and in [player versus player](/wiki/Player_versus_player \"Player versus player\") combats, including special tournaments. Those tournaments are held between guilds, groups of players that fight together against other guilds.", "*Forge of Empires* has a large combat element to progressing. Although one of the introductory screens says a player can be a fighter or a trader, there soon becomes a point where a player cannot progress without weaponising.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2023}}", "There is also a more social aspect to the game with Friends. The Friends Tavern makes Tavern Silver when a friend “sits” in the tavern and the player can collect the silver. It can be spent on upgrades to the Friends Tavern, or be spent on city boosts.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Friends\\_Tavern\\|title\\=Friends Tavern\\| publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "### Guilds", "A player can choose to join a guild, which offers gameplay benefits including additional daily forge points, combat bonuses and social interactions, such as aiding and building progression. Several combat maps are also open for members of a guild to compete with other guilds.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Guilds\\|title\\=Guilds\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "#### Guild vs Guild", "In 2014, GvG (Guild v Guild) was introduced, taking place on the Guild Continent map. Guilds fight for control of sectors in different ages. There are twelve ages (Iron Age, aka IA, through Future Era, aka FE) represented on the map along with an All Ages (AA) continent. Players must use treasury goods which can be donated or medals for AA to set sieges or to place defensive armies (DAs). To win a sector, one must place a siege army and fight until all defending armies are defeated. Once conquered, players may place defensive armies.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Guild\\_vs\\_Guild\\|title\\=Guild vs Guild\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}} GvG is only available on desktop version of the game and InnoGames announced its upcoming termination in 2023\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://forum.us.forgeofempires.com/index.php?threads/big\\-news\\-for\\-forge.45772/\\|title\\=Big news for Forge!\\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-23\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires Official Forum (US) Announcement\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "#### Guild Expedition", "In 2016, Guild Expedition was introduced, a weekly event where up to eight guilds compete against each other for six days starting Tuesday. The percentage of guild participation affects final placement in the expedition, and the guilds that place first, second, and third receive an extra boost. There are five levels of progressive difficulty.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Guild\\_Expeditions\\|title\\=Guild Expeditions\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "In addition to gaining guild power, guild expedition provides rewards at the end of each successful battle or negotiation. Players can also build a Great Building, Temple of Relics, from blueprints gained during the expedition which offers the chance of winning more substantial prizes while participating in Guild Expedition.", "#### Guild Battlegrounds", "Battlegrounds was released on 14 November 2019, serving as a hybrid between Guild Expeditions and Guild vs Guild. Every two weeks, guilds fight for provinces on the map that generate victory points to improve final ranking and to determine league participation. Higher leagues offer greater challenges and more competitive rivals.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Guild\\_Battlegrounds\\|title\\=Guild Battlegrounds\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "Provinces can be conquered using stand\\-alone battles or negotiations. Once a province is captured, the player can spend goods from the guild treasury to build buildings to improve the chances of advancing to the adhering provinces. Progress made on a province is shared throughout the guild. When the battleground ends, guild members earn a reward according to the performance of their guild and their current league.", "#### PvP Arena", "On May 28, 2021 the PVP Arena was released. The PvP Arena is a feature for all players of a server to compete and to show their battle progress against other players of the same server on a weekly basis. This feature is first unlocked when researching the technology Technology Mercenaries in the Early Middle Ages. Rewards are credited to all participating players in multiple ways: by chance when doing battles, according to their performance at the week's end, and progress in a monthly personal league.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=PvP\\_Arena\\|title\\=PvP Arena\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22}}", "### Great Buildings", "Great Buildings (GBs) can be built by a player if the player has collected all [blueprints](/wiki/Blueprint \"Blueprint\") of that building. The first set of blueprints will allow the player to level the GB to level 10\\. All subsequent levels require a full set of blueprints for each level. Players from the guild of the Great Building's owner, as well as players on the owner's friend and neighbourhood tab can contribute forge points to the Great Building in return for medals, forge points and blueprints of the building. Each great building has five top contribution places that offer these rewards.", "Most buildings are based on well\\-known (historical) buildings from real life, but some are also fictional and designed by InnoGames' own concept artists.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://gustavnordgren.artstation.com/projects/8elW16\\|title\\=Truce tower\\|last\\= Nordgren\\|first\\=Gustav}} As of 2023, there are 46 Great Buildings in the game:", "", "| No Age | Bronze Age | Iron Age | Early Middle Ages | High Middle Ages | Late Middle Ages | Colonial Age | Industrial Age | Progressive Era | Modern Era | Postmodern Era | Contemporary Era | Tomorrow Era | Future Era | Arctic Future | Oceanic Future | Virtual Future | Space Age Mars | Space Age Asteroid Belt | Space Age Venus | Space Age Jupiter Moon | Space Age Titan | Space Age: Space Hub |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Observatory | [Tower of Babel](/wiki/Tower_of_Babel \"Tower of Babel\") | [Colosseum](/wiki/Colosseum \"Colosseum\") | [Cathedral of Aachen](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Aachen \"Cathedral of Aachen\") | [St. Mark's Basilica](/wiki/St._Mark%27s_Basilica \"St. Mark's Basilica\") | [Saint Basil's Cathedral](/wiki/Saint_Basil%27s_Cathedral \"Saint Basil's Cathedral\") | [Deal Castle](/wiki/Deal_Castle \"Deal Castle\") | [Capitol](/wiki/United_States_Capitol \"United States Capitol\") | [Château Frontenac](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_Frontenac \"Château Frontenac\") | [Space Needle](/wiki/Space_Needle \"Space Needle\") | [Cape Canaveral](/wiki/Cape_Canaveral \"Cape Canaveral\") | [Innovation Tower](/wiki/Innovation_Tower \"Innovation Tower\") | [Voyager](/wiki/Voyager_program \"Voyager program\") [V1](/wiki/Voyager_1 \"Voyager 1\") | Rain Forest Project | [Gaea](/wiki/Gaia \"Gaia\") Statue | [Atlantis](/wiki/Atlantis \"Atlantis\") Museum | [Terracotta Army](/wiki/Terracotta_Army \"Terracotta Army\") | [The Virgo Project](/wiki/Virgo_interferometer \"Virgo interferometer\") | Space Carrier | Flying Island | [A.I. Core](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence%23Deep_learning \"Artificial intelligence#Deep learning\") | Saturn VI Gate CENTAURUS | Stellar Warship |\n| [Oracle of Delphi](/wiki/Oracle_of_Delphi \"Oracle of Delphi\") | [Statue of Zeus](/wiki/Statue_of_Zeus \"Statue of Zeus\") | [Lighthouse of Alexandria](/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria \"Lighthouse of Alexandria\") | [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia \"Hagia Sophia\") | [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris \"Notre-Dame de Paris\") | [Castel del Monte](/wiki/Castel_del_Monte%2C_Apulia \"Castel del Monte, Apulia\") | [Frauenkirche of Dresden](/wiki/Frauenkirche_of_Dresden \"Frauenkirche of Dresden\") | [Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall \"Royal Albert Hall\") | [Alcatraz](/wiki/Alcatraz \"Alcatraz\") | [Atomium](/wiki/Atomium \"Atomium\") | [The Habitat](/wiki/Habitat_67 \"Habitat 67\") | [Lotus Temple](/wiki/Lotus_Temple \"Lotus Temple\") | Truce Tower (formerly [Dynamic Tower](/wiki/Dynamic_Tower \"Dynamic Tower\")) | The Arc | Arctic Orangery | [The Kraken](/wiki/Kraken \"Kraken\") | [Himeji Castle](/wiki/Himeji_Castle \"Himeji Castle\") | [Star Gazer](/wiki/William_Herschel_Telescope \"William Herschel Telescope\") | | | | Saturn VI Gate PEGASUS | Cosmic Catalyst |\n| [Temple of Relics](/wiki/El_Castillo%2C_Chichen_Itza \"El Castillo, Chichen Itza\") | | | [Galata Tower](/wiki/Galata_Tower \"Galata Tower\") | | | | | | | | | | | [Seed Vault](/wiki/Seed_bank \"Seed bank\") | The Blue Galaxy | | | | | | Saturn VI Gate HYDRA |", "### The Castle", "The Castle system was introduced on 13 October, 2021, and it involves a castle built off\\-grid of the player's city, which tracks the player's everyday activities like fights, negotiations, advancing in the Guild Expeditions, as well as trading at the Antiques Dealer. It assigns points to each activity and gives out rewards upon leveling the castle, as well as a daily reward.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Castle\\_System\\|title\\=Castle System\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires}}", "### Cultural settlements", "Cultural settlements are mini\\-settlements within the game that can be accessed from within the player's city. The feature can be unlocked in iron age, and the player can choose from building a village from the following cultures: [Vikings](/wiki/Viking_Age \"Viking Age\"), [Feudal Japan](/wiki/History_of_Japan%23Feudal_Japan \"History of Japan#Feudal Japan\"), [Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\"), [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec_Empire \"Aztec Empire\") and [Mughal Empire](/wiki/Mughal_Empire \"Mughal Empire\"). Each settlement offers a unique building with different bonuses and the player has to play through several instances of the same settlement to obtain all levels of the reward building.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://en.wiki.forgeofempires.com/index.php?title\\=Cultural\\_Settlements\\|title\\=Cultural Settlements\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-12\\-22\\|publisher\\=Forge of Empires}}", "" ]
Geography --------- Erdemli is located between the districts of [Mezitli](/wiki/Mezitli "Mezitli") (to the east) and [Silifke](/wiki/Silifke "Silifke") (to the west). In the north, Erdemli is bordered by [Karaman Province](/wiki/Karaman_Province "Karaman Province") and in the south by the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea"). The district extends from the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") coastal plain, the largest agricultural area in Mersin Province, to high in the [Taurus Mountains](/wiki/Taurus_Mountains "Taurus Mountains") where there is forest, and then a large area (half the land area of the district) is high mountain above the treeline. Erdemli is a quiet rural district where the people are conservative, and is traditionally a strong base for Turkish nationalism. The local economy is centered around on agriculture. The coastal plain is covered with citrus fruits, bananas, and various fruits and vegetables grown year\-round in open fields or in greenhouses. High meadows in the mountains are planted with grain pulses and fruits such as apples, peaches, and cherries. At these altitudes there are also vineyards, olive groves, and fig trees. This is an attractive forested coastal district, and Erdemli is now attracting investment in infrastructure to develop a tourist industry. The coast is home to the endangered [Mediterranean monk seal](/wiki/Mediterranean_monk_seal "Mediterranean monk seal"). The [Middle East Technical University](/wiki/Middle_East_Technical_University "Middle East Technical University") in [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara "Ankara") has an [Institute of Marine Sciences](/wiki/Institute_of_Marine_Sciences "Institute of Marine Sciences") graduate school here, which has a biology group that monitors the seals. ### Climate Erdemli has a [hot\-summer Mediterranean climate](/wiki/Hot-summer_Mediterranean_climate "Hot-summer Mediterranean climate") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification"): *Csa*),{{Cite journal \|title\=Table 1 Overview of the Köppen\-Geiger climate classes including the defining criteria. \|url\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597\-023\-02549\-6/tables/1 \|journal\=Nature: Scientific Data \|language\=en}} with hot, muggy, virtually rainless summers, and mild, rainy winters. {{Weather box \| width \= auto \| collapsed \= yes \| metric first \= yes \| single line \= yes \| location \= Erdemli (1991–2020\) \| Jan high C \= 15\.2 \| Feb high C \= 16\.1 \| Mar high C \= 18\.8 \| Apr high C \= 22\.0 \| May high C \= 25\.7 \| Jun high C \= 29\.0 \| Jul high C \= 31\.5 \| Aug high C \= 32\.3 \| Sep high C \= 30\.7 \| Oct high C \= 27\.5 \| Nov high C \= 21\.9 \| Dec high C \= 16\.9 \| year high C \= 24\.0 \| Jan mean C \= 10\.0 \| Feb mean C \= 10\.7 \| Mar mean C \= 13\.2 \| Apr mean C \= 16\.6 \| May mean C \= 20\.8 \| Jun mean C \= 24\.7 \| Jul mean C \= 27\.8 \| Aug mean C \= 28\.3 \| Sep mean C \= 25\.6 \| Oct mean C \= 21\.3 \| Nov mean C \= 15\.8 \| Dec mean C \= 11\.6 \| year mean C \= 18\.9 \| Jan low C \= 5\.2 \| Feb low C \= 5\.5 \| Mar low C \= 7\.5 \| Apr low C \= 10\.9 \| May low C \= 15\.3 \| Jun low C \= 19\.8 \| Jul low C \= 23\.4 \| Aug low C \= 23\.7 \| Sep low C \= 20\.0 \| Oct low C \= 15\.2 \| Nov low C \= 10\.1 \| Dec low C \= 6\.8 \| year low C \= 13\.7 \| precipitation colour \= green \| Jan precipitation mm \= 106\.81 \| Feb precipitation mm \= 78\.07 \| Mar precipitation mm \= 54\.03 \| Apr precipitation mm \= 38\.22 \| May precipitation mm \= 22\.61 \| Jun precipitation mm \= 7\.54 \| Jul precipitation mm \= 2\.01 \| Aug precipitation mm \= 2\.71 \| Sep precipitation mm \= 8\.37 \| Oct precipitation mm \= 34\.93 \| Nov precipitation mm \= 71\.92 \| Dec precipitation mm \= 141\.43 \| year precipitation mm \= 568\.65 \| unit precipitation days \= 1\.0 mm \| Jan precipitation days \= 8\.3 \| Feb precipitation days \= 6\.8 \| Mar precipitation days \= 4\.9 \| Apr precipitation days \= 3\.8 \| May precipitation days \= 2\.6 \| Jun precipitation days \= 1\.7 \| Jul precipitation days \= 1\.1 \| Aug precipitation days \= 1\.0 \| Sep precipitation days \= 1\.6 \| Oct precipitation days \= 3\.8 \| Nov precipitation days \= 4\.8 \| Dec precipitation days \= 8\.8 \| year precipitation days \= 49\.2 \| Jan humidity \= 63\.7 \| Feb humidity \= 64\.0 \| Mar humidity \= 65\.7 \| Apr humidity \= 67\.5 \| May humidity \= 67\.8 \| Jun humidity \= 68\.2 \| Jul humidity \= 69\.2 \| Aug humidity \= 68\.0 \| Sep humidity \= 63\.1 \| Oct humidity \= 59\.3 \| Nov humidity \= 58\.6 \| Dec humidity \= 63\.9 \| year humidity \= 64\.9 \| source \= \[\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\|NOAA]]{{cite web \|url \= https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2\.2/data/0\-data/Region\-6\-WMO\-Normals\-9120/Turkiye/CSV/Erdemli\_17958\.csv \|title \= World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991\-2020 — Erdemli \|publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|access\-date \= January 15, 2024}} }}
[ "Geography\n---------", "Erdemli is located between the districts of [Mezitli](/wiki/Mezitli \"Mezitli\") (to the east) and [Silifke](/wiki/Silifke \"Silifke\") (to the west). In the north, Erdemli is bordered by [Karaman Province](/wiki/Karaman_Province \"Karaman Province\") and in the south by the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\").", "The district extends from the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") coastal plain, the largest agricultural area in Mersin Province, to high in the [Taurus Mountains](/wiki/Taurus_Mountains \"Taurus Mountains\") where there is forest, and then a large area (half the land area of the district) is high mountain above the treeline.", "Erdemli is a quiet rural district where the people are conservative, and is traditionally a strong base for Turkish nationalism. The local economy is centered around on agriculture. The coastal plain is covered with citrus fruits, bananas, and various fruits and vegetables grown year\\-round in open fields or in greenhouses. High meadows in the mountains are planted with grain pulses and fruits such as apples, peaches, and cherries. At these altitudes there are also vineyards, olive groves, and fig trees.", "This is an attractive forested coastal district, and Erdemli is now attracting investment in infrastructure to develop a tourist industry.", "The coast is home to the endangered [Mediterranean monk seal](/wiki/Mediterranean_monk_seal \"Mediterranean monk seal\"). The [Middle East Technical University](/wiki/Middle_East_Technical_University \"Middle East Technical University\") in [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara \"Ankara\") has an [Institute of Marine Sciences](/wiki/Institute_of_Marine_Sciences \"Institute of Marine Sciences\") graduate school here, which has a biology group that monitors the seals.", "### Climate", "Erdemli has a [hot\\-summer Mediterranean climate](/wiki/Hot-summer_Mediterranean_climate \"Hot-summer Mediterranean climate\") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\"): *Csa*),{{Cite journal \\|title\\=Table 1 Overview of the Köppen\\-Geiger climate classes including the defining criteria. \\|url\\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597\\-023\\-02549\\-6/tables/1 \\|journal\\=Nature: Scientific Data \\|language\\=en}} with hot, muggy, virtually rainless summers, and mild, rainy winters.", "{{Weather box\n \\| width \\= auto\n \\| collapsed \\= yes\n \\| metric first \\= yes\n \\| single line \\= yes\n \\| location \\= Erdemli (1991–2020\\)\n \\| Jan high C \\= 15\\.2\n \\| Feb high C \\= 16\\.1\n \\| Mar high C \\= 18\\.8\n \\| Apr high C \\= 22\\.0\n \\| May high C \\= 25\\.7\n \\| Jun high C \\= 29\\.0\n \\| Jul high C \\= 31\\.5\n \\| Aug high C \\= 32\\.3\n \\| Sep high C \\= 30\\.7\n \\| Oct high C \\= 27\\.5\n \\| Nov high C \\= 21\\.9\n \\| Dec high C \\= 16\\.9\n \\| year high C \\= 24\\.0\n \\| Jan mean C \\= 10\\.0\n \\| Feb mean C \\= 10\\.7\n \\| Mar mean C \\= 13\\.2\n \\| Apr mean C \\= 16\\.6\n \\| May mean C \\= 20\\.8\n \\| Jun mean C \\= 24\\.7\n \\| Jul mean C \\= 27\\.8\n \\| Aug mean C \\= 28\\.3\n \\| Sep mean C \\= 25\\.6\n \\| Oct mean C \\= 21\\.3\n \\| Nov mean C \\= 15\\.8\n \\| Dec mean C \\= 11\\.6\n \\| year mean C \\= 18\\.9\n \\| Jan low C \\= 5\\.2\n \\| Feb low C \\= 5\\.5\n \\| Mar low C \\= 7\\.5\n \\| Apr low C \\= 10\\.9\n \\| May low C \\= 15\\.3\n \\| Jun low C \\= 19\\.8\n \\| Jul low C \\= 23\\.4\n \\| Aug low C \\= 23\\.7\n \\| Sep low C \\= 20\\.0\n \\| Oct low C \\= 15\\.2\n \\| Nov low C \\= 10\\.1\n \\| Dec low C \\= 6\\.8\n \\| year low C \\= 13\\.7\n \\| precipitation colour \\= green\n \\| Jan precipitation mm \\= 106\\.81\n \\| Feb precipitation mm \\= 78\\.07\n \\| Mar precipitation mm \\= 54\\.03\n \\| Apr precipitation mm \\= 38\\.22\n \\| May precipitation mm \\= 22\\.61\n \\| Jun precipitation mm \\= 7\\.54\n \\| Jul precipitation mm \\= 2\\.01\n \\| Aug precipitation mm \\= 2\\.71\n \\| Sep precipitation mm \\= 8\\.37\n \\| Oct precipitation mm \\= 34\\.93\n \\| Nov precipitation mm \\= 71\\.92\n \\| Dec precipitation mm \\= 141\\.43\n \\| year precipitation mm \\= 568\\.65", "\\| unit precipitation days \\= 1\\.0 mm\n \\| Jan precipitation days \\= 8\\.3\n \\| Feb precipitation days \\= 6\\.8\n \\| Mar precipitation days \\= 4\\.9\n \\| Apr precipitation days \\= 3\\.8\n \\| May precipitation days \\= 2\\.6\n \\| Jun precipitation days \\= 1\\.7\n \\| Jul precipitation days \\= 1\\.1\n \\| Aug precipitation days \\= 1\\.0\n \\| Sep precipitation days \\= 1\\.6\n \\| Oct precipitation days \\= 3\\.8\n \\| Nov precipitation days \\= 4\\.8\n \\| Dec precipitation days \\= 8\\.8\n \\| year precipitation days \\= 49\\.2", "\\| Jan humidity \\= 63\\.7\n \\| Feb humidity \\= 64\\.0\n \\| Mar humidity \\= 65\\.7\n \\| Apr humidity \\= 67\\.5\n \\| May humidity \\= 67\\.8\n \\| Jun humidity \\= 68\\.2\n \\| Jul humidity \\= 69\\.2\n \\| Aug humidity \\= 68\\.0\n \\| Sep humidity \\= 63\\.1\n \\| Oct humidity \\= 59\\.3\n \\| Nov humidity \\= 58\\.6\n \\| Dec humidity \\= 63\\.9\n \\| year humidity \\= 64\\.9\n \\| source \\= \\[\\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\\|NOAA]]{{cite web\n\\|url \\= https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2\\.2/data/0\\-data/Region\\-6\\-WMO\\-Normals\\-9120/Turkiye/CSV/Erdemli\\_17958\\.csv\n\\|title \\= World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991\\-2020 — Erdemli\n\\|publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\n\\|access\\-date \\= January 15, 2024}}\n}}", "" ]
Battle ------ [200px\|left\|thumb\|A portrait of Captain Bethel Coopwood](/wiki/File:Coopwood.jpg "Coopwood.jpg") Before the corral and breastworks were finished on September 24, at about 5:00 pm, the Union force of around 100 and under Captain Minks, received information that mounted rebels had been seen in a southern direction from the camp. A six\-man [cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry "Cavalry") troop with a [Mexican](/wiki/Mexican_people "Mexican people") [scout](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") was dispatched who returned saying the sighted men were Union deserters who evaded capture. Later that night, Union troops at the Canada Alamosa camp reported another sighting of armed men. Some said the unknown men in the dark fired into the town but this has never been confirmed. In response, Captain Minks put his troops on high alert. At this same time a few horses escaped the corral, about ten men were ordered to bring them back but some thirty ended up in the chase before Minks could prevent it, most of the thirty men deserted into the desert, crossing the Rio Grande to the east bank and headed for [Paraje](/wiki/Paraje%2C_Socorro_County%2C_New_Mexico "Paraje, Socorro County, New Mexico") where another independent company of New Mexican cavalry guarded the approach along the [Jornada del Muerto](/wiki/Jornada_del_Muerto "Jornada del Muerto"). A terrible Native American yell was heard, which had the Union troops thinking they were under attack by [Apache](/wiki/Apache "Apache"). Then came the sound of cavalry and the shout "Here's their camp; give them hell!" At that moment the Union force knew they were not being attacked by Apaches but by twelve to fifteen Confederate troops, commanded by Captain [Bethel Coopwood](/wiki/Bethel_Coopwood "Bethel Coopwood"), from [Mesilla](/wiki/Mesilla%2C_New_Mexico "Mesilla, New Mexico"). The firing commenced, the rebel cavalry first attacked the Union Army's main line. After this attack was repulsed, the rebels fell back to the town. The dozen Confederate cavalrymen had attempted to rout the Union army with the cover of nightfall but failed due to the lack of firepower. The shooting stopped for a short while, this made the Captain and his men think the rebels had retreated or were playing a ruse to lure Minks' men into a more effective range. So, Captain Minks and a number of his men slowly advanced into town on foot, leaving his main body at camp. Not seeing anything, the force withdrew to find that even more Union troops had deserted. Lieutenant Sanches, of the Union, was ordered to bring the deserters back, then Minks attacked. The attack was made to drive the rebels out of town or to set fire to the perimeter houses which provided cover for the Confederates. The United States cavalry advanced, with wood and matches. Unfortunately for the Union, the Confederate force was larger than Minks had anticipated, 112 strong, they had also taken the houses Minks intended to burn. The advance was stopped by volleys of [musket](/wiki/Musket "Musket") fire and after ten minutes the Union force had retreated back near camp at which they started from. By this time the Confederates had taken a hill next to the road which led to Fort Craig. Fighting continued for a long while, at almost daybreak. Captain John Minks had found his men reduced to the number ten. The ten and the Captain fought off the Confederates at long range for a few hours more while trying to communicate with the main force in camp, once again, the main body had deserted or withdrew thinking Minks and his assault party had been massacred. The Captain realized this and decided to fight as long as possible in order to prevent the pursuit and capture of his retreating main body. Looking through his spyglass, Minks witnessed about sixty mounted rebels, ready to attack. Minks surrendered between 7:00 and 8:00 am, in order to prevent further casualties to his remaining ten men. The retreating main body made its way back to their fort and then followed up their defeat with another patrol farther south of Canada Alamosa. Minks reported that only one of the remaining ten men was wounded. Confederate reports say four other men were killed and six wounded. The ten men and Captain Minks were taken to Mesilla as prisoners, twelve other troops, deserters or not, were also captured by the rebel cavalry. At least three Confederates were wounded, none were reported killed. The rebels also captured a good number of supplies and a few horses and wagons.
[ "Battle\n------", "[200px\\|left\\|thumb\\|A portrait of Captain Bethel Coopwood](/wiki/File:Coopwood.jpg \"Coopwood.jpg\")\nBefore the corral and breastworks were finished on September 24, at about 5:00 pm, the Union force of around 100 and under Captain Minks, received information that mounted rebels had been seen in a southern direction from the camp. A six\\-man [cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\") troop with a [Mexican](/wiki/Mexican_people \"Mexican people\") [scout](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") was dispatched who returned saying the sighted men were Union deserters who evaded capture. Later that night, Union troops at the Canada Alamosa camp reported another sighting of armed men. Some said the unknown men in the dark fired into the town but this has never been confirmed. In response, Captain Minks put his troops on high alert.", "At this same time a few horses escaped the corral, about ten men were ordered to bring them back but some thirty ended up in the chase before Minks could prevent it, most of the thirty men deserted into the desert, crossing the Rio Grande to the east bank and headed for [Paraje](/wiki/Paraje%2C_Socorro_County%2C_New_Mexico \"Paraje, Socorro County, New Mexico\") where another independent company of New Mexican cavalry guarded the approach along the [Jornada del Muerto](/wiki/Jornada_del_Muerto \"Jornada del Muerto\"). A terrible Native American yell was heard, which had the Union troops thinking they were under attack by [Apache](/wiki/Apache \"Apache\"). Then came the sound of cavalry and the shout \"Here's their camp; give them hell!\" At that moment the Union force knew they were not being attacked by Apaches but by twelve to fifteen Confederate troops, commanded by Captain [Bethel Coopwood](/wiki/Bethel_Coopwood \"Bethel Coopwood\"), from [Mesilla](/wiki/Mesilla%2C_New_Mexico \"Mesilla, New Mexico\").", "The firing commenced, the rebel cavalry first attacked the Union Army's main line. After this attack was repulsed, the rebels fell back to the town. The dozen Confederate cavalrymen had attempted to rout the Union army with the cover of nightfall but failed due to the lack of firepower. The shooting stopped for a short while, this made the Captain and his men think the rebels had retreated or were playing a ruse to lure Minks' men into a more effective range.", "So, Captain Minks and a number of his men slowly advanced into town on foot, leaving his main body at camp. Not seeing anything, the force withdrew to find that even more Union troops had deserted. Lieutenant Sanches, of the Union, was ordered to bring the deserters back, then Minks attacked. The attack was made to drive the rebels out of town or to set fire to the perimeter houses which provided cover for the Confederates. The United States cavalry advanced, with wood and matches.", "Unfortunately for the Union, the Confederate force was larger than Minks had anticipated, 112 strong, they had also taken the houses Minks intended to burn. The advance was stopped by volleys of [musket](/wiki/Musket \"Musket\") fire and after ten minutes the Union force had retreated back near camp at which they started from. By this time the Confederates had taken a hill next to the road which led to Fort Craig.", "Fighting continued for a long while, at almost daybreak. Captain John Minks had found his men reduced to the number ten. The ten and the Captain fought off the Confederates at long range for a few hours more while trying to communicate with the main force in camp, once again, the main body had deserted or withdrew thinking Minks and his assault party had been massacred. The Captain realized this and decided to fight as long as possible in order to prevent the pursuit and capture of his retreating main body. Looking through his spyglass, Minks witnessed about sixty mounted rebels, ready to attack.", "Minks surrendered between 7:00 and 8:00 am, in order to prevent further casualties to his remaining ten men. The retreating main body made its way back to their fort and then followed up their defeat with another patrol farther south of Canada Alamosa. Minks reported that only one of the remaining ten men was wounded. Confederate reports say four other men were killed and six wounded. The ten men and Captain Minks were taken to Mesilla as prisoners, twelve other troops, deserters or not, were also captured by the rebel cavalry. At least three Confederates were wounded, none were reported killed. The rebels also captured a good number of supplies and a few horses and wagons.", "" ]
History ------- ### Original construction and tenants The original incarnation of the building was constructed some time during the 1960s, and was designed by [Don Donnithorne](/wiki/Don_Donnithorne "Don Donnithorne"). During its early usage, it was home to the Central Canterbury Electric Power Board, and later had a mix of tenants. In 1972, Hornby Library was founded when rooms were made available in the tower. It began with a collection of 8000 books and operated from the tower until 1975\.{{Cite web \|title\=Hornby Library / Te Kete Wānanga o Te Urumanu \- 150 years, celebrating Christchurch City Libraries \|url\=https://heritage.christchurchcitylibraries.com/Archives/52/Library150/Articles/HornbyLibrary/ \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=heritage.christchurchcitylibraries.com}} In 1999, the building was home to SeniorNet Garden City, a defunct organisation offering computer tuition to older people.{{Cite web \|last\=O'Connor\-Harding \|first\=Georgia \|date\=11 December 2019 \|title\=Organisation that helped elderly use tech hits shut down for last time \|url\=https://www.odt.co.nz/star\-news/star\-christchurch/organisation\-helped\-elderly\-use\-tech\-hits\-shut\-down\-last\-time \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=Star News}} The bottom floor of the tower housed The Clock bar accessible from 1 Brynley Street.{{Cite web \|date\=2000\-06\-01 \|title\=Hornby Clock Tower building \|url\=https://digitalnz.org/records/51750799 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=DigitalNZ \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=2008\-08\-24 \|title\=The Clock bar, Hornby Clock Tower \|url\=https://canterburystories.nz/collections/community/cafe\-cecil/ccl\-cs\-49733 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=Originally uploaded to Kete Christchurch \|language\=en}} It had pool tables and a gaming lounge. It occupied the ground floor area until the tower was refurbished in 2010\. In 2005, the property was bought by Epoch, a family\-owned investment company.{{Cite web \|date\=25 September 2020 \|title\=Christchurch's well\-known Hornby Clocktower site is on the market \|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/property/122873017/christchurchs\-wellknown\-hornby\-clocktower\-site\-is\-on\-the\-market \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907054742/https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/property/122873017/christchurchs\-wellknown\-hornby\-clocktower\-site\-is\-on\-the\-market \|archive\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=Stuff}}{{Cite web \|date\=24 September 2020 \|title\=Hornby Clocktower site set to change hands \|url\=https://www.colliers.co.nz/en\-nz/real\-estate\-news/hornby\-clocktower\-site\-set\-to\-change\-hands \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=Colliers}} ### 2010 refurbishment In the late 2000s, Wilson and Hill Architects redesigned the building as part of a project by Epoch Property to modernise the structure and attract new business to the western edge of the city.{{cite news \|last1\=Gates \|first1\=Charlie \|date\=17 September 2014 \|orig\-date\=29 February 2012 \|title\=Landmark building may come down \|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/news/christchurch\-earthquake\-2011/6496063/Landmark\-building\-may\-come\-down \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907052244/https://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/news/christchurch\-earthquake\-2011/6496063/Landmark\-building\-may\-come\-down \|archive\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|work\=Stuff}} The design incorporated sustainable features, high ceilings and big windows for natural light, in heavy contrast to the original 1960s design.{{Cite web \|last\=Architects (www.nzia.co.nz) \|first\=NZ Institute of \|title\=Hornby Clocktower Building Refurbishment \|url\=https://www.nzia.co.nz/awards/national/award\-detail/4009 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=NZ Institute of Architects (www.nzia.co.nz)}} The building was thoroughly refurbished in 2010, stripped down to its concrete frame, and completed by December of that year. The upper five floors of the tower were designated as office space. The ground level was reserved for retail space, initially occupied by [coffeehouse chain](/wiki/List_of_coffeehouse_chains "List of coffeehouse chains") 'Coffee Culture'. It was the only company to rent space in the building after the refurbishment. Outside of the Hornby Clocktower are a separate series of retail stores in the style of a [strip mall](/wiki/Strip_mall "Strip mall"), designed as an addition to the tower during its final refurbishment. The redesigned Hornby Clocktower won the 2011 Canterbury Architecture Award for best commercial building.{{Cite web \|last\=Coleman \|first\=Zara Tempest \|date\=21 Oct 2011 \|title\=2011 Canterbury Architecture Award winners revealed \|url\=https://architecturenow.co.nz/articles/twelve\-projects\-honoured\-in\-canterbury\-architecture\-awards/ \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=Architecture Now \|language\=en\-AU}} ### Earthquake damage and demolition {{See also\|2011 Christchurch earthquake}} [thumb\|The tower being demolished in 2014](/wiki/File:Hornby_Clocktower_Demolition.png "Hornby Clocktower Demolition.png") The building was largely undamaged by the [2010 Canterbury earthquake](/wiki/2010_Canterbury_earthquake "2010 Canterbury earthquake") during the refurbishment. However, less than three months after completion, the tower suffered damaged in the 2011 Christchurch earthquake. Nobody was injured in the building at the time. Engineers initially believed that the tower could be saved. Following strong [aftershocks](/wiki/Aftershocks "Aftershocks") in December 2011, the tower was damaged further and was vacated for the final time. Epoch Property claimed in early 2012 that they wanted to keep the building, but believed it wouldn't be financially viable to repair it, and were considering demolition. Epoch proceeded with plans to demolish the building, with work beginning on the tower in August 2014\. It was completed in October. The surrounding strip mall survived, but the site of the tower remained vacant until 2016, when it was replaced by a [Carl's Jr.](/wiki/Carl%27s_Jr. "Carl's Jr.") fast food restaurant.{{cite news\|last1\=Tim\|first1\=Fulton\|title\=Carl's Jr opens second Christchurch restaurant\|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/business/79357748/carls\-jr\-targets\-opens\-in\-hornby\-its\-second\-christchurch\-restaurant\|access\-date\=29 November 2016\|agency\=Fairfax Media\|publisher\=Stuff.co.nz}}{{cite news\|title\=Restaurant to replace Clocktower building\|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/news/10511923/Restaurant\-to\-replace\-Clocktower\-building\|publisher\=Stuff.co.nz\|date\=18 September 2014}} ### Legacy Epoch renamed the site Clocktower Centre in a nod to its history, and retained the property as a mixed\-used complex with the existing surrounding shops. In 2020, the site was listed for sale for the first time since it was acquired in 2005\.
[ "History\n-------", "### Original construction and tenants", "The original incarnation of the building was constructed some time during the 1960s, and was designed by [Don Donnithorne](/wiki/Don_Donnithorne \"Don Donnithorne\"). During its early usage, it was home to the Central Canterbury Electric Power Board, and later had a mix of tenants.", "In 1972, Hornby Library was founded when rooms were made available in the tower. It began with a collection of 8000 books and operated from the tower until 1975\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Hornby Library / Te Kete Wānanga o Te Urumanu \\- 150 years, celebrating Christchurch City Libraries \\|url\\=https://heritage.christchurchcitylibraries.com/Archives/52/Library150/Articles/HornbyLibrary/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=heritage.christchurchcitylibraries.com}}", "In 1999, the building was home to SeniorNet Garden City, a defunct organisation offering computer tuition to older people.{{Cite web \\|last\\=O'Connor\\-Harding \\|first\\=Georgia \\|date\\=11 December 2019 \\|title\\=Organisation that helped elderly use tech hits shut down for last time \\|url\\=https://www.odt.co.nz/star\\-news/star\\-christchurch/organisation\\-helped\\-elderly\\-use\\-tech\\-hits\\-shut\\-down\\-last\\-time \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=Star News}}", "The bottom floor of the tower housed The Clock bar accessible from 1 Brynley Street.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2000\\-06\\-01 \\|title\\=Hornby Clock Tower building \\|url\\=https://digitalnz.org/records/51750799 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=DigitalNZ \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2008\\-08\\-24 \\|title\\=The Clock bar, Hornby Clock Tower \\|url\\=https://canterburystories.nz/collections/community/cafe\\-cecil/ccl\\-cs\\-49733 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=Originally uploaded to Kete Christchurch \\|language\\=en}} It had pool tables and a gaming lounge. It occupied the ground floor area until the tower was refurbished in 2010\\.", "In 2005, the property was bought by Epoch, a family\\-owned investment company.{{Cite web \\|date\\=25 September 2020 \\|title\\=Christchurch's well\\-known Hornby Clocktower site is on the market \\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/property/122873017/christchurchs\\-wellknown\\-hornby\\-clocktower\\-site\\-is\\-on\\-the\\-market \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907054742/https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/property/122873017/christchurchs\\-wellknown\\-hornby\\-clocktower\\-site\\-is\\-on\\-the\\-market \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=Stuff}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=24 September 2020 \\|title\\=Hornby Clocktower site set to change hands \\|url\\=https://www.colliers.co.nz/en\\-nz/real\\-estate\\-news/hornby\\-clocktower\\-site\\-set\\-to\\-change\\-hands \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=Colliers}}", "### 2010 refurbishment", "In the late 2000s, Wilson and Hill Architects redesigned the building as part of a project by Epoch Property to modernise the structure and attract new business to the western edge of the city.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Gates \\|first1\\=Charlie \\|date\\=17 September 2014 \\|orig\\-date\\=29 February 2012 \\|title\\=Landmark building may come down \\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/news/christchurch\\-earthquake\\-2011/6496063/Landmark\\-building\\-may\\-come\\-down \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907052244/https://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/news/christchurch\\-earthquake\\-2011/6496063/Landmark\\-building\\-may\\-come\\-down \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|work\\=Stuff}} The design incorporated sustainable features, high ceilings and big windows for natural light, in heavy contrast to the original 1960s design.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Architects (www.nzia.co.nz) \\|first\\=NZ Institute of \\|title\\=Hornby Clocktower Building Refurbishment \\|url\\=https://www.nzia.co.nz/awards/national/award\\-detail/4009 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=NZ Institute of Architects (www.nzia.co.nz)}}", "The building was thoroughly refurbished in 2010, stripped down to its concrete frame, and completed by December of that year. The upper five floors of the tower were designated as office space. The ground level was reserved for retail space, initially occupied by [coffeehouse chain](/wiki/List_of_coffeehouse_chains \"List of coffeehouse chains\") 'Coffee Culture'. It was the only company to rent space in the building after the refurbishment. Outside of the Hornby Clocktower are a separate series of retail stores in the style of a [strip mall](/wiki/Strip_mall \"Strip mall\"), designed as an addition to the tower during its final refurbishment.", "The redesigned Hornby Clocktower won the 2011 Canterbury Architecture Award for best commercial building.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Coleman \\|first\\=Zara Tempest \\|date\\=21 Oct 2011 \\|title\\=2011 Canterbury Architecture Award winners revealed \\|url\\=https://architecturenow.co.nz/articles/twelve\\-projects\\-honoured\\-in\\-canterbury\\-architecture\\-awards/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=Architecture Now \\|language\\=en\\-AU}}", "### Earthquake damage and demolition", "{{See also\\|2011 Christchurch earthquake}}\n[thumb\\|The tower being demolished in 2014](/wiki/File:Hornby_Clocktower_Demolition.png \"Hornby Clocktower Demolition.png\")\nThe building was largely undamaged by the [2010 Canterbury earthquake](/wiki/2010_Canterbury_earthquake \"2010 Canterbury earthquake\") during the refurbishment. However, less than three months after completion, the tower suffered damaged in the 2011 Christchurch earthquake. Nobody was injured in the building at the time.", "Engineers initially believed that the tower could be saved. Following strong [aftershocks](/wiki/Aftershocks \"Aftershocks\") in December 2011, the tower was damaged further and was vacated for the final time. Epoch Property claimed in early 2012 that they wanted to keep the building, but believed it wouldn't be financially viable to repair it, and were considering demolition.", "Epoch proceeded with plans to demolish the building, with work beginning on the tower in August 2014\\. It was completed in October. The surrounding strip mall survived, but the site of the tower remained vacant until 2016, when it was replaced by a [Carl's Jr.](/wiki/Carl%27s_Jr. \"Carl's Jr.\") fast food restaurant.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Tim\\|first1\\=Fulton\\|title\\=Carl's Jr opens second Christchurch restaurant\\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/business/79357748/carls\\-jr\\-targets\\-opens\\-in\\-hornby\\-its\\-second\\-christchurch\\-restaurant\\|access\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\|agency\\=Fairfax Media\\|publisher\\=Stuff.co.nz}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Restaurant to replace Clocktower building\\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/news/10511923/Restaurant\\-to\\-replace\\-Clocktower\\-building\\|publisher\\=Stuff.co.nz\\|date\\=18 September 2014}}", "### Legacy", "Epoch renamed the site Clocktower Centre in a nod to its history, and retained the property as a mixed\\-used complex with the existing surrounding shops. In 2020, the site was listed for sale for the first time since it was acquired in 2005\\.", "" ]
War of 1812 ----------- Upon the outbreak of the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"), the owners of *Liverpool Packet* quickly converted her to a privateer. Under the command of [Joseph Barss](/wiki/Joseph_Barss "Joseph Barss") Jnr, she captured at least 33 American vessels during the first year of the war. His strategy was to lie in wait off Cape Cod, snapping up American ships headed to Boston or New York. ### Captive She was a menace to New England shipping until the Americans captured her in 1813\. On 10 June the privateer schooner *Thomas* of [Portsmouth, New Hampshire](/wiki/Portsmouth%2C_New_Hampshire "Portsmouth, New Hampshire"), Captain Shaw, master, mounting twelve guns and manned with a crew of one hundred men, encountered *Packet*. *Thomas* chased her for about five hours but light winds prevented *Liverpool Packet* from escaping. *Liverpool Packet* [struck her colours](/wiki/Striking_the_colours "Striking the colours") but then as the Americans came alongside the two vessels ran into each other. As the British ran up to push the vessels apart, the Americans, fearing they were going to be boarded, boarded *Liverpool Packet*. Firing broke out that killed three Americans.*Acadian Recorder* 26 June 1813 p. 2\. American anger over their earlier losses to the *Packet* resulted in poor treatment of Barss, who languished in jail for months on a diet of bread and water until he was exchanged for American prisoners held in Halifax. In American hands she was briefly renamed *Young Teaser's Ghost*, after the recently destroyed American privateer *[Young Teazer](/wiki/Young_Teazer "Young Teazer")*. Failing to take any British prizes, she was renamed again as *Portsmouth Packet*. Under this name and under the command of Captain John Perkins, she had a short, unsuccessful career failing to capture a single prize for the Americans. ### Recaptured On 5 October 1813, {{HMS\|Fantome\|1810\|6}} and {{HMS\|Epervier\|1812\|6}} recaptured *Liverpool Packet*, then sailing under the name *Portsmouth Packet*,{{London Gazette\|issue\= 16992\|date\=11 March 1815\|page\=459}} off [Mount Desert Island](/wiki/Mount_Desert_Island "Mount Desert Island"), Maine, after a chase of thirteen hours. At the time, the privateer schooner was armed with five guns, carried a crew of 45, and had sailed from Portsmouth the previous day. The recaptured schooner was brought into Halifax where her original owners repurchased her and restored the name of *Liverpool Packet*. She was registered there in 1813\.[Library and Archives Canada – Ship registrations 1787–1966: Item 38624: LIVERPOOL PACKET.](https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/ship-registration-index-1787-1966/Pages/item.aspx?IdNumber=38624&DotsIdNumber=) Under a new captain named [Caleb Seeley](/wiki/Caleb_Seeley "Caleb Seeley"), she captured fourteen prizes before the year ended. In 1814, she captured additional prizes in May and June. Then in August, she took two prizes while acting in concert with {{HMS\|Shannon\|1806\|6}} while they were sailing off of Bridgeport and New York. *Liverpool Packet* continued to work often with British naval vessels right to the war's end.
[ "War of 1812\n-----------", "Upon the outbreak of the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"), the owners of *Liverpool Packet* quickly converted her to a privateer. Under the command of [Joseph Barss](/wiki/Joseph_Barss \"Joseph Barss\") Jnr, she captured at least 33 American vessels during the first year of the war. His strategy was to lie in wait off Cape Cod, snapping up American ships headed to Boston or New York.", "### Captive", "She was a menace to New England shipping until the Americans captured her in 1813\\. On 10 June the privateer schooner *Thomas* of [Portsmouth, New Hampshire](/wiki/Portsmouth%2C_New_Hampshire \"Portsmouth, New Hampshire\"), Captain Shaw, master, mounting twelve guns and manned with a crew of one hundred men, encountered *Packet*. *Thomas* chased her for about five hours but light winds prevented *Liverpool Packet* from escaping.", "*Liverpool Packet* [struck her colours](/wiki/Striking_the_colours \"Striking the colours\") but then as the Americans came alongside the two vessels ran into each other. As the British ran up to push the vessels apart, the Americans, fearing they were going to be boarded, boarded *Liverpool Packet*. Firing broke out that killed three Americans.*Acadian Recorder* 26 June 1813 p. 2\\. American anger over their earlier losses to the *Packet* resulted in poor treatment of Barss, who languished in jail for months on a diet of bread and water until he was exchanged for American prisoners held in Halifax.", "In American hands she was briefly renamed *Young Teaser's Ghost*, after the recently destroyed American privateer *[Young Teazer](/wiki/Young_Teazer \"Young Teazer\")*. Failing to take any British prizes, she was renamed again as *Portsmouth Packet*. Under this name and under the command of Captain John Perkins, she had a short, unsuccessful career failing to capture a single prize for the Americans.", "### Recaptured", "On 5 October 1813, {{HMS\\|Fantome\\|1810\\|6}} and {{HMS\\|Epervier\\|1812\\|6}} recaptured *Liverpool Packet*, then sailing under the name *Portsmouth Packet*,{{London Gazette\\|issue\\= 16992\\|date\\=11 March 1815\\|page\\=459}} off [Mount Desert Island](/wiki/Mount_Desert_Island \"Mount Desert Island\"), Maine, after a chase of thirteen hours. At the time, the privateer schooner was armed with five guns, carried a crew of 45, and had sailed from Portsmouth the previous day.", "The recaptured schooner was brought into Halifax where her original owners repurchased her and restored the name of *Liverpool Packet*. She was registered there in 1813\\.[Library and Archives Canada – Ship registrations 1787–1966: Item 38624: LIVERPOOL PACKET.](https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/ship-registration-index-1787-1966/Pages/item.aspx?IdNumber=38624&DotsIdNumber=)", "Under a new captain named [Caleb Seeley](/wiki/Caleb_Seeley \"Caleb Seeley\"), she captured fourteen prizes before the year ended. In 1814, she captured additional prizes in May and June. Then in August, she took two prizes while acting in concert with {{HMS\\|Shannon\\|1806\\|6}} while they were sailing off of Bridgeport and New York. *Liverpool Packet* continued to work often with British naval vessels right to the war's end.", "" ]
History ------- ### World War II #### Training in the United States The [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 "Squadron (aviation)") was activated as the **349th Bombardment Squadron** at [Orlando Army Air Base](/wiki/Orlando_Army_Air_Base "Orlando Army Air Base"), Florida on 1 June 1942, one of the four original squadrons of the [100th Bombardment Group](/wiki/100th_Bombardment_Group "100th Bombardment Group"),Maurer, *Combat Units*, pp. 171\-172Maurer, *Combat Squadrons*, pp. 433\-436, 512 It was intended to be equipped with [Consolidated B\-24 Liberators](/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator "Consolidated B-24 Liberator").Freeman, pp. 246\-247 The [Army Air Forces](/wiki/Army_Air_Forces "Army Air Forces") (AAF) decided to concentrate [heavy bomber](/wiki/Heavy_bomber "Heavy bomber") training under [Second Air Force](/wiki/Second_Air_Force "Second Air Force"), and before the end of June, the squadron moved to [Pendleton Field](/wiki/Pendleton_Field "Pendleton Field"), Oregon, and its intended equipment changed to [Boeing B\-17 Flying Fortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress"). As a result, the squadron only began organizing in October 1942, after it had moved to [Gowen Field](/wiki/Gowen_Field "Gowen Field"), Idaho. The following month, it moved to [Walla Walla Army Air Field](/wiki/Walla_Walla_Army_Air_Field "Walla Walla Army Air Field"), Washington, where it received its first operational aircraft and began training. The 349th completed its training and departed [Kearney Army Air Field](/wiki/Kearney_Army_Air_Field "Kearney Army Air Field"), Nebraska for the [European Theater of Operations](/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations "European Theater of Operations") on 1 May 1943\. The ground echelon sailed on the {{RMS\|Queen Elizabeth}} on 28 May, arriving at [Greenock](/wiki/Greenock "Greenock"), Scotland on 3 June, while the air echelon engaged in additional training before departing via the [northern ferry route](/wiki/North_Atlantic_air_ferry_route_in_World_War_II "North Atlantic air ferry route in World War II") to England about 21 May 1943\. #### Combat in Europe [thumb\|100th Bombardment Group B\-17s on a combat mission](/wiki/File:100thbombgroup-b17s-1.jpg "100thbombgroup-b17s-1.jpg") The squadron established itself at its combat station, [RAF Thorpe Abbotts](/wiki/RAF_Thorpe_Abbotts "RAF Thorpe Abbotts"), on 9 June 1943, flying its first combat mission on 25 June. Until the end of the war, the squadron was primarily employed in the [strategic bombing campaign against Germany](/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II%23US_bombing_in_Europe "Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe"). Until January 1944, it concentrated its operations on airfields in France, and industrial targets and naval facilities in France and Germany. On 17 August 1943, it participated in an [attack on a factory](/wiki/Schweinfurt-Regensburg_mission "Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission") manufacturing [Messerschmitt Bf 109](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109 "Messerschmitt Bf 109") fighters in [Regensburg](/wiki/Regensburg "Regensburg"), Germany, which seriously disrupted production of that plane. Although the mission called for fighter escort, the fighter group assigned to protect the squadron's formation missed the rendezvous and the [wing](/wiki/Wing_%28military_aviation_unit%29 "Wing (military aviation unit)") formation proceeded to the target unescorted. Enemy fighter opposition focused on the low "box", formed in part by the squadron. Ten of the 21 Flying Fortresses flown by the 100th Group were lost on this mission. Unknown to AAF intelligence at the time, the attack also destroyed almost all of the fuselage construction equipment for Germany's secret [Me 262](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262 "Messerschmitt Me 262") jet fighter. Rather than returning to England, the unit turned south and recovered at bases in North Africa.Freeman, pp. 67\-68 For this action, the squadron was awarded the [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation "Distinguished Unit Citation") (DUC). From January to May 1944, the 349th attacked airfields, industrial targets, [marshalling yards](/wiki/Marshalling_yard "Marshalling yard"), and missile sites in Western Europe. During [Big Week](/wiki/Big_Week "Big Week"), it participated in the concentrated attack on the German aircraft industry. In March, it conducted a series of long range attacks against [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), for which it was awarded a second DUC. The raid of 6 March was to be the costliest mission flown by [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force "Eighth Air Force") during the war. German fighter controllers detected that the formation including the squadron was unprotected by fighter escorts and concentrated [interceptor](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft "Interceptor aircraft") attacks on it. Twenty\-three B\-17s from the formation failed to return.Freeman, p.114{{efn\|In addition to the squadrons of the 100th Group, the formation included those of the \[\[95th Bombardment Group]].}} Two days later, German fighters shot down the leader of the [45th Combat Bombardment Wing](/wiki/45th_Combat_Bombardment_Wing "45th Combat Bombardment Wing"), and the 100th Group took the lead in another attack on Berlin.Freeman, p. 115 From the summer of 1944, the 349th concentrated on German oil production facilities. The squadron was occasionally diverted from strategic bombing to perform [interdiction](/wiki/Interdiction "Interdiction") and [air support](/wiki/Air_support "Air support") missions. It attacked bridges and [gun positions](/wiki/Coastal_artillery%23Atlantic_Wall "Coastal artillery#Atlantic Wall") to support [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord"), the landings at Normandy in June 1944\. In August and September it supported [Operation Cobra](/wiki/Operation_Cobra "Operation Cobra"), the breakout at [Saint Lo](/wiki/Saint_Lo "Saint Lo"), and bombed enemy positions in [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France"). As [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") forces drove across Northern France toward the [Siegfried Line](/wiki/Siegfried_Line "Siegfried Line") in October and November, it attacked transportation and ground defenses. During the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge "Battle of the Bulge") in December 1944 and January 1945, it attacked [lines of communication](/wiki/Lines_of_communication "Lines of communication") and fortified villages in the [Ardennes](/wiki/Ardennes "Ardennes"). It provided support for [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity "Operation Varsity"), the airborne assault across the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine") in March 1945\. The squadron was awarded the [French Croix de Guerre with Palm](/wiki/Croix_de_guerre_1939-1945_%28France%29 "Croix de guerre 1939-1945 (France)") for attacks on heavily defended sites and dropping supplies to the [French Forces of the Interior](/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior "French Forces of the Interior"). The squadron flew its last mission on 20 April 1945\. Following, [V\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day "V-E Day"), the squadron was initially programmed to be part of the [occupation forces](/wiki/Military_occupation "Military occupation") in Germany, but that plan was cancelled in September, and between October and December, the squadron's planes were ferried back to the United States or transferred to other units in theater. Its remaining personnel returned to the United States in December and the squadron was inactivated at the Port of Embarkation on 19 December 1945\. #### "Bloody Hundredth" Starting with the Regensburg mission of August 1943, the squadrons of the 100th Bombardment Group began suffering losses among the highest in [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command "VIII Bomber Command").Freeman, pp. 68\-69 On 8 October, it lost seven aircraft on a raid on [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen"), including its lead and deputy lead aircraft.Freeman, p. 75 Only two days later, it lost twelve aircraft on an attack on [Münster](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster "Münster"), again including the lead aircraft. The only group plane returning from that mission had lost two engines and had two wounded on board.Freeman, p. 77{{efn\|This plane, named ''Rosie's Riveter'', was lost in the spring of 1945, but its crew was able to bail out in Russian held territory.}} Its highest one day loss occurred on the 6 March 1944 attack on Berlin, when 15 bombers failed to return.Freeman, p. 116 On 11 September 1944, the [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe") put up its heaviest opposition in months, destroying 11 of the group's bombers.Freeman, p. 178 On 31 December 1944, half the [1st Bombardment Division](/wiki/1st_Bombardment_Division "1st Bombardment Division")'s losses consisted of a dozen 100th bombers.Freeman, p. 204 With a group authorization of 40 B\-17s, it lost 177 planes to enemy action. It became a legend for these losses and was referred to as the "Bloody Hundredth." ### Air Force reserve [thumb\|left\|T\-6 Texans as flown by the squadron in the reserve](/wiki/File:AT-6C_Texans_in_flight_1943.jpg "AT-6C Texans in flight 1943.jpg") [thumb\|A Beechcraft AT\-7as flown by the squadron in the reserve](/wiki/File:Beechcraft_AT-7_advanced_training_plane_%2800910460_026%29.jpg "Beechcraft AT-7 advanced training plane (00910460 026).jpg") The squadron was again activated in the [reserve](/wiki/Military_reserve_force "Military reserve force") at [Miami Army Air Field](/wiki/Miami_Army_Air_Field "Miami Army Air Field"), Florida and assigned to the 100th Group on 29 May 1947\. There, its training was supervised by the 473d AAF Base Unit (later the 2585th Air Force Reserve Training Center) of [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command "Air Defense Command") (ADC).Ravenstein, pp. 230\-231 It was nominally a very heavy bomber squadron, but it does not appear the squadron was fully staffed and it was equipped only with training aircraft. In 1948 [Continental Air Command](/wiki/Continental_Air_Command "Continental Air Command") (ConAC) assumed responsibility for managing reserve and [Air National Guard](/wiki/Air_National_Guard "Air National Guard") units from ADC.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/896/983\.xml \|last1\=\|first1\=\|title\=Abstract, Mission Project Closeup, Continental Air Command\|date\=27 December 1961\|publisher\=Air Force History Index\|access\-date\=March 24, 2014}} The 349th was inactivated when ConAC reorganized its reserve units under the [wing base organization](/wiki/Hobson_Plan "Hobson Plan") system in June 1949\. The squadron's personnel and equipment, along with other reserve units at Miami were transferred to elements of the [435th Troop Carrier Wing](/wiki/435th_Troop_Carrier_Wing "435th Troop Carrier Wing"). ### Strategic Air Command [thumb\|100th Wing B47 parked at a Reflex base](/wiki/File:RAF_Bruntingthorpe_-_Boeing_B47_parked.jpg "RAF Bruntingthorpe - Boeing B47 parked.jpg") Reactivated under [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command "Strategic Air Command") received new, swept wing [Boeing B\-47 Stratojets](/wiki/Boeing_B-47_Stratojet "Boeing B-47 Stratojet") in 1956 which were designed to carry nuclear weapons and to penetrate Soviet air defenses with its high operational ceiling and near supersonic speed. The squadron flew the B\-47 for about a decade when by the mid\-1960s it had become obsolescent and vulnerable to new Soviet [air defenses](/wiki/Air_defense "Air defense"). The squadron began to send its Stratojets to [Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center](/wiki/Aerospace_Maintenance_and_Regeneration_Center "Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center") at Davis–Monthan AFB for retirement in 1965, the last being retired in 1966, one of the last B\-47 Squadrons.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2023}} Redesignated as a [strategic reconnaissance](/wiki/Aerial_reconnaissance "Aerial reconnaissance") squadron from 1966–1976\.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2023}} ### Air Refueling The squadron flew air refueling in support of the [Lockheed SR\-71 Blackbird](/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird "Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird") from 1976–1990 and provided cargo and [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling "Aerial refueling") support to combat units in [Southwest Asia](/wiki/Southwest_Asia "Southwest Asia") from, August 1990 – March 1991\.
[ "History\n-------", "### World War II", "#### Training in the United States", "The [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 \"Squadron (aviation)\") was activated as the **349th Bombardment Squadron** at [Orlando Army Air Base](/wiki/Orlando_Army_Air_Base \"Orlando Army Air Base\"), Florida on 1 June 1942, one of the four original squadrons of the [100th Bombardment Group](/wiki/100th_Bombardment_Group \"100th Bombardment Group\"),Maurer, *Combat Units*, pp. 171\\-172Maurer, *Combat Squadrons*, pp. 433\\-436, 512 \nIt was intended to be equipped with [Consolidated B\\-24 Liberators](/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator \"Consolidated B-24 Liberator\").Freeman, pp. 246\\-247 The [Army Air Forces](/wiki/Army_Air_Forces \"Army Air Forces\") (AAF) decided to concentrate [heavy bomber](/wiki/Heavy_bomber \"Heavy bomber\") training under [Second Air Force](/wiki/Second_Air_Force \"Second Air Force\"), and before the end of June, the squadron moved to [Pendleton Field](/wiki/Pendleton_Field \"Pendleton Field\"), Oregon, and its intended equipment changed to [Boeing B\\-17 Flying Fortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\"). As a result, the squadron only began organizing in October 1942, after it had moved to [Gowen Field](/wiki/Gowen_Field \"Gowen Field\"), Idaho. The following month, it moved to [Walla Walla Army Air Field](/wiki/Walla_Walla_Army_Air_Field \"Walla Walla Army Air Field\"), Washington, where it received its first operational aircraft and began training.", "The 349th completed its training and departed [Kearney Army Air Field](/wiki/Kearney_Army_Air_Field \"Kearney Army Air Field\"), Nebraska for the [European Theater of Operations](/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations \"European Theater of Operations\") on 1 May 1943\\. The ground echelon sailed on the {{RMS\\|Queen Elizabeth}} on 28 May, arriving at [Greenock](/wiki/Greenock \"Greenock\"), Scotland on 3 June, while the air echelon engaged in additional training before departing via the [northern ferry route](/wiki/North_Atlantic_air_ferry_route_in_World_War_II \"North Atlantic air ferry route in World War II\") to England about 21 May 1943\\.", "#### Combat in Europe", "[thumb\\|100th Bombardment Group B\\-17s on a combat mission](/wiki/File:100thbombgroup-b17s-1.jpg \"100thbombgroup-b17s-1.jpg\")\nThe squadron established itself at its combat station, [RAF Thorpe Abbotts](/wiki/RAF_Thorpe_Abbotts \"RAF Thorpe Abbotts\"), on 9 June 1943, flying its first combat mission on 25 June. Until the end of the war, the squadron was primarily employed in the [strategic bombing campaign against Germany](/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II%23US_bombing_in_Europe \"Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe\"). Until January 1944, it concentrated its operations on airfields in France, and industrial targets and naval facilities in France and Germany. On 17 August 1943, it participated in an [attack on a factory](/wiki/Schweinfurt-Regensburg_mission \"Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission\") manufacturing [Messerschmitt Bf 109](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109 \"Messerschmitt Bf 109\") fighters in [Regensburg](/wiki/Regensburg \"Regensburg\"), Germany, which seriously disrupted production of that plane. Although the mission called for fighter escort, the fighter group assigned to protect the squadron's formation missed the rendezvous and the [wing](/wiki/Wing_%28military_aviation_unit%29 \"Wing (military aviation unit)\") formation proceeded to the target unescorted. Enemy fighter opposition focused on the low \"box\", formed in part by the squadron. Ten of the 21 Flying Fortresses flown by the 100th Group were lost on this mission. Unknown to AAF intelligence at the time, the attack also destroyed almost all of the fuselage construction equipment for Germany's secret [Me 262](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262 \"Messerschmitt Me 262\") jet fighter. Rather than returning to England, the unit turned south and recovered at bases in North Africa.Freeman, pp. 67\\-68 For this action, the squadron was awarded the [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation \"Distinguished Unit Citation\") (DUC).", "From January to May 1944, the 349th attacked airfields, industrial targets, [marshalling yards](/wiki/Marshalling_yard \"Marshalling yard\"), and missile sites in Western Europe. During [Big Week](/wiki/Big_Week \"Big Week\"), it participated in the concentrated attack on the German aircraft industry. In March, it conducted a series of long range attacks against [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), for which it was awarded a second DUC. The raid of 6 March was to be the costliest mission flown by [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force \"Eighth Air Force\") during the war. German fighter controllers detected that the formation including the squadron was unprotected by fighter escorts and concentrated [interceptor](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft \"Interceptor aircraft\") attacks on it. Twenty\\-three B\\-17s from the formation failed to return.Freeman, p.114{{efn\\|In addition to the squadrons of the 100th Group, the formation included those of the \\[\\[95th Bombardment Group]].}} Two days later, German fighters shot down the leader of the [45th Combat Bombardment Wing](/wiki/45th_Combat_Bombardment_Wing \"45th Combat Bombardment Wing\"), and the 100th Group took the lead in another attack on Berlin.Freeman, p. 115 From the summer of 1944, the 349th concentrated on German oil production facilities.", "The squadron was occasionally diverted from strategic bombing to perform [interdiction](/wiki/Interdiction \"Interdiction\") and [air support](/wiki/Air_support \"Air support\") missions. It attacked bridges and [gun positions](/wiki/Coastal_artillery%23Atlantic_Wall \"Coastal artillery#Atlantic Wall\") to support [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\"), the landings at Normandy in June 1944\\. In August and September it supported [Operation Cobra](/wiki/Operation_Cobra \"Operation Cobra\"), the breakout at [Saint Lo](/wiki/Saint_Lo \"Saint Lo\"), and bombed enemy positions in [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\"). As [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") forces drove across Northern France toward the [Siegfried Line](/wiki/Siegfried_Line \"Siegfried Line\") in October and November, it attacked transportation and ground defenses. During the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge \"Battle of the Bulge\") in December 1944 and January 1945, it attacked [lines of communication](/wiki/Lines_of_communication \"Lines of communication\") and fortified villages in the [Ardennes](/wiki/Ardennes \"Ardennes\"). It provided support for [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity \"Operation Varsity\"), the airborne assault across the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\") in March 1945\\. The squadron was awarded the [French Croix de Guerre with Palm](/wiki/Croix_de_guerre_1939-1945_%28France%29 \"Croix de guerre 1939-1945 (France)\") for attacks on heavily defended sites and dropping supplies to the [French Forces of the Interior](/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior \"French Forces of the Interior\").", "The squadron flew its last mission on 20 April 1945\\. Following, [V\\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day \"V-E Day\"), the squadron was initially programmed to be part of the [occupation forces](/wiki/Military_occupation \"Military occupation\") in Germany, but that plan was cancelled in September, and between October and December, the squadron's planes were ferried back to the United States or transferred to other units in theater. Its remaining personnel returned to the United States in December and the squadron was inactivated at the Port of Embarkation on 19 December 1945\\.", "#### \"Bloody Hundredth\"", "Starting with the Regensburg mission of August 1943, the squadrons of the 100th Bombardment Group began suffering losses among the highest in [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command \"VIII Bomber Command\").Freeman, pp. 68\\-69 On 8 October, it lost seven aircraft on a raid on [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\"), including its lead and deputy lead aircraft.Freeman, p. 75 Only two days later, it lost twelve aircraft on an attack on [Münster](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster \"Münster\"), again including the lead aircraft. The only group plane returning from that mission had lost two engines and had two wounded on board.Freeman, p. 77{{efn\\|This plane, named ''Rosie's Riveter'', was lost in the spring of 1945, but its crew was able to bail out in Russian held territory.}} Its highest one day loss occurred on the 6 March 1944 attack on Berlin, when 15 bombers failed to return.Freeman, p. 116 On 11 September 1944, the [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\") put up its heaviest opposition in months, destroying 11 of the group's bombers.Freeman, p. 178 On 31 December 1944, half the [1st Bombardment Division](/wiki/1st_Bombardment_Division \"1st Bombardment Division\")'s losses consisted of a dozen 100th bombers.Freeman, p. 204 With a group authorization of 40 B\\-17s, it lost 177 planes to enemy action. It became a legend for these losses and was referred to as the \"Bloody Hundredth.\"", "### Air Force reserve", "[thumb\\|left\\|T\\-6 Texans as flown by the squadron in the reserve](/wiki/File:AT-6C_Texans_in_flight_1943.jpg \"AT-6C Texans in flight 1943.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A Beechcraft AT\\-7as flown by the squadron in the reserve](/wiki/File:Beechcraft_AT-7_advanced_training_plane_%2800910460_026%29.jpg \"Beechcraft AT-7 advanced training plane (00910460 026).jpg\")\nThe squadron was again activated in the [reserve](/wiki/Military_reserve_force \"Military reserve force\") at [Miami Army Air Field](/wiki/Miami_Army_Air_Field \"Miami Army Air Field\"), Florida and assigned to the 100th Group on 29 May 1947\\. There, its training was supervised by the 473d AAF Base Unit (later the 2585th Air Force Reserve Training Center) of [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command \"Air Defense Command\") (ADC).Ravenstein, pp. 230\\-231 It was nominally a very heavy bomber squadron, but it does not appear the squadron was fully staffed and it was equipped only with training aircraft.", "In 1948 [Continental Air Command](/wiki/Continental_Air_Command \"Continental Air Command\") (ConAC) assumed responsibility for managing reserve and [Air National Guard](/wiki/Air_National_Guard \"Air National Guard\") units from ADC.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/896/983\\.xml \\|last1\\=\\|first1\\=\\|title\\=Abstract, Mission Project Closeup, Continental Air Command\\|date\\=27 December 1961\\|publisher\\=Air Force History Index\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2014}} The 349th was inactivated when ConAC reorganized its reserve units under the [wing base organization](/wiki/Hobson_Plan \"Hobson Plan\") system in June 1949\\. The squadron's personnel and equipment, along with other reserve units at Miami were transferred to elements of the [435th Troop Carrier Wing](/wiki/435th_Troop_Carrier_Wing \"435th Troop Carrier Wing\").", "### Strategic Air Command", "[thumb\\|100th Wing B47 parked at a Reflex base](/wiki/File:RAF_Bruntingthorpe_-_Boeing_B47_parked.jpg \"RAF Bruntingthorpe - Boeing B47 parked.jpg\")\nReactivated under [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command \"Strategic Air Command\") received new, swept wing [Boeing B\\-47 Stratojets](/wiki/Boeing_B-47_Stratojet \"Boeing B-47 Stratojet\") in 1956 which were designed to carry nuclear weapons and to penetrate Soviet air defenses with its high operational ceiling and near supersonic speed. The squadron flew the B\\-47 for about a decade when by the mid\\-1960s it had become obsolescent and vulnerable to new Soviet [air defenses](/wiki/Air_defense \"Air defense\"). The squadron began to send its Stratojets to [Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center](/wiki/Aerospace_Maintenance_and_Regeneration_Center \"Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center\") at Davis–Monthan AFB for retirement in 1965, the last being retired in 1966, one of the last B\\-47 Squadrons.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2023}}", "Redesignated as a [strategic reconnaissance](/wiki/Aerial_reconnaissance \"Aerial reconnaissance\") squadron from 1966–1976\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2023}}", "### Air Refueling", "The squadron flew air refueling in support of the [Lockheed SR\\-71 Blackbird](/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird \"Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird\") from 1976–1990 and provided cargo and [aerial refueling](/wiki/Aerial_refueling \"Aerial refueling\") support to combat units in [Southwest Asia](/wiki/Southwest_Asia \"Southwest Asia\") from, August 1990 – March 1991\\.", "" ]
### World War II #### Training in the United States The [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 "Squadron (aviation)") was activated as the **349th Bombardment Squadron** at [Orlando Army Air Base](/wiki/Orlando_Army_Air_Base "Orlando Army Air Base"), Florida on 1 June 1942, one of the four original squadrons of the [100th Bombardment Group](/wiki/100th_Bombardment_Group "100th Bombardment Group"),Maurer, *Combat Units*, pp. 171\-172Maurer, *Combat Squadrons*, pp. 433\-436, 512 It was intended to be equipped with [Consolidated B\-24 Liberators](/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator "Consolidated B-24 Liberator").Freeman, pp. 246\-247 The [Army Air Forces](/wiki/Army_Air_Forces "Army Air Forces") (AAF) decided to concentrate [heavy bomber](/wiki/Heavy_bomber "Heavy bomber") training under [Second Air Force](/wiki/Second_Air_Force "Second Air Force"), and before the end of June, the squadron moved to [Pendleton Field](/wiki/Pendleton_Field "Pendleton Field"), Oregon, and its intended equipment changed to [Boeing B\-17 Flying Fortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress"). As a result, the squadron only began organizing in October 1942, after it had moved to [Gowen Field](/wiki/Gowen_Field "Gowen Field"), Idaho. The following month, it moved to [Walla Walla Army Air Field](/wiki/Walla_Walla_Army_Air_Field "Walla Walla Army Air Field"), Washington, where it received its first operational aircraft and began training. The 349th completed its training and departed [Kearney Army Air Field](/wiki/Kearney_Army_Air_Field "Kearney Army Air Field"), Nebraska for the [European Theater of Operations](/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations "European Theater of Operations") on 1 May 1943\. The ground echelon sailed on the {{RMS\|Queen Elizabeth}} on 28 May, arriving at [Greenock](/wiki/Greenock "Greenock"), Scotland on 3 June, while the air echelon engaged in additional training before departing via the [northern ferry route](/wiki/North_Atlantic_air_ferry_route_in_World_War_II "North Atlantic air ferry route in World War II") to England about 21 May 1943\. #### Combat in Europe [thumb\|100th Bombardment Group B\-17s on a combat mission](/wiki/File:100thbombgroup-b17s-1.jpg "100thbombgroup-b17s-1.jpg") The squadron established itself at its combat station, [RAF Thorpe Abbotts](/wiki/RAF_Thorpe_Abbotts "RAF Thorpe Abbotts"), on 9 June 1943, flying its first combat mission on 25 June. Until the end of the war, the squadron was primarily employed in the [strategic bombing campaign against Germany](/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II%23US_bombing_in_Europe "Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe"). Until January 1944, it concentrated its operations on airfields in France, and industrial targets and naval facilities in France and Germany. On 17 August 1943, it participated in an [attack on a factory](/wiki/Schweinfurt-Regensburg_mission "Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission") manufacturing [Messerschmitt Bf 109](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109 "Messerschmitt Bf 109") fighters in [Regensburg](/wiki/Regensburg "Regensburg"), Germany, which seriously disrupted production of that plane. Although the mission called for fighter escort, the fighter group assigned to protect the squadron's formation missed the rendezvous and the [wing](/wiki/Wing_%28military_aviation_unit%29 "Wing (military aviation unit)") formation proceeded to the target unescorted. Enemy fighter opposition focused on the low "box", formed in part by the squadron. Ten of the 21 Flying Fortresses flown by the 100th Group were lost on this mission. Unknown to AAF intelligence at the time, the attack also destroyed almost all of the fuselage construction equipment for Germany's secret [Me 262](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262 "Messerschmitt Me 262") jet fighter. Rather than returning to England, the unit turned south and recovered at bases in North Africa.Freeman, pp. 67\-68 For this action, the squadron was awarded the [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation "Distinguished Unit Citation") (DUC). From January to May 1944, the 349th attacked airfields, industrial targets, [marshalling yards](/wiki/Marshalling_yard "Marshalling yard"), and missile sites in Western Europe. During [Big Week](/wiki/Big_Week "Big Week"), it participated in the concentrated attack on the German aircraft industry. In March, it conducted a series of long range attacks against [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), for which it was awarded a second DUC. The raid of 6 March was to be the costliest mission flown by [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force "Eighth Air Force") during the war. German fighter controllers detected that the formation including the squadron was unprotected by fighter escorts and concentrated [interceptor](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft "Interceptor aircraft") attacks on it. Twenty\-three B\-17s from the formation failed to return.Freeman, p.114{{efn\|In addition to the squadrons of the 100th Group, the formation included those of the \[\[95th Bombardment Group]].}} Two days later, German fighters shot down the leader of the [45th Combat Bombardment Wing](/wiki/45th_Combat_Bombardment_Wing "45th Combat Bombardment Wing"), and the 100th Group took the lead in another attack on Berlin.Freeman, p. 115 From the summer of 1944, the 349th concentrated on German oil production facilities. The squadron was occasionally diverted from strategic bombing to perform [interdiction](/wiki/Interdiction "Interdiction") and [air support](/wiki/Air_support "Air support") missions. It attacked bridges and [gun positions](/wiki/Coastal_artillery%23Atlantic_Wall "Coastal artillery#Atlantic Wall") to support [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord"), the landings at Normandy in June 1944\. In August and September it supported [Operation Cobra](/wiki/Operation_Cobra "Operation Cobra"), the breakout at [Saint Lo](/wiki/Saint_Lo "Saint Lo"), and bombed enemy positions in [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France"). As [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") forces drove across Northern France toward the [Siegfried Line](/wiki/Siegfried_Line "Siegfried Line") in October and November, it attacked transportation and ground defenses. During the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge "Battle of the Bulge") in December 1944 and January 1945, it attacked [lines of communication](/wiki/Lines_of_communication "Lines of communication") and fortified villages in the [Ardennes](/wiki/Ardennes "Ardennes"). It provided support for [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity "Operation Varsity"), the airborne assault across the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine") in March 1945\. The squadron was awarded the [French Croix de Guerre with Palm](/wiki/Croix_de_guerre_1939-1945_%28France%29 "Croix de guerre 1939-1945 (France)") for attacks on heavily defended sites and dropping supplies to the [French Forces of the Interior](/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior "French Forces of the Interior"). The squadron flew its last mission on 20 April 1945\. Following, [V\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day "V-E Day"), the squadron was initially programmed to be part of the [occupation forces](/wiki/Military_occupation "Military occupation") in Germany, but that plan was cancelled in September, and between October and December, the squadron's planes were ferried back to the United States or transferred to other units in theater. Its remaining personnel returned to the United States in December and the squadron was inactivated at the Port of Embarkation on 19 December 1945\. #### "Bloody Hundredth" Starting with the Regensburg mission of August 1943, the squadrons of the 100th Bombardment Group began suffering losses among the highest in [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command "VIII Bomber Command").Freeman, pp. 68\-69 On 8 October, it lost seven aircraft on a raid on [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen"), including its lead and deputy lead aircraft.Freeman, p. 75 Only two days later, it lost twelve aircraft on an attack on [Münster](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster "Münster"), again including the lead aircraft. The only group plane returning from that mission had lost two engines and had two wounded on board.Freeman, p. 77{{efn\|This plane, named ''Rosie's Riveter'', was lost in the spring of 1945, but its crew was able to bail out in Russian held territory.}} Its highest one day loss occurred on the 6 March 1944 attack on Berlin, when 15 bombers failed to return.Freeman, p. 116 On 11 September 1944, the [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe") put up its heaviest opposition in months, destroying 11 of the group's bombers.Freeman, p. 178 On 31 December 1944, half the [1st Bombardment Division](/wiki/1st_Bombardment_Division "1st Bombardment Division")'s losses consisted of a dozen 100th bombers.Freeman, p. 204 With a group authorization of 40 B\-17s, it lost 177 planes to enemy action. It became a legend for these losses and was referred to as the "Bloody Hundredth."
[ "### World War II", "#### Training in the United States", "The [squadron](/wiki/Squadron_%28aviation%29 \"Squadron (aviation)\") was activated as the **349th Bombardment Squadron** at [Orlando Army Air Base](/wiki/Orlando_Army_Air_Base \"Orlando Army Air Base\"), Florida on 1 June 1942, one of the four original squadrons of the [100th Bombardment Group](/wiki/100th_Bombardment_Group \"100th Bombardment Group\"),Maurer, *Combat Units*, pp. 171\\-172Maurer, *Combat Squadrons*, pp. 433\\-436, 512 \nIt was intended to be equipped with [Consolidated B\\-24 Liberators](/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator \"Consolidated B-24 Liberator\").Freeman, pp. 246\\-247 The [Army Air Forces](/wiki/Army_Air_Forces \"Army Air Forces\") (AAF) decided to concentrate [heavy bomber](/wiki/Heavy_bomber \"Heavy bomber\") training under [Second Air Force](/wiki/Second_Air_Force \"Second Air Force\"), and before the end of June, the squadron moved to [Pendleton Field](/wiki/Pendleton_Field \"Pendleton Field\"), Oregon, and its intended equipment changed to [Boeing B\\-17 Flying Fortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\"). As a result, the squadron only began organizing in October 1942, after it had moved to [Gowen Field](/wiki/Gowen_Field \"Gowen Field\"), Idaho. The following month, it moved to [Walla Walla Army Air Field](/wiki/Walla_Walla_Army_Air_Field \"Walla Walla Army Air Field\"), Washington, where it received its first operational aircraft and began training.", "The 349th completed its training and departed [Kearney Army Air Field](/wiki/Kearney_Army_Air_Field \"Kearney Army Air Field\"), Nebraska for the [European Theater of Operations](/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations \"European Theater of Operations\") on 1 May 1943\\. The ground echelon sailed on the {{RMS\\|Queen Elizabeth}} on 28 May, arriving at [Greenock](/wiki/Greenock \"Greenock\"), Scotland on 3 June, while the air echelon engaged in additional training before departing via the [northern ferry route](/wiki/North_Atlantic_air_ferry_route_in_World_War_II \"North Atlantic air ferry route in World War II\") to England about 21 May 1943\\.", "#### Combat in Europe", "[thumb\\|100th Bombardment Group B\\-17s on a combat mission](/wiki/File:100thbombgroup-b17s-1.jpg \"100thbombgroup-b17s-1.jpg\")\nThe squadron established itself at its combat station, [RAF Thorpe Abbotts](/wiki/RAF_Thorpe_Abbotts \"RAF Thorpe Abbotts\"), on 9 June 1943, flying its first combat mission on 25 June. Until the end of the war, the squadron was primarily employed in the [strategic bombing campaign against Germany](/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II%23US_bombing_in_Europe \"Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe\"). Until January 1944, it concentrated its operations on airfields in France, and industrial targets and naval facilities in France and Germany. On 17 August 1943, it participated in an [attack on a factory](/wiki/Schweinfurt-Regensburg_mission \"Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission\") manufacturing [Messerschmitt Bf 109](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109 \"Messerschmitt Bf 109\") fighters in [Regensburg](/wiki/Regensburg \"Regensburg\"), Germany, which seriously disrupted production of that plane. Although the mission called for fighter escort, the fighter group assigned to protect the squadron's formation missed the rendezvous and the [wing](/wiki/Wing_%28military_aviation_unit%29 \"Wing (military aviation unit)\") formation proceeded to the target unescorted. Enemy fighter opposition focused on the low \"box\", formed in part by the squadron. Ten of the 21 Flying Fortresses flown by the 100th Group were lost on this mission. Unknown to AAF intelligence at the time, the attack also destroyed almost all of the fuselage construction equipment for Germany's secret [Me 262](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262 \"Messerschmitt Me 262\") jet fighter. Rather than returning to England, the unit turned south and recovered at bases in North Africa.Freeman, pp. 67\\-68 For this action, the squadron was awarded the [Distinguished Unit Citation](/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation \"Distinguished Unit Citation\") (DUC).", "From January to May 1944, the 349th attacked airfields, industrial targets, [marshalling yards](/wiki/Marshalling_yard \"Marshalling yard\"), and missile sites in Western Europe. During [Big Week](/wiki/Big_Week \"Big Week\"), it participated in the concentrated attack on the German aircraft industry. In March, it conducted a series of long range attacks against [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), for which it was awarded a second DUC. The raid of 6 March was to be the costliest mission flown by [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force \"Eighth Air Force\") during the war. German fighter controllers detected that the formation including the squadron was unprotected by fighter escorts and concentrated [interceptor](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft \"Interceptor aircraft\") attacks on it. Twenty\\-three B\\-17s from the formation failed to return.Freeman, p.114{{efn\\|In addition to the squadrons of the 100th Group, the formation included those of the \\[\\[95th Bombardment Group]].}} Two days later, German fighters shot down the leader of the [45th Combat Bombardment Wing](/wiki/45th_Combat_Bombardment_Wing \"45th Combat Bombardment Wing\"), and the 100th Group took the lead in another attack on Berlin.Freeman, p. 115 From the summer of 1944, the 349th concentrated on German oil production facilities.", "The squadron was occasionally diverted from strategic bombing to perform [interdiction](/wiki/Interdiction \"Interdiction\") and [air support](/wiki/Air_support \"Air support\") missions. It attacked bridges and [gun positions](/wiki/Coastal_artillery%23Atlantic_Wall \"Coastal artillery#Atlantic Wall\") to support [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\"), the landings at Normandy in June 1944\\. In August and September it supported [Operation Cobra](/wiki/Operation_Cobra \"Operation Cobra\"), the breakout at [Saint Lo](/wiki/Saint_Lo \"Saint Lo\"), and bombed enemy positions in [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\"). As [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") forces drove across Northern France toward the [Siegfried Line](/wiki/Siegfried_Line \"Siegfried Line\") in October and November, it attacked transportation and ground defenses. During the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge \"Battle of the Bulge\") in December 1944 and January 1945, it attacked [lines of communication](/wiki/Lines_of_communication \"Lines of communication\") and fortified villages in the [Ardennes](/wiki/Ardennes \"Ardennes\"). It provided support for [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity \"Operation Varsity\"), the airborne assault across the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\") in March 1945\\. The squadron was awarded the [French Croix de Guerre with Palm](/wiki/Croix_de_guerre_1939-1945_%28France%29 \"Croix de guerre 1939-1945 (France)\") for attacks on heavily defended sites and dropping supplies to the [French Forces of the Interior](/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior \"French Forces of the Interior\").", "The squadron flew its last mission on 20 April 1945\\. Following, [V\\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day \"V-E Day\"), the squadron was initially programmed to be part of the [occupation forces](/wiki/Military_occupation \"Military occupation\") in Germany, but that plan was cancelled in September, and between October and December, the squadron's planes were ferried back to the United States or transferred to other units in theater. Its remaining personnel returned to the United States in December and the squadron was inactivated at the Port of Embarkation on 19 December 1945\\.", "#### \"Bloody Hundredth\"", "Starting with the Regensburg mission of August 1943, the squadrons of the 100th Bombardment Group began suffering losses among the highest in [VIII Bomber Command](/wiki/VIII_Bomber_Command \"VIII Bomber Command\").Freeman, pp. 68\\-69 On 8 October, it lost seven aircraft on a raid on [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\"), including its lead and deputy lead aircraft.Freeman, p. 75 Only two days later, it lost twelve aircraft on an attack on [Münster](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster \"Münster\"), again including the lead aircraft. The only group plane returning from that mission had lost two engines and had two wounded on board.Freeman, p. 77{{efn\\|This plane, named ''Rosie's Riveter'', was lost in the spring of 1945, but its crew was able to bail out in Russian held territory.}} Its highest one day loss occurred on the 6 March 1944 attack on Berlin, when 15 bombers failed to return.Freeman, p. 116 On 11 September 1944, the [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\") put up its heaviest opposition in months, destroying 11 of the group's bombers.Freeman, p. 178 On 31 December 1944, half the [1st Bombardment Division](/wiki/1st_Bombardment_Division \"1st Bombardment Division\")'s losses consisted of a dozen 100th bombers.Freeman, p. 204 With a group authorization of 40 B\\-17s, it lost 177 planes to enemy action. It became a legend for these losses and was referred to as the \"Bloody Hundredth.\"", "" ]
History ------- The company was established in January 2002 as Midwest Optoelectronics, LLC (MWOE) by Xunming Deng, a [University of Toledo's](/wiki/University_of_Toledo "University of Toledo") physics professor and, his wife, Liwei Xu. The company was given license to technology developed at the [University of Toledo's](/wiki/University_of_Toledo "University of Toledo") Thin Film Silicon Photovoltaic Laboratory. In May 2003, MWOE receives its first [grant](/wiki/Grant_%28money%29 "Grant (money)") from [United States Department of Energy's](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy "United States Department of Energy") [Small Business Innovation Research](/wiki/Small_Business_Innovation_Research "Small Business Innovation Research"). In January 2006, MWOE and UT reach an exclusive license agreement for four sets of technology portfolios developed in the Thin Film Silicon Photovoltaic Laboratory. In April 2006, Xunlight was formed and all MWOE operations were reorganized into Xunlight. In May 2007, Xunlight receives [Series A investment](/wiki/Series_A_round "Series A round") of $7 million. In July, Xunlight moves its [headquarters](/wiki/Headquarters "Headquarters") from the [incubator](/wiki/Business_incubator "Business incubator") at the University of Toledo to a 122,000 sq. ft. [manufacturing facility](/wiki/Factory "Factory") at 3145 Nebraska Ave. By September, Xunlight received another $3 million in government funding which included a $1\.9 million grant from the [National Institute of Standards and Technology](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology "National Institute of Standards and Technology"). Two months later, the [Lucas County](/wiki/Lucas_County%2C_Ohio "Lucas County, Ohio") announced that it would make a $2 million investment in Xunlight. In April 2008, Xunlight receives Series B investment of $33 million. In June, Xunlight receives $5 million grant from Ohio Department of Development. Xunlight demonstrates first solar cell deposition on 2MW roll\-to\-roll pilot production line. In December, Xunlight receives $7 million loan from the State of Ohio. In June 2009, Xunlight successfully completes the installation and demonstration of its 25MW high\-throughput, wide\-web, roll\-to\-roll photovoltaic manufacturing process. Xunlight (Kunshan) Co., Ltd is established as Xunlight\`s China factory. In September, Xunlight delivers and installs its first shipment of solar modules to its first customer, the University of Toledo.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.xunlight.com/ \|title\=History « Xunlight \|access\-date\=May 22, 2011 \|url\-status\=unfit \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501101629/http://www.xunlight.com//company/history/ \|archive\-date\=May 1, 2011 }} 2011, Xunlight Corporation
[ "History\n-------", "The company was established in January 2002 as Midwest Optoelectronics, LLC (MWOE) by Xunming Deng, a [University of Toledo's](/wiki/University_of_Toledo \"University of Toledo\") physics professor and, his wife, Liwei Xu. The company was given license to technology developed at the [University of Toledo's](/wiki/University_of_Toledo \"University of Toledo\") Thin Film Silicon Photovoltaic Laboratory.", "In May 2003, MWOE receives its first [grant](/wiki/Grant_%28money%29 \"Grant (money)\") from [United States Department of Energy's](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy \"United States Department of Energy\") [Small Business Innovation Research](/wiki/Small_Business_Innovation_Research \"Small Business Innovation Research\").", "In January 2006, MWOE and UT reach an exclusive license agreement for four sets of technology portfolios developed in the Thin Film Silicon Photovoltaic Laboratory.", "In April 2006, Xunlight was formed and all MWOE operations were reorganized into Xunlight.", "In May 2007, Xunlight receives [Series A investment](/wiki/Series_A_round \"Series A round\") of $7 million. In July, Xunlight moves its [headquarters](/wiki/Headquarters \"Headquarters\") from the [incubator](/wiki/Business_incubator \"Business incubator\") at the University of Toledo to a 122,000 sq. ft. [manufacturing facility](/wiki/Factory \"Factory\") at 3145 Nebraska Ave. By September, Xunlight received another $3 million in government funding which included a $1\\.9 million grant from the [National Institute of Standards and Technology](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology \"National Institute of Standards and Technology\"). Two months later, the [Lucas County](/wiki/Lucas_County%2C_Ohio \"Lucas County, Ohio\") announced that it would make a $2 million investment in Xunlight.", "In April 2008, Xunlight receives Series B investment of $33 million. In June, Xunlight receives $5 million grant from Ohio Department of Development. Xunlight demonstrates first solar cell deposition on 2MW roll\\-to\\-roll pilot production line. In December, Xunlight receives $7 million loan from the State of Ohio.", "In June 2009, Xunlight successfully completes the installation and demonstration of its 25MW high\\-throughput, wide\\-web, roll\\-to\\-roll photovoltaic manufacturing process. Xunlight (Kunshan) Co., Ltd is established as Xunlight\\`s China factory. In September, Xunlight delivers and installs its first shipment of solar modules to its first customer, the University of Toledo.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.xunlight.com/ \\|title\\=History « Xunlight \\|access\\-date\\=May 22, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=unfit \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501101629/http://www.xunlight.com//company/history/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 1, 2011 }} 2011, Xunlight Corporation", "" ]
History ------- The system of direct rule was originally introduced on 28 March 1972 under the terms of the UK's [Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_%28Temporary_Provisions%29_Act_1972 "Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972"), which also suspended the [Parliament of Northern Ireland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Northern_Ireland "Parliament of Northern Ireland") ("Stormont"). The Northern Irish administration under [Brian Faulkner](/wiki/Brian_Faulkner "Brian Faulkner") had refused to allow control of security in the province to be transferred to London.{{Cite book\|title\=The Oxford Companion to Irish History\|last\=Hepburn\|first\=A. C.\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2002\|isbn\=9780199234837\|editor\-last\=Connolly\|editor\-first\=S. J.\|chapter\=direct rule\|chapter\-url\=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10\.1093/acref/9780199234837\.001\.0001/acref\-9780199234837\-e\-549\|access\-date\=2017\-09\-27\|archive\-date\=2017\-09\-28\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928005555/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10\.1093/acref/9780199234837\.001\.0001/acref\-9780199234837\-e\-549\|url\-status\=live}} As a consequence, the British government under [Edward Heath](/wiki/Edward_Heath "Edward Heath") announced on 24 March 1972 that devolved government in Northern Ireland would be suspended. Responsibility for Northern Ireland within the Cabinet had until then rested with the [Home Secretary](/wiki/Home_Secretary "Home Secretary"), but was now transferred to the new post of [Secretary of State for Northern Ireland](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Northern_Ireland "Secretary of State for Northern Ireland"), heading the [Northern Ireland Office](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Office "Northern Ireland Office"). Several new junior government ministers were created to politically head the NI government departments. The British Government sought to establish a [Northern Ireland Assembly](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly_%281973%29 "Northern Ireland Assembly (1973)") in 1973 (under the [Sunningdale Agreement](/wiki/Sunningdale_Agreement "Sunningdale Agreement"); this was brought down by [Unionist](/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland "Unionism in Ireland") action), in 1982 (this time boycotted by [Nationalists](/wiki/Nationalist "Nationalist")), and more recently under the terms of the [Good Friday Agreement](/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement") of 1998\. Each time, the intention in principle was that the Assembly would take over the political governance of Northern Ireland, and that direct rule would thus come to an end. The results of the Good Friday Agreement were the most successful at achieving this; however, the Assembly was nevertheless suspended (and direct rule re\-imposed) for over three months starting in February 2000,{{cite press release\|title\=Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive Suspended \|publisher\=Northern Ireland Office \|date\=2000\-02\-11 \|url\=http://www.nio.gov.uk/000211a\-nio.htm \|access\-date\=2011\-03\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010303004129/http://www.nio.gov.uk/000211a\-nio.htm \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2001 }} twice briefly in August{{cite press release \|title\=Reid Announces Short\-term Suspension \|publisher\=Northern Ireland Office \|date\=2001\-09\-10 \|url\=//www.nio.gov.uk/press/010810a.htm \|access\-date\=2011\-03\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020517192918/http://www.nio.gov.uk/press/010810a.htm \|archive\-date\=May 17, 2002 }} and September{{cite press release \|title\=Statement By The Secretary Of State, Dr John Reid \|publisher\=Northern Ireland Office \|date\=2001\-09\-21 \|url\=//www.nio.gov.uk/press/010921sus.htm \|access\-date\=2011\-03\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20011109014007/http://www.nio.gov.uk/press/010921sus.htm \|archive\-date\=November 9, 2001 }} of 2001, and again from October 2002{{cite press release \|title\=Statement On Suspension By The Secretary Of State \|publisher\=Northern Ireland Office \|date\=2002\-10\-14 \|url\=//www.nio.gov.uk/press/021014a.htm \|access\-date\=2011\-03\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030731055507/http://www.nio.gov.uk/press/021014a.htm \|archive\-date\=July 31, 2003 }} until the spring of 2007\. Since the [St Andrews Agreement](/wiki/St_Andrews_Agreement "St Andrews Agreement") in 2006, Westminster no longer has the power to suspend the Assembly without the enactment of further primary legislation. ### Instances of direct rule following the Good Friday Agreement The assembly has been suspended five times since the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in accordance with the [Northern Ireland Act 2000](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_2000 "Northern Ireland Act 2000").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/1\|title\=Northern Ireland Act 2000 (repealed)\|website\=www.legislation.gov.uk\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-27\|archive\-date\=2017\-03\-28\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328111403/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/1\|url\-status\=live}} The periods of suspension were: * 11 February – 30 May 2000 * 10 August 2001 (24\-hour suspension) * 22 September 2001 (24\-hour suspension) * 14 October 2002 – 7 May 2007
[ "History\n-------", "The system of direct rule was originally introduced on 28 March 1972 under the terms of the UK's [Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_%28Temporary_Provisions%29_Act_1972 \"Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972\"), which also suspended the [Parliament of Northern Ireland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Northern_Ireland \"Parliament of Northern Ireland\") (\"Stormont\").", "The Northern Irish administration under [Brian Faulkner](/wiki/Brian_Faulkner \"Brian Faulkner\") had refused to allow control of security in the province to be transferred to London.{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Oxford Companion to Irish History\\|last\\=Hepburn\\|first\\=A. C.\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=9780199234837\\|editor\\-last\\=Connolly\\|editor\\-first\\=S. J.\\|chapter\\=direct rule\\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10\\.1093/acref/9780199234837\\.001\\.0001/acref\\-9780199234837\\-e\\-549\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-09\\-27\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-09\\-28\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928005555/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10\\.1093/acref/9780199234837\\.001\\.0001/acref\\-9780199234837\\-e\\-549\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As a consequence, the British government under [Edward Heath](/wiki/Edward_Heath \"Edward Heath\") announced on 24 March 1972 that devolved government in Northern Ireland would be suspended.", "Responsibility for Northern Ireland within the Cabinet had until then rested with the [Home Secretary](/wiki/Home_Secretary \"Home Secretary\"), but was now transferred to the new post of [Secretary of State for Northern Ireland](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Northern_Ireland \"Secretary of State for Northern Ireland\"), heading the [Northern Ireland Office](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Office \"Northern Ireland Office\"). Several new junior government ministers were created to politically head the NI government departments.", "The British Government sought to establish a [Northern Ireland Assembly](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly_%281973%29 \"Northern Ireland Assembly (1973)\") in 1973 (under the [Sunningdale Agreement](/wiki/Sunningdale_Agreement \"Sunningdale Agreement\"); this was brought down by [Unionist](/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland \"Unionism in Ireland\") action), in 1982 (this time boycotted by [Nationalists](/wiki/Nationalist \"Nationalist\")), and more recently under the terms of the [Good Friday Agreement](/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement \"Good Friday Agreement\") of 1998\\. Each time, the intention in principle was that the Assembly would take over the political governance of Northern Ireland, and that direct rule would thus come to an end. The results of the Good Friday Agreement were the most successful at achieving this; however, the Assembly was nevertheless suspended (and direct rule re\\-imposed) for over three months starting in February 2000,{{cite press release\\|title\\=Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive Suspended \\|publisher\\=Northern Ireland Office \\|date\\=2000\\-02\\-11 \\|url\\=http://www.nio.gov.uk/000211a\\-nio.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-03\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010303004129/http://www.nio.gov.uk/000211a\\-nio.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2001 }} twice briefly in August{{cite press release \\|title\\=Reid Announces Short\\-term Suspension \\|publisher\\=Northern Ireland Office \\|date\\=2001\\-09\\-10 \\|url\\=//www.nio.gov.uk/press/010810a.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-03\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020517192918/http://www.nio.gov.uk/press/010810a.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=May 17, 2002 }} and September{{cite press release \\|title\\=Statement By The Secretary Of State, Dr John Reid \\|publisher\\=Northern Ireland Office \\|date\\=2001\\-09\\-21 \\|url\\=//www.nio.gov.uk/press/010921sus.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-03\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20011109014007/http://www.nio.gov.uk/press/010921sus.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=November 9, 2001 }} of 2001, and again from October 2002{{cite press release \\|title\\=Statement On Suspension By The Secretary Of State \\|publisher\\=Northern Ireland Office \\|date\\=2002\\-10\\-14 \\|url\\=//www.nio.gov.uk/press/021014a.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-03\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030731055507/http://www.nio.gov.uk/press/021014a.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2003 }} until the spring of 2007\\.", "Since the [St Andrews Agreement](/wiki/St_Andrews_Agreement \"St Andrews Agreement\") in 2006, Westminster no longer has the power to suspend the Assembly without the enactment of further primary legislation.", "### Instances of direct rule following the Good Friday Agreement", "The assembly has been suspended five times since the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in accordance with the [Northern Ireland Act 2000](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_2000 \"Northern Ireland Act 2000\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/1\\|title\\=Northern Ireland Act 2000 (repealed)\\|website\\=www.legislation.gov.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-27\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-28\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328111403/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/1\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The periods of suspension were:\n* 11 February – 30 May 2000\n* 10 August 2001 (24\\-hour suspension)\n* 22 September 2001 (24\\-hour suspension)\n* 14 October 2002 – 7 May 2007", "" ]
Life and work ------------- He was born the son of a fisherman, in the village of [Clohars\-Carnoët](/wiki/Clohars-Carno%C3%ABt "Clohars-Carnoët"), [Finistère](/wiki/Finist%C3%A8re "Finistère") in 1905\. He attended primary school from 1912 to 1914\. In 1915, during World War I, his father was killed in fighting at the [Argonne](/wiki/Forest_of_Argonne "Forest of Argonne") front. Apprenticed as a blacksmith in 1918, he began designing and sculpting and was rewarded with a national scholarship and entered the Upper primary school at [Quimperlé](/wiki/Quimperl%C3%A9 "Quimperlé"). He started his working life as clerk to a [notary](/wiki/Civil_law_notary "Civil law notary") in 1923 in [Arzano](/wiki/Arzano "Arzano"). In 1924, he found work as a decorator at the Keraluc [porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain "Porcelain") factory in Quimper in 1924, creating characters and landscapes of the [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany "Brittany") countryside. Arriving in Paris in 1924, Tal\-Coat modelled for the [Académie de la Grande Chaumiere](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_de_la_Grande_Chaumiere "Académie de la Grande Chaumiere"), was a moulder at the Manufacture de Sèvres and met with the painter Émile Compard. In 1925 and 1926 he fulfilled his military service in Paris in the [cuirassiers](/wiki/Cuirassier "Cuirassier"). He met Auguste Fabre and Henri Bénézit and exhibited in their gallery under the name of Tal\-Coat (Wood Face in [Breton](/wiki/Breton_language "Breton language")) which he used all his life to avoid homonymy with the poet [Max Jacob](/wiki/Max_Jacob "Max Jacob"). Back in Paris in 1930, after a stay back home in Brittany from 1927 to 1929, he mixed with such notables as [Francis Gruber](/wiki/Francis_Gruber "Francis Gruber"), [André Marchand](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Marchand_%28painter%29 "André Marchand (painter)"), [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein "Gertrude Stein"), [Francis Picabia](/wiki/Francis_Picabia "Francis Picabia"), [Ernest Hemingway](/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway "Ernest Hemingway"), [Giacometti](/wiki/Giacometti "Giacometti"), [Balthus](/wiki/Balthus "Balthus"), [Artaud](/wiki/Artaud "Artaud"), [Tzara](/wiki/Tzara "Tzara") and [Paul\-Émile Victor](/wiki/Paul-%C3%89mile_Victor "Paul-Émile Victor"). From 1932 he was a member of the [*Forces Nouvelles*](/wiki/Forces_nouvelles_%28art%29 "Forces nouvelles (art)") group. In 1936, he protested against the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War") with his “Massacres” series. He was conscripted into the army in 1939 at [Saint\-Germain\-en\-Laye](/wiki/Saint-Germain-en-Laye "Saint-Germain-en-Laye") and later [Ermenonville](/wiki/Ermenonville "Ermenonville") and demobilized in 1940 in [Montauban](/wiki/Montauban "Montauban"). Setting himself up in [Aix\-en\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence "Aix-en-Provence"), which had become the refuge of many artists, including André Marchand, Charles Albert Cingria and [Cendrars](/wiki/Cendrars "Cendrars"), he participated in the exhibition "Twenty young painters of French tradition" organized by [Jean Bazaine](/wiki/Jean_Bazaine "Jean Bazaine") in 1941 and later exhibited at the Galerie de France in 1943\. Returning to Paris in 1945, he participated in the first exhibition of the [Salon de Mai](/wiki/Salon_de_Mai "Salon de Mai"). [thumb\|250px\|[Paul Cézanne](/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne "Paul Cézanne"), Le Château Noir (1900\-1904\), where Tal Coat is installed in 1946\.](/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_noir%2C_par_Paul_C%C3%A9zanne%2C_National_Gallery_of_Art.jpg "Château noir, par Paul Cézanne, National Gallery of Art.jpg") He returned the following year to Aix, staying at the Chateau Noir, where [Cézanne](/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne "Paul Cézanne") stayed when painting at [Tholonet](/wiki/Le_Tholonet "Le Tholonet") and met [André Masson](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Masson "André Masson"), philosopher [Henri Maldiney](/wiki/Henri_Maldiney "Henri Maldiney") and the poet [André du Bouchet](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_du_Bouchet "André du Bouchet") who became his close friends. His paintings by now had become non\-figurative. Along with the artists of the new School of Paris, the Galerie de France (from 1943 to 1965\), the Galerie Maeght (from 1954 to 1974\), Benador (from 1970 to 1980\), the HM gallery, the Clivage gallery and the Berthet\-Aittouarès gallery all regularly exhibited his paintings. In 1956 six of his paintings were shown at the Venice Biennale with those of [Jacques Villon](/wiki/Jacques_Villon "Jacques Villon") and [Bernard Buffet](/wiki/Bernard_Buffet "Bernard Buffet"). In 1963 he collaborated alongside [Joan Miró](/wiki/Joan_Mir%C3%B3 "Joan Miró") and Ubac in the creation of the Maeght foundation. He designed a wall mosaic for the entrance in 1968 and received the Grand Prix National des Arts. A large retrospective exhibition devoted to his work, was held at the Grand Palais in Paris in 1976\.
[ "Life and work\n-------------", "He was born the son of a fisherman, in the village of [Clohars\\-Carnoët](/wiki/Clohars-Carno%C3%ABt \"Clohars-Carnoët\"), [Finistère](/wiki/Finist%C3%A8re \"Finistère\") in 1905\\. He attended primary school from 1912 to 1914\\. In 1915, during World War I, his father was killed in fighting at the [Argonne](/wiki/Forest_of_Argonne \"Forest of Argonne\") front. Apprenticed as a blacksmith in 1918, he began designing and sculpting and was rewarded with a national scholarship and entered the Upper primary school at [Quimperlé](/wiki/Quimperl%C3%A9 \"Quimperlé\"). He started his working life as clerk to a [notary](/wiki/Civil_law_notary \"Civil law notary\") in 1923 in [Arzano](/wiki/Arzano \"Arzano\"). In 1924, he found work as a decorator at the Keraluc [porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain \"Porcelain\") factory in Quimper in 1924, creating characters and landscapes of the [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\") countryside.", "Arriving in Paris in 1924, Tal\\-Coat modelled for the [Académie de la Grande Chaumiere](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_de_la_Grande_Chaumiere \"Académie de la Grande Chaumiere\"), was a moulder at the Manufacture de Sèvres and met with the painter Émile Compard. In 1925 and 1926 he fulfilled his military service in Paris in the [cuirassiers](/wiki/Cuirassier \"Cuirassier\"). He met Auguste Fabre and Henri Bénézit and exhibited in their gallery under the name of Tal\\-Coat (Wood Face in [Breton](/wiki/Breton_language \"Breton language\")) which he used all his life to avoid homonymy with the poet [Max Jacob](/wiki/Max_Jacob \"Max Jacob\"). Back in Paris in 1930, after a stay back home in Brittany from 1927 to 1929, he mixed with such notables as [Francis Gruber](/wiki/Francis_Gruber \"Francis Gruber\"), [André Marchand](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Marchand_%28painter%29 \"André Marchand (painter)\"), [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\"), [Francis Picabia](/wiki/Francis_Picabia \"Francis Picabia\"), [Ernest Hemingway](/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway \"Ernest Hemingway\"), [Giacometti](/wiki/Giacometti \"Giacometti\"), [Balthus](/wiki/Balthus \"Balthus\"), [Artaud](/wiki/Artaud \"Artaud\"), [Tzara](/wiki/Tzara \"Tzara\") and [Paul\\-Émile Victor](/wiki/Paul-%C3%89mile_Victor \"Paul-Émile Victor\"). From 1932 he was a member of the [*Forces Nouvelles*](/wiki/Forces_nouvelles_%28art%29 \"Forces nouvelles (art)\") group. In 1936, he protested against the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") with his “Massacres” series.", "He was conscripted into the army in 1939 at [Saint\\-Germain\\-en\\-Laye](/wiki/Saint-Germain-en-Laye \"Saint-Germain-en-Laye\") and later [Ermenonville](/wiki/Ermenonville \"Ermenonville\") and demobilized in 1940 in [Montauban](/wiki/Montauban \"Montauban\"). Setting himself up in [Aix\\-en\\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence \"Aix-en-Provence\"), which had become the refuge of many artists, including André Marchand, Charles Albert Cingria and [Cendrars](/wiki/Cendrars \"Cendrars\"), he participated in the exhibition \"Twenty young painters of French tradition\" organized by [Jean Bazaine](/wiki/Jean_Bazaine \"Jean Bazaine\") in 1941 and later exhibited at the Galerie de France in 1943\\. Returning to Paris in 1945, he participated in the first exhibition of the [Salon de Mai](/wiki/Salon_de_Mai \"Salon de Mai\").", "[thumb\\|250px\\|[Paul Cézanne](/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne \"Paul Cézanne\"), Le Château Noir (1900\\-1904\\), where Tal Coat is installed in 1946\\.](/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_noir%2C_par_Paul_C%C3%A9zanne%2C_National_Gallery_of_Art.jpg \"Château noir, par Paul Cézanne, National Gallery of Art.jpg\")", "He returned the following year to Aix, staying at the Chateau Noir, where [Cézanne](/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne \"Paul Cézanne\") stayed when painting at [Tholonet](/wiki/Le_Tholonet \"Le Tholonet\") and met [André Masson](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Masson \"André Masson\"), philosopher [Henri Maldiney](/wiki/Henri_Maldiney \"Henri Maldiney\") and the poet [André du Bouchet](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_du_Bouchet \"André du Bouchet\") who became his close friends. His paintings by now had become non\\-figurative.", "Along with the artists of the new School of Paris, the Galerie de France (from 1943 to 1965\\), the Galerie Maeght (from 1954 to 1974\\), Benador (from 1970 to 1980\\), the HM gallery, the Clivage gallery and the Berthet\\-Aittouarès gallery all regularly exhibited his paintings. In 1956 six of his paintings were shown at the Venice Biennale with those of [Jacques Villon](/wiki/Jacques_Villon \"Jacques Villon\") and [Bernard Buffet](/wiki/Bernard_Buffet \"Bernard Buffet\"). In 1963 he collaborated alongside [Joan Miró](/wiki/Joan_Mir%C3%B3 \"Joan Miró\") and Ubac in the creation of the Maeght foundation. He designed a wall mosaic for the entrance in 1968 and received the Grand Prix National des Arts. A large retrospective exhibition devoted to his work, was held at the Grand Palais in Paris in 1976\\.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- Jeanne ([Hélène Fillières](/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Filli%C3%A8res "Hélène Fillières")) a successful [osteopath](/wiki/Osteopath "Osteopath") has been married to David ([Anthony Delon](/wiki/Anthony_Delon "Anthony Delon")) for 8 years and they have a son together Louis ([William Wayolle](/wiki/William_Wayolle "William Wayolle")). One evening, whilst reluctantly accompany her husband David to a party hosted for his friend Franck ([Jeannick Gravelines](/wiki/Jeannick_Gravelines "Jeannick Gravelines")), Jeanne meets Franck's cousin, a [dance instructor](/wiki/Dance_education "Dance education") named Marie ([Raffaëla Anderson](/wiki/Raffa%C3%ABla_Anderson "Raffaëla Anderson")). Jeanne and Marie quickly become friends, bonding over their love for dance, something which Jeanne had given up 10 years ago. As Jeanne and David prepare to leave the party, Marie invites Jeanne to attend her dance classes. Initially excited to start dancing again, Jeanne becomes disheartened when her old dancing gear doesn't fit her like it used to and she is also unable to keep up with the rest of the class. Marie decides to cheer Jeanne up by taking her to the ocean for the weekend with her little brother Moïse ([Thierno Sy](/wiki/Thierno_Sy "Thierno Sy")). After walking along to beach together and then going dancing, they check into a hotel were Jeanne and Marie share a room. Both being unable to sleep, Jeanne gives Marie a [massage](/wiki/Massage "Massage") but stops after she begins to get [turned on](/wiki/Turn-on "Turn-on"). In the morning Jeanne, still confused about her feelings the night before, decides to take the train home early, leaving Marie and Moïse to enjoy the weekend together. However, before boarding the train, Jeanne and Marie kiss. Jeanne, faced with decisions about her [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation"), consults her friend Eloïse ([Karole Rocher](/wiki/Karole_Rocher "Karole Rocher")), telling her she thinks she is a [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian") and in love with Marie. Eloïse reacts [negatively](/wiki/Homophobia "Homophobia") calling it disgusting and tells Jeanne she should not see Marie again. Despite this, Jeanne and Marie continue to meet up and after class one day, when David is away, she goes to eat dinner at Marie's house. After arriving at Marie's house, the relationship becomes physical and they have sex for the first time. Three weeks later Jeanne meets with her friend Eloïse again, this time she is slightly more understanding but still wishes she would stop meeting with Marie. Back home, David asks Jeanne why she has been so distant recently. Unable to continue lying to him, she writes 'I'm in love with Marie' on a piece of paper and hands it to him. David becomes angry and, after a heated argument, he leaves to stay with Franck for a while. The next morning, Franck meets with Marie and tells her to stay away from Jeanne and David. David then goes to meet Jeanne and tells her to stop seeing Marie or he won't let her see her son Louis. Afraid of losing her son, Jeanne cuts contact with Marie and returns to David. With Marie no longer around, Jeanne and David's relationship becomes worse as they constantly fight. Jeanne is heartbroken and becomes depressed to the point where her son Louis says she is no longer fun to be around. At night David gets [dressed up](/wiki/Cross_dressing "Cross dressing") in [lingerie](/wiki/Lingerie "Lingerie") as an insult to Jeanne, telling her it is what she wants and they begin fighting once more. Jeanne decides she has had enough and in the morning she takes Louis to stay at her mother's ([Roselyne Delpuech](/wiki/Roselyne_Delpuech "Roselyne Delpuech")). After contacting her [lawyer](/wiki/Lawyer "Lawyer"), Jeanne goes to see Marie. The film ends with Jeanne and Marie walking along the beach together.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "Jeanne ([Hélène Fillières](/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Filli%C3%A8res \"Hélène Fillières\")) a successful [osteopath](/wiki/Osteopath \"Osteopath\") has been married to David ([Anthony Delon](/wiki/Anthony_Delon \"Anthony Delon\")) for 8 years and they have a son together Louis ([William Wayolle](/wiki/William_Wayolle \"William Wayolle\")). One evening, whilst reluctantly accompany her husband David to a party hosted for his friend Franck ([Jeannick Gravelines](/wiki/Jeannick_Gravelines \"Jeannick Gravelines\")), Jeanne meets Franck's cousin, a [dance instructor](/wiki/Dance_education \"Dance education\") named Marie ([Raffaëla Anderson](/wiki/Raffa%C3%ABla_Anderson \"Raffaëla Anderson\")). Jeanne and Marie quickly become friends, bonding over their love for dance, something which Jeanne had given up 10 years ago. As Jeanne and David prepare to leave the party, Marie invites Jeanne to attend her dance classes.", "Initially excited to start dancing again, Jeanne becomes disheartened when her old dancing gear doesn't fit her like it used to and she is also unable to keep up with the rest of the class. Marie decides to cheer Jeanne up by taking her to the ocean for the weekend with her little brother Moïse ([Thierno Sy](/wiki/Thierno_Sy \"Thierno Sy\")). After walking along to beach together and then going dancing, they check into a hotel were Jeanne and Marie share a room. Both being unable to sleep, Jeanne gives Marie a [massage](/wiki/Massage \"Massage\") but stops after she begins to get [turned on](/wiki/Turn-on \"Turn-on\"). In the morning Jeanne, still confused about her feelings the night before, decides to take the train home early, leaving Marie and Moïse to enjoy the weekend together. However, before boarding the train, Jeanne and Marie kiss.", "Jeanne, faced with decisions about her [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\"), consults her friend Eloïse ([Karole Rocher](/wiki/Karole_Rocher \"Karole Rocher\")), telling her she thinks she is a [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\") and in love with Marie. Eloïse reacts [negatively](/wiki/Homophobia \"Homophobia\") calling it disgusting and tells Jeanne she should not see Marie again. Despite this, Jeanne and Marie continue to meet up and after class one day, when David is away, she goes to eat dinner at Marie's house. After arriving at Marie's house, the relationship becomes physical and they have sex for the first time. Three weeks later Jeanne meets with her friend Eloïse again, this time she is slightly more understanding but still wishes she would stop meeting with Marie.", "Back home, David asks Jeanne why she has been so distant recently. Unable to continue lying to him, she writes 'I'm in love with Marie' on a piece of paper and hands it to him. David becomes angry and, after a heated argument, he leaves to stay with Franck for a while. The next morning, Franck meets with Marie and tells her to stay away from Jeanne and David. David then goes to meet Jeanne and tells her to stop seeing Marie or he won't let her see her son Louis. Afraid of losing her son, Jeanne cuts contact with Marie and returns to David.", "With Marie no longer around, Jeanne and David's relationship becomes worse as they constantly fight. Jeanne is heartbroken and becomes depressed to the point where her son Louis says she is no longer fun to be around. At night David gets [dressed up](/wiki/Cross_dressing \"Cross dressing\") in [lingerie](/wiki/Lingerie \"Lingerie\") as an insult to Jeanne, telling her it is what she wants and they begin fighting once more. Jeanne decides she has had enough and in the morning she takes Louis to stay at her mother's ([Roselyne Delpuech](/wiki/Roselyne_Delpuech \"Roselyne Delpuech\")). After contacting her [lawyer](/wiki/Lawyer \"Lawyer\"), Jeanne goes to see Marie. The film ends with Jeanne and Marie walking along the beach together.", "" ]
Properties ---------- *G* \= {{nowrap\|PSL(2, 7\)}} has 168 elements. This can be seen by counting the possible columns; there are {{nowrap\|1\=72 − 1 \= 48}} possibilities for the first column, then {{nowrap\|1\=72 − 7 \= 42}} possibilities for the second column. We must divide by {{nowrap\|1\=7 − 1 \= 6}} to force the determinant equal to one, and then we must divide by 2 when we identify *I* and −*I*. The result is {{nowrap\|1\=(48 × 42\) / (6 × 2\) \= 168}}. It is a general result that {{nowrap\|PSL(''n'', ''q'')}} is [simple](/wiki/Simple_group "Simple group") for {{nowrap\|''n'', ''q'' ≥ 2}} (*q* being some power of a prime number), unless {{nowrap\|1\=(''n'', ''q'') \= (2, 2\)}} or {{nowrap\|(2, 3\)}}. {{nowrap\|PSL(2, 2\)}} is [isomorphic](/wiki/Group_isomorphism "Group isomorphism") to the [symmetric group](/wiki/Symmetric_group "Symmetric group") S3, and {{nowrap\|PSL(2, 3\)}} is isomorphic to [alternating group](/wiki/Alternating_group "Alternating group") A4. In fact, {{nowrap\|PSL(2, 7\)}} is the second smallest [nonabelian](/wiki/Nonabelian_group "Nonabelian group") simple group, after the [alternating group](/wiki/Alternating_group "Alternating group") {{nowrap\|1\=A5 \= PSL(2, 5\) \= PSL(2, 4\)}}. The number of [conjugacy classes](/wiki/Conjugacy_class "Conjugacy class") and [irreducible representations](/wiki/Irreducible_representation "Irreducible representation") is 6\. The sizes of conjugacy classes are 1, 21, 42, 56, 24, 24\. The dimensions of irreducible representations 1, 3, 3, 6, 7, 8\. Character table \\begin{array}{r\|cccccc} ``` & 1A_{1} & 2A_{21} & 4A_{42} & 3A_{56} & 7A_{24} & 7B_{24} \\ \hline ``` \\chi\_1 \& 1 \& 1 \& 1 \& 1 \& 1 \& 1 \\\\ \\chi\_2 \& 3 \& \-1 \& 1 \& 0 \& \\sigma \& \\bar \\sigma \\\\ \\chi\_3 \& 3 \& \-1 \& 1 \& 0 \& \\bar \\sigma \& \\sigma \\\\ \\chi\_4 \& 6 \& 2 \& 0 \& 0 \& \-1 \& \-1 \\\\ \\chi\_5 \& 7 \& \-1 \&\-1 \& 1 \& 0 \& 0 \\\\ \\chi\_6 \& 8 \& 0 \& 0 \& \-1 \& 1 \& 1 \\\\ \\end{array}, where \\sigma \= \\frac{\-1\+i\\sqrt{7}}{2}. The following table describes the conjugacy classes in terms of the order of an element in the class, the size of the class, the minimum polynomial of every representative in GL(3, 2\), and the function notation for a representative in PSL(2, 7\). Note that the classes 7A and 7B are exchanged by an automorphism, so the representatives from GL(3, 2\) and PSL(2, 7\) can be switched arbitrarily. | Order | Size | Min Poly | Function | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1 | *x* \+ 1 | *x* | | 2 | 21 | *x*2 \+ 1 | −1/*x* | | 3 | 56 | *x*3 \+ 1 | 2*x* | | 4 | 42 | *x*3 \+ *x*2 \+ *x* \+ 1 | 1/(3 − *x*) | | 7 | 24 | *x*3 \+ *x* \+ 1 | *x* \+ 1 | | 7 | 24 | *x*3 \+ *x*2 \+ 1 | *x* \+ 3 | The order of group is {{nowrap\|1\=168 \= 3 × 7 × 8}}, this implies existence of [Sylow's subgroups](/wiki/Sylow_theorems "Sylow theorems") of orders 3, 7 and 8\. It is easy to describe the first two, they are cyclic, since [any group of prime order is cyclic](/wiki/Cyclic_group%23Properties "Cyclic group#Properties"). Any element of conjugacy class 3*A*56 generates Sylow 3\-subgroup. Any element from the conjugacy classes 7*A*24, 7*B*24 generates the Sylow 7\-subgroup. The Sylow 2\-subgroup is a [dihedral group of order 8](/wiki/Dihedral_group_of_order_8 "Dihedral group of order 8"). It can be described as [centralizer](/wiki/Centralizer_and_normalizer "Centralizer and normalizer") of any element from the conjugacy class 2*A*21. In the {{nowrap\|GL(3, 2\)}} representation, a Sylow 2\-subgroup consists of the upper triangular matrices. This group and its Sylow 2\-subgroup provide a counter\-example for various [normal p\-complement](/wiki/Normal_p-complement "Normal p-complement") theorems for {{nowrap\|1\=''p'' \= 2}}.
[ "Properties\n----------", "*G* \\= {{nowrap\\|PSL(2, 7\\)}} has 168 elements. This can be seen by counting the possible columns; there are {{nowrap\\|1\\=72 − 1 \\= 48}} possibilities for the first column, then {{nowrap\\|1\\=72 − 7 \\= 42}} possibilities for the second column. We must divide by {{nowrap\\|1\\=7 − 1 \\= 6}} to force the determinant equal to one, and then we must divide by 2 when we identify *I* and −*I*. The result is {{nowrap\\|1\\=(48 × 42\\) / (6 × 2\\) \\= 168}}.", "It is a general result that {{nowrap\\|PSL(''n'', ''q'')}} is [simple](/wiki/Simple_group \"Simple group\") for {{nowrap\\|''n'', ''q'' ≥ 2}} (*q* being some power of a prime number), unless {{nowrap\\|1\\=(''n'', ''q'') \\= (2, 2\\)}} or {{nowrap\\|(2, 3\\)}}. {{nowrap\\|PSL(2, 2\\)}} is [isomorphic](/wiki/Group_isomorphism \"Group isomorphism\") to the [symmetric group](/wiki/Symmetric_group \"Symmetric group\") S3, and {{nowrap\\|PSL(2, 3\\)}} is isomorphic to [alternating group](/wiki/Alternating_group \"Alternating group\") A4. In fact, {{nowrap\\|PSL(2, 7\\)}} is the second smallest [nonabelian](/wiki/Nonabelian_group \"Nonabelian group\") simple group, after the [alternating group](/wiki/Alternating_group \"Alternating group\") {{nowrap\\|1\\=A5 \\= PSL(2, 5\\) \\= PSL(2, 4\\)}}.", "The number of [conjugacy classes](/wiki/Conjugacy_class \"Conjugacy class\") and [irreducible representations](/wiki/Irreducible_representation \"Irreducible representation\") is 6\\. The sizes of conjugacy classes are 1, 21, 42, 56, 24, 24\\. The dimensions of irreducible representations 1, 3, 3, 6, 7, 8\\.", "Character table\n \\\\begin{array}{r\\|cccccc}", "```\n & 1A_{1} & 2A_{21} & 4A_{42} & 3A_{56} & 7A_{24} & 7B_{24} \\\\ \\hline", "```\n\\\\chi\\_1 \\& 1 \\& 1 \\& 1 \\& 1 \\& 1 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ \n\\\\chi\\_2 \\& 3 \\& \\-1 \\& 1 \\& 0 \\& \\\\sigma \\& \\\\bar \\\\sigma \\\\\\\\ \n\\\\chi\\_3 \\& 3 \\& \\-1 \\& 1 \\& 0 \\& \\\\bar \\\\sigma \\& \\\\sigma \\\\\\\\ \n\\\\chi\\_4 \\& 6 \\& 2 \\& 0 \\& 0 \\& \\-1 \\& \\-1 \\\\\\\\ \n\\\\chi\\_5 \\& 7 \\& \\-1 \\&\\-1 \\& 1 \\& 0 \\& 0 \\\\\\\\ \n\\\\chi\\_6 \\& 8 \\& 0 \\& 0 \\& \\-1 \\& 1 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ \n\\\\end{array},\nwhere\n \\\\sigma \\= \\\\frac{\\-1\\+i\\\\sqrt{7}}{2}.", "The following table describes the conjugacy classes in terms of the order of an element in the class, the size of the class, the minimum polynomial of every representative in GL(3, 2\\), and the function notation for a representative in PSL(2, 7\\). Note that the classes 7A and 7B are exchanged by an automorphism, so the representatives from GL(3, 2\\) and PSL(2, 7\\) can be switched arbitrarily.", "", "| Order | Size | Min Poly | Function |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 1 | *x* \\+ 1 | *x* |\n| 2 | 21 | *x*2 \\+ 1 | −1/*x* |\n| 3 | 56 | *x*3 \\+ 1 | 2*x* |\n| 4 | 42 | *x*3 \\+ *x*2 \\+ *x* \\+ 1 | 1/(3 − *x*) |\n| 7 | 24 | *x*3 \\+ *x* \\+ 1 | *x* \\+ 1 |\n| 7 | 24 | *x*3 \\+ *x*2 \\+ 1 | *x* \\+ 3 |", "The order of group is {{nowrap\\|1\\=168 \\= 3 × 7 × 8}}, this implies existence of [Sylow's subgroups](/wiki/Sylow_theorems \"Sylow theorems\") of orders 3, 7 and 8\\. It is easy to describe the first two, they are cyclic, since [any group of prime order is cyclic](/wiki/Cyclic_group%23Properties \"Cyclic group#Properties\"). Any element of conjugacy class 3*A*56 generates Sylow 3\\-subgroup. Any element from the conjugacy classes 7*A*24, 7*B*24 generates the Sylow 7\\-subgroup. The Sylow 2\\-subgroup is a [dihedral group of order 8](/wiki/Dihedral_group_of_order_8 \"Dihedral group of order 8\"). It can be described as [centralizer](/wiki/Centralizer_and_normalizer \"Centralizer and normalizer\") of any element from the conjugacy class 2*A*21. In the {{nowrap\\|GL(3, 2\\)}} representation, a Sylow 2\\-subgroup consists of the upper triangular matrices.", "This group and its Sylow 2\\-subgroup provide a counter\\-example for various [normal p\\-complement](/wiki/Normal_p-complement \"Normal p-complement\") theorems for {{nowrap\\|1\\=''p'' \\= 2}}.", "" ]
History ------- Bulimba State School was first established in 1866 and contains several generations of buildings and structures that have been erected by the [Department of Public Works](/wiki/Department_of_Public_Works_%28Queensland%29 "Department of Public Works (Queensland)") to meet the growing needs of the community and are representative of some of the developments in education policy in Queensland since that time. Prior to the establishment of the Bulimba State School, classes were held initially at [Bulimba House](/wiki/Bulimba_House "Bulimba House") and then at the Baptist Church. In April 1866, a public meeting was held in the Bulimba Ferry Hotel with a view to raising funds for the construction of a National School.{{cite news\|date\=20 April 1866\|title\=Classified Advertising\|volume\=XX\|page\=1\|newspaper\=\[\[The Brisbane Courier]]\|issue\=2,568\|location\=Queensland, Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article1266105\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=8 April 2021}} As the first settled agricultural district in the colony, the need for such a school had been felt for some time, but had been prevented by limited funds. Subscriptions of {{A£\|61}} were made at the meeting.{{cite news\|date\=21 April 1866\|title\=TELEGRAPHIC.\|volume\=XX\|page\=4\|newspaper\=\[\[The Brisbane Courier]]\|issue\=2,569\|location\=Queensland, Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article1266167\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=8 April 2021}} Through submissions from the meeting and the subsequent actions of a building committee, an agreement was reached by the Government to establish the school. In June 1866 tenders were called to construct a {{convert\|18\|x\|14\|ft}} school building and teacher's residence.{{cite news\|date\=7 June 1866\|title\=Classified Advertising\|volume\=XX\|page\=1\|newspaper\=\[\[The Brisbane Courier]]\|issue\=2,609\|location\=Queensland, Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article1268778\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=8 April 2021}} Michael Robinson's tender of {{A£\|230}} was accepted due for completion by the following October. In the interim, the school opened on Monday 16 July 1866 in the Wesleyan Chapel.{{cite news\|date\=14 July 1866\|title\=Classified Advertising\|volume\=I\|page\=1\|newspaper\=\[\[The Queenslander]]\|issue\=24\|location\=Queensland, Australia\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article20308559\|via\=National Library of Australia\|access\-date\=8 April 2021}} The first school building and residence were aligned and located at the top of the site in the south east corner facing south\-west. As the district prospered and enrolments grew, extra classrooms were required and two additional timber wings were added to the school, which was raised at the turn of the century to allow for eight teaching rooms at ground level. Further additions were required within a decade and, in 1915, a separate infants building was erected facing Oxford Street. It was a highset timber\-framed building erected on timber stumps to provide toilets and a play space underneath the building. It was clad in weatherboards with an asbestos cement slate roof and was lined internally with [tongue and groove](/wiki/Tongue_and_groove "Tongue and groove") v\-jointed boards to the walls and [coved ceiling](/wiki/Coved_ceiling "Coved ceiling"). The hat rooms at each end of the [verandah](/wiki/Verandah "Verandah") were unlined internally and the remainder of the verandah had vertical balustrading. Two flights of uncovered external timber stairs provided access to the verandah between which the teachers' room was attached. The building comprised three classrooms with southern lighting and ventilation provided by a large bank of windows comprising casements, centre pivoting sashes and hoppers at the top to provide a variety of ventilation options. This arrangement was repeated, at the eastern and western ends of the building, both of which were protected by sunshades. There were many representations made by the staff, the Parents and Citizen's Association, school committees, and local politicians during the late twenties and thirties to accommodate the ever\-growing school population. In the early thirties, enrolments exceeded 520, of which over 150 were infants and it was resolved that the group of older timber classrooms should be replaced with a new building to accommodate 400, allowing the infants annexe, which was in good condition, to remain. The effects of the economic depression on building work in Queensland in the 1930s was dramatic and building work came to a standstill. The Queensland Government committed to providing impetus to the economy by embarking on capital works and relief works building programs from the early thirties until the late forties. The relief works program favoured works involving local manual labour. It was through this scheme that the Bulimba State School's site was levelled off and tennis and basketball courts were built in 1935, followed by the erection of retaining walls to two frontages and to the tennis court, which were completed in 1937 to drawings prepared by [Gilbert Robert Beveridge](/wiki/Gilbert_Robert_Beveridge "Gilbert Robert Beveridge"). Beveridge prepared the plans for the new school building which was one of many substantial two\- and three\-storey schools built during this time, providing tangible proof of the Government's commitment to remedy the unemployment situation. The brick Bulimba State School building was completed in 1938 and cost {{A£\|21,965}}. The building comprised two storeys and a basement constructed of brick and concrete with a tile roof. The Ground floor was to provide for six class rooms (240 pupils) two teacher's rooms and a clerk rooms. The first floor was to provide for seven classrooms (272 pupils), one teacher's room, and a cloak room{{snd}} a total accommodation of 512 pupils. The Basement contained play areas and lavatories for teachers and pupils and a complete drainage system was provided with septic tank. The next phase of major building activity occurred in the fifties. Around 1952, the Infant School must have suffered from some form of subsidence, as a program of works was initiated to include rectification work, general plumbing and straightening of the building and strengthening of the roof. Southern windows to the end classrooms were replaced with hoppers at this time and other general improvements were made. The swimming pool and dressing sheds were erected in 1955, in the location of a disused tennis court, with funds raised from parents and supporters during 1953–55 and subsidised by the Queensland Government. In 1957, a new two\-storey classroom addition at the northern end of the building above the single storey female toilets provided the building with its present symmetrical form. Plans for future extensions to this building, with wings on the western face at the northern and southern ends, were not proceeded with and, in 1959, a highset timber\-framed building supported on an open web truss system on concrete stumps was erected. [thumb\|Kevin Rudd at the launch of the first volume of his autobiography in the school hall, 25 October 2017After](/wiki/File:Kevin_Rudd%2C_book_launch%2C_Bulimba_State_School%2C_25_October_2017.jpg "Kevin Rudd, book launch, Bulimba State School, 25 October 2017.jpg") peaking in the early sixties to in excess of 950 students, enrolments gradually declined to 242 in 1988\. With the redevelopment of the area in the decade following, younger families have moved back into the area and at 2017 the school enrolments were 820\.{{cite web \|title\=Celebrating 150 years of Education at Bulimba State School \|publisher\=Bulimba State School Parents and Citizens Association \|url\=https://www.bulimbasspc.org.au/150th\-anniversary \|access\-date\=13 July 2017 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713035121/https://www.bulimbasspc.org.au/150th\-anniversary \|archive\-date\=13 July 2017}} The school celebrated its 150th anniversary by holding a Bulimba Heritage Weekend (22\-23 July 2016\) which included a gala dinner, DVD, and Commemorative book "Play the Game" published by Russell Turner, Jim Tunstall, and the Bulimba District Historical Society.{{cite web \|title\=Bulimba District Historical Society \|url\=http://bulimbahistory.org/ \|access\-date\=13 July 2017}}{{cite web \|last1\=Turner \|first1\=Robert \|last2\=Turner \|first2\=Russell \|last3\=Tunstall \|first3\=Jim \|author4\=Bulimba and District Historical Society \|date\=2016 \|title\=Play the game: celebrating 150 years of education at Bulimba State School \|publisher\=Bulimba State School P\&C Association \|url\=http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/218404376 \|access\-date\=13 July 2017}}{{cite web \|title\=Congrats to Bulimba State School – Opened in 1866 – 150 years in 2016! \|website\=Oxford Street Bulimba \|url\=http://www.oxfordstreetbulimba.com.au/congrats\-to\-bulimba\-state\-school\-opened\-in\-1866\-150\-years\-in\-2016/ \|access\-date\=13 July 2017 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713040126/http://www.oxfordstreetbulimba.com.au/congrats\-to\-bulimba\-state\-school\-opened\-in\-1866\-150\-years\-in\-2016/ \|archive\-date\=13 July 2017}}{{cite web \|title\=Queensland school anniversaries: 2016 \|website\=Education Queensland \|publisher\=\[\[Queensland Government]] \|url\=http://education.qld.gov.au/library/edhistory/celebrations/ann/2016\.html \|access\-date\=13 July 2017 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216221614/http://education.qld.gov.au/library/edhistory/celebrations/ann/2016\.html \|archive\-date\=16 February 2018 }} On 25 October 2017 in the school's hall, former [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia "Prime Minister of Australia") [Kevin Rudd](/wiki/Kevin_Rudd "Kevin Rudd") launched the first volume of his autobiography "*Not for the faint\-hearted : a personal reflection on life, politics and purpose" w*hich chronicled his life until becoming prime minister in 2007\.{{cite web \|last\=Betros \|first\=Georgia \|date\=10 October 2017 \|title\=Meet Kevin Rudd \|website\=\[\[Terri Butler]] \|url\=http://www.terributlermp.com/meet\_kevin\_rudd \|access\-date\=5 November 2017 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105023349/http://www.terributlermp.com/meet\_kevin\_rudd \|archive\-date\=5 November 2017}}{{cite news \|last\=King \|first\=Madonna \|date\=24 October 2017 \|title\=Public frenemies: Kevin Rudd's ruthless review of his Labor mates \|work\=\[\[Brisbane Times]] \|url\=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/politics/federal/madonna\-20171024\-p4ywm3\.html \|access\-date\=26 October 2017 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026005226/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/politics/federal/madonna\-20171024\-p4ywm3\.html \|archive\-date\=26 October 2017}} The school is within Rudd's former electorate of [Griffith](/wiki/Division_of_Griffith "Division of Griffith"). In 2019, Michael Zeuschner, who had been the school's principal since 1995 moved to Mansfield State School as the new Acting Principal.{{cite web \|title\=Bulimba State School eNewsletter \|publisher\=Bulimba State School \|work\=Schoolzine \|url\=https://bulimbass.schoolzineplus.com//newsletter/57729 \|access\-date\=2019\-09\-17}}
[ "History\n-------", "Bulimba State School was first established in 1866 and contains several generations of buildings and structures that have been erected by the [Department of Public Works](/wiki/Department_of_Public_Works_%28Queensland%29 \"Department of Public Works (Queensland)\") to meet the growing needs of the community and are representative of some of the developments in education policy in Queensland since that time.", "Prior to the establishment of the Bulimba State School, classes were held initially at [Bulimba House](/wiki/Bulimba_House \"Bulimba House\") and then at the Baptist Church. In April 1866, a public meeting was held in the Bulimba Ferry Hotel with a view to raising funds for the construction of a National School.{{cite news\\|date\\=20 April 1866\\|title\\=Classified Advertising\\|volume\\=XX\\|page\\=1\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Brisbane Courier]]\\|issue\\=2,568\\|location\\=Queensland, Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article1266105\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2021}} As the first settled agricultural district in the colony, the need for such a school had been felt for some time, but had been prevented by limited funds. Subscriptions of {{A£\\|61}} were made at the meeting.{{cite news\\|date\\=21 April 1866\\|title\\=TELEGRAPHIC.\\|volume\\=XX\\|page\\=4\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Brisbane Courier]]\\|issue\\=2,569\\|location\\=Queensland, Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article1266167\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2021}} Through submissions from the meeting and the subsequent actions of a building committee, an agreement was reached by the Government to establish the school.", "In June 1866 tenders were called to construct a {{convert\\|18\\|x\\|14\\|ft}} school building and teacher's residence.{{cite news\\|date\\=7 June 1866\\|title\\=Classified Advertising\\|volume\\=XX\\|page\\=1\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Brisbane Courier]]\\|issue\\=2,609\\|location\\=Queensland, Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article1268778\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2021}} Michael Robinson's tender of {{A£\\|230}} was accepted due for completion by the following October. In the interim, the school opened on Monday 16 July 1866 in the Wesleyan Chapel.{{cite news\\|date\\=14 July 1866\\|title\\=Classified Advertising\\|volume\\=I\\|page\\=1\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Queenslander]]\\|issue\\=24\\|location\\=Queensland, Australia\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article20308559\\|via\\=National Library of Australia\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2021}}", "The first school building and residence were aligned and located at the top of the site in the south east corner facing south\\-west. As the district prospered and enrolments grew, extra classrooms were required and two additional timber wings were added to the school, which was raised at the turn of the century to allow for eight teaching rooms at ground level.", "Further additions were required within a decade and, in 1915, a separate infants building was erected facing Oxford Street. It was a highset timber\\-framed building erected on timber stumps to provide toilets and a play space underneath the building. It was clad in weatherboards with an asbestos cement slate roof and was lined internally with [tongue and groove](/wiki/Tongue_and_groove \"Tongue and groove\") v\\-jointed boards to the walls and [coved ceiling](/wiki/Coved_ceiling \"Coved ceiling\"). The hat rooms at each end of the [verandah](/wiki/Verandah \"Verandah\") were unlined internally and the remainder of the verandah had vertical balustrading. Two flights of uncovered external timber stairs provided access to the verandah between which the teachers' room was attached. The building comprised three classrooms with southern lighting and ventilation provided by a large bank of windows comprising casements, centre pivoting sashes and hoppers at the top to provide a variety of ventilation options. This arrangement was repeated, at the eastern and western ends of the building, both of which were protected by sunshades.", "There were many representations made by the staff, the Parents and Citizen's Association, school committees, and local politicians during the late twenties and thirties to accommodate the ever\\-growing school population. In the early thirties, enrolments exceeded 520, of which over 150 were infants and it was resolved that the group of older timber classrooms should be replaced with a new building to accommodate 400, allowing the infants annexe, which was in good condition, to remain.", "The effects of the economic depression on building work in Queensland in the 1930s was dramatic and building work came to a standstill. The Queensland Government committed to providing impetus to the economy by embarking on capital works and relief works building programs from the early thirties until the late forties.", "The relief works program favoured works involving local manual labour. It was through this scheme that the Bulimba State School's site was levelled off and tennis and basketball courts were built in 1935, followed by the erection of retaining walls to two frontages and to the tennis court, which were completed in 1937 to drawings prepared by [Gilbert Robert Beveridge](/wiki/Gilbert_Robert_Beveridge \"Gilbert Robert Beveridge\"). Beveridge prepared the plans for the new school building which was one of many substantial two\\- and three\\-storey schools built during this time, providing tangible proof of the Government's commitment to remedy the unemployment situation.", "The brick Bulimba State School building was completed in 1938 and cost {{A£\\|21,965}}. The building comprised two storeys and a basement constructed of brick and concrete with a tile roof. The Ground floor was to provide for six class rooms (240 pupils) two teacher's rooms and a clerk rooms. The first floor was to provide for seven classrooms (272 pupils), one teacher's room, and a cloak room{{snd}} a total accommodation of 512 pupils. The Basement contained play areas and lavatories for teachers and pupils and a complete drainage system was provided with septic tank.", "The next phase of major building activity occurred in the fifties. Around 1952, the Infant School must have suffered from some form of subsidence, as a program of works was initiated to include rectification work, general plumbing and straightening of the building and strengthening of the roof. Southern windows to the end classrooms were replaced with hoppers at this time and other general improvements were made.", "The swimming pool and dressing sheds were erected in 1955, in the location of a disused tennis court, with funds raised from parents and supporters during 1953–55 and subsidised by the Queensland Government.", "In 1957, a new two\\-storey classroom addition at the northern end of the building above the single storey female toilets provided the building with its present symmetrical form. Plans for future extensions to this building, with wings on the western face at the northern and southern ends, were not proceeded with and, in 1959, a highset timber\\-framed building supported on an open web truss system on concrete stumps was erected.", "[thumb\\|Kevin Rudd at the launch of the first volume of his autobiography in the school hall, 25 October 2017After](/wiki/File:Kevin_Rudd%2C_book_launch%2C_Bulimba_State_School%2C_25_October_2017.jpg \"Kevin Rudd, book launch, Bulimba State School, 25 October 2017.jpg\") peaking in the early sixties to in excess of 950 students, enrolments gradually declined to 242 in 1988\\. With the redevelopment of the area in the decade following, younger families have moved back into the area and at 2017 the school enrolments were 820\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Celebrating 150 years of Education at Bulimba State School \\|publisher\\=Bulimba State School Parents and Citizens Association \\|url\\=https://www.bulimbasspc.org.au/150th\\-anniversary \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713035121/https://www.bulimbasspc.org.au/150th\\-anniversary \\|archive\\-date\\=13 July 2017}}", "The school celebrated its 150th anniversary by holding a Bulimba Heritage Weekend (22\\-23 July 2016\\) which included a gala dinner, DVD, and Commemorative book \"Play the Game\" published by Russell Turner, Jim Tunstall, and the Bulimba District Historical Society.{{cite web \\|title\\=Bulimba District Historical Society \\|url\\=http://bulimbahistory.org/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Turner \\|first1\\=Robert \\|last2\\=Turner \\|first2\\=Russell \\|last3\\=Tunstall \\|first3\\=Jim \\|author4\\=Bulimba and District Historical Society \\|date\\=2016 \\|title\\=Play the game: celebrating 150 years of education at Bulimba State School \\|publisher\\=Bulimba State School P\\&C Association \\|url\\=http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/218404376 \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Congrats to Bulimba State School – Opened in 1866 – 150 years in 2016! \\|website\\=Oxford Street Bulimba \\|url\\=http://www.oxfordstreetbulimba.com.au/congrats\\-to\\-bulimba\\-state\\-school\\-opened\\-in\\-1866\\-150\\-years\\-in\\-2016/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713040126/http://www.oxfordstreetbulimba.com.au/congrats\\-to\\-bulimba\\-state\\-school\\-opened\\-in\\-1866\\-150\\-years\\-in\\-2016/ \\|archive\\-date\\=13 July 2017}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Queensland school anniversaries: 2016 \\|website\\=Education Queensland \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Queensland Government]] \\|url\\=http://education.qld.gov.au/library/edhistory/celebrations/ann/2016\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216221614/http://education.qld.gov.au/library/edhistory/celebrations/ann/2016\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=16 February 2018 }}", "On 25 October 2017 in the school's hall, former [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia \"Prime Minister of Australia\") [Kevin Rudd](/wiki/Kevin_Rudd \"Kevin Rudd\") launched the first volume of his autobiography \"*Not for the faint\\-hearted : a personal reflection on life, politics and purpose\" w*hich chronicled his life until becoming prime minister in 2007\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Betros \\|first\\=Georgia \\|date\\=10 October 2017 \\|title\\=Meet Kevin Rudd \\|website\\=\\[\\[Terri Butler]] \\|url\\=http://www.terributlermp.com/meet\\_kevin\\_rudd \\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105023349/http://www.terributlermp.com/meet\\_kevin\\_rudd \\|archive\\-date\\=5 November 2017}}{{cite news \\|last\\=King \\|first\\=Madonna \\|date\\=24 October 2017 \\|title\\=Public frenemies: Kevin Rudd's ruthless review of his Labor mates \\|work\\=\\[\\[Brisbane Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/politics/federal/madonna\\-20171024\\-p4ywm3\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026005226/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/politics/federal/madonna\\-20171024\\-p4ywm3\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2017}} The school is within Rudd's former electorate of [Griffith](/wiki/Division_of_Griffith \"Division of Griffith\").", "In 2019, Michael Zeuschner, who had been the school's principal since 1995 moved to Mansfield State School as the new Acting Principal.{{cite web \\|title\\=Bulimba State School eNewsletter \\|publisher\\=Bulimba State School \\|work\\=Schoolzine \\|url\\=https://bulimbass.schoolzineplus.com//newsletter/57729 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-17}}", "" ]
Description ----------- [thumb\|Bulimba State School, 1946](/wiki/File:Queensland_State_Archives_2884_Bulimba_State_School_Brisbane_1946.png "Queensland State Archives 2884 Bulimba State School Brisbane 1946.png") Bulimba State School is located on a {{convert\|1\.88\|ha}} site and is bound by Oxford Street to the north, Wentworth parade to the East, Riding Road to the West and by Barton Parade and freehold property to the South. It is a steeply sloping west facing site with levelled areas occupied by school buildings and parade and play areas at the top of the site. Pathways west of Block B and south of Block C wind down the steep embankment to the netball courts, cricket facilities and bottom oval on more level ground at the Riding Road and Barton Parade boundaries to the site. The school buildings and structures comprise Block A, B, C and D (a demountable classroom), a new administration and resource centre and a timber framed classroom block under construction. Concrete walls retain both Wentworth Parade and Oxford Street (from the corner to the swimming pool) boundaries. A tennis court is located on the north\-eastern corner, several metres above street level. Between the tennis court and the swimming pool, the demountable building \-Block D, a shelter [shed](/wiki/Shed "Shed") and the adventure playground are located. Block A and B form the eastern and northern boundaries to the parade area, part of which is now occupied by the new outdoor learning area and verandahs of the new resource and administration building. A new classroom building is located to the west of Block B. The in ground concrete swimming pool has covered seating and changing rooms enclosing it to the north, east and west. Block C, the former infant school and now used as the Preschool, is located to the west of the swimming pool and faces Oxford Street. Block A is a symmetrical two storey load bearing brick building with basement and hipped terracotta tiled roof. The primary and secondary entrances to the building are expressed by a projected pedimented [gable](/wiki/Gable "Gable") wing to the west and a pair of breakfronts to the east. A prominent fleche is centrally located. The treatment of the elevations creates a basement level distinct from the two floors of the school proper above. The load bearing brick work to the basement is rendered and ruled to form a [plinth](/wiki/Plinth "Plinth") upon which bays of stretcher bond red brickwork are relieved with [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster") of contrasting Flemish bond dark glazed brickwork shafts with cement rendered bases and capitals of restrained detail. The horizontal banding of the [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") to the pedimented gable and breakfronts continues below the [eaves](/wiki/Eaves "Eaves") around the perimeter of the building. The main entry is expressed by a pedimented doorway and the symmetry reinforced by two straight flight of [stairs](/wiki/Stairs "Stairs") with half landing from the north and south. At basement level, a play space occupies the area between the north and south stairwells with boys' lavatories at the southern end of the building and girls lavatories to the north. Separate facilities were provided for infants, older children and teachers and have now been altered to include a parents' room and storage areas. Seats to curtain walls, drinking taps and troughs, and store areas under main entry stair are also located in the basement which has a low floor to floor height compared to the floors above. Detailing in the play area includes bullnose brickwork on freestanding and engaged piers, eliminating right angle corners to reduce injury. The classrooms have timber floors supported on a series of articulated steel beams expressed in the ceiling detailing and stairwells; corridors and utility areas have suspended concrete floors. Downpipes are located within the walls. Four four\-light casement windows with fanlights above provide ventilation to the corridor and into the classroom through double hung windows On the ground floor, the main entry hall separates the office and head teacher's rooms. The hall leads to the centre of a north–south corridor which provides access to five classrooms between the north and south stair halls. The central three classrooms are divided by folding partition doors. A cloak room and cleaner's sink are provided at the eastern end of each stairwell. Another classroom and cloak room is located in the end bay at the southern end of the building. A similar layout exists on the first floor. Block B is a high set timber\-framed building supported on steel open web joists with a cantilevered portion supporting the verandah. Stairs at the eastern and western ends provide access to a narrow verandah on the northern side of the building which contains a continuous hat and bag rack and provides access to the three classrooms. This building is of a type of which there are numerous examples, several of which are more comparatively intact and which represent a more extensive use of this type of structure. Block C is a high set timber\-framed structure on concrete stumps. Three classrooms have been made into two and folding partitions have been removed as well as large sections of walls to the verandahs. The verandahs have been enclosed and stairs have been altered. The roof sheeting has been more recently replaced with corrugated iron and the roof fleche removed. Ceilings are coved and lined with tongue and groove V jointed boards verandahs enclosed stair altered, windows altered etc. This building is also of a type where there are many more intact and representative examples throughout Queensland. Biscoe Wilson Architects later oversaw the construction of the new 10 General Learning Areas (GLA) and Library along Oxford Street.{{Cite web \|title\=Bulimba State School – 10 GLA and Library – Work In Progress \|website\=Biscoe Wilson Architects \|url\=https://biscoewilson.com.au/2017/03/01/bulimba\-state\-school\-10\-gla\-and\-library/ \|access\-date\=13 July 2017 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713040516/https://biscoewilson.com.au/2017/03/01/bulimba\-state\-school\-10\-gla\-and\-library/ \|archive\-date\=13 July 2017}}
[ "Description\n-----------", "[thumb\\|Bulimba State School, 1946](/wiki/File:Queensland_State_Archives_2884_Bulimba_State_School_Brisbane_1946.png \"Queensland State Archives 2884 Bulimba State School Brisbane 1946.png\")\nBulimba State School is located on a {{convert\\|1\\.88\\|ha}} site and is bound by Oxford Street to the north, Wentworth parade to the East, Riding Road to the West and by Barton Parade and freehold property to the South. It is a steeply sloping west facing site with levelled areas occupied by school buildings and parade and play areas at the top of the site. Pathways west of Block B and south of Block C wind down the steep embankment to the netball courts, cricket facilities and bottom oval on more level ground at the Riding Road and Barton Parade boundaries to the site.", "The school buildings and structures comprise Block A, B, C and D (a demountable classroom), a new administration and resource centre and a timber framed classroom block under construction. Concrete walls retain both Wentworth Parade and Oxford Street (from the corner to the swimming pool) boundaries. A tennis court is located on the north\\-eastern corner, several metres above street level. Between the tennis court and the swimming pool, the demountable building \\-Block D, a shelter [shed](/wiki/Shed \"Shed\") and the adventure playground are located.", "Block A and B form the eastern and northern boundaries to the parade area, part of which is now occupied by the new outdoor learning area and verandahs of the new resource and administration building. A new classroom building is located to the west of Block B.", "The in ground concrete swimming pool has covered seating and changing rooms enclosing it to the north, east and west. Block C, the former infant school and now used as the Preschool, is located to the west of the swimming pool and faces Oxford Street.", "Block A is a symmetrical two storey load bearing brick building with basement and hipped terracotta tiled roof. The primary and secondary entrances to the building are expressed by a projected pedimented [gable](/wiki/Gable \"Gable\") wing to the west and a pair of breakfronts to the east. A prominent fleche is centrally located.", "The treatment of the elevations creates a basement level distinct from the two floors of the school proper above. The load bearing brick work to the basement is rendered and ruled to form a [plinth](/wiki/Plinth \"Plinth\") upon which bays of stretcher bond red brickwork are relieved with [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\") of contrasting Flemish bond dark glazed brickwork shafts with cement rendered bases and capitals of restrained detail. The horizontal banding of the [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") to the pedimented gable and breakfronts continues below the [eaves](/wiki/Eaves \"Eaves\") around the perimeter of the building. The main entry is expressed by a pedimented doorway and the symmetry reinforced by two straight flight of [stairs](/wiki/Stairs \"Stairs\") with half landing from the north and south.", "At basement level, a play space occupies the area between the north and south stairwells with boys' lavatories at the southern end of the building and girls lavatories to the north. Separate facilities were provided for infants, older children and teachers and have now been altered to include a parents' room and storage areas. Seats to curtain walls, drinking taps and troughs, and store areas under main entry stair are also located in the basement which has a low floor to floor height compared to the floors above. Detailing in the play area includes bullnose brickwork on freestanding and engaged piers, eliminating right angle corners to reduce injury.", "The classrooms have timber floors supported on a series of articulated steel beams expressed in the ceiling detailing and stairwells; corridors and utility areas have suspended concrete floors. Downpipes are located within the walls. Four four\\-light casement windows with fanlights above provide ventilation to the corridor and into the classroom through double hung windows", "On the ground floor, the main entry hall separates the office and head teacher's rooms. The hall leads to the centre of a north–south corridor which provides access to five classrooms between the north and south stair halls. The central three classrooms are divided by folding partition doors. A cloak room and cleaner's sink are provided at the eastern end of each stairwell. Another classroom and cloak room is located in the end bay at the southern end of the building. A similar layout exists on the first floor.", "Block B is a high set timber\\-framed building supported on steel open web joists with a cantilevered portion supporting the verandah. Stairs at the eastern and western ends provide access to a narrow verandah on the northern side of the building which contains a continuous hat and bag rack and provides access to the three classrooms. This building is of a type of which there are numerous examples, several of which are more comparatively intact and which represent a more extensive use of this type of structure.", "Block C is a high set timber\\-framed structure on concrete stumps. Three classrooms have been made into two and folding partitions have been removed as well as large sections of walls to the verandahs. The verandahs have been enclosed and stairs have been altered. The roof sheeting has been more recently replaced with corrugated iron and the roof fleche removed. Ceilings are coved and lined with tongue and groove V jointed boards verandahs enclosed stair altered, windows altered etc. This building is also of a type where there are many more intact and representative examples throughout Queensland.", "Biscoe Wilson Architects later oversaw the construction of the new 10 General Learning Areas (GLA) and Library along Oxford Street.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Bulimba State School – 10 GLA and Library – Work In Progress \\|website\\=Biscoe Wilson Architects \\|url\\=https://biscoewilson.com.au/2017/03/01/bulimba\\-state\\-school\\-10\\-gla\\-and\\-library/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713040516/https://biscoewilson.com.au/2017/03/01/bulimba\\-state\\-school\\-10\\-gla\\-and\\-library/ \\|archive\\-date\\=13 July 2017}}", "" ]
Heritage listing ---------------- Bulimba State School was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register "Queensland Heritage Register") on 26 November 1999, having satisfied the following criteria: **The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.** At Bulimba State School, established in 1866, the variety of building types and structures from different periods are representative of some of the many developments in education policy in Queensland and demonstrate the evolution of the school and the community. The brick Bulimba State School building and the concrete retaining walls and associated fences and gates constructed in 1937\-1938 are significant as a tangible demonstration of the Queensland Government's commitment to providing impetus to an economy and building industry reeling from the effects of the 1930s depression. The retaining walls, fences, gates and courts also have special significance for the local community as the work relief scheme employed local workers. The main building, Block A, erected in 1937\-38 is significant as a substantial interwar building which reflects the growth and stability of the population of Bulimba. **The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.** Bulimba State School demonstrates the principle characteristics of a primary school precinct with a hierarchy of structures and open spaces built over several generations for educational purposes by the Department of Education. The school's structures and grounds provide a series of formal and informal spaces including open playground spaces, a formal parade ground, pathways, sports areas, swimming pool and tennis court facilities as well as undercroft and verandah areas. It is an excellent and intact urban example of a substantial interwar building and displays the particular characteristics of this school building type. The use of brick and restrained detailing is typical for government buildings of the period, and Bulimba State School principal building follows in the tradition of fine buildings erected by the Queensland Public Works Department. **The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.** It is a fine example of a school building designed by the office of the Queensland Government Architect and has aesthetic significance brought about by its massing and restrained classical detailing. Bulimba State School and grounds is also significant for the landmark value of its principal building and setting which provides a reference point in the community. The imposing massing and scale of the brick building looms high atop Carlton Hill above surrounding suburban development with commanding views afforded both to and from the site to Moreton Bay, Hamilton and New Farm. **The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.** Bulimba State School is valued by its community for the essential community function it provides and as a link between the past and present through its long traditional connection with the area. **The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.** Bulimba State School principal building follows in the tradition of fine buildings erected by the Queensland Public Works Department.
[ "Heritage listing\n----------------", "Bulimba State School was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register \"Queensland Heritage Register\") on 26 November 1999, having satisfied the following criteria:", "**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**", "At Bulimba State School, established in 1866, the variety of building types and structures from different periods are representative of some of the many developments in education policy in Queensland and demonstrate the evolution of the school and the community.", "The brick Bulimba State School building and the concrete retaining walls and associated fences and gates constructed in 1937\\-1938 are significant as a tangible demonstration of the Queensland Government's commitment to providing impetus to an economy and building industry reeling from the effects of the 1930s depression. The retaining walls, fences, gates and courts also have special significance for the local community as the work relief scheme employed local workers.", "The main building, Block A, erected in 1937\\-38 is significant as a substantial interwar building which reflects the growth and stability of the population of Bulimba.", "**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**", "Bulimba State School demonstrates the principle characteristics of a primary school precinct with a hierarchy of structures and open spaces built over several generations for educational purposes by the Department of Education. The school's structures and grounds provide a series of formal and informal spaces including open playground spaces, a formal parade ground, pathways, sports areas, swimming pool and tennis court facilities as well as undercroft and verandah areas.", "It is an excellent and intact urban example of a substantial interwar building and displays the particular characteristics of this school building type. The use of brick and restrained detailing is typical for government buildings of the period, and Bulimba State School principal building follows in the tradition of fine buildings erected by the Queensland Public Works Department.", "**The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.**", "It is a fine example of a school building designed by the office of the Queensland Government Architect and has aesthetic significance brought about by its massing and restrained classical detailing.", "Bulimba State School and grounds is also significant for the landmark value of its principal building and setting which provides a reference point in the community. The imposing massing and scale of the brick building looms high atop Carlton Hill above surrounding suburban development with commanding views afforded both to and from the site to Moreton Bay, Hamilton and New Farm.", "**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**", "Bulimba State School is valued by its community for the essential community function it provides and as a link between the past and present through its long traditional connection with the area.", "**The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.**", "Bulimba State School principal building follows in the tradition of fine buildings erected by the Queensland Public Works Department.", "" ]
Baseball career --------------- Limmer was signed as a free agent by the [Philadelphia Athletics](/wiki/Philadelphia_Athletics "Philadelphia Athletics") in 1946\.{{cn\|date\=October 2022}} In 1946, in 40 games for the [Lexington](/wiki/Lexington%2C_North_Carolina "Lexington, North Carolina") A's of the North Carolina State League he hit .313\. In 1947 he hit .326 for Lexington, with 24 home runs (3rd in the league) and 95 RBIs (5th in the league) in 405 at bats. With the [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Nebraska "Lincoln, Nebraska") A's of the Western League in 1948, he broke his neck in August while sliding into third base. He suffered a temporary loss of vision and was out for the season.{{cite book\|last1\=Horvitz\|first1\=Peter S.\|last2\= Horvitz\|first2\=Joachim\|title\=The Big Book of Jewish Baseball\|year\=2001\|publisher\=SP Books\|isbn\=978\-1\-56171\-973\-0\|page\=107}} He hit 28 home runs (second in the league) and had 93 RBIs (6th in the league) in 385 at bats that season.{{cn\|date\=October 2022}} In 1949, he hit .315 (4th in the league) with a league\-leading 29 home runs, and drove in 105 RBIs (3rd) as he scored 100 runs for Lincoln. He followed that up in 1950, leading the league with both 29 home runs and 111 RBIs for the [St. Paul Saints](/wiki/St._Paul_Saints "St. Paul Saints") of the [American Association](/wiki/American_Association_%2820th_century%29 "American Association (20th century)"), earning "Rookie of the Year" honors.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.baseballhistorian.com/html/american\_heroes.cfm?page%3D214 \|title\=American Heroes \|accessdate\=2007\-04\-10 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104013909/http://www.baseballhistorian.com/html/american\_heroes.cfm?page\=214 \|archivedate\=2006\-11\-04 }} On April 23, 1951, Limmer batted against [Vic Raschi](/wiki/Vic_Raschi "Vic Raschi") with one out in the ninth inning, a runner on base, and the Athletics trailing the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees "New York Yankees") by a score of 5–2\. He hit a two\-run home run, the first hit of his career, but the Athletics still lost 5–4\.{{cite web\|page\=47\|last\=Effrat\|first\=Louis\|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/04/24/89792782\.html?pageNumber\=47\|title\=Bombers Score With Raschi, 5\-4, As Mantle, DiMaggio, Rizzuto Star\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=April 24, 1951\|accessdate\=December 25, 2020}} Limmer holds the distinction of having hit the last [home run](/wiki/Home_run "Home run") and last [base hit](/wiki/Base_hit "Base hit") for the Athletics before their move to [Kansas City](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri "Kansas City, Missouri"). Limmer was involved in the only all\-[Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") confrontation in Major League history. On May 2, 1951, Limmer was batting in a game against the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers "Detroit Tigers"). Pitching for the Tigers was [Saul Rogovin](/wiki/Saul_Rogovin "Saul Rogovin"), and catching for the Tigers was [Joe Ginsberg](/wiki/Joe_Ginsberg "Joe Ginsberg"). In 1952 he played for the A's AAA club in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa"), hitting 23 home runs (4th in the league). His best offensive year in the major leagues was in 1954, when he had 73 hits and 14 home runs. In 1955 he hit 28 home runs (3rd in the league) in 416 at bats for the [Columbus Jets](/wiki/Columbus_Jets "Columbus Jets") and [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs") of the [International League](/wiki/International_League "International League"), playing both first base and outfield. In 1958, his last year in baseball, he hit 30 home runs (2nd in the league), a career\-high 31 doubles, and had 100 RBIs (4th) and 96 runs scored for the [Birmingham Barons](/wiki/Birmingham_Barons "Birmingham Barons") of the [Southern Association](/wiki/Southern_Association "Southern Association"). He later became the only major leaguer to become president of a [shul](/wiki/Shul "Shul"), the [Castle Hill](/wiki/Castle_Hill%2C_Bronx "Castle Hill, Bronx") Community Jewish Center in the Bronx.[http://www.thejewishweek.com/viewArticle/c36\_a15421/News/New\_York.html{{dead link\|date\=July 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.thejewishweek.com/viewArticle/c36_a15421/News/New_York.html{{dead link|date=July 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) He died in [Boca Raton, Florida](/wiki/Boca_Raton%2C_Florida "Boca Raton, Florida")[Obituary](http://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/articles/2007/04/05/news/world/limmer0406.txt) and is survived by his wife Pearl, sons Craig and Dan, and four grandchildren, David, Sarah, Michael and Michelle.
[ "Baseball career\n---------------", "Limmer was signed as a free agent by the [Philadelphia Athletics](/wiki/Philadelphia_Athletics \"Philadelphia Athletics\") in 1946\\.{{cn\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "In 1946, in 40 games for the [Lexington](/wiki/Lexington%2C_North_Carolina \"Lexington, North Carolina\") A's of the North Carolina State League he hit .313\\.", "In 1947 he hit .326 for Lexington, with 24 home runs (3rd in the league) and 95 RBIs (5th in the league) in 405 at bats.", "With the [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Nebraska \"Lincoln, Nebraska\") A's of the Western League in 1948, he broke his neck in August while sliding into third base. He suffered a temporary loss of vision and was out for the season.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Horvitz\\|first1\\=Peter S.\\|last2\\= Horvitz\\|first2\\=Joachim\\|title\\=The Big Book of Jewish Baseball\\|year\\=2001\\|publisher\\=SP Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-56171\\-973\\-0\\|page\\=107}} He hit 28 home runs (second in the league) and had 93 RBIs (6th in the league) in 385 at bats that season.{{cn\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "In 1949, he hit .315 (4th in the league) with a league\\-leading 29 home runs, and drove in 105 RBIs (3rd) as he scored 100 runs for Lincoln.", "He followed that up in 1950, leading the league with both 29 home runs and 111 RBIs for the [St. Paul Saints](/wiki/St._Paul_Saints \"St. Paul Saints\") of the [American Association](/wiki/American_Association_%2820th_century%29 \"American Association (20th century)\"), earning \"Rookie of the Year\" honors.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.baseballhistorian.com/html/american\\_heroes.cfm?page%3D214 \\|title\\=American Heroes \\|accessdate\\=2007\\-04\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104013909/http://www.baseballhistorian.com/html/american\\_heroes.cfm?page\\=214 \\|archivedate\\=2006\\-11\\-04 }}", "On April 23, 1951, Limmer batted against [Vic Raschi](/wiki/Vic_Raschi \"Vic Raschi\") with one out in the ninth inning, a runner on base, and the Athletics trailing the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees \"New York Yankees\") by a score of 5–2\\. He hit a two\\-run home run, the first hit of his career, but the Athletics still lost 5–4\\.{{cite web\\|page\\=47\\|last\\=Effrat\\|first\\=Louis\\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/04/24/89792782\\.html?pageNumber\\=47\\|title\\=Bombers Score With Raschi, 5\\-4, As Mantle, DiMaggio, Rizzuto Star\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=April 24, 1951\\|accessdate\\=December 25, 2020}} Limmer holds the distinction of having hit the last [home run](/wiki/Home_run \"Home run\") and last [base hit](/wiki/Base_hit \"Base hit\") for the Athletics before their move to [Kansas City](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\").", "Limmer was involved in the only all\\-[Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") confrontation in Major League history. On May 2, 1951, Limmer was batting in a game against the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers \"Detroit Tigers\"). Pitching for the Tigers was [Saul Rogovin](/wiki/Saul_Rogovin \"Saul Rogovin\"), and catching for the Tigers was [Joe Ginsberg](/wiki/Joe_Ginsberg \"Joe Ginsberg\").", "In 1952 he played for the A's AAA club in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\"), hitting 23 home runs (4th in the league).", "His best offensive year in the major leagues was in 1954, when he had 73 hits and 14 home runs.", "In 1955 he hit 28 home runs (3rd in the league) in 416 at bats for the [Columbus Jets](/wiki/Columbus_Jets \"Columbus Jets\") and [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\") of the [International League](/wiki/International_League \"International League\"), playing both first base and outfield.", "In 1958, his last year in baseball, he hit 30 home runs (2nd in the league), a career\\-high 31 doubles, and had 100 RBIs (4th) and 96 runs scored for the [Birmingham Barons](/wiki/Birmingham_Barons \"Birmingham Barons\") of the [Southern Association](/wiki/Southern_Association \"Southern Association\").", "He later became the only major leaguer to become president of a [shul](/wiki/Shul \"Shul\"), the [Castle Hill](/wiki/Castle_Hill%2C_Bronx \"Castle Hill, Bronx\") Community Jewish Center in the Bronx.[http://www.thejewishweek.com/viewArticle/c36\\_a15421/News/New\\_York.html{{dead link\\|date\\=July 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.thejewishweek.com/viewArticle/c36_a15421/News/New_York.html{{dead link|date=July 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})", "He died in [Boca Raton, Florida](/wiki/Boca_Raton%2C_Florida \"Boca Raton, Florida\")[Obituary](http://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/articles/2007/04/05/news/world/limmer0406.txt) and is survived by his wife Pearl, sons Craig and Dan, and four grandchildren, David, Sarah, Michael and Michelle.", "" ]