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Synopsis -------- [thumb\|*[La Douleur et les Regrets d'Andromaque sur le corps d'Hector son mari](/wiki/Andromache_Mourning_Hector "Andromache Mourning Hector")*, 1783](/wiki/File:Jacques-Louis_David-_Andromache_Mourning_Hector.JPG "Jacques-Louis David- Andromache Mourning Hector.JPG") Place: In and around Pirro's palace in [Epirus](/wiki/Epirus "Epirus") Time: Soon after the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War "Trojan War") ### Overture Unusually, the overture is interrupted twice by the laments of the captive Trojans. ### Act 1 *Scene 1: A dungeon in the palace* Astianatte sleeps while the prisoners continue their lament (Chorus: *Troja! Qual fosti un di* / "Troy! Once so great"). Andromaca arrives, escorted by Fenicio, Attalo and Cefisa, and embraces her son (Cavatina: *Mia delizia!* / "My only joy!"). Attalo reminds her that Astianatte will be released if she can forget Hector, her dead husband, and give in to Pirro's advances. Fenicio, fearing another outbreak of war, rebukes Attalo, and reluctantly tears Andromaca away from her son. *Scene 2: The gardens outside the palace* Cleone and some maidens invite Ermione to go hunting with them (Chorus: *Dall'Oriente l'astro del giorno* / "The sun is rising in the east"), but she is angry that Pirro has forsaken her and is courting Andromaca. Pirro arrives, expecting Andromaca, but she is not there. He sees Ermione and tries to escape, but she detains him and they quarrel (Duet: *Non proseguir* / "Say no more"). They are interrupted by a chorus of [grandees](/wiki/Grandee "Grandee"), who announce the arrival of Oreste (*Sul lido, di Agamennone il figlio, Oreste, è giunto* / "On our shores Agamemnon's son Oreste has landed"), to Pirro's alarm and Ermione's delight. Pirro recovers and leaves to arrange Oreste's reception; meanwhile, Ermione fears that Oreste's arrival will only lead to the marriage of Pirro and Andromaca. *Scene 3: The [throne room](/wiki/Throne_room "Throne room") in the palace* Oreste, overwrought, appears with Pilade, who tries to calm him. He declares his unrequited love for Ermione, but Pilade tells him that he must do his duty (Cavatina and duet: *Che sorda al mesto pianto* ... *Ah! come nascondere la fiamma vorace* / "She is deaf to my tears ... Ah, how can I hide this voracious flame"). A march announces the arrival of Pirro and Ermione, attended by Fenicio, Attalo, the grandees and guards. Andromaca also enters, but stays at the back of the stage. Oreste tells Pirro that he represents all the kings of Greece, who are agreed that Astianatte must die before he is able to avenge the death of Hector, his father. Pirro defies Oreste, saying that he will do as he wishes, and that Astianatte may even share the throne with him (Aria: *Balena in man del figlio l'asta di Achille* ... *Deh serena i mesti rai* ... *Non pavento: quest'alma ti sprezza* / "Achilles' spear flashes in his son's hand" ... "Brighten your gloomy gaze" ... "You cannot frighten me: my soul despises you"). Andromaca and Ermione are aghast, Oreste warns Pirro that the Greeks will be angry with him, and Pilade vows that he will save Oreste from Pirro's anger. *Scene 4: The gardens outside the palace* Ermione tells Cleone that her love for Pirro has turned to hate. Oreste declares his love for Ermione, but she rejects him (Duet: *Amarti?* / "I? Love you?"). Pirro arrives with the grandees and his retinue, who announce that he has changed his mind and will return to Ermione (Chorus: *Alfin l'Eroe da forte* / "At last, the resolute hero"). Pirro then tells Oreste, to the astonishment of everyone, that he will, after all, hand over Astianatte to him. (Ermione, then the others and Pirro: *Sperar, poss'io?* ... *A me Astianatte* / "Should I, can I, hope?" ... "Bring Astianatte here") As the guards prepare to do so, Andromaca pleads with Pirro to give her time to think. Ermione is furious, and Pirro again rejects her. Andromaca vows to commit suicide if she is compelled to marry Pirro, while Pilade urges Oreste to leave with him. The Act ends in general consternation. ### Act 2 *The palace's entrance hall* Andromaca arrives to tell Pirro that she will marry him. Overjoyed, he sends Attalo away to release Astianatte and make preparations for the wedding. Andromaca, unhappy, swears to herself that she will not be unfaithful to her dead husband, and while Pirro urges her to make her vows at the altar, she again resolves to kill herself (Duet: *Ombra del caro sposo ... Vieni a giurar* / "Ghost of my dear husband ... Come and swear at the altar"). Pirro leaves. Andromaca decides that, before she dies, she will make Pirro swear that Astianatte will be spared. Ermione, accompanied by Fenicio and Cleone, appears and insults Andromaca, who forgives her and departs. She asks Fenicio to tell Pirro that she still loves him, even if he is planning to desert her (Aria: *Di, che vedesti piangere* / "Tell him that you have seen my tears"). He leaves, and Cleone tells Ermione that Pirro is not worthy of her. Ermione contemplates suicide (Aria: *Amata, l'amai* / "I was loved and loved him"). Pirro appears in the gallery to the sound of a festive march, and he and the wedding procession pass by (Chorus: *Premia, o Amore, sì bella costanza* / "God of love, reward this touching constancy"). Ermione swoons, but when her maidens and friends try to comfort her, she demands revenge. Oreste enters and tells her that he still loves her. She hands him a dagger and, trembling, he leaves to avenge her. She asks the gods to strengthen his arm, while Cleone and the chorus comment on her anguish (Chorus and duet: *Il tuo dolor ci affretta a consolarti ...Se l'amor mio ti è caro ... Incerto, palpitante ... Se a me nemiche stelle* / "We come to console you ... If my love is dear to you" ... "Uncertain, palpitating" ... "Unless, o gods, you are my enemies"). She rushes out in a fury, followed by the others. Fenicio and Pilade meet, predicting Pirro's downfall if he goes ahead with his marriage to Andromaca (Duettino: *A così triste immagine* / "Such sad imaginings"). They leave in opposite directions. Ermione returns, extremely agitated. She does not know whether she loves or hates Pirro, and regrets ordering Oreste to kill him (Aria: *Parmi, che a ogn'istante de' suoi rimorsi al grido* / "I imagine that at any time he may utter a cry of remorse). Oreste appears, wild\-eyed, stumbling and holding out the bloodstained dagger. He tells Ermione that she is avenged, (Duet: *Sei vendicata* / "You are avenged") and describes how Pirro spared Astianatte and swore to make him his heir. Surrounded by angry soldiers drawing their swords, Pirro was attacked and killed, but not by Oreste, who says that he had given the dagger to another man and then reclaimed it. Ermione accuses Oreste of murder, and he realises that she was still in love with Pirro. She asks the [Eumenides](/wiki/Erinyes "Erinyes") to destroy Oreste. Pilade and his sailors arrive, telling Oreste to flee with them. At first he refuses, but as Ermione tells him that she hopes that he will drown, she faints. He asks thunderbolts and death to do their worst as Pilade and the men half\-carry him to their ship (Finale: *Ah! Ti rinvenni* / "Ah! I have found you").The synopsis is based on the libretto accompanying the 1986 Scimone recording.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "[thumb\\|*[La Douleur et les Regrets d'Andromaque sur le corps d'Hector son mari](/wiki/Andromache_Mourning_Hector \"Andromache Mourning Hector\")*, 1783](/wiki/File:Jacques-Louis_David-_Andromache_Mourning_Hector.JPG \"Jacques-Louis David- Andromache Mourning Hector.JPG\")", "Place: In and around Pirro's palace in [Epirus](/wiki/Epirus \"Epirus\")\nTime: Soon after the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War \"Trojan War\")\n### Overture", "Unusually, the overture is interrupted twice by the laments of the captive Trojans.", "### Act 1", "*Scene 1: A dungeon in the palace*", "Astianatte sleeps while the prisoners continue their lament (Chorus: *Troja! Qual fosti un di* / \"Troy! Once so great\"). Andromaca arrives, escorted by Fenicio, Attalo and Cefisa, and embraces her son (Cavatina: *Mia delizia!* / \"My only joy!\"). Attalo reminds her that Astianatte will be released if she can forget Hector, her dead husband, and give in to Pirro's advances. Fenicio, fearing another outbreak of war, rebukes Attalo, and reluctantly tears Andromaca away from her son.", "*Scene 2: The gardens outside the palace*", "Cleone and some maidens invite Ermione to go hunting with them (Chorus: *Dall'Oriente l'astro del giorno* / \"The sun is rising in the east\"), but she is angry that Pirro has forsaken her and is courting Andromaca. Pirro arrives, expecting Andromaca, but she is not there. He sees Ermione and tries to escape, but she detains him and they quarrel (Duet: *Non proseguir* / \"Say no more\"). They are interrupted by a chorus of [grandees](/wiki/Grandee \"Grandee\"), who announce the arrival of Oreste (*Sul lido, di Agamennone il figlio, Oreste, è giunto* / \"On our shores Agamemnon's son Oreste has landed\"), to Pirro's alarm and Ermione's delight. Pirro recovers and leaves to arrange Oreste's reception; meanwhile, Ermione fears that Oreste's arrival will only lead to the marriage of Pirro and Andromaca.", "*Scene 3: The [throne room](/wiki/Throne_room \"Throne room\") in the palace*", "Oreste, overwrought, appears with Pilade, who tries to calm him. He declares his unrequited love for Ermione, but Pilade tells him that he must do his duty (Cavatina and duet: *Che sorda al mesto pianto* ... *Ah! come nascondere la fiamma vorace* / \"She is deaf to my tears ... Ah, how can I hide this voracious flame\"). A march announces the arrival of Pirro and Ermione, attended by Fenicio, Attalo, the grandees and guards. Andromaca also enters, but stays at the back of the stage. Oreste tells Pirro that he represents all the kings of Greece, who are agreed that Astianatte must die before he is able to avenge the death of Hector, his father. Pirro defies Oreste, saying that he will do as he wishes, and that Astianatte may even share the throne with him (Aria: *Balena in man del figlio l'asta di Achille* ... *Deh serena i mesti rai* ... *Non pavento: quest'alma ti sprezza* / \"Achilles' spear flashes in his son's hand\" ... \"Brighten your gloomy gaze\" ... \"You cannot frighten me: my soul despises you\"). Andromaca and Ermione are aghast, Oreste warns Pirro that the Greeks will be angry with him, and Pilade vows that he will save Oreste from Pirro's anger.", "*Scene 4: The gardens outside the palace*", "Ermione tells Cleone that her love for Pirro has turned to hate. Oreste declares his love for Ermione, but she rejects him (Duet: *Amarti?* / \"I? Love you?\"). Pirro arrives with the grandees and his retinue, who announce that he has changed his mind and will return to Ermione (Chorus: *Alfin l'Eroe da forte* / \"At last, the resolute hero\"). Pirro then tells Oreste, to the astonishment of everyone, that he will, after all, hand over Astianatte to him. (Ermione, then the others and Pirro: *Sperar, poss'io?* ... *A me Astianatte* / \"Should I, can I, hope?\" ... \"Bring Astianatte here\") As the guards prepare to do so, Andromaca pleads with Pirro to give her time to think. Ermione is furious, and Pirro again rejects her. Andromaca vows to commit suicide if she is compelled to marry Pirro, while Pilade urges Oreste to leave with him. The Act ends in general consternation.", "### Act 2", "*The palace's entrance hall*", "Andromaca arrives to tell Pirro that she will marry him. Overjoyed, he sends Attalo away to release Astianatte and make preparations for the wedding. Andromaca, unhappy, swears to herself that she will not be unfaithful to her dead husband, and while Pirro urges her to make her vows at the altar, she again resolves to kill herself (Duet: *Ombra del caro sposo ... Vieni a giurar* / \"Ghost of my dear husband ... Come and swear at the altar\").", "Pirro leaves. Andromaca decides that, before she dies, she will make Pirro swear that Astianatte will be spared. Ermione, accompanied by Fenicio and Cleone, appears and insults Andromaca, who forgives her and departs. She asks Fenicio to tell Pirro that she still loves him, even if he is planning to desert her (Aria: *Di, che vedesti piangere* / \"Tell him that you have seen my tears\"). He leaves, and Cleone tells Ermione that Pirro is not worthy of her. Ermione contemplates suicide (Aria: *Amata, l'amai* / \"I was loved and loved him\").", "Pirro appears in the gallery to the sound of a festive march, and he and the wedding procession pass by (Chorus: *Premia, o Amore, sì bella costanza* / \"God of love, reward this touching constancy\"). Ermione swoons, but when her maidens and friends try to comfort her, she demands revenge. Oreste enters and tells her that he still loves her. She hands him a dagger and, trembling, he leaves to avenge her. She asks the gods to strengthen his arm, while Cleone and the chorus comment on her anguish (Chorus and duet: *Il tuo dolor ci affretta a consolarti ...Se l'amor mio ti è caro ... Incerto, palpitante ... Se a me nemiche stelle* / \"We come to console you ... If my love is dear to you\" ... \"Uncertain, palpitating\" ... \"Unless, o gods, you are my enemies\"). She rushes out in a fury, followed by the others.", "Fenicio and Pilade meet, predicting Pirro's downfall if he goes ahead with his marriage to Andromaca (Duettino: *A così triste immagine* / \"Such sad imaginings\"). They leave in opposite directions.", "Ermione returns, extremely agitated. She does not know whether she loves or hates Pirro, and regrets ordering Oreste to kill him (Aria: *Parmi, che a ogn'istante de' suoi rimorsi al grido* / \"I imagine that at any time he may utter a cry of remorse). Oreste appears, wild\\-eyed, stumbling and holding out the bloodstained dagger. He tells Ermione that she is avenged, (Duet: *Sei vendicata* / \"You are avenged\") and describes how Pirro spared Astianatte and swore to make him his heir. Surrounded by angry soldiers drawing their swords, Pirro was attacked and killed, but not by Oreste, who says that he had given the dagger to another man and then reclaimed it. Ermione accuses Oreste of murder, and he realises that she was still in love with Pirro. She asks the [Eumenides](/wiki/Erinyes \"Erinyes\") to destroy Oreste.", "Pilade and his sailors arrive, telling Oreste to flee with them. At first he refuses, but as Ermione tells him that she hopes that he will drown, she faints. He asks thunderbolts and death to do their worst as Pilade and the men half\\-carry him to their ship (Finale: *Ah! Ti rinvenni* / \"Ah! I have found you\").The synopsis is based on the libretto accompanying the 1986 Scimone recording.", "" ]
### Act 2 *The palace's entrance hall* Andromaca arrives to tell Pirro that she will marry him. Overjoyed, he sends Attalo away to release Astianatte and make preparations for the wedding. Andromaca, unhappy, swears to herself that she will not be unfaithful to her dead husband, and while Pirro urges her to make her vows at the altar, she again resolves to kill herself (Duet: *Ombra del caro sposo ... Vieni a giurar* / "Ghost of my dear husband ... Come and swear at the altar"). Pirro leaves. Andromaca decides that, before she dies, she will make Pirro swear that Astianatte will be spared. Ermione, accompanied by Fenicio and Cleone, appears and insults Andromaca, who forgives her and departs. She asks Fenicio to tell Pirro that she still loves him, even if he is planning to desert her (Aria: *Di, che vedesti piangere* / "Tell him that you have seen my tears"). He leaves, and Cleone tells Ermione that Pirro is not worthy of her. Ermione contemplates suicide (Aria: *Amata, l'amai* / "I was loved and loved him"). Pirro appears in the gallery to the sound of a festive march, and he and the wedding procession pass by (Chorus: *Premia, o Amore, sì bella costanza* / "God of love, reward this touching constancy"). Ermione swoons, but when her maidens and friends try to comfort her, she demands revenge. Oreste enters and tells her that he still loves her. She hands him a dagger and, trembling, he leaves to avenge her. She asks the gods to strengthen his arm, while Cleone and the chorus comment on her anguish (Chorus and duet: *Il tuo dolor ci affretta a consolarti ...Se l'amor mio ti è caro ... Incerto, palpitante ... Se a me nemiche stelle* / "We come to console you ... If my love is dear to you" ... "Uncertain, palpitating" ... "Unless, o gods, you are my enemies"). She rushes out in a fury, followed by the others. Fenicio and Pilade meet, predicting Pirro's downfall if he goes ahead with his marriage to Andromaca (Duettino: *A così triste immagine* / "Such sad imaginings"). They leave in opposite directions. Ermione returns, extremely agitated. She does not know whether she loves or hates Pirro, and regrets ordering Oreste to kill him (Aria: *Parmi, che a ogn'istante de' suoi rimorsi al grido* / "I imagine that at any time he may utter a cry of remorse). Oreste appears, wild\-eyed, stumbling and holding out the bloodstained dagger. He tells Ermione that she is avenged, (Duet: *Sei vendicata* / "You are avenged") and describes how Pirro spared Astianatte and swore to make him his heir. Surrounded by angry soldiers drawing their swords, Pirro was attacked and killed, but not by Oreste, who says that he had given the dagger to another man and then reclaimed it. Ermione accuses Oreste of murder, and he realises that she was still in love with Pirro. She asks the [Eumenides](/wiki/Erinyes "Erinyes") to destroy Oreste. Pilade and his sailors arrive, telling Oreste to flee with them. At first he refuses, but as Ermione tells him that she hopes that he will drown, she faints. He asks thunderbolts and death to do their worst as Pilade and the men half\-carry him to their ship (Finale: *Ah! Ti rinvenni* / "Ah! I have found you").The synopsis is based on the libretto accompanying the 1986 Scimone recording.
[ "### Act 2", "*The palace's entrance hall*", "Andromaca arrives to tell Pirro that she will marry him. Overjoyed, he sends Attalo away to release Astianatte and make preparations for the wedding. Andromaca, unhappy, swears to herself that she will not be unfaithful to her dead husband, and while Pirro urges her to make her vows at the altar, she again resolves to kill herself (Duet: *Ombra del caro sposo ... Vieni a giurar* / \"Ghost of my dear husband ... Come and swear at the altar\").", "Pirro leaves. Andromaca decides that, before she dies, she will make Pirro swear that Astianatte will be spared. Ermione, accompanied by Fenicio and Cleone, appears and insults Andromaca, who forgives her and departs. She asks Fenicio to tell Pirro that she still loves him, even if he is planning to desert her (Aria: *Di, che vedesti piangere* / \"Tell him that you have seen my tears\"). He leaves, and Cleone tells Ermione that Pirro is not worthy of her. Ermione contemplates suicide (Aria: *Amata, l'amai* / \"I was loved and loved him\").", "Pirro appears in the gallery to the sound of a festive march, and he and the wedding procession pass by (Chorus: *Premia, o Amore, sì bella costanza* / \"God of love, reward this touching constancy\"). Ermione swoons, but when her maidens and friends try to comfort her, she demands revenge. Oreste enters and tells her that he still loves her. She hands him a dagger and, trembling, he leaves to avenge her. She asks the gods to strengthen his arm, while Cleone and the chorus comment on her anguish (Chorus and duet: *Il tuo dolor ci affretta a consolarti ...Se l'amor mio ti è caro ... Incerto, palpitante ... Se a me nemiche stelle* / \"We come to console you ... If my love is dear to you\" ... \"Uncertain, palpitating\" ... \"Unless, o gods, you are my enemies\"). She rushes out in a fury, followed by the others.", "Fenicio and Pilade meet, predicting Pirro's downfall if he goes ahead with his marriage to Andromaca (Duettino: *A così triste immagine* / \"Such sad imaginings\"). They leave in opposite directions.", "Ermione returns, extremely agitated. She does not know whether she loves or hates Pirro, and regrets ordering Oreste to kill him (Aria: *Parmi, che a ogn'istante de' suoi rimorsi al grido* / \"I imagine that at any time he may utter a cry of remorse). Oreste appears, wild\\-eyed, stumbling and holding out the bloodstained dagger. He tells Ermione that she is avenged, (Duet: *Sei vendicata* / \"You are avenged\") and describes how Pirro spared Astianatte and swore to make him his heir. Surrounded by angry soldiers drawing their swords, Pirro was attacked and killed, but not by Oreste, who says that he had given the dagger to another man and then reclaimed it. Ermione accuses Oreste of murder, and he realises that she was still in love with Pirro. She asks the [Eumenides](/wiki/Erinyes \"Erinyes\") to destroy Oreste.", "Pilade and his sailors arrive, telling Oreste to flee with them. At first he refuses, but as Ermione tells him that she hopes that he will drown, she faints. He asks thunderbolts and death to do their worst as Pilade and the men half\\-carry him to their ship (Finale: *Ah! Ti rinvenni* / \"Ah! I have found you\").The synopsis is based on the libretto accompanying the 1986 Scimone recording.", "" ]
History ------- Kingston was originally known as Helen. The community was named for Helen Willis, daughter of [J.H. Willis](/wiki/J.H._Willis "J.H. Willis"), a prominent early\-day resident. On April 4, 1894, a post office was established at Helen and was called Kingston, Indian Territory. The post office took its name from Jeff King, a longtime local resident.George H. Shirk. *Oklahoma Place Names* (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965\), pp. 100 \& 118\. At the time of its founding, Helen, later Kingston, was located in [Pickens County, Chickasaw Nation](/wiki/Pickens_County%2C_Chickasaw_Nation "Pickens County, Chickasaw Nation"), in [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory "Indian Territory").Charles Goins, *Historical Atlas of Oklahoma* (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006\), plate 105\. This was one of the Five Civilized Tribes required to [remove](/wiki/Indian_Removal "Indian Removal") to this area from the Southeast United States in the 1830s. The early settlement included a general store, cotton gin, and a schoolhouse that doubled as a church.{{cite web\|last1\=Gray\|first1\=Paulline\|title\=Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture \- Kingston\|url\= http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry\=KI015\|website\=Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture\|publisher\=Oklahoma History Center\|access\-date\=April 10, 2017}} Several of the older buildings in Kingston were torn down in the late 1980s for redevelopment of the area for a new hardware store and lumberyard. The town constructed a new multipurpose activity building, which is located on the high school campus. The oldest remaining building in Kingston, which originally was the town bank, has been adapted for retail use as Dee's Creative Corner. Kingston's High School Alumni Association, founded in 1911 soon after statehood, is the oldest active alumni association in the state of Oklahoma. Each year graduates of Kingston High School are given the opportunity to join the association. Through their donations and fund raisers, the Alumni Association helps to send local students to college. Notable figures include country music singer, Dale Lay, and rock and roll drummer Greg Upchurch. Lay released several country albums, several radio singles, and performed at the [Grand Ole Opry](/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry "Grand Ole Opry") in Nashville, Tennessee. He developed and supported the Kingston High School band. For several years, Lay raised money to buy new instruments and band uniforms at his annual benefit concert.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2021}} Dale’s son, Anthony Lay, is a nationally syndicated radio personality. He goes by the moniker “The AntMan” and hosts a syndicated Saturday night show, "Country House Party", broadcast on more than 80 iHeart Country radio stations across the nation. {{citation needed\|date\=October 2021}} Greg Upchurch began his rock career with the band Puddle of Mudd. Since 2005 he has been the drummer for 3 Doors Down. Upchurch first developed his percussion skills in the Kingston High School band.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2021}} On [March 21, 2022](/wiki/Tornado_outbreak_of_March_21%E2%80%9323%2C_2022 "Tornado outbreak of March 21–23, 2022"), an EF2 tornado caused significant damage to structures.
[ "History\n-------", "Kingston was originally known as Helen. The community was named for Helen Willis, daughter of [J.H. Willis](/wiki/J.H._Willis \"J.H. Willis\"), a prominent early\\-day resident. On April 4, 1894, a post office was established at Helen and was called Kingston, Indian Territory. The post office took its name from Jeff King, a longtime local resident.George H. Shirk. *Oklahoma Place Names* (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965\\), pp. 100 \\& 118\\.", "At the time of its founding, Helen, later Kingston, was located in [Pickens County, Chickasaw Nation](/wiki/Pickens_County%2C_Chickasaw_Nation \"Pickens County, Chickasaw Nation\"), in [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory \"Indian Territory\").Charles Goins, *Historical Atlas of Oklahoma* (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006\\), plate 105\\. This was one of the Five Civilized Tribes required to [remove](/wiki/Indian_Removal \"Indian Removal\") to this area from the Southeast United States in the 1830s.", "The early settlement included a general store, cotton gin, and a schoolhouse that doubled as a church.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Gray\\|first1\\=Paulline\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture \\- Kingston\\|url\\= http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry\\=KI015\\|website\\=Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture\\|publisher\\=Oklahoma History Center\\|access\\-date\\=April 10, 2017}}", "Several of the older buildings in Kingston were torn down in the late 1980s for redevelopment of the area for a new hardware store and lumberyard. The town constructed a new multipurpose activity building, which is located on the high school campus. The oldest remaining building in Kingston, which originally was the town bank, has been adapted for retail use as Dee's Creative Corner.", "Kingston's High School Alumni Association, founded in 1911 soon after statehood, is the oldest active alumni association in the state of Oklahoma. Each year graduates of Kingston High School are given the opportunity to join the association. Through their donations and fund raisers, the Alumni Association helps to send local students to college.", "Notable figures include country music singer, Dale Lay, and rock and roll drummer Greg Upchurch. Lay released several country albums, several radio singles, and performed at the [Grand Ole Opry](/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry \"Grand Ole Opry\") in Nashville, Tennessee. He developed and supported the Kingston High School band. For several years, Lay raised money to buy new instruments and band uniforms at his annual benefit concert.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2021}}", "Dale’s son, Anthony Lay, is a nationally syndicated radio personality. He goes by the moniker “The AntMan” and hosts a syndicated Saturday night show, \"Country House Party\", broadcast on more than 80 iHeart Country radio stations across the nation. {{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2021}}", "Greg Upchurch began his rock career with the band Puddle of Mudd. Since 2005 he has been the drummer for 3 Doors Down. Upchurch first developed his percussion skills in the Kingston High School band.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2021}}", "On [March 21, 2022](/wiki/Tornado_outbreak_of_March_21%E2%80%9323%2C_2022 \"Tornado outbreak of March 21–23, 2022\"), an EF2 tornado caused significant damage to structures.", "" ]
Site layout ----------- Actuncan can be split into two separate areas: Actuncan North and Actuncan South. These areas both sit on adjacent hills that are divided by a ravine and connected by a single road, or [sacbe](/wiki/Sacbe "Sacbe"). During the Late to Terminal Preclassic periods, the main configuration of Actuncan was established with modifications occurring afterwards. Its main configuration was likely determined to strengthen the political and social connection to the spiritual aspect of divine rule, while the modifications afterwards reflect a move away from divine leadership to a separation between political and spiritual power. ### Actuncan North Actuncan North is much larger than Actuncan South. It served as the main residential, social, economic, and political center. Actuncan North is where everyday life and activities occurred. This site consisted of five plazas surrounded by many monumental buildings sitting on top of raised platforms serving as houses, a palace, a [ball court](/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt "Mesoamerican ballcourt"), and an [E\-Group](/wiki/E-Group "E-Group"), as well as interstitial spaces between these buildings that were likely used for a variety of activities. An E\-Group is a common Mayan monumental structure that likely served as an early ritual location before the development of larger, more elaborate triadic temples. At Actuncan, this structure likely went on to function as an administrative building and a community gathering place. While most structures within Actuncan North relate to residential and administrative functions, during its time under divine rule, some of the structures acted as spaces for rulers to hold meetings and support their political power and their bureaucracy. ### Actuncan South Actuncan South acted as the main spiritual and ritual section of Actuncan. It consists of a single plaza containing a triadic pyramidal shrine complex. This triadic temple contains the site's tallest structure—a 27m tall pyramid. This triadic temple complexes likely served as a place for the community to gather for the ritual display led by the divine leaders meant to tie their authority to cosmology and the supernatural. The facade of some of the structures within Actuncan South were adorned with decorative masks made of stucco. These masks usually relate to Mayan creation and rebirth myths, further highlighting the divine rulers' relation and power obtained from cosmological forces. ### Actuncan North and South's connection During the time of divine rule at Actuncan, the North and South sections had a layout that helped to facilitate the connection between the spiritual and political power of the rulers. Both sections were connected by a large pathways that likely supported ritual processions. The layout of Actuncan places the main political administrative center and palace (Structure 19A) in Actuncan North directly facing and opposing Actuncan South's main triadic temple complex. In a procession heading south from Actuncan North to Actuncan South, the procession would pass through the ball court, which acted as a sort of portal from the human (Actuncan North) to the supernatural (Actuncan South) world, further highlighting the connection between the civic duty and divine rule of the ruler. During the shift away from divine rule during the Terminal Classic period, the Actuncan residents decided to separate divine and political power. This switch was reflected by the physical modification to structures that reflected that connection. At this time, some new monumental architecture was constructed, such as a new administrative and political buildings with communal patio\-spaces. Another new building also arose in Actuncan South that blocked the main entrance to the plaza and separated Actuncan South from the sacbe connecting Actuncan North, creating a physical divide between Actuncan North and South representative of the divide the new political institution and the religious one. Many existing structures were either renovated and reconverted to serve other functions, or actively dismantled for construction materials, such as the E\-Group and the past main administrative building and palace (Structure 19A) for the divine leadership. This dismantling of past divine rule structures likely symbolized the change in political power and the end of divine leadership.
[ "Site layout\n-----------", "Actuncan can be split into two separate areas: Actuncan North and Actuncan South. These areas both sit on adjacent hills that are divided by a ravine and connected by a single road, or [sacbe](/wiki/Sacbe \"Sacbe\"). During the Late to Terminal Preclassic periods, the main configuration of Actuncan was established with modifications occurring afterwards. Its main configuration was likely determined to strengthen the political and social connection to the spiritual aspect of divine rule, while the modifications afterwards reflect a move away from divine leadership to a separation between political and spiritual power.", "### Actuncan North", "Actuncan North is much larger than Actuncan South. It served as the main residential, social, economic, and political center. Actuncan North is where everyday life and activities occurred. This site consisted of five plazas surrounded by many monumental buildings sitting on top of raised platforms serving as houses, a palace, a [ball court](/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt \"Mesoamerican ballcourt\"), and an [E\\-Group](/wiki/E-Group \"E-Group\"), as well as interstitial spaces between these buildings that were likely used for a variety of activities. An E\\-Group is a common Mayan monumental structure that likely served as an early ritual location before the development of larger, more elaborate triadic temples. At Actuncan, this structure likely went on to function as an administrative building and a community gathering place. While most structures within Actuncan North relate to residential and administrative functions, during its time under divine rule, some of the structures acted as spaces for rulers to hold meetings and support their political power and their bureaucracy.", "### Actuncan South", "Actuncan South acted as the main spiritual and ritual section of Actuncan. It consists of a single plaza containing a triadic pyramidal shrine complex. This triadic temple contains the site's tallest structure—a 27m tall pyramid. This triadic temple complexes likely served as a place for the community to gather for the ritual display led by the divine leaders meant to tie their authority to cosmology and the supernatural. The facade of some of the structures within Actuncan South were adorned with decorative masks made of stucco. These masks usually relate to Mayan creation and rebirth myths, further highlighting the divine rulers' relation and power obtained from cosmological forces.", "### Actuncan North and South's connection", "During the time of divine rule at Actuncan, the North and South sections had a layout that helped to facilitate the connection between the spiritual and political power of the rulers. Both sections were connected by a large pathways that likely supported ritual processions. The layout of Actuncan places the main political administrative center and palace (Structure 19A) in Actuncan North directly facing and opposing Actuncan South's main triadic temple complex. In a procession heading south from Actuncan North to Actuncan South, the procession would pass through the ball court, which acted as a sort of portal from the human (Actuncan North) to the supernatural (Actuncan South) world, further highlighting the connection between the civic duty and divine rule of the ruler.", "During the shift away from divine rule during the Terminal Classic period, the Actuncan residents decided to separate divine and political power. This switch was reflected by the physical modification to structures that reflected that connection. At this time, some new monumental architecture was constructed, such as a new administrative and political buildings with communal patio\\-spaces. Another new building also arose in Actuncan South that blocked the main entrance to the plaza and separated Actuncan South from the sacbe connecting Actuncan North, creating a physical divide between Actuncan North and South representative of the divide the new political institution and the religious one. Many existing structures were either renovated and reconverted to serve other functions, or actively dismantled for construction materials, such as the E\\-Group and the past main administrative building and palace (Structure 19A) for the divine leadership. This dismantling of past divine rule structures likely symbolized the change in political power and the end of divine leadership.", "" ]
Excavations and interpretations ------------------------------- The Actuncan Archaeological Project has held several excavations since 2001 with a focus on understanding the shift from a kingship to state\-level society. In the 2010 field project, emphasis was placed on studying the organizational changes that occurred within the household as a result of a shift in power and the actions of rulers, while most excavations focused on changes in monumental architecture. Long\-established families would likely be more resistant to giving up power and resources to the ruler, while new, up\-and\-coming families would likely side with leaders in order to gain power and resources for themselves. Therefore, during the development of a state\-level society, one could expect to see the disruption in the growth and the subsequent breaking\-up of large households, while the new households would expand and grow at a rate that is quicker than expected. ### Mapping Actuncan was originally mapped by James McGovern in the 1990s with the Xunantunich Archaeological Project, but at the time, Actuncan was covered by dense trees making visibility low. Today, much of Actuncan has been cleared for farming and cattle. In 2010, archaeologists decided to remap the site with the better visual of the architecture. In order to better understand the layout of the site, the lives of the people who occupied it, and how they used the land, topographic and architectural data was recorded and mapped. ### Patio\-focused groups Group 1 consists of 4 structures (Structures 59, 60, 61, 62\) surrounding an inner patio in Actuncan North. Structure 59 was flanked by smaller platforms that appeared to possibly function as slightly raised work areas. Artifacts from this structure include ceramics, lithic debris, obsidian, and a great diversity of other materials, suggesting that it could've been used as a multi\-use workshop. At Structures 61 and 62, ceramics have been found dating to the Terminal Classic period, while little Terminal Classic pottery was discovered at Structure 59\. This suggests that this portion of Group 1 was not inhabited or in use during this period, with activities focusing on Structures 61 and 62\. Group 1 was first constructed in the Middle Preclassic period and grew in size during the Terminal Late Preclassic and the Late Classic. ### Elite Houses Structure 41 was an elite house in Actuncan North was excavated in 2010 with the goal of defining the layout of the structure. This pyramidal structure supported plastered northern and southern terraces, and likely consisted of a large interior are with rooms located in the front and back. The original facade of Structure 41 consisted of finely, cut limestone with small, fitted stones that was then plastered. After the end of divine rule, the structure appears to have been modified. Large stacked stone as opposed to cut one, then stuccoed over. This suggest that the modified facade was not constructed with the most precision and care compared to its original elite house construction during the Classic period, and likely a result of the termination of the elite house and its renovation for other uses, such as a ritual space during the Terminal Classic. ### C\-shaped complex Group 4 consists of Structures 33, 34, and 35 site atop a large platform in Actuncan North. The site appears oddly placed and excavations sought to gain a better understanding of this groups usage. It appears that this structure was a new public space built in the middle of the already established civic center. It has been suggested that this C\-shaped complex could've function as a council house during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic periods. This new civic space construction project seems to reflect the changing political situation that occurred during the Terminal Classic period. ### E\-Group and Structure 19A Both the E\-Group and Structure 19A (the main administrative center and palace) were important during the time of divine rule, but their importance was lost during the shift away from divine leadership. Residents in the Terminal Classic period decided to vacate these buildings and fill and seal off the rooms, showing the disregard of Actuncan's divine and royal past. They also chose to deconstruct these buildings for construction materials. During excavations, very little of the stones used for the construction and facade remained on the structure, yet only a small about of these stones and debris remained around the structures. This indicates that the stones were intentionally removed and didn't fall off the structures over time due to natural processes. ### Open space The space between buildings can be used to better understand the relationship and community ties of the people at Actuncan. In order to do this, posthole diggers were used to take periodic ground samples along a predetermined grid in order to sample the density of macroartifacts and microartifacts, as well as take soil samples. #### Macroartifacts Macroartifacts are often subjected to post\-deposition [disturbances](/wiki/Disturbance_%28archaeology%29 "Disturbance (archaeology)"), that carry them away from their original contexts. In this instance, macroartifacts were defined as being greater than a quarter inch in size. In total, 2,369 macroartifacts were collected with a majority appearing close to architecture. This could be due to macroartifacts susceptibility to being swept away from more open spaces or that activity was concentrated around structures. Most of the macroartifacts collected were ceramics and chipped stones. #### Microartifacts Microartifacts are artifacts that are less than a quarter inch in size. They rarely move from where they are originally deposited because they are often trampled into the surface they are deposited on. In total, 74 microartifacts were analyzed and suggested that activities were not limited to just around architecture, but also occurred in open spaces between buildings. Like macroartifacts, ceramics and chipped stones accounted for the majority of microartifacts. #### Soil Samples Soil samples were collected and tested for chemical residues. Specific residues often come from human activities and can be telling about what activities were performed within a particular space. In total, 711 samples were collect, with a few being collected offsite as a control. The deposition of phosphorus can often be linked to organics from food preparation and eating, while manganese can indicate the disposal of organic waste. The deposition of iron can indicate the use of pigment used in ritual ceremonies. The levels of phosphorus, manganese, and iron around Group 1 indicate that this area might've been used for ritual practice and ceremonial feasting by the community.
[ "Excavations and interpretations\n-------------------------------", "The Actuncan Archaeological Project has held several excavations since 2001 with a focus on understanding the shift from a kingship to state\\-level society. In the 2010 field project, emphasis was placed on studying the organizational changes that occurred within the household as a result of a shift in power and the actions of rulers, while most excavations focused on changes in monumental architecture. Long\\-established families would likely be more resistant to giving up power and resources to the ruler, while new, up\\-and\\-coming families would likely side with leaders in order to gain power and resources for themselves. Therefore, during the development of a state\\-level society, one could expect to see the disruption in the growth and the subsequent breaking\\-up of large households, while the new households would expand and grow at a rate that is quicker than expected.", "### Mapping", "Actuncan was originally mapped by James McGovern in the 1990s with the Xunantunich Archaeological Project, but at the time, Actuncan was covered by dense trees making visibility low. Today, much of Actuncan has been cleared for farming and cattle. In 2010, archaeologists decided to remap the site with the better visual of the architecture. In order to better understand the layout of the site, the lives of the people who occupied it, and how they used the land, topographic and architectural data was recorded and mapped.", "### Patio\\-focused groups", "Group 1 consists of 4 structures (Structures 59, 60, 61, 62\\) surrounding an inner patio in Actuncan North. Structure 59 was flanked by smaller platforms that appeared to possibly function as slightly raised work areas. Artifacts from this structure include ceramics, lithic debris, obsidian, and a great diversity of other materials, suggesting that it could've been used as a multi\\-use workshop. At Structures 61 and 62, ceramics have been found dating to the Terminal Classic period, while little Terminal Classic pottery was discovered at Structure 59\\. This suggests that this portion of Group 1 was not inhabited or in use during this period, with activities focusing on Structures 61 and 62\\. Group 1 was first constructed in the Middle Preclassic period and grew in size during the Terminal Late Preclassic and the Late Classic.", "### Elite Houses", "Structure 41 was an elite house in Actuncan North was excavated in 2010 with the goal of defining the layout of the structure. This pyramidal structure supported plastered northern and southern terraces, and likely consisted of a large interior are with rooms located in the front and back. The original facade of Structure 41 consisted of finely, cut limestone with small, fitted stones that was then plastered. After the end of divine rule, the structure appears to have been modified. Large stacked stone as opposed to cut one, then stuccoed over. This suggest that the modified facade was not constructed with the most precision and care compared to its original elite house construction during the Classic period, and likely a result of the termination of the elite house and its renovation for other uses, such as a ritual space during the Terminal Classic.", "### C\\-shaped complex", "Group 4 consists of Structures 33, 34, and 35 site atop a large platform in Actuncan North. The site appears oddly placed and excavations sought to gain a better understanding of this groups usage. It appears that this structure was a new public space built in the middle of the already established civic center. It has been suggested that this C\\-shaped complex could've function as a council house during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic periods. This new civic space construction project seems to reflect the changing political situation that occurred during the Terminal Classic period.", "### E\\-Group and Structure 19A", "Both the E\\-Group and Structure 19A (the main administrative center and palace) were important during the time of divine rule, but their importance was lost during the shift away from divine leadership. Residents in the Terminal Classic period decided to vacate these buildings and fill and seal off the rooms, showing the disregard of Actuncan's divine and royal past. They also chose to deconstruct these buildings for construction materials. During excavations, very little of the stones used for the construction and facade remained on the structure, yet only a small about of these stones and debris remained around the structures. This indicates that the stones were intentionally removed and didn't fall off the structures over time due to natural processes.", "### Open space", "The space between buildings can be used to better understand the relationship and community ties of the people at Actuncan. In order to do this, posthole diggers were used to take periodic ground samples along a predetermined grid in order to sample the density of macroartifacts and microartifacts, as well as take soil samples.", "#### Macroartifacts", "Macroartifacts are often subjected to post\\-deposition [disturbances](/wiki/Disturbance_%28archaeology%29 \"Disturbance (archaeology)\"), that carry them away from their original contexts. In this instance, macroartifacts were defined as being greater than a quarter inch in size. In total, 2,369 macroartifacts were collected with a majority appearing close to architecture. This could be due to macroartifacts susceptibility to being swept away from more open spaces or that activity was concentrated around structures. Most of the macroartifacts collected were ceramics and chipped stones.", "#### Microartifacts", "Microartifacts are artifacts that are less than a quarter inch in size. They rarely move from where they are originally deposited because they are often trampled into the surface they are deposited on. In total, 74 microartifacts were analyzed and suggested that activities were not limited to just around architecture, but also occurred in open spaces between buildings. Like macroartifacts, ceramics and chipped stones accounted for the majority of microartifacts.", "#### Soil Samples", "Soil samples were collected and tested for chemical residues. Specific residues often come from human activities and can be telling about what activities were performed within a particular space. In total, 711 samples were collect, with a few being collected offsite as a control. The deposition of phosphorus can often be linked to organics from food preparation and eating, while manganese can indicate the disposal of organic waste. The deposition of iron can indicate the use of pigment used in ritual ceremonies. The levels of phosphorus, manganese, and iron around Group 1 indicate that this area might've been used for ritual practice and ceremonial feasting by the community.", "" ]
Club career ----------- ### Galatasaray Oğuz was signed from [Akhisar B.G.S.](/wiki/Akhisar_B.G.S. "Akhisar B.G.S.") in the summer of 2004 by Galatasaray for their [youth team](/wiki/Galatasaray_S.K._PAF "Galatasaray S.K. PAF") on the same day rivals [Fenerbahçe](/wiki/Fenerbah%C3%A7e_SK "Fenerbahçe SK") signed [Brazilian](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") playmaker [Alex](/wiki/Alexsandro_de_Souza "Alexsandro de Souza"). It was an interesting occurrence while one rival team signed an aging star playmaker for the present the other signed a young star playmaker for the future. Oğuz made his professional debut on August 13, 2006, in a home game against [Kayserispor](/wiki/Kayserispor "Kayserispor") coming on in the 84th minute for [Saša Ilić](/wiki/Sa%C5%A1a_Ili%C4%87_%28footballer_born_1977%29 "Saša Ilić (footballer born 1977)"). Galatasaray went on to win the game 4–0\. ### Vestel Manisaspor On January 12, 2007, Oğuz signed for [Vestel Manisaspor](/wiki/Manisaspor "Manisaspor") on a one and a half seasons long loan contract. This move was seen as a great opportunity for Oğuz to gain first team experience in a town close to his hometown of Akhisar. [Ersun Yanal](/wiki/Ersun_Yanal "Ersun Yanal") who was the Manisaspor coach at the time had worked with Arda Turan who was proving to be a revelation at Galatasaray that year, the previous season. Many expected similar feats from Oğuz. His time at Manisaspor was ridden with injuries and the fact that Manisaspor kept on changing their manager almost every 3 months did not help him gain a first team spot on the team either. He parted ways with the club once his contract ran out. ### Eskişehirspor Oguz signed a one season long loan contract with [Eskişehirspor](/wiki/Eski%C5%9Fehirspor "Eskişehirspor") during the summer of 2008 or the 2008–2009 season. Even though Rıza Çalımbay had stated that Oğuz was a player he was excited over signing he did not give him a chance in a single match despite Oğuz impressing in the pre\-season training camp over the summer as well as scoring a nice goal in a friendly match. The contract was mutually terminated in mid\-season as Oğuz looked to gain first team experience elsewhere. ### Istanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor After leaving Eskişehirspor. Oğuz signed a one and a half seasons long contract with Istanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor in January 2009\. At Istanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor he teams up with his former manager at the Galatasaray youth team and the U\-17 Turkish NT, Abdullah Avcı. ### Kartalspor Oğuz joined Kartalspor on loan with fellow Galatasaray youth products [Semih Kaya](/wiki/Semih_Kaya "Semih Kaya") and [Erhan Şentürk](/wiki/Erhan_%C5%9Eent%C3%BCrk "Erhan Şentürk") to work under Galatasaray legend [Ergün Penbe](/wiki/Erg%C3%BCn_Penbe "Ergün Penbe") for the 2010–2011 season.
[ "Club career\n-----------", "### Galatasaray", "Oğuz was signed from [Akhisar B.G.S.](/wiki/Akhisar_B.G.S. \"Akhisar B.G.S.\") in the summer of 2004 by Galatasaray for their [youth team](/wiki/Galatasaray_S.K._PAF \"Galatasaray S.K. PAF\") on the same day rivals [Fenerbahçe](/wiki/Fenerbah%C3%A7e_SK \"Fenerbahçe SK\") signed [Brazilian](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\") playmaker [Alex](/wiki/Alexsandro_de_Souza \"Alexsandro de Souza\"). It was an interesting occurrence while one rival team signed an aging star playmaker for the present the other signed a young star playmaker for the future.", "Oğuz made his professional debut on August 13, 2006, in a home game against [Kayserispor](/wiki/Kayserispor \"Kayserispor\") coming on in the 84th minute for [Saša Ilić](/wiki/Sa%C5%A1a_Ili%C4%87_%28footballer_born_1977%29 \"Saša Ilić (footballer born 1977)\"). Galatasaray went on to win the game 4–0\\.", "### Vestel Manisaspor", "On January 12, 2007, Oğuz signed for [Vestel Manisaspor](/wiki/Manisaspor \"Manisaspor\") on a one and a half seasons long loan contract. This move was seen as a great opportunity for Oğuz to gain first team experience in a town close to his hometown of Akhisar. [Ersun Yanal](/wiki/Ersun_Yanal \"Ersun Yanal\") who was the Manisaspor coach at the time had worked with Arda Turan who was proving to be a revelation at Galatasaray that year, the previous season. Many expected similar feats from Oğuz. His time at Manisaspor was ridden with injuries and the fact that Manisaspor kept on changing their manager almost every 3 months did not help him gain a first team spot on the team either. He parted ways with the club once his contract ran out.", "### Eskişehirspor", "Oguz signed a one season long loan contract with [Eskişehirspor](/wiki/Eski%C5%9Fehirspor \"Eskişehirspor\") during the summer of 2008 or the 2008–2009 season. Even though Rıza Çalımbay had stated that Oğuz was a player he was excited over signing he did not give him a chance in a single match despite Oğuz impressing in the pre\\-season training camp over the summer as well as scoring a nice goal in a friendly match. The contract was mutually terminated in mid\\-season as Oğuz looked to gain first team experience elsewhere.", "### Istanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor", "After leaving Eskişehirspor. Oğuz signed a one and a half seasons long contract with Istanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor in January 2009\\. At Istanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor he teams up with his former manager at the Galatasaray youth team and the U\\-17 Turkish NT, Abdullah Avcı.", "### Kartalspor", "Oğuz joined Kartalspor on loan with fellow Galatasaray youth products [Semih Kaya](/wiki/Semih_Kaya \"Semih Kaya\") and [Erhan Şentürk](/wiki/Erhan_%C5%9Eent%C3%BCrk \"Erhan Şentürk\") to work under Galatasaray legend [Ergün Penbe](/wiki/Erg%C3%BCn_Penbe \"Ergün Penbe\") for the 2010–2011 season.", "" ]
Event ----- Before the event aired live on pay\-per\-view, matches were taped for the June 22 episode of *[Xplosion](/wiki/Impact%21_Xplosion "Impact! Xplosion")*. In the first match, [3Live Kru](/wiki/3Live_Kru "3Live Kru") ([BG James](/wiki/Road_Dogg "Road Dogg"), [Konnan](/wiki/Konnan "Konnan") and [Ron Killings](/wiki/R-Truth "R-Truth")) defeated [Sal Rinauro](/wiki/Sal_Rinauro "Sal Rinauro"), Tommy Vandal and Matt Vandal. In the second match, [Trinity](/wiki/Trinity_%28wrestler%29 "Trinity (wrestler)") defeated [Malia Hosaka](/wiki/Malia_Hosaka "Malia Hosaka"). In the next match, [Julio Dinero](/wiki/Julio_Dinero "Julio Dinero") defeated [Steve Madison](/wiki/Steve_Madison "Steve Madison"). In the final taped match, [Shark Boy](/wiki/Shark_Boy "Shark Boy") defeated [Delirious](/wiki/Delirious_%28wrestler%29 "Delirious (wrestler)"). ### Preliminary matches The event kicked off with a six\-man tag team match, in which [D\-Lo Brown](/wiki/D-Lo_Brown "D-Lo Brown"), [Frankie Kazarian](/wiki/Frankie_Kazarian "Frankie Kazarian") and [The Sandman](/wiki/The_Sandman_%28wrestler%29 "The Sandman (wrestler)") took on [David Young](/wiki/David_Young_%28wrestler%29 "David Young (wrestler)"), [Don Harris](/wiki/The_Harris_Brothers "The Harris Brothers") and [Sonny Siaki](/wiki/Sonny_Siaki "Sonny Siaki"). Brown nailed a [frog splash](/wiki/Frog_splash "Frog splash") to Young for the win. After the match, Sports Entertainment Xtreme attacked Brown, Kazarian and Sandman until [Jeff Jarrett](/wiki/Jeff_Jarrett "Jeff Jarrett") and the debuting [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 "Sting (wrestler)") made the save. Next, [Chris Sabin](/wiki/Chris_Sabin "Chris Sabin") defended the [NWA\-TNA X Championship](/wiki/TNA_X_Division_Championship "TNA X Division Championship") against [Paul London](/wiki/Paul_London "Paul London"). [CM Punk](/wiki/CM_Punk "CM Punk") interfered in the match after London executed a [shooting star press](/wiki/Shooting_star_press "Shooting star press") on Sabin and Punk nailed a *[Raven Effect](/wiki/DDT_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Flowing_DDT "DDT (professional wrestling)#Flowing DDT")* to London allowing Sabin to execute a [fisherman buster](/wiki/Fisherman_buster "Fisherman buster") to London to retain the title.{{cite web \|title\=CM Punk SCREWS Paul London out of the X\-Division Title (NWA\-TNA PPV \#50\) {{!}} Classic IMPACT Moments \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=\_1tUPwGQ9LI \|website\=\[\[Impact Wrestling]] \|publisher\=\[\[YouTube]] \|accessdate\=1 July 2020 \|date\=April 11, 2018}} Next, the semi\-final match of the [Hard 10 Tournament](/wiki/TNA_Hard_10_Tournament "TNA Hard 10 Tournament") took place between [New Jack](/wiki/New_Jack "New Jack") and [Mike Sanders](/wiki/Mike_Sanders_%28wrestler%29 "Mike Sanders (wrestler)"). Shark Boy handed over [Incredible Hulk](/wiki/Hulk "Hulk") foam fist to Jack who hit Sanders with it causing Sanders to crash through a table. Jack was then awarded the win with a score of 10:7\. Next, [Jerry Lynn](/wiki/Jerry_Lynn "Jerry Lynn") took on [Justin Credible](/wiki/Justin_Credible "Justin Credible"). Lynn reversed a *[That's Incredible](/wiki/Piledriver_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Kneeling_reverse_piledriver "Piledriver (professional wrestling)#Kneeling reverse piledriver")* by Credible for a near\-fall and then Credible reversed it into a pin and used the ropes for leverage to gain the victory. Lynn attacked Credible after the match and they brawled through the crowd. Later, [Perry Saturn](/wiki/Perry_Saturn "Perry Saturn") took on [Kenzo Suzuki](/wiki/Kenzo_Suzuki "Kenzo Suzuki"). The match ended in a no contest after Lynn and Credible interfered in the match by brawling with each other. In the penultimate match, [Triple X](/wiki/Triple_X_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Triple X (professional wrestling)") ([Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels "Christopher Daniels") and [Elix Skipper](/wiki/Elix_Skipper "Elix Skipper")) defended the [NWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship "NWA World Tag Team Championship") against [America's Most Wanted](/wiki/America%27s_Most_Wanted_%28professional_wrestling%29 "America's Most Wanted (professional wrestling)") ([Chris Harris](/wiki/Chris_Harris_%28wrestler%29 "Chris Harris (wrestler)") and [James Storm](/wiki/James_Storm "James Storm")). After avoiding a belt shot by Daniels, Storm [superkicked](/wiki/Superkick "Superkick") Daniels and AMW nailed a *[Death Sentence](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_double-team_maneuvers%23Bearhug_hold%2C_diving_leg_drop_combination "Professional wrestling double-team maneuvers#Bearhug hold, diving leg drop combination")* to Daniels and Harris covered him for the pinfall but [Low Ki](/wiki/Low_Ki "Low Ki") pulled the referee out of the ring. The distraction allowed Skipper to hit Harris with the title belt and Daniels pinned him to retain the titles. ### Main event match The main event was a tag team match pitting [AJ Styles](/wiki/A.J._Styles "A.J. Styles") and mystery partner [Sean Waltman](/wiki/Sean_Waltman "Sean Waltman") against [Jeff Jarrett](/wiki/Jeff_Jarrett "Jeff Jarrett") and [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 "Sting (wrestler)"). The referee was knocked out after a superkick by Styles which allowed [Vince Russo](/wiki/Vince_Russo "Vince Russo") to hit Jarrett with a bat until [Raven](/wiki/Raven_%28wrestler%29 "Raven (wrestler)") interfered to attack Russo but [Shane Douglas](/wiki/Shane_Douglas "Shane Douglas") attacked him. Jarrett then nailed a *[Stroke](/wiki/Facebuster%23Forward_Russian_legsweep "Facebuster#Forward Russian legsweep")* to Styles from the [middle rope](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_aerial_techniques%23Super "Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Super") for the win.
[ "Event\n-----", "Before the event aired live on pay\\-per\\-view, matches were taped for the June 22 episode of *[Xplosion](/wiki/Impact%21_Xplosion \"Impact! Xplosion\")*. In the first match, [3Live Kru](/wiki/3Live_Kru \"3Live Kru\") ([BG James](/wiki/Road_Dogg \"Road Dogg\"), [Konnan](/wiki/Konnan \"Konnan\") and [Ron Killings](/wiki/R-Truth \"R-Truth\")) defeated [Sal Rinauro](/wiki/Sal_Rinauro \"Sal Rinauro\"), Tommy Vandal and Matt Vandal. In the second match, [Trinity](/wiki/Trinity_%28wrestler%29 \"Trinity (wrestler)\") defeated [Malia Hosaka](/wiki/Malia_Hosaka \"Malia Hosaka\"). In the next match, [Julio Dinero](/wiki/Julio_Dinero \"Julio Dinero\") defeated [Steve Madison](/wiki/Steve_Madison \"Steve Madison\"). In the final taped match, [Shark Boy](/wiki/Shark_Boy \"Shark Boy\") defeated [Delirious](/wiki/Delirious_%28wrestler%29 \"Delirious (wrestler)\").", "### Preliminary matches", "The event kicked off with a six\\-man tag team match, in which [D\\-Lo Brown](/wiki/D-Lo_Brown \"D-Lo Brown\"), [Frankie Kazarian](/wiki/Frankie_Kazarian \"Frankie Kazarian\") and [The Sandman](/wiki/The_Sandman_%28wrestler%29 \"The Sandman (wrestler)\") took on [David Young](/wiki/David_Young_%28wrestler%29 \"David Young (wrestler)\"), [Don Harris](/wiki/The_Harris_Brothers \"The Harris Brothers\") and [Sonny Siaki](/wiki/Sonny_Siaki \"Sonny Siaki\"). Brown nailed a [frog splash](/wiki/Frog_splash \"Frog splash\") to Young for the win. After the match, Sports Entertainment Xtreme attacked Brown, Kazarian and Sandman until [Jeff Jarrett](/wiki/Jeff_Jarrett \"Jeff Jarrett\") and the debuting [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 \"Sting (wrestler)\") made the save.", "Next, [Chris Sabin](/wiki/Chris_Sabin \"Chris Sabin\") defended the [NWA\\-TNA X Championship](/wiki/TNA_X_Division_Championship \"TNA X Division Championship\") against [Paul London](/wiki/Paul_London \"Paul London\"). [CM Punk](/wiki/CM_Punk \"CM Punk\") interfered in the match after London executed a [shooting star press](/wiki/Shooting_star_press \"Shooting star press\") on Sabin and Punk nailed a *[Raven Effect](/wiki/DDT_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Flowing_DDT \"DDT (professional wrestling)#Flowing DDT\")* to London allowing Sabin to execute a [fisherman buster](/wiki/Fisherman_buster \"Fisherman buster\") to London to retain the title.{{cite web \\|title\\=CM Punk SCREWS Paul London out of the X\\-Division Title (NWA\\-TNA PPV \\#50\\) {{!}} Classic IMPACT Moments \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=\\_1tUPwGQ9LI \\|website\\=\\[\\[Impact Wrestling]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|accessdate\\=1 July 2020 \\|date\\=April 11, 2018}}", "Next, the semi\\-final match of the [Hard 10 Tournament](/wiki/TNA_Hard_10_Tournament \"TNA Hard 10 Tournament\") took place between [New Jack](/wiki/New_Jack \"New Jack\") and [Mike Sanders](/wiki/Mike_Sanders_%28wrestler%29 \"Mike Sanders (wrestler)\"). Shark Boy handed over [Incredible Hulk](/wiki/Hulk \"Hulk\") foam fist to Jack who hit Sanders with it causing Sanders to crash through a table. Jack was then awarded the win with a score of 10:7\\.", "Next, [Jerry Lynn](/wiki/Jerry_Lynn \"Jerry Lynn\") took on [Justin Credible](/wiki/Justin_Credible \"Justin Credible\"). Lynn reversed a *[That's Incredible](/wiki/Piledriver_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Kneeling_reverse_piledriver \"Piledriver (professional wrestling)#Kneeling reverse piledriver\")* by Credible for a near\\-fall and then Credible reversed it into a pin and used the ropes for leverage to gain the victory. Lynn attacked Credible after the match and they brawled through the crowd.", "Later, [Perry Saturn](/wiki/Perry_Saturn \"Perry Saturn\") took on [Kenzo Suzuki](/wiki/Kenzo_Suzuki \"Kenzo Suzuki\"). The match ended in a no contest after Lynn and Credible interfered in the match by brawling with each other.", "In the penultimate match, [Triple X](/wiki/Triple_X_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Triple X (professional wrestling)\") ([Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels \"Christopher Daniels\") and [Elix Skipper](/wiki/Elix_Skipper \"Elix Skipper\")) defended the [NWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"NWA World Tag Team Championship\") against [America's Most Wanted](/wiki/America%27s_Most_Wanted_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"America's Most Wanted (professional wrestling)\") ([Chris Harris](/wiki/Chris_Harris_%28wrestler%29 \"Chris Harris (wrestler)\") and [James Storm](/wiki/James_Storm \"James Storm\")). After avoiding a belt shot by Daniels, Storm [superkicked](/wiki/Superkick \"Superkick\") Daniels and AMW nailed a *[Death Sentence](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_double-team_maneuvers%23Bearhug_hold%2C_diving_leg_drop_combination \"Professional wrestling double-team maneuvers#Bearhug hold, diving leg drop combination\")* to Daniels and Harris covered him for the pinfall but [Low Ki](/wiki/Low_Ki \"Low Ki\") pulled the referee out of the ring. The distraction allowed Skipper to hit Harris with the title belt and Daniels pinned him to retain the titles.", "### Main event match", "The main event was a tag team match pitting [AJ Styles](/wiki/A.J._Styles \"A.J. Styles\") and mystery partner [Sean Waltman](/wiki/Sean_Waltman \"Sean Waltman\") against [Jeff Jarrett](/wiki/Jeff_Jarrett \"Jeff Jarrett\") and [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 \"Sting (wrestler)\"). The referee was knocked out after a superkick by Styles which allowed [Vince Russo](/wiki/Vince_Russo \"Vince Russo\") to hit Jarrett with a bat until [Raven](/wiki/Raven_%28wrestler%29 \"Raven (wrestler)\") interfered to attack Russo but [Shane Douglas](/wiki/Shane_Douglas \"Shane Douglas\") attacked him. Jarrett then nailed a *[Stroke](/wiki/Facebuster%23Forward_Russian_legsweep \"Facebuster#Forward Russian legsweep\")* to Styles from the [middle rope](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_aerial_techniques%23Super \"Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Super\") for the win.", "" ]
### Preliminary matches The event kicked off with a six\-man tag team match, in which [D\-Lo Brown](/wiki/D-Lo_Brown "D-Lo Brown"), [Frankie Kazarian](/wiki/Frankie_Kazarian "Frankie Kazarian") and [The Sandman](/wiki/The_Sandman_%28wrestler%29 "The Sandman (wrestler)") took on [David Young](/wiki/David_Young_%28wrestler%29 "David Young (wrestler)"), [Don Harris](/wiki/The_Harris_Brothers "The Harris Brothers") and [Sonny Siaki](/wiki/Sonny_Siaki "Sonny Siaki"). Brown nailed a [frog splash](/wiki/Frog_splash "Frog splash") to Young for the win. After the match, Sports Entertainment Xtreme attacked Brown, Kazarian and Sandman until [Jeff Jarrett](/wiki/Jeff_Jarrett "Jeff Jarrett") and the debuting [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 "Sting (wrestler)") made the save. Next, [Chris Sabin](/wiki/Chris_Sabin "Chris Sabin") defended the [NWA\-TNA X Championship](/wiki/TNA_X_Division_Championship "TNA X Division Championship") against [Paul London](/wiki/Paul_London "Paul London"). [CM Punk](/wiki/CM_Punk "CM Punk") interfered in the match after London executed a [shooting star press](/wiki/Shooting_star_press "Shooting star press") on Sabin and Punk nailed a *[Raven Effect](/wiki/DDT_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Flowing_DDT "DDT (professional wrestling)#Flowing DDT")* to London allowing Sabin to execute a [fisherman buster](/wiki/Fisherman_buster "Fisherman buster") to London to retain the title.{{cite web \|title\=CM Punk SCREWS Paul London out of the X\-Division Title (NWA\-TNA PPV \#50\) {{!}} Classic IMPACT Moments \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=\_1tUPwGQ9LI \|website\=\[\[Impact Wrestling]] \|publisher\=\[\[YouTube]] \|accessdate\=1 July 2020 \|date\=April 11, 2018}} Next, the semi\-final match of the [Hard 10 Tournament](/wiki/TNA_Hard_10_Tournament "TNA Hard 10 Tournament") took place between [New Jack](/wiki/New_Jack "New Jack") and [Mike Sanders](/wiki/Mike_Sanders_%28wrestler%29 "Mike Sanders (wrestler)"). Shark Boy handed over [Incredible Hulk](/wiki/Hulk "Hulk") foam fist to Jack who hit Sanders with it causing Sanders to crash through a table. Jack was then awarded the win with a score of 10:7\. Next, [Jerry Lynn](/wiki/Jerry_Lynn "Jerry Lynn") took on [Justin Credible](/wiki/Justin_Credible "Justin Credible"). Lynn reversed a *[That's Incredible](/wiki/Piledriver_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Kneeling_reverse_piledriver "Piledriver (professional wrestling)#Kneeling reverse piledriver")* by Credible for a near\-fall and then Credible reversed it into a pin and used the ropes for leverage to gain the victory. Lynn attacked Credible after the match and they brawled through the crowd. Later, [Perry Saturn](/wiki/Perry_Saturn "Perry Saturn") took on [Kenzo Suzuki](/wiki/Kenzo_Suzuki "Kenzo Suzuki"). The match ended in a no contest after Lynn and Credible interfered in the match by brawling with each other. In the penultimate match, [Triple X](/wiki/Triple_X_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Triple X (professional wrestling)") ([Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels "Christopher Daniels") and [Elix Skipper](/wiki/Elix_Skipper "Elix Skipper")) defended the [NWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship "NWA World Tag Team Championship") against [America's Most Wanted](/wiki/America%27s_Most_Wanted_%28professional_wrestling%29 "America's Most Wanted (professional wrestling)") ([Chris Harris](/wiki/Chris_Harris_%28wrestler%29 "Chris Harris (wrestler)") and [James Storm](/wiki/James_Storm "James Storm")). After avoiding a belt shot by Daniels, Storm [superkicked](/wiki/Superkick "Superkick") Daniels and AMW nailed a *[Death Sentence](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_double-team_maneuvers%23Bearhug_hold%2C_diving_leg_drop_combination "Professional wrestling double-team maneuvers#Bearhug hold, diving leg drop combination")* to Daniels and Harris covered him for the pinfall but [Low Ki](/wiki/Low_Ki "Low Ki") pulled the referee out of the ring. The distraction allowed Skipper to hit Harris with the title belt and Daniels pinned him to retain the titles.
[ "### Preliminary matches", "The event kicked off with a six\\-man tag team match, in which [D\\-Lo Brown](/wiki/D-Lo_Brown \"D-Lo Brown\"), [Frankie Kazarian](/wiki/Frankie_Kazarian \"Frankie Kazarian\") and [The Sandman](/wiki/The_Sandman_%28wrestler%29 \"The Sandman (wrestler)\") took on [David Young](/wiki/David_Young_%28wrestler%29 \"David Young (wrestler)\"), [Don Harris](/wiki/The_Harris_Brothers \"The Harris Brothers\") and [Sonny Siaki](/wiki/Sonny_Siaki \"Sonny Siaki\"). Brown nailed a [frog splash](/wiki/Frog_splash \"Frog splash\") to Young for the win. After the match, Sports Entertainment Xtreme attacked Brown, Kazarian and Sandman until [Jeff Jarrett](/wiki/Jeff_Jarrett \"Jeff Jarrett\") and the debuting [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 \"Sting (wrestler)\") made the save.", "Next, [Chris Sabin](/wiki/Chris_Sabin \"Chris Sabin\") defended the [NWA\\-TNA X Championship](/wiki/TNA_X_Division_Championship \"TNA X Division Championship\") against [Paul London](/wiki/Paul_London \"Paul London\"). [CM Punk](/wiki/CM_Punk \"CM Punk\") interfered in the match after London executed a [shooting star press](/wiki/Shooting_star_press \"Shooting star press\") on Sabin and Punk nailed a *[Raven Effect](/wiki/DDT_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Flowing_DDT \"DDT (professional wrestling)#Flowing DDT\")* to London allowing Sabin to execute a [fisherman buster](/wiki/Fisherman_buster \"Fisherman buster\") to London to retain the title.{{cite web \\|title\\=CM Punk SCREWS Paul London out of the X\\-Division Title (NWA\\-TNA PPV \\#50\\) {{!}} Classic IMPACT Moments \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=\\_1tUPwGQ9LI \\|website\\=\\[\\[Impact Wrestling]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|accessdate\\=1 July 2020 \\|date\\=April 11, 2018}}", "Next, the semi\\-final match of the [Hard 10 Tournament](/wiki/TNA_Hard_10_Tournament \"TNA Hard 10 Tournament\") took place between [New Jack](/wiki/New_Jack \"New Jack\") and [Mike Sanders](/wiki/Mike_Sanders_%28wrestler%29 \"Mike Sanders (wrestler)\"). Shark Boy handed over [Incredible Hulk](/wiki/Hulk \"Hulk\") foam fist to Jack who hit Sanders with it causing Sanders to crash through a table. Jack was then awarded the win with a score of 10:7\\.", "Next, [Jerry Lynn](/wiki/Jerry_Lynn \"Jerry Lynn\") took on [Justin Credible](/wiki/Justin_Credible \"Justin Credible\"). Lynn reversed a *[That's Incredible](/wiki/Piledriver_%28professional_wrestling%29%23Kneeling_reverse_piledriver \"Piledriver (professional wrestling)#Kneeling reverse piledriver\")* by Credible for a near\\-fall and then Credible reversed it into a pin and used the ropes for leverage to gain the victory. Lynn attacked Credible after the match and they brawled through the crowd.", "Later, [Perry Saturn](/wiki/Perry_Saturn \"Perry Saturn\") took on [Kenzo Suzuki](/wiki/Kenzo_Suzuki \"Kenzo Suzuki\"). The match ended in a no contest after Lynn and Credible interfered in the match by brawling with each other.", "In the penultimate match, [Triple X](/wiki/Triple_X_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Triple X (professional wrestling)\") ([Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels \"Christopher Daniels\") and [Elix Skipper](/wiki/Elix_Skipper \"Elix Skipper\")) defended the [NWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"NWA World Tag Team Championship\") against [America's Most Wanted](/wiki/America%27s_Most_Wanted_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"America's Most Wanted (professional wrestling)\") ([Chris Harris](/wiki/Chris_Harris_%28wrestler%29 \"Chris Harris (wrestler)\") and [James Storm](/wiki/James_Storm \"James Storm\")). After avoiding a belt shot by Daniels, Storm [superkicked](/wiki/Superkick \"Superkick\") Daniels and AMW nailed a *[Death Sentence](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_double-team_maneuvers%23Bearhug_hold%2C_diving_leg_drop_combination \"Professional wrestling double-team maneuvers#Bearhug hold, diving leg drop combination\")* to Daniels and Harris covered him for the pinfall but [Low Ki](/wiki/Low_Ki \"Low Ki\") pulled the referee out of the ring. The distraction allowed Skipper to hit Harris with the title belt and Daniels pinned him to retain the titles.", "" ]
Politics -------- Cone began his political career as Mayor of Lake City, and served three terms there. He was elected to and served in the [Florida Senate](/wiki/Florida_Senate "Florida Senate") from 1907 to 1913, serving as the senate president in 1911\. Cone was active in national politics, attending the 1924 and 1928 Democratic National Conventions as a delegate before chairing the Florida delegation in 1932\. ### Governor Cone was elected as Florida governor in November 1936 and was inaugurated on January 5, 1937\. He had just turned 65, and he had problems with his health. Subsequent Governor [Spessard Holland](/wiki/Spessard_Holland "Spessard Holland") thought he was too old for the job. It was the height of the [Great Depression in the United States](/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States "Great Depression in the United States"), and Florida was suffering like every other state. During Cone's tenure, [Florida A\&M University](/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University "Florida A&M University") President [J. R. E. Lee](/wiki/J._R._E._Lee "J. R. E. Lee") was able to secure higher salaries for teachers and administrators at the university despite the statement by Gov. Cone, a Democrat and a strict segregationist, that "no Negro was worth $4000 a year."{{Cite book\|last\=Neyland\|first\=Leedell W.\|title\=Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University: A Centennial History (1887\-1987\)\|publisher\=The Florida A\&M University Foundation, Inc.\|year\=1987\|isbn\=9780000007186\|location\=Tallahassee, Florida\|pages\=169}} At that time, Florida governors held little real power; they were primarily figureheads for the state. The 1885 state constitution severely limited the governor's power – a reaction to the bitter memories of the [reconstruction era](/wiki/Reconstruction_era "Reconstruction era") following the Civil War. The governor was just one of seven elected cabinet members; only the governor was limited to a single 4\-year term. Political scientist [V. O. Key, Jr.](/wiki/V._O._Key%2C_Jr. "V. O. Key, Jr.") described politics in Florida as "every man for himself". Many state boards, commissions and departments answered to a specific cabinet member or to the legislature directly. The cabinet as a whole also decided many issues. The governor's power was vested in three tools: * Patronage: Under the [spoils system](/wiki/Spoils_system "Spoils system"), the governor spent more than half his time appointing commissioners, officers, directors and bureaucrats throughout government, which provided leverage with other elected officials. * Veto: The use and threat of legislative veto was used to influence the contents of many bills, or to gain favors, which would be called in for important matters. * Persuasion: Citizens and the press listened to the governor, who helped shape public opinion and citizens were encouraged to contact other elected officials and convey their opinions. Cone was a fiscal conservative and a "hands\-off" governor. He generally believed that the governor should not interfere in operation of state agencies or deliberations of the legislature. However, Cone did not hesitate to reject legislation he disliked, using the veto more than any prior governor. The state badly needed new revenue streams, but business opposed a sales tax and a 1924 amendment to the state constitution prohibited a state income tax. Property taxes were the primary revenue of cities and counties, and the gas tax funded most of the state's activities. As a result, little was accomplished.{{cite book\|last\=Evans\|first\=Jon S.\|url\=https://fsu.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fsu:253845/datastream/PDF/view\|title\=Weathering the Storm: Florida Politics during the Administration of Spessard L. Holland in World War II\|publisher\=Florida State University\|year\=2011\|location\=Tallahassee, Florida\|pages\=9–11}} ### Accomplishments During his term, the [Florida Highway Patrol](/wiki/Florida_Highway_Patrol "Florida Highway Patrol") was created, and although Cone opposed new taxes, he funded the agency by fees assessed on driver's licenses. To encourage tourism, the state sponsored a 110,000\-square\-foot exhibition at the [1939 New York World's Fair](/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair "1939 New York World's Fair"), the largest of any state. Florida's presentation recreated a tropical paradise and included 45 exhibits depicting natural resources, points of interest and the latest discoveries in science and industry.{{cite web\|title\=1939 NY World's Fair – Florida\|url\=http://www.1939nyworldsfair.com/worlds\_fair/wf\_tour/zone\-7/Florida.htm\|publisher\=1939 New York Worlds Fair History\|access\-date\=February 19, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723091614/http://www.1939nyworldsfair.com/worlds\_fair/wf\_tour/zone\-7/Florida.htm\|archive\-date\=July 23, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} ### Decision In 1940 Cone made an unsuccessful bid for the [U.S. Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") seat previously held by [Park Trammell](/wiki/Park_Trammell "Park Trammell"), who had died in office several years earlier. Cone was defeated in the Democratic primary by incumbent [Charles O. Andrews](/wiki/Charles_O._Andrews "Charles O. Andrews"), who easily won the general election.
[ "Politics\n--------", "Cone began his political career as Mayor of Lake City, and served three terms there. He was elected to and served in the [Florida Senate](/wiki/Florida_Senate \"Florida Senate\") from 1907 to 1913, serving as the senate president in 1911\\. Cone was active in national politics, attending the 1924 and 1928 Democratic National Conventions as a delegate before chairing the Florida delegation in 1932\\.", "### Governor", "Cone was elected as Florida governor in November 1936 and was inaugurated on January 5, 1937\\. He had just turned 65, and he had problems with his health. Subsequent Governor [Spessard Holland](/wiki/Spessard_Holland \"Spessard Holland\") thought he was too old for the job. It was the height of the [Great Depression in the United States](/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States \"Great Depression in the United States\"), and Florida was suffering like every other state.", "During Cone's tenure, [Florida A\\&M University](/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University \"Florida A&M University\") President [J. R. E. Lee](/wiki/J._R._E._Lee \"J. R. E. Lee\") was able to secure higher salaries for teachers and administrators at the university despite the statement by Gov. Cone, a Democrat and a strict segregationist, that \"no Negro was worth $4000 a year.\"{{Cite book\\|last\\=Neyland\\|first\\=Leedell W.\\|title\\=Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University: A Centennial History (1887\\-1987\\)\\|publisher\\=The Florida A\\&M University Foundation, Inc.\\|year\\=1987\\|isbn\\=9780000007186\\|location\\=Tallahassee, Florida\\|pages\\=169}}", "At that time, Florida governors held little real power; they were primarily figureheads for the state. The 1885 state constitution severely limited the governor's power – a reaction to the bitter memories of the [reconstruction era](/wiki/Reconstruction_era \"Reconstruction era\") following the Civil War. The governor was just one of seven elected cabinet members; only the governor was limited to a single 4\\-year term. Political scientist [V. O. Key, Jr.](/wiki/V._O._Key%2C_Jr. \"V. O. Key, Jr.\") described politics in Florida as \"every man for himself\".", "Many state boards, commissions and departments answered to a specific cabinet member or to the legislature directly. The cabinet as a whole also decided many issues. The governor's power was vested in three tools:\n* Patronage: Under the [spoils system](/wiki/Spoils_system \"Spoils system\"), the governor spent more than half his time appointing commissioners, officers, directors and bureaucrats throughout government, which provided leverage with other elected officials.\n* Veto: The use and threat of legislative veto was used to influence the contents of many bills, or to gain favors, which would be called in for important matters.\n* Persuasion: Citizens and the press listened to the governor, who helped shape public opinion and citizens were encouraged to contact other elected officials and convey their opinions.", "Cone was a fiscal conservative and a \"hands\\-off\" governor. He generally believed that the governor should not interfere in operation of state agencies or deliberations of the legislature. However, Cone did not hesitate to reject legislation he disliked, using the veto more than any prior governor. The state badly needed new revenue streams, but business opposed a sales tax and a 1924 amendment to the state constitution prohibited a state income tax. Property taxes were the primary revenue of cities and counties, and the gas tax funded most of the state's activities. As a result, little was accomplished.{{cite book\\|last\\=Evans\\|first\\=Jon S.\\|url\\=https://fsu.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fsu:253845/datastream/PDF/view\\|title\\=Weathering the Storm: Florida Politics during the Administration of Spessard L. Holland in World War II\\|publisher\\=Florida State University\\|year\\=2011\\|location\\=Tallahassee, Florida\\|pages\\=9–11}}", "### Accomplishments", "During his term, the [Florida Highway Patrol](/wiki/Florida_Highway_Patrol \"Florida Highway Patrol\") was created, and although Cone opposed new taxes, he funded the agency by fees assessed on driver's licenses. To encourage tourism, the state sponsored a 110,000\\-square\\-foot exhibition at the [1939 New York World's Fair](/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair \"1939 New York World's Fair\"), the largest of any state.\nFlorida's presentation recreated a tropical paradise and included 45 exhibits depicting natural resources, points of interest and the latest discoveries in science and industry.{{cite web\\|title\\=1939 NY World's Fair – Florida\\|url\\=http://www.1939nyworldsfair.com/worlds\\_fair/wf\\_tour/zone\\-7/Florida.htm\\|publisher\\=1939 New York Worlds Fair History\\|access\\-date\\=February 19, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723091614/http://www.1939nyworldsfair.com/worlds\\_fair/wf\\_tour/zone\\-7/Florida.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=July 23, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Decision", "In 1940 Cone made an unsuccessful bid for the [U.S. Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") seat previously held by [Park Trammell](/wiki/Park_Trammell \"Park Trammell\"), who had died in office several years earlier. Cone was defeated in the Democratic primary by incumbent [Charles O. Andrews](/wiki/Charles_O._Andrews \"Charles O. Andrews\"), who easily won the general election.", "" ]
Components ---------- ### XCOM The XPL compiler, called **XCOM**, is a one\-pass compiler using a table\-driven [parser](/wiki/Parser "Parser") and simple [code generation](/wiki/Code_generation_%28compiler%29 "Code generation (compiler)") techniques. Versions of XCOM exist for different [machine architectures](/wiki/Instruction_set "Instruction set"), using different hand\-written code generation modules for those targets. The original target was [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 "IBM System/360"), which is a proper subset of [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 "IBM System/370"), [IBM System/390](/wiki/IBM_System/390 "IBM System/390") and [IBM System z](/wiki/IBM_System_z "IBM System z"). XCOM compiles from XPL source code, but since XCOM itself is written in XPL it can compile itself – it is a *self\-compiling compiler*, not reliant on other compilers. Several famous languages have self\-compiling compilers, including [Burroughs B5000](/wiki/Burroughs_B5000 "Burroughs B5000") Algol, PL/I, [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 "C (programming language)"), [LISP](/wiki/LISP "LISP"), and [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 "Java (programming language)"). Creating such compilers is a chicken\-and\-egg conundrum. The language is first implemented by a temporary compiler written in some other language, or even by an interpreter (often an interpreter for an intermediate code, as [BCPL](/wiki/BCPL "BCPL") can do with [intcode](/wiki/Intcode "Intcode") or [O\-code](/wiki/O-code "O-code")). XCOM began as an Algol program running on Burroughs machines, translating XPL source code into System/360 machine code. The XPL team manually turned its Algol source code into XPL source code. That XPL version of XCOM was then compiled on Burroughs, creating a self\-compiling XCOM for System/360 machines. The Algol version was then thrown away, and all further improvements happened in the XPL version only. This is called [bootstrapping](/wiki/Bootstrapping_%28compilers%29 "Bootstrapping (compilers)") the compiler. The authors of XPL invented the [tombstone diagram](/wiki/Tombstone_diagram "Tombstone diagram") or T\-diagram to document the bootstrapping process. [Retargeting](/wiki/Retargeting "Retargeting") the compiler for a new machine architecture is a similar exercise, except only the code generation modules need to be changed. XCOM is a one\-pass compiler (but with an emitted code fix\-up process for forward branches, loops and other defined situations). It emits [machine code](/wiki/Machine_code "Machine code") for each statement as each grammar rule within a statement is recognized, rather than waiting until it has parsed the entire procedure or entire program. There are no parse trees or other required intermediate program forms, and no loop\-wide or procedure\-wide optimizations. XCOM does, however, perform [peephole optimization](/wiki/Peephole_optimization "Peephole optimization"). The code generation response to each grammar rule is attached to that rule. This immediate approach can result in inefficient code and inefficient use of machine registers. Such are offset by the efficiency of implementation, namely, the use of dynamic strings mentioned earlier: in processing text during compilation, substring operations are frequently performed. These are as fast as an assignment to an integer; the actual substring is not moved. In short, it is quick, easy to teach in a short course, fits into modest\-sized memories, and is easy to change for different languages or different target machines. ### ANALYZER The XCOM compiler has a hand\-written [lexical scanner](/wiki/Lexical_analysis "Lexical analysis") and a mechanically\-generated parser. The syntax of the compiler's input language (in this case, XPL) is described by a simplified [BNF grammar](/wiki/BNF_grammar "BNF grammar"). XPL's grammar analyzer tool **ANALYZER** or **XA** turns this into a set of large data tables describing all legal combinations of the syntax rules and how to discern them. This table generation step is re\-done only when the language is changed. When the compiler runs, those data tables are used by a small, language\-independent parsing algorithm to parse and respond to the input language. This style of table\-driven parser is generally easier to write than an entirely hand\-written [recursive descent](/wiki/Recursive_descent "Recursive descent") parser. XCOM uses a [bottom\-up parsing](/wiki/Bottom-up_parsing "Bottom-up parsing") method, in which the compiler can delay its decision about which syntax rule it has encountered until it has seen the rightmost end of that phrase. This handles a wider range of programming languages than [top\-down](/wiki/Top-down_parsing "Top-down parsing") methods, in which the compiler must guess or commit to a specific syntax rule early, when it has only seen the left end of a phrase. ### Runtime XPL includes a minimal **runtime support library** for allocating and garbage\-collecting XPL string values. The source code for this library must be included into most every program written in XPL. ### SKELETON The last piece of the XPL compiler writing system is an example compiler named **SKELETON**. This is just XCOM with parse tables for an example toy grammar instead of XPL's full grammar. It is a starting point for building a compiler for some new language, if that language differs much from XPL. ### XMON XPL is run under the control of a monitor, **XMON**, which is the only operating system\-specific part of this system, and which acts as a "loader" for XCOM itself or any programs which were developed using XCOM, and also provides three auxiliary storage devices for XCOM's use, and which are directly accessed by block number. The originally published XMON was optimized for [IBM 2311s](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives%23IBM_2311 "History of IBM magnetic disk drives#IBM 2311"). An XMON parameter FILE\= enabled the monitor to efficiently use other disks with larger block sizes.A Compiler Generator page 251 The working disk block size was also a compile\-time constant in XCOM.A Compiler Generator, page 372 XMON used a very simple strategy for disk direct access. NOTE provided the address of a disk track. POINT set the location of the next disk track to be the address previously returned by NOTE. This strategy was adopted to allow easy porting of XMON to other OSes, and to avoid the much more complicated disk direct access options available at that time.A Compiler Generator Appendix A1,7 Converting XMON from its primitive use of NOTE, POINT and READ/WRITE disk operations—with precisely 1 block per track—to [EXCP](/wiki/EXCP "EXCP") (i.e., write/create new records) and [XDAP](/wiki/Execute_Direct_Access_Program "Execute Direct Access Program") (i.e., read/update old records)—with n blocks per track, where n was computed at run\-time from the target device's physical characteristics and could be significantly greater than 1—achieved significantly improved application performance and decreased operating system overhead. Although originally developed for [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360 "OS/360"), XMON (either the original NOTE, POINT and READ/WRITE implementation; or the EXCP and XDAP enhancement) will run on subsequently released IBM OSes, including OS/370, XA, [OS/390](/wiki/OS/390 "OS/390") and [z/OS](/wiki/Z/OS "Z/OS"), generally without any changes.
[ "Components\n----------", "### XCOM", "The XPL compiler, called **XCOM**, is a one\\-pass compiler using a table\\-driven [parser](/wiki/Parser \"Parser\") and simple [code generation](/wiki/Code_generation_%28compiler%29 \"Code generation (compiler)\") techniques. Versions of XCOM exist for different [machine architectures](/wiki/Instruction_set \"Instruction set\"), using different hand\\-written code generation modules for those targets. The original target was [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\"), which is a proper subset of [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\"), [IBM System/390](/wiki/IBM_System/390 \"IBM System/390\") and [IBM System z](/wiki/IBM_System_z \"IBM System z\").", "XCOM compiles from XPL source code, but since XCOM itself is written in XPL it can compile itself – it is a *self\\-compiling compiler*, not reliant on other compilers. Several famous languages have self\\-compiling compilers, including [Burroughs B5000](/wiki/Burroughs_B5000 \"Burroughs B5000\") Algol, PL/I, [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\"), [LISP](/wiki/LISP \"LISP\"), and [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\"). Creating such compilers is a chicken\\-and\\-egg conundrum. The language is first implemented by a temporary compiler written in some other language, or even by an interpreter (often an interpreter for an intermediate code, as [BCPL](/wiki/BCPL \"BCPL\") can do with [intcode](/wiki/Intcode \"Intcode\") or [O\\-code](/wiki/O-code \"O-code\")).", "XCOM began as an Algol program running on Burroughs machines, translating XPL source code into System/360 machine code. The XPL team manually turned its Algol source code into XPL source code. That XPL version of XCOM was then compiled on Burroughs, creating a self\\-compiling XCOM for System/360 machines. The Algol version was then thrown away, and all further improvements happened in the XPL version only. This is called [bootstrapping](/wiki/Bootstrapping_%28compilers%29 \"Bootstrapping (compilers)\") the compiler. The authors of XPL invented the [tombstone diagram](/wiki/Tombstone_diagram \"Tombstone diagram\") or T\\-diagram to document the bootstrapping process.", "[Retargeting](/wiki/Retargeting \"Retargeting\") the compiler for a new machine architecture is a similar exercise, except only the code generation modules need to be changed.", "XCOM is a one\\-pass compiler (but with an emitted code fix\\-up process for forward branches, loops and other defined situations). It emits [machine code](/wiki/Machine_code \"Machine code\") for each statement as each grammar rule within a statement is recognized, rather than waiting until it has parsed the entire procedure or entire program. There are no parse trees or other required intermediate program forms, and no loop\\-wide or procedure\\-wide optimizations. XCOM does, however, perform [peephole optimization](/wiki/Peephole_optimization \"Peephole optimization\"). The code generation response to each grammar rule is attached to that rule. This immediate approach can result in inefficient code and inefficient use of machine registers. Such are offset by the efficiency of implementation, namely, the use of dynamic strings mentioned earlier: in processing text during compilation, substring operations are frequently performed. These are as fast as an assignment to an integer; the actual substring is not moved. In short, it is quick, easy to teach in a short course, fits into modest\\-sized memories, and is easy to change for different languages or different target machines.", "### ANALYZER", "The XCOM compiler has a hand\\-written [lexical scanner](/wiki/Lexical_analysis \"Lexical analysis\") and a mechanically\\-generated parser. The syntax of the compiler's input language (in this case, XPL) is described by a simplified [BNF grammar](/wiki/BNF_grammar \"BNF grammar\"). XPL's grammar analyzer tool **ANALYZER** or **XA** turns this into a set of large data tables describing all legal combinations of the syntax rules and how to discern them. This table generation step is re\\-done only when the language is changed. When the compiler runs, those data tables are used by a small, language\\-independent parsing algorithm to parse and respond to the input language. This style of table\\-driven parser is generally easier to write than an entirely hand\\-written [recursive descent](/wiki/Recursive_descent \"Recursive descent\") parser. XCOM uses a [bottom\\-up parsing](/wiki/Bottom-up_parsing \"Bottom-up parsing\") method, in which the compiler can delay its decision about which syntax rule it has encountered until it has seen the rightmost end of that phrase. This handles a wider range of programming languages than [top\\-down](/wiki/Top-down_parsing \"Top-down parsing\") methods, in which the compiler must guess or commit to a specific syntax rule early, when it has only seen the left end of a phrase.", "### Runtime", "XPL includes a minimal **runtime support library** for allocating and garbage\\-collecting XPL string values. The source code for this library must be included into most every program written in XPL.", "### SKELETON", "The last piece of the XPL compiler writing system is an example compiler named **SKELETON**. This is just XCOM with parse tables for an example toy grammar instead of XPL's full grammar. It is a starting point for building a compiler for some new language, if that language differs much from XPL.", "### XMON", "XPL is run under the control of a monitor, **XMON**, which is the only operating system\\-specific part of this system, and which acts as a \"loader\" for XCOM itself or any programs which were developed using XCOM, and also provides three auxiliary storage devices for XCOM's use, and which are directly accessed by block number. The originally published XMON was optimized for [IBM 2311s](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives%23IBM_2311 \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives#IBM 2311\"). An XMON parameter FILE\\= enabled the monitor to efficiently use other disks with larger block sizes.A Compiler Generator page 251 The working disk block size was also a compile\\-time constant in\nXCOM.A Compiler Generator, page 372", "XMON used a very simple strategy for disk direct access. NOTE provided the address of a disk track. POINT set the location of the next disk track to be the address previously returned by NOTE. This strategy was adopted to allow easy porting of XMON to other OSes, and to avoid the much more complicated disk direct access options available at that time.A Compiler Generator Appendix A1,7", "Converting XMON from its primitive use of NOTE, POINT and READ/WRITE disk operations—with precisely 1 block per track—to [EXCP](/wiki/EXCP \"EXCP\") (i.e., write/create new records) and [XDAP](/wiki/Execute_Direct_Access_Program \"Execute Direct Access Program\") (i.e., read/update old records)—with n blocks per track, where n was computed at run\\-time from the target device's physical characteristics and could be significantly greater than 1—achieved significantly improved application performance and decreased operating system overhead.", "Although originally developed for [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360 \"OS/360\"), XMON (either the original NOTE, POINT and READ/WRITE implementation; or the EXCP and XDAP enhancement) will run on subsequently released IBM OSes, including OS/370, XA, [OS/390](/wiki/OS/390 \"OS/390\") and [z/OS](/wiki/Z/OS \"Z/OS\"), generally without any changes.", "" ]
History ------- Floyd B. Brown was the child of Black tenant farmers in Mississippi. His mother encouraged him to study under [Booker T. Washington](/wiki/Booker_T._Washington "Booker T. Washington") at [Tuskegee Institute](/wiki/Tuskegee_University "Tuskegee University"), and he did so, earning a high school certificate in 1917\. While studying, he also was a book salesman, and sold books at Fargo, Arkansas. He then studied at the Phelps Hall Bible School at Tuskegee and became an ordained Baptist minister the next year.{{cite web \|title\=Floyd B. Brown (1891\-1961\) \|url\=https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/floyd\-b\-brown\-420/ \|website\=Encyclopedia of Arkansas \|publisher\=Central Arkansas Library System (CALS)}} At this time, schools were segregated and public schools were not available to Black children. Brown returned to Fargo to start a school there for Black students similar to what he experienced at Tuskegee.{{cite AV media \|people\= Hill, Jack (Producer) \|date\= 1994 \|title\=Reporting for Arkansas: Work Will Win \|url\=https://vimeo.com/708267721 \|access\-date\=16 March 2024 \|archive\-url\= \|archive\-date\= \|format\= \|time\= \|location\= \|publisher\=Arkansas Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and Special Collections at University of Arkansas Libraries }} Brown was drawing upon what he learned from Booker T. Washington and at Tuskegee Institute and also from the [Rosenwald schools](/wiki/Rosenwald_School "Rosenwald School") being built throughout the American South. The stated goal of "head, heart, and hand" with vocational and academic education even for students who could not pay the tuition mirror that of [John Brown University](/wiki/John_Brown_University "John Brown University") which was established at the same time in Arkansas. ### Fargo Agricultural School (FAS) (1920\-1949\) The original school was on 20 acres of land southeast of Fargo. It opened on Jan. 1, 1920 with a one\-room building, one teacher named Ruth Mahon, and fifteen [elementary school age](/wiki/Primary_education "Primary education") students. The next year, his wife Lillian Epps Brown taught and headed a new home economics department. It soon grew into a boarding school for [high school students](/wiki/Secondary_school "Secondary school"). It was a private, coeducational, nondenominational residential school that offered "training for the head, hands and heart". The school offered a combination of academic and vocational education, terminating in a high school diploma, at a time when Black people in the United States had an average of five years or less of formal education.{{cite news \|title\=ARKANSAS A\-Z: Fargo Agricultural School offered early boarding\-school education for Black youth \|url\=https://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2023/nov/25/arkansas\-a\-z\-fargo\-agricultural\-school\-offered/ \|work\=Arkansas Democrat Gazette \|date\=25 November 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202044023/https://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2023/nov/25/arkansas\-a\-z\-fargo\-agricultural\-school\-offered/ \|archive\-date\=2 December 2023}} The first graduate, Ms. Willie Starks (Class of 1924\), went on to AM\&N at Pine Bluff (now [University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff](/wiki/University_of_Arkansas_at_Pine_Bluff "University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff") and became a teacher. In the 1930s and 1940s, the tuition, room, and board fees were $15 a month but nobody was turned away for lack of money. The school's finances were aided by its farm and home economic crafts, and by Brown's significant fundraising efforts. By 1945, the school had grown from the initial 20 acres to 550 acres, with 12 buildings, and 180 students. Students and faculty built the buildings and made products for the school to sell.{{cite news \|last1\=Schnedler \|first1\=Jack \|title\=ARKANSAS SIGHTSEEING: Black history center of Fargo museum \|url\=https://www.nwaonline.com/news/2020/sep/22/black\-history\-center\-of\-fargo\-museum/ \|access\-date\=17 March 2024 \|work\=Northwest Arkansas Democrat Gazette \|date\=22 September 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317001131/https://www.nwaonline.com/news/2020/sep/22/black\-history\-center\-of\-fargo\-museum/ \|archive\-date\=17 March 2024}} ### Fargo Training School for Girls (1949\-1955\) In 1949, Brown sold the campus to the state of Arkansas for a marginal amount of money. The school had grown to 14 buildings on almost 800 acres of land.{{cite web \|title\=NRHP nomination for Fargo Training School Historic District \|url\=http://www.arkansaspreservation.com/National\-Register\-Listings/PDF/MO0163\.nr.pdf \|publisher\=Arkansas Preservation \|access\-date\=17 March 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613041203/http://www.arkansaspreservation.com/National\-Register\-Listings/PDF/MO0163\.nr.pdf \|archive\-date\=June 13, 2015}} Under state ownership, the school became the Fargo Training School for Negro Girls. When the first school year started, the state decided that training schools were part of the penal system, affecting two schools for white children (at [Pine Bluff, Arkansas](/wiki/Pine_Bluff%2C_Arkansas "Pine Bluff, Arkansas") for boys, and [Alexander, Arkansas](/wiki/Alexander%2C_Arkansas "Alexander, Arkansas") for girls) and Black children (at [Wrightsville, Arkansas](/wiki/Wrightsville%2C_Arkansas "Wrightsville, Arkansas") for boys, and Fargo for girls). Despite this, the classwork at Fargo remained relatively unchanged and the school was run with the same ideals for academic and vocational education. Girls were sent to the school for reasons such as having divorced parents ("a broken home"), disobeying their parents, or having problems in school. To build cohesiveness between the students from many different towns, the school added sports to the curriculum. Brown remained as the school superintendent, and continued in that role until he retired in 1954, the same year the US Supreme Court integrated schools with their [Brown v. Board of Education](/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education "Brown v. Board of Education") ruling. ### Fargo Training School for Girls after desegregation (1955\-1968\) After Brown retired, Dr. R.M. Foster became superintendent. The school decided that the old buildings (which were built during the Fargo Agricultural School days) would cost too much to repair, and all of the buildings were demolished and replaced except the foundation and steps for the J.R. Jackson Gymnasium. The Dr. Floyd Brown building became the center of the school, housing the dorm rooms, kitchen and cafeteria, classrooms, chapel, auditorium, and office space. In 1967, a court case{{cite web \|title\=The Board of Managers of the Arkansas Training School for Boys at Wrightsville et al., Appellants, v. Mrs. Nona Mae George et al., Appellees, 377 F.2d 228 (8th Cir. 1967\) \|url\=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate\-courts/F2/377/228/345543/ \|website\=Justia \|access\-date\=17 March 2024}} involving one of the other four training schools affected Fargo Training School as well: all four training schools would be desegregated. The Arkansas Juvenile Training Board closed the Fargo Training School, giving the desegregation order as their main reason. The Black female students were transferred to the training school in Alexander that was originally designated for only white female students. ### Non\-profit ownership In 1981, the state sold the unused property to the newly\-founded Arkansas Land and Farm Development Corporation (ALFDC), a nonprofit that works with area farmers, ranchers, and other rural families.{{cite web \|title\=Our Roots and Who We Are \|url\=https://www.arlcdc.org/about\-alcdc\-board\-members \|website\=Arkansas Land and Community Development Corporation (ALCDC)}}{{cite news \|last1\=Crockett \|first1\=Ashley \|title\=Arkansas Land and Community Development Corporation to host farmers seminar \|url\=https://katv.com/news/local/arkansas\-land\-and\-community\-development\-corporation\-to\-host\-farmers\-seminar \|access\-date\=17 March 2024 \|work\=KATV (ABC television affiliate) \|date\=21 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626164150/https://katv.com/news/local/arkansas\-land\-and\-community\-development\-corporation\-to\-host\-farmers\-seminar \|archive\-date\=26 June 2022}}
[ "History\n-------", "Floyd B. Brown was the child of Black tenant farmers in Mississippi. His mother encouraged him to study under [Booker T. Washington](/wiki/Booker_T._Washington \"Booker T. Washington\") at [Tuskegee Institute](/wiki/Tuskegee_University \"Tuskegee University\"), and he did so, earning a high school certificate in 1917\\. While studying, he also was a book salesman, and sold books at Fargo, Arkansas. He then studied at the Phelps Hall Bible School at Tuskegee and became an ordained Baptist minister the next year.{{cite web \\|title\\=Floyd B. Brown (1891\\-1961\\) \\|url\\=https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/floyd\\-b\\-brown\\-420/ \\|website\\=Encyclopedia of Arkansas \\|publisher\\=Central Arkansas Library System (CALS)}}", "At this time, schools were segregated and public schools were not available to Black children. Brown returned to Fargo to start a school there for Black students similar to what he experienced at Tuskegee.{{cite AV media \\|people\\= Hill, Jack (Producer) \\|date\\= 1994 \\|title\\=Reporting for Arkansas: Work Will Win \\|url\\=https://vimeo.com/708267721 \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\= \\|archive\\-date\\= \\|format\\= \\|time\\= \\|location\\= \\|publisher\\=Arkansas Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and Special Collections at University of Arkansas Libraries }} Brown was drawing upon what he learned from Booker T. Washington and at Tuskegee Institute and also from the [Rosenwald schools](/wiki/Rosenwald_School \"Rosenwald School\") being built throughout the American South. The stated goal of \"head, heart, and hand\" with vocational and academic education even for students who could not pay the tuition mirror that of [John Brown University](/wiki/John_Brown_University \"John Brown University\") which was established at the same time in Arkansas.", "### Fargo Agricultural School (FAS) (1920\\-1949\\)", "The original school was on 20 acres of land southeast of Fargo. It opened on Jan. 1, 1920 with a one\\-room building, one teacher named Ruth Mahon, and fifteen [elementary school age](/wiki/Primary_education \"Primary education\") students. The next year, his wife Lillian Epps Brown taught and headed a new home economics department. It soon grew into a boarding school for [high school students](/wiki/Secondary_school \"Secondary school\").", "It was a private, coeducational, nondenominational residential school that offered \"training for the head, hands and heart\". The school offered a combination of academic and vocational education, terminating in a high school diploma, at a time when Black people in the United States had an average of five years or less of formal education.{{cite news \\|title\\=ARKANSAS A\\-Z: Fargo Agricultural School offered early boarding\\-school education for Black youth \\|url\\=https://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2023/nov/25/arkansas\\-a\\-z\\-fargo\\-agricultural\\-school\\-offered/ \\|work\\=Arkansas Democrat Gazette \\|date\\=25 November 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202044023/https://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2023/nov/25/arkansas\\-a\\-z\\-fargo\\-agricultural\\-school\\-offered/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2 December 2023}}", "The first graduate, Ms. Willie Starks (Class of 1924\\), went on to AM\\&N at Pine Bluff (now [University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff](/wiki/University_of_Arkansas_at_Pine_Bluff \"University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff\") and became a teacher.", "In the 1930s and 1940s, the tuition, room, and board fees were $15 a month but nobody was turned away for lack of money. The school's finances were aided by its farm and home economic crafts, and by Brown's significant fundraising efforts. By 1945, the school had grown from the initial 20 acres to 550 acres, with 12 buildings, and 180 students. Students and faculty built the buildings and made products for the school to sell.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Schnedler \\|first1\\=Jack \\|title\\=ARKANSAS SIGHTSEEING: Black history center of Fargo museum \\|url\\=https://www.nwaonline.com/news/2020/sep/22/black\\-history\\-center\\-of\\-fargo\\-museum/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2024 \\|work\\=Northwest Arkansas Democrat Gazette \\|date\\=22 September 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317001131/https://www.nwaonline.com/news/2020/sep/22/black\\-history\\-center\\-of\\-fargo\\-museum/ \\|archive\\-date\\=17 March 2024}}", "### Fargo Training School for Girls (1949\\-1955\\)", "In 1949, Brown sold the campus to the state of Arkansas for a marginal amount of money. The school had grown to 14 buildings on almost 800 acres of land.{{cite web \\|title\\=NRHP nomination for Fargo Training School Historic District \\|url\\=http://www.arkansaspreservation.com/National\\-Register\\-Listings/PDF/MO0163\\.nr.pdf \\|publisher\\=Arkansas Preservation \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613041203/http://www.arkansaspreservation.com/National\\-Register\\-Listings/PDF/MO0163\\.nr.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=June 13, 2015}}", "Under state ownership, the school became the Fargo Training School for Negro Girls. When the first school year started, the state decided that training schools were part of the penal system, affecting two schools for white children (at [Pine Bluff, Arkansas](/wiki/Pine_Bluff%2C_Arkansas \"Pine Bluff, Arkansas\") for boys, and [Alexander, Arkansas](/wiki/Alexander%2C_Arkansas \"Alexander, Arkansas\") for girls) and Black children (at [Wrightsville, Arkansas](/wiki/Wrightsville%2C_Arkansas \"Wrightsville, Arkansas\") for boys, and Fargo for girls). Despite this, the classwork at Fargo remained relatively unchanged and the school was run with the same ideals for academic and vocational education.", "Girls were sent to the school for reasons such as having divorced parents (\"a broken home\"), disobeying their parents, or having problems in school. To build cohesiveness between the students from many different towns, the school added sports to the curriculum.", "Brown remained as the school superintendent, and continued in that role until he retired in 1954, the same year the US Supreme Court integrated schools with their [Brown v. Board of Education](/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education \"Brown v. Board of Education\") ruling.", "### Fargo Training School for Girls after desegregation (1955\\-1968\\)", "After Brown retired, Dr. R.M. Foster became superintendent. The school decided that the old buildings (which were built during the Fargo Agricultural School days) would cost too much to repair, and all of the buildings were demolished and replaced except the foundation and steps for the J.R. Jackson Gymnasium. The Dr. Floyd Brown building became the center of the school, housing the dorm rooms, kitchen and cafeteria, classrooms, chapel, auditorium, and office space.", "In 1967, a court case{{cite web \\|title\\=The Board of Managers of the Arkansas Training School for Boys at Wrightsville et al., Appellants, v. Mrs. Nona Mae George et al., Appellees, 377 F.2d 228 (8th Cir. 1967\\) \\|url\\=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate\\-courts/F2/377/228/345543/ \\|website\\=Justia \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2024}} involving one of the other four training schools affected Fargo Training School as well: all four training schools would be desegregated. The Arkansas Juvenile Training Board closed the Fargo Training School, giving the desegregation order as their main reason. The Black female students were transferred to the training school in Alexander that was originally designated for only white female students.", "### Non\\-profit ownership", "In 1981, the state sold the unused property to the newly\\-founded Arkansas Land and Farm Development Corporation (ALFDC), a nonprofit that works with area farmers, ranchers, and other rural families.{{cite web \\|title\\=Our Roots and Who We Are \\|url\\=https://www.arlcdc.org/about\\-alcdc\\-board\\-members \\|website\\=Arkansas Land and Community Development Corporation (ALCDC)}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Crockett \\|first1\\=Ashley \\|title\\=Arkansas Land and Community Development Corporation to host farmers seminar \\|url\\=https://katv.com/news/local/arkansas\\-land\\-and\\-community\\-development\\-corporation\\-to\\-host\\-farmers\\-seminar \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2024 \\|work\\=KATV (ABC television affiliate) \\|date\\=21 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626164150/https://katv.com/news/local/arkansas\\-land\\-and\\-community\\-development\\-corporation\\-to\\-host\\-farmers\\-seminar \\|archive\\-date\\=26 June 2022}}", "" ]
Features of the Fargo Training School Historic District ------------------------------------------------------- On May 27, 2010, 15 acres of the old campus, with five remaining buildings, was added to the US National Register of Historic Places as an historic district. The buildings are in an [International style](/wiki/International_style_%28architecture%29 "International style (architecture)"), part of the [Modern movement](/wiki/Modern_architecture "Modern architecture"). They are part of the Register because of their historic significance, and are the only preserved training school of its type from that era in Arkansas. The district includes five historic buildings, one altered building, and an historic site. ### Gymnasium (not historically preserved) At 484 Floyd Brown Drive and currently used as business offices for ALFDC, this is the first building on the left as you enter the campus. This gymnasium was built in about 1960, also with the Plain\-Traditional style, to replace the J.R. Jackson Gymnasium. Two additions were made to the building in the 1980s. ### Superintendent's Home At 495 Floyd Brown Drive, this building is a small, one\-story [Minimal Ranch](/wiki/Ranch-style_house "Ranch-style house") built in about 1960\. ### Teacher's Cottage At 516 Floyd Brown Drive; like the Superintendent's Home, this also is a small one\-story ranch style home built in about 1960\. ### Floyd Brown building At 543 Floyd Brown Drive, across the street from the Teacher's Cottage, this building was constructed in 1958 to replace a frame structure used by the Fargo Agricultural School. It is an L\-shaped building with an L\-shaped addition on its east side that gives it an unusual shape. It was designed in the International style. ### Brown\-Fargo Agricultural School Museum This is the last building on the left, next to the Teacher's Cottage. It is a one\-story Plain\-Traditional building was constructed in 1960\. Floyd Brown helped establish this museum for the Fargo Agricultural School alumni, by donating $10,000 for its construction. Graduates gather here for class reunions. ### Mid\-Delta Head Start building At 551 Floyd Brown Drive, across the street from the museum, this one\-story nonagonal building was constructed in about 1960, also in the International style. ### Site of the former J.R. Jackson Gymnasium Here only a sidewalk, steps, and part of the foundation remain of the first gymnasium for Black students in eastern Arkansas. An exhibit panel explains the history of Fargo Agricultural School.
[ "Features of the Fargo Training School Historic District\n-------------------------------------------------------", "On May 27, 2010, 15 acres of the old campus, with five remaining buildings, was added to the US National Register of Historic Places as an historic district. The buildings are in an [International style](/wiki/International_style_%28architecture%29 \"International style (architecture)\"), part of the [Modern movement](/wiki/Modern_architecture \"Modern architecture\"). They are part of the Register because of their historic significance, and are the only preserved training school of its type from that era in Arkansas.", "The district includes five historic buildings, one altered building, and an historic site.", "### Gymnasium (not historically preserved)", "At 484 Floyd Brown Drive and currently used as business offices for ALFDC, this is the first building on the left as you enter the campus. This gymnasium was built in about 1960, also with the Plain\\-Traditional style, to replace the J.R. Jackson Gymnasium. Two additions were made to the building in the 1980s.", "### Superintendent's Home", "At 495 Floyd Brown Drive, this building is a small, one\\-story [Minimal Ranch](/wiki/Ranch-style_house \"Ranch-style house\") built in about 1960\\.", "### Teacher's Cottage", "At 516 Floyd Brown Drive; like the Superintendent's Home, this also is a small one\\-story ranch style home built in about 1960\\.", "### Floyd Brown building", "At 543 Floyd Brown Drive, across the street from the Teacher's Cottage, this building was constructed in 1958 to replace a frame structure used by the Fargo Agricultural School. It is an L\\-shaped building with an L\\-shaped addition on its east side that gives it an unusual shape. It was designed in the International style.", "### Brown\\-Fargo Agricultural School Museum", "This is the last building on the left, next to the Teacher's Cottage. It is a one\\-story Plain\\-Traditional building was constructed in 1960\\. Floyd Brown helped establish this museum for the Fargo Agricultural School alumni, by donating $10,000 for its construction. Graduates gather here for class reunions.", "### Mid\\-Delta Head Start building", "At 551 Floyd Brown Drive, across the street from the museum, this one\\-story nonagonal building was constructed in about 1960, also in the International style.", "### Site of the former J.R. Jackson Gymnasium", "Here only a sidewalk, steps, and part of the foundation remain of the first gymnasium for Black students in eastern Arkansas. An exhibit panel explains the history of Fargo Agricultural School.", "" ]
Description ----------- The area was initially cleared by the local [Indians](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") in the 16th century and many of their artifacts have been found on the site. The third [Princess Anne County](/wiki/Princess_Anne_County%2C_Virginia "Princess Anne County, Virginia") courthouse, the first brick courthouse in the county, was built on this site, complete with [stocks](/wiki/Stocks "Stocks") and [pillory](/wiki/Pillory "Pillory"). This third courthouse was in existence from 1735 until the construction of the Walke Mansion. The Walke Mansion (1751\-1828\), owned by William Walke, was destroyed by fire on September 12, 1828\. Walke may have run a [tavern](/wiki/Tavern "Tavern") here during the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"). The current house was built in 1830\. Its exterior is [Federal style](/wiki/Federal_architecture "Federal architecture") three\-course [American bond](/wiki/Brickwork%23American_bond "Brickwork#American bond") brickwork; all of the bricks were from the ruins of the Walke Mansion. A West Bay addition was built in 1850\. The house has 10 rooms with heart\-of\-pine flooring and several original features. It was once covered with oyster shell stucco. The rear of the home faces the western branch of the [Lynnhaven River](/wiki/Lynnhaven_River "Lynnhaven River"). The house occupies {{convert\|0\.1\|acres}} owned by the city and is encompassed by {{convert\|2\|acres}} of open space owned by a homeowners association. There are some small gardens on the property and in the back yard is a large [Southern Magnolia](/wiki/Magnolia_grandiflora "Magnolia grandiflora") planted on April 6, 1863, by Sally Rebecca Walke in memory of her fiancé. ### Renovation Virginia Higgins moved out of Ferry Plantation in 1986 and turned the deed over to the City of Virginia Beach. The Ferry Plantation House was abandoned from 1986 to 1996\. A group of citizens saved the house from demolition around 1996\. Investors bought it in 1994, but their deal to sell it fell through in 1996 when the Virginia Beach City Council said the house could not be a private residence due to deed restrictions. The deed to the property was eventually turned over to the City of Virginia Beach in June 1996, and the Friends of the Ferry Plantation House, Inc. began renovating the house in 1996 in partnership with the City of Virginia Beach. Court House bars (one set and shackles) are still on one window to date. The house was listed in the Virginia Landmarks Register (Virginia Historic Landmark) in 2004 and the US [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") in 2005 and The \+Virginia State Register. [Belinda Nash](/wiki/Belinda_Nash "Belinda Nash") has been on the board of directors of the FOFPH since 1996 and the director since 1999\. Nash is one of the many volunteers that continue to work to allow The Ferry Plantation House to be enjoyed by so many, including summer camps and many social events that share its history and artifacts.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2022}}
[ "Description\n-----------", "The area was initially cleared by the local [Indians](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") in the 16th century and many of their artifacts have been found on the site. The third [Princess Anne County](/wiki/Princess_Anne_County%2C_Virginia \"Princess Anne County, Virginia\") courthouse, the first brick courthouse in the county, was built on this site, complete with [stocks](/wiki/Stocks \"Stocks\") and [pillory](/wiki/Pillory \"Pillory\"). This third courthouse was in existence from 1735 until the construction of the Walke Mansion. The Walke Mansion (1751\\-1828\\), owned by William Walke, was destroyed by fire on September 12, 1828\\. Walke may have run a [tavern](/wiki/Tavern \"Tavern\") here during the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\").", "The current house was built in 1830\\. Its exterior is [Federal style](/wiki/Federal_architecture \"Federal architecture\") three\\-course [American bond](/wiki/Brickwork%23American_bond \"Brickwork#American bond\") brickwork; all of the bricks were from the ruins of the Walke Mansion. A West Bay addition was built in 1850\\. The house has 10 rooms with heart\\-of\\-pine flooring and several original features. It was once covered with oyster shell stucco. The rear of the home faces the western branch of the [Lynnhaven River](/wiki/Lynnhaven_River \"Lynnhaven River\").", "The house occupies {{convert\\|0\\.1\\|acres}} owned by the city and is encompassed by {{convert\\|2\\|acres}} of open space owned by a homeowners association. There are some small gardens on the property and in the back yard is a large [Southern Magnolia](/wiki/Magnolia_grandiflora \"Magnolia grandiflora\") planted on April 6, 1863, by Sally Rebecca Walke in memory of her fiancé.", "### Renovation", "Virginia Higgins moved out of Ferry Plantation in 1986 and turned the deed over to the City of Virginia Beach. The Ferry Plantation House was abandoned from 1986 to 1996\\. A group of citizens saved the house from demolition around 1996\\. Investors bought it in 1994, but their deal to sell it fell through in 1996 when the Virginia Beach City Council said the house could not be a private residence due to deed restrictions. The deed to the property was eventually turned over to the City of Virginia Beach in June 1996, and the Friends of the Ferry Plantation House, Inc. began renovating the house in 1996 in partnership with the City of Virginia Beach. Court House bars (one set and shackles) are still on one window to date.", "The house was listed in the Virginia Landmarks Register (Virginia Historic Landmark) in 2004 and the US [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") in 2005 and The \\+Virginia State Register.", "[Belinda Nash](/wiki/Belinda_Nash \"Belinda Nash\") has been on the board of directors of the FOFPH since 1996 and the director since 1999\\. Nash is one of the many volunteers that continue to work to allow The Ferry Plantation House to be enjoyed by so many, including summer camps and many social events that share its history and artifacts.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2022}}", "" ]
Democracy post\-1932 -------------------- {{unreferenced section\|date\=January 2014}} Thailand was a kingdom under an absolute monarch for over seven centuries before 1932\. As a result of imperialism, the kings began minor reforms. The king was the president of the government, consulted with his councillors, mainly his relatives. Though significant reforms had occurred in [Rama V](/wiki/Rama_V "Rama V")'s reign, the kingdom still had no national assembly. Men of royal blood held positions in the government as ministers. The situation became tense after the World War I. An economic crisis bedeviled the country. A young generation of students and intellectuals studying in Europe began criticizing the crown's government as backward, corrupt, and ineffective. On 24 June 1932, troops in [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok "Bangkok") seized government buildings and some key ministers. The [1932 revolution](/wiki/Siamese_revolution_of_1932 "Siamese revolution of 1932") took place. Its leaders were both bureaucrats and young military officers, urging national reforms, including the first written constitution. After negotiation with the king, [Rama VII](/wiki/Rama_VII "Rama VII"), and the kingdom's elite, changes took place, ending absolute rule by the king. The king remained the titular head of state, but the constitutional government ruled the country with the prime minister at its head. A general election was held for the creation of the first national assembly. The election was the first in which women were permitted to vote. Despite the efforts of many democrats in the past including [Pridi Banomyong](/wiki/Pridi_Banomyong "Pridi Banomyong"), Western, democratic\-style of government was alien to the kingdom. It was claimed that Siam had insufficient time to educate its population in preparation for Western political, industrial, and economic changes. Since becoming a Western\-style constitutional democratic monarchy in 1932, most of the time the country has been ruled by military governments. The disputes and struggles among the elites old and new, civilians, politicians, and military have occurred regularly since 1932\. The first military coup staged by the 1932 revolutionary, military wing itself, occurred in 1933\. The military became a tool for political stability. Political freedom, freedom of speech, and [basic human rights](/wiki/Human_rights_in_Thailand "Human rights in Thailand") were strongly compromised in the first three\-quarters of the 20th century. Due to the pressure of outside events during the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), the politics of the kingdom became even more tense. The military government, with the support of the US, tightened its control over the country's politics, while intellectuals and leftist students strongly opposed the junta. The [Communist Party of Thailand](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Thailand "Communist Party of Thailand") staged armed struggle in the countryside in the 1960s. Communist and radical ideas attracted a handful of intellectuals. The communist movement was seen as congruent with the independence movements in other [Indochinese](/wiki/Indochinese "Indochinese") countries, waging war against the US. In response, the military junta tightened its grip. Student\-led uprisings in October 1973 led to a new vision of liberating the country from military government for a short period. The media received more freedom to criticize politicians and governments, while revolutionary and socialist movements became more apparent. The new civilian government officially shut US bases amid the fear of communist victory in the Indochinese countries in 1975\. In 1976, Admiral [Sa\-ngad Chaloryu](/wiki/Sa-ngad_Chaloryu "Sa-ngad Chaloryu"), the armed forces commander, staged a [massacre and coup](/wiki/6_October_1976_Massacre "6 October 1976 Massacre") that brought hard\-line anti\-communists to power and reversed these reforms. At the end of the [Indochina War](/wiki/First_Indochina_War "First Indochina War"), investment by foreign businesses helped alleviate poor infrastructure and social problems. The middle classes constituted only 10 per cent of the 60 million inhabitants. They enjoyed wealth and increasing freedom, leaving the majority poor in the rural areas and slums. The system of rule fluctuated between unstable civilian governments and interludes of military takeover. During democratic periods, the middle class in the cities ignored the poor in the rural areas. The media accepted bribes. To corrupt bureaucrats and politicians became well\-accepted business practice. Every time a coup was staged, scapegoats or excuses were found to justify it. Eventually, the ensuing junta government would hand the government back to elected officials. As a result, there have been 18 coups and 18 constitutions in the history of Thai politics. From 1932, bureaucrats, generals, and businessmen have run most of the political parties. While the [grassroots](/wiki/Grassroots "Grassroots") are always the target of the political parties, no grassroots party has ever led the country. Money seems to be the major factor in gaining power in the country. The [Black May](/wiki/Black_May_%281992%29 "Black May (1992)") uprising, in 1992, lead to more reform when promulgating the [1997 constitution](/wiki/1997_constitution_of_Thailand "1997 constitution of Thailand") aiming to create checks and balance of powers between strengthened government, separately elected senators, and anti\-corruption agencies. Administrative courts, constitutional courts, and election\-control committees were established to strengthen the checks and balance of politics. The [2007 constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand "2007 Constitution of Thailand"), following [Thaksin's](/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra "Thaksin Shinawatra") ousting, was particularly designed to be tighter in its control of corruptions and conflicts of interests while reducing the authority of the government. It was repealed in the 22 May 2014 coup d'état.
[ "Democracy post\\-1932\n--------------------", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=January 2014}}", "Thailand was a kingdom under an absolute monarch for over seven centuries before 1932\\.", "As a result of imperialism, the kings began minor reforms. The king was the president of the government, consulted with his councillors, mainly his relatives. Though significant reforms had occurred in [Rama V](/wiki/Rama_V \"Rama V\")'s reign, the kingdom still had no national assembly. Men of royal blood held positions in the government as ministers. The situation became tense after the World War I. An economic crisis bedeviled the country. A young generation of students and intellectuals studying in Europe began criticizing the crown's government as backward, corrupt, and ineffective. On 24 June 1932, troops in [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok \"Bangkok\") seized government buildings and some key ministers. The [1932 revolution](/wiki/Siamese_revolution_of_1932 \"Siamese revolution of 1932\") took place. Its leaders were both bureaucrats and young military officers, urging national reforms, including the first written constitution. After negotiation with the king, [Rama VII](/wiki/Rama_VII \"Rama VII\"), and the kingdom's elite, changes took place, ending absolute rule by the king. The king remained the titular head of state, but the constitutional government ruled the country with the prime minister at its head. A general election was held for the creation of the first national assembly. The election was the first in which women were permitted to vote.", "Despite the efforts of many democrats in the past including [Pridi Banomyong](/wiki/Pridi_Banomyong \"Pridi Banomyong\"), Western, democratic\\-style of government was alien to the kingdom. It was claimed that Siam had insufficient time to educate its population in preparation for Western political, industrial, and economic changes.", "Since becoming a Western\\-style constitutional democratic monarchy in 1932, most of the time the country has been ruled by military governments. The disputes and struggles among the elites old and new, civilians, politicians, and military have occurred regularly since 1932\\. The first military coup staged by the 1932 revolutionary, military wing itself, occurred in 1933\\. The military became a tool for political stability. Political freedom, freedom of speech, and [basic human rights](/wiki/Human_rights_in_Thailand \"Human rights in Thailand\") were strongly compromised in the first three\\-quarters of the 20th century.", "Due to the pressure of outside events during the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"), the politics of the kingdom became even more tense. The military government, with the support of the US, tightened its control over the country's politics, while intellectuals and leftist students strongly opposed the junta.", "The [Communist Party of Thailand](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Thailand \"Communist Party of Thailand\") staged armed struggle in the countryside in the 1960s. Communist and radical ideas attracted a handful of intellectuals. The communist movement was seen as congruent with the independence movements in other [Indochinese](/wiki/Indochinese \"Indochinese\") countries, waging war against the US. In response, the military junta tightened its grip.", "Student\\-led uprisings in October 1973 led to a new vision of liberating the country from military government for a short period. The media received more freedom to criticize politicians and governments, while revolutionary and socialist movements became more apparent. The new civilian government officially shut US bases amid the fear of communist victory in the Indochinese countries in 1975\\. In 1976, Admiral [Sa\\-ngad Chaloryu](/wiki/Sa-ngad_Chaloryu \"Sa-ngad Chaloryu\"), the armed forces commander, staged a [massacre and coup](/wiki/6_October_1976_Massacre \"6 October 1976 Massacre\") that brought hard\\-line anti\\-communists to power and reversed these reforms.", "At the end of the [Indochina War](/wiki/First_Indochina_War \"First Indochina War\"), investment by foreign businesses helped alleviate poor infrastructure and social problems. The middle classes constituted only 10 per cent of the 60 million inhabitants. They enjoyed wealth and increasing freedom, leaving the majority poor in the rural areas and slums.", "The system of rule fluctuated between unstable civilian governments and interludes of military takeover. During democratic periods, the middle class in the cities ignored the poor in the rural areas. The media accepted bribes. To corrupt bureaucrats and politicians became well\\-accepted business practice.", "Every time a coup was staged, scapegoats or excuses were found to justify it. Eventually, the ensuing junta government would hand the government back to elected officials. As a result, there have been 18 coups and 18 constitutions in the history of Thai politics.", "From 1932, bureaucrats, generals, and businessmen have run most of the political parties. While the [grassroots](/wiki/Grassroots \"Grassroots\") are always the target of the political parties, no grassroots party has ever led the country. Money seems to be the major factor in gaining power in the country.", "The [Black May](/wiki/Black_May_%281992%29 \"Black May (1992)\") uprising, in 1992, lead to more reform when promulgating the [1997 constitution](/wiki/1997_constitution_of_Thailand \"1997 constitution of Thailand\") aiming to create checks and balance of powers between strengthened government, separately elected senators, and anti\\-corruption agencies. Administrative courts, constitutional courts, and election\\-control committees were established to strengthen the checks and balance of politics.", "The [2007 constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand \"2007 Constitution of Thailand\"), following [Thaksin's](/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra \"Thaksin Shinawatra\") ousting, was particularly designed to be tighter in its control of corruptions and conflicts of interests while reducing the authority of the government. It was repealed in the 22 May 2014 coup d'état.", "" ]
Political history of the democratic era --------------------------------------- ### Transition to democracy after 1932 {{unreferenced section\|date\=January 2014}} Following the [Siamese revolution of 1932](/wiki/Siamese_revolution_of_1932 "Siamese revolution of 1932"), which imposed constitutional limits on the monarchy, Thai politics were dominated for around fifty years by a military and bureaucratic elite, with the support of businessmen and [entrepreneurs](/wiki/Entrepreneur "Entrepreneur"). Changes of government were affected primarily by a long series of mostly bloodless coups. The [popular uprising](/wiki/1973_Thai_popular_uprising "1973 Thai popular uprising") of 14 October 1973 resulted in the end of the ruling [military dictatorship](/wiki/Military_dictatorship "Military dictatorship") of anti\-communist [Thanom Kittikachorn](/wiki/Thanom_Kittikachorn "Thanom Kittikachorn"). Notably, it highlighted the growing influence of Thai university students in politics. Only three years later, left\-wing movements were cracked down by the extremely violent suppression from right wings and ultra royalists in the [6 October 1976 massacre](/wiki/6_October_1976_massacre "6 October 1976 massacre") event, following by a coup to strengthen the [monarchy](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand "Monarchy of Thailand") and military status in the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") period, including increase of [lèse\-majesté](/wiki/L%C3%A8se-majest%C3%A9_in_Thailand "Lèse-majesté in Thailand") law jail terms.Thongchai Winichakul (2002\). "Remembering/ Silencing the Traumatic Past". In Shigeharu Tanabe and Charles F. Keyes eds., *Cultural Crisis and Social Memory: Modernity and Identity in Thailand and Laos*. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Beginning with a brief experiment in [democracy](/wiki/Democracy "Democracy") during the mid\-1980s, led by [Prem Tinsulanonda](/wiki/Prem_Tinsulanonda "Prem Tinsulanonda"), civilian democratic political institutions slowly gained greater authority, culminating in 1988 when [Chatichai Choonhavan](/wiki/Chatichai_Choonhavan "Chatichai Choonhavan"),leader of the [Chart Thai Party](/wiki/Chart_Thai_Party "Chart Thai Party"), assumed office as the country's first democratically elected [prime minister](/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Thailand "List of Prime Ministers of Thailand") in more than a decade. Three years later, another bloodless coup, [1991 Thai coup d'état](/wiki/1991_Thai_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1991 Thai coup d'état") ended his term and the military junta [National Peace Keeping Council](/wiki/National_Peace_Keeping_Council "National Peace Keeping Council") was formed.{{cite journal \|last1\=Tamada \|first1\=Yoshifumi \|title\=Coups in Thailand, 1980\-1991 \|journal\=Japanese Journal of Southeast Asian Studies \|date\=1995 \|volume\=33 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=317–339 \|doi\=10\.20495/tak.33\.3\_317 \|url\=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/tak/33/3/33\_KJ00000131873/\_article/\-char/en \|publisher\=\[\[Kyoto University]]\|location\=Kyoto}} Shortly thereafter, the royally appointed [Anand Panyarachun](/wiki/Anand_Panyarachun "Anand Panyarachun"), a businessman and former diplomat, headed a largely civilian interim government and promised to hold elections in the near future. However, following inconclusive [March 1992 Thai general election](/wiki/March_1992_Thai_general_election "March 1992 Thai general election"), former army commander [Suchinda Kraprayoon](/wiki/Suchinda_Kraprayoon "Suchinda Kraprayoon") was appointed prime minister. Thais, more than 200,000 people led by [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang "Chamlong Srimuang") reacted to the appointment by demanding an end to military influence in government, but demonstrations were violently suppressed by the military in [Black May events](/wiki/Black_May_%281992%29 "Black May (1992)"). An estimated 52 to 100 protesters were killed, 696 were injured, and 175 had "disappeared", it had not been concluded until today. Shortly, Suchinda regime received sweeping [amnesty](/wiki/Amnesty_law "Amnesty law"), signed by [Bhumibol Adulyadej](/wiki/Bhumibol_Adulyadej "Bhumibol Adulyadej").{{cite journal \|author1\=Amnesty International \|author1\-link\=Amnesty International \|title\=Thailand: The massacre in Bangkok \|journal\=Amnesty International \|date\=October 1992 \|id\=ASA 39/010/1992 \|url\=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa39/010/1992/en/ \|language\=en }} Domestic and international reactions to the violence forced Suchinda to resign, and the nation once again turned to Anand, who was appointed interim prime minister until new elections were held in September 1992\. In the September 1992 elections, political parties that had opposed the military in May 1992 won by a narrow majority and [Chuan Leekpai](/wiki/Chuan_Leekpai "Chuan Leekpai"), a leader of the [Democrat Party](/wiki/Democrat_Party_%28Thailand%29 "Democrat Party (Thailand)"), became prime minister at the head of a five\-party coalition. Following the defection of a coalition partner, Chuan dissolved parliament in May 1995, and the [Chart Thai Party](/wiki/Chart_Thai_Party "Chart Thai Party") won the largest number of parliamentary seats in the subsequent election. Party leader [Banharn Silpa\-archa](/wiki/Banharn_Silpa-archa "Banharn Silpa-archa") became prime minister, but held the office for little more than a year. Following elections held in November 1996, [Chavalit Youngchaiyudh](/wiki/Chavalit_Youngchaiyudh "Chavalit Youngchaiyudh") formed a coalition government and became prime minister. However, the onset of the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis "1997 Asian financial crisis") caused a loss of confidence in the Chavalit government and forced him to hand over power to Chuan Leekpai in November 1997\. Chuan formed a coalition government based on the themes of economic crisis management. The [1997 constitution](/wiki/1997_constitution_of_Thailand "1997 constitution of Thailand") was introduced as the first constitution to be drafted by a popularly elected Constitutional Drafting Assembly, hence was popularly called the *People's Constitution*. The 1997 constitution created a [bicameral legislature](/wiki/Bicameral_legislature "Bicameral legislature"). For the first time in Thai history, both houses were [directly elected](/wiki/Directly_elected "Directly elected"). ### 2001–2006, Thaksin Shinawatra {{more citations needed section\|date\=February 2014}} {{See also\|2005–2006 Thai political crisis}} In the [January 2001 elections](/wiki/2001_Thailand_legislative_election "2001 Thailand legislative election"), telecommunications multimillionaire [Thaksin Shinawatra](/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra "Thaksin Shinawatra"), who had relations with the 1990s junta, and his [Thai Rak Thai Party](/wiki/Thai_Rak_Thai_Party "Thai Rak Thai Party") (TRT) won an overwhelming victory on a populist platform of economic growth and development. Thaksin also marginally escaped (8:7\) a guilty verdict in the Constitutional Court, where he was charged by the Board of Anti\-Corruption of hiding shares worth hundreds of millions of baht. A decade later, a Supreme Court ruling in another case accepted the possibility of bribery in the Constitutional Court case. After absorbing several smaller parties, TRT gained an absolute majority in the lower house of parliament, controlling 296 of 500 seats. In a cabinet reshuffle of October 2002, the Thaksin administration further put its stamp on the government. A package of bureaucratic reform legislation created six new ministries in an effort to streamline the bureaucratic process and increase efficiency and accountability. The [general election held on 6 February 2005](/wiki/2005_Thailand_legislative_election "2005 Thailand legislative election") resulted in another landslide victory for Thaksin and TRT, which controlled 374 seats in parliament's lower house. Thaksin's populist policies found great favour in rural areas. Thaksin introduced government programs which greatly benefited rural areas of the country. These programs included debt relief for farmers still reeling from the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis "1997 Asian financial crisis") and a new healthcare program that brought coverage to all Thais for 30 baht per visit (equivalent to about US$1\). During the [2013–2014 Thai political crisis](/wiki/2013%E2%80%932014_Thai_political_crisis "2013–2014 Thai political crisis") older residents of the Baan Dong Yaang village in [Udon Thani Province](/wiki/Udon_Thani_Province "Udon Thani Province") stated: "Before Thaksin, no politicians came here. Thaksin understood our situation and helped us."{{cite news\|title\=Thai northeast vows poll payback to Shinawatra clan\|url\=http://www.thephuketnews.com/thai\-northeast\-vows\-poll\-payback\-to\-shinawatra\-clan\-44343\.php\|access\-date\=1 February 2014\|newspaper\=Phuket News\|date\=31 January 2013\|author\=AFP}} Despite the majority and surging popularity among rural Thais, Thaksin came under severe questioning for selling telecommunication shares to Temasek, a Singapore investor, for about 70,000 million baht without paying any tax. More complex and high\-level corruption and conspiracies were discovered and exposed by Sonthi Limthongkul, Manager Media Group owner, who reached the middle class in the capital and the cities through the only small satellite and internet media channel, [ASTV](/wiki/ASTV_%28Thailand%29 "ASTV (Thailand)"). Thaksin refused to publicly answer the questions of the [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy "People's Alliance for Democracy") (PAD), a large group of middle class Thais and a coalition of anti\-Thaksin protesters led by [Sonthi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sonthi_Limthongkul "Sonthi Limthongkul"). Due to an inability to clear himself of the corruption allegations, Thaksin's regime fell apart during [public protests](/wiki/Thailand_political_crisis_2005-2006 "Thailand political crisis 2005-2006") led by PAD, which led to widespread calls for his resignation and [impeachment](/wiki/Impeachment "Impeachment"). PAD gathered in Bangkok and demanded that Thaksin resign as prime minister so that the king could directly appoint someone else. Thaksin refused and protests continued for weeks. Thaksin consequently [dissolved parliament](/wiki/Dissolution_of_parliament "Dissolution of parliament") on 24 February 2006 and called a [snap election](/wiki/Snap_election "Snap election") for 2 April 2006\. [The election](/wiki/April_2006_Thailand_legislative_election "April 2006 Thailand legislative election") was [boycotted](/wiki/Boycott "Boycott") by the opposition parties, leading to unopposed TRT candidates for 38 seats failing to obtain the necessary [quorum](/wiki/Quorum "Quorum") of 20 per cent of eligible votes. As the Thai constitution requires all seats to be filled from the beginning of [parliament](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Thailand "National Assembly of Thailand"), this produced a [constitutional crisis](/wiki/Constitutional_crisis "Constitutional crisis"). After floating several suggestions on 4 April 2006, Thaksin announced that he would step down as prime minister as soon as parliament had selected a successor. In a televised speech to senior judges, King Bhumibol requested that they execute their duty justly. Criminal charges and allegations of administrative abuse cases were brought against the Election Committee. The courts voided the election results, jailed the committee for abuse of power, and ordered [a new round of elections for 15 October 2006](/wiki/October_2006_Thailand_legislative_election "October 2006 Thailand legislative election"). Thaksin continued to work as caretaker prime minister. Civil movements in Thailand were active in the 2000s, with some groups perceiving the Thaksin government as authoritarian, citing [extrajudicial killings](/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing "Extrajudicial killing") in his war on drugs, special security laws passed by the administration, and the government's increasingly hardline responses to the insurgency in the southern provinces. Thaksin's government was facing mounting opposition from the urban middle classes, while continuing to remain popular in the predominantly poor and rural north and northeastern regions. However, the most severe critic of Thaksin seemed to be Sondhi Limthongkul, a media tycoon and former colleague. ### 2006 coup {{Unreferenced section\|date\=October 2008}} {{Main\|2006 Thailand coup d'état}} While Thaksin was in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") to make a speech at UN Headquarters, the military seized power on 19 September 2006\. The [Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy](/wiki/Council_for_Democratic_Reform_under_Constitutional_Monarchy "Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy") (CDRM) led by General [Sonthi Boonyaratglin](/wiki/Sonthi_Boonyaratglin "Sonthi Boonyaratglin") was formed. Political activities were banned by the junta after the [coup on 19 September 2006](/wiki/2006_Thailand_coup "2006 Thailand coup"). The [1997 constitution](/wiki/1997_constitution_of_Thailand "1997 constitution of Thailand") was abrogated, although most of the institutions of government remained intact. A new constitution was drafted and promulgated in late\-2007\. A month after the coup, an interim civilian government was formed, including an appointed House of Representatives from a variety of professions and an appointed Constitutional Court. Freedom of speech was restored. During 2006 and 2007, organized underground terrorist activities took place, including the burning numerous schools in rural areas of the north and the northeast of Thailand and the planting of bombs in ten locations in Bangkok, the latter of which killed and injured several people on New Year's Eve in 2006\. A national referendum for the 2007 constitution was called by the military and the 2007 constitution was accepted by the majority of the voters. The junta promised a democratic general election, which was finally held on 23 December 2007, 16 months after the coup. The Constitutional Court unanimously dissolved the populist Thai Rak Thai Party following punishment according to the 1997 constitution, banning 111 TRT members from politics for five years. The military drafted a [controversial new constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand "2007 Constitution of Thailand") following allegations of Thaksin's corruption and abuse of power. This constitution was particularly designed to increase control of corruption and of conflicts of interests of politicians while decreasing the previously strengthened authority of the government. A national referendum accepted the 2007 constitution, although there was significant disapproval in Thaksin's stronghold, the north and northeast. On 23 December 2007, a national parliamentary election was held, based on the new constitution, and the [People's Power Party](/wiki/People%27s_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 "People's Power Party (Thailand)") (Thai Rak Thai's and Thaksin's proxy party), led by former Bangkok governor [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej "Samak Sundaravej"), seized the reins of government. Thailand's new parliament convened on 21 January 2008\. The [People's Power Party](/wiki/People%27s_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 "People's Power Party (Thailand)") (PPP), or Thaksin's proxy party, gained the majority, with just under half of the total seats in parliament, and won the general election by a solid margin after five minor parties joined it to form a coalition government. A complaint was filed against PPP in the Thai Supreme Court, charging PPP of being the TRT nominee party. Moreover, in 2008, one of its leading members was charged with electoral fraud. The Election Committee also proposed that the PPP should be dissolved due to the violation of the constitution. #### Red shirts, yellow shirts The so\-called "[Red Shirts](/wiki/Red_Shirts_%28Thailand%29 "Red Shirts (Thailand)")" got their start as supporters of deposed former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. Red shirts transferred their support to Thailand's ruling Pheu Thai party led by his sister, Yingluck Shinawatra. In general, red shirts see attempts by the urban and military elite to control Thai politics as a threat to democracy.{{cite news\|last1\=McNeill\|first1\=David\|title\=Red Shirt v Yellow Shirt: Thailand's political struggle\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/red\-shirt\-v\-yellow\-shirt\-thailands\-political\-struggle\-2057293\.html\|access\-date\=28 January 2017\|work\=The Independent\|date\=2010\-08\-20}} The "yellow shirts" represent those opposed to Thaksin. They were the force behind the street protests that led to the 2006 coup. The yellow shirts are a loose grouping of royalists, ultra\-nationalists, and the urban middle class opposed to Thaksin and overarching democratic rule by a rural majority.{{cite news\|title\=Profile: Thailand's reds and yellows\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-pacific\-13294268\|access\-date\=28 January 2017\|work\=BBC News\|date\=2012\-07\-13}} ### 2008 political crisis In 2008, [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") saw increasing political turmoil, with the PPP government facing pressure to step down amid mounting [civil disobedience](/wiki/Civil_disobedience "Civil disobedience") and [unrest](/wiki/Unrest "Unrest") led by PAD. The conflict centred on the constitution. The PPP supported the amendment of the 2007 constitution, while anti\-government protesters considered it to be a political amnesty for Thaksin and his followers. The anti\-government protesters were, said, mostly better educated, more affluent, urban Thais criticizing a Western\-style electoral system corrupted by rich politicians. Thaksin was accused of buying votes, bureaucrats, policemen, military officers, and even political factions. Thaksin became the example of the businessman autocrat, launching so\-called populist projects, some of which were controversial, such as the [war on drugs](/wiki/Premiership_of_Thaksin_Shinawatra%23Anti-drug_policies "Premiership of Thaksin Shinawatra#Anti-drug policies"). Hundreds of killings and murder cases noted by the police were said by them to be merely fighting among the drug traffickers, but no further investigation ever occurred. The judicial process was seen as useless; instead, decisive justice was seen to be in the hands of the police. As the anti\-government movement had criticized Thaksin as an example of a corrupt politician, it discredited the election system, suggesting at once a system in which part of the representatives in the national assembly would be chosen by certain professions or social groups. Anti\-Thaksin protesters were vastly outnumbered by Thaksin's supporters in the rural majority, who delivered to his party two resounding election victories. Their loyalty was rewarded by generous social and economic welfare programs. The anti\-government forces were well\-organized, and criticized the behind\-the\-scenes support of the military, the country's most influential institution, seeing Thaksin supported by anti\-royalists, former revolutionaries, and ex\-communists aiming at regime change.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2008/1126/breaking1\.htm\|title\=Thai government rejects army call for new elections\|work\=Irishtimes.com\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej "Samak Sundaravej") was elected prime minister of the first government under the [2007 constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand "2007 Constitution of Thailand").{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7212516\.stm \|title\=Asia\-Pacific \| Thaksin ally elected as Thai PM \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2008\-01\-28 \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} Samak Sundaravej, an articulate politician, acknowledged being the "nominee" of fugitive Thaksin Shinawatra. Samak Sundaravej's position in power, however, did not put an end to the conflict. People claimed that Thaksin still influenced Thai politics even though he was in exile. In 1973, he ran a prominent month\-long propaganda campaign, accusing democratic student movements of being communist rebels, traitors and spies. The event ended in a massacre of hundreds of students at [Thammasat University](/wiki/Thammasat_University "Thammasat University") on 14 October 1973, and a further military coup was conducted, giving him the interior minister position in the junta. In 1976 there was another massacre at the university. Thai military personnel, police and others, were seen shooting at protesters at the university. Many were killed and many survivors were abused.{{Cite web\|url\=https://time.com/4519367/thailand\-bangkok\-october\-6\-1976\-thammasat\-massacre\-students\-joshua\-wong/\|title \= Thailand Marks the Darkest Day in Its Living Memory\| date\=6 October 2016 }} Prime Minister Samak held daily national state television broadcasts with his own political messages. These were not well received by PAD. NBT, the National Broadcasting Television, the state\-owned media enterprise, was openly used to counter the PAD's message, which emphasizes the overturning of the current democratic system. Former PM Thaksin had welcomed offers to come back to Thailand in February 2008 to face corruption charges and to get close control of the PPP, successor of his Thai Rak Thai Party. The opposition forced a no\-confidence vote on a constitutional amendment which may have resulted in the reinstatement of Thaksin's reputation.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7429435\.stm\|title\=Thai protesters defy PM's warning\|work\=BBC\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=31 May 2008}} The failure to address dramatically rising food and energy prices, and a temple dispute with Cambodia damaged the coalition government's reputation.{{cite news\|last\=Head \|first\=Jonathan \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7476836\.stm \|title\=Embattled Thai PM survives vote \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2008\-06\-27 \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} Street protests led by PAD, the major opposition movement, began in late\-May after the ruling party agreed to amend the constitution. Their main objective was to block any constitutional amendment aimed chiefly at reinstating Thaksin's reputation and saving the PPP from dissolution after one of its leaders was charged with electoral fraud. Another of PAD's objectives was to support the courts and the judicial system in hearing Thaksin's cases. While PM Samak has been successful in controlling the police and civil service, various courts remain independent and issued several independent verdicts. The Constitutional Court concluded that PPP's second\-in\-command, [Yongyuth Tiyapairat](/wiki/Yongyuth_Tiyapairat "Yongyuth Tiyapairat"), who pressured local officers to support his party in the previous election, would subject the party to dissolution. The Administrative Court also ruled that his government seriously violated the constitution and might have prejudiced national sovereignty in negotiating over the sovereignty of territory immediately adjacent to the [Preah Vihear Temple](/wiki/Preah_Vihear_Temple "Preah Vihear Temple") with Cambodia. The case brought the resignation of his first foreign minister, Nopadon Patama. Several other ministers found wrongfully informing the Anti\-corruption Board or Election Governing Board of important information, were discharged when this was discovered. Previously Thaksin and Pojaman's three lawyers were caught red\-handed attempting to bribe Supreme Court judges and were given jail sentences. That was an ominous sign for Thaksin. Later a criminal court returned a verdict of tax evasion against Pojaman. He was to be jailed for three years. Days later, Thaksin and Pojaman jumped bail and issued a statement from London announcing through Thai TV his decision to seek political asylum in the UK in an attempt to avoid what he called "biased" treatment under Thailand's current judicial system.<http://itn.co.uk/news/83fe215f8935befce7e48a5efa4bbd2c.html> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123081306/http://itn.co.uk/news/83fe215f8935befce7e48a5efa4bbd2c.html\|date\=January 23, 2009}} Thaksin and his family fled to Great Britain on 11 August 2008, to apply for political asylum{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7553028\.stm \|title\=Former Thai PM flees to the UK \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2008\-08\-11 \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} after his wife was convicted of tax evasion.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7534374\.stm \|title\=Ex\-Thai PM's wife guilty of fraud \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2008\-07\-31 \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} PM Samak Sundaravej, through his parliament, was able to complete budget bills for mega\-projects which cost so much that the King of Thailand spoke out in protest and to thank the head of the [Bank of Thailand](/wiki/Bank_of_Thailand "Bank of Thailand") (under threats from the government) for warning that the country was on the brink of disaster because of high expenditures. On 26 August 2008, 30,000 protesters, led by PAD, occupied Sundaravej's Government House compound in central [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok "Bangkok"), forcing he and his advisers to work at [Don Mueang International Airport](/wiki/Don_Mueang_International_Airport "Don Mueang International Airport"). Riot police entered the occupied compound and delivered a court order for the eviction of the PAD protesters.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gulfnews.com/world/Thailand/10241274\.html\|title\=Thai minister to stay despite protests\|work\=Gulf News\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080831110231/http://www.gulfnews.com/world/Thailand/10241274\.html\|archive\-date\=2008\-08\-31}} [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang "Chamlong Srimuang"), a leader of PAD, ordered 45 PAD guards to break into the main government building on Saturday.<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gvt2G9EPA9UPyXWKie_ZyeeIcsig> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921162550/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gvt2G9EPA9UPyXWKie\_ZyeeIcsig\|date\=September 21, 2012}} Three regional airports were closed for a short period and 35 trains between Bangkok and the provinces were canceled. Protesters raided the [Phuket International Airport](/wiki/Phuket_International_Airport "Phuket International Airport") [tarmac](/wiki/Airport_apron "Airport apron") on the resort island of [Phuket Province](/wiki/Phuket_Province "Phuket Province") resulting to 118 flights canceled or diverted, affecting 15,000 passengers.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eleconomista.es/mundo/noticias/726786/08/08/I\-will\-never\-resign\-says\-besieged\-Thai\-PM.html\|title\='I will never resign' says besieged Thai PM\|date\=30 August 2008\|work\=Economista}} Protesters also blocked the entrances of the airports in [Krabi](/wiki/Krabi "Krabi") and [Hat Yai](/wiki/Hat_Yai "Hat Yai") (which were later re\-opened). Police issued [arrest warrants](/wiki/Arrest_warrant "Arrest warrant") for [Sondhi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sondhi_Limthongkul "Sondhi Limthongkul") and eight other PAD leaders on charges of [insurrection](/wiki/Insurrection "Insurrection"), [conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28political%29 "Conspiracy (political)"), [unlawful assembly](/wiki/Unlawful_assembly "Unlawful assembly") and refusing orders to disperse.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30thai.html?ref\=asia\|title\=Thai Protest of Premier Stops Trains and Planes\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|first\=Thomas\|last\=Fuller\|date\=30 August 2008}} Meanwhile, General Anupong Paochinda stated: "The army will not stage a coup. The political crisis should be resolved by political means". Samak and the ruling coalition called for an urgent parliamentary debate and session for 31 August.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7588114\.stm\|title\=Pressure mounts on Thailand's PM\|work\=BBC\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=29 August 2008}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\=20601080\&sid\=aGbXEEO82GFM\&refer\=asia\|title\=Thai Party Calls Urgent Session as Protests Spread (Update3\)\|work\=Bloomberg\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=30 August 2008}} PM Samak Sundaravej tried using legal means involving civil charges, criminal charges, and police action to remove PAD protesters from government offices on 29 August.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000103116\&Keyword\=%c0%d2%be\+%b7%d3%e0%b9%d5%c2%ba\|title\=ภาพชัดๆ "ปืนจ่อหัว" พิสูจน์ "ความด้าน" ของตำรวจไทยและ "สมัคร"\|work\=Manager Online\|language\=th}}{{cite web\|url\=http://mgr.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000102992\|title\=ชมภาพจะจะ! แก๊สน้ำตาปลิวออกจาก บช.น.ใส่พันธมิตรฯ\|publisher\=Manager Online\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120710131656/http://mgr.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000102992\|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-10}} However, PAD managed to get temporary relief from the courts enabling them to legally continue the siege of the government office. One person died and 40 people were wounded in a clash which occurred when the [DAAD](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship "United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship") (NohPohKoh) protesters, supported by Thaksin and the PPP moved toward PAD at about 03:00, 2 September without adequate police intervention.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000103556\|title\=สลด! ตร.ปล่อย "ม็อบนรก" ฝ่าด่าน ปะทะการ์ดพันธมิตรที่มัฆวานฯ เจ็บอื้อ\|work\=Manager Online\|language\=th}} By the second half of September 2008, PM Samak Sundaravej was the subject of several court cases for his past actions. He faced an appeals court judgement of slander and a pending ruling from the Constitutional Court as to whether he had a conflict of interest by being a private employee while holding the premiership. The Anti\-Corruption Board contemplated bringing a charge of abuse of power in the Preah Vihear case to the Constitutional Court. These legal difficulties ended PM Samak's political role. Ex\-PM Thaksin and Pojaman also faced verdicts from the Supreme Court.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.manager.co.th/Crime/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000100395\|title\=ย้อนรอยก่อนสู่วันตัดสินโทษ"แม้ว\-มาน"อาชญากรแผ่นดิน\|work\=Manager Online\|language\=th}} [People Power Party](/wiki/People_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 "People Power Party (Thailand)")'s deputy spokesman Kuthep Suthin Klangsang, on 12 September 2008 announced: "Samak has accepted his nomination for prime minister. Samak said he is confident that parliament will find him fit for office, and that he is happy to accept the post. A majority of party members voted on Thursday to reappoint Samak. Samak is the leader of our party so he is the best choice." Despite objections from its five coalition partners, the PPP, in an urgent meeting, unanimously decided to renominate [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej "Samak Sundaravej"). Five coalition parties, namely [Chart Thai](/wiki/Chart_Thai "Chart Thai"), Matchima Thipataya, Pracharaj, Puea Pandin, and Ruam Jai Thai Chart Pattana, unanimously agreed to support the PPP to set up the new government and vote for the person who should be nominated as the new prime minister. Chart Thai deputy leader Somsak Prissananantakul and Ruam Jai Thai Chart Pattana leader Chettha Thanajaro said the next prime minister was nominated. Caretaker prime minister [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat "Somchai Wongsawat") said PPP secretary\-general Surapong Suebwonglee would notify the five parties who the PPP nominated, to take office again.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=130591bangkokpost.com \|title\=Bangkok Post: Breakingnews \|website\=www.bangkokpost.com \|access\-date\=3 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120727053944/http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=130591bangkokpost.com \|archive\-date\=27 July 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web \|url\=http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD934BSU00 \|title\=The article you've requested is no longer available \|access\-date\=2008\-09\-13 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20080914121711/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD934BSU00 \|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-14 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008\-09/11/content\_9921780\.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919175209/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008\-09/11/content\_9921780\.htm\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=September 19, 2008\|title\=Party spokesman: Samak accepts PM nomination\|work\=Xinhuanet\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} Some lawmakers, however, said they would propose an alternate candidate. Meanwhile, Thailand's army chief General [Anupong Paochinda](/wiki/Anupong_Paochinda "Anupong Paochinda") said he backed the creation of a national unity government that would include all the country's parties, and he also asked for the lifting of a state of emergency that Samak imposed on 2 September.{{cite news\|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/09/11/thailand.pm/\|title\=Thai ruling party nominates Samak for PM\|work\=CNN \| date\=11 September 2008}} Embattled [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej "Samak Sundaravej") abandoned his bid to regain the premiership, and he also resigned from the PPP's leadership.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2008/09/12/AR2008091203451\.html\|title\=Around the World\|newspaper\=The Washington Post \| date\=13 September 2008}} Meanwhile, PPP's chief party spokesmen, Kudeb Saikrachang and Kan Thiankaew, announced on 13 September that caretaker prime minister [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat "Somchai Wongsawat"), caretaker justice minister Sompong Amornwiwat, and PPP Secretary\-General Surapong Suebwonglee were PPP's candidates for premiership.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=130625 \|access\-date\=2008\-09\-13 \|title\=Bangkok Post – Most recent }} However, Suriyasai Katasila of [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy "People's Alliance for Democracy") (a group of royalist businessmen, academics and activists) vowed to continue its occupation of Government House if a PPP candidate were nominated: "We would accept anyone as prime minister, as long as he is not from the People's Power Party."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSSP26321320080913\|title\=Thai ruling coalition begins search for new PM\|work\=Reuters \| date\=13 September 2008}} On 14 September the state of emergency was lifted.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ecb0b936\-82bb\-11dd\-a019\-000077b07658\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ecb0b936\-82bb\-11dd\-a019\-000077b07658\.html \|archive\-date\=2022\-12\-10 \|url\-access\=subscription\|title\=Bangkok state of emergency lifted\|work\=Financial Times}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.upi.com/Top\_News/2008/09/15/Bangkok\_state\_of\_emergency\_lifted/UPI\-16921221457669/\|title\=Bangkok state of emergency lifted\|agency\=UPI\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} The ruling [People Power Party](/wiki/People_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 "People Power Party (Thailand)"), on 15 September 2008, named [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat "Somchai Wongsawat"), candidate for prime minister to succeed Samak Sundaravej.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7615950\.stm\|title\=Thai faction rejects PM nominee\|work\=BBC\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=15 September 2008}} The PPP will endorse Somchai, and his nomination will be set for a parliamentary vote on Wednesday. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court ruled on Wednesday in a corruption case against Thaksin and his wife, to be promulgated after the parliament vote for the new prime minister.{{cite news\|url\=http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia\-35476420080915\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110033910/http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia\-35476420080915\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 10, 2009\|title\=Thai ruling party picks Thaksin in\-law for PM\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=15 September 2008}}[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS\-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY\-w](http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY-w) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924021035/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS\-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY\-w\|date\=September 24, 2012}} On 4 October 2008, [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang "Chamlong Srimuang") and rally organiser Chaiwat Sinsuwongse of the [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy "People's Alliance for Democracy") were detained by the Thai police led by Col. Sarathon Pradit, by virtue of 27 August arrest warrant for [insurrection](/wiki/Insurrection "Insurrection"), conspiracy, illegal assembly, and refusing orders to disperse ([treason](/wiki/Treason "Treason")) against him and eight other protest leaders. At Government House, [Sondhi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sondhi_Limthongkul "Sondhi Limthongkul"), however, stated demonstrations would continue: "I am warning you, the government and police, that you are putting fuel on the fire. Once you arrest me, thousands of people will tear you apart."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/world/asia/05thai.html?ref\=asia\|title\=Police Arrest Leader of Thai Protests\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=5 October 2008}} Srimuang's wife, Ying Siriluck visited him at the Border Patrol Police Region 1, [Pathum Thani](/wiki/Pathum_Thani "Pathum Thani").[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122319521018405425?mod\=googlenews\_wsj](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122319521018405425?mod=googlenews_wsj) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108094034/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122319521018405425\.html?mod\=googlenews\_wsj\|date\=January 8, 2009}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=131121 \|title\=Bangkok Post: Breakingnews \|website\=www.bangkokpost.com \|access\-date\=3 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120721074340/http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=131121 \|archive\-date\=21 July 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} Other PAD members still wanted by police included Sondhi, activist MP Somkiat Pongpaibul, and PAD leaders Somsak Kosaisuk and Pibhop Dhongchai.<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i6cHuNxaKfhLhcrr25HH_XCCQWMw> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926224938/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i6cHuNxaKfhLhcrr25HH\_XCCQWMw\|date\=September 26, 2012}} On 7 October 2008, Deputy Prime Minister [Chavalit Yongchaiyudh](/wiki/Chavalit_Yongchaiyudh "Chavalit Yongchaiyudh") resigned and admitted partial responsibility for violence due to police tear gas clearance of the blockade of the parliament, causing injuries to 116 protesters, 21 seriously. His resignation letter stated: "Since this action did not achieve what I planned, I want to show my responsibility for this operation."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSSP26598420081007\|title\=Thai clashes kill 2 in Bangkok, hundreds injured\|work\=Reuters \| date\=7 October 2008}}<http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMF9SXQgcjmOw2uLVow4mnqJULMwD93LHGQG0> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029172554/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMF9SXQgcjmOw2uLVow4mnqJULMwD93LHGQG0\|date\=October 29, 2008}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\=20601080\&sid\=aaSpVlNMZwbM\&refer\=asia\|title\=Thai Deputy Premier Quits as Police Battle Protesters (Update3\)\|work\=Bloomberg\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=7 October 2008}} After being dispersed, 5,000 demonstrators returned and blocked all four entries to the parliament building.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/07/thailand\|title\=Bangkok protesters hurt in anti\-government clashes\|author\=Matthew Weaver\|work\=The Guardian\|location\=London\|date\=7 October 2008}} The protesters attempted to hold 320 MPs and senators as hostages inside the parliament building, cutting off the power supply, and forcing [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat "Somchai Wongsawat") to escape by jumping a back fence after his policy address. But other trapped MPs failed to leave and flee from the mob. The [siege](/wiki/Siege "Siege") on the area beside the near prime minister's office forced the government to transfer its activities to Don Mueang Airport.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/08/world/asia/08thai.html?ref\=world\|title\=Hundreds Injured in Thai Protests\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|first1\=Seth\|last1\=Mydans\|first2\=Thomas\|last2\=Fuller\|date\=8 October 2008}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theage.com.au/world/thai\-pm\-jumps\-fence\-to\-flee\-protesters\-20081007\-4vsn.html\|title\=Thai PM jumps fence to flee protesters\|work\=The Age \| location\=Melbourne}} On 26 November 2008, the [Asian Human Rights Commission](/wiki/Asian_Human_Rights_Commission "Asian Human Rights Commission") (AHRC) issued a statement saying that the current crisis was a watershed moment for democracy and rule of law in Thailand. It contains harsh critique of PAD and the criminal justice system of Thailand. ### 2009–2010 protests and crackdowns {{Main\|2008–2010 Thai political crisis}} [thumb\|right\|240px\|[United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship "United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship"), Red Shirts, [protest](/wiki/2010_Thai_political_protests "2010 Thai political protests") in 2010](/wiki/File:2010_09_19_red_shirt_protest_bkk_09.JPG "2010 09 19 red shirt protest bkk 09.JPG") Abhisit's rise to power was controversial and opposed from the beginning. In April 2009, anti\-government protesters, known as "red shirts", began a demonstration aimed at the resignation of the prime minister and fresh elections. The major site of the demonstration was Bangkok. From 8 April, the demonstrators spread their activities to significant locations such as major intersections. Streets were blocked and barricaded. The demonstration took place at the same time as the [ASEAN](/wiki/ASEAN "ASEAN") summit in [Pattaya](/wiki/Pattaya "Pattaya"). Demonstrators moved there to protest, aiming at disrupting the summit. Protesters stormed the site of the summit, causing its cancellation. In Bangkok, the protest became fiercer because of the arrest of the leaders of the Pattaya protest. Protesters blocked the entrances of the Criminal Court, calling for the release of their leaders. Prime Minister Abhisit, at The Ministry of Interior, declared a [state of emergency](/wiki/State_of_emergency "State of emergency"). Protesters blocked the entrance of the ministry, to seize the premier and other ministers. However, the premier escaped. The government began to deploy anti\-riot troops. Armored vehicles were deployed in downtown Bangkok. Anti\-riot actions took place in the early morning of the next day. Anti\-riot troops, armed with shields, batons, and M\-16s with live ammo, started dispersing and shooting protesters on Bangkok's streets. Protesters charged that the government was killing protesters. The government denied the charge. Although two bodies were found, the government found no evidence that it was involved in the killings. On major avenues and streets, burning buses were seen, as well as wounded people were carried to the hospitals, but the government reported no serious cases. By the afternoon of 14 April, the military controlled all main streets. The leaders of the protest decided to suspend their activities. Thai politics after the pro\-Thaksin protest has so far been the stage of the two opposing factions: the [Democrat Party](/wiki/Democrat_Party_%28Thailand%29 "Democrat Party (Thailand)")\-led government allied with their coalition partners, who also have the tacit support of the PAD, the military, and the police, against the Thaksin loyalists, the [United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship "United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship") (UDD). Both sides have claimed the fighting as the struggle for democracy and the nation. #### Resolution to conflict {{more citations needed section\|date\=February 2014}} {{Further\|2011 Thai general election}} On 3 May the Thai Prime Minister announced he was willing to hold elections on 14 November should the opposition red shirts accept the offer. The following day red shirt leaders accepted the proposal to leave the occupied parts of Bangkok in return for an election on the scheduled date. However, one week later, 10 May, protesters had yet to disband despite accepting the road map proposed by the prime minister for early elections. They placed new demands upon the prime minister that Deputy Prime Minister [Suthep Thaugsuban](/wiki/Suthep_Thaugsuban "Suthep Thaugsuban"), who was in charge of security operations during the clash of 10 April, must first turn himself in for prosecution before they dispersed. On 11 May, Suthep presented himself to the Department of Special Investigation. The red shirt protesters, however, were not satisfied and demanded Suthep be formally charged instead by police. The red shirts failure to disperse was taken as a decline of the conciliatory road map and Prime Minister Abhisit's proposal of early parliamentary elections were withdrawn. This was followed by a warning issued from the prime minister that protesters must disperse or face imminent military action. The red shirts led another protest on 19 May. The army killed over 90 protesters in the ensuing military crackdown. Army tactics were heavily criticised for failing to abide by international standards and using lethal force on unarmed protesters.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-19355065\|title\=Rights group criticises 'interfering' Thai army chief\|work\=BBC News\|date\=23 August 2012\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} At least six people including nurses and medics were shot by snipers inside a Buddhist temple set up as a safe area.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/troops\-killed\-six\-unarmed\-people\-in\-temple\-during\-thai\-red\-shirt\-protests\-court\-rules\-8747943\.html\|title\=Troops killed six unarmed people in temple during Thai 'Red Shirt' protests, court rules\|work\=The Independent \| location\=London\|first\=Andrew\|last\=Buncombe\|date\=6 August 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/thailand0511webwcover\_0\.pdf \|title\=Thailand Descent into Chaos \|publisher\=Human Rights Watch\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} Between 2001 and 2011, [Isan](/wiki/Isan "Isan")'s [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") per capita more than doubled to US$1,475\. Over the same period, GDP in the Bangkok area soared from US$7,900 to nearly US$13,000\. ### 2013 political crisis {{Main\|2013–14 Thai political crisis}} Following the announcement of a proposed amnesty bill by the Yingluck government, protests resurfaced in October 2013\. The bill would allow former prime minister Thaksin to re\-enter Thailand. Protesters perceived the Yingluck administration as corrupt, illegitimate, and a proxy for her brother. The protest movement was led by Suthep Thaugsuban and was supported by the [People's Democratic Reform Committee](/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Reform_Committee "People's Democratic Reform Committee") (PDRC). Prime Minister Yingluck dissolved the Thai parliament following the recommencement of protests and announced a new election in accordance with the Thai constitution. The constitution states that elections must be held 45 to 60 days from the date that parliament is dissolved. The protest movement opposed the election announcement and the PDRC stated that it would boycott the process, with Suthep calling for the appointment of an unelected council to lead the country until reforms can be implemented. Protesters marched to the Thai\-Japanese sports stadium, the venue of the registration process, on 22 December 2013 to block the work of the Election Commission (EC).{{cite news\|title\=Suthep: Protesters to block EC registration\|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/386179/suthep\-to\-block\-.poll\-registration\|access\-date\=23 December 2013\|newspaper\=Bangkok Post\|date\=22 December 2013\|author\=Thanarak Khoonton}} Protesters at the Thai\-Japanese sports stadium clashed with police on 26 December 2013, resulting in two fatalities (one police officer was killed by a live bullet fired by a protester). Protesters armed themselves with sling shots and wore gas masks to fight with police, and around 200 people were injured. Due to the escalation in violence, the EC released a statement in which it urged the government to consider postponing the elections. The government explained that it was unable to change the date of the election, but remained open to discussions with protesters.{{cite news\|title\=Thai election body urges delay in polls amid clash\|url\=https://www.boston.com/news/world/asia/2013/12/26/rocks\-tear\-gas\-fly\-thai\-protests\-heat/qcDLeOTJRVvXnYoVGB85pJ/singlepage.html\|access\-date\=26 December 2013\|newspaper\=boston.com\|date\=26 December 2013\|author\=CHRIS BRUMMITT\|author2\=PAPITCHAYA BOONNGOK}} In his response to the media on 27 December 2013, Thailand's army chief General [Prayut Chan\-o\-cha](/wiki/Prayut_Chan-o-cha "Prayut Chan-o-cha") did not rule out the possibility of a military coup, stating, "Whether it is going to happen, time will tell. We don't want to overstep the bounds of our authority. We don't want to use force. We try to use peaceful means, talks and meetings to solve the problem." During the same period, an arrest warrant was issued for Suthep by authorities who cited insurrection as the reason, but police did not act on the order for fear of further provocation.{{cite news\|title\=Thai Army Chief Urges Calm, Doesn't Rule out Coup\|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/thai\-army\-chief\-urges\-calm\-political\-dispute\-21345207\|access\-date\=28 December 2013\|work\=ABC News\|date\=27 December 2013\|author\=Jinda Wedel}} Following the announcement of a 60\-day emergency decree on 21 January 2014, Yingluck met with the EC on 27 January to discuss the possibility of postponing the election due to the latter's fear of violence on the day of the election. However, following a three\-hour meeting, caretaker Deputy Prime Minister Pongthep Thepkanchana informed media that the polling date remained unchanged. Election commissioner Somchai Srisuthiyakorn stated that the EC would organise the 2 February vote to the best of its ability, including the enactment of measures to prevent violence and the staging of a second round of elections to accommodate voters hindered during the inaugural voting stage. During the meeting at the Army Club, an anti\-government protester sustained a gunshot wound; the gunman was arrested.{{cite news\|title\=Yingluck commits to Feb 2 election\|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/politics/391932/yingluck\-commits\-to\-feb\-2\-general\-election\|access\-date\=29 January 2014\|newspaper\=Bangkok Post\|date\=28 January 2014}} The smooth completion of the 2 February election did not resolve Thailand's political situation, as issues of continuing relevancy remained of concern to the caretaker government: firstly, due to protester blockades, 28 constituencies failed to register candidates; secondly, the constitution required at least 475 filled seats, or 95 per cent of the total number of seats, and the problems caused by protesters meant that this target was not reached—the EC, which believes that the final result will fall three seats short, explained that it would be necessary to hold by\-elections over several months in problematic constituencies until all 500 members of the parliament's lower house were selected. In the 2011 elections, a 75 per cent voter turnout rate was registered.{{cite news\|title\=Feb 2 election facts and figures\| url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/392338/thailand\-election\-in\-figures\|access\-date\=30 January 2014\|newspaper\=Bangkok Post\|date\=30 January 2014}}{{cite news\|title\=Thai Protesters Warming Up to Disrupt Poll\| url\=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303743604579351943256606068?mg\=reno64\-wsj\&url\=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052702303743604579351943256606068\.html\|access\-date\=30 January 2014\|newspaper\=The Wall Street Journal\|date\=30 January 2014\|author\=Warangkana Chomchuen}} On 29 January, the Thai Army announced its support of the CMPO operation to protect the election. Deputy army spokesman Winthai Suvari provided details of the deployment of additional military personnel in areas of particular concern and a joint operation with the CMPO to ensure the safety of state officials and others. The army's other key responsibilities will involve providing medical aid in areas close to protest sites, as well as traffic co\-ordination duties in such areas. Assistant national police chief Amnart Unartngarm stated that its 200,000 police officers, plus 1,450 rapid\-deployment units, would guard 93,535 polling stations in 76 provinces and Bangkok.{{cite news\|title\=Army boosts support for CMPO, cites intensification of violence\|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/politics/392276/army\-boosts\-support\-for\-cmpo\-cites\-intensification\-of\-violence\|access\-date\=30 January 2014\|newspaper\=Bangkok Post\|date\=30 January 2014}} ### 2014 Coup On 22 May 2014, the military staged a [coup](/wiki/2014_Thai_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "2014 Thai coup d'état").{{cite news \|title\=Thailand military seizes power in coup \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-27517591 \|work\=BBC News \|date\=22 May 2014}} [Prayut Chan\-o\-cha](/wiki/Prayut_Chan-o-cha "Prayut Chan-o-cha") quickly cracked down on dissent. He put in place controls on the media, imposed [Internet censorship](/wiki/Internet_censorship "Internet censorship"), declared a nationwide [curfew](/wiki/Curfew "Curfew"), banned gatherings of five or more persons and arrested politicians and anti\-coup activists, some of whom were charged with [sedition](/wiki/Sedition "Sedition") and tried in [military courts](/wiki/Military_courts "Military courts").{{cite web \|title \= The Thai junta's latest crackdown on dissent is a bogus Facebook login button \|url \= http://qz.com/226673/the\-thai\-juntas\-latest\-crackdown\-on\-dissent\-is\-a\-bogus\-facebook\-login\-button/ \|date \= 26 June 2014 \|access\-date \= 25 August 2014 \|work \= \[\[Quartz (publication)\|Quartz]] }} On 26 May, King [Bhumibol Adulyadej](/wiki/Bhumibol_Adulyadej "Bhumibol Adulyadej") endorsed the coup, formally appointing Prayut to "take charge of public administration" as of 24 May.{{cite journal \| script\-title\=th:ประกาศแต่งตั้งหัวหน้าคณะรักษาความสงบแห่งชาติ \|trans\-title\=Proclamation on Appointment of Leader of the National Council for Peace and Order \| date \= 2014\-05\-26 \| publisher \= Cabinet Secretariat \| location \= Bangkok \| language \= th \|volume\=131 \| issue \= Special Part 82 D \| page \= 1 \| journal \= Government Gazette \| url \= http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2557/E/082/1\.PDF \| access\-date \= 2014\-05\-27 \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140528010329/http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2557/E/082/1\.PDF \| archive\-date \= May 28, 2014 }} On 22 July 2014, Prayut issued an [interim constitution](/wiki/2014_interim_constitution_of_Thailand "2014 interim constitution of Thailand") granting himself an amnesty for leading the coup and new sweeping powers.{{cite news \|title \= Thai military announces new constitution \|url \= https://www.abc.net.au/correspondents/content/2014/s4054426\.htm \|date \= 27 July 2014 \|access\-date \= 28 August 2014 \|work\=\[\[ABC News (Australia)\|ABC News]] \|location\=Australia \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20201129192927/https://www.abc.net.au/correspondents/content/2014/s4054426\.htm \|archive\-date \= 29 November 2020 \|url\-status \= live}} The junta legislature unanimously voted Prayut, the sole candidate, as the new prime minister. The formal appointment was made on 24 August 2014,{{cite journal \|journal\=\[\[Royal Thai Government Gazette]] \|script\-title\=th:ประกาศแต่งตั้งนายกรัฐมนตรี ลงวันที่ 24 สิงหาคม 2557 \|trans\-title\=Proclamation on Appointment of Prime Minister dated 24 August 2014 \|url\=http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2557/E/159/1\.PDF \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115146/http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2557/E/159/1\.PDF \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=August 26, 2014 \|date\=25 August 2014 \|access\-date\=25 August 2014 \|language\=th \|publisher\=Cabinet Secretariat \|location\=Bangkok \|volume\=131 \|issue\=Special Part 159 D \|page\=1}} in which King [Bhumibol Adulyadej](/wiki/Bhumibol_Adulyadej "Bhumibol Adulyadej") officially endorsed Prayut as prime minister. Prayut activated [Article 44](/wiki/2014_interim_constitution_of_Thailand%23Section_44 "2014 interim constitution of Thailand#Section 44") of the interim constitution. It authorises Prayut to issue "any order to suppress" any act that "undermines public peace and order or [national security](/wiki/National_security "National security"), the [monarchy](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand "Monarchy of Thailand")".{{cite news \|date\=31 March 2015 \|title\=Junta Clarifies Scope of Article 44's Sweeping Power \|work\=\[\[Khaosod English]] \|url\=http://www.khaosodenglish.com/detail.php?newsid\=1427804251\&section\=11 \|access\-date\=31 March 2015}} Political rights had been a free fall since Prayut took control.{{cite news \|title\=World Report 2015: Thailand \|url\=https://www.hrw.org/world\-report/2015/country\-chapters/thailand \|date\=9 January 2015 \|language\=en}} On 13 October 2016, [Bhumibol](/wiki/Bhumibol "Bhumibol") passed away, [King Vajiralongkorn](/wiki/King_Vajiralongkorn "King Vajiralongkorn") became the new monarch.{{cite news \|title\=Thailand's King Bhumibol Adulyadej dead at 88 \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-37643326 \|work\=BBC News \|date\=13 October 2016}} On 16 July 2017, Prayut and [military junta legislator](/wiki/National_Legislative_Assembly_of_Thailand_%282014%29 "National Legislative Assembly of Thailand (2014)") issued the Crown Property law, making [King Vajiralongkorn](/wiki/King_Vajiralongkorn "King Vajiralongkorn") in control of the world's biggest [royal fortune](/wiki/Crown_Property_Bureau "Crown Property Bureau").{{cite news \|last1\=Parry \|first1\=Richard Lloyd \|title\=Thai ruler boosts his power with $30bn property portfolio \|url\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/thai\-ruler\-boosts\-his\-power\-with\-30bn\-property\-portfolio\-08jsw7czm \|date\=17 July 2017 \|language\=en}} ### 2017 military junta constitution Under the [2017 constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Thailand%232017_constitution "Constitution of Thailand#2017 constitution"), the [senate](/wiki/Senate_of_Thailand "Senate of Thailand") was appointed by the [NCPO](/wiki/National_Council_for_Peace_and_Order "National Council for Peace and Order") and would select the prime minister alongside the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Thailand%29 "House of Representatives (Thailand)").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1565758/young\-voters\-find\-voice\|title\=Young voters find voice\| last1\=Jotikasthira \|first1\=Om\|last2\=Sabpaitoon \|first2\=Patpon \|work\=\[\[Bangkok Post]]\|date\=28 October 2018\|access\-date\=10 January 2019\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200212221245/https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1565758/young\-voters\-find\-voice\|archive\-date\=12 February 2020\|url\-status\=live}} Political parties were able to nominate anyone as their prime minister candidate, including non\-party members, which led commentators to believe that Prayut planned to be selected as prime minister with votes from 250 senators and MPs from pro\-junta parties, namely the [Phalang Pracharat Party](/wiki/Phalang_Pracharat_Party "Phalang Pracharat Party"), which has close ties to the junta and is led by Prayut's cabinet ministers,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1546578/pm\-allows\-ministers\-to\-back\-parties\|title\=PM allows ministers to back parties\|last1\=Sattaburuth\|first1\=Aekarach \|last2\=Bangprapa \|first2\=Mongkok \|work\=\[\[Bangkok Post]]\|date\=26 September 2018 \|access\-date\=10 January 2019\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200212224329/https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1546578/pm\-allows\-ministers\-to\-back\-parties\|archive\-date\=12 February 2020\|url\-status\=live}} After the [2019 election](/wiki/2019_Thai_general_election "2019 Thai general election"), [Prayut Chan\-o\-cha](/wiki/Prayut_Chan-o-cha "Prayut Chan-o-cha") became prime minister, defeating [Thanathorn Juangroongruangkit](/wiki/Thanathorn_Juangroongruangkit "Thanathorn Juangroongruangkit") of the anti\-junta [Future Forward Party](/wiki/Future_Forward_Party "Future Forward Party") 500 votes to 244, in which 249 of 500 votes came from a near\-unanimous body of senators appointed by the junta (NCPO).{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/06/asia/thailand\-prime\-minister\-prayut\-intl/index.html\|title\=Thailand's junta chief elected as country's next prime minister\|author1\=Helen Regan \|author2\=Kocha Olarn\|website\=CNN\|access\-date\=9 July 2019}} ### 2020–2021 protests {{Main\|2020–2021 Thai protests}} The protests began in early 2020 with demonstrations against the government of Prime Minister [Prayut Chan\-o\-cha](/wiki/Prayut_Chan-o-cha "Prayut Chan-o-cha"). They later expanded to include the unprecedented demands for reform of the [Thai monarchy](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand "Monarchy of Thailand"). The protests were initially triggered by the dissolution of the [Future Forward Party](/wiki/Future_Forward_Party "Future Forward Party") (FFP) in late February 2020 which was critical of Prayut,{{cite news \|title\=Future Forward: Thai pro\-democracy party dissolved over loan \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-51585347 \|work\=BBC News \|date\=21 February 2020}} the changes to the [Thai constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Thailand "Constitution of Thailand") in 2017 and the country's political landscape that it gave rise to. In November 2021, The [Constitutional Court](/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Thailand "Constitutional Court of Thailand") ruled that demands for reform of the [Thai monarchy](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand "Monarchy of Thailand") have abused of the rights and freedoms and harmed the state's security and ordered an end to all movements, declaring unconstitutional. It has been likened to [judicial coup](/wiki/Constitutional_Coup "Constitutional Coup").{{cite news \|title\=Thai court rules calls for curbs on monarchy are 'abuse of freedoms' \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/10/thai\-court\-rules\-calls\-for\-curbs\-on\-monarchy\-are\-abuse\-of\-freedoms \|work\=the Guardian \|date\=10 November 2021 \|language\=en}} ### Since 2022 In September 2022, Thailand's Constitutional Court ruled that Prime Minister Prayuth Chan\-ocha can stay in office. The opposition had challenged him, because the new constitution limits the term for prime minister as a total period of eight years in office. The Constitutional Court's ruling was that his term in office began in April 2017, simultaneously with the new constitution, although General Prayuth had ruled as the leader of the government since the 2014 military coup.{{cite news \|title\=Prayuth Chan\-ocha: Thai court rules coup leader can remain PM \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-63082400 \|work\=BBC News \|date\=30 September 2022}} In May 2023, Thailand's reformist opposition, the progressive [Move Forward Party](/wiki/Move_Forward_Party "Move Forward Party") (MFP) and the populist [Pheu Thai Party](/wiki/Pheu_Thai_Party "Pheu Thai Party"), won the [general election](/wiki/2023_Thai_general_election "2023 Thai general election"), meaning the royalist\-military parties that supported Prime Minister Prayuth Chan\-ocha lost power.{{cite news \|last1\=Rasheed \|first1\=Zaheena \|title\='Impressive victory': Thai opposition crushes military parties \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/14/thailand\-election\-results\-what\-we\-know\-so\-far \|work\=www.aljazeera.com \|language\=en}} On 22 August 2023, [Srettha Thavisin](/wiki/Srettha_Thavisin "Srettha Thavisin") of the populist Pheu Thai party, became Thailand's new prime minister, while the Pheu Thai party's billionaire figurehead Thaksin Shinawatra returned to Thailand after years in self\-imposed exile.{{cite news \|title\=Srettha Thavisin elected Thailand PM as Thaksin returns from exile \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/22/srettha\-thavisin\-elected\-thailand\-pm\-as\-thaksin\-returns\-from\-exile \|work\=www.aljazeera.com \|language\=en}}
[ "Political history of the democratic era\n---------------------------------------", "### Transition to democracy after 1932", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=January 2014}}\nFollowing the [Siamese revolution of 1932](/wiki/Siamese_revolution_of_1932 \"Siamese revolution of 1932\"), which imposed constitutional limits on the monarchy, Thai politics were dominated for around fifty years by a military and bureaucratic elite, with the support of businessmen and [entrepreneurs](/wiki/Entrepreneur \"Entrepreneur\"). Changes of government were affected primarily by a long series of mostly bloodless coups.", "The [popular uprising](/wiki/1973_Thai_popular_uprising \"1973 Thai popular uprising\") of 14 October 1973 resulted in the end of the ruling [military dictatorship](/wiki/Military_dictatorship \"Military dictatorship\") of anti\\-communist [Thanom Kittikachorn](/wiki/Thanom_Kittikachorn \"Thanom Kittikachorn\"). Notably, it highlighted the growing influence of Thai university students in politics. Only three years later, left\\-wing movements were cracked down by the extremely violent suppression from right wings and ultra royalists in the [6 October 1976 massacre](/wiki/6_October_1976_massacre \"6 October 1976 massacre\") event, following by a coup to strengthen the [monarchy](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand \"Monarchy of Thailand\") and military status in the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") period, including increase of [lèse\\-majesté](/wiki/L%C3%A8se-majest%C3%A9_in_Thailand \"Lèse-majesté in Thailand\") law jail terms.Thongchai Winichakul (2002\\). \"Remembering/ Silencing the Traumatic Past\". In Shigeharu Tanabe and Charles F. Keyes eds., *Cultural Crisis and Social Memory: Modernity and Identity in Thailand and Laos*. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.", "Beginning with a brief experiment in [democracy](/wiki/Democracy \"Democracy\") during the mid\\-1980s, led by [Prem Tinsulanonda](/wiki/Prem_Tinsulanonda \"Prem Tinsulanonda\"), civilian democratic political institutions slowly gained greater authority, culminating in 1988 when [Chatichai Choonhavan](/wiki/Chatichai_Choonhavan \"Chatichai Choonhavan\"),leader of the [Chart Thai Party](/wiki/Chart_Thai_Party \"Chart Thai Party\"), assumed office as the country's first democratically elected [prime minister](/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Thailand \"List of Prime Ministers of Thailand\") in more than a decade. Three years later, another bloodless coup, [1991 Thai coup d'état](/wiki/1991_Thai_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"1991 Thai coup d'état\") ended his term and the military junta [National Peace Keeping Council](/wiki/National_Peace_Keeping_Council \"National Peace Keeping Council\") was formed.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Tamada \\|first1\\=Yoshifumi \\|title\\=Coups in Thailand, 1980\\-1991 \\|journal\\=Japanese Journal of Southeast Asian Studies \\|date\\=1995 \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=317–339 \\|doi\\=10\\.20495/tak.33\\.3\\_317 \\|url\\=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/tak/33/3/33\\_KJ00000131873/\\_article/\\-char/en \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Kyoto University]]\\|location\\=Kyoto}}", "Shortly thereafter, the royally appointed [Anand Panyarachun](/wiki/Anand_Panyarachun \"Anand Panyarachun\"), a businessman and former diplomat, headed a largely civilian interim government and promised to hold elections in the near future. However, following inconclusive [March 1992 Thai general election](/wiki/March_1992_Thai_general_election \"March 1992 Thai general election\"), former army commander [Suchinda Kraprayoon](/wiki/Suchinda_Kraprayoon \"Suchinda Kraprayoon\") was appointed prime minister. Thais, more than 200,000 people led by [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang \"Chamlong Srimuang\") reacted to the appointment by demanding an end to military influence in government, but demonstrations were violently suppressed by the military in [Black May events](/wiki/Black_May_%281992%29 \"Black May (1992)\"). An estimated 52 to 100 protesters were killed, 696 were injured, and 175 had \"disappeared\", it had not been concluded until today. Shortly, Suchinda regime received sweeping [amnesty](/wiki/Amnesty_law \"Amnesty law\"), signed by [Bhumibol Adulyadej](/wiki/Bhumibol_Adulyadej \"Bhumibol Adulyadej\").{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Amnesty International \\|author1\\-link\\=Amnesty International \\|title\\=Thailand: The massacre in Bangkok \\|journal\\=Amnesty International \\|date\\=October 1992 \\|id\\=ASA 39/010/1992 \\|url\\=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa39/010/1992/en/ \\|language\\=en }}", "Domestic and international reactions to the violence forced Suchinda to resign, and the nation once again turned to Anand, who was appointed interim prime minister until new elections were held in September 1992\\. In the September 1992 elections, political parties that had opposed the military in May 1992 won by a narrow majority and [Chuan Leekpai](/wiki/Chuan_Leekpai \"Chuan Leekpai\"), a leader of the [Democrat Party](/wiki/Democrat_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"Democrat Party (Thailand)\"), became prime minister at the head of a five\\-party coalition.", "Following the defection of a coalition partner, Chuan dissolved parliament in May 1995, and the [Chart Thai Party](/wiki/Chart_Thai_Party \"Chart Thai Party\") won the largest number of parliamentary seats in the subsequent election. Party leader [Banharn Silpa\\-archa](/wiki/Banharn_Silpa-archa \"Banharn Silpa-archa\") became prime minister, but held the office for little more than a year. Following elections held in November 1996, [Chavalit Youngchaiyudh](/wiki/Chavalit_Youngchaiyudh \"Chavalit Youngchaiyudh\") formed a coalition government and became prime minister. However, the onset of the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis \"1997 Asian financial crisis\") caused a loss of confidence in the Chavalit government and forced him to hand over power to Chuan Leekpai in November 1997\\.", "Chuan formed a coalition government based on the themes of economic crisis management. The [1997 constitution](/wiki/1997_constitution_of_Thailand \"1997 constitution of Thailand\") was introduced as the first constitution to be drafted by a popularly elected Constitutional Drafting Assembly, hence was popularly called the *People's Constitution*. The 1997 constitution created a [bicameral legislature](/wiki/Bicameral_legislature \"Bicameral legislature\"). For the first time in Thai history, both houses were [directly elected](/wiki/Directly_elected \"Directly elected\").", "### 2001–2006, Thaksin Shinawatra", "{{more citations needed section\\|date\\=February 2014}}\n{{See also\\|2005–2006 Thai political crisis}}\nIn the [January 2001 elections](/wiki/2001_Thailand_legislative_election \"2001 Thailand legislative election\"), telecommunications multimillionaire [Thaksin Shinawatra](/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra \"Thaksin Shinawatra\"), who had relations with the 1990s junta, and his [Thai Rak Thai Party](/wiki/Thai_Rak_Thai_Party \"Thai Rak Thai Party\") (TRT) won an overwhelming victory on a populist platform of economic growth and development.", "Thaksin also marginally escaped (8:7\\) a guilty verdict in the Constitutional Court, where he was charged by the Board of Anti\\-Corruption of hiding shares worth hundreds of millions of baht. A decade later, a Supreme Court ruling in another case accepted the possibility of bribery in the Constitutional Court case.", "After absorbing several smaller parties, TRT gained an absolute majority in the lower house of parliament, controlling 296 of 500 seats. In a cabinet reshuffle of October 2002, the Thaksin administration further put its stamp on the government. A package of bureaucratic reform legislation created six new ministries in an effort to streamline the bureaucratic process and increase efficiency and accountability.", "The [general election held on 6 February 2005](/wiki/2005_Thailand_legislative_election \"2005 Thailand legislative election\") resulted in another landslide victory for Thaksin and TRT, which controlled 374 seats in parliament's lower house. Thaksin's populist policies found great favour in rural areas. Thaksin introduced government programs which greatly benefited rural areas of the country. These programs included debt relief for farmers still reeling from the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis \"1997 Asian financial crisis\") and a new healthcare program that brought coverage to all Thais for 30 baht per visit (equivalent to about US$1\\). During the [2013–2014 Thai political crisis](/wiki/2013%E2%80%932014_Thai_political_crisis \"2013–2014 Thai political crisis\") older residents of the Baan Dong Yaang village in [Udon Thani Province](/wiki/Udon_Thani_Province \"Udon Thani Province\") stated: \"Before Thaksin, no politicians came here. Thaksin understood our situation and helped us.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Thai northeast vows poll payback to Shinawatra clan\\|url\\=http://www.thephuketnews.com/thai\\-northeast\\-vows\\-poll\\-payback\\-to\\-shinawatra\\-clan\\-44343\\.php\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=Phuket News\\|date\\=31 January 2013\\|author\\=AFP}}", "Despite the majority and surging popularity among rural Thais, Thaksin came under severe questioning for selling telecommunication shares to Temasek, a Singapore investor, for about 70,000 million baht without paying any tax. More complex and high\\-level corruption and conspiracies were discovered and exposed by Sonthi Limthongkul, Manager Media Group owner, who reached the middle class in the capital and the cities through the only small satellite and internet media channel, [ASTV](/wiki/ASTV_%28Thailand%29 \"ASTV (Thailand)\").", "Thaksin refused to publicly answer the questions of the [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy \"People's Alliance for Democracy\") (PAD), a large group of middle class Thais and a coalition of anti\\-Thaksin protesters led by [Sonthi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sonthi_Limthongkul \"Sonthi Limthongkul\"). Due to an inability to clear himself of the corruption allegations, Thaksin's regime fell apart during [public protests](/wiki/Thailand_political_crisis_2005-2006 \"Thailand political crisis 2005-2006\") led by PAD, which led to widespread calls for his resignation and [impeachment](/wiki/Impeachment \"Impeachment\").", "PAD gathered in Bangkok and demanded that Thaksin resign as prime minister so that the king could directly appoint someone else. Thaksin refused and protests continued for weeks. Thaksin consequently [dissolved parliament](/wiki/Dissolution_of_parliament \"Dissolution of parliament\") on 24 February 2006 and called a [snap election](/wiki/Snap_election \"Snap election\") for 2 April 2006\\. [The election](/wiki/April_2006_Thailand_legislative_election \"April 2006 Thailand legislative election\") was [boycotted](/wiki/Boycott \"Boycott\") by the opposition parties, leading to unopposed TRT candidates for 38 seats failing to obtain the necessary [quorum](/wiki/Quorum \"Quorum\") of 20 per cent of eligible votes. As the Thai constitution requires all seats to be filled from the beginning of [parliament](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Thailand \"National Assembly of Thailand\"), this produced a [constitutional crisis](/wiki/Constitutional_crisis \"Constitutional crisis\"). After floating several suggestions on 4 April 2006, Thaksin announced that he would step down as prime minister as soon as parliament had selected a successor. In a televised speech to senior judges, King Bhumibol requested that they execute their duty justly.", "Criminal charges and allegations of administrative abuse cases were brought against the Election Committee. The courts voided the election results, jailed the committee for abuse of power, and ordered [a new round of elections for 15 October 2006](/wiki/October_2006_Thailand_legislative_election \"October 2006 Thailand legislative election\"). Thaksin continued to work as caretaker prime minister.", "Civil movements in Thailand were active in the 2000s, with some groups perceiving the Thaksin government as authoritarian, citing [extrajudicial killings](/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing \"Extrajudicial killing\") in his war on drugs, special security laws passed by the administration, and the government's increasingly hardline responses to the insurgency in the southern provinces. Thaksin's government was facing mounting opposition from the urban middle classes, while continuing to remain popular in the predominantly poor and rural north and northeastern regions. However, the most severe critic of Thaksin seemed to be Sondhi Limthongkul, a media tycoon and former colleague.", "### 2006 coup", "{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=October 2008}}\n{{Main\\|2006 Thailand coup d'état}}\nWhile Thaksin was in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") to make a speech at UN Headquarters, the military seized power on 19 September 2006\\.", "The [Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy](/wiki/Council_for_Democratic_Reform_under_Constitutional_Monarchy \"Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy\") (CDRM) led by General [Sonthi Boonyaratglin](/wiki/Sonthi_Boonyaratglin \"Sonthi Boonyaratglin\") was formed. Political activities were banned by the junta after the [coup on 19 September 2006](/wiki/2006_Thailand_coup \"2006 Thailand coup\"). The [1997 constitution](/wiki/1997_constitution_of_Thailand \"1997 constitution of Thailand\") was abrogated, although most of the institutions of government remained intact. A new constitution was drafted and promulgated in late\\-2007\\.", "A month after the coup, an interim civilian government was formed, including an appointed House of Representatives from a variety of professions and an appointed Constitutional Court. Freedom of speech was restored.", "During 2006 and 2007, organized underground terrorist activities took place, including the burning numerous schools in rural areas of the north and the northeast of Thailand and the planting of bombs in ten locations in Bangkok, the latter of which killed and injured several people on New Year's Eve in 2006\\.", "A national referendum for the 2007 constitution was called by the military and the 2007 constitution was accepted by the majority of the voters. The junta promised a democratic general election, which was finally held on 23 December 2007, 16 months after the coup.", "The Constitutional Court unanimously dissolved the populist Thai Rak Thai Party following punishment according to the 1997 constitution, banning 111 TRT members from politics for five years.", "The military drafted a [controversial new constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand \"2007 Constitution of Thailand\") following allegations of Thaksin's corruption and abuse of power. This constitution was particularly designed to increase control of corruption and of conflicts of interests of politicians while decreasing the previously strengthened authority of the government. A national referendum accepted the 2007 constitution, although there was significant disapproval in Thaksin's stronghold, the north and northeast.", "On 23 December 2007, a national parliamentary election was held, based on the new constitution, and the [People's Power Party](/wiki/People%27s_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"People's Power Party (Thailand)\") (Thai Rak Thai's and Thaksin's proxy party), led by former Bangkok governor [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej \"Samak Sundaravej\"), seized the reins of government. Thailand's new parliament convened on 21 January 2008\\.", "The [People's Power Party](/wiki/People%27s_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"People's Power Party (Thailand)\") (PPP), or Thaksin's proxy party, gained the majority, with just under half of the total seats in parliament, and won the general election by a solid margin after five minor parties joined it to form a coalition government.", "A complaint was filed against PPP in the Thai Supreme Court, charging PPP of being the TRT nominee party. Moreover, in 2008, one of its leading members was charged with electoral fraud. The Election Committee also proposed that the PPP should be dissolved due to the violation of the constitution.", "#### Red shirts, yellow shirts", "The so\\-called \"[Red Shirts](/wiki/Red_Shirts_%28Thailand%29 \"Red Shirts (Thailand)\")\" got their start as supporters of deposed former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. Red shirts transferred their support to Thailand's ruling Pheu Thai party led by his sister, Yingluck Shinawatra. In general, red shirts see attempts by the urban and military elite to control Thai politics as a threat to democracy.{{cite news\\|last1\\=McNeill\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=Red Shirt v Yellow Shirt: Thailand's political struggle\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/red\\-shirt\\-v\\-yellow\\-shirt\\-thailands\\-political\\-struggle\\-2057293\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2017\\|work\\=The Independent\\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-20}} The \"yellow shirts\" represent those opposed to Thaksin. They were the force behind the street protests that led to the 2006 coup. The yellow shirts are a loose grouping of royalists, ultra\\-nationalists, and the urban middle class opposed to Thaksin and overarching democratic rule by a rural majority.{{cite news\\|title\\=Profile: Thailand's reds and yellows\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-pacific\\-13294268\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2017\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-13}}", "### 2008 political crisis", "In 2008, [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") saw increasing political turmoil, with the PPP government facing pressure to step down amid mounting [civil disobedience](/wiki/Civil_disobedience \"Civil disobedience\") and [unrest](/wiki/Unrest \"Unrest\") led by PAD. The conflict centred on the constitution. The PPP supported the amendment of the 2007 constitution, while anti\\-government protesters considered it to be a political amnesty for Thaksin and his followers.", "The anti\\-government protesters were, said, mostly better educated, more affluent, urban Thais criticizing a Western\\-style electoral system corrupted by rich politicians. Thaksin was accused of buying votes, bureaucrats, policemen, military officers, and even political factions. Thaksin became the example of the businessman autocrat, launching so\\-called populist projects, some of which were controversial, such as the [war on drugs](/wiki/Premiership_of_Thaksin_Shinawatra%23Anti-drug_policies \"Premiership of Thaksin Shinawatra#Anti-drug policies\"). Hundreds of killings and murder cases noted by the police were said by them to be merely fighting among the drug traffickers, but no further investigation ever occurred. The judicial process was seen as useless; instead, decisive justice was seen to be in the hands of the police.", "As the anti\\-government movement had criticized Thaksin as an example of a corrupt politician, it discredited the election system, suggesting at once a system in which part of the representatives in the national assembly would be chosen by certain professions or social groups.", "Anti\\-Thaksin protesters were vastly outnumbered by Thaksin's supporters in the rural majority, who delivered to his party two resounding election victories. Their loyalty was rewarded by generous social and economic welfare programs. The anti\\-government forces were well\\-organized, and criticized the behind\\-the\\-scenes support of the military, the country's most influential institution, seeing Thaksin supported by anti\\-royalists, former revolutionaries, and ex\\-communists aiming at regime change.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2008/1126/breaking1\\.htm\\|title\\=Thai government rejects army call for new elections\\|work\\=Irishtimes.com\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "[Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej \"Samak Sundaravej\") was elected prime minister of the first government under the [2007 constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand \"2007 Constitution of Thailand\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7212516\\.stm \\|title\\=Asia\\-Pacific \\| Thaksin ally elected as Thai PM \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2008\\-01\\-28 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "Samak Sundaravej, an articulate politician, acknowledged being the \"nominee\" of fugitive Thaksin Shinawatra. Samak Sundaravej's position in power, however, did not put an end to the conflict. People claimed that Thaksin still influenced Thai politics even though he was in exile.", "In 1973, he ran a prominent month\\-long propaganda campaign, accusing democratic student movements of being communist rebels, traitors and spies. The event ended in a massacre of hundreds of students at [Thammasat University](/wiki/Thammasat_University \"Thammasat University\") on 14 October 1973, and a further military coup was conducted, giving him the interior minister position in the junta. In 1976 there was another massacre at the university. Thai military personnel, police and others, were seen shooting at protesters at the university. Many were killed and many survivors were abused.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://time.com/4519367/thailand\\-bangkok\\-october\\-6\\-1976\\-thammasat\\-massacre\\-students\\-joshua\\-wong/\\|title \\= Thailand Marks the Darkest Day in Its Living Memory\\| date\\=6 October 2016 }}", "Prime Minister Samak held daily national state television broadcasts with his own political messages. These were not well received by PAD. NBT, the National Broadcasting Television, the state\\-owned media enterprise, was openly used to counter the PAD's message, which emphasizes the overturning of the current democratic system.", "Former PM Thaksin had welcomed offers to come back to Thailand in February 2008 to face corruption charges and to get close control of the PPP, successor of his Thai Rak Thai Party.", "The opposition forced a no\\-confidence vote on a constitutional amendment which may have resulted in the reinstatement of Thaksin's reputation.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7429435\\.stm\\|title\\=Thai protesters defy PM's warning\\|work\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=31 May 2008}} The failure to address dramatically rising food and energy prices, and a temple dispute with Cambodia damaged the coalition government's reputation.{{cite news\\|last\\=Head \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7476836\\.stm \\|title\\=Embattled Thai PM survives vote \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2008\\-06\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "Street protests led by PAD, the major opposition movement, began in late\\-May after the ruling party agreed to amend the constitution. Their main objective was to block any constitutional amendment aimed chiefly at reinstating Thaksin's reputation and saving the PPP from dissolution after one of its leaders was charged with electoral fraud.", "Another of PAD's objectives was to support the courts and the judicial system in hearing Thaksin's cases. While PM Samak has been successful in controlling the police and civil service, various courts remain independent and issued several independent verdicts.", "The Constitutional Court concluded that PPP's second\\-in\\-command, [Yongyuth Tiyapairat](/wiki/Yongyuth_Tiyapairat \"Yongyuth Tiyapairat\"), who pressured local officers to support his party in the previous election, would subject the party to dissolution. The Administrative Court also ruled that his government seriously violated the constitution and might have prejudiced national sovereignty in negotiating over the sovereignty of territory immediately adjacent to the [Preah Vihear Temple](/wiki/Preah_Vihear_Temple \"Preah Vihear Temple\") with Cambodia. The case brought the resignation of his first foreign minister, Nopadon Patama. Several other ministers found wrongfully informing the Anti\\-corruption Board or Election Governing Board of important information, were discharged when this was discovered.", "Previously Thaksin and Pojaman's three lawyers were caught red\\-handed attempting to bribe Supreme Court judges and were given jail sentences. That was an ominous sign for Thaksin. Later a criminal court returned a verdict of tax evasion against Pojaman. He was to be jailed for three years. Days later, Thaksin and Pojaman jumped bail and issued a statement from London announcing through Thai TV his decision to seek political asylum in the UK in an attempt to avoid what he called \"biased\" treatment under Thailand's current judicial system.<http://itn.co.uk/news/83fe215f8935befce7e48a5efa4bbd2c.html> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123081306/http://itn.co.uk/news/83fe215f8935befce7e48a5efa4bbd2c.html\\|date\\=January 23, 2009}}", "Thaksin and his family fled to Great Britain on 11 August 2008, to apply for political asylum{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7553028\\.stm \\|title\\=Former Thai PM flees to the UK \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2008\\-08\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}} after his wife was convicted of tax evasion.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7534374\\.stm \\|title\\=Ex\\-Thai PM's wife guilty of fraud \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2008\\-07\\-31 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "PM Samak Sundaravej, through his parliament, was able to complete budget bills for mega\\-projects which cost so much that the King of Thailand spoke out in protest and to thank the head of the [Bank of Thailand](/wiki/Bank_of_Thailand \"Bank of Thailand\") (under threats from the government) for warning that the country was on the brink of disaster because of high expenditures.", "On 26 August 2008, 30,000 protesters, led by PAD, occupied Sundaravej's Government House compound in central [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok \"Bangkok\"), forcing he and his advisers to work at [Don Mueang International Airport](/wiki/Don_Mueang_International_Airport \"Don Mueang International Airport\"). Riot police entered the occupied compound and delivered a court order for the eviction of the PAD protesters.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gulfnews.com/world/Thailand/10241274\\.html\\|title\\=Thai minister to stay despite protests\\|work\\=Gulf News\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080831110231/http://www.gulfnews.com/world/Thailand/10241274\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-31}} [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang \"Chamlong Srimuang\"), a leader of PAD, ordered 45 PAD guards to break into the main government building on Saturday.<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gvt2G9EPA9UPyXWKie_ZyeeIcsig> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921162550/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gvt2G9EPA9UPyXWKie\\_ZyeeIcsig\\|date\\=September 21, 2012}} Three regional airports were closed for a short period and 35 trains between Bangkok and the provinces were canceled. Protesters raided the [Phuket International Airport](/wiki/Phuket_International_Airport \"Phuket International Airport\") [tarmac](/wiki/Airport_apron \"Airport apron\") on the resort island of [Phuket Province](/wiki/Phuket_Province \"Phuket Province\") resulting to 118 flights canceled or diverted, affecting 15,000 passengers.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eleconomista.es/mundo/noticias/726786/08/08/I\\-will\\-never\\-resign\\-says\\-besieged\\-Thai\\-PM.html\\|title\\='I will never resign' says besieged Thai PM\\|date\\=30 August 2008\\|work\\=Economista}}", "Protesters also blocked the entrances of the airports in [Krabi](/wiki/Krabi \"Krabi\") and [Hat Yai](/wiki/Hat_Yai \"Hat Yai\") (which were later re\\-opened). Police issued [arrest warrants](/wiki/Arrest_warrant \"Arrest warrant\") for [Sondhi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sondhi_Limthongkul \"Sondhi Limthongkul\") and eight other PAD leaders on charges of [insurrection](/wiki/Insurrection \"Insurrection\"), [conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28political%29 \"Conspiracy (political)\"), [unlawful assembly](/wiki/Unlawful_assembly \"Unlawful assembly\") and refusing orders to disperse.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30thai.html?ref\\=asia\\|title\\=Thai Protest of Premier Stops Trains and Planes\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|first\\=Thomas\\|last\\=Fuller\\|date\\=30 August 2008}} Meanwhile, General Anupong Paochinda stated: \"The army will not stage a coup. The political crisis should be resolved by political means\". Samak and the ruling coalition called for an urgent parliamentary debate and session for 31 August.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7588114\\.stm\\|title\\=Pressure mounts on Thailand's PM\\|work\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=29 August 2008}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\\=20601080\\&sid\\=aGbXEEO82GFM\\&refer\\=asia\\|title\\=Thai Party Calls Urgent Session as Protests Spread (Update3\\)\\|work\\=Bloomberg\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=30 August 2008}}", "PM Samak Sundaravej tried using legal means involving civil charges, criminal charges, and police action to remove PAD protesters from government offices on 29 August.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000103116\\&Keyword\\=%c0%d2%be\\+%b7%d3%e0%b9%d5%c2%ba\\|title\\=ภาพชัดๆ \"ปืนจ่อหัว\" พิสูจน์ \"ความด้าน\" ของตำรวจไทยและ \"สมัคร\"\\|work\\=Manager Online\\|language\\=th}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mgr.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000102992\\|title\\=ชมภาพจะจะ! แก๊สน้ำตาปลิวออกจาก บช.น.ใส่พันธมิตรฯ\\|publisher\\=Manager Online\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120710131656/http://mgr.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000102992\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-10}}\nHowever, PAD managed to get temporary relief from the courts enabling them to legally continue the siege of the government office.", "One person died and 40 people were wounded in a clash which occurred when the [DAAD](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship \"United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship\") (NohPohKoh) protesters, supported by Thaksin and the PPP moved toward PAD at about 03:00, 2 September without adequate police intervention.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000103556\\|title\\=สลด! ตร.ปล่อย \"ม็อบนรก\" ฝ่าด่าน ปะทะการ์ดพันธมิตรที่มัฆวานฯ เจ็บอื้อ\\|work\\=Manager Online\\|language\\=th}}", "By the second half of September 2008, PM Samak Sundaravej was the subject of several court cases for his past actions. He faced an appeals court judgement of slander and a pending ruling from the Constitutional Court as to whether he had a conflict of interest by being a private employee while holding the premiership. The Anti\\-Corruption Board contemplated bringing a charge of abuse of power in the Preah Vihear case to the Constitutional Court. These legal difficulties ended PM Samak's political role. Ex\\-PM Thaksin and Pojaman also faced verdicts from the Supreme Court.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.manager.co.th/Crime/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000100395\\|title\\=ย้อนรอยก่อนสู่วันตัดสินโทษ\"แม้ว\\-มาน\"อาชญากรแผ่นดิน\\|work\\=Manager Online\\|language\\=th}}", "[People Power Party](/wiki/People_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"People Power Party (Thailand)\")'s deputy spokesman Kuthep Suthin Klangsang, on 12 September 2008 announced: \"Samak has accepted his nomination for prime minister. Samak said he is confident that parliament will find him fit for office, and that he is happy to accept the post. A majority of party members voted on Thursday to reappoint Samak. Samak is the leader of our party so he is the best choice.\" Despite objections from its five coalition partners, the PPP, in an urgent meeting, unanimously decided to renominate [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej \"Samak Sundaravej\"). Five coalition parties, namely [Chart Thai](/wiki/Chart_Thai \"Chart Thai\"), Matchima Thipataya, Pracharaj, Puea Pandin, and Ruam Jai Thai Chart Pattana, unanimously agreed to support the PPP to set up the new government and vote for the person who should be nominated as the new prime minister. Chart Thai deputy leader Somsak Prissananantakul and Ruam Jai Thai Chart Pattana leader Chettha Thanajaro said the next prime minister was nominated. Caretaker prime minister [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat \"Somchai Wongsawat\") said PPP secretary\\-general Surapong Suebwonglee would notify the five parties who the PPP nominated, to take office again.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=130591bangkokpost.com \\|title\\=Bangkok Post: Breakingnews \\|website\\=www.bangkokpost.com \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120727053944/http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=130591bangkokpost.com \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD934BSU00 \\|title\\=The article you've requested is no longer available \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20080914121711/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD934BSU00 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-14 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008\\-09/11/content\\_9921780\\.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919175209/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008\\-09/11/content\\_9921780\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2008\\|title\\=Party spokesman: Samak accepts PM nomination\\|work\\=Xinhuanet\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}} Some lawmakers, however, said they would propose an alternate candidate. Meanwhile, Thailand's army chief General [Anupong Paochinda](/wiki/Anupong_Paochinda \"Anupong Paochinda\") said he backed the creation of a national unity government that would include all the country's parties, and he also asked for the lifting of a state of emergency that Samak imposed on 2 September.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/09/11/thailand.pm/\\|title\\=Thai ruling party nominates Samak for PM\\|work\\=CNN \\| date\\=11 September 2008}}", "Embattled [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej \"Samak Sundaravej\") abandoned his bid to regain the premiership, and he also resigned from the PPP's leadership.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2008/09/12/AR2008091203451\\.html\\|title\\=Around the World\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\| date\\=13 September 2008}} Meanwhile, PPP's chief party spokesmen, Kudeb Saikrachang and Kan Thiankaew, announced on 13 September that caretaker prime minister [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat \"Somchai Wongsawat\"), caretaker justice minister Sompong Amornwiwat, and PPP Secretary\\-General Surapong Suebwonglee were PPP's candidates for premiership.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=130625 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-13 \\|title\\=Bangkok Post – Most recent }} However, Suriyasai Katasila of [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy \"People's Alliance for Democracy\") (a group of royalist businessmen, academics and activists) vowed to continue its occupation of Government House if a PPP candidate were nominated: \"We would accept anyone as prime minister, as long as he is not from the People's Power Party.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSSP26321320080913\\|title\\=Thai ruling coalition begins search for new PM\\|work\\=Reuters \\| date\\=13 September 2008}}", "On 14 September the state of emergency was lifted.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ecb0b936\\-82bb\\-11dd\\-a019\\-000077b07658\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ecb0b936\\-82bb\\-11dd\\-a019\\-000077b07658\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-10 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription\\|title\\=Bangkok state of emergency lifted\\|work\\=Financial Times}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.upi.com/Top\\_News/2008/09/15/Bangkok\\_state\\_of\\_emergency\\_lifted/UPI\\-16921221457669/\\|title\\=Bangkok state of emergency lifted\\|agency\\=UPI\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}} The ruling [People Power Party](/wiki/People_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"People Power Party (Thailand)\"), on 15 September 2008, named [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat \"Somchai Wongsawat\"), candidate for prime minister to succeed Samak Sundaravej.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7615950\\.stm\\|title\\=Thai faction rejects PM nominee\\|work\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=15 September 2008}} The PPP will endorse Somchai, and his nomination will be set for a parliamentary vote on Wednesday. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court ruled on Wednesday in a corruption case against Thaksin and his wife, to be promulgated after the parliament vote for the new prime minister.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia\\-35476420080915\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110033910/http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia\\-35476420080915\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 10, 2009\\|title\\=Thai ruling party picks Thaksin in\\-law for PM\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=15 September 2008}}[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS\\-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY\\-w](http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY-w) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924021035/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS\\-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY\\-w\\|date\\=September 24, 2012}}", "On 4 October 2008, [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang \"Chamlong Srimuang\") and rally organiser Chaiwat Sinsuwongse of the [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy \"People's Alliance for Democracy\") were detained by the Thai police led by Col. Sarathon Pradit, by virtue of 27 August arrest warrant for [insurrection](/wiki/Insurrection \"Insurrection\"), conspiracy, illegal assembly, and refusing orders to disperse ([treason](/wiki/Treason \"Treason\")) against him and eight other protest leaders. At Government House, [Sondhi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sondhi_Limthongkul \"Sondhi Limthongkul\"), however, stated demonstrations would continue: \"I am warning you, the government and police, that you are putting fuel on the fire. Once you arrest me, thousands of people will tear you apart.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/world/asia/05thai.html?ref\\=asia\\|title\\=Police Arrest Leader of Thai Protests\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=5 October 2008}} Srimuang's wife, Ying Siriluck visited him at the Border Patrol Police Region 1, [Pathum Thani](/wiki/Pathum_Thani \"Pathum Thani\").[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122319521018405425?mod\\=googlenews\\_wsj](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122319521018405425?mod=googlenews_wsj) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108094034/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122319521018405425\\.html?mod\\=googlenews\\_wsj\\|date\\=January 8, 2009}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=131121 \\|title\\=Bangkok Post: Breakingnews \\|website\\=www.bangkokpost.com \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120721074340/http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=131121 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Other PAD members still wanted by police included Sondhi, activist MP Somkiat Pongpaibul, and PAD leaders Somsak Kosaisuk and Pibhop Dhongchai.<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i6cHuNxaKfhLhcrr25HH_XCCQWMw> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926224938/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i6cHuNxaKfhLhcrr25HH\\_XCCQWMw\\|date\\=September 26, 2012}}", "On 7 October 2008, Deputy Prime Minister [Chavalit Yongchaiyudh](/wiki/Chavalit_Yongchaiyudh \"Chavalit Yongchaiyudh\") resigned and admitted partial responsibility for violence due to police tear gas clearance of the blockade of the parliament, causing injuries to 116 protesters, 21 seriously. His resignation letter stated: \"Since this action did not achieve what I planned, I want to show my responsibility for this operation.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSSP26598420081007\\|title\\=Thai clashes kill 2 in Bangkok, hundreds injured\\|work\\=Reuters \\| date\\=7 October 2008}}<http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMF9SXQgcjmOw2uLVow4mnqJULMwD93LHGQG0> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029172554/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMF9SXQgcjmOw2uLVow4mnqJULMwD93LHGQG0\\|date\\=October 29, 2008}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\\=20601080\\&sid\\=aaSpVlNMZwbM\\&refer\\=asia\\|title\\=Thai Deputy Premier Quits as Police Battle Protesters (Update3\\)\\|work\\=Bloomberg\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=7 October 2008}} After being dispersed, 5,000 demonstrators returned and blocked all four entries to the parliament building.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/07/thailand\\|title\\=Bangkok protesters hurt in anti\\-government clashes\\|author\\=Matthew Weaver\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|location\\=London\\|date\\=7 October 2008}}", "The protesters attempted to hold 320 MPs and senators as hostages inside the parliament building, cutting off the power supply, and forcing [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat \"Somchai Wongsawat\") to escape by jumping a back fence after his policy address. But other trapped MPs failed to leave and flee from the mob. The [siege](/wiki/Siege \"Siege\") on the area beside the near prime minister's office forced the government to transfer its activities to Don Mueang Airport.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/08/world/asia/08thai.html?ref\\=world\\|title\\=Hundreds Injured in Thai Protests\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|first1\\=Seth\\|last1\\=Mydans\\|first2\\=Thomas\\|last2\\=Fuller\\|date\\=8 October 2008}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theage.com.au/world/thai\\-pm\\-jumps\\-fence\\-to\\-flee\\-protesters\\-20081007\\-4vsn.html\\|title\\=Thai PM jumps fence to flee protesters\\|work\\=The Age \\| location\\=Melbourne}}", "On 26 November 2008, the [Asian Human Rights Commission](/wiki/Asian_Human_Rights_Commission \"Asian Human Rights Commission\") (AHRC) issued a statement saying that the current crisis was a watershed moment for democracy and rule of law in Thailand. It contains harsh critique of PAD and the criminal justice system of Thailand.", "### 2009–2010 protests and crackdowns", "{{Main\\|2008–2010 Thai political crisis}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|240px\\|[United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship \"United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship\"), Red Shirts, [protest](/wiki/2010_Thai_political_protests \"2010 Thai political protests\") in 2010](/wiki/File:2010_09_19_red_shirt_protest_bkk_09.JPG \"2010 09 19 red shirt protest bkk 09.JPG\")\nAbhisit's rise to power was controversial and opposed from the beginning. In April 2009, anti\\-government protesters, known as \"red shirts\", began a demonstration aimed at the resignation of the prime minister and fresh elections. The major site of the demonstration was Bangkok. From 8 April, the demonstrators spread their activities to significant locations such as major intersections. Streets were blocked and barricaded. The demonstration took place at the same time as the [ASEAN](/wiki/ASEAN \"ASEAN\") summit in [Pattaya](/wiki/Pattaya \"Pattaya\"). Demonstrators moved there to protest, aiming at disrupting the summit. Protesters stormed the site of the summit, causing its cancellation.", "In Bangkok, the protest became fiercer because of the arrest of the leaders of the Pattaya protest. Protesters blocked the entrances of the Criminal Court, calling for the release of their leaders. Prime Minister Abhisit, at The Ministry of Interior, declared a [state of emergency](/wiki/State_of_emergency \"State of emergency\"). Protesters blocked the entrance of the ministry, to seize the premier and other ministers. However, the premier escaped. The government began to deploy anti\\-riot troops. Armored vehicles were deployed in downtown Bangkok. Anti\\-riot actions took place in the early morning of the next day. Anti\\-riot troops, armed with shields, batons, and M\\-16s with live ammo, started dispersing and shooting protesters on Bangkok's streets.", "Protesters charged that the government was killing protesters. The government denied the charge. Although two bodies were found, the government found no evidence that it was involved in the killings. On major avenues and streets, burning buses were seen, as well as wounded people were carried to the hospitals, but the government reported no serious cases.", "By the afternoon of 14 April, the military controlled all main streets. The leaders of the protest decided to suspend their activities. Thai politics after the pro\\-Thaksin protest has so far been the stage of the two opposing factions: the [Democrat Party](/wiki/Democrat_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"Democrat Party (Thailand)\")\\-led government allied with their coalition partners, who also have the tacit support of the PAD, the military, and the police, against the Thaksin loyalists, the [United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship \"United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship\") (UDD). Both sides have claimed the fighting as the struggle for democracy and the nation.", "#### Resolution to conflict", "{{more citations needed section\\|date\\=February 2014}}\n{{Further\\|2011 Thai general election}}\nOn 3 May the Thai Prime Minister announced he was willing to hold elections on 14 November should the opposition red shirts accept the offer. The following day red shirt leaders accepted the proposal to leave the occupied parts of Bangkok in return for an election on the scheduled date.", "However, one week later, 10 May, protesters had yet to disband despite accepting the road map proposed by the prime minister for early elections. They placed new demands upon the prime minister that Deputy Prime Minister [Suthep Thaugsuban](/wiki/Suthep_Thaugsuban \"Suthep Thaugsuban\"), who was in charge of security operations during the clash of 10 April, must first turn himself in for prosecution before they dispersed.", "On 11 May, Suthep presented himself to the Department of Special Investigation. The red shirt protesters, however, were not satisfied and demanded Suthep be formally charged instead by police. The red shirts failure to disperse was taken as a decline of the conciliatory road map and Prime Minister Abhisit's proposal of early parliamentary elections were withdrawn. This was followed by a warning issued from the prime minister that protesters must disperse or face imminent military action. The red shirts led another protest on 19 May. The army killed over 90 protesters in the ensuing military crackdown. Army tactics were heavily criticised for failing to abide by international standards and using lethal force on unarmed protesters.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-19355065\\|title\\=Rights group criticises 'interfering' Thai army chief\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=23 August 2012\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}} At least six people including nurses and medics were shot by snipers inside a Buddhist temple set up as a safe area.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/troops\\-killed\\-six\\-unarmed\\-people\\-in\\-temple\\-during\\-thai\\-red\\-shirt\\-protests\\-court\\-rules\\-8747943\\.html\\|title\\=Troops killed six unarmed people in temple during Thai 'Red Shirt' protests, court rules\\|work\\=The Independent \\| location\\=London\\|first\\=Andrew\\|last\\=Buncombe\\|date\\=6 August 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/thailand0511webwcover\\_0\\.pdf \\|title\\=Thailand Descent into Chaos \\|publisher\\=Human Rights Watch\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "Between 2001 and 2011, [Isan](/wiki/Isan \"Isan\")'s [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") per capita more than doubled to US$1,475\\. Over the same period, GDP in the Bangkok area soared from US$7,900 to nearly US$13,000\\.", "### 2013 political crisis", "{{Main\\|2013–14 Thai political crisis}}\nFollowing the announcement of a proposed amnesty bill by the Yingluck government, protests resurfaced in October 2013\\. The bill would allow former prime minister Thaksin to re\\-enter Thailand. Protesters perceived the Yingluck administration as corrupt, illegitimate, and a proxy for her brother. The protest movement was led by Suthep Thaugsuban and was supported by the [People's Democratic Reform Committee](/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Reform_Committee \"People's Democratic Reform Committee\") (PDRC).", "Prime Minister Yingluck dissolved the Thai parliament following the recommencement of protests and announced a new election in accordance with the Thai constitution. The constitution states that elections must be held 45 to 60 days from the date that parliament is dissolved. The protest movement opposed the election announcement and the PDRC stated that it would boycott the process, with Suthep calling for the appointment of an unelected council to lead the country until reforms can be implemented. Protesters marched to the Thai\\-Japanese sports stadium, the venue of the registration process, on 22 December 2013 to block the work of the Election Commission (EC).{{cite news\\|title\\=Suthep: Protesters to block EC registration\\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/386179/suthep\\-to\\-block\\-.poll\\-registration\\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2013\\|newspaper\\=Bangkok Post\\|date\\=22 December 2013\\|author\\=Thanarak Khoonton}}", "Protesters at the Thai\\-Japanese sports stadium clashed with police on 26 December 2013, resulting in two fatalities (one police officer was killed by a live bullet fired by a protester). Protesters armed themselves with sling shots and wore gas masks to fight with police, and around 200 people were injured. Due to the escalation in violence, the EC released a statement in which it urged the government to consider postponing the elections. The government explained that it was unable to change the date of the election, but remained open to discussions with protesters.{{cite news\\|title\\=Thai election body urges delay in polls amid clash\\|url\\=https://www.boston.com/news/world/asia/2013/12/26/rocks\\-tear\\-gas\\-fly\\-thai\\-protests\\-heat/qcDLeOTJRVvXnYoVGB85pJ/singlepage.html\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2013\\|newspaper\\=boston.com\\|date\\=26 December 2013\\|author\\=CHRIS BRUMMITT\\|author2\\=PAPITCHAYA BOONNGOK}}", "In his response to the media on 27 December 2013, Thailand's army chief General [Prayut Chan\\-o\\-cha](/wiki/Prayut_Chan-o-cha \"Prayut Chan-o-cha\") did not rule out the possibility of a military coup, stating, \"Whether it is going to happen, time will tell. We don't want to overstep the bounds of our authority. We don't want to use force. We try to use peaceful means, talks and meetings to solve the problem.\" During the same period, an arrest warrant was issued for Suthep by authorities who cited insurrection as the reason, but police did not act on the order for fear of further provocation.{{cite news\\|title\\=Thai Army Chief Urges Calm, Doesn't Rule out Coup\\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/thai\\-army\\-chief\\-urges\\-calm\\-political\\-dispute\\-21345207\\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2013\\|work\\=ABC News\\|date\\=27 December 2013\\|author\\=Jinda Wedel}}", "Following the announcement of a 60\\-day emergency decree on 21 January 2014, Yingluck met with the EC on 27 January to discuss the possibility of postponing the election due to the latter's fear of violence on the day of the election. However, following a three\\-hour meeting, caretaker Deputy Prime Minister Pongthep Thepkanchana informed media that the polling date remained unchanged. Election commissioner Somchai Srisuthiyakorn stated that the EC would organise the 2 February vote to the best of its ability, including the enactment of measures to prevent violence and the staging of a second round of elections to accommodate voters hindered during the inaugural voting stage. During the meeting at the Army Club, an anti\\-government protester sustained a gunshot wound; the gunman was arrested.{{cite news\\|title\\=Yingluck commits to Feb 2 election\\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/politics/391932/yingluck\\-commits\\-to\\-feb\\-2\\-general\\-election\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2014\\|newspaper\\=Bangkok Post\\|date\\=28 January 2014}}", "The smooth completion of the 2 February election did not resolve Thailand's political situation, as issues of continuing relevancy remained of concern to the caretaker government: firstly, due to protester blockades, 28 constituencies failed to register candidates; secondly, the constitution required at least 475 filled seats, or 95 per cent of the total number of seats, and the problems caused by protesters meant that this target was not reached—the EC, which believes that the final result will fall three seats short, explained that it would be necessary to hold by\\-elections over several months in problematic constituencies until all 500 members of the parliament's lower house were selected. In the 2011 elections, a 75 per cent voter turnout rate was registered.{{cite news\\|title\\=Feb 2 election facts and figures\\| url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/392338/thailand\\-election\\-in\\-figures\\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2014\\|newspaper\\=Bangkok Post\\|date\\=30 January 2014}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Thai Protesters Warming Up to Disrupt Poll\\| url\\=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303743604579351943256606068?mg\\=reno64\\-wsj\\&url\\=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052702303743604579351943256606068\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2014\\|newspaper\\=The Wall Street Journal\\|date\\=30 January 2014\\|author\\=Warangkana Chomchuen}}", "On 29 January, the Thai Army announced its support of the CMPO operation to protect the election. Deputy army spokesman Winthai Suvari provided details of the deployment of additional military personnel in areas of particular concern and a joint operation with the CMPO to ensure the safety of state officials and others. The army's other key responsibilities will involve providing medical aid in areas close to protest sites, as well as traffic co\\-ordination duties in such areas. Assistant national police chief Amnart Unartngarm stated that its 200,000 police officers, plus 1,450 rapid\\-deployment units, would guard 93,535 polling stations in 76 provinces and Bangkok.{{cite news\\|title\\=Army boosts support for CMPO, cites intensification of violence\\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/politics/392276/army\\-boosts\\-support\\-for\\-cmpo\\-cites\\-intensification\\-of\\-violence\\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2014\\|newspaper\\=Bangkok Post\\|date\\=30 January 2014}}", "### 2014 Coup", "On 22 May 2014, the military staged a [coup](/wiki/2014_Thai_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"2014 Thai coup d'état\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Thailand military seizes power in coup \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-27517591 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=22 May 2014}} [Prayut Chan\\-o\\-cha](/wiki/Prayut_Chan-o-cha \"Prayut Chan-o-cha\") quickly cracked down on dissent. He put in place controls on the media, imposed [Internet censorship](/wiki/Internet_censorship \"Internet censorship\"), declared a nationwide [curfew](/wiki/Curfew \"Curfew\"), banned gatherings of five or more persons and arrested politicians and anti\\-coup activists, some of whom were charged with [sedition](/wiki/Sedition \"Sedition\") and tried in [military courts](/wiki/Military_courts \"Military courts\").{{cite web \\|title \\= The Thai junta's latest crackdown on dissent is a bogus Facebook login button \\|url \\= http://qz.com/226673/the\\-thai\\-juntas\\-latest\\-crackdown\\-on\\-dissent\\-is\\-a\\-bogus\\-facebook\\-login\\-button/ \\|date \\= 26 June 2014 \\|access\\-date \\= 25 August 2014 \\|work \\= \\[\\[Quartz (publication)\\|Quartz]] }} On 26 May, King [Bhumibol Adulyadej](/wiki/Bhumibol_Adulyadej \"Bhumibol Adulyadej\") endorsed the coup, formally appointing Prayut to \"take charge of public administration\" as of 24 May.{{cite journal \\| script\\-title\\=th:ประกาศแต่งตั้งหัวหน้าคณะรักษาความสงบแห่งชาติ \\|trans\\-title\\=Proclamation on Appointment of Leader of the National Council for Peace and Order \\| date \\= 2014\\-05\\-26 \\| publisher \\= Cabinet Secretariat \\| location \\= Bangkok \\| language \\= th \\|volume\\=131 \\| issue \\= Special Part 82 D \\| page \\= 1 \\| journal \\= Government Gazette \\| url \\= http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2557/E/082/1\\.PDF \\| access\\-date \\= 2014\\-05\\-27 \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140528010329/http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2557/E/082/1\\.PDF \\| archive\\-date \\= May 28, 2014 }} On 22 July 2014, Prayut issued an [interim constitution](/wiki/2014_interim_constitution_of_Thailand \"2014 interim constitution of Thailand\") granting himself an amnesty for leading the coup and new sweeping powers.{{cite news \\|title \\= Thai military announces new constitution \\|url \\= https://www.abc.net.au/correspondents/content/2014/s4054426\\.htm \\|date \\= 27 July 2014 \\|access\\-date \\= 28 August 2014 \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABC News (Australia)\\|ABC News]] \\|location\\=Australia \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20201129192927/https://www.abc.net.au/correspondents/content/2014/s4054426\\.htm \\|archive\\-date \\= 29 November 2020 \\|url\\-status \\= live}} The junta legislature unanimously voted Prayut, the sole candidate, as the new prime minister. The formal appointment was made on 24 August 2014,{{cite journal \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Royal Thai Government Gazette]] \\|script\\-title\\=th:ประกาศแต่งตั้งนายกรัฐมนตรี ลงวันที่ 24 สิงหาคม 2557 \\|trans\\-title\\=Proclamation on Appointment of Prime Minister dated 24 August 2014 \\|url\\=http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2557/E/159/1\\.PDF \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115146/http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2557/E/159/1\\.PDF \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=August 26, 2014 \\|date\\=25 August 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2014 \\|language\\=th \\|publisher\\=Cabinet Secretariat \\|location\\=Bangkok \\|volume\\=131 \\|issue\\=Special Part 159 D \\|page\\=1}} in which King [Bhumibol Adulyadej](/wiki/Bhumibol_Adulyadej \"Bhumibol Adulyadej\") officially endorsed Prayut as prime minister. Prayut activated [Article 44](/wiki/2014_interim_constitution_of_Thailand%23Section_44 \"2014 interim constitution of Thailand#Section 44\") of the interim constitution. It authorises Prayut to issue \"any order to suppress\" any act that \"undermines public peace and order or [national security](/wiki/National_security \"National security\"), the [monarchy](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand \"Monarchy of Thailand\")\".{{cite news \\|date\\=31 March 2015 \\|title\\=Junta Clarifies Scope of Article 44's Sweeping Power \\|work\\=\\[\\[Khaosod English]] \\|url\\=http://www.khaosodenglish.com/detail.php?newsid\\=1427804251\\&section\\=11 \\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2015}} Political rights had been a free fall since Prayut took control.{{cite news \\|title\\=World Report 2015: Thailand \\|url\\=https://www.hrw.org/world\\-report/2015/country\\-chapters/thailand \\|date\\=9 January 2015 \\|language\\=en}} On 13 October 2016, [Bhumibol](/wiki/Bhumibol \"Bhumibol\") passed away, [King Vajiralongkorn](/wiki/King_Vajiralongkorn \"King Vajiralongkorn\") became the new monarch.{{cite news \\|title\\=Thailand's King Bhumibol Adulyadej dead at 88 \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-37643326 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=13 October 2016}} On 16 July 2017, Prayut and [military junta legislator](/wiki/National_Legislative_Assembly_of_Thailand_%282014%29 \"National Legislative Assembly of Thailand (2014)\") issued the Crown Property law, making [King Vajiralongkorn](/wiki/King_Vajiralongkorn \"King Vajiralongkorn\") in control of the world's biggest [royal fortune](/wiki/Crown_Property_Bureau \"Crown Property Bureau\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Parry \\|first1\\=Richard Lloyd \\|title\\=Thai ruler boosts his power with $30bn property portfolio \\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/thai\\-ruler\\-boosts\\-his\\-power\\-with\\-30bn\\-property\\-portfolio\\-08jsw7czm \\|date\\=17 July 2017 \\|language\\=en}}", "### 2017 military junta constitution", "Under the [2017 constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Thailand%232017_constitution \"Constitution of Thailand#2017 constitution\"), the [senate](/wiki/Senate_of_Thailand \"Senate of Thailand\") was appointed by the [NCPO](/wiki/National_Council_for_Peace_and_Order \"National Council for Peace and Order\") and would select the prime minister alongside the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Thailand%29 \"House of Representatives (Thailand)\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1565758/young\\-voters\\-find\\-voice\\|title\\=Young voters find voice\\| last1\\=Jotikasthira \\|first1\\=Om\\|last2\\=Sabpaitoon \\|first2\\=Patpon \\|work\\=\\[\\[Bangkok Post]]\\|date\\=28 October 2018\\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200212221245/https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1565758/young\\-voters\\-find\\-voice\\|archive\\-date\\=12 February 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Political parties were able to nominate anyone as their prime minister candidate, including non\\-party members, which led commentators to believe that Prayut planned to be selected as prime minister with votes from 250 senators and MPs from pro\\-junta parties, namely the [Phalang Pracharat Party](/wiki/Phalang_Pracharat_Party \"Phalang Pracharat Party\"), which has close ties to the junta and is led by Prayut's cabinet ministers,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1546578/pm\\-allows\\-ministers\\-to\\-back\\-parties\\|title\\=PM allows ministers to back parties\\|last1\\=Sattaburuth\\|first1\\=Aekarach \\|last2\\=Bangprapa \\|first2\\=Mongkok \\|work\\=\\[\\[Bangkok Post]]\\|date\\=26 September 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200212224329/https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/1546578/pm\\-allows\\-ministers\\-to\\-back\\-parties\\|archive\\-date\\=12 February 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "After the [2019 election](/wiki/2019_Thai_general_election \"2019 Thai general election\"), [Prayut Chan\\-o\\-cha](/wiki/Prayut_Chan-o-cha \"Prayut Chan-o-cha\") became prime minister, defeating [Thanathorn Juangroongruangkit](/wiki/Thanathorn_Juangroongruangkit \"Thanathorn Juangroongruangkit\") of the anti\\-junta [Future Forward Party](/wiki/Future_Forward_Party \"Future Forward Party\") 500 votes to 244, in which 249 of 500 votes came from a near\\-unanimous body of senators appointed by the junta (NCPO).{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/06/asia/thailand\\-prime\\-minister\\-prayut\\-intl/index.html\\|title\\=Thailand's junta chief elected as country's next prime minister\\|author1\\=Helen Regan \\|author2\\=Kocha Olarn\\|website\\=CNN\\|access\\-date\\=9 July 2019}}", "### 2020–2021 protests", "{{Main\\|2020–2021 Thai protests}}\nThe protests began in early 2020 with demonstrations against the government of Prime Minister [Prayut Chan\\-o\\-cha](/wiki/Prayut_Chan-o-cha \"Prayut Chan-o-cha\"). They later expanded to include the unprecedented demands for reform of the [Thai monarchy](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand \"Monarchy of Thailand\"). The protests were initially triggered by the dissolution of the [Future Forward Party](/wiki/Future_Forward_Party \"Future Forward Party\") (FFP) in late February 2020 which was critical of Prayut,{{cite news \\|title\\=Future Forward: Thai pro\\-democracy party dissolved over loan \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-51585347 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=21 February 2020}} the changes to the [Thai constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Thailand \"Constitution of Thailand\") in 2017 and the country's political landscape that it gave rise to.", "In November 2021, The [Constitutional Court](/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Thailand \"Constitutional Court of Thailand\") ruled that demands for reform of the [Thai monarchy](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand \"Monarchy of Thailand\") have abused of the rights and freedoms and harmed the state's security and ordered an end to all movements, declaring unconstitutional. It has been likened to [judicial coup](/wiki/Constitutional_Coup \"Constitutional Coup\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Thai court rules calls for curbs on monarchy are 'abuse of freedoms' \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/10/thai\\-court\\-rules\\-calls\\-for\\-curbs\\-on\\-monarchy\\-are\\-abuse\\-of\\-freedoms \\|work\\=the Guardian \\|date\\=10 November 2021 \\|language\\=en}}", "### Since 2022", "In September 2022, Thailand's Constitutional Court ruled that Prime Minister Prayuth Chan\\-ocha can stay in office. The opposition had challenged him, because the new constitution limits the term for prime minister as a total period of eight years in office. The Constitutional Court's ruling was that his term in office began in April 2017, simultaneously with the new constitution, although General Prayuth had ruled as the leader of the government since the 2014 military coup.{{cite news \\|title\\=Prayuth Chan\\-ocha: Thai court rules coup leader can remain PM \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-63082400 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=30 September 2022}}", "In May 2023, Thailand's reformist opposition, the progressive [Move Forward Party](/wiki/Move_Forward_Party \"Move Forward Party\") (MFP) and the populist [Pheu Thai Party](/wiki/Pheu_Thai_Party \"Pheu Thai Party\"), won the [general election](/wiki/2023_Thai_general_election \"2023 Thai general election\"), meaning the royalist\\-military parties that supported Prime Minister Prayuth Chan\\-ocha lost power.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Rasheed \\|first1\\=Zaheena \\|title\\='Impressive victory': Thai opposition crushes military parties \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/14/thailand\\-election\\-results\\-what\\-we\\-know\\-so\\-far \\|work\\=www.aljazeera.com \\|language\\=en}} On 22 August 2023, [Srettha Thavisin](/wiki/Srettha_Thavisin \"Srettha Thavisin\") of the populist Pheu Thai party, became Thailand's new prime minister, while the Pheu Thai party's billionaire figurehead Thaksin Shinawatra returned to Thailand after years in self\\-imposed exile.{{cite news \\|title\\=Srettha Thavisin elected Thailand PM as Thaksin returns from exile \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/22/srettha\\-thavisin\\-elected\\-thailand\\-pm\\-as\\-thaksin\\-returns\\-from\\-exile \\|work\\=www.aljazeera.com \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
### 2001–2006, Thaksin Shinawatra {{more citations needed section\|date\=February 2014}} {{See also\|2005–2006 Thai political crisis}} In the [January 2001 elections](/wiki/2001_Thailand_legislative_election "2001 Thailand legislative election"), telecommunications multimillionaire [Thaksin Shinawatra](/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra "Thaksin Shinawatra"), who had relations with the 1990s junta, and his [Thai Rak Thai Party](/wiki/Thai_Rak_Thai_Party "Thai Rak Thai Party") (TRT) won an overwhelming victory on a populist platform of economic growth and development. Thaksin also marginally escaped (8:7\) a guilty verdict in the Constitutional Court, where he was charged by the Board of Anti\-Corruption of hiding shares worth hundreds of millions of baht. A decade later, a Supreme Court ruling in another case accepted the possibility of bribery in the Constitutional Court case. After absorbing several smaller parties, TRT gained an absolute majority in the lower house of parliament, controlling 296 of 500 seats. In a cabinet reshuffle of October 2002, the Thaksin administration further put its stamp on the government. A package of bureaucratic reform legislation created six new ministries in an effort to streamline the bureaucratic process and increase efficiency and accountability. The [general election held on 6 February 2005](/wiki/2005_Thailand_legislative_election "2005 Thailand legislative election") resulted in another landslide victory for Thaksin and TRT, which controlled 374 seats in parliament's lower house. Thaksin's populist policies found great favour in rural areas. Thaksin introduced government programs which greatly benefited rural areas of the country. These programs included debt relief for farmers still reeling from the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis "1997 Asian financial crisis") and a new healthcare program that brought coverage to all Thais for 30 baht per visit (equivalent to about US$1\). During the [2013–2014 Thai political crisis](/wiki/2013%E2%80%932014_Thai_political_crisis "2013–2014 Thai political crisis") older residents of the Baan Dong Yaang village in [Udon Thani Province](/wiki/Udon_Thani_Province "Udon Thani Province") stated: "Before Thaksin, no politicians came here. Thaksin understood our situation and helped us."{{cite news\|title\=Thai northeast vows poll payback to Shinawatra clan\|url\=http://www.thephuketnews.com/thai\-northeast\-vows\-poll\-payback\-to\-shinawatra\-clan\-44343\.php\|access\-date\=1 February 2014\|newspaper\=Phuket News\|date\=31 January 2013\|author\=AFP}} Despite the majority and surging popularity among rural Thais, Thaksin came under severe questioning for selling telecommunication shares to Temasek, a Singapore investor, for about 70,000 million baht without paying any tax. More complex and high\-level corruption and conspiracies were discovered and exposed by Sonthi Limthongkul, Manager Media Group owner, who reached the middle class in the capital and the cities through the only small satellite and internet media channel, [ASTV](/wiki/ASTV_%28Thailand%29 "ASTV (Thailand)"). Thaksin refused to publicly answer the questions of the [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy "People's Alliance for Democracy") (PAD), a large group of middle class Thais and a coalition of anti\-Thaksin protesters led by [Sonthi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sonthi_Limthongkul "Sonthi Limthongkul"). Due to an inability to clear himself of the corruption allegations, Thaksin's regime fell apart during [public protests](/wiki/Thailand_political_crisis_2005-2006 "Thailand political crisis 2005-2006") led by PAD, which led to widespread calls for his resignation and [impeachment](/wiki/Impeachment "Impeachment"). PAD gathered in Bangkok and demanded that Thaksin resign as prime minister so that the king could directly appoint someone else. Thaksin refused and protests continued for weeks. Thaksin consequently [dissolved parliament](/wiki/Dissolution_of_parliament "Dissolution of parliament") on 24 February 2006 and called a [snap election](/wiki/Snap_election "Snap election") for 2 April 2006\. [The election](/wiki/April_2006_Thailand_legislative_election "April 2006 Thailand legislative election") was [boycotted](/wiki/Boycott "Boycott") by the opposition parties, leading to unopposed TRT candidates for 38 seats failing to obtain the necessary [quorum](/wiki/Quorum "Quorum") of 20 per cent of eligible votes. As the Thai constitution requires all seats to be filled from the beginning of [parliament](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Thailand "National Assembly of Thailand"), this produced a [constitutional crisis](/wiki/Constitutional_crisis "Constitutional crisis"). After floating several suggestions on 4 April 2006, Thaksin announced that he would step down as prime minister as soon as parliament had selected a successor. In a televised speech to senior judges, King Bhumibol requested that they execute their duty justly. Criminal charges and allegations of administrative abuse cases were brought against the Election Committee. The courts voided the election results, jailed the committee for abuse of power, and ordered [a new round of elections for 15 October 2006](/wiki/October_2006_Thailand_legislative_election "October 2006 Thailand legislative election"). Thaksin continued to work as caretaker prime minister. Civil movements in Thailand were active in the 2000s, with some groups perceiving the Thaksin government as authoritarian, citing [extrajudicial killings](/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing "Extrajudicial killing") in his war on drugs, special security laws passed by the administration, and the government's increasingly hardline responses to the insurgency in the southern provinces. Thaksin's government was facing mounting opposition from the urban middle classes, while continuing to remain popular in the predominantly poor and rural north and northeastern regions. However, the most severe critic of Thaksin seemed to be Sondhi Limthongkul, a media tycoon and former colleague.
[ "### 2001–2006, Thaksin Shinawatra", "{{more citations needed section\\|date\\=February 2014}}\n{{See also\\|2005–2006 Thai political crisis}}\nIn the [January 2001 elections](/wiki/2001_Thailand_legislative_election \"2001 Thailand legislative election\"), telecommunications multimillionaire [Thaksin Shinawatra](/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra \"Thaksin Shinawatra\"), who had relations with the 1990s junta, and his [Thai Rak Thai Party](/wiki/Thai_Rak_Thai_Party \"Thai Rak Thai Party\") (TRT) won an overwhelming victory on a populist platform of economic growth and development.", "Thaksin also marginally escaped (8:7\\) a guilty verdict in the Constitutional Court, where he was charged by the Board of Anti\\-Corruption of hiding shares worth hundreds of millions of baht. A decade later, a Supreme Court ruling in another case accepted the possibility of bribery in the Constitutional Court case.", "After absorbing several smaller parties, TRT gained an absolute majority in the lower house of parliament, controlling 296 of 500 seats. In a cabinet reshuffle of October 2002, the Thaksin administration further put its stamp on the government. A package of bureaucratic reform legislation created six new ministries in an effort to streamline the bureaucratic process and increase efficiency and accountability.", "The [general election held on 6 February 2005](/wiki/2005_Thailand_legislative_election \"2005 Thailand legislative election\") resulted in another landslide victory for Thaksin and TRT, which controlled 374 seats in parliament's lower house. Thaksin's populist policies found great favour in rural areas. Thaksin introduced government programs which greatly benefited rural areas of the country. These programs included debt relief for farmers still reeling from the [Asian financial crisis](/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis \"1997 Asian financial crisis\") and a new healthcare program that brought coverage to all Thais for 30 baht per visit (equivalent to about US$1\\). During the [2013–2014 Thai political crisis](/wiki/2013%E2%80%932014_Thai_political_crisis \"2013–2014 Thai political crisis\") older residents of the Baan Dong Yaang village in [Udon Thani Province](/wiki/Udon_Thani_Province \"Udon Thani Province\") stated: \"Before Thaksin, no politicians came here. Thaksin understood our situation and helped us.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Thai northeast vows poll payback to Shinawatra clan\\|url\\=http://www.thephuketnews.com/thai\\-northeast\\-vows\\-poll\\-payback\\-to\\-shinawatra\\-clan\\-44343\\.php\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2014\\|newspaper\\=Phuket News\\|date\\=31 January 2013\\|author\\=AFP}}", "Despite the majority and surging popularity among rural Thais, Thaksin came under severe questioning for selling telecommunication shares to Temasek, a Singapore investor, for about 70,000 million baht without paying any tax. More complex and high\\-level corruption and conspiracies were discovered and exposed by Sonthi Limthongkul, Manager Media Group owner, who reached the middle class in the capital and the cities through the only small satellite and internet media channel, [ASTV](/wiki/ASTV_%28Thailand%29 \"ASTV (Thailand)\").", "Thaksin refused to publicly answer the questions of the [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy \"People's Alliance for Democracy\") (PAD), a large group of middle class Thais and a coalition of anti\\-Thaksin protesters led by [Sonthi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sonthi_Limthongkul \"Sonthi Limthongkul\"). Due to an inability to clear himself of the corruption allegations, Thaksin's regime fell apart during [public protests](/wiki/Thailand_political_crisis_2005-2006 \"Thailand political crisis 2005-2006\") led by PAD, which led to widespread calls for his resignation and [impeachment](/wiki/Impeachment \"Impeachment\").", "PAD gathered in Bangkok and demanded that Thaksin resign as prime minister so that the king could directly appoint someone else. Thaksin refused and protests continued for weeks. Thaksin consequently [dissolved parliament](/wiki/Dissolution_of_parliament \"Dissolution of parliament\") on 24 February 2006 and called a [snap election](/wiki/Snap_election \"Snap election\") for 2 April 2006\\. [The election](/wiki/April_2006_Thailand_legislative_election \"April 2006 Thailand legislative election\") was [boycotted](/wiki/Boycott \"Boycott\") by the opposition parties, leading to unopposed TRT candidates for 38 seats failing to obtain the necessary [quorum](/wiki/Quorum \"Quorum\") of 20 per cent of eligible votes. As the Thai constitution requires all seats to be filled from the beginning of [parliament](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Thailand \"National Assembly of Thailand\"), this produced a [constitutional crisis](/wiki/Constitutional_crisis \"Constitutional crisis\"). After floating several suggestions on 4 April 2006, Thaksin announced that he would step down as prime minister as soon as parliament had selected a successor. In a televised speech to senior judges, King Bhumibol requested that they execute their duty justly.", "Criminal charges and allegations of administrative abuse cases were brought against the Election Committee. The courts voided the election results, jailed the committee for abuse of power, and ordered [a new round of elections for 15 October 2006](/wiki/October_2006_Thailand_legislative_election \"October 2006 Thailand legislative election\"). Thaksin continued to work as caretaker prime minister.", "Civil movements in Thailand were active in the 2000s, with some groups perceiving the Thaksin government as authoritarian, citing [extrajudicial killings](/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing \"Extrajudicial killing\") in his war on drugs, special security laws passed by the administration, and the government's increasingly hardline responses to the insurgency in the southern provinces. Thaksin's government was facing mounting opposition from the urban middle classes, while continuing to remain popular in the predominantly poor and rural north and northeastern regions. However, the most severe critic of Thaksin seemed to be Sondhi Limthongkul, a media tycoon and former colleague.", "" ]
### 2006 coup {{Unreferenced section\|date\=October 2008}} {{Main\|2006 Thailand coup d'état}} While Thaksin was in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") to make a speech at UN Headquarters, the military seized power on 19 September 2006\. The [Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy](/wiki/Council_for_Democratic_Reform_under_Constitutional_Monarchy "Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy") (CDRM) led by General [Sonthi Boonyaratglin](/wiki/Sonthi_Boonyaratglin "Sonthi Boonyaratglin") was formed. Political activities were banned by the junta after the [coup on 19 September 2006](/wiki/2006_Thailand_coup "2006 Thailand coup"). The [1997 constitution](/wiki/1997_constitution_of_Thailand "1997 constitution of Thailand") was abrogated, although most of the institutions of government remained intact. A new constitution was drafted and promulgated in late\-2007\. A month after the coup, an interim civilian government was formed, including an appointed House of Representatives from a variety of professions and an appointed Constitutional Court. Freedom of speech was restored. During 2006 and 2007, organized underground terrorist activities took place, including the burning numerous schools in rural areas of the north and the northeast of Thailand and the planting of bombs in ten locations in Bangkok, the latter of which killed and injured several people on New Year's Eve in 2006\. A national referendum for the 2007 constitution was called by the military and the 2007 constitution was accepted by the majority of the voters. The junta promised a democratic general election, which was finally held on 23 December 2007, 16 months after the coup. The Constitutional Court unanimously dissolved the populist Thai Rak Thai Party following punishment according to the 1997 constitution, banning 111 TRT members from politics for five years. The military drafted a [controversial new constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand "2007 Constitution of Thailand") following allegations of Thaksin's corruption and abuse of power. This constitution was particularly designed to increase control of corruption and of conflicts of interests of politicians while decreasing the previously strengthened authority of the government. A national referendum accepted the 2007 constitution, although there was significant disapproval in Thaksin's stronghold, the north and northeast. On 23 December 2007, a national parliamentary election was held, based on the new constitution, and the [People's Power Party](/wiki/People%27s_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 "People's Power Party (Thailand)") (Thai Rak Thai's and Thaksin's proxy party), led by former Bangkok governor [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej "Samak Sundaravej"), seized the reins of government. Thailand's new parliament convened on 21 January 2008\. The [People's Power Party](/wiki/People%27s_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 "People's Power Party (Thailand)") (PPP), or Thaksin's proxy party, gained the majority, with just under half of the total seats in parliament, and won the general election by a solid margin after five minor parties joined it to form a coalition government. A complaint was filed against PPP in the Thai Supreme Court, charging PPP of being the TRT nominee party. Moreover, in 2008, one of its leading members was charged with electoral fraud. The Election Committee also proposed that the PPP should be dissolved due to the violation of the constitution. #### Red shirts, yellow shirts The so\-called "[Red Shirts](/wiki/Red_Shirts_%28Thailand%29 "Red Shirts (Thailand)")" got their start as supporters of deposed former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. Red shirts transferred their support to Thailand's ruling Pheu Thai party led by his sister, Yingluck Shinawatra. In general, red shirts see attempts by the urban and military elite to control Thai politics as a threat to democracy.{{cite news\|last1\=McNeill\|first1\=David\|title\=Red Shirt v Yellow Shirt: Thailand's political struggle\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/red\-shirt\-v\-yellow\-shirt\-thailands\-political\-struggle\-2057293\.html\|access\-date\=28 January 2017\|work\=The Independent\|date\=2010\-08\-20}} The "yellow shirts" represent those opposed to Thaksin. They were the force behind the street protests that led to the 2006 coup. The yellow shirts are a loose grouping of royalists, ultra\-nationalists, and the urban middle class opposed to Thaksin and overarching democratic rule by a rural majority.{{cite news\|title\=Profile: Thailand's reds and yellows\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-pacific\-13294268\|access\-date\=28 January 2017\|work\=BBC News\|date\=2012\-07\-13}}
[ "### 2006 coup", "{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=October 2008}}\n{{Main\\|2006 Thailand coup d'état}}\nWhile Thaksin was in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") to make a speech at UN Headquarters, the military seized power on 19 September 2006\\.", "The [Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy](/wiki/Council_for_Democratic_Reform_under_Constitutional_Monarchy \"Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy\") (CDRM) led by General [Sonthi Boonyaratglin](/wiki/Sonthi_Boonyaratglin \"Sonthi Boonyaratglin\") was formed. Political activities were banned by the junta after the [coup on 19 September 2006](/wiki/2006_Thailand_coup \"2006 Thailand coup\"). The [1997 constitution](/wiki/1997_constitution_of_Thailand \"1997 constitution of Thailand\") was abrogated, although most of the institutions of government remained intact. A new constitution was drafted and promulgated in late\\-2007\\.", "A month after the coup, an interim civilian government was formed, including an appointed House of Representatives from a variety of professions and an appointed Constitutional Court. Freedom of speech was restored.", "During 2006 and 2007, organized underground terrorist activities took place, including the burning numerous schools in rural areas of the north and the northeast of Thailand and the planting of bombs in ten locations in Bangkok, the latter of which killed and injured several people on New Year's Eve in 2006\\.", "A national referendum for the 2007 constitution was called by the military and the 2007 constitution was accepted by the majority of the voters. The junta promised a democratic general election, which was finally held on 23 December 2007, 16 months after the coup.", "The Constitutional Court unanimously dissolved the populist Thai Rak Thai Party following punishment according to the 1997 constitution, banning 111 TRT members from politics for five years.", "The military drafted a [controversial new constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand \"2007 Constitution of Thailand\") following allegations of Thaksin's corruption and abuse of power. This constitution was particularly designed to increase control of corruption and of conflicts of interests of politicians while decreasing the previously strengthened authority of the government. A national referendum accepted the 2007 constitution, although there was significant disapproval in Thaksin's stronghold, the north and northeast.", "On 23 December 2007, a national parliamentary election was held, based on the new constitution, and the [People's Power Party](/wiki/People%27s_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"People's Power Party (Thailand)\") (Thai Rak Thai's and Thaksin's proxy party), led by former Bangkok governor [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej \"Samak Sundaravej\"), seized the reins of government. Thailand's new parliament convened on 21 January 2008\\.", "The [People's Power Party](/wiki/People%27s_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"People's Power Party (Thailand)\") (PPP), or Thaksin's proxy party, gained the majority, with just under half of the total seats in parliament, and won the general election by a solid margin after five minor parties joined it to form a coalition government.", "A complaint was filed against PPP in the Thai Supreme Court, charging PPP of being the TRT nominee party. Moreover, in 2008, one of its leading members was charged with electoral fraud. The Election Committee also proposed that the PPP should be dissolved due to the violation of the constitution.", "#### Red shirts, yellow shirts", "The so\\-called \"[Red Shirts](/wiki/Red_Shirts_%28Thailand%29 \"Red Shirts (Thailand)\")\" got their start as supporters of deposed former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. Red shirts transferred their support to Thailand's ruling Pheu Thai party led by his sister, Yingluck Shinawatra. In general, red shirts see attempts by the urban and military elite to control Thai politics as a threat to democracy.{{cite news\\|last1\\=McNeill\\|first1\\=David\\|title\\=Red Shirt v Yellow Shirt: Thailand's political struggle\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/red\\-shirt\\-v\\-yellow\\-shirt\\-thailands\\-political\\-struggle\\-2057293\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2017\\|work\\=The Independent\\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-20}} The \"yellow shirts\" represent those opposed to Thaksin. They were the force behind the street protests that led to the 2006 coup. The yellow shirts are a loose grouping of royalists, ultra\\-nationalists, and the urban middle class opposed to Thaksin and overarching democratic rule by a rural majority.{{cite news\\|title\\=Profile: Thailand's reds and yellows\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-pacific\\-13294268\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2017\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-13}}", "" ]
### 2008 political crisis In 2008, [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") saw increasing political turmoil, with the PPP government facing pressure to step down amid mounting [civil disobedience](/wiki/Civil_disobedience "Civil disobedience") and [unrest](/wiki/Unrest "Unrest") led by PAD. The conflict centred on the constitution. The PPP supported the amendment of the 2007 constitution, while anti\-government protesters considered it to be a political amnesty for Thaksin and his followers. The anti\-government protesters were, said, mostly better educated, more affluent, urban Thais criticizing a Western\-style electoral system corrupted by rich politicians. Thaksin was accused of buying votes, bureaucrats, policemen, military officers, and even political factions. Thaksin became the example of the businessman autocrat, launching so\-called populist projects, some of which were controversial, such as the [war on drugs](/wiki/Premiership_of_Thaksin_Shinawatra%23Anti-drug_policies "Premiership of Thaksin Shinawatra#Anti-drug policies"). Hundreds of killings and murder cases noted by the police were said by them to be merely fighting among the drug traffickers, but no further investigation ever occurred. The judicial process was seen as useless; instead, decisive justice was seen to be in the hands of the police. As the anti\-government movement had criticized Thaksin as an example of a corrupt politician, it discredited the election system, suggesting at once a system in which part of the representatives in the national assembly would be chosen by certain professions or social groups. Anti\-Thaksin protesters were vastly outnumbered by Thaksin's supporters in the rural majority, who delivered to his party two resounding election victories. Their loyalty was rewarded by generous social and economic welfare programs. The anti\-government forces were well\-organized, and criticized the behind\-the\-scenes support of the military, the country's most influential institution, seeing Thaksin supported by anti\-royalists, former revolutionaries, and ex\-communists aiming at regime change.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2008/1126/breaking1\.htm\|title\=Thai government rejects army call for new elections\|work\=Irishtimes.com\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej "Samak Sundaravej") was elected prime minister of the first government under the [2007 constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand "2007 Constitution of Thailand").{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7212516\.stm \|title\=Asia\-Pacific \| Thaksin ally elected as Thai PM \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2008\-01\-28 \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} Samak Sundaravej, an articulate politician, acknowledged being the "nominee" of fugitive Thaksin Shinawatra. Samak Sundaravej's position in power, however, did not put an end to the conflict. People claimed that Thaksin still influenced Thai politics even though he was in exile. In 1973, he ran a prominent month\-long propaganda campaign, accusing democratic student movements of being communist rebels, traitors and spies. The event ended in a massacre of hundreds of students at [Thammasat University](/wiki/Thammasat_University "Thammasat University") on 14 October 1973, and a further military coup was conducted, giving him the interior minister position in the junta. In 1976 there was another massacre at the university. Thai military personnel, police and others, were seen shooting at protesters at the university. Many were killed and many survivors were abused.{{Cite web\|url\=https://time.com/4519367/thailand\-bangkok\-october\-6\-1976\-thammasat\-massacre\-students\-joshua\-wong/\|title \= Thailand Marks the Darkest Day in Its Living Memory\| date\=6 October 2016 }} Prime Minister Samak held daily national state television broadcasts with his own political messages. These were not well received by PAD. NBT, the National Broadcasting Television, the state\-owned media enterprise, was openly used to counter the PAD's message, which emphasizes the overturning of the current democratic system. Former PM Thaksin had welcomed offers to come back to Thailand in February 2008 to face corruption charges and to get close control of the PPP, successor of his Thai Rak Thai Party. The opposition forced a no\-confidence vote on a constitutional amendment which may have resulted in the reinstatement of Thaksin's reputation.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7429435\.stm\|title\=Thai protesters defy PM's warning\|work\=BBC\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=31 May 2008}} The failure to address dramatically rising food and energy prices, and a temple dispute with Cambodia damaged the coalition government's reputation.{{cite news\|last\=Head \|first\=Jonathan \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7476836\.stm \|title\=Embattled Thai PM survives vote \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2008\-06\-27 \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} Street protests led by PAD, the major opposition movement, began in late\-May after the ruling party agreed to amend the constitution. Their main objective was to block any constitutional amendment aimed chiefly at reinstating Thaksin's reputation and saving the PPP from dissolution after one of its leaders was charged with electoral fraud. Another of PAD's objectives was to support the courts and the judicial system in hearing Thaksin's cases. While PM Samak has been successful in controlling the police and civil service, various courts remain independent and issued several independent verdicts. The Constitutional Court concluded that PPP's second\-in\-command, [Yongyuth Tiyapairat](/wiki/Yongyuth_Tiyapairat "Yongyuth Tiyapairat"), who pressured local officers to support his party in the previous election, would subject the party to dissolution. The Administrative Court also ruled that his government seriously violated the constitution and might have prejudiced national sovereignty in negotiating over the sovereignty of territory immediately adjacent to the [Preah Vihear Temple](/wiki/Preah_Vihear_Temple "Preah Vihear Temple") with Cambodia. The case brought the resignation of his first foreign minister, Nopadon Patama. Several other ministers found wrongfully informing the Anti\-corruption Board or Election Governing Board of important information, were discharged when this was discovered. Previously Thaksin and Pojaman's three lawyers were caught red\-handed attempting to bribe Supreme Court judges and were given jail sentences. That was an ominous sign for Thaksin. Later a criminal court returned a verdict of tax evasion against Pojaman. He was to be jailed for three years. Days later, Thaksin and Pojaman jumped bail and issued a statement from London announcing through Thai TV his decision to seek political asylum in the UK in an attempt to avoid what he called "biased" treatment under Thailand's current judicial system.<http://itn.co.uk/news/83fe215f8935befce7e48a5efa4bbd2c.html> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123081306/http://itn.co.uk/news/83fe215f8935befce7e48a5efa4bbd2c.html\|date\=January 23, 2009}} Thaksin and his family fled to Great Britain on 11 August 2008, to apply for political asylum{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7553028\.stm \|title\=Former Thai PM flees to the UK \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2008\-08\-11 \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} after his wife was convicted of tax evasion.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7534374\.stm \|title\=Ex\-Thai PM's wife guilty of fraud \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2008\-07\-31 \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} PM Samak Sundaravej, through his parliament, was able to complete budget bills for mega\-projects which cost so much that the King of Thailand spoke out in protest and to thank the head of the [Bank of Thailand](/wiki/Bank_of_Thailand "Bank of Thailand") (under threats from the government) for warning that the country was on the brink of disaster because of high expenditures. On 26 August 2008, 30,000 protesters, led by PAD, occupied Sundaravej's Government House compound in central [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok "Bangkok"), forcing he and his advisers to work at [Don Mueang International Airport](/wiki/Don_Mueang_International_Airport "Don Mueang International Airport"). Riot police entered the occupied compound and delivered a court order for the eviction of the PAD protesters.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gulfnews.com/world/Thailand/10241274\.html\|title\=Thai minister to stay despite protests\|work\=Gulf News\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080831110231/http://www.gulfnews.com/world/Thailand/10241274\.html\|archive\-date\=2008\-08\-31}} [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang "Chamlong Srimuang"), a leader of PAD, ordered 45 PAD guards to break into the main government building on Saturday.<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gvt2G9EPA9UPyXWKie_ZyeeIcsig> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921162550/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gvt2G9EPA9UPyXWKie\_ZyeeIcsig\|date\=September 21, 2012}} Three regional airports were closed for a short period and 35 trains between Bangkok and the provinces were canceled. Protesters raided the [Phuket International Airport](/wiki/Phuket_International_Airport "Phuket International Airport") [tarmac](/wiki/Airport_apron "Airport apron") on the resort island of [Phuket Province](/wiki/Phuket_Province "Phuket Province") resulting to 118 flights canceled or diverted, affecting 15,000 passengers.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eleconomista.es/mundo/noticias/726786/08/08/I\-will\-never\-resign\-says\-besieged\-Thai\-PM.html\|title\='I will never resign' says besieged Thai PM\|date\=30 August 2008\|work\=Economista}} Protesters also blocked the entrances of the airports in [Krabi](/wiki/Krabi "Krabi") and [Hat Yai](/wiki/Hat_Yai "Hat Yai") (which were later re\-opened). Police issued [arrest warrants](/wiki/Arrest_warrant "Arrest warrant") for [Sondhi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sondhi_Limthongkul "Sondhi Limthongkul") and eight other PAD leaders on charges of [insurrection](/wiki/Insurrection "Insurrection"), [conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28political%29 "Conspiracy (political)"), [unlawful assembly](/wiki/Unlawful_assembly "Unlawful assembly") and refusing orders to disperse.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30thai.html?ref\=asia\|title\=Thai Protest of Premier Stops Trains and Planes\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|first\=Thomas\|last\=Fuller\|date\=30 August 2008}} Meanwhile, General Anupong Paochinda stated: "The army will not stage a coup. The political crisis should be resolved by political means". Samak and the ruling coalition called for an urgent parliamentary debate and session for 31 August.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7588114\.stm\|title\=Pressure mounts on Thailand's PM\|work\=BBC\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=29 August 2008}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\=20601080\&sid\=aGbXEEO82GFM\&refer\=asia\|title\=Thai Party Calls Urgent Session as Protests Spread (Update3\)\|work\=Bloomberg\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=30 August 2008}} PM Samak Sundaravej tried using legal means involving civil charges, criminal charges, and police action to remove PAD protesters from government offices on 29 August.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000103116\&Keyword\=%c0%d2%be\+%b7%d3%e0%b9%d5%c2%ba\|title\=ภาพชัดๆ "ปืนจ่อหัว" พิสูจน์ "ความด้าน" ของตำรวจไทยและ "สมัคร"\|work\=Manager Online\|language\=th}}{{cite web\|url\=http://mgr.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000102992\|title\=ชมภาพจะจะ! แก๊สน้ำตาปลิวออกจาก บช.น.ใส่พันธมิตรฯ\|publisher\=Manager Online\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120710131656/http://mgr.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000102992\|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-10}} However, PAD managed to get temporary relief from the courts enabling them to legally continue the siege of the government office. One person died and 40 people were wounded in a clash which occurred when the [DAAD](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship "United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship") (NohPohKoh) protesters, supported by Thaksin and the PPP moved toward PAD at about 03:00, 2 September without adequate police intervention.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000103556\|title\=สลด! ตร.ปล่อย "ม็อบนรก" ฝ่าด่าน ปะทะการ์ดพันธมิตรที่มัฆวานฯ เจ็บอื้อ\|work\=Manager Online\|language\=th}} By the second half of September 2008, PM Samak Sundaravej was the subject of several court cases for his past actions. He faced an appeals court judgement of slander and a pending ruling from the Constitutional Court as to whether he had a conflict of interest by being a private employee while holding the premiership. The Anti\-Corruption Board contemplated bringing a charge of abuse of power in the Preah Vihear case to the Constitutional Court. These legal difficulties ended PM Samak's political role. Ex\-PM Thaksin and Pojaman also faced verdicts from the Supreme Court.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.manager.co.th/Crime/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\=9510000100395\|title\=ย้อนรอยก่อนสู่วันตัดสินโทษ"แม้ว\-มาน"อาชญากรแผ่นดิน\|work\=Manager Online\|language\=th}} [People Power Party](/wiki/People_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 "People Power Party (Thailand)")'s deputy spokesman Kuthep Suthin Klangsang, on 12 September 2008 announced: "Samak has accepted his nomination for prime minister. Samak said he is confident that parliament will find him fit for office, and that he is happy to accept the post. A majority of party members voted on Thursday to reappoint Samak. Samak is the leader of our party so he is the best choice." Despite objections from its five coalition partners, the PPP, in an urgent meeting, unanimously decided to renominate [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej "Samak Sundaravej"). Five coalition parties, namely [Chart Thai](/wiki/Chart_Thai "Chart Thai"), Matchima Thipataya, Pracharaj, Puea Pandin, and Ruam Jai Thai Chart Pattana, unanimously agreed to support the PPP to set up the new government and vote for the person who should be nominated as the new prime minister. Chart Thai deputy leader Somsak Prissananantakul and Ruam Jai Thai Chart Pattana leader Chettha Thanajaro said the next prime minister was nominated. Caretaker prime minister [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat "Somchai Wongsawat") said PPP secretary\-general Surapong Suebwonglee would notify the five parties who the PPP nominated, to take office again.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=130591bangkokpost.com \|title\=Bangkok Post: Breakingnews \|website\=www.bangkokpost.com \|access\-date\=3 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120727053944/http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=130591bangkokpost.com \|archive\-date\=27 July 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web \|url\=http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD934BSU00 \|title\=The article you've requested is no longer available \|access\-date\=2008\-09\-13 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20080914121711/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD934BSU00 \|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-14 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008\-09/11/content\_9921780\.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919175209/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008\-09/11/content\_9921780\.htm\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=September 19, 2008\|title\=Party spokesman: Samak accepts PM nomination\|work\=Xinhuanet\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} Some lawmakers, however, said they would propose an alternate candidate. Meanwhile, Thailand's army chief General [Anupong Paochinda](/wiki/Anupong_Paochinda "Anupong Paochinda") said he backed the creation of a national unity government that would include all the country's parties, and he also asked for the lifting of a state of emergency that Samak imposed on 2 September.{{cite news\|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/09/11/thailand.pm/\|title\=Thai ruling party nominates Samak for PM\|work\=CNN \| date\=11 September 2008}} Embattled [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej "Samak Sundaravej") abandoned his bid to regain the premiership, and he also resigned from the PPP's leadership.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2008/09/12/AR2008091203451\.html\|title\=Around the World\|newspaper\=The Washington Post \| date\=13 September 2008}} Meanwhile, PPP's chief party spokesmen, Kudeb Saikrachang and Kan Thiankaew, announced on 13 September that caretaker prime minister [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat "Somchai Wongsawat"), caretaker justice minister Sompong Amornwiwat, and PPP Secretary\-General Surapong Suebwonglee were PPP's candidates for premiership.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=130625 \|access\-date\=2008\-09\-13 \|title\=Bangkok Post – Most recent }} However, Suriyasai Katasila of [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy "People's Alliance for Democracy") (a group of royalist businessmen, academics and activists) vowed to continue its occupation of Government House if a PPP candidate were nominated: "We would accept anyone as prime minister, as long as he is not from the People's Power Party."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSSP26321320080913\|title\=Thai ruling coalition begins search for new PM\|work\=Reuters \| date\=13 September 2008}} On 14 September the state of emergency was lifted.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ecb0b936\-82bb\-11dd\-a019\-000077b07658\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ecb0b936\-82bb\-11dd\-a019\-000077b07658\.html \|archive\-date\=2022\-12\-10 \|url\-access\=subscription\|title\=Bangkok state of emergency lifted\|work\=Financial Times}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.upi.com/Top\_News/2008/09/15/Bangkok\_state\_of\_emergency\_lifted/UPI\-16921221457669/\|title\=Bangkok state of emergency lifted\|agency\=UPI\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} The ruling [People Power Party](/wiki/People_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 "People Power Party (Thailand)"), on 15 September 2008, named [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat "Somchai Wongsawat"), candidate for prime minister to succeed Samak Sundaravej.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/7615950\.stm\|title\=Thai faction rejects PM nominee\|work\=BBC\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=15 September 2008}} The PPP will endorse Somchai, and his nomination will be set for a parliamentary vote on Wednesday. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court ruled on Wednesday in a corruption case against Thaksin and his wife, to be promulgated after the parliament vote for the new prime minister.{{cite news\|url\=http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia\-35476420080915\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110033910/http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia\-35476420080915\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 10, 2009\|title\=Thai ruling party picks Thaksin in\-law for PM\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=15 September 2008}}[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS\-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY\-w](http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY-w) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924021035/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS\-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY\-w\|date\=September 24, 2012}} On 4 October 2008, [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang "Chamlong Srimuang") and rally organiser Chaiwat Sinsuwongse of the [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy "People's Alliance for Democracy") were detained by the Thai police led by Col. Sarathon Pradit, by virtue of 27 August arrest warrant for [insurrection](/wiki/Insurrection "Insurrection"), conspiracy, illegal assembly, and refusing orders to disperse ([treason](/wiki/Treason "Treason")) against him and eight other protest leaders. At Government House, [Sondhi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sondhi_Limthongkul "Sondhi Limthongkul"), however, stated demonstrations would continue: "I am warning you, the government and police, that you are putting fuel on the fire. Once you arrest me, thousands of people will tear you apart."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/world/asia/05thai.html?ref\=asia\|title\=Police Arrest Leader of Thai Protests\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=5 October 2008}} Srimuang's wife, Ying Siriluck visited him at the Border Patrol Police Region 1, [Pathum Thani](/wiki/Pathum_Thani "Pathum Thani").[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122319521018405425?mod\=googlenews\_wsj](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122319521018405425?mod=googlenews_wsj) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108094034/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122319521018405425\.html?mod\=googlenews\_wsj\|date\=January 8, 2009}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=131121 \|title\=Bangkok Post: Breakingnews \|website\=www.bangkokpost.com \|access\-date\=3 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120721074340/http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\_news/breakingnews.php?id\=131121 \|archive\-date\=21 July 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} Other PAD members still wanted by police included Sondhi, activist MP Somkiat Pongpaibul, and PAD leaders Somsak Kosaisuk and Pibhop Dhongchai.<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i6cHuNxaKfhLhcrr25HH_XCCQWMw> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926224938/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i6cHuNxaKfhLhcrr25HH\_XCCQWMw\|date\=September 26, 2012}} On 7 October 2008, Deputy Prime Minister [Chavalit Yongchaiyudh](/wiki/Chavalit_Yongchaiyudh "Chavalit Yongchaiyudh") resigned and admitted partial responsibility for violence due to police tear gas clearance of the blockade of the parliament, causing injuries to 116 protesters, 21 seriously. His resignation letter stated: "Since this action did not achieve what I planned, I want to show my responsibility for this operation."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSSP26598420081007\|title\=Thai clashes kill 2 in Bangkok, hundreds injured\|work\=Reuters \| date\=7 October 2008}}<http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMF9SXQgcjmOw2uLVow4mnqJULMwD93LHGQG0> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029172554/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMF9SXQgcjmOw2uLVow4mnqJULMwD93LHGQG0\|date\=October 29, 2008}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\=20601080\&sid\=aaSpVlNMZwbM\&refer\=asia\|title\=Thai Deputy Premier Quits as Police Battle Protesters (Update3\)\|work\=Bloomberg\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|date\=7 October 2008}} After being dispersed, 5,000 demonstrators returned and blocked all four entries to the parliament building.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/07/thailand\|title\=Bangkok protesters hurt in anti\-government clashes\|author\=Matthew Weaver\|work\=The Guardian\|location\=London\|date\=7 October 2008}} The protesters attempted to hold 320 MPs and senators as hostages inside the parliament building, cutting off the power supply, and forcing [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat "Somchai Wongsawat") to escape by jumping a back fence after his policy address. But other trapped MPs failed to leave and flee from the mob. The [siege](/wiki/Siege "Siege") on the area beside the near prime minister's office forced the government to transfer its activities to Don Mueang Airport.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/08/world/asia/08thai.html?ref\=world\|title\=Hundreds Injured in Thai Protests\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03\|first1\=Seth\|last1\=Mydans\|first2\=Thomas\|last2\=Fuller\|date\=8 October 2008}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theage.com.au/world/thai\-pm\-jumps\-fence\-to\-flee\-protesters\-20081007\-4vsn.html\|title\=Thai PM jumps fence to flee protesters\|work\=The Age \| location\=Melbourne}} On 26 November 2008, the [Asian Human Rights Commission](/wiki/Asian_Human_Rights_Commission "Asian Human Rights Commission") (AHRC) issued a statement saying that the current crisis was a watershed moment for democracy and rule of law in Thailand. It contains harsh critique of PAD and the criminal justice system of Thailand.
[ "### 2008 political crisis", "In 2008, [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") saw increasing political turmoil, with the PPP government facing pressure to step down amid mounting [civil disobedience](/wiki/Civil_disobedience \"Civil disobedience\") and [unrest](/wiki/Unrest \"Unrest\") led by PAD. The conflict centred on the constitution. The PPP supported the amendment of the 2007 constitution, while anti\\-government protesters considered it to be a political amnesty for Thaksin and his followers.", "The anti\\-government protesters were, said, mostly better educated, more affluent, urban Thais criticizing a Western\\-style electoral system corrupted by rich politicians. Thaksin was accused of buying votes, bureaucrats, policemen, military officers, and even political factions. Thaksin became the example of the businessman autocrat, launching so\\-called populist projects, some of which were controversial, such as the [war on drugs](/wiki/Premiership_of_Thaksin_Shinawatra%23Anti-drug_policies \"Premiership of Thaksin Shinawatra#Anti-drug policies\"). Hundreds of killings and murder cases noted by the police were said by them to be merely fighting among the drug traffickers, but no further investigation ever occurred. The judicial process was seen as useless; instead, decisive justice was seen to be in the hands of the police.", "As the anti\\-government movement had criticized Thaksin as an example of a corrupt politician, it discredited the election system, suggesting at once a system in which part of the representatives in the national assembly would be chosen by certain professions or social groups.", "Anti\\-Thaksin protesters were vastly outnumbered by Thaksin's supporters in the rural majority, who delivered to his party two resounding election victories. Their loyalty was rewarded by generous social and economic welfare programs. The anti\\-government forces were well\\-organized, and criticized the behind\\-the\\-scenes support of the military, the country's most influential institution, seeing Thaksin supported by anti\\-royalists, former revolutionaries, and ex\\-communists aiming at regime change.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2008/1126/breaking1\\.htm\\|title\\=Thai government rejects army call for new elections\\|work\\=Irishtimes.com\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "[Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej \"Samak Sundaravej\") was elected prime minister of the first government under the [2007 constitution](/wiki/2007_Constitution_of_Thailand \"2007 Constitution of Thailand\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7212516\\.stm \\|title\\=Asia\\-Pacific \\| Thaksin ally elected as Thai PM \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2008\\-01\\-28 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "Samak Sundaravej, an articulate politician, acknowledged being the \"nominee\" of fugitive Thaksin Shinawatra. Samak Sundaravej's position in power, however, did not put an end to the conflict. People claimed that Thaksin still influenced Thai politics even though he was in exile.", "In 1973, he ran a prominent month\\-long propaganda campaign, accusing democratic student movements of being communist rebels, traitors and spies. The event ended in a massacre of hundreds of students at [Thammasat University](/wiki/Thammasat_University \"Thammasat University\") on 14 October 1973, and a further military coup was conducted, giving him the interior minister position in the junta. In 1976 there was another massacre at the university. Thai military personnel, police and others, were seen shooting at protesters at the university. Many were killed and many survivors were abused.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://time.com/4519367/thailand\\-bangkok\\-october\\-6\\-1976\\-thammasat\\-massacre\\-students\\-joshua\\-wong/\\|title \\= Thailand Marks the Darkest Day in Its Living Memory\\| date\\=6 October 2016 }}", "Prime Minister Samak held daily national state television broadcasts with his own political messages. These were not well received by PAD. NBT, the National Broadcasting Television, the state\\-owned media enterprise, was openly used to counter the PAD's message, which emphasizes the overturning of the current democratic system.", "Former PM Thaksin had welcomed offers to come back to Thailand in February 2008 to face corruption charges and to get close control of the PPP, successor of his Thai Rak Thai Party.", "The opposition forced a no\\-confidence vote on a constitutional amendment which may have resulted in the reinstatement of Thaksin's reputation.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7429435\\.stm\\|title\\=Thai protesters defy PM's warning\\|work\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=31 May 2008}} The failure to address dramatically rising food and energy prices, and a temple dispute with Cambodia damaged the coalition government's reputation.{{cite news\\|last\\=Head \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7476836\\.stm \\|title\\=Embattled Thai PM survives vote \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2008\\-06\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "Street protests led by PAD, the major opposition movement, began in late\\-May after the ruling party agreed to amend the constitution. Their main objective was to block any constitutional amendment aimed chiefly at reinstating Thaksin's reputation and saving the PPP from dissolution after one of its leaders was charged with electoral fraud.", "Another of PAD's objectives was to support the courts and the judicial system in hearing Thaksin's cases. While PM Samak has been successful in controlling the police and civil service, various courts remain independent and issued several independent verdicts.", "The Constitutional Court concluded that PPP's second\\-in\\-command, [Yongyuth Tiyapairat](/wiki/Yongyuth_Tiyapairat \"Yongyuth Tiyapairat\"), who pressured local officers to support his party in the previous election, would subject the party to dissolution. The Administrative Court also ruled that his government seriously violated the constitution and might have prejudiced national sovereignty in negotiating over the sovereignty of territory immediately adjacent to the [Preah Vihear Temple](/wiki/Preah_Vihear_Temple \"Preah Vihear Temple\") with Cambodia. The case brought the resignation of his first foreign minister, Nopadon Patama. Several other ministers found wrongfully informing the Anti\\-corruption Board or Election Governing Board of important information, were discharged when this was discovered.", "Previously Thaksin and Pojaman's three lawyers were caught red\\-handed attempting to bribe Supreme Court judges and were given jail sentences. That was an ominous sign for Thaksin. Later a criminal court returned a verdict of tax evasion against Pojaman. He was to be jailed for three years. Days later, Thaksin and Pojaman jumped bail and issued a statement from London announcing through Thai TV his decision to seek political asylum in the UK in an attempt to avoid what he called \"biased\" treatment under Thailand's current judicial system.<http://itn.co.uk/news/83fe215f8935befce7e48a5efa4bbd2c.html> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123081306/http://itn.co.uk/news/83fe215f8935befce7e48a5efa4bbd2c.html\\|date\\=January 23, 2009}}", "Thaksin and his family fled to Great Britain on 11 August 2008, to apply for political asylum{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7553028\\.stm \\|title\\=Former Thai PM flees to the UK \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2008\\-08\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}} after his wife was convicted of tax evasion.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7534374\\.stm \\|title\\=Ex\\-Thai PM's wife guilty of fraud \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2008\\-07\\-31 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "PM Samak Sundaravej, through his parliament, was able to complete budget bills for mega\\-projects which cost so much that the King of Thailand spoke out in protest and to thank the head of the [Bank of Thailand](/wiki/Bank_of_Thailand \"Bank of Thailand\") (under threats from the government) for warning that the country was on the brink of disaster because of high expenditures.", "On 26 August 2008, 30,000 protesters, led by PAD, occupied Sundaravej's Government House compound in central [Bangkok](/wiki/Bangkok \"Bangkok\"), forcing he and his advisers to work at [Don Mueang International Airport](/wiki/Don_Mueang_International_Airport \"Don Mueang International Airport\"). Riot police entered the occupied compound and delivered a court order for the eviction of the PAD protesters.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gulfnews.com/world/Thailand/10241274\\.html\\|title\\=Thai minister to stay despite protests\\|work\\=Gulf News\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080831110231/http://www.gulfnews.com/world/Thailand/10241274\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-31}} [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang \"Chamlong Srimuang\"), a leader of PAD, ordered 45 PAD guards to break into the main government building on Saturday.<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gvt2G9EPA9UPyXWKie_ZyeeIcsig> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921162550/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gvt2G9EPA9UPyXWKie\\_ZyeeIcsig\\|date\\=September 21, 2012}} Three regional airports were closed for a short period and 35 trains between Bangkok and the provinces were canceled. Protesters raided the [Phuket International Airport](/wiki/Phuket_International_Airport \"Phuket International Airport\") [tarmac](/wiki/Airport_apron \"Airport apron\") on the resort island of [Phuket Province](/wiki/Phuket_Province \"Phuket Province\") resulting to 118 flights canceled or diverted, affecting 15,000 passengers.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eleconomista.es/mundo/noticias/726786/08/08/I\\-will\\-never\\-resign\\-says\\-besieged\\-Thai\\-PM.html\\|title\\='I will never resign' says besieged Thai PM\\|date\\=30 August 2008\\|work\\=Economista}}", "Protesters also blocked the entrances of the airports in [Krabi](/wiki/Krabi \"Krabi\") and [Hat Yai](/wiki/Hat_Yai \"Hat Yai\") (which were later re\\-opened). Police issued [arrest warrants](/wiki/Arrest_warrant \"Arrest warrant\") for [Sondhi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sondhi_Limthongkul \"Sondhi Limthongkul\") and eight other PAD leaders on charges of [insurrection](/wiki/Insurrection \"Insurrection\"), [conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28political%29 \"Conspiracy (political)\"), [unlawful assembly](/wiki/Unlawful_assembly \"Unlawful assembly\") and refusing orders to disperse.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30thai.html?ref\\=asia\\|title\\=Thai Protest of Premier Stops Trains and Planes\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|first\\=Thomas\\|last\\=Fuller\\|date\\=30 August 2008}} Meanwhile, General Anupong Paochinda stated: \"The army will not stage a coup. The political crisis should be resolved by political means\". Samak and the ruling coalition called for an urgent parliamentary debate and session for 31 August.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7588114\\.stm\\|title\\=Pressure mounts on Thailand's PM\\|work\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=29 August 2008}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\\=20601080\\&sid\\=aGbXEEO82GFM\\&refer\\=asia\\|title\\=Thai Party Calls Urgent Session as Protests Spread (Update3\\)\\|work\\=Bloomberg\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=30 August 2008}}", "PM Samak Sundaravej tried using legal means involving civil charges, criminal charges, and police action to remove PAD protesters from government offices on 29 August.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000103116\\&Keyword\\=%c0%d2%be\\+%b7%d3%e0%b9%d5%c2%ba\\|title\\=ภาพชัดๆ \"ปืนจ่อหัว\" พิสูจน์ \"ความด้าน\" ของตำรวจไทยและ \"สมัคร\"\\|work\\=Manager Online\\|language\\=th}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mgr.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000102992\\|title\\=ชมภาพจะจะ! แก๊สน้ำตาปลิวออกจาก บช.น.ใส่พันธมิตรฯ\\|publisher\\=Manager Online\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120710131656/http://mgr.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000102992\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-10}}\nHowever, PAD managed to get temporary relief from the courts enabling them to legally continue the siege of the government office.", "One person died and 40 people were wounded in a clash which occurred when the [DAAD](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship \"United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship\") (NohPohKoh) protesters, supported by Thaksin and the PPP moved toward PAD at about 03:00, 2 September without adequate police intervention.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.manager.co.th/Politics/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000103556\\|title\\=สลด! ตร.ปล่อย \"ม็อบนรก\" ฝ่าด่าน ปะทะการ์ดพันธมิตรที่มัฆวานฯ เจ็บอื้อ\\|work\\=Manager Online\\|language\\=th}}", "By the second half of September 2008, PM Samak Sundaravej was the subject of several court cases for his past actions. He faced an appeals court judgement of slander and a pending ruling from the Constitutional Court as to whether he had a conflict of interest by being a private employee while holding the premiership. The Anti\\-Corruption Board contemplated bringing a charge of abuse of power in the Preah Vihear case to the Constitutional Court. These legal difficulties ended PM Samak's political role. Ex\\-PM Thaksin and Pojaman also faced verdicts from the Supreme Court.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.manager.co.th/Crime/ViewNews.aspx?NewsID\\=9510000100395\\|title\\=ย้อนรอยก่อนสู่วันตัดสินโทษ\"แม้ว\\-มาน\"อาชญากรแผ่นดิน\\|work\\=Manager Online\\|language\\=th}}", "[People Power Party](/wiki/People_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"People Power Party (Thailand)\")'s deputy spokesman Kuthep Suthin Klangsang, on 12 September 2008 announced: \"Samak has accepted his nomination for prime minister. Samak said he is confident that parliament will find him fit for office, and that he is happy to accept the post. A majority of party members voted on Thursday to reappoint Samak. Samak is the leader of our party so he is the best choice.\" Despite objections from its five coalition partners, the PPP, in an urgent meeting, unanimously decided to renominate [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej \"Samak Sundaravej\"). Five coalition parties, namely [Chart Thai](/wiki/Chart_Thai \"Chart Thai\"), Matchima Thipataya, Pracharaj, Puea Pandin, and Ruam Jai Thai Chart Pattana, unanimously agreed to support the PPP to set up the new government and vote for the person who should be nominated as the new prime minister. Chart Thai deputy leader Somsak Prissananantakul and Ruam Jai Thai Chart Pattana leader Chettha Thanajaro said the next prime minister was nominated. Caretaker prime minister [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat \"Somchai Wongsawat\") said PPP secretary\\-general Surapong Suebwonglee would notify the five parties who the PPP nominated, to take office again.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=130591bangkokpost.com \\|title\\=Bangkok Post: Breakingnews \\|website\\=www.bangkokpost.com \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120727053944/http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=130591bangkokpost.com \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD934BSU00 \\|title\\=The article you've requested is no longer available \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20080914121711/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hG71oGl1LokvZphtDQZzL44nzc3QD934BSU00 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-14 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008\\-09/11/content\\_9921780\\.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919175209/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008\\-09/11/content\\_9921780\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2008\\|title\\=Party spokesman: Samak accepts PM nomination\\|work\\=Xinhuanet\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}} Some lawmakers, however, said they would propose an alternate candidate. Meanwhile, Thailand's army chief General [Anupong Paochinda](/wiki/Anupong_Paochinda \"Anupong Paochinda\") said he backed the creation of a national unity government that would include all the country's parties, and he also asked for the lifting of a state of emergency that Samak imposed on 2 September.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/09/11/thailand.pm/\\|title\\=Thai ruling party nominates Samak for PM\\|work\\=CNN \\| date\\=11 September 2008}}", "Embattled [Samak Sundaravej](/wiki/Samak_Sundaravej \"Samak Sundaravej\") abandoned his bid to regain the premiership, and he also resigned from the PPP's leadership.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2008/09/12/AR2008091203451\\.html\\|title\\=Around the World\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\| date\\=13 September 2008}} Meanwhile, PPP's chief party spokesmen, Kudeb Saikrachang and Kan Thiankaew, announced on 13 September that caretaker prime minister [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat \"Somchai Wongsawat\"), caretaker justice minister Sompong Amornwiwat, and PPP Secretary\\-General Surapong Suebwonglee were PPP's candidates for premiership.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=130625 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-13 \\|title\\=Bangkok Post – Most recent }} However, Suriyasai Katasila of [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy \"People's Alliance for Democracy\") (a group of royalist businessmen, academics and activists) vowed to continue its occupation of Government House if a PPP candidate were nominated: \"We would accept anyone as prime minister, as long as he is not from the People's Power Party.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSSP26321320080913\\|title\\=Thai ruling coalition begins search for new PM\\|work\\=Reuters \\| date\\=13 September 2008}}", "On 14 September the state of emergency was lifted.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ecb0b936\\-82bb\\-11dd\\-a019\\-000077b07658\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ecb0b936\\-82bb\\-11dd\\-a019\\-000077b07658\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-10 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription\\|title\\=Bangkok state of emergency lifted\\|work\\=Financial Times}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.upi.com/Top\\_News/2008/09/15/Bangkok\\_state\\_of\\_emergency\\_lifted/UPI\\-16921221457669/\\|title\\=Bangkok state of emergency lifted\\|agency\\=UPI\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}} The ruling [People Power Party](/wiki/People_Power_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"People Power Party (Thailand)\"), on 15 September 2008, named [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat \"Somchai Wongsawat\"), candidate for prime minister to succeed Samak Sundaravej.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/7615950\\.stm\\|title\\=Thai faction rejects PM nominee\\|work\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=15 September 2008}} The PPP will endorse Somchai, and his nomination will be set for a parliamentary vote on Wednesday. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court ruled on Wednesday in a corruption case against Thaksin and his wife, to be promulgated after the parliament vote for the new prime minister.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia\\-35476420080915\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110033910/http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia\\-35476420080915\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 10, 2009\\|title\\=Thai ruling party picks Thaksin in\\-law for PM\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=15 September 2008}}[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS\\-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY\\-w](http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY-w) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924021035/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5grZc7lS\\-rU5NUlyW52b8q83IoY\\-w\\|date\\=September 24, 2012}}", "On 4 October 2008, [Chamlong Srimuang](/wiki/Chamlong_Srimuang \"Chamlong Srimuang\") and rally organiser Chaiwat Sinsuwongse of the [People's Alliance for Democracy](/wiki/People%27s_Alliance_for_Democracy \"People's Alliance for Democracy\") were detained by the Thai police led by Col. Sarathon Pradit, by virtue of 27 August arrest warrant for [insurrection](/wiki/Insurrection \"Insurrection\"), conspiracy, illegal assembly, and refusing orders to disperse ([treason](/wiki/Treason \"Treason\")) against him and eight other protest leaders. At Government House, [Sondhi Limthongkul](/wiki/Sondhi_Limthongkul \"Sondhi Limthongkul\"), however, stated demonstrations would continue: \"I am warning you, the government and police, that you are putting fuel on the fire. Once you arrest me, thousands of people will tear you apart.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/world/asia/05thai.html?ref\\=asia\\|title\\=Police Arrest Leader of Thai Protests\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=5 October 2008}} Srimuang's wife, Ying Siriluck visited him at the Border Patrol Police Region 1, [Pathum Thani](/wiki/Pathum_Thani \"Pathum Thani\").[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122319521018405425?mod\\=googlenews\\_wsj](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122319521018405425?mod=googlenews_wsj) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108094034/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122319521018405425\\.html?mod\\=googlenews\\_wsj\\|date\\=January 8, 2009}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=131121 \\|title\\=Bangkok Post: Breakingnews \\|website\\=www.bangkokpost.com \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120721074340/http://www.bangkokpost.com/breaking\\_news/breakingnews.php?id\\=131121 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Other PAD members still wanted by police included Sondhi, activist MP Somkiat Pongpaibul, and PAD leaders Somsak Kosaisuk and Pibhop Dhongchai.<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i6cHuNxaKfhLhcrr25HH_XCCQWMw> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926224938/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i6cHuNxaKfhLhcrr25HH\\_XCCQWMw\\|date\\=September 26, 2012}}", "On 7 October 2008, Deputy Prime Minister [Chavalit Yongchaiyudh](/wiki/Chavalit_Yongchaiyudh \"Chavalit Yongchaiyudh\") resigned and admitted partial responsibility for violence due to police tear gas clearance of the blockade of the parliament, causing injuries to 116 protesters, 21 seriously. His resignation letter stated: \"Since this action did not achieve what I planned, I want to show my responsibility for this operation.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSSP26598420081007\\|title\\=Thai clashes kill 2 in Bangkok, hundreds injured\\|work\\=Reuters \\| date\\=7 October 2008}}<http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMF9SXQgcjmOw2uLVow4mnqJULMwD93LHGQG0> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029172554/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMF9SXQgcjmOw2uLVow4mnqJULMwD93LHGQG0\\|date\\=October 29, 2008}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\\=20601080\\&sid\\=aaSpVlNMZwbM\\&refer\\=asia\\|title\\=Thai Deputy Premier Quits as Police Battle Protesters (Update3\\)\\|work\\=Bloomberg\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|date\\=7 October 2008}} After being dispersed, 5,000 demonstrators returned and blocked all four entries to the parliament building.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/07/thailand\\|title\\=Bangkok protesters hurt in anti\\-government clashes\\|author\\=Matthew Weaver\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|location\\=London\\|date\\=7 October 2008}}", "The protesters attempted to hold 320 MPs and senators as hostages inside the parliament building, cutting off the power supply, and forcing [Somchai Wongsawat](/wiki/Somchai_Wongsawat \"Somchai Wongsawat\") to escape by jumping a back fence after his policy address. But other trapped MPs failed to leave and flee from the mob. The [siege](/wiki/Siege \"Siege\") on the area beside the near prime minister's office forced the government to transfer its activities to Don Mueang Airport.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/08/world/asia/08thai.html?ref\\=world\\|title\\=Hundreds Injured in Thai Protests\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03\\|first1\\=Seth\\|last1\\=Mydans\\|first2\\=Thomas\\|last2\\=Fuller\\|date\\=8 October 2008}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theage.com.au/world/thai\\-pm\\-jumps\\-fence\\-to\\-flee\\-protesters\\-20081007\\-4vsn.html\\|title\\=Thai PM jumps fence to flee protesters\\|work\\=The Age \\| location\\=Melbourne}}", "On 26 November 2008, the [Asian Human Rights Commission](/wiki/Asian_Human_Rights_Commission \"Asian Human Rights Commission\") (AHRC) issued a statement saying that the current crisis was a watershed moment for democracy and rule of law in Thailand. It contains harsh critique of PAD and the criminal justice system of Thailand.", "" ]
### 2009–2010 protests and crackdowns {{Main\|2008–2010 Thai political crisis}} [thumb\|right\|240px\|[United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship "United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship"), Red Shirts, [protest](/wiki/2010_Thai_political_protests "2010 Thai political protests") in 2010](/wiki/File:2010_09_19_red_shirt_protest_bkk_09.JPG "2010 09 19 red shirt protest bkk 09.JPG") Abhisit's rise to power was controversial and opposed from the beginning. In April 2009, anti\-government protesters, known as "red shirts", began a demonstration aimed at the resignation of the prime minister and fresh elections. The major site of the demonstration was Bangkok. From 8 April, the demonstrators spread their activities to significant locations such as major intersections. Streets were blocked and barricaded. The demonstration took place at the same time as the [ASEAN](/wiki/ASEAN "ASEAN") summit in [Pattaya](/wiki/Pattaya "Pattaya"). Demonstrators moved there to protest, aiming at disrupting the summit. Protesters stormed the site of the summit, causing its cancellation. In Bangkok, the protest became fiercer because of the arrest of the leaders of the Pattaya protest. Protesters blocked the entrances of the Criminal Court, calling for the release of their leaders. Prime Minister Abhisit, at The Ministry of Interior, declared a [state of emergency](/wiki/State_of_emergency "State of emergency"). Protesters blocked the entrance of the ministry, to seize the premier and other ministers. However, the premier escaped. The government began to deploy anti\-riot troops. Armored vehicles were deployed in downtown Bangkok. Anti\-riot actions took place in the early morning of the next day. Anti\-riot troops, armed with shields, batons, and M\-16s with live ammo, started dispersing and shooting protesters on Bangkok's streets. Protesters charged that the government was killing protesters. The government denied the charge. Although two bodies were found, the government found no evidence that it was involved in the killings. On major avenues and streets, burning buses were seen, as well as wounded people were carried to the hospitals, but the government reported no serious cases. By the afternoon of 14 April, the military controlled all main streets. The leaders of the protest decided to suspend their activities. Thai politics after the pro\-Thaksin protest has so far been the stage of the two opposing factions: the [Democrat Party](/wiki/Democrat_Party_%28Thailand%29 "Democrat Party (Thailand)")\-led government allied with their coalition partners, who also have the tacit support of the PAD, the military, and the police, against the Thaksin loyalists, the [United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship "United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship") (UDD). Both sides have claimed the fighting as the struggle for democracy and the nation. #### Resolution to conflict {{more citations needed section\|date\=February 2014}} {{Further\|2011 Thai general election}} On 3 May the Thai Prime Minister announced he was willing to hold elections on 14 November should the opposition red shirts accept the offer. The following day red shirt leaders accepted the proposal to leave the occupied parts of Bangkok in return for an election on the scheduled date. However, one week later, 10 May, protesters had yet to disband despite accepting the road map proposed by the prime minister for early elections. They placed new demands upon the prime minister that Deputy Prime Minister [Suthep Thaugsuban](/wiki/Suthep_Thaugsuban "Suthep Thaugsuban"), who was in charge of security operations during the clash of 10 April, must first turn himself in for prosecution before they dispersed. On 11 May, Suthep presented himself to the Department of Special Investigation. The red shirt protesters, however, were not satisfied and demanded Suthep be formally charged instead by police. The red shirts failure to disperse was taken as a decline of the conciliatory road map and Prime Minister Abhisit's proposal of early parliamentary elections were withdrawn. This was followed by a warning issued from the prime minister that protesters must disperse or face imminent military action. The red shirts led another protest on 19 May. The army killed over 90 protesters in the ensuing military crackdown. Army tactics were heavily criticised for failing to abide by international standards and using lethal force on unarmed protesters.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-19355065\|title\=Rights group criticises 'interfering' Thai army chief\|work\=BBC News\|date\=23 August 2012\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} At least six people including nurses and medics were shot by snipers inside a Buddhist temple set up as a safe area.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/troops\-killed\-six\-unarmed\-people\-in\-temple\-during\-thai\-red\-shirt\-protests\-court\-rules\-8747943\.html\|title\=Troops killed six unarmed people in temple during Thai 'Red Shirt' protests, court rules\|work\=The Independent \| location\=London\|first\=Andrew\|last\=Buncombe\|date\=6 August 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/thailand0511webwcover\_0\.pdf \|title\=Thailand Descent into Chaos \|publisher\=Human Rights Watch\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-03}} Between 2001 and 2011, [Isan](/wiki/Isan "Isan")'s [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") per capita more than doubled to US$1,475\. Over the same period, GDP in the Bangkok area soared from US$7,900 to nearly US$13,000\.
[ "### 2009–2010 protests and crackdowns", "{{Main\\|2008–2010 Thai political crisis}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|240px\\|[United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship \"United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship\"), Red Shirts, [protest](/wiki/2010_Thai_political_protests \"2010 Thai political protests\") in 2010](/wiki/File:2010_09_19_red_shirt_protest_bkk_09.JPG \"2010 09 19 red shirt protest bkk 09.JPG\")\nAbhisit's rise to power was controversial and opposed from the beginning. In April 2009, anti\\-government protesters, known as \"red shirts\", began a demonstration aimed at the resignation of the prime minister and fresh elections. The major site of the demonstration was Bangkok. From 8 April, the demonstrators spread their activities to significant locations such as major intersections. Streets were blocked and barricaded. The demonstration took place at the same time as the [ASEAN](/wiki/ASEAN \"ASEAN\") summit in [Pattaya](/wiki/Pattaya \"Pattaya\"). Demonstrators moved there to protest, aiming at disrupting the summit. Protesters stormed the site of the summit, causing its cancellation.", "In Bangkok, the protest became fiercer because of the arrest of the leaders of the Pattaya protest. Protesters blocked the entrances of the Criminal Court, calling for the release of their leaders. Prime Minister Abhisit, at The Ministry of Interior, declared a [state of emergency](/wiki/State_of_emergency \"State of emergency\"). Protesters blocked the entrance of the ministry, to seize the premier and other ministers. However, the premier escaped. The government began to deploy anti\\-riot troops. Armored vehicles were deployed in downtown Bangkok. Anti\\-riot actions took place in the early morning of the next day. Anti\\-riot troops, armed with shields, batons, and M\\-16s with live ammo, started dispersing and shooting protesters on Bangkok's streets.", "Protesters charged that the government was killing protesters. The government denied the charge. Although two bodies were found, the government found no evidence that it was involved in the killings. On major avenues and streets, burning buses were seen, as well as wounded people were carried to the hospitals, but the government reported no serious cases.", "By the afternoon of 14 April, the military controlled all main streets. The leaders of the protest decided to suspend their activities. Thai politics after the pro\\-Thaksin protest has so far been the stage of the two opposing factions: the [Democrat Party](/wiki/Democrat_Party_%28Thailand%29 \"Democrat Party (Thailand)\")\\-led government allied with their coalition partners, who also have the tacit support of the PAD, the military, and the police, against the Thaksin loyalists, the [United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship](/wiki/United_Front_for_Democracy_Against_Dictatorship \"United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship\") (UDD). Both sides have claimed the fighting as the struggle for democracy and the nation.", "#### Resolution to conflict", "{{more citations needed section\\|date\\=February 2014}}\n{{Further\\|2011 Thai general election}}\nOn 3 May the Thai Prime Minister announced he was willing to hold elections on 14 November should the opposition red shirts accept the offer. The following day red shirt leaders accepted the proposal to leave the occupied parts of Bangkok in return for an election on the scheduled date.", "However, one week later, 10 May, protesters had yet to disband despite accepting the road map proposed by the prime minister for early elections. They placed new demands upon the prime minister that Deputy Prime Minister [Suthep Thaugsuban](/wiki/Suthep_Thaugsuban \"Suthep Thaugsuban\"), who was in charge of security operations during the clash of 10 April, must first turn himself in for prosecution before they dispersed.", "On 11 May, Suthep presented himself to the Department of Special Investigation. The red shirt protesters, however, were not satisfied and demanded Suthep be formally charged instead by police. The red shirts failure to disperse was taken as a decline of the conciliatory road map and Prime Minister Abhisit's proposal of early parliamentary elections were withdrawn. This was followed by a warning issued from the prime minister that protesters must disperse or face imminent military action. The red shirts led another protest on 19 May. The army killed over 90 protesters in the ensuing military crackdown. Army tactics were heavily criticised for failing to abide by international standards and using lethal force on unarmed protesters.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-19355065\\|title\\=Rights group criticises 'interfering' Thai army chief\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=23 August 2012\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}} At least six people including nurses and medics were shot by snipers inside a Buddhist temple set up as a safe area.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/troops\\-killed\\-six\\-unarmed\\-people\\-in\\-temple\\-during\\-thai\\-red\\-shirt\\-protests\\-court\\-rules\\-8747943\\.html\\|title\\=Troops killed six unarmed people in temple during Thai 'Red Shirt' protests, court rules\\|work\\=The Independent \\| location\\=London\\|first\\=Andrew\\|last\\=Buncombe\\|date\\=6 August 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/thailand0511webwcover\\_0\\.pdf \\|title\\=Thailand Descent into Chaos \\|publisher\\=Human Rights Watch\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-03}}", "Between 2001 and 2011, [Isan](/wiki/Isan \"Isan\")'s [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") per capita more than doubled to US$1,475\\. Over the same period, GDP in the Bangkok area soared from US$7,900 to nearly US$13,000\\.", "" ]
Career ------ In 1931, Fleischmann became a teaching assistant to [Robert Pohl](/wiki/Robert_Pohl "Robert Pohl"), director of the *I. Physikalische Institut* (First Physics Institute) at the *[Georg\-August\-Universität Göttingen](/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen "University of Göttingen")*. There he continued his work on solid\-state physics. In 1932, Walther Bothe had succeeded [Philipp Lenard](/wiki/Philipp_Lenard "Philipp Lenard") as Director of the *Physikalische und Radiologische Institut* (Physical and Radiological Institute) at the University of Heidelberg. It was then that Fleischmann became a teaching assistant to Bothe. When [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") became Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, the concept of *[Deutsche Physik](/wiki/Deutsche_Physik "Deutsche Physik")* took on more favor as well as fervor; *deutsche Physik*, was [anti\-Semitic](/wiki/Anti-Semitic "Anti-Semitic") and anti\-theoretical physics, especially modern physics, including [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics") and both atomic and nuclear physics. As applied in the university environment, political factors took priority over the historically applied concept of scholarly ability,Beyerchen, 1997, 141\-167\. even though its two most prominent supporters were the [Nobel Laureates in Physics](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics "Nobel Prize in Physics") [Philipp Lenard](/wiki/Philipp_Lenard "Philipp Lenard")Beyerchen, 1977, 79\-102\. and [Johannes Stark](/wiki/Johannes_Stark "Johannes Stark").Beyerchen, 1977, 103\-140\. Supporters of *deutsche Physik* launched vicious attacks against leading theoretical physicists. While Lenard was retired from the University of Heidelberg, he still had significant influence there. In 1934, Lenard had managed to get Bothe relieved of his directorship of the Physical and Radiological Institute at the University of Heidelberg, whereupon Bothe was able to become the Director of the *Institut für Physik* of the KWImF, replacing Karl W. Hauser, who had recently died. [Ludolf von Krehl](/wiki/Ludolf_von_Krehl "Ludolf von Krehl"), Director of the KWImF, and [Max Planck](/wiki/Max_Planck "Max Planck"), President of the [Kaiser Wilhelm Society](/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Society "Kaiser Wilhelm Society") (KWG, Kaiser Wilhelm Society, today, the [Max Planck Society](/wiki/Max_Planck_Society "Max Planck Society")), had offered the directorship to Bothe to ward off the possibility of his emigration. Fleischmann went with Bothe and worked with him there until 1941\.*[Walther Bothe](http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/states/walther-bothe.html) and the Physics Institute: the Early Years of Nuclear Physics*, Nobelprize.org.*Das Physikalische und Radiologische Institut der Universität Heidelberg*, *Heidelberger Neueste Nachrichten* Volume 56 (7 March 1913\).David M. States *A History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research: 1929\-1939: Walther Bothe and the Physics Institute: The Early Years of Nuclear Physics*, *Nobelprize.org* ([28 June 2001](http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/states/index.html)).Landwehr, 2002\. Bothe was a principal in the [German nuclear energy project](/wiki/German_nuclear_energy_project "German nuclear energy project"), also known as the *Uranverein* (Uranium Club), and Fleischmann was brought into the project through his affiliation with Bothe. Fleischmann worked on isotope separation techniques.Rudolf Fleischmann *Ein mögliches Verfahren zure Isotopentrennung von Uran* G\-27 (3 July 1940\). During the period in which *deutsche Physik* was gaining prominence, which started right after [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") came to power in 1933, a foremost concern of many scientists in Germany was to maintain autonomy against political encroachment.Beyerchen, 1977, 199\-210\. Some of the more established scientists, such as [Max von Laue](/wiki/Max_von_Laue "Max von Laue"), could demonstrate more autonomy than the younger and less established scientists.Hoffmann, 2005, 293\-329\. This was, in part, due to political organizations, such as the *Nationalsozialistischer Deutscher Dozentenbund* (NSDDB, National Socialist German University Lecturers League), whose district leaders had a decisive role in the acceptance of an *[Habilitationsschrift](/wiki/Habilitationsschrift "Habilitationsschrift")*, which was a prerequisite to attaining the rank of *[Privatdozent](/wiki/Privatdozent "Privatdozent")* necessary to becoming a university lecturer.Hentschel, 1996, Appendix C; see the entry for the NSDDB. While some with ability joined such organizations out of tactical career considerations, others with ability and adherence to historical academic standards joined these organizations to moderate their activities. This was the case of [Wolfgang Finkelnburg](/wiki/Wolfgang_Finkelnburg "Wolfgang Finkelnburg").Beyerchen, 1977, 176\-179\.Hentschel, 1996, 341\-342\. It was in the summer of 1940 that Finkelnburg became an acting director of the NSDDB at Technische Hochschule Darmstadt.Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, 290n2\. As such, he organized the Münchner Religionsgespräche, which took place on 15 November 1940 and was known as the "Munich Synod". The *Münchner Religionsgespräche* was an offensive against *deutsche Physik*.Finkelnburg, invited five representatives to make arguments for theoretical physics and academic decisions based on ability, rather than politics: Carl F. von Weizsäcker, [Otto Scherzer](/wiki/Otto_Scherzer "Otto Scherzer"), [Georg Joos](/wiki/Georg_Joos "Georg Joos"), Otto Heckmann, and [Hans Kopfermann](/wiki/Hans_Kopfermann "Hans Kopfermann"). [Alfons Bühl](/wiki/Alfons_B%C3%BChl "Alfons Bühl"), a supporter of *deutsche Physik*, invited Harald Volkmann, [Bruno Thüring](/wiki/Bruno_Th%C3%BCring "Bruno Thüring"), Wilhelm Müller, [Rudolf Tomaschek](/wiki/Rudolf_Tomaschek "Rudolf Tomaschek"), and Ludwig Wesch. The discussion was led by Gustav Borer, with Herbert Stuart and Johannes Malsch as observers. See Document 110: *The Fight against Party Politics* by Wolfgang Finkelnburg in Hentschel, 1996, 339\-345\. Also see Beyerchen, 1977, 176\-179\. While the technical outcome may have been thin, it was a political victory against *deutsche Physik*. After this, the pendulum began to swing back to standards of achievement being used as a basis for making academic appointments, rather than political considerations. This was the case at the newly established German university in [Strasbourg](/wiki/Strasbourg "Strasbourg"), France. After the Franco\-German Armistice in 1940, the *[Reichsuniversität Straßburg](/wiki/Reichsuniversit%C3%A4t_Stra%C3%9Fburg "Reichsuniversität Straßburg")* (Reich's University of Strassburg) in Strasbourg was founded in 1941\. The newly founded research institute of the medical school at the *Reichsuniversität Straßburg* was modeled after the *Kaiser\-Wilhelm Institut für medizinische Forschung* (KWImF, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research; today, the [Max\-Planck Institut für medizinische Forschung](/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Medical_Research "Max Planck Institute for Medical Research")), in [Heidelberg](/wiki/Heidelberg "Heidelberg"); it included institutes for internal medicine, physics, and chemistry. In the physics institute, there were to be two extraordinarius professors in experimental physics and one extraordinarius professor in theoretical physics; Fleischmann and Finkelnburg received the appointments in experimental physics and [Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker "Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker") received the appointment in theoretical physics. They held these positions until late in 1944, when the Allied military forces liberated Strasbourg from German occupation.Walker, 1993, 41\-44 and 66\-73\.Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Fleischmann.Burghard Weiss *Der Kernphysiker Rudolf Fleischmann und die Medizin an der Reichsuniversität Straßburg (1941–1944\)*, *NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin* Volume 14, Number 2, 107\-118 (2006\). By the time the American [Operation Alsos](/wiki/Operation_Alsos "Operation Alsos") forces had entered Strasboug in late November 1944, von Weizsäcker had already escaped back to Germany. Fleischmann was arrested by the Alsos forces and incarcerated in a local jail until [Samuel Goudsmit](/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Goudsmit "Samuel Abraham Goudsmit"), chief scientific advisor to Operation Alsos, arrived and made other arrangements for his incarceration. Fleischmann was sent to the United States for interrogation on the *Uranverein* and to exploit his scientific expertise in nuclear and atomic physics.Walker, 1993, 154\-156\.Goudsmit, 1986, 66\-67 and 70\-73\.Powers, 1993, 367\-368\.Pash, 1969, 148\-149 and 153\.R. Flieschemann \[in Strassburg] *Über den zweckmäßigsten Bau von Trennrohranlagen für kontinuierlichen Betrieb* G\-350 ([ca. 1942](http://www.deutsches-museum.de/en/archives/archiv-online/geheimdokumente/forschungszentren/wien-heidelberg-strassburg/fleischmann-trennrohranlage/)). After Fleischmann's return to Germany in 1946, he accepted the appointment to the *Lehrstuhl für Experimentalphysik* (Chair for Experimental Physics) at the *[University of Hamburg](/wiki/University_of_Hamburg "University of Hamburg")* and he became Director of the *Physikalische Staatsinstitut* (State Physical Institute) and ordinarius professor (*[ordentlicher Professor](/wiki/Ordentlicher_Professor "Ordentlicher Professor")*) for experimental physics. Initially, due to restrictions by the Allied occupying powers in Germany, nuclear research was forbidden. During this time, Fleischmann developed a new method for determining the optical constants of thin metal layers. As the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") developed, this restriction was eased and Fleischmann was able to make the University of Hamburg a center for nuclear physics research. This was done with the able assistance of colleagues such as [Erich Bagge](/wiki/Erich_Bagge "Erich Bagge"), H. Neuert, and Rodolf Kollath.Herwig Schopper *A life in science*, *CERN Courier* ([1 June 2003](http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28873)).*[Geschichte des Fachbereichs](http://www.physnet.uni-hamburg.de/informationen/historisches.htm)* – *Universität Hamburg*.{{Citation \|last\=Schopper \|first\=Herwig \|title\=Studies in Hamburg 1945–1954 \|date\=2024 \|work\=Herwig Schopper: Scientist and Diplomat in a Changing World \|pages\=34–36 \|editor\-last\=Schopper \|editor\-first\=Herwig \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1007/978\-3\-031\-51042\-7\_3 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-04 \|series\=Springer Biographies \|place\=Cham \|publisher\=Springer International Publishing \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-031\-51042\-7\_3 \|isbn\=978\-3\-031\-51042\-7 \|last2\=Gillies \|first2\=James \|editor2\-last\=Gillies \|editor2\-first\=James\|doi\-access\=free }} In 1953, Fleischmann became an ordinarius professor at the *[University of Erlangen\-Nuremberg](/wiki/University_of_Erlangen-Nuremberg "University of Erlangen-Nuremberg")*. He achieved *emeritus* status in 1969\. In 1957, Fleischmann was a signatory of the manifesto of the *[Göttinger Achtzehn](/wiki/G%C3%B6ttinger_Manifest "Göttinger Manifest")* (Göttingen Eighteen). The 18 eminent scientists were opposed to arming the West German military with tactical nuclear weapons.*Declaration of the German Nuclear Physicists* [ArmsControl.de](http://www.armscontrol.de/dokumente/goettingen-eng.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318084241/http://www.armscontrol.de/dokumente/goettingen\-eng.pdf \|date\=18 March 2013 }}.
[ "Career\n------", "In 1931, Fleischmann became a teaching assistant to [Robert Pohl](/wiki/Robert_Pohl \"Robert Pohl\"), director of the *I. Physikalische Institut* (First Physics Institute) at the *[Georg\\-August\\-Universität Göttingen](/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen \"University of Göttingen\")*. There he continued his work on solid\\-state physics.", "In 1932, Walther Bothe had succeeded [Philipp Lenard](/wiki/Philipp_Lenard \"Philipp Lenard\") as Director of the *Physikalische und Radiologische Institut* (Physical and Radiological Institute) at the University of Heidelberg. It was then that Fleischmann became a teaching assistant to Bothe. When [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") became Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, the concept of *[Deutsche Physik](/wiki/Deutsche_Physik \"Deutsche Physik\")* took on more favor as well as fervor; *deutsche Physik*, was [anti\\-Semitic](/wiki/Anti-Semitic \"Anti-Semitic\") and anti\\-theoretical physics, especially modern physics, including [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics \"Quantum mechanics\") and both atomic and nuclear physics. As applied in the university environment, political factors took priority over the historically applied concept of scholarly ability,Beyerchen, 1997, 141\\-167\\. even though its two most prominent supporters were the [Nobel Laureates in Physics](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics \"Nobel Prize in Physics\") [Philipp Lenard](/wiki/Philipp_Lenard \"Philipp Lenard\")Beyerchen, 1977, 79\\-102\\. and [Johannes Stark](/wiki/Johannes_Stark \"Johannes Stark\").Beyerchen, 1977, 103\\-140\\. Supporters of *deutsche Physik* launched vicious attacks against leading theoretical physicists. While Lenard was retired from the University of Heidelberg, he still had significant influence there. In 1934, Lenard had managed to get Bothe relieved of his directorship of the Physical and Radiological Institute at the University of Heidelberg, whereupon Bothe was able to become the Director of the *Institut für Physik* of the KWImF, replacing Karl W. Hauser, who had recently died. [Ludolf von Krehl](/wiki/Ludolf_von_Krehl \"Ludolf von Krehl\"), Director of the KWImF, and [Max Planck](/wiki/Max_Planck \"Max Planck\"), President of the [Kaiser Wilhelm Society](/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Society \"Kaiser Wilhelm Society\") (KWG, Kaiser Wilhelm Society, today, the [Max Planck Society](/wiki/Max_Planck_Society \"Max Planck Society\")), had offered the directorship to Bothe to ward off the possibility of his emigration. Fleischmann went with Bothe and worked with him there until 1941\\.*[Walther Bothe](http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/states/walther-bothe.html) and the Physics Institute: the Early Years of Nuclear Physics*, Nobelprize.org.*Das Physikalische und Radiologische Institut der Universität Heidelberg*, *Heidelberger Neueste Nachrichten* Volume 56 (7 March 1913\\).David M. States *A History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research: 1929\\-1939: Walther Bothe and the Physics Institute: The Early Years of Nuclear Physics*, *Nobelprize.org* ([28 June 2001](http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/states/index.html)).Landwehr, 2002\\.", "Bothe was a principal in the [German nuclear energy project](/wiki/German_nuclear_energy_project \"German nuclear energy project\"), also known as the *Uranverein* (Uranium Club), and Fleischmann was brought into the project through his affiliation with Bothe. Fleischmann worked on isotope separation techniques.Rudolf Fleischmann *Ein mögliches Verfahren zure Isotopentrennung von Uran* G\\-27 (3 July 1940\\).", "During the period in which *deutsche Physik* was gaining prominence, which started right after [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") came to power in 1933, a foremost concern of many scientists in Germany was to maintain autonomy against political encroachment.Beyerchen, 1977, 199\\-210\\. Some of the more established scientists, such as [Max von Laue](/wiki/Max_von_Laue \"Max von Laue\"), could demonstrate more autonomy than the younger and less established scientists.Hoffmann, 2005, 293\\-329\\. This was, in part, due to political organizations, such as the *Nationalsozialistischer Deutscher Dozentenbund* (NSDDB, National Socialist German University Lecturers League), whose district leaders had a decisive role in the acceptance of an *[Habilitationsschrift](/wiki/Habilitationsschrift \"Habilitationsschrift\")*, which was a prerequisite to attaining the rank of *[Privatdozent](/wiki/Privatdozent \"Privatdozent\")* necessary to becoming a university lecturer.Hentschel, 1996, Appendix C; see the entry for the NSDDB. While some with ability joined such organizations out of tactical career considerations, others with ability and adherence to historical academic standards joined these organizations to moderate their activities. This was the case of [Wolfgang Finkelnburg](/wiki/Wolfgang_Finkelnburg \"Wolfgang Finkelnburg\").Beyerchen, 1977, 176\\-179\\.Hentschel, 1996, 341\\-342\\. It was in the summer of 1940 that Finkelnburg became an acting director of the NSDDB at Technische Hochschule Darmstadt.Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, 290n2\\. As such, he organized the Münchner Religionsgespräche, which took place on 15 November 1940 and was known as the \"Munich Synod\". The *Münchner Religionsgespräche* was an offensive against *deutsche Physik*.Finkelnburg, invited five representatives to make arguments for theoretical physics and academic decisions based on ability, rather than politics: Carl F. von Weizsäcker, [Otto Scherzer](/wiki/Otto_Scherzer \"Otto Scherzer\"), [Georg Joos](/wiki/Georg_Joos \"Georg Joos\"), Otto Heckmann, and [Hans Kopfermann](/wiki/Hans_Kopfermann \"Hans Kopfermann\"). [Alfons Bühl](/wiki/Alfons_B%C3%BChl \"Alfons Bühl\"), a supporter of *deutsche Physik*, invited Harald Volkmann, [Bruno Thüring](/wiki/Bruno_Th%C3%BCring \"Bruno Thüring\"), Wilhelm Müller, [Rudolf Tomaschek](/wiki/Rudolf_Tomaschek \"Rudolf Tomaschek\"), and Ludwig Wesch. The discussion was led by Gustav Borer, with Herbert Stuart and Johannes Malsch as observers. See Document 110: *The Fight against Party Politics* by Wolfgang Finkelnburg in Hentschel, 1996, 339\\-345\\. Also see Beyerchen, 1977, 176\\-179\\. While the technical outcome may have been thin, it was a political victory against *deutsche Physik*. After this, the pendulum began to swing back to standards of achievement being used as a basis for making academic appointments, rather than political considerations. This was the case at the newly established German university in [Strasbourg](/wiki/Strasbourg \"Strasbourg\"), France.", "After the Franco\\-German Armistice in 1940, the *[Reichsuniversität Straßburg](/wiki/Reichsuniversit%C3%A4t_Stra%C3%9Fburg \"Reichsuniversität Straßburg\")* (Reich's University of Strassburg) in Strasbourg was founded in 1941\\. The newly founded research institute of the medical school at the *Reichsuniversität Straßburg* was modeled after the *Kaiser\\-Wilhelm Institut für medizinische Forschung* (KWImF, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research; today, the [Max\\-Planck Institut für medizinische Forschung](/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Medical_Research \"Max Planck Institute for Medical Research\")), in [Heidelberg](/wiki/Heidelberg \"Heidelberg\"); it included institutes for internal medicine, physics, and chemistry. In the physics institute, there were to be two extraordinarius professors in experimental physics and one extraordinarius professor in theoretical physics; Fleischmann and Finkelnburg received the appointments in experimental physics and [Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker \"Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker\") received the appointment in theoretical physics. They held these positions until late in 1944, when the Allied military forces liberated Strasbourg from German occupation.Walker, 1993, 41\\-44 and 66\\-73\\.Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Fleischmann.Burghard Weiss *Der Kernphysiker Rudolf Fleischmann und die Medizin an der Reichsuniversität Straßburg (1941–1944\\)*, *NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin* Volume 14, Number 2, 107\\-118 (2006\\).", "By the time the American [Operation Alsos](/wiki/Operation_Alsos \"Operation Alsos\") forces had entered Strasboug in late November 1944, von Weizsäcker had already escaped back to Germany. Fleischmann was arrested by the Alsos forces and incarcerated in a local jail until [Samuel Goudsmit](/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Goudsmit \"Samuel Abraham Goudsmit\"), chief scientific advisor to Operation Alsos, arrived and made other arrangements for his incarceration. Fleischmann was sent to the United States for interrogation on the *Uranverein* and to exploit his scientific expertise in nuclear and atomic physics.Walker, 1993, 154\\-156\\.Goudsmit, 1986, 66\\-67 and 70\\-73\\.Powers, 1993, 367\\-368\\.Pash, 1969, 148\\-149 and 153\\.R. Flieschemann \\[in Strassburg] *Über den zweckmäßigsten Bau von Trennrohranlagen für kontinuierlichen Betrieb* G\\-350 ([ca. 1942](http://www.deutsches-museum.de/en/archives/archiv-online/geheimdokumente/forschungszentren/wien-heidelberg-strassburg/fleischmann-trennrohranlage/)).", "After Fleischmann's return to Germany in 1946, he accepted the appointment to the *Lehrstuhl für Experimentalphysik* (Chair for Experimental Physics) at the *[University of Hamburg](/wiki/University_of_Hamburg \"University of Hamburg\")* and he became Director of the *Physikalische Staatsinstitut* (State Physical Institute) and ordinarius professor (*[ordentlicher Professor](/wiki/Ordentlicher_Professor \"Ordentlicher Professor\")*) for experimental physics. Initially, due to restrictions by the Allied occupying powers in Germany, nuclear research was forbidden. During this time, Fleischmann developed a new method for determining the optical constants of thin metal layers. As the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") developed, this restriction was eased and Fleischmann was able to make the University of Hamburg a center for nuclear physics research. This was done with the able assistance of colleagues such as [Erich Bagge](/wiki/Erich_Bagge \"Erich Bagge\"), H. Neuert, and Rodolf Kollath.Herwig Schopper *A life in science*, *CERN Courier* ([1 June 2003](http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28873)).*[Geschichte des Fachbereichs](http://www.physnet.uni-hamburg.de/informationen/historisches.htm)* – *Universität Hamburg*.{{Citation \\|last\\=Schopper \\|first\\=Herwig \\|title\\=Studies in Hamburg 1945–1954 \\|date\\=2024 \\|work\\=Herwig Schopper: Scientist and Diplomat in a Changing World \\|pages\\=34–36 \\|editor\\-last\\=Schopper \\|editor\\-first\\=Herwig \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-031\\-51042\\-7\\_3 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-04 \\|series\\=Springer Biographies \\|place\\=Cham \\|publisher\\=Springer International Publishing \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-031\\-51042\\-7\\_3 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-031\\-51042\\-7 \\|last2\\=Gillies \\|first2\\=James \\|editor2\\-last\\=Gillies \\|editor2\\-first\\=James\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "In 1953, Fleischmann became an ordinarius professor at the *[University of Erlangen\\-Nuremberg](/wiki/University_of_Erlangen-Nuremberg \"University of Erlangen-Nuremberg\")*. He achieved *emeritus* status in 1969\\.", "In 1957, Fleischmann was a signatory of the manifesto of the *[Göttinger Achtzehn](/wiki/G%C3%B6ttinger_Manifest \"Göttinger Manifest\")* (Göttingen Eighteen). The 18 eminent scientists were opposed to arming the West German military with tactical nuclear weapons.*Declaration of the German Nuclear Physicists* [ArmsControl.de](http://www.armscontrol.de/dokumente/goettingen-eng.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318084241/http://www.armscontrol.de/dokumente/goettingen\\-eng.pdf \\|date\\=18 March 2013 }}.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|align\=right \|1890\= 696 \|1900\= 696 \|1910\= 790 \|1920\= 774 \|1930\= 944 \|1940\= 1057 \|1950\= 858 \|1960\= 855 \|1970\= 327 \|1980\= 725 \|1990\= 708 \|2000\= 723 \|2010\= 500 \|2020\= 560 \|estyear\=2021 \|estimate\=563 \|estref\= \|footnote\=Sources:{{cite web\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=11 December 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2008\-01\-31\|title\=U.S. Census website}}{{cite web\|title\=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Resident Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012\|url\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\-EST2012\.html\|work\=Population Estimates\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=11 December 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611010502/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\-EST2012\.html\|archive\-date\=11 June 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:42\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=Oct 12, 2022}} }} At the time of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census "2000 United States Census"), there were 723 people, 277 households, and 188 families living in the borough. The population density was {{convert\|140\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 292 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|56\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232010_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2010 census") of the borough was 99\.45% White, 0\.28% African American, 0\.14% Native American, and 0\.14% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0\.28% of the population. There were 277 households; 31\.4% had children under the age of eighteen living with them, 54\.2% were married couples living together, 7\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31\.8% were non\-families. 27\.4% of households were made up of individuals, and 9\.0% were one\-person households with residents who were aged sixty\-five or older. The average household size was 2\.43 and the average family size was 3\.01\. The age distribution was 19\.4% of residents who were under the age of eighteen, 8\.3% who were aged eighteen to twenty\-four, 30\.7% who were aged twenty\-five to forty\-four, 29\.9% who were aged forty\-five to sixty\-four, and 11\.8% who were aged sixty\-five or older. The median age was forty years. For every one hundred females, there were 112\.0 males. For every one hundred females who were aged eighteen or older, there were 113\.6 males. The median household income was $35,781 and the median family income was $40,455\. Males had a median income of $28,611 compared with that of $24,500 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $17,066\. Approximately 8\.8% of families and 8\.5% of the population were living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 11\.0% of those who were under the age of eighteen and 11\.8% of those who were aged sixty\-five or older.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=right\n\\|1890\\= 696\n\\|1900\\= 696\n\\|1910\\= 790\n\\|1920\\= 774\n\\|1930\\= 944\n\\|1940\\= 1057\n\\|1950\\= 858\n\\|1960\\= 855\n\\|1970\\= 327\n\\|1980\\= 725\n\\|1990\\= 708\n\\|2000\\= 723\n\\|2010\\= 500\n\\|2020\\= 560\n\\|estyear\\=2021\n\\|estimate\\=563\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|footnote\\=Sources:{{cite web\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-31\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Resident Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\\-EST2012\\.html\\|work\\=Population Estimates\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611010502/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\\-EST2012\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=11 June 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:42\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=Oct 12, 2022}}\n}}\nAt the time of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census \"2000 United States Census\"), there were 723 people, 277 households, and 188 families living in the borough.", "The population density was {{convert\\|140\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 292 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|56\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}.\nThe [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232010_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2010 census\") of the borough was 99\\.45% White, 0\\.28% African American, 0\\.14% Native American, and 0\\.14% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0\\.28% of the population.", "There were 277 households; 31\\.4% had children under the age of eighteen living with them, 54\\.2% were married couples living together, 7\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31\\.8% were non\\-families. 27\\.4% of households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.0% were one\\-person households with residents who were aged sixty\\-five or older.", "The average household size was 2\\.43 and the average family size was 3\\.01\\.", "The age distribution was 19\\.4% of residents who were under the age of eighteen, 8\\.3% who were aged eighteen to twenty\\-four, 30\\.7% who were aged twenty\\-five to forty\\-four, 29\\.9% who were aged forty\\-five to sixty\\-four, and 11\\.8% who were aged sixty\\-five or older. The median age was forty years.", "For every one hundred females, there were 112\\.0 males. For every one hundred females who were aged eighteen or older, there were 113\\.6 males.", "The median household income was $35,781 and the median family income was $40,455\\. Males had a median income of $28,611 compared with that of $24,500 for females.", "The per capita income for the borough was $17,066\\.", "Approximately 8\\.8% of families and 8\\.5% of the population were living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 11\\.0% of those who were under the age of eighteen and 11\\.8% of those who were aged sixty\\-five or older.", "" ]
Electric Vehicle Advocacy on Media ---------------------------------- On 29 May 2015, Charged Hong Kong vice\-chairman Edwin Lee appeared on local Hong Kong newspaper Apple Daily describing the performance and environmental\-friendliness of his Tesla Model S. On 29 July 2015, Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\-Johnson appeared in a video interview by Reuters to advocate for electric vehicles in the city. Charged Hong Kong website as well as its non\-profit project *Best Tesla Model S\-friendly Car Park Map*{{cite web\|title\=Best Tesla Model S\-friendly Car Park Map\|url\=https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid\=1VE3W7LpBMa51U8gwzRQyUM8IrxQ \|website\=Best Tesla Model S\-friendly Car Park Map}} were featured in the video. On 26 October 2015, Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law performed a videoed demonstration of Autopilot features of Tesla Model S in Hong Kong on South China Morning Post.{{cite web\|title\=Can Tesla's new 'autopilot' system work in crowded Hong Kong? The South China Morning Post takes it for a test drive\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/video/hong\-kong/1872159/can\-teslas\-new\-autopilot\-system\-work\-crowded\-hong\-kong\-south\-china\-morning?comment\-sort\=recommended\|website\=South China Morning Post}} On 26 November 2015, Charged Hong Kong Secretary Sony Wong and chairman Mark Webb\-Johnson appeared in an article by Quartz sharing their views on the importance of EV tax waiver to the sales of EV in Hong Kong as well as the driving behaviour of the city's EV owners. On 30 November 2015, Charged Hong Kong Member Kristy Lau appeared on local television [TVB](/wiki/TVB "TVB")'s programme titled 時事多面睇 *[A Closer Look](/wiki/A_Closer_Look_%28TV_program%29 "A Closer Look (TV program)")* and talked about the benefits of owning electric vehicles.{{cite web\|title\=時事多面睇 20151130\|url\=http://mytv.tvb.com/tc/ch\_inews/ed\_inewscatchup/closerlook/224348\|website\=TVB}}{{Dead link\|date\=November 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}{{cite web\|title\=Tesla Journey in Hong Kong\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/mytesla2015/posts/872974716151364\|website\=Facebook}}{{Primary source inline\|date\=April 2019}}{{cite web\|title\=Charged Hong Kong's Committee Member Kristy Lau was on TVB's「時事多面睇」\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/chargedhongkong/photos/a.357934691078884\.1073741828\.325719637633723/442558902616462/?type\=3\&theater\|website\=Charged Hong Kong Facebook}}{{Primary source inline\|date\=April 2019}} On 12 December 2015, Charged Hong Kong Secretary Kåre Core Lohse appears on Cathay Pacific employee magazine (November 2015 issue) following a test\-drive event he organised at the company in support of Drive Electric Week. His interview is made available in both English and Chinese on the charity's Facebook page.{{cite web\|title\=Greener City Driving\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/chargedhongkong/posts/445893525616333\|website\=Charged Hong Kong}}{{Primary source inline\|date\=April 2019}} On 25 January 2016, Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\-Johnson and vice\-chairman Edwin Lee were selected to appear in an official video by Tesla Motors{{cite web\|title\=Tesla in Hong Kong\| date\=25 January 2016 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=STr\-rwYJu9c\|via\=YouTube}} and the video was shown at a Tesla Motors Hong Kong customer event in conjunction with the visit by [Tesla Motors](/wiki/Tesla_Motors "Tesla Motors") founder [Elon Musk](/wiki/Elon_Musk "Elon Musk") to the city.{{cite web\|title\=Elon Musk Speaks in the Leading City in the World For EVs: Hong Kong – Video\|url\=http://insideevs.com/elon\-musk\-speaks\-in\-the\-leading\-city\-in\-the\-world\-for\-evs\-hong\-kong\-video/\|website\=InsideEVs}} Another official Tesla Motors video also featured the voice of Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\-Johnson in conversation with Tesla Motors's CEO Elon Musk.{{cite web\|title\=Hong Kong Customer Event\| date\=29 February 2016 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=kO4JEGJPI6c\|via\=YouTube}}{{cite web\|title\=Elon Musk – Tesla Hong Kong Special Event 25th January 2016\| date\=25 January 2016 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Z7KRZnsHLM0\&t\=11m30s\|via\=YouTube}} Elon Musk coined Hong Kong as the 'Beacon city of electric vehicles' in the same event. Charged Hong Kong member [Chan Yik Hei](/wiki/Chan_Yik_Hei "Chan Yik Hei"), a young Hong Kong entrepreneur, reviewed in an interview that he had a meeting with both [Leung Chun Ying](/wiki/Leung_Chun_Ying "Leung Chun Ying"), the current [Chief Executive of Hong Kong](/wiki/Chief_Executive_of_Hong_Kong "Chief Executive of Hong Kong") and [Tesla Motors](/wiki/Tesla_Motors "Tesla Motors") CEO [Elon Musk](/wiki/Elon_Musk "Elon Musk") in the same week and had talked about electric vehicles in Hong Kong.{{cite web\|title\=Charged Hong Kong Members' Stories No. 002 – Mr. Stark Chan \& Ms. May Ha\|url\=http://www.charged.hk/node/107\|website\=Charged Hong Kong}} On 28 October 2016, Charged Hong Kong committee member Kristy Lau was in the [FIA Formula E](/wiki/FIA_Formula_E "FIA Formula E") Live video, discussing electric vehicles in Hong Kong and her experience driving her Tesla Model S in the "Beacon City of EV", rounding up of this year's [FIA Formula E](/wiki/FIA_Formula_E "FIA Formula E") event in Hong Kong.{{cite web\|title\=FIA Formula E Hong Kong live\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/fiaformulae/videos/1272054899501055/?hc\_ref\=PAGES\_TIMELINE\|website\=FIA Formula E Facebook\|publisher\=FIA Formula E}}{{Primary source inline\|date\=April 2019}} On 3 November 2016, Tesla President of Global Sales and Services Jon McNeill and Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\-Johnson talked to South China Morning Post SCMP about EV FRT Waiver, Tesla Model X, Model 3, Powerwall and solar roof.{{cite web\|title\=Tesla urges Hong Kong government to keep e\-vehicle tax breaks\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\-kong/article/2042404/telsa\-urges\-hong\-kong\-government\-keep\-e\-vehicle\-tax\-breaks\#comments\|work\=South China Morning Post\|date\=3 November 2016 }} On 26 January 2016, Forbes cited an estimate of 70% market penetration of Tesla Model S in Hong Kong produced by Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law. This figure was then recited by other media such as Quartz,{{cite web\|title\=In Hong Kong's luxury car market, a Tesla is cheap\|url\=http://qz.com/559226/in\-hong\-kongs\-luxury\-car\-market\-a\-tesla\-is\-cheap/\|website\=Quartz\|date\=27 November 2015 }} InsideEVs,{{cite web\|title\=Tesla Model 3 Attracts Many First Time Buyers in Hong Kong\|url\=http://insideevs.com/tesla\-model\-3\-attracts\-many\-first\-time\-buyers\-in\-hong\-kong/\|website\=InsideEVs}} Marketing Interactive,{{cite web\|title\=Tesla's Model S tops Hong Kong best\-selling sedan\|url\=http://www.marketing\-interactive.com/teslas\-model\-s\-tops\-hong\-kong\-best\-selling\-sedan/\|website\=Marketing Interactive\|date\=26 January 2016 }} ecomento{{cite web\|title\=Elon Musk shines in Hong Kong (w/Video)\|url\=http://ecomento.com/2016/02/02/elon\-musk\-shines\-in\-hong\-kong\-wvideo/\|website\=ecomento}} and Campaign US.{{cite web\|title\=The Tesla Motors CEO talked about the city's policies to support EVs and the future of sustainable energy\|url\=http://www.campaignlive.com/article/elon\-musk\-hong\-kong\-beacon\-city\-electric\-vehicles/1381104\|website\=Campaign US}} On 13 February 2016, Charged Hong Kong Facebook page broke the news of Singapore\-based Charged Hong Kong associate member Joe Nguyen's importing of a Tesla Model S from Hong Kong to Singapore, making it Singapore's first Tesla Model S and the world's first electric vehicle to be taxed S$15,000 (US$10,900\) for carbon emission.{{cite web\|title\=Tesla: 'We believe the test was likely not properly conducted'\|url\=https://www.techinasia.com/tesla\-test\-properly\-conducted\|website\=TechInAsia}} Singapore's [Land Transport Authority](/wiki/Land_Transport_Authority "Land Transport Authority") (LTA) issued such a fine based on a test result of 444Wh/km using a United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ([UNECE](/wiki/UNECE "UNECE")) R101 standards. This news has triggered vast news coverage from both Singapore{{cite web\|title\=This Guy Is The Only Legal Person To Drive A Tesla in S'pore, And He Went Through A Lot For It\|url\=https://vulcanpost.com/542341/guy\-legal\-person\-drive\-tesla\-spore\-went\-lot/\|website\=Vulcan Post\|date\=2 March 2016 }}{{cite web\|title\=Joe Nguyen interview on his Tesla S – By Revv Motoring\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=GbXp\-EUzkWY\|website\=Revv Motoring Singapore\| date\=11 March 2016 }}{{cite news\|title\=Electric car Tesla slapped with $15,000 tax surcharge\|url\=http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/electric\-car\-tesla\-slapped\-with\-15000\-tax\-surcharge\|website\=The Straits Times\|date\=5 March 2016 }} and on an international level starting from March 2016\.{{cite web\|title\=LTA on Tesla: CO2 emissions for electric cars start at power grid\|url\=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/lta\-on\-tesla\-co2/2572062\.html\|publisher\=Channel NewsAsia}}{{cite web\|title\=Taxing Tesla: Interview with Tesla owner Joe Nguyen discussing anti electric vehicle policy in Singapore \[Video]\|url\=https://evannex.com/blogs/news/113163909\-taxing\-tesla\-interview\-with\-tesla\-owner\-joe\-nguyen\-discussing\-anti\-electric\-vehicle\-policy\-in\-singapore\-video\|website\=Evannex\|date\=17 March 2016 }}{{cite web\|title\=Tesla owner fined for electric car 'producing more emissions than a Range Rover'\|url\=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/tesla\-owner\-fined\-electric\-car\-producing\-more\-emissions\-range\-rover\-1548481\|website\=International Business Times\|date\=9 March 2016 }}{{cite web\|title\=Questioning electric vehicles green cred\|url\=http://www.bbc.com/autos/story/20160316\-questioning\-electric\-vehicles\-green\-cred\|publisher\=BBC Autos}}{{cite web\|title\=Tesla Model S owner protests Singapore's carbon emissions surcharge\|date\=9 March 2016 \|url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/08/tesla\-model\-s\-owner\-protests\-singapores\-carbon\-emissions\-surcharge.html\|publisher\=CNBC}}{{cite web\|title\=Singapore Fines Tesla Model S Owner for Excessive Emissions\|url\=http://blog.caranddriver.com/singapore\-fines\-tesla\-model\-s\-owner\-for\-excessive\-emissions/\|website\=Car And Driver}} On 4 March 2016, Tesla CEO Elon Musk tweeted that he contacted Singapore Prime Minister [Lee Hsien Loong](/wiki/Lee_Hsien_Loong "Lee Hsien Loong") and various agencies are investigating.{{cite web\|title\=Elon Musk\|url\=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/705687267684159488\|website\=Elon Musk Official Twitter}}{{Primary source inline\|date\=April 2019}}{{cite news\|title\=LTA relooking case of Tesla electric car slapped with $15,000 carbon surcharge\|url\=http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/lta\-relooking\-case\-of\-tesla\-electric\-car\-slapped\-with\-15000\-carbon\-surcharge\|website\=The Straits Times\|date\=10 March 2016 }} An official statement from [Tesla Motors](/wiki/Tesla_Motors "Tesla Motors") was published on its official website on 10 March 2016 arguing that Joe's Tesla Model S has an energy consumption of 181Wh/km and therefore qualifies for an incentive rather than a fine.{{cite web\|title\=Here's how clean a Model S is in Singapore (and elsewhere)\|url\=https://www.teslamotors.com/support/heres\-how\-clean\-model\-s\-singapore\-and\-elsewhere\|website\=Tesla Motors}} In a news report by [Channel NewsAsia](/wiki/Channel_NewsAsia "Channel NewsAsia"), Chief of the Information Unit at UNECE Jean Rodriguez said that the Land Transport Authority of Singapore "appears to be the only national regulator to have included power grid emission into the evaluation of electric vehicles’ (EVs) carbon footprint" and that "R101 only specifies the way to measure the energy consumption of the vehicle, or "tank\-to\-wheel"".{{cite web\|title\=UN body on Tesla: Singapore likely to be only nation factoring carbon emission from grid for EVs\|url\=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/un\-body\-on\-tesla/2589878\.html\|publisher\=Channel NewsAsia}} Two months after Charged Hong Kong broke the news, Joe Nguyen said in a video interview published on 2 May 2016 that Land Transport Authority has yet to make any contact with him regarding the retest mentioned by the Authority in numerous news reports.{{cite web\|title\=Charged Hong Kong Members' Stories No. 008 – Mr. Joe Nguyen Primary tabs\|url\=http://www.charged.hk/node/123\|website\=Charged Hong Kong}} Joe Nguyen mentioned that he is also Singapore's first Tesla Roadster owner but was not subjected to similar fine in the past until the Singapore government changed their policy towards electric vehicles, and he does not mind paying taxes three times the price of his Tesla Model S price in order to advocate for electric vehicles for the future generations. On 13 March 2016, Tesla Motors shared Charged Hong Kong Members Stories – No. 000 Mr. Johnny Siu, Charged Hong Kong's coordinator of Public Charging Group,{{cite web\|title\=Charged Hong Kong Members' Stories No. 000 – Mr. Johnny Siu\|url\=http://www.charged.hk/node/102\|website\=Charged Hong Kong}} on their official Facebook page with caption "A great interview by Charged HK"{{cite web\|title\=A great interview by Charged HK\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/teslamotors/posts/10153994393237801\|website\=Tesla Motors}}{{Primary source inline\|date\=April 2019}} On 14 March 2016, Forbes was first to report a return of Tesla's Autosteer and Auto Lane Change functions after the Transport Department of Hong Kong had issued the ban on them on 17 November 2015\.{{cite web\|title\=On the safe side: Tesla removes autopilot from Hong Kong cars to keep within law\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\-kong/economy/article/1880456/safe\-side\-tesla\-removes\-autopilot\-hong\-kong\-cars\-keep\-within\|website\=South China Morning Post\|date\=19 November 2015 }} In the article, Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law talked about the benefits of Tesla Autopilot on the roads of Hong Kong and adding that Tesla's Summon feature was still not approved "due to regulatory restrictions". On 2 April 2016, Forbes interviewed Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law about the possible impact of Tesla Model 3 on Hong Kong's EV market. Charged Hong Kong member Lydia Lee was also featured in the same article. On 13 April 2016, following a controversial electric vehicle report produced by an international oil company\-investing research firm Bernstein Energy claiming that a yet\-to\-be\-produced [Tesla Model 3](/wiki/Tesla_Model_3 "Tesla Model 3") in Hong Kong is more polluting than an [internal combustion engine](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine "Internal combustion engine") vehicle,{{cite web\|title\=Electric shock – Tesla cars in Hong Kong more polluting than petrol models, report claims\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\-kong/health\-environment/article/1935817/electric\-shock\-tesla\-cars\-hong\-kong\-more\-polluting\|website\=South China Morning Post\|date\=13 April 2016 }} which triggered global coverage and reciting including Bloomberg{{cite news\|title\=Teslas May Be Making Hong Kong's Pollution Worse\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016\-04\-14/hong\-kong\-teslas\-linked\-to\-more\-co2\-emissions\-than\-gasoline\-cars\|website\=Bloomberg\|date\=14 April 2016 }} and Forbes,{{cite web\|title\=Does Tesla's Claim For Environmental Friendliness Stand Up?\|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/neilwinton/2016/04/17/does\-teslas\-claim\-for\-environmental\-friendliness\-stand\-up/\|website\=Forbes}} Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\-Johnson was invited by local broadcaster [RTHK](/wiki/RTHK "RTHK") for an on\-air debate with the report author. The charity soon produced a [letter to the editor](/wiki/Letter_to_the_editor "Letter to the editor") which was published on 26 April 2016 on the same local newspaper which had published the research firm's report and addressed the firm's conflict of interests, the report's skewing of data and flaws in calculations{{cite web\|title\=Letters to the editor, April 26, 2016\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/comment/letters/article/1938603/letters\-editor\-april\-26\-2016\|website\=South China Morning Post\|date\=26 April 2016 }} On 26 May 2016, Charged Hong Kong committee member John Bower appeared in an interviewed by The Guardian to talk about the challenges Hong Kong faced in electric vehicle development.{{cite news\|title\=Why Elon Musk says Hong Kong will be the 'beacon city' for electric cars\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable\-business/2016/may/26/elon\-musk\-hong\-kong\-electric\-cars\-beacon\-city\|website\=The Guardian\|date\=26 May 2016 \|last1\=Ng \|first1\=Brady }} On 20 June 2016, Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law commented on the importance of EV First Registration Tax Waiver to the development of electric vehicles and environmental\-friendliness in Hong Kong. Hong Kong was compared to Singapore and China in the same article.{{cite web\|title\=Tesla hopes to emulate its Hong Kong success in other Asian markets\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/1977984/tesla\-hopes\-emulate\-its\-hong\-kong\-success\-other\-asian\-markets\|website\=South China Morning Post\|date\=20 June 2016 }} On 1 July 2016, Charged Hong Kong committee member Kristy Lau and Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law both commented on the effect on the Tesla owners' confidence in Hong Kong as a result of the first fatality related to Tesla's Autopilot driver assistance feature. They both state that the driver should be in control of the car even when Autopilot is activated.{{cite web\|title\=Tesla Model S crash in Florida reminds Chinese drivers to keep eyes wide open to limits of driverless technology\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\-kong/economy/article/1984098/tesla\-model\-s\-crash\-florida\-reminds\-chinese\-drivers\-keep\-eyes\|website\=South China Morning Post\|date\=July 2016 }} On 27 July 2016, Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law appeared in an InsideEVs article as the leading organiser of an EV Summer Program for [Belilios Public School](/wiki/Belilios_Public_School "Belilios Public School") in Hong Kong, one which he claims to be "probably the first and largest educational event for schools in Asia". On 5 September 2016, Charged Hong Kong vice\-chairman Edwin Lee commented on South China Morning Post stating that he believes some incentives could be provided to plug\-in hybrids, but "zero tax" should be left for "zero emissions" vehicles only.{{cite web\|title\=German carmakers look to muscle in on Tesla's dominance of Hong Kong's burgeoning electric market\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\-kong/economy/article/2014533/german\-carmakers\-look\-muscle\-teslas\-dominance\-hong\-kongs\|website\=South China Morning Post\|date\=5 September 2016 }}{{cite web\|title\=Tesla has 80% market share of Hong Kong's growing electric vehicle market, German automakers are not happy\|url\=https://electrek.co/2016/09/05/tesla\-market\-share\-hong\-kongs\-growing\-electric\-vehicle\-market/\|website\= \[\[Electrek.co]]}} He also questioned why [plug\-in hybrid](/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid "Plug-in hybrid") manufacturers are not stepping up to full electric as it is the future. On 17 October 2016, Charged Hong Kong Tesla Owners Representative Locky Law voices his concerns in the latest South China Morning Post SCMP article over the installation of audible warning device on EVs as requested by the visually\-impaired.{{cite web\|title\=Hong Kong blind community calls for louder noise from electric cars to improve safety\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\-kong/health\-environment/article/2028523/hong\-kong\-blind\-community\-calls\-louder\-noise\#comments\|work\=South China Morning Post\|date\=16 October 2016 }} He said EV owners "would not oppose to installing a beeper if carmakers sought to use the device to address blind people's concerns," but "the best approach was to conduct joint tests on Hong Kong streets with participation from representatives from blind groups as well as the government, academic experts and automakers to determine what noise standards would be suitable locally." On 1 November 2016, an extended version of the FIA Formula E video was published on YouTube, featuring Charged Hong Kong committee member Kristy Lau and host Ben Constanduros discussing electric vehicles at some of the most iconic places of the Beacon City of EVs.{{cite web\|title\=The Hong Kong EV Scene – Formula E\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=8NVgqcGAlBY\|website\=FIA Formula E Championship YouTube Channel\| date\=November 2016 \|publisher\=FIA Formula E Championship}} On 12 December 2016, Charged Hong Kong Tesla Owners Representative Locky Law spoke to South China Morning Post about the lack of regulations and protection for EV\-charging facilities which led to the abuse of EV\-charging stations by gasoline vehicles at government and private car parks. He called on the government to educate the public about basic etiquette towards the use of EV\-charging facilities.{{cite web\|title\=E\-car parking in Hong Kong badly enforced, auto group charges\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\-kong/health\-environment/article/2053711/e\-car\-parking\-hong\-kong\-badly\-enforced\-auto\-group\|website\=South China Morning Post\|date\=11 December 2016 }} On 12 January 2017, Charged Hong Kong Tesla Owners Representative Locky Law shares facts and statistics on the effects of air pollution in Hong Kong, as well as the important role EV plays in fighting climate change in his Tesla customer's story.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.tesla.com/en\_HK/customer\-stories/talk\-the\-talk\-walk\-the\-walk\|title\=Tesla Hong Kong Owner's Story: Talk the Talk, Walk the Walk\|website\=tesla.com\|access\-date\=16 January 2017}} On 20 January 2017, Charged Hong Kong's chairman Mark Webb\-Johnson appeared in a video titled "Hands off the Wheel" by China Daily introducing the autopilot hardware on Tesla Model S and Tesla Model X. On 24 January 2017, Charged Hong Kong's chairman Mark Webb\-Johnson spoke to South China Morning Post SCMP at the Hong Kong Motorist Clubs’ Festival about EVs and some of our achievements in education.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/motoring/article/2063606/specialists\-fore\-hk\-motorist\-clubs\-festival\|title\=Specialists to the fore at HK Motorist Clubs' festival\|date\=23 January 2017\|website\=\|access\-date\=24 January 2017}} On 22 February 2017, Charged Hong Kong Tesla Owners Representative Locky Law reported to [Electrek](/wiki/Electrek "Electrek") about the massive cut in EV First Registration Tax waiver in Hong Kong starting 1 April 2017\. He foresees that the EV development in the beacon city for electric vehicles will come to an end with this policy much like the case of Denmark. The article also mentioned that Tesla President Jon McNeill's had talks with the local government in November 2016 in order to extend the tax break, which had failed to work.{{cite web\|title\=Hong Kong cancels electric vehicle incentives that made it a leading EV market dominated by Tesla\|url\=https://electrek.co/2017/02/22/hong\-kong\-electric\-vehicle\-incentives\-tesla/\|website\=Electrek.co}}
[ "Electric Vehicle Advocacy on Media\n----------------------------------", "On 29 May 2015, Charged Hong Kong vice\\-chairman Edwin Lee appeared on local Hong Kong newspaper Apple Daily describing the performance and environmental\\-friendliness of his Tesla Model S.", "On 29 July 2015, Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\\-Johnson appeared in a video interview by Reuters to advocate for electric vehicles in the city. Charged Hong Kong website as well as its non\\-profit project *Best Tesla Model S\\-friendly Car Park Map*{{cite web\\|title\\=Best Tesla Model S\\-friendly Car Park Map\\|url\\=https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid\\=1VE3W7LpBMa51U8gwzRQyUM8IrxQ \\|website\\=Best Tesla Model S\\-friendly Car Park Map}} were featured in the video.", "On 26 October 2015, Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law performed a videoed demonstration of Autopilot features of Tesla Model S in Hong Kong on South China Morning Post.{{cite web\\|title\\=Can Tesla's new 'autopilot' system work in crowded Hong Kong? The South China Morning Post takes it for a test drive\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/video/hong\\-kong/1872159/can\\-teslas\\-new\\-autopilot\\-system\\-work\\-crowded\\-hong\\-kong\\-south\\-china\\-morning?comment\\-sort\\=recommended\\|website\\=South China Morning Post}}", "On 26 November 2015, Charged Hong Kong Secretary Sony Wong and chairman Mark Webb\\-Johnson appeared in an article by Quartz sharing their views on the importance of EV tax waiver to the sales of EV in Hong Kong as well as the driving behaviour of the city's EV owners.", "On 30 November 2015, Charged Hong Kong Member Kristy Lau appeared on local television [TVB](/wiki/TVB \"TVB\")'s programme titled 時事多面睇 *[A Closer Look](/wiki/A_Closer_Look_%28TV_program%29 \"A Closer Look (TV program)\")* and talked about the benefits of owning electric vehicles.{{cite web\\|title\\=時事多面睇 20151130\\|url\\=http://mytv.tvb.com/tc/ch\\_inews/ed\\_inewscatchup/closerlook/224348\\|website\\=TVB}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=November 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla Journey in Hong Kong\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/mytesla2015/posts/872974716151364\\|website\\=Facebook}}{{Primary source inline\\|date\\=April 2019}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Charged Hong Kong's Committee Member Kristy Lau was on TVB's「時事多面睇」\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/chargedhongkong/photos/a.357934691078884\\.1073741828\\.325719637633723/442558902616462/?type\\=3\\&theater\\|website\\=Charged Hong Kong Facebook}}{{Primary source inline\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "On 12 December 2015, Charged Hong Kong Secretary Kåre Core Lohse appears on Cathay Pacific employee magazine (November 2015 issue) following a test\\-drive event he organised at the company in support of Drive Electric Week. His interview is made available in both English and Chinese on the charity's Facebook page.{{cite web\\|title\\=Greener City Driving\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/chargedhongkong/posts/445893525616333\\|website\\=Charged Hong Kong}}{{Primary source inline\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "On 25 January 2016, Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\\-Johnson and vice\\-chairman Edwin Lee were selected to appear in an official video by Tesla Motors{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla in Hong Kong\\| date\\=25 January 2016 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=STr\\-rwYJu9c\\|via\\=YouTube}} and the video was shown at a Tesla Motors Hong Kong customer event in conjunction with the visit by [Tesla Motors](/wiki/Tesla_Motors \"Tesla Motors\") founder [Elon Musk](/wiki/Elon_Musk \"Elon Musk\") to the city.{{cite web\\|title\\=Elon Musk Speaks in the Leading City in the World For EVs: Hong Kong – Video\\|url\\=http://insideevs.com/elon\\-musk\\-speaks\\-in\\-the\\-leading\\-city\\-in\\-the\\-world\\-for\\-evs\\-hong\\-kong\\-video/\\|website\\=InsideEVs}} Another official Tesla Motors video also featured the voice of Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\\-Johnson in conversation with Tesla Motors's CEO Elon Musk.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hong Kong Customer Event\\| date\\=29 February 2016 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=kO4JEGJPI6c\\|via\\=YouTube}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Elon Musk – Tesla Hong Kong Special Event 25th January 2016\\| date\\=25 January 2016 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Z7KRZnsHLM0\\&t\\=11m30s\\|via\\=YouTube}} Elon Musk coined Hong Kong as the 'Beacon city of electric vehicles' in the same event. Charged Hong Kong member [Chan Yik Hei](/wiki/Chan_Yik_Hei \"Chan Yik Hei\"), a young Hong Kong entrepreneur, reviewed in an interview that he had a meeting with both [Leung Chun Ying](/wiki/Leung_Chun_Ying \"Leung Chun Ying\"), the current [Chief Executive of Hong Kong](/wiki/Chief_Executive_of_Hong_Kong \"Chief Executive of Hong Kong\") and [Tesla Motors](/wiki/Tesla_Motors \"Tesla Motors\") CEO [Elon Musk](/wiki/Elon_Musk \"Elon Musk\") in the same week and had talked about electric vehicles in Hong Kong.{{cite web\\|title\\=Charged Hong Kong Members' Stories No. 002 – Mr. Stark Chan \\& Ms. May Ha\\|url\\=http://www.charged.hk/node/107\\|website\\=Charged Hong Kong}}", "On 28 October 2016, Charged Hong Kong committee member Kristy Lau was in the [FIA Formula E](/wiki/FIA_Formula_E \"FIA Formula E\") Live video, discussing electric vehicles in Hong Kong and her experience driving her Tesla Model S in the \"Beacon City of EV\", rounding up of this year's [FIA Formula E](/wiki/FIA_Formula_E \"FIA Formula E\") event in Hong Kong.{{cite web\\|title\\=FIA Formula E Hong Kong live\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/fiaformulae/videos/1272054899501055/?hc\\_ref\\=PAGES\\_TIMELINE\\|website\\=FIA Formula E Facebook\\|publisher\\=FIA Formula E}}{{Primary source inline\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "On 3 November 2016, Tesla President of Global Sales and Services Jon McNeill and Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\\-Johnson talked to South China Morning Post SCMP about EV FRT Waiver, Tesla Model X, Model 3, Powerwall and solar roof.{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla urges Hong Kong government to keep e\\-vehicle tax breaks\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\\-kong/article/2042404/telsa\\-urges\\-hong\\-kong\\-government\\-keep\\-e\\-vehicle\\-tax\\-breaks\\#comments\\|work\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=3 November 2016 }}", "On 26 January 2016, Forbes cited an estimate of 70% market penetration of Tesla Model S in Hong Kong produced by Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law. This figure was then recited by other media such as Quartz,{{cite web\\|title\\=In Hong Kong's luxury car market, a Tesla is cheap\\|url\\=http://qz.com/559226/in\\-hong\\-kongs\\-luxury\\-car\\-market\\-a\\-tesla\\-is\\-cheap/\\|website\\=Quartz\\|date\\=27 November 2015 }} InsideEVs,{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla Model 3 Attracts Many First Time Buyers in Hong Kong\\|url\\=http://insideevs.com/tesla\\-model\\-3\\-attracts\\-many\\-first\\-time\\-buyers\\-in\\-hong\\-kong/\\|website\\=InsideEVs}} Marketing Interactive,{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla's Model S tops Hong Kong best\\-selling sedan\\|url\\=http://www.marketing\\-interactive.com/teslas\\-model\\-s\\-tops\\-hong\\-kong\\-best\\-selling\\-sedan/\\|website\\=Marketing Interactive\\|date\\=26 January 2016 }} ecomento{{cite web\\|title\\=Elon Musk shines in Hong Kong (w/Video)\\|url\\=http://ecomento.com/2016/02/02/elon\\-musk\\-shines\\-in\\-hong\\-kong\\-wvideo/\\|website\\=ecomento}} and Campaign US.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Tesla Motors CEO talked about the city's policies to support EVs and the future of sustainable energy\\|url\\=http://www.campaignlive.com/article/elon\\-musk\\-hong\\-kong\\-beacon\\-city\\-electric\\-vehicles/1381104\\|website\\=Campaign US}}", "On 13 February 2016, Charged Hong Kong Facebook page broke the news of Singapore\\-based Charged Hong Kong associate member Joe Nguyen's importing of a Tesla Model S from Hong Kong to Singapore, making it Singapore's first Tesla Model S and the world's first electric vehicle to be taxed S$15,000 (US$10,900\\) for carbon emission.{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla: 'We believe the test was likely not properly conducted'\\|url\\=https://www.techinasia.com/tesla\\-test\\-properly\\-conducted\\|website\\=TechInAsia}} Singapore's [Land Transport Authority](/wiki/Land_Transport_Authority \"Land Transport Authority\") (LTA) issued such a fine based on a test result of 444Wh/km using a United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ([UNECE](/wiki/UNECE \"UNECE\")) R101 standards. This news has triggered vast news coverage from both Singapore{{cite web\\|title\\=This Guy Is The Only Legal Person To Drive A Tesla in S'pore, And He Went Through A Lot For It\\|url\\=https://vulcanpost.com/542341/guy\\-legal\\-person\\-drive\\-tesla\\-spore\\-went\\-lot/\\|website\\=Vulcan Post\\|date\\=2 March 2016 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Joe Nguyen interview on his Tesla S – By Revv Motoring\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=GbXp\\-EUzkWY\\|website\\=Revv Motoring Singapore\\| date\\=11 March 2016 }}{{cite news\\|title\\=Electric car Tesla slapped with $15,000 tax surcharge\\|url\\=http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/electric\\-car\\-tesla\\-slapped\\-with\\-15000\\-tax\\-surcharge\\|website\\=The Straits Times\\|date\\=5 March 2016 }} and on an international level starting from March 2016\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=LTA on Tesla: CO2 emissions for electric cars start at power grid\\|url\\=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/lta\\-on\\-tesla\\-co2/2572062\\.html\\|publisher\\=Channel NewsAsia}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Taxing Tesla: Interview with Tesla owner Joe Nguyen discussing anti electric vehicle policy in Singapore \\[Video]\\|url\\=https://evannex.com/blogs/news/113163909\\-taxing\\-tesla\\-interview\\-with\\-tesla\\-owner\\-joe\\-nguyen\\-discussing\\-anti\\-electric\\-vehicle\\-policy\\-in\\-singapore\\-video\\|website\\=Evannex\\|date\\=17 March 2016 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla owner fined for electric car 'producing more emissions than a Range Rover'\\|url\\=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/tesla\\-owner\\-fined\\-electric\\-car\\-producing\\-more\\-emissions\\-range\\-rover\\-1548481\\|website\\=International Business Times\\|date\\=9 March 2016 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Questioning electric vehicles green cred\\|url\\=http://www.bbc.com/autos/story/20160316\\-questioning\\-electric\\-vehicles\\-green\\-cred\\|publisher\\=BBC Autos}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla Model S owner protests Singapore's carbon emissions surcharge\\|date\\=9 March 2016 \\|url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/08/tesla\\-model\\-s\\-owner\\-protests\\-singapores\\-carbon\\-emissions\\-surcharge.html\\|publisher\\=CNBC}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Singapore Fines Tesla Model S Owner for Excessive Emissions\\|url\\=http://blog.caranddriver.com/singapore\\-fines\\-tesla\\-model\\-s\\-owner\\-for\\-excessive\\-emissions/\\|website\\=Car And Driver}} On 4 March 2016, Tesla CEO Elon Musk tweeted that he contacted Singapore Prime Minister [Lee Hsien Loong](/wiki/Lee_Hsien_Loong \"Lee Hsien Loong\") and various agencies are investigating.{{cite web\\|title\\=Elon Musk\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/705687267684159488\\|website\\=Elon Musk Official Twitter}}{{Primary source inline\\|date\\=April 2019}}{{cite news\\|title\\=LTA relooking case of Tesla electric car slapped with $15,000 carbon surcharge\\|url\\=http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/lta\\-relooking\\-case\\-of\\-tesla\\-electric\\-car\\-slapped\\-with\\-15000\\-carbon\\-surcharge\\|website\\=The Straits Times\\|date\\=10 March 2016 }} An official statement from [Tesla Motors](/wiki/Tesla_Motors \"Tesla Motors\") was published on its official website on 10 March 2016 arguing that Joe's Tesla Model S has an energy consumption of 181Wh/km and therefore qualifies for an incentive rather than a fine.{{cite web\\|title\\=Here's how clean a Model S is in Singapore (and elsewhere)\\|url\\=https://www.teslamotors.com/support/heres\\-how\\-clean\\-model\\-s\\-singapore\\-and\\-elsewhere\\|website\\=Tesla Motors}} In a news report by [Channel NewsAsia](/wiki/Channel_NewsAsia \"Channel NewsAsia\"), Chief of the Information Unit at UNECE Jean Rodriguez said that the Land Transport Authority of Singapore \"appears to be the only national regulator to have included power grid emission into the evaluation of electric vehicles’ (EVs) carbon footprint\" and that \"R101 only specifies the way to measure the energy consumption of the vehicle, or \"tank\\-to\\-wheel\"\".{{cite web\\|title\\=UN body on Tesla: Singapore likely to be only nation factoring carbon emission from grid for EVs\\|url\\=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/un\\-body\\-on\\-tesla/2589878\\.html\\|publisher\\=Channel NewsAsia}} Two months after Charged Hong Kong broke the news, Joe Nguyen said in a video interview published on 2 May 2016 that Land Transport Authority has yet to make any contact with him regarding the retest mentioned by the Authority in numerous news reports.{{cite web\\|title\\=Charged Hong Kong Members' Stories No. 008 – Mr. Joe Nguyen Primary tabs\\|url\\=http://www.charged.hk/node/123\\|website\\=Charged Hong Kong}} Joe Nguyen mentioned that he is also Singapore's first Tesla Roadster owner but was not subjected to similar fine in the past until the Singapore government changed their policy towards electric vehicles, and he does not mind paying taxes three times the price of his Tesla Model S price in order to advocate for electric vehicles for the future generations.", "On 13 March 2016, Tesla Motors shared Charged Hong Kong Members Stories – No. 000 Mr. Johnny Siu, Charged Hong Kong's coordinator of Public Charging Group,{{cite web\\|title\\=Charged Hong Kong Members' Stories No. 000 – Mr. Johnny Siu\\|url\\=http://www.charged.hk/node/102\\|website\\=Charged Hong Kong}} on their official Facebook page with caption \"A great interview by Charged HK\"{{cite web\\|title\\=A great interview by Charged HK\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/teslamotors/posts/10153994393237801\\|website\\=Tesla Motors}}{{Primary source inline\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "On 14 March 2016, Forbes was first to report a return of Tesla's Autosteer and Auto Lane Change functions after the Transport Department of Hong Kong had issued the ban on them on 17 November 2015\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=On the safe side: Tesla removes autopilot from Hong Kong cars to keep within law\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\\-kong/economy/article/1880456/safe\\-side\\-tesla\\-removes\\-autopilot\\-hong\\-kong\\-cars\\-keep\\-within\\|website\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=19 November 2015 }} In the article, Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law talked about the benefits of Tesla Autopilot on the roads of Hong Kong and adding that Tesla's Summon feature was still not approved \"due to regulatory restrictions\".", "On 2 April 2016, Forbes interviewed Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law about the possible impact of Tesla Model 3 on Hong Kong's EV market. Charged Hong Kong member Lydia Lee was also featured in the same article.", "On 13 April 2016, following a controversial electric vehicle report produced by an international oil company\\-investing research firm Bernstein Energy claiming that a yet\\-to\\-be\\-produced [Tesla Model 3](/wiki/Tesla_Model_3 \"Tesla Model 3\") in Hong Kong is more polluting than an [internal combustion engine](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine \"Internal combustion engine\") vehicle,{{cite web\\|title\\=Electric shock – Tesla cars in Hong Kong more polluting than petrol models, report claims\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\\-kong/health\\-environment/article/1935817/electric\\-shock\\-tesla\\-cars\\-hong\\-kong\\-more\\-polluting\\|website\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=13 April 2016 }} which triggered global coverage and reciting including Bloomberg{{cite news\\|title\\=Teslas May Be Making Hong Kong's Pollution Worse\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016\\-04\\-14/hong\\-kong\\-teslas\\-linked\\-to\\-more\\-co2\\-emissions\\-than\\-gasoline\\-cars\\|website\\=Bloomberg\\|date\\=14 April 2016 }} and Forbes,{{cite web\\|title\\=Does Tesla's Claim For Environmental Friendliness Stand Up?\\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/neilwinton/2016/04/17/does\\-teslas\\-claim\\-for\\-environmental\\-friendliness\\-stand\\-up/\\|website\\=Forbes}} Charged Hong Kong chairman Mark Webb\\-Johnson was invited by local broadcaster [RTHK](/wiki/RTHK \"RTHK\") for an on\\-air debate with the report author. The charity soon produced a [letter to the editor](/wiki/Letter_to_the_editor \"Letter to the editor\") which was published on 26 April 2016 on the same local newspaper which had published the research firm's report and addressed the firm's conflict of interests, the report's skewing of data and flaws in calculations{{cite web\\|title\\=Letters to the editor, April 26, 2016\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/comment/letters/article/1938603/letters\\-editor\\-april\\-26\\-2016\\|website\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=26 April 2016 }}", "On 26 May 2016, Charged Hong Kong committee member John Bower appeared in an interviewed by The Guardian to talk about the challenges Hong Kong faced in electric vehicle development.{{cite news\\|title\\=Why Elon Musk says Hong Kong will be the 'beacon city' for electric cars\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable\\-business/2016/may/26/elon\\-musk\\-hong\\-kong\\-electric\\-cars\\-beacon\\-city\\|website\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=26 May 2016 \\|last1\\=Ng \\|first1\\=Brady }}", "On 20 June 2016, Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law commented on the importance of EV First Registration Tax Waiver to the development of electric vehicles and environmental\\-friendliness in Hong Kong. Hong Kong was compared to Singapore and China in the same article.{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla hopes to emulate its Hong Kong success in other Asian markets\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/1977984/tesla\\-hopes\\-emulate\\-its\\-hong\\-kong\\-success\\-other\\-asian\\-markets\\|website\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=20 June 2016 }}", "On 1 July 2016, Charged Hong Kong committee member Kristy Lau and Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law both commented on the effect on the Tesla owners' confidence in Hong Kong as a result of the first fatality related to Tesla's Autopilot driver assistance feature. They both state that the driver should be in control of the car even when Autopilot is activated.{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla Model S crash in Florida reminds Chinese drivers to keep eyes wide open to limits of driverless technology\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\\-kong/economy/article/1984098/tesla\\-model\\-s\\-crash\\-florida\\-reminds\\-chinese\\-drivers\\-keep\\-eyes\\|website\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=July 2016 }}", "On 27 July 2016, Charged Hong Kong's Tesla Owners Group Representative Locky Law appeared in an InsideEVs article as the leading organiser of an EV Summer Program for [Belilios Public School](/wiki/Belilios_Public_School \"Belilios Public School\") in Hong Kong, one which he claims to be \"probably the first and largest educational event for schools in Asia\".", "On 5 September 2016, Charged Hong Kong vice\\-chairman Edwin Lee commented on South China Morning Post stating that he believes some incentives could be provided to plug\\-in hybrids, but \"zero tax\" should be left for \"zero emissions\" vehicles only.{{cite web\\|title\\=German carmakers look to muscle in on Tesla's dominance of Hong Kong's burgeoning electric market\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\\-kong/economy/article/2014533/german\\-carmakers\\-look\\-muscle\\-teslas\\-dominance\\-hong\\-kongs\\|website\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=5 September 2016 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Tesla has 80% market share of Hong Kong's growing electric vehicle market, German automakers are not happy\\|url\\=https://electrek.co/2016/09/05/tesla\\-market\\-share\\-hong\\-kongs\\-growing\\-electric\\-vehicle\\-market/\\|website\\= \\[\\[Electrek.co]]}} He also questioned why [plug\\-in hybrid](/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid \"Plug-in hybrid\") manufacturers are not stepping up to full electric as it is the future.", "On 17 October 2016, Charged Hong Kong Tesla Owners Representative Locky Law voices his concerns in the latest South China Morning Post SCMP article over the installation of audible warning device on EVs as requested by the visually\\-impaired.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hong Kong blind community calls for louder noise from electric cars to improve safety\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\\-kong/health\\-environment/article/2028523/hong\\-kong\\-blind\\-community\\-calls\\-louder\\-noise\\#comments\\|work\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=16 October 2016 }} He said EV owners \"would not oppose to installing a beeper if carmakers sought to use the device to address blind people's concerns,\" but \"the best approach was to conduct joint tests on Hong Kong streets with participation from representatives from blind groups as well as the government, academic experts and automakers to determine what noise standards would be suitable locally.\"", "On 1 November 2016, an extended version of the FIA Formula E video was published on YouTube, featuring Charged Hong Kong committee member Kristy Lau and host Ben Constanduros discussing electric vehicles at some of the most iconic places of the Beacon City of EVs.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Hong Kong EV Scene – Formula E\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=8NVgqcGAlBY\\|website\\=FIA Formula E Championship YouTube Channel\\| date\\=November 2016 \\|publisher\\=FIA Formula E Championship}}", "On 12 December 2016, Charged Hong Kong Tesla Owners Representative Locky Law spoke to South China Morning Post about the lack of regulations and protection for EV\\-charging facilities which led to the abuse of EV\\-charging stations by gasoline vehicles at government and private car parks. He called on the government to educate the public about basic etiquette towards the use of EV\\-charging facilities.{{cite web\\|title\\=E\\-car parking in Hong Kong badly enforced, auto group charges\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong\\-kong/health\\-environment/article/2053711/e\\-car\\-parking\\-hong\\-kong\\-badly\\-enforced\\-auto\\-group\\|website\\=South China Morning Post\\|date\\=11 December 2016 }}", "On 12 January 2017, Charged Hong Kong Tesla Owners Representative Locky Law shares facts and statistics on the effects of air pollution in Hong Kong, as well as the important role EV plays in fighting climate change in his Tesla customer's story.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tesla.com/en\\_HK/customer\\-stories/talk\\-the\\-talk\\-walk\\-the\\-walk\\|title\\=Tesla Hong Kong Owner's Story: Talk the Talk, Walk the Walk\\|website\\=tesla.com\\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2017}}", "On 20 January 2017, Charged Hong Kong's chairman Mark Webb\\-Johnson appeared in a video titled \"Hands off the Wheel\" by China Daily introducing the autopilot hardware on Tesla Model S and Tesla Model X.", "On 24 January 2017, Charged Hong Kong's chairman Mark Webb\\-Johnson spoke to South China Morning Post SCMP at the Hong Kong Motorist Clubs’ Festival about EVs and some of our achievements in education.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/motoring/article/2063606/specialists\\-fore\\-hk\\-motorist\\-clubs\\-festival\\|title\\=Specialists to the fore at HK Motorist Clubs' festival\\|date\\=23 January 2017\\|website\\=\\|access\\-date\\=24 January 2017}}", "On 22 February 2017, Charged Hong Kong Tesla Owners Representative Locky Law reported to [Electrek](/wiki/Electrek \"Electrek\") about the massive cut in EV First Registration Tax waiver in Hong Kong starting 1 April 2017\\. He foresees that the EV development in the beacon city for electric vehicles will come to an end with this policy much like the case of Denmark. The article also mentioned that Tesla President Jon McNeill's had talks with the local government in November 2016 in order to extend the tax break, which had failed to work.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hong Kong cancels electric vehicle incentives that made it a leading EV market dominated by Tesla\\|url\\=https://electrek.co/2017/02/22/hong\\-kong\\-electric\\-vehicle\\-incentives\\-tesla/\\|website\\=Electrek.co}}", "" ]
Walt Longmire Mysteries ----------------------- {{Infobox character \| name \= Walt Longmire \| series \= Walt Longmire Mysteries \| first \= "The Cold Dish" December 29, 2004 \| creator \= \[\[Craig Johnson (author)\|Craig Johnson]] \| full\_name \= Walter Longmire \| occupation \= Sheriff \| spouse \= Martha Longmire (deceased) \| gender \= Male \| title \= Sheriff of Absaroka County, Wyoming \| children \= Cady Longmire (daughter) \| nationality\= American \| extra\-hdr \= Police career \| lbl31 \= Department \| data31 \= Absaroka County Sheriff's Department \| lbl32 \= Years of service \| data32 \= 1972–present \| lbl33 \= Rank \| data33 \= Sheriff }} ### Fictional biography Walt is a native of Durant, [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming"), the [county seat](/wiki/County_seat "County seat") of fictional Absaroka County, named after the real\-life [Absaroka Native Americans](/wiki/Crow_people "Crow people"), the [Absaroka Range](/wiki/Absaroka_Range "Absaroka Range"), and the 1930s effort to declare a [U.S. state called Absaroka](/wiki/Absaroka_%28proposed_state%29 "Absaroka (proposed state)") out of territory from three existing states.{{cite news \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Craig \|date\=July 2014 \|title\=Welcome To Wyoming \|url\=https://www.cowboysindians.com/2014/07/welcome\-to\-wyoming/ \|magazine\=Cowboys and Indians Magazine \|language\=en\-US}} Longmire attended the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California "University of Southern California"), where he played offensive lineman for the [USC Trojans](/wiki/USC_Trojans "USC Trojans") and graduated with a degree in [English literature](/wiki/English_literature "English literature"). He then served in the [Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") and completed [boot camp](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Recruit_Training "United States Marine Corps Recruit Training") at [Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island "Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island") and [Officer Candidates School](/wiki/Officer_Candidates_School_%28United_States_Marine_Corps%29 "Officer Candidates School (United States Marine Corps)") at [Marine Corps Base Quantico](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Quantico "Marine Corps Base Quantico"). He was assigned to the [1st Marine Division](/wiki/1st_Marine_Division_%28United_States%29 "1st Marine Division (United States)") as a military police officer, and served in country at [Tan Son Nhut Air Base](/wiki/Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base "Tan Son Nhut Air Base") during the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War").{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= December 29, 2004\|title\= The Cold Dish\|url\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780143036425\|url\-access\= registration\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} He served in the Marines for four years, and earned, among other decorations, the [Navy Cross](/wiki/Navy_Cross "Navy Cross"), [Silver Star](/wiki/Silver_Star "Silver Star"), [Bronze Star](/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal "Bronze Star Medal"), and [Purple Heart](/wiki/Purple_Heart "Purple Heart").{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= March 15, 2007\|title\= Kindness Goes Unpunished\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} After serving in Vietnam, Walt spent six weeks assigned as security at [Johnston Atoll](/wiki/Johnston_Atoll "Johnston Atoll").{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 13, 2014\|title\= Any Other Name\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} Upon his discharge from the Marines, Walt spent some time working at an oil rig in [Anchorage, Alaska](/wiki/Anchorage%2C_Alaska "Anchorage, Alaska"), before returning home to Wyoming, where he was hired by Sheriff Lucian Connally as a deputy sheriff in 1972\.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= September 5, 2017\|title\= The Western Star\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} Walt was elected as the Absaroka County Sheriff after Lucian all but threw the race and decided to retire.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= October 17, 2013\|title\= Spirit of Steamboat\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} ### In the series In the first book, *The Cold Dish*, Walt is mentioned as having been the sheriff of Absaroka County and plans to run for re\-election again the following year. He investigates the murders of two white teenagers who had been found guilty, but not severely punished, for [raping](/wiki/Sexual_assault "Sexual assault") a local Indian girl, Melissa Little Bird. In *Death Without Company*, Walt investigates the death of a [Basque](/wiki/Basques "Basques") woman who was, for a few hours in the 1940s, married to Lucian before her family had the marriage annulled. During his tenure as sheriff "of the least populated county in the least populated state in the union", five murders have occurred in Absaroka County, with three of them taking place since 2004 (in *The Cold Dish* and *Death Without Company*).{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= March 16, 2006\|title\= Death Without Company\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *Kindness Goes Unpunished*, Walt visits his daughter Cady in Philadelphia, where he joins forces with the [Philadelphia Police Department](/wiki/Philadelphia_Police_Department "Philadelphia Police Department") to investigate an assault on Cady that has left her in a coma. In *Another Man's Moccasins*, Walt investigates the murder of a young Vietnamese woman, which reminds him of his first murder investigation – the death of a [prostitute](/wiki/Prostitute "Prostitute") outside of Tan Son Nhut Air Base by an American officer in 1968\.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 26, 2009\|title\= Another Man's Moccasins\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *The Dark Horse*, Walt goes undercover as an insurance investigator from [Billings, Montana](/wiki/Billings%2C_Montana "Billings, Montana"), in [Campbell County, Wyoming](/wiki/Campbell_County%2C_Wyoming "Campbell County, Wyoming") (at the unofficial request of the Campbell County Sheriff), to determine if a woman truly murdered her husband, a man with a dubious past and a gift for making enemies, after he allegedly burned down their barn and killed their horses for the insurance money.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 25, 2010\|title\= The Dark Horse\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *Hell is Empty*, Walt becomes lost in the [Bighorn Mountains](/wiki/Bighorn_Mountains "Bighorn Mountains") with a federal prisoner/serial killer.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= October 7, 2011\|title\= Hell is Empty\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} This book was later adapted into the *Longmire* season two episode "Unquiet Mind". In *As the Crow Flies*, Walt assists the newly appointed chief of the [Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation](/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Indian_Reservation "Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation") Tribal Police, [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War") veteran Lolo Long, with the investigation into the death of a young woman who fell from a cliff with her child in her arms, while simultaneously preparing for Cady's wedding.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 15, 2012\|title\= As the Crow Flies\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *A Serpent's Tooth*, Walt deals with a multi\-state polygamous cult when he tries to help a [Mormon "lost boy"](/wiki/Lost_boys_%28Mormon_fundamentalism%29 "Lost boys (Mormon fundamentalism)") that leads to [Big Oil](/wiki/Big_Oil "Big Oil"), the [Central Intelligence Agency](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency"), and a Mexican drug cartel, which ultimately costs the life of one of his deputies and the grievous injury of another.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= June 4, 2013\|title\= A Serpent's Tooth\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *Spirit of Steamboat*, Walt flashes back to Christmas Eve 1988 (during his second month as sheriff) when he helps Lucian and a [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") veteran of the [38th Bombardment Group](/wiki/38th_Bombardment_Group "38th Bombardment Group") transport an injured girl (the sole survivor of a car accident) from Durant to Denver during a snowstorm in a decommissioned [North American B\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell "North American B-25 Mitchell"). In *Any Other Name*, Walt investigates the suicide of a Campbell County Sheriff's Investigator at the request of Lucian and Sheriff Sandy Sandburg, which nearly causes him to miss the birth of his grandchild in Philadelphia. In *Dry Bones*, Walt deals with the discovery of a *[Tyrannosaurus rex](/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex "Tyrannosaurus rex")* skeleton on Native American land within his county and the subsequent death of the property's owner, resulting in a joint investigation with the FBI under the scrutiny of the newly announced deputy [United States attorney for the district of Wyoming](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Wyoming "United States District Court for the District of Wyoming"). In the middle of the investigation, Walt learns that his son\-in\-law, Officer Michael Moretti, was killed in the line of duty in Philadelphia; although he desperately wants to fly east and assist in the investigation, he remains stuck in Durant to complete his own case (however, he does allow Vic, Michael's sister, to take a leave of absence).{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 12, 2015\|title\= Dry Bones\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} During his career, Walter becomes well\-respected not only by his county but also by the [Wyoming State Attorney General's Office](/wiki/Wyoming_Attorney_General "Wyoming Attorney General") (including the Attorney General, Joe Meyer, himself), the DCI, and even the [Governor of Wyoming](/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Wyoming "List of Governors of Wyoming"). It is later mentioned, somewhat jokingly, that if a police officer is murdered in Wyoming, Walt Longmire is on the case. As sheriff, Walt carries an [M1911A1](/wiki/M1911_pistol "M1911 pistol") in .45 ACP (the same one he used in the Marine Corps) as his primary weapon, and drives a pickup truck that he calls the Silver Bullet (or just Bullet).{{cite book\|last1\=Johnson\|first1\=Craig\|title\=The Cold Dish\|page\=4}} ### Relationships Walt is a widower; Martha, his wife, died of cancer (in the books; in the TV series she was murdered in Denver, Colorado, while suffering from cancer). With Martha, he had a daughter, Cady, who is now an attorney in Philadelphia. In *As the Crow Flies*, Walt mentions that he dated Martha before he was drafted, and that their relationship resumed after he came home from the war. The two eloped and were married by a justice of the peace in [Miles City, Montana](/wiki/Miles_City%2C_Montana "Miles City, Montana"), when her father refused to pay for a big church wedding. In the same book, Cady marries Philadelphia Police Officer Michael Moretti, the brother of Walt's undersheriff, Vic Moretti, on the Rez; Michael and she had been seeing each other since *Kindness Goes Unpunished* and engaged since *The Dark Horse*. In *Any Other Name*, Cady gives birth to a daughter, Lola Longmire Moretti. In *The Western Star*, it is revealed that Walt and Martha first got pregnant in 1972, but they lost the baby in a first\-trimester miscarriage. Walt's closest friend and confidant is Henry Standing Bear. They have been friends since they were 12 years old, and both served in Vietnam (although Henry was a member of the [United States Army Special Forces](/wiki/Special_Forces_%28United_States_Army%29 "Special Forces (United States Army)"), while Walt was a Marine MP), where they were both highly decorated. When Cady was born, Walt appointed Henry her godfather. After Cady is assaulted in Philadelphia, Vic (who was assisting the police in the investigation) and Walt have sex. In the aftermath, Walt mentions that he has had sex with only six women in his life. The two continue their relationship after returning to Durant; in *A Serpent's Tooth*, Walt learns from the doctor that Vic was pregnant, but lost the baby after being stabbed during the confrontation with Tomás Bidarte. As of *Any Other Name*, neither Walt nor Vic knows that the other is aware of the pregnancy, but in *Dry Bones*, Vic reveals that she knows Walt had been told. ### Appearances To date, Walt has appeared in these books: 1. *The Cold Dish* – December 29, 2004 2. *Death Without Company* – March 16, 2006 3. *Kindness Goes Unpunished* – March 15, 2007 4. *Another Man's Moccasins* – May 26, 2009 5. *The Dark Horse* – May 25, 2010 6. *Junkyard Dogs* – October 22, 2010 7. *Hell is Empty* – October 7, 2011 8. *Divorce Horse* (eBook) – April 16, 2012 9. *As the Crow Flies* – May 15, 2012 10. *Christmas in Absaroka County* (eBook) – December 4, 2012 11. *Messenger* (eBook) – April 23, 2013 12. *A Serpent's Tooth* – June 4, 2013 13. *Spirit of Steamboat* – October 17, 2013 14. *Any Other Name* – May 13, 2014 15. *Wait for Signs: Twelve Longmire Stories* – October 21, 2014 16. *Dry Bones* – May 12, 2015 17. *The Highwayman* – May 17, 2016 18. *An Obvious Fact* – September 13, 2016 19. *The Western Star* – September 5, 2017 20. *Depth of Winter* \- September 4, 2018 21. *Land of Wolves* \- September 17, 2019 22. *Next to Last Stand* \- September 22, 2020 23. *Daughter of the Morning Star* \- September 21, 2021 24. *Hell and Back* \- September 6, 2022 25. *The Longmire Defense* \- September 5, 2023 26. *First Frost* \- May 28, 2024
[ "Walt Longmire Mysteries\n-----------------------", "{{Infobox character\n\\| name \\= Walt Longmire\n\\| series \\= Walt Longmire Mysteries\n\\| first \\= \"The Cold Dish\" \n December 29, 2004\n\\| creator \\= \\[\\[Craig Johnson (author)\\|Craig Johnson]]\n\\| full\\_name \\= Walter Longmire\n\\| occupation \\= Sheriff\n\\| spouse \\= Martha Longmire (deceased)\n\\| gender \\= Male\n\\| title \\= Sheriff of Absaroka County, Wyoming\n\\| children \\= \nCady Longmire (daughter)\n\\| nationality\\= American\n\\| extra\\-hdr \\= Police career\n\\| lbl31 \\= Department\n\\| data31 \\= Absaroka County Sheriff's Department\n\\| lbl32 \\= Years of service\n\\| data32 \\= 1972–present\n\\| lbl33 \\= Rank\n\\| data33 \\= Sheriff\n}}", "### Fictional biography", "Walt is a native of Durant, [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\"), the [county seat](/wiki/County_seat \"County seat\") of fictional Absaroka County, named after the real\\-life [Absaroka Native Americans](/wiki/Crow_people \"Crow people\"), the [Absaroka Range](/wiki/Absaroka_Range \"Absaroka Range\"), and the 1930s effort to declare a [U.S. state called Absaroka](/wiki/Absaroka_%28proposed_state%29 \"Absaroka (proposed state)\") out of territory from three existing states.{{cite news \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Craig \\|date\\=July 2014 \\|title\\=Welcome To Wyoming \\|url\\=https://www.cowboysindians.com/2014/07/welcome\\-to\\-wyoming/ \\|magazine\\=Cowboys and Indians Magazine \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "Longmire attended the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California \"University of Southern California\"), where he played offensive lineman for the [USC Trojans](/wiki/USC_Trojans \"USC Trojans\") and graduated with a degree in [English literature](/wiki/English_literature \"English literature\"). He then served in the [Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") and completed [boot camp](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Recruit_Training \"United States Marine Corps Recruit Training\") at [Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Recruit_Depot_Parris_Island \"Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island\") and [Officer Candidates School](/wiki/Officer_Candidates_School_%28United_States_Marine_Corps%29 \"Officer Candidates School (United States Marine Corps)\") at [Marine Corps Base Quantico](/wiki/Marine_Corps_Base_Quantico \"Marine Corps Base Quantico\"). He was assigned to the [1st Marine Division](/wiki/1st_Marine_Division_%28United_States%29 \"1st Marine Division (United States)\") as a military police officer, and served in country at [Tan Son Nhut Air Base](/wiki/Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base \"Tan Son Nhut Air Base\") during the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\").{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= December 29, 2004\\|title\\= The Cold Dish\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780143036425\\|url\\-access\\= registration\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}} He served in the Marines for four years, and earned, among other decorations, the [Navy Cross](/wiki/Navy_Cross \"Navy Cross\"), [Silver Star](/wiki/Silver_Star \"Silver Star\"), [Bronze Star](/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal \"Bronze Star Medal\"), and [Purple Heart](/wiki/Purple_Heart \"Purple Heart\").{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= March 15, 2007\\|title\\= Kindness Goes Unpunished\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}} After serving in Vietnam, Walt spent six weeks assigned as security at [Johnston Atoll](/wiki/Johnston_Atoll \"Johnston Atoll\").{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 13, 2014\\|title\\= Any Other Name\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "Upon his discharge from the Marines, Walt spent some time working at an oil rig in [Anchorage, Alaska](/wiki/Anchorage%2C_Alaska \"Anchorage, Alaska\"), before returning home to Wyoming, where he was hired by Sheriff Lucian Connally as a deputy sheriff in 1972\\.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= September 5, 2017\\|title\\= The Western Star\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}} Walt was elected as the Absaroka County Sheriff after Lucian all but threw the race and decided to retire.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= October 17, 2013\\|title\\= Spirit of Steamboat\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "### In the series", "In the first book, *The Cold Dish*, Walt is mentioned as having been the sheriff of Absaroka County and plans to run for re\\-election again the following year. He investigates the murders of two white teenagers who had been found guilty, but not severely punished, for [raping](/wiki/Sexual_assault \"Sexual assault\") a local Indian girl, Melissa Little Bird.", "In *Death Without Company*, Walt investigates the death of a [Basque](/wiki/Basques \"Basques\") woman who was, for a few hours in the 1940s, married to Lucian before her family had the marriage annulled. During his tenure as sheriff \"of the least populated county in the least populated state in the union\", five murders have occurred in Absaroka County, with three of them taking place since 2004 (in *The Cold Dish* and *Death Without Company*).{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= March 16, 2006\\|title\\= Death Without Company\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *Kindness Goes Unpunished*, Walt visits his daughter Cady in Philadelphia, where he joins forces with the [Philadelphia Police Department](/wiki/Philadelphia_Police_Department \"Philadelphia Police Department\") to investigate an assault on Cady that has left her in a coma.", "In *Another Man's Moccasins*, Walt investigates the murder of a young Vietnamese woman, which reminds him of his first murder investigation – the death of a [prostitute](/wiki/Prostitute \"Prostitute\") outside of Tan Son Nhut Air Base by an American officer in 1968\\.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 26, 2009\\|title\\= Another Man's Moccasins\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *The Dark Horse*, Walt goes undercover as an insurance investigator from [Billings, Montana](/wiki/Billings%2C_Montana \"Billings, Montana\"), in [Campbell County, Wyoming](/wiki/Campbell_County%2C_Wyoming \"Campbell County, Wyoming\") (at the unofficial request of the Campbell County Sheriff), to determine if a woman truly murdered her husband, a man with a dubious past and a gift for making enemies, after he allegedly burned down their barn and killed their horses for the insurance money.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 25, 2010\\|title\\= The Dark Horse\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *Hell is Empty*, Walt becomes lost in the [Bighorn Mountains](/wiki/Bighorn_Mountains \"Bighorn Mountains\") with a federal prisoner/serial killer.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= October 7, 2011\\|title\\= Hell is Empty\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}} This book was later adapted into the *Longmire* season two episode \"Unquiet Mind\".", "In *As the Crow Flies*, Walt assists the newly appointed chief of the [Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation](/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Indian_Reservation \"Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation\") Tribal Police, [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\") veteran Lolo Long, with the investigation into the death of a young woman who fell from a cliff with her child in her arms, while simultaneously preparing for Cady's wedding.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 15, 2012\\|title\\= As the Crow Flies\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *A Serpent's Tooth*, Walt deals with a multi\\-state polygamous cult when he tries to help a [Mormon \"lost boy\"](/wiki/Lost_boys_%28Mormon_fundamentalism%29 \"Lost boys (Mormon fundamentalism)\") that leads to [Big Oil](/wiki/Big_Oil \"Big Oil\"), the [Central Intelligence Agency](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency \"Central Intelligence Agency\"), and a Mexican drug cartel, which ultimately costs the life of one of his deputies and the grievous injury of another.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= June 4, 2013\\|title\\= A Serpent's Tooth\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *Spirit of Steamboat*, Walt flashes back to Christmas Eve 1988 (during his second month as sheriff) when he helps Lucian and a [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") veteran of the [38th Bombardment Group](/wiki/38th_Bombardment_Group \"38th Bombardment Group\") transport an injured girl (the sole survivor of a car accident) from Durant to Denver during a snowstorm in a decommissioned [North American B\\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell \"North American B-25 Mitchell\").", "In *Any Other Name*, Walt investigates the suicide of a Campbell County Sheriff's Investigator at the request of Lucian and Sheriff Sandy Sandburg, which nearly causes him to miss the birth of his grandchild in Philadelphia.", "In *Dry Bones*, Walt deals with the discovery of a *[Tyrannosaurus rex](/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex \"Tyrannosaurus rex\")* skeleton on Native American land within his county and the subsequent death of the property's owner, resulting in a joint investigation with the FBI under the scrutiny of the newly announced deputy [United States attorney for the district of Wyoming](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Wyoming \"United States District Court for the District of Wyoming\"). In the middle of the investigation, Walt learns that his son\\-in\\-law, Officer Michael Moretti, was killed in the line of duty in Philadelphia; although he desperately wants to fly east and assist in the investigation, he remains stuck in Durant to complete his own case (however, he does allow Vic, Michael's sister, to take a leave of absence).{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 12, 2015\\|title\\= Dry Bones\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "During his career, Walter becomes well\\-respected not only by his county but also by the [Wyoming State Attorney General's Office](/wiki/Wyoming_Attorney_General \"Wyoming Attorney General\") (including the Attorney General, Joe Meyer, himself), the DCI, and even the [Governor of Wyoming](/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Wyoming \"List of Governors of Wyoming\"). It is later mentioned, somewhat jokingly, that if a police officer is murdered in Wyoming, Walt Longmire is on the case.", "As sheriff, Walt carries an [M1911A1](/wiki/M1911_pistol \"M1911 pistol\") in .45 ACP (the same one he used in the Marine Corps) as his primary weapon, and drives a pickup truck that he calls the Silver Bullet (or just Bullet).{{cite book\\|last1\\=Johnson\\|first1\\=Craig\\|title\\=The Cold Dish\\|page\\=4}}", "### Relationships", "Walt is a widower; Martha, his wife, died of cancer (in the books; in the TV series she was murdered in Denver, Colorado, while suffering from cancer). With Martha, he had a daughter, Cady, who is now an attorney in Philadelphia. In *As the Crow Flies*, Walt mentions that he dated Martha before he was drafted, and that their relationship resumed after he came home from the war. The two eloped and were married by a justice of the peace in [Miles City, Montana](/wiki/Miles_City%2C_Montana \"Miles City, Montana\"), when her father refused to pay for a big church wedding. In the same book, Cady marries Philadelphia Police Officer Michael Moretti, the brother of Walt's undersheriff, Vic Moretti, on the Rez; Michael and she had been seeing each other since *Kindness Goes Unpunished* and engaged since *The Dark Horse*. In *Any Other Name*, Cady gives birth to a daughter, Lola Longmire Moretti. In *The Western Star*, it is revealed that Walt and Martha first got pregnant in 1972, but they lost the baby in a first\\-trimester miscarriage.", "Walt's closest friend and confidant is Henry Standing Bear. They have been friends since they were 12 years old, and both served in Vietnam (although Henry was a member of the [United States Army Special Forces](/wiki/Special_Forces_%28United_States_Army%29 \"Special Forces (United States Army)\"), while Walt was a Marine MP), where they were both highly decorated. When Cady was born, Walt appointed Henry her godfather.", "After Cady is assaulted in Philadelphia, Vic (who was assisting the police in the investigation) and Walt have sex. In the aftermath, Walt mentions that he has had sex with only six women in his life. The two continue their relationship after returning to Durant; in *A Serpent's Tooth*, Walt learns from the doctor that Vic was pregnant, but lost the baby after being stabbed during the confrontation with Tomás Bidarte. As of *Any Other Name*, neither Walt nor Vic knows that the other is aware of the pregnancy, but in *Dry Bones*, Vic reveals that she knows Walt had been told.", "### Appearances", "To date, Walt has appeared in these books:", "1. *The Cold Dish* – December 29, 2004\n2. *Death Without Company* – March 16, 2006\n3. *Kindness Goes Unpunished* – March 15, 2007\n4. *Another Man's Moccasins* – May 26, 2009\n5. *The Dark Horse* – May 25, 2010\n6. *Junkyard Dogs* – October 22, 2010\n7. *Hell is Empty* – October 7, 2011\n8. *Divorce Horse* (eBook) – April 16, 2012\n9. *As the Crow Flies* – May 15, 2012\n10. *Christmas in Absaroka County* (eBook) – December 4, 2012\n11. *Messenger* (eBook) – April 23, 2013\n12. *A Serpent's Tooth* – June 4, 2013\n13. *Spirit of Steamboat* – October 17, 2013\n14. *Any Other Name* – May 13, 2014\n15. *Wait for Signs: Twelve Longmire Stories* – October 21, 2014\n16. *Dry Bones* – May 12, 2015\n17. *The Highwayman* – May 17, 2016\n18. *An Obvious Fact* – September 13, 2016\n19. *The Western Star* – September 5, 2017\n20. *Depth of Winter* \\- September 4, 2018\n21. *Land of Wolves* \\- September 17, 2019\n22. *Next to Last Stand* \\- September 22, 2020\n23. *Daughter of the Morning Star* \\- September 21, 2021\n24. *Hell and Back* \\- September 6, 2022\n25. *The Longmire Defense* \\- September 5, 2023\n26. *First Frost* \\- May 28, 2024" ]
### In the series In the first book, *The Cold Dish*, Walt is mentioned as having been the sheriff of Absaroka County and plans to run for re\-election again the following year. He investigates the murders of two white teenagers who had been found guilty, but not severely punished, for [raping](/wiki/Sexual_assault "Sexual assault") a local Indian girl, Melissa Little Bird. In *Death Without Company*, Walt investigates the death of a [Basque](/wiki/Basques "Basques") woman who was, for a few hours in the 1940s, married to Lucian before her family had the marriage annulled. During his tenure as sheriff "of the least populated county in the least populated state in the union", five murders have occurred in Absaroka County, with three of them taking place since 2004 (in *The Cold Dish* and *Death Without Company*).{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= March 16, 2006\|title\= Death Without Company\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *Kindness Goes Unpunished*, Walt visits his daughter Cady in Philadelphia, where he joins forces with the [Philadelphia Police Department](/wiki/Philadelphia_Police_Department "Philadelphia Police Department") to investigate an assault on Cady that has left her in a coma. In *Another Man's Moccasins*, Walt investigates the murder of a young Vietnamese woman, which reminds him of his first murder investigation – the death of a [prostitute](/wiki/Prostitute "Prostitute") outside of Tan Son Nhut Air Base by an American officer in 1968\.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 26, 2009\|title\= Another Man's Moccasins\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *The Dark Horse*, Walt goes undercover as an insurance investigator from [Billings, Montana](/wiki/Billings%2C_Montana "Billings, Montana"), in [Campbell County, Wyoming](/wiki/Campbell_County%2C_Wyoming "Campbell County, Wyoming") (at the unofficial request of the Campbell County Sheriff), to determine if a woman truly murdered her husband, a man with a dubious past and a gift for making enemies, after he allegedly burned down their barn and killed their horses for the insurance money.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 25, 2010\|title\= The Dark Horse\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *Hell is Empty*, Walt becomes lost in the [Bighorn Mountains](/wiki/Bighorn_Mountains "Bighorn Mountains") with a federal prisoner/serial killer.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= October 7, 2011\|title\= Hell is Empty\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} This book was later adapted into the *Longmire* season two episode "Unquiet Mind". In *As the Crow Flies*, Walt assists the newly appointed chief of the [Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation](/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Indian_Reservation "Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation") Tribal Police, [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War") veteran Lolo Long, with the investigation into the death of a young woman who fell from a cliff with her child in her arms, while simultaneously preparing for Cady's wedding.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 15, 2012\|title\= As the Crow Flies\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *A Serpent's Tooth*, Walt deals with a multi\-state polygamous cult when he tries to help a [Mormon "lost boy"](/wiki/Lost_boys_%28Mormon_fundamentalism%29 "Lost boys (Mormon fundamentalism)") that leads to [Big Oil](/wiki/Big_Oil "Big Oil"), the [Central Intelligence Agency](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency"), and a Mexican drug cartel, which ultimately costs the life of one of his deputies and the grievous injury of another.{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= June 4, 2013\|title\= A Serpent's Tooth\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} In *Spirit of Steamboat*, Walt flashes back to Christmas Eve 1988 (during his second month as sheriff) when he helps Lucian and a [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") veteran of the [38th Bombardment Group](/wiki/38th_Bombardment_Group "38th Bombardment Group") transport an injured girl (the sole survivor of a car accident) from Durant to Denver during a snowstorm in a decommissioned [North American B\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell "North American B-25 Mitchell"). In *Any Other Name*, Walt investigates the suicide of a Campbell County Sheriff's Investigator at the request of Lucian and Sheriff Sandy Sandburg, which nearly causes him to miss the birth of his grandchild in Philadelphia. In *Dry Bones*, Walt deals with the discovery of a *[Tyrannosaurus rex](/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex "Tyrannosaurus rex")* skeleton on Native American land within his county and the subsequent death of the property's owner, resulting in a joint investigation with the FBI under the scrutiny of the newly announced deputy [United States attorney for the district of Wyoming](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Wyoming "United States District Court for the District of Wyoming"). In the middle of the investigation, Walt learns that his son\-in\-law, Officer Michael Moretti, was killed in the line of duty in Philadelphia; although he desperately wants to fly east and assist in the investigation, he remains stuck in Durant to complete his own case (however, he does allow Vic, Michael's sister, to take a leave of absence).{{cite book \|last\= Johnson\|first\= Craig\|date\= May 12, 2015\|title\= Dry Bones\|publisher\= Penguin Books}} During his career, Walter becomes well\-respected not only by his county but also by the [Wyoming State Attorney General's Office](/wiki/Wyoming_Attorney_General "Wyoming Attorney General") (including the Attorney General, Joe Meyer, himself), the DCI, and even the [Governor of Wyoming](/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Wyoming "List of Governors of Wyoming"). It is later mentioned, somewhat jokingly, that if a police officer is murdered in Wyoming, Walt Longmire is on the case. As sheriff, Walt carries an [M1911A1](/wiki/M1911_pistol "M1911 pistol") in .45 ACP (the same one he used in the Marine Corps) as his primary weapon, and drives a pickup truck that he calls the Silver Bullet (or just Bullet).{{cite book\|last1\=Johnson\|first1\=Craig\|title\=The Cold Dish\|page\=4}}
[ "### In the series", "In the first book, *The Cold Dish*, Walt is mentioned as having been the sheriff of Absaroka County and plans to run for re\\-election again the following year. He investigates the murders of two white teenagers who had been found guilty, but not severely punished, for [raping](/wiki/Sexual_assault \"Sexual assault\") a local Indian girl, Melissa Little Bird.", "In *Death Without Company*, Walt investigates the death of a [Basque](/wiki/Basques \"Basques\") woman who was, for a few hours in the 1940s, married to Lucian before her family had the marriage annulled. During his tenure as sheriff \"of the least populated county in the least populated state in the union\", five murders have occurred in Absaroka County, with three of them taking place since 2004 (in *The Cold Dish* and *Death Without Company*).{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= March 16, 2006\\|title\\= Death Without Company\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *Kindness Goes Unpunished*, Walt visits his daughter Cady in Philadelphia, where he joins forces with the [Philadelphia Police Department](/wiki/Philadelphia_Police_Department \"Philadelphia Police Department\") to investigate an assault on Cady that has left her in a coma.", "In *Another Man's Moccasins*, Walt investigates the murder of a young Vietnamese woman, which reminds him of his first murder investigation – the death of a [prostitute](/wiki/Prostitute \"Prostitute\") outside of Tan Son Nhut Air Base by an American officer in 1968\\.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 26, 2009\\|title\\= Another Man's Moccasins\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *The Dark Horse*, Walt goes undercover as an insurance investigator from [Billings, Montana](/wiki/Billings%2C_Montana \"Billings, Montana\"), in [Campbell County, Wyoming](/wiki/Campbell_County%2C_Wyoming \"Campbell County, Wyoming\") (at the unofficial request of the Campbell County Sheriff), to determine if a woman truly murdered her husband, a man with a dubious past and a gift for making enemies, after he allegedly burned down their barn and killed their horses for the insurance money.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 25, 2010\\|title\\= The Dark Horse\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *Hell is Empty*, Walt becomes lost in the [Bighorn Mountains](/wiki/Bighorn_Mountains \"Bighorn Mountains\") with a federal prisoner/serial killer.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= October 7, 2011\\|title\\= Hell is Empty\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}} This book was later adapted into the *Longmire* season two episode \"Unquiet Mind\".", "In *As the Crow Flies*, Walt assists the newly appointed chief of the [Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation](/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Indian_Reservation \"Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation\") Tribal Police, [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\") veteran Lolo Long, with the investigation into the death of a young woman who fell from a cliff with her child in her arms, while simultaneously preparing for Cady's wedding.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 15, 2012\\|title\\= As the Crow Flies\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *A Serpent's Tooth*, Walt deals with a multi\\-state polygamous cult when he tries to help a [Mormon \"lost boy\"](/wiki/Lost_boys_%28Mormon_fundamentalism%29 \"Lost boys (Mormon fundamentalism)\") that leads to [Big Oil](/wiki/Big_Oil \"Big Oil\"), the [Central Intelligence Agency](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency \"Central Intelligence Agency\"), and a Mexican drug cartel, which ultimately costs the life of one of his deputies and the grievous injury of another.{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= June 4, 2013\\|title\\= A Serpent's Tooth\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "In *Spirit of Steamboat*, Walt flashes back to Christmas Eve 1988 (during his second month as sheriff) when he helps Lucian and a [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") veteran of the [38th Bombardment Group](/wiki/38th_Bombardment_Group \"38th Bombardment Group\") transport an injured girl (the sole survivor of a car accident) from Durant to Denver during a snowstorm in a decommissioned [North American B\\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell \"North American B-25 Mitchell\").", "In *Any Other Name*, Walt investigates the suicide of a Campbell County Sheriff's Investigator at the request of Lucian and Sheriff Sandy Sandburg, which nearly causes him to miss the birth of his grandchild in Philadelphia.", "In *Dry Bones*, Walt deals with the discovery of a *[Tyrannosaurus rex](/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex \"Tyrannosaurus rex\")* skeleton on Native American land within his county and the subsequent death of the property's owner, resulting in a joint investigation with the FBI under the scrutiny of the newly announced deputy [United States attorney for the district of Wyoming](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Wyoming \"United States District Court for the District of Wyoming\"). In the middle of the investigation, Walt learns that his son\\-in\\-law, Officer Michael Moretti, was killed in the line of duty in Philadelphia; although he desperately wants to fly east and assist in the investigation, he remains stuck in Durant to complete his own case (however, he does allow Vic, Michael's sister, to take a leave of absence).{{cite book \\|last\\= Johnson\\|first\\= Craig\\|date\\= May 12, 2015\\|title\\= Dry Bones\\|publisher\\= Penguin Books}}", "During his career, Walter becomes well\\-respected not only by his county but also by the [Wyoming State Attorney General's Office](/wiki/Wyoming_Attorney_General \"Wyoming Attorney General\") (including the Attorney General, Joe Meyer, himself), the DCI, and even the [Governor of Wyoming](/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Wyoming \"List of Governors of Wyoming\"). It is later mentioned, somewhat jokingly, that if a police officer is murdered in Wyoming, Walt Longmire is on the case.", "As sheriff, Walt carries an [M1911A1](/wiki/M1911_pistol \"M1911 pistol\") in .45 ACP (the same one he used in the Marine Corps) as his primary weapon, and drives a pickup truck that he calls the Silver Bullet (or just Bullet).{{cite book\\|last1\\=Johnson\\|first1\\=Craig\\|title\\=The Cold Dish\\|page\\=4}}", "" ]
Longmire (TV series) -------------------- {{main\|Longmire (TV series)}} {{Infobox character \| name \= Walt Longmire \| series \= Longmire \| first \= "Pilot" (''\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]'') June 3, 2012 \| portrayer \= \[\[Robert Taylor (Australian actor)\|Robert Taylor]] \| full\_name \= Walter Longmire \| species \= Human \| occupation \= Sheriff \| spouse \= Martha Longmire (d. 2011\) \| gender \= Male \| title \= Sheriff of Absaroka County, WY \| children \= Cady Longmire (daughter) \| nationality \= American \| extra\-hdr \= Police career \| lbl31 \= Department \| data31 \= Absaroka County Sheriff's Department \| lbl32 \= Years of service \| lbl33 \= Rank \| data33 \= Sheriff }} ### History Absaroka County native Walt Longmire is the well\-respected sheriff that resides there. When the series begins, it is believed by most that his wife, Martha Longmire, died of cancer. His father was a rancher who managed the stables of Absaroka County's most wealthy family, the Van Blarcoms.{{Cite episode\|title\=Reports of My Death\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=July 7, 2014\|season\=3\|number\=6}} He is a graduate of Durant High School Class of '71, and his football jersey still hangs in the school's trophy case. In their 20s, he and Henry worked at [Prudhoe Bay Oil Field](/wiki/Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field "Prudhoe Bay Oil Field") in [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska").{{Cite episode\|title\=Four Arrows\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=September 10, 2015\|season\=4\|number\=4}} Walt has been the Sheriff of Absaroka County since at least 2005; his immediate predecessor was Sheriff Lucian Connally ([Peter Weller](/wiki/Peter_Weller "Peter Weller")), the uncle of Branch. In 2010, Walt arrested Malachi Strand ([Graham Greene](/wiki/Graham_Greene_%28actor%29 "Graham Greene (actor)")), the Chief of the [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne "Cheyenne") Reservation [Tribal Police](/wiki/Indian_tribal_police "Indian tribal police"), for extortion; he also has an adversarial relationship with the current CRTP Chief, Mathias ([Zahn McClarnon](/wiki/Zahn_McClarnon "Zahn McClarnon")), although the two have a bond of mutual respect. ### In the series Laconic and introspective with a strong sense of duty and justice, Walt is a throwback to the iconic lone hero of classical westerns. He is an able detective with a knack for finding the truth behind various crimes committed in his county. As the series starts in 2012, Walt is slowly coming out of a deep grieving period where he delegated most of the day\-to\-day police duties to Deputies Branch Connally ([Bailey Chase](/wiki/Bailey_Chase "Bailey Chase")), Archie "The Ferg" Ferguson (Adam Bartley), and Victoria "Vic" Moretti ([Katee Sackhoff](/wiki/Katee_Sackhoff "Katee Sackhoff")). This is complicated by Branch running against Walt in the upcoming sheriff election.{{Cite episode\|title\=Pilot\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=June 3, 2012\|season\=1\|number\=1}} Walt is investigated by [Denver PD](/wiki/Denver_Police_Department "Denver Police Department") Detective Fales ([Charles S. Dutton](/wiki/Charles_S._Dutton "Charles S. Dutton")) for the murder of Miller Beck, a meth\-head suspected of murdering Walt's wife, Martha. It is revealed that Fales is pushing the case of Beck, a drug\-using suspected mugger and killer, so hard because of Fales' own experience with a small\-town sheriff, whose racism and abuse of authority left Fales with a deep distrust of those particular law enforcement officers.{{Cite episode\|title\=Bad Medicine\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=August 26, 2013\|season\=2\|number\=13}} It is eventually revealed that Walt's best friend Henry Standing Bear hired Cheyenne mercenary Hector to take care of Beck, but Hector didn't kill him. Throughout the third season, Henry is facing murder charges in Beck's death, but Walt realizes that his deputy Branch Connally's nemesis David Ridges, recently killed in a struggle with Walt, is actually the killer. Using forensic evidence recovered from Beck's body and Ridges' car, Walt is able to clear Henry's name and prove that Ridges was the true killer. In the aftermath, Branch is murdered by his own father after learning that the man had hired Ridges to kill Martha in order to give Branch an advantage in his ultimately failed run for sheriff. In 2015, after killing Barlow Connally ([Gerald McRaney](/wiki/Gerald_McRaney "Gerald McRaney")) on his own front porch, Walt spends six weeks on [administrative leave](/wiki/Administrative_leave "Administrative leave") while the death is investigated by the [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation"); Walt is cleared of any criminal charges in the death in the end. Having learned that Barlow was responsible for Martha's murder, Walt appears to finally find a sense of peace during this time. A number of weeks later, Walt learns that he is being sued for wrongful death by Barlow's estate.{{Cite episode\|title\=What Happens on the Rez{{nbsp}}...\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=September 10, 2015\|season\=4\|number\=10}} This is revealed to be a plot by prosecutor Tucker Baggett to take Walt's property and build a golf course; thanks to the surprise help of Walt's longtime nemesis Jacob Nighthorse, the case is dropped. As sheriff, Walt carries an [Colt Government Model](/wiki/M1911_pistol "M1911 pistol") in .45 ACP and a [Winchester Model 1894](/wiki/Winchester_Model_1894 "Winchester Model 1894") in .30\-30 as his primary weapons, and drives a [Ford Bronco](/wiki/Ford_Bronco "Ford Bronco") as his duty vehicle. He does not own a [cell phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") (although he will on numerous occasions borrow one from his deputies or Henry) and takes his calls on a land line at home or in the office, or over the radio in his vehicle. At the end of the series, Walt decides to retire as sheriff and encourages his daughter Cady to run for sheriff in his place. Instead, Walt begins a search for Lord Anson Hamilton's buried treasure which Lucian Connally claimed to have found before his death. In the series' final scene, Walt is shown to finally own a cell phone of his own as he commences his search. #### Kill count In the TV series, Walt has been forced to use deadly force on a number of occasions. 1. Chance Gilbert's brother – shot ("Population 25"){{Cite episode\|title\=Population 25\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=July 14, 2014\|season\=3\|number\=7}} 2. Dan Estes – shot ("Pilot") 3. Octavio Mora – shot ("The Cancer"){{Cite episode\|title\=The Cancer\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=June 24, 2012\|season\=1\|number\=4}} 4. Wayne Durell – beaten ("Unquiet Mind"){{Cite episode\|title\=Unquiet Mind\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=May 27, 2013\|season\=2\|number\=1}} 5. Zip – shot ("Sound and Fury"){{Cite episode\|title\=Sound and Fury\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=July 8, 2013\|season\=2\|number\=7}} 6. David Ridges – stabbed ("Counting Coup"){{Cite episode\|title\=Counting Coup\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=July 28, 2014\|season\=3\|number\=9}} 7. Barlow Connally – shot ("High Noon"){{Cite episode\|title\=High Noon\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=September 10, 2015\|season\=4\|number\=3}} 8. One of Malachi Strand's henchmen – shot ("Goodbye Is Always Implied") 9. Brian O'Keane – shot ("Goodbye Is Always Implied") 10. Malachi Strand – shot ("Goodbye Is Always Implied") ### Relationships Walt was married for 25 years to Martha Longmire, with whom he has a daughter, Cady ([Cassidy Freeman](/wiki/Cassidy_Freeman "Cassidy Freeman")), an attorney. Martha was diagnosed with cancer in the late 2000s/early 2010s, and died in 2011\. Although Walt let everybody (including Cady) assume it was the cancer that took her life, Martha was murdered in an apparent mugging in [Denver](/wiki/Denver "Denver"), Colorado, by a man named Miller Beck. During his own investigation into his wife's death, Walt learned that Beck was hired to kill Martha, and then he was killed shortly thereafter to prevent him from talking to Walt. In "High Noon", Walt gets a drunken confession out of Barlow Connally, who admits to killing his own son and having Martha murdered; in the ensuing confrontation, Walt fatally shoots Barlow, avenging his deputy and his wife. In "Highway Robbery", Walt asks out Dr. Donna Sue Monaghan ([Ally Walker](/wiki/Ally_Walker "Ally Walker")), a psychiatrist who works for the [VA](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs "United States Department of Veterans Affairs") in [Sheridan, Wyoming](/wiki/Sheridan%2C_Wyoming "Sheridan, Wyoming").{{Cite episode\|title\=Highway Robbery\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=September 10, 2015\|season\=4\|number\=7}} Walt's closest friend and confidant is Henry Standing Bear. They have been friends since they were 12 years old. When Cady was born, Walt appointed Henry her godfather. Shortly before the show's timeline begins, Walt hired Vic Moretti, a former Philadelphia PD homicide detective, as a deputy sheriff. The two are believed by many to be having an affair, including at one point Vic's husband, Sean Keegan ([Michael Mosley](/wiki/Michael_Mosley_%28actor%29 "Michael Mosley (actor)")). In the Season{{nbsp}}6 finale Walt and Vic finally realize and admit their feelings for one another, and begin a relationship. Walt's relationship with the Cheyenne Nation is strained, but he is still liked by many members of its community. ### Deputies In the series, Walt is assisted with his duties by three deputy sheriffs. After Branch's death, Walt hires Zachary Heflin, but fires him after he assaults a rejected deputy applicant who was stalking him. * Deputy Sheriff Branch Connally, ACSD (2008–2014, suspended; killed by Barlow Connally) * Deputy Sheriff Archie "The Ferg" Ferguson, ACSD (2011–present) * Deputy Sheriff Victoria "Vic" Moretti, ACSD (2011–present) * Deputy Sheriff Zachary "Zack" Heflin, ACSD (2015, fired; rehired, 2017\) * Deputy Sheriff Jess "Double Tuff" Ailiff, Worked a northern substation In addition, Deputy Sheriff Eamonn O'Neill was on loan from Cumberland County to assist the office when both Walt and Branch were otherwise occupied, leaving Vic to run day\-to\-day affairs. Ruby (no last name specified) runs the sheriff's office and serves as dispatcher.
[ "Longmire (TV series)\n--------------------", "{{main\\|Longmire (TV series)}}\n{{Infobox character\n\\| name \\= Walt Longmire\n\\| series \\= Longmire\n\\| first \\= \"Pilot\" (''\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]'') \n June 3, 2012\n\\| portrayer \\= \\[\\[Robert Taylor (Australian actor)\\|Robert Taylor]]\n\\| full\\_name \\= Walter Longmire\n\\| species \\= Human\n\\| occupation \\= Sheriff\n\\| spouse \\= Martha Longmire (d. 2011\\)\n\\| gender \\= Male\n\\| title \\= Sheriff of Absaroka County, WY\n\\| children \\= Cady Longmire (daughter)\n\\| nationality \\= American\n\\| extra\\-hdr \\= Police career\n\\| lbl31 \\= Department\n\\| data31 \\= Absaroka County Sheriff's Department\n\\| lbl32 \\= Years of service\n\\| lbl33 \\= Rank\n\\| data33 \\= Sheriff\n}}", "### History", "Absaroka County native Walt Longmire is the well\\-respected sheriff that resides there. When the series begins, it is believed by most that his wife, Martha Longmire, died of cancer.", "His father was a rancher who managed the stables of Absaroka County's most wealthy family, the Van Blarcoms.{{Cite episode\\|title\\=Reports of My Death\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=July 7, 2014\\|season\\=3\\|number\\=6}} He is a graduate of Durant High School Class of '71, and his football jersey still hangs in the school's trophy case.", "In their 20s, he and Henry worked at [Prudhoe Bay Oil Field](/wiki/Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field \"Prudhoe Bay Oil Field\") in [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\").{{Cite episode\\|title\\=Four Arrows\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=September 10, 2015\\|season\\=4\\|number\\=4}}", "Walt has been the Sheriff of Absaroka County since at least 2005; his immediate predecessor was Sheriff Lucian Connally ([Peter Weller](/wiki/Peter_Weller \"Peter Weller\")), the uncle of Branch.", "In 2010, Walt arrested Malachi Strand ([Graham Greene](/wiki/Graham_Greene_%28actor%29 \"Graham Greene (actor)\")), the Chief of the [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne \"Cheyenne\") Reservation [Tribal Police](/wiki/Indian_tribal_police \"Indian tribal police\"), for extortion; he also has an adversarial relationship with the current CRTP Chief, Mathias ([Zahn McClarnon](/wiki/Zahn_McClarnon \"Zahn McClarnon\")), although the two have a bond of mutual respect.", "### In the series", "Laconic and introspective with a strong sense of duty and justice, Walt is a throwback to the iconic lone hero of classical westerns. He is an able detective with a knack for finding the truth behind various crimes committed in his county.", "As the series starts in 2012, Walt is slowly coming out of a deep grieving period where he delegated most of the day\\-to\\-day police duties to Deputies Branch Connally ([Bailey Chase](/wiki/Bailey_Chase \"Bailey Chase\")), Archie \"The Ferg\" Ferguson (Adam Bartley), and Victoria \"Vic\" Moretti ([Katee Sackhoff](/wiki/Katee_Sackhoff \"Katee Sackhoff\")). This is complicated by Branch running against Walt in the upcoming sheriff election.{{Cite episode\\|title\\=Pilot\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=June 3, 2012\\|season\\=1\\|number\\=1}}", "Walt is investigated by [Denver PD](/wiki/Denver_Police_Department \"Denver Police Department\") Detective Fales ([Charles S. Dutton](/wiki/Charles_S._Dutton \"Charles S. Dutton\")) for the murder of Miller Beck, a meth\\-head suspected of murdering Walt's wife, Martha. It is revealed that Fales is pushing the case of Beck, a drug\\-using suspected mugger and killer, so hard because of Fales' own experience with a small\\-town sheriff, whose racism and abuse of authority left Fales with a deep distrust of those particular law enforcement officers.{{Cite episode\\|title\\=Bad Medicine\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=August 26, 2013\\|season\\=2\\|number\\=13}} It is eventually revealed that Walt's best friend Henry Standing Bear hired Cheyenne mercenary Hector to take care of Beck, but Hector didn't kill him. Throughout the third season, Henry is facing murder charges in Beck's death, but Walt realizes that his deputy Branch Connally's nemesis David Ridges, recently killed in a struggle with Walt, is actually the killer. Using forensic evidence recovered from Beck's body and Ridges' car, Walt is able to clear Henry's name and prove that Ridges was the true killer. In the aftermath, Branch is murdered by his own father after learning that the man had hired Ridges to kill Martha in order to give Branch an advantage in his ultimately failed run for sheriff.", "In 2015, after killing Barlow Connally ([Gerald McRaney](/wiki/Gerald_McRaney \"Gerald McRaney\")) on his own front porch, Walt spends six weeks on [administrative leave](/wiki/Administrative_leave \"Administrative leave\") while the death is investigated by the [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\"); Walt is cleared of any criminal charges in the death in the end. Having learned that Barlow was responsible for Martha's murder, Walt appears to finally find a sense of peace during this time. A number of weeks later, Walt learns that he is being sued for wrongful death by Barlow's estate.{{Cite episode\\|title\\=What Happens on the Rez{{nbsp}}...\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=September 10, 2015\\|season\\=4\\|number\\=10}} This is revealed to be a plot by prosecutor Tucker Baggett to take Walt's property and build a golf course; thanks to the surprise help of Walt's longtime nemesis Jacob Nighthorse, the case is dropped.", "As sheriff, Walt carries an [Colt Government Model](/wiki/M1911_pistol \"M1911 pistol\") in .45 ACP and a [Winchester Model 1894](/wiki/Winchester_Model_1894 \"Winchester Model 1894\") in .30\\-30 as his primary weapons, and drives a [Ford Bronco](/wiki/Ford_Bronco \"Ford Bronco\") as his duty vehicle. He does not own a [cell phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") (although he will on numerous occasions borrow one from his deputies or Henry) and takes his calls on a land line at home or in the office, or over the radio in his vehicle.", "At the end of the series, Walt decides to retire as sheriff and encourages his daughter Cady to run for sheriff in his place. Instead, Walt begins a search for Lord Anson Hamilton's buried treasure which Lucian Connally claimed to have found before his death. In the series' final scene, Walt is shown to finally own a cell phone of his own as he commences his search.", "#### Kill count", "In the TV series, Walt has been forced to use deadly force on a number of occasions.", "1. Chance Gilbert's brother – shot (\"Population 25\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=Population 25\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=July 14, 2014\\|season\\=3\\|number\\=7}}\n2. Dan Estes – shot (\"Pilot\")\n3. Octavio Mora – shot (\"The Cancer\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=The Cancer\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=June 24, 2012\\|season\\=1\\|number\\=4}}\n4. Wayne Durell – beaten (\"Unquiet Mind\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=Unquiet Mind\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=May 27, 2013\\|season\\=2\\|number\\=1}}\n5. Zip – shot (\"Sound and Fury\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=Sound and Fury\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=July 8, 2013\\|season\\=2\\|number\\=7}}\n6. David Ridges – stabbed (\"Counting Coup\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=Counting Coup\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=July 28, 2014\\|season\\=3\\|number\\=9}}\n7. Barlow Connally – shot (\"High Noon\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=High Noon\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=September 10, 2015\\|season\\=4\\|number\\=3}}\n8. One of Malachi Strand's henchmen – shot (\"Goodbye Is Always Implied\")\n9. Brian O'Keane – shot (\"Goodbye Is Always Implied\")\n10. Malachi Strand – shot (\"Goodbye Is Always Implied\")", "### Relationships", "Walt was married for 25 years to Martha Longmire, with whom he has a daughter, Cady ([Cassidy Freeman](/wiki/Cassidy_Freeman \"Cassidy Freeman\")), an attorney. Martha was diagnosed with cancer in the late 2000s/early 2010s, and died in 2011\\. Although Walt let everybody (including Cady) assume it was the cancer that took her life, Martha was murdered in an apparent mugging in [Denver](/wiki/Denver \"Denver\"), Colorado, by a man named Miller Beck. During his own investigation into his wife's death, Walt learned that Beck was hired to kill Martha, and then he was killed shortly thereafter to prevent him from talking to Walt. In \"High Noon\", Walt gets a drunken confession out of Barlow Connally, who admits to killing his own son and having Martha murdered; in the ensuing confrontation, Walt fatally shoots Barlow, avenging his deputy and his wife.", "In \"Highway Robbery\", Walt asks out Dr. Donna Sue Monaghan ([Ally Walker](/wiki/Ally_Walker \"Ally Walker\")), a psychiatrist who works for the [VA](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs \"United States Department of Veterans Affairs\") in [Sheridan, Wyoming](/wiki/Sheridan%2C_Wyoming \"Sheridan, Wyoming\").{{Cite episode\\|title\\=Highway Robbery\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=September 10, 2015\\|season\\=4\\|number\\=7}}", "Walt's closest friend and confidant is Henry Standing Bear. They have been friends since they were 12 years old. When Cady was born, Walt appointed Henry her godfather.", "Shortly before the show's timeline begins, Walt hired Vic Moretti, a former Philadelphia PD homicide detective, as a deputy sheriff. The two are believed by many to be having an affair, including at one point Vic's husband, Sean Keegan ([Michael Mosley](/wiki/Michael_Mosley_%28actor%29 \"Michael Mosley (actor)\")). In the Season{{nbsp}}6 finale Walt and Vic finally realize and admit their feelings for one another, and begin a relationship.", "Walt's relationship with the Cheyenne Nation is strained, but he is still liked by many members of its community.", "### Deputies", "In the series, Walt is assisted with his duties by three deputy sheriffs. After Branch's death, Walt hires Zachary Heflin, but fires him after he assaults a rejected deputy applicant who was stalking him.", "* Deputy Sheriff Branch Connally, ACSD (2008–2014, suspended; killed by Barlow Connally)\n* Deputy Sheriff Archie \"The Ferg\" Ferguson, ACSD (2011–present)\n* Deputy Sheriff Victoria \"Vic\" Moretti, ACSD (2011–present)\n* Deputy Sheriff Zachary \"Zack\" Heflin, ACSD (2015, fired; rehired, 2017\\)\n* Deputy Sheriff Jess \"Double Tuff\" Ailiff, Worked a northern substation", "In addition, Deputy Sheriff Eamonn O'Neill was on loan from Cumberland County to assist the office when both Walt and Branch were otherwise occupied, leaving Vic to run day\\-to\\-day affairs.", "Ruby (no last name specified) runs the sheriff's office and serves as dispatcher.", "" ]
### In the series Laconic and introspective with a strong sense of duty and justice, Walt is a throwback to the iconic lone hero of classical westerns. He is an able detective with a knack for finding the truth behind various crimes committed in his county. As the series starts in 2012, Walt is slowly coming out of a deep grieving period where he delegated most of the day\-to\-day police duties to Deputies Branch Connally ([Bailey Chase](/wiki/Bailey_Chase "Bailey Chase")), Archie "The Ferg" Ferguson (Adam Bartley), and Victoria "Vic" Moretti ([Katee Sackhoff](/wiki/Katee_Sackhoff "Katee Sackhoff")). This is complicated by Branch running against Walt in the upcoming sheriff election.{{Cite episode\|title\=Pilot\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=June 3, 2012\|season\=1\|number\=1}} Walt is investigated by [Denver PD](/wiki/Denver_Police_Department "Denver Police Department") Detective Fales ([Charles S. Dutton](/wiki/Charles_S._Dutton "Charles S. Dutton")) for the murder of Miller Beck, a meth\-head suspected of murdering Walt's wife, Martha. It is revealed that Fales is pushing the case of Beck, a drug\-using suspected mugger and killer, so hard because of Fales' own experience with a small\-town sheriff, whose racism and abuse of authority left Fales with a deep distrust of those particular law enforcement officers.{{Cite episode\|title\=Bad Medicine\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=August 26, 2013\|season\=2\|number\=13}} It is eventually revealed that Walt's best friend Henry Standing Bear hired Cheyenne mercenary Hector to take care of Beck, but Hector didn't kill him. Throughout the third season, Henry is facing murder charges in Beck's death, but Walt realizes that his deputy Branch Connally's nemesis David Ridges, recently killed in a struggle with Walt, is actually the killer. Using forensic evidence recovered from Beck's body and Ridges' car, Walt is able to clear Henry's name and prove that Ridges was the true killer. In the aftermath, Branch is murdered by his own father after learning that the man had hired Ridges to kill Martha in order to give Branch an advantage in his ultimately failed run for sheriff. In 2015, after killing Barlow Connally ([Gerald McRaney](/wiki/Gerald_McRaney "Gerald McRaney")) on his own front porch, Walt spends six weeks on [administrative leave](/wiki/Administrative_leave "Administrative leave") while the death is investigated by the [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation"); Walt is cleared of any criminal charges in the death in the end. Having learned that Barlow was responsible for Martha's murder, Walt appears to finally find a sense of peace during this time. A number of weeks later, Walt learns that he is being sued for wrongful death by Barlow's estate.{{Cite episode\|title\=What Happens on the Rez{{nbsp}}...\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=September 10, 2015\|season\=4\|number\=10}} This is revealed to be a plot by prosecutor Tucker Baggett to take Walt's property and build a golf course; thanks to the surprise help of Walt's longtime nemesis Jacob Nighthorse, the case is dropped. As sheriff, Walt carries an [Colt Government Model](/wiki/M1911_pistol "M1911 pistol") in .45 ACP and a [Winchester Model 1894](/wiki/Winchester_Model_1894 "Winchester Model 1894") in .30\-30 as his primary weapons, and drives a [Ford Bronco](/wiki/Ford_Bronco "Ford Bronco") as his duty vehicle. He does not own a [cell phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") (although he will on numerous occasions borrow one from his deputies or Henry) and takes his calls on a land line at home or in the office, or over the radio in his vehicle. At the end of the series, Walt decides to retire as sheriff and encourages his daughter Cady to run for sheriff in his place. Instead, Walt begins a search for Lord Anson Hamilton's buried treasure which Lucian Connally claimed to have found before his death. In the series' final scene, Walt is shown to finally own a cell phone of his own as he commences his search. #### Kill count In the TV series, Walt has been forced to use deadly force on a number of occasions. 1. Chance Gilbert's brother – shot ("Population 25"){{Cite episode\|title\=Population 25\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=July 14, 2014\|season\=3\|number\=7}} 2. Dan Estes – shot ("Pilot") 3. Octavio Mora – shot ("The Cancer"){{Cite episode\|title\=The Cancer\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=June 24, 2012\|season\=1\|number\=4}} 4. Wayne Durell – beaten ("Unquiet Mind"){{Cite episode\|title\=Unquiet Mind\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=May 27, 2013\|season\=2\|number\=1}} 5. Zip – shot ("Sound and Fury"){{Cite episode\|title\=Sound and Fury\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=July 8, 2013\|season\=2\|number\=7}} 6. David Ridges – stabbed ("Counting Coup"){{Cite episode\|title\=Counting Coup\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=July 28, 2014\|season\=3\|number\=9}} 7. Barlow Connally – shot ("High Noon"){{Cite episode\|title\=High Noon\|series\=\[\[Longmire (TV series)\|Longmire]]\|airdate\=September 10, 2015\|season\=4\|number\=3}} 8. One of Malachi Strand's henchmen – shot ("Goodbye Is Always Implied") 9. Brian O'Keane – shot ("Goodbye Is Always Implied") 10. Malachi Strand – shot ("Goodbye Is Always Implied")
[ "### In the series", "Laconic and introspective with a strong sense of duty and justice, Walt is a throwback to the iconic lone hero of classical westerns. He is an able detective with a knack for finding the truth behind various crimes committed in his county.", "As the series starts in 2012, Walt is slowly coming out of a deep grieving period where he delegated most of the day\\-to\\-day police duties to Deputies Branch Connally ([Bailey Chase](/wiki/Bailey_Chase \"Bailey Chase\")), Archie \"The Ferg\" Ferguson (Adam Bartley), and Victoria \"Vic\" Moretti ([Katee Sackhoff](/wiki/Katee_Sackhoff \"Katee Sackhoff\")). This is complicated by Branch running against Walt in the upcoming sheriff election.{{Cite episode\\|title\\=Pilot\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=June 3, 2012\\|season\\=1\\|number\\=1}}", "Walt is investigated by [Denver PD](/wiki/Denver_Police_Department \"Denver Police Department\") Detective Fales ([Charles S. Dutton](/wiki/Charles_S._Dutton \"Charles S. Dutton\")) for the murder of Miller Beck, a meth\\-head suspected of murdering Walt's wife, Martha. It is revealed that Fales is pushing the case of Beck, a drug\\-using suspected mugger and killer, so hard because of Fales' own experience with a small\\-town sheriff, whose racism and abuse of authority left Fales with a deep distrust of those particular law enforcement officers.{{Cite episode\\|title\\=Bad Medicine\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=August 26, 2013\\|season\\=2\\|number\\=13}} It is eventually revealed that Walt's best friend Henry Standing Bear hired Cheyenne mercenary Hector to take care of Beck, but Hector didn't kill him. Throughout the third season, Henry is facing murder charges in Beck's death, but Walt realizes that his deputy Branch Connally's nemesis David Ridges, recently killed in a struggle with Walt, is actually the killer. Using forensic evidence recovered from Beck's body and Ridges' car, Walt is able to clear Henry's name and prove that Ridges was the true killer. In the aftermath, Branch is murdered by his own father after learning that the man had hired Ridges to kill Martha in order to give Branch an advantage in his ultimately failed run for sheriff.", "In 2015, after killing Barlow Connally ([Gerald McRaney](/wiki/Gerald_McRaney \"Gerald McRaney\")) on his own front porch, Walt spends six weeks on [administrative leave](/wiki/Administrative_leave \"Administrative leave\") while the death is investigated by the [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\"); Walt is cleared of any criminal charges in the death in the end. Having learned that Barlow was responsible for Martha's murder, Walt appears to finally find a sense of peace during this time. A number of weeks later, Walt learns that he is being sued for wrongful death by Barlow's estate.{{Cite episode\\|title\\=What Happens on the Rez{{nbsp}}...\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=September 10, 2015\\|season\\=4\\|number\\=10}} This is revealed to be a plot by prosecutor Tucker Baggett to take Walt's property and build a golf course; thanks to the surprise help of Walt's longtime nemesis Jacob Nighthorse, the case is dropped.", "As sheriff, Walt carries an [Colt Government Model](/wiki/M1911_pistol \"M1911 pistol\") in .45 ACP and a [Winchester Model 1894](/wiki/Winchester_Model_1894 \"Winchester Model 1894\") in .30\\-30 as his primary weapons, and drives a [Ford Bronco](/wiki/Ford_Bronco \"Ford Bronco\") as his duty vehicle. He does not own a [cell phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") (although he will on numerous occasions borrow one from his deputies or Henry) and takes his calls on a land line at home or in the office, or over the radio in his vehicle.", "At the end of the series, Walt decides to retire as sheriff and encourages his daughter Cady to run for sheriff in his place. Instead, Walt begins a search for Lord Anson Hamilton's buried treasure which Lucian Connally claimed to have found before his death. In the series' final scene, Walt is shown to finally own a cell phone of his own as he commences his search.", "#### Kill count", "In the TV series, Walt has been forced to use deadly force on a number of occasions.", "1. Chance Gilbert's brother – shot (\"Population 25\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=Population 25\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=July 14, 2014\\|season\\=3\\|number\\=7}}\n2. Dan Estes – shot (\"Pilot\")\n3. Octavio Mora – shot (\"The Cancer\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=The Cancer\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=June 24, 2012\\|season\\=1\\|number\\=4}}\n4. Wayne Durell – beaten (\"Unquiet Mind\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=Unquiet Mind\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=May 27, 2013\\|season\\=2\\|number\\=1}}\n5. Zip – shot (\"Sound and Fury\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=Sound and Fury\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=July 8, 2013\\|season\\=2\\|number\\=7}}\n6. David Ridges – stabbed (\"Counting Coup\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=Counting Coup\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=July 28, 2014\\|season\\=3\\|number\\=9}}\n7. Barlow Connally – shot (\"High Noon\"){{Cite episode\\|title\\=High Noon\\|series\\=\\[\\[Longmire (TV series)\\|Longmire]]\\|airdate\\=September 10, 2015\\|season\\=4\\|number\\=3}}\n8. One of Malachi Strand's henchmen – shot (\"Goodbye Is Always Implied\")\n9. Brian O'Keane – shot (\"Goodbye Is Always Implied\")\n10. Malachi Strand – shot (\"Goodbye Is Always Implied\")" ]
Plot ---- The story starts with Plapparambil family. It tells the family life of Plapparambil Paulo, a ruthless and miser moneylender, who has three children named Mathai, Joykutty and Thoma. Mathai, the eldest son, is thrown out by Paulo as he converted into Islam to marry his lover. He is enough educated and was authorised to run their own [jewellery](/wiki/Jewellery "Jewellery"), later held by Joykutty, the second son. Meanwhile, Paulo's next two sons are unmarried. His youngest son Thoma suffers from cleft lip, and thus has a defective voice, but he still loves to sing. Paulo and his family is hated by the locals of the Kuttanadu region. Thoma falls in love with Sreelakshmi, the daughter of Shankaran Bhagavathar, a [music teacher](/wiki/Music_education "Music education") who is also one among the creditor of Paulo and the neighbour of Mathai. Bhagavathar and even Sreelakshmi hates the family thus she rejects the love of Thoma. Here arrive an S. I named Rakesh who has an old score with Paulo as his father Raghavan Panicker is ashamed in front of the local after he is arrested by the police on an embezzlement years ago. He vows to destroy the Plapparambil family. Thoma decides to overwrite the dislike of the locals towards his family by forcing Paulo to conduct a mass marriage of five orphaned girls so that both, the dislike by locals to the family can be removed and Joykutty will get better alliances from better family, thus Paulo would be able to fetch his target of 20 million. Paulo accepts the idea. On the day of the marriage, everything goes well but one of orphan girl Sindhu's groom Vishambharan runs away from the marriage as his father threatens him that if he marries an orphan girl he will break Vishambharan's leg. Thoma tries to tell that anybody else who came to see the marriage can marry her. But some people leaves the place. The [Panchayat](/wiki/Panchayati_raj "Panchayati raj") President Mahadevan tells Paulo to marry one of his son to Sindhu. They selects Joykutty to marry her but Paulo refuses to it. Paulo's assistant Urupadi accidentally tells everyone about their plan to change the dislike of the villagers towards him and to get Joykutty married for two crores. Paulo angrily slaps Urupadi for telling their plan to everyone. The villagers gets angry and holds Joykutty and threatens him to marry Sindhu. Thoma and Urupadi tries to stop it but it fails. As Paulo sees Joykutty marrying Sindhu he gets heartbroken and faints. He scolds Thoma and Urupadi for everything. Joykutty arrives there with Sindhu and Mathai to apologise but Paulo kicks him out of the house for marrying her against his wish. Joykutty then starts living in Mathai's house. Paulo then has only Thoma has his only son and he has many wishes for him. They goes to a [ENT doctor](/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology "Otorhinolaryngology") and the doctor tells him that this cleft lip can be recovered but he won't get his voice back. He tries to convince Sreelakshmi about his love but she refuses. Thoma helps Bhagavathar to give back their house by giving him a money without his father's knowledge. Soon Sreelakshmi gets engaged to Rakesh. When Thoma learns this, he gets drunk and creates a scene. Mathai and Joykutty sees this and stops him. When Mathai tells her that Thoma helped her to give her home back without his father's knowledge, she realises her love towards Thoma. Bhagavathar then lodges a complaint to Rakesh about Thoma. Rakesh beats Thoma but Sreelakshmi stops it by telling him that Thoma is her fiancé which made him very happy. One day, Paulo captures Vishambharan and hits him for his loss. Vishambharan reveals that Joykutty and Sindhu were in love and Thoma was the mastermind behind their marriage. He bribed Mahadevan and made him to stand with Thoma and Joykutty. When he proved that nobody is ready to marry Sindhu, Thoma made Mahadevan to convey Joykutty's feelings to Paulo. When Paulo realises that Thoma was cheating him, he hits Thoma and kicks him out of the house. He tells that his is going to live without anyone's help and he will show it to Thoma. Thoma reveals the whole incident to Sreelakshmi. He also tells that Joykutty begged Thoma to marry Sindhu to him as she is pregnant to Joykutty's baby. Sreelakshmi tells Thoma that Paulo will call him back. Meanwhile, Paulo finds out that his money 30 crores was stolen and he believes that Thoma stole it. He angrily goes to Mathai's house and asks where Thoma is but he wasn't there. He tells that Thoma stole his money and everyone hears it. Paulo asks his sons frankly to tell Thoma his money back. The villagers destroys Paulo's Chitti company. Paulo joins hands with Rakesh to find Thoma. One day, Kuttanpillai, a tea vendor sees Thoma. When he reveals the whole incident to Thoma, Rakesh arrives there with Paulo. When he was going to arrest Thoma he lies that Paulo's 30 crores were hawala money so he will arrest Paulo first. Rakesh reveals that he was betraying Paulo as he ashamed his father and made him to be arrested. He then [handcuffs](/wiki/Handcuffs "Handcuffs") Thoma and Paulo and made them to walk all over the place to show the villagers in the same way how Paulo made Raghavan to walk. Paulo tells to the locals that Rakesh cheated him. Angrily he slaps Paulo. Thoma hits Rakesh for slapping Paulo and Rakesh beats Thoma and makes him unconscious. Rakesh then removes his belt and hits Paulo with. As Thoma sees his father getting beaten up, he fights back with Rakesh and saves his father. The fight stopped by Thoma's uncle Manikunju who reveals that he built some places like orphanages, schools with Paulo's money and Thoma helped him for it. He gave the money for a benefit for the villagers. Mathai threatens to kill Rakesh if he hits Thoma and Paulo. The villagers tells Rakesh to go away from the place otherwise they will kill him. Thoma apologises to Paulo, where Paulo realises his mistake and apologize to everyone who he had done bad things. In a speech said by Paulo he reveals that Thoma changed him and his voice is the correct sound, after this, Bhagavathar fixes Sreelakshmi's marriage with Thoma.
[ "Plot\n----", "The story starts with Plapparambil family. It tells the family life of Plapparambil Paulo, a ruthless and miser moneylender, who has three children named Mathai, Joykutty and Thoma. Mathai, the eldest son, is thrown out by Paulo as he converted into Islam to marry his lover. He is enough educated and was authorised to run their own [jewellery](/wiki/Jewellery \"Jewellery\"), later held by Joykutty, the second son.", "Meanwhile, Paulo's next two sons are unmarried. His youngest son Thoma suffers from cleft lip, and thus has a defective voice, but he still loves to sing. Paulo and his family is hated by the locals of the Kuttanadu region. Thoma falls in love with Sreelakshmi, the daughter of Shankaran Bhagavathar, a [music teacher](/wiki/Music_education \"Music education\") who is also one among the creditor of Paulo and the neighbour of Mathai. Bhagavathar and even Sreelakshmi hates the family thus she rejects the love of Thoma. Here arrive an S. I named Rakesh who has an old score with Paulo as his father Raghavan Panicker is ashamed in front of the local after he is arrested by the police on an embezzlement years ago. He vows to destroy the Plapparambil family.", "Thoma decides to overwrite the dislike of the locals towards his family by forcing Paulo to conduct a mass marriage of five orphaned girls so that both, the dislike by locals to the family can be removed and Joykutty will get better alliances from better family, thus Paulo would be able to fetch his target of 20 million. Paulo accepts the idea.", "On the day of the marriage, everything goes well but one of orphan girl Sindhu's groom Vishambharan runs away from the marriage as his father threatens him that if he marries an orphan girl he will break Vishambharan's leg. Thoma tries to tell that anybody else who came to see the marriage can marry her. But some people leaves the place. The [Panchayat](/wiki/Panchayati_raj \"Panchayati raj\") President Mahadevan tells Paulo to marry one of his son to Sindhu. They selects Joykutty to marry her but Paulo refuses to it. Paulo's assistant Urupadi accidentally tells everyone about their plan to change the dislike of the villagers towards him and to get Joykutty married for two crores. Paulo angrily slaps Urupadi for telling their plan to everyone. The villagers gets angry and holds Joykutty and threatens him to marry Sindhu. Thoma and Urupadi tries to stop it but it fails. As Paulo sees Joykutty marrying Sindhu he gets heartbroken and faints. He scolds Thoma and Urupadi for everything. Joykutty arrives there with Sindhu and Mathai to apologise but Paulo kicks him out of the house for marrying her against his wish. Joykutty then starts living in Mathai's house. Paulo then has only Thoma has his only son and he has many wishes for him. They goes to a [ENT doctor](/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology \"Otorhinolaryngology\") and the doctor tells him that this cleft lip can be recovered but he won't get his voice back. He tries to convince Sreelakshmi about his love but she refuses. Thoma helps Bhagavathar to give back their house by giving him a money without his father's knowledge. Soon Sreelakshmi gets engaged to Rakesh. When Thoma learns this, he gets drunk and creates a scene. Mathai and Joykutty sees this and stops him. When Mathai tells her that Thoma helped her to give her home back without his father's knowledge, she realises her love towards Thoma. Bhagavathar then lodges a complaint to Rakesh about Thoma. Rakesh beats Thoma but Sreelakshmi stops it by telling him that Thoma is her fiancé which made him very happy.", "One day, Paulo captures Vishambharan and hits him for his loss. Vishambharan reveals that Joykutty and Sindhu were in love and Thoma was the mastermind behind their marriage. He bribed Mahadevan and made him to stand with Thoma and Joykutty. When he proved that nobody is ready to marry Sindhu, Thoma made Mahadevan to convey Joykutty's feelings to Paulo. When Paulo realises that Thoma was cheating him, he hits Thoma and kicks him out of the house. He tells that his is going to live without anyone's help and he will show it to Thoma. Thoma reveals the whole incident to Sreelakshmi. He also tells that Joykutty begged Thoma to marry Sindhu to him as she is pregnant to Joykutty's baby. Sreelakshmi tells Thoma that Paulo will call him back. Meanwhile, Paulo finds out that his money 30 crores was stolen and he believes that Thoma stole it. He angrily goes to Mathai's house and asks where Thoma is but he wasn't there. He tells that Thoma stole his money and everyone hears it. Paulo asks his sons frankly to tell Thoma his money back. The villagers destroys Paulo's Chitti company. Paulo joins hands with Rakesh to find Thoma. One day, Kuttanpillai, a tea vendor sees Thoma. When he reveals the whole incident to Thoma, Rakesh arrives there with Paulo. When he was going to arrest Thoma he lies that Paulo's 30 crores were hawala money so he will arrest Paulo first. Rakesh reveals that he was betraying Paulo as he ashamed his father and made him to be arrested. He then [handcuffs](/wiki/Handcuffs \"Handcuffs\") Thoma and Paulo and made them to walk all over the place to show the villagers in the same way how Paulo made Raghavan to walk. Paulo tells to the locals that Rakesh cheated him. Angrily he slaps Paulo. Thoma hits Rakesh for slapping Paulo and Rakesh beats Thoma and makes him unconscious. Rakesh then removes his belt and hits Paulo with. As Thoma sees his father getting beaten up, he fights back with Rakesh and saves his father. The fight stopped by Thoma's uncle Manikunju who reveals that he built some places like orphanages, schools with Paulo's money and Thoma helped him for it. He gave the money for a benefit for the villagers. Mathai threatens to kill Rakesh if he hits Thoma and Paulo. The villagers tells Rakesh to go away from the place otherwise they will kill him. Thoma apologises to Paulo, where Paulo realises his mistake and apologize to everyone who he had done bad things.", "In a speech said by Paulo he reveals that Thoma changed him and his voice is the correct sound, after this, Bhagavathar fixes Sreelakshmi's marriage with Thoma.", "" ]
History ------- ### Aboriginal land Material in rock shelters reveals that [Aboriginal](/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians "Aboriginal Australians") people inhabited the [Sydney Harbour](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour "Sydney Harbour") area from at least 25,000 years ago. The Gadigal, who formed part of the [Darug](/wiki/Darug "Darug") nation, were the [Aboriginal traditional owners](/wiki/Aboriginal_traditional_owner "Aboriginal traditional owner") of the inner Sydney area, upon which the Anzac Memorial stands.Haglun, 1996Clendinning, 2003 It is believed that the southern end of [Hyde Park](/wiki/Hyde_Park%2C_Sydney "Hyde Park, Sydney"), where the ANZAC Memorial is located, was used as a "contest ground" for staging combative trials between Aboriginal warriors, watched avidly by the British in the early days of the colony.Karskens, 2009, pp. 440–1 It is remarkable that the State's most grand and monumental war memorial should be positioned on this historical site of indigenous combat. ### Origins of the term "Anzac" The term "Anzac"{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.dva.gov.au/commemorations\-memorials\-and\-war\-graves/protecting\-word\-anzac\|title\=Protecting the word Anzac\|last\=Affairs\|first\=Australian Government Department of Veterans\|date\=2016\-06\-23\|website\=www.dva.gov.au\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-05}} began as an acronym for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps in World War I, but it was soon accepted as a word in its own right. The Anzacs formed part of the expeditionary force organised by Britain and France to invade the Gallipoli Peninsula and clear the Dardanelles Straits for the British Navy. The Australian Anzacs represented the national effort from a young nation taking its part in the Great War and reports of the courage they displayed at Gallipoli became the most enduring legend of Australian military history ([Government Architect's](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Government_Architect "New South Wales Government Architect") CMP, 2007\). After the withdrawal from Gallipoli, the Anzac infantry divisions went on to fight against Germany on the Western Front. The Light Horse fought to protect the Suez Canal against the Turks and joined the forces fighting in the Middle East. On the anniversary of Anzac Day in 1918, the Australian infantry reinforced the legend when it stopped the German advance at Villers\-Bretonneux on the [Somme](/wiki/Somme%2C_Queensland "Somme, Queensland"). Australians were successfully used as shock troops at Ypres, [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens%2C_Queensland "Amiens, Queensland"), Mont St Quentin and Peronne, and took a leading part in breaking through the Hindenburg Line, in their last major offensive.Government Architect's CMP, 2007 From an Australian population of around four and a half million, enlistments in the army and navy numbered 416,809, a total that represents one\-half of the men of military age in Australia at that time. Altogether, 60,000 Australians were killed and 167,000 were injured, a higher toll proportionately than was suffered by any other British [Empire](/wiki/Empire_%28newspaper%29 "Empire (newspaper)") country. Small wonder that those who returned wanted to see the sacrifice of their dead comrades remembered. The first Anzac Day in NSW was organised by a committee within the Returned Soldiers Association (RSA) of NSW, an organisation formed by men who had been invalided home. Later the organisation was subsumed by the Returned Soldiers' Sailors' (and Airmen's) Imperial League of Australia (RSSILA), finally named the Returned and Services League (RSL). The original objectives of the day of commemoration were to remember dead comrades, induce young men to enlist and collect money for an ANZAC Memorial monument. NSW [Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_New_South_Wales "Premier of New South Wales") [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia "Western Australia") Holman's Labor government promised a pound for pound subsidy to match the money raised on the first Anzac Day. In 1917 the RSSILA requested that 25 April be declared 'Australia's National Day' and gazetted as a public holiday. Both the [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland "Queensland") and Australian governments made Anzac Day a public holiday in 1921\. The official public holiday was first gazetted in NSW in 1925\. ### Developing the memorial concept in Australia Historian Ken Inglis believes that the "war memorial" is a twentieth century concept which memorialised the human cost of war rather than the victorious outcome, as the former military monuments had done, and celebrated the sacrifice of ordinary soldiers rather than focusing on the men who led them. The names of those who made the ultimate sacrifice are differentiated from the names of those who returned. Whether returned or not, the memorials record the soldiers' service to the nation. This trend to list both the returned and the fallen was uniquely Australian, reflecting the all volunteer nature of the Australian forces. Each capital city developed its own major memorial, with many smaller memorials in the suburbs, and regional areas. The major memorials and their dates of construction are as follows: * [Darwin Cenotaph](/wiki/Bicentennial_Park_%28Darwin%29 "Bicentennial Park (Darwin)"), [Darwin](/wiki/Darwin%2C_Northern_Territory "Darwin, Northern Territory") – 1921 * [War Memorial](/wiki/Hobart_Cenotaph "Hobart Cenotaph"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart "Hobart") − 1925 * [State War Memorial Cenotaph](/wiki/Kings_Park%2C_Western_Australia "Kings Park, Western Australia"), [Perth](/wiki/Perth "Perth") – 1928–1929 * [Shrine of Remembrance](/wiki/Shrine_of_Remembrance%2C_Brisbane "Shrine of Remembrance, Brisbane"), [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane") – 1930 * [National War Memorial](/wiki/National_War_Memorial_%28South_Australia%29 "National War Memorial (South Australia)"), [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide") – 1931 * [Shrine of Remembrance](/wiki/Shrine_of_Remembrance "Shrine of Remembrance"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne") – 1928–1934 * ANZAC Memorial, [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") – 1934 * [Australian War Memorial](/wiki/Australian_War_Memorial "Australian War Memorial"), [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra "Canberra") – 1941 The earlier memorials are generally in the form of obelisks, sometimes with applied sculpture, while most of the later examples are commemorative buildings with a range of rooms and uses. The social meanings of war memorials increased in complexity as time went on. The later examples such as the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, 1934, the ANZAC Memorial in Sydney, 1934 and the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, 1941, represented the new trends in the symbolism of memorials more than the simple columns, obelisks and statues of citizen soldiers erected during the fighting and immediately after it. The Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne is the most comparable monument to the ANZAC Memorial in Australia, both comprising one principal commemorative space, surrounded and above a series of administrative and exhibition spaces, contained within an imposing landmark building in differing architectural styles, set within a formal landscape. ### Authorising the ANZAC Memorial In 1918 the RSSILA in 1918 published its aims for the monument: 1. The building was to be a memorial for those who died; 2. It was to be architecturally worthy of its high purpose; 3. It was to provide headquarters for those working to assist widows and children of those who were killed and also, those AIF members who returned; 4. It was to house the records of the AIF; 5. It would be a meeting place and a source of assistance with repatriation; and 6. It would provide a centre for any later campaigns on behalf of the AIF and their dependants. After 1919, all the state's war memorial building committees were required to seek expert advice from a War Memorials Advisory Committee comprising representatives from the Town Planning Association, Institute of Architects (NSW), Royal Society of Artists and the National Art Gallery (NSW). A proposal to build the memorial on Observatory Hill was withdrawn due to the planned proximity of the roads leading onto the [Sydney Harbour Bridge](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Bridge "Sydney Harbour Bridge").Hansard, 19 September 1984, p1129 The proposal to use part of Hyde Park for the Anzac Memorial was promoted by former city surveyor Norman Weekes who was redesigning Hyde Park after it had been virtually destroyed during the construction of the city railway. Assisted by architect [Raymond McGrath](/wiki/Raymond_McGrath "Raymond McGrath"), Weekes produced a plan with two axial avenues running north \-south and east–west, the latter being in line with the transept of [St Mary's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Cathedral%2C_Sydney "St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney"). He envisaged the intersection of these avenues as an ideal site for a commemorative column and balanced that with an Anzac Memorial at the southern end. However, progress on the memorial was impeded until legislation established a board of trustees for the building and the manner in which the site would be chosen was passed in 1923\. The Trustees gained Parliamentary approval for Weekes' plan in 1929 on the condition that the area dedicated to the memorial would be limited in size. The Advisory Board for the Hyde Park Remodelling chose the southern end of the park to site the monument. The National Council of Women and Anzac Fellowship of Women objected to this site because it was considered to be insufficiently commanding, while artist Julian Ashton pointed out that skyscrapers would soon overshadow its position. About this time another war memorial was bequeathed to Australians by the late JF Archibald, co\-founder of the Bulletin newspaper, to commemorate the association of Australia and France in the Great War of 1914–1918\. Created by [Francois Sicard](/wiki/Francois_Sicard "Francois Sicard"), winner of the Prix de Rome in 1891, the Public Trustee requested that it be installed at the site of Weekes' proposed column at the northern end of Hyde Park. Major Hubert Colette and JB Waterhouse supervised the erection of the [Archibald Memorial Fountain](/wiki/Archibald_Fountain "Archibald Fountain"), which was completed on 14 March 1932\. This was when work was beginning on the ANZAC Memorial building at the southern end of the same avenue. Debates about the style of the ANZAC Memorial can be generally divided into soldiers' versus women's groups which supported utility versus beauty respectively. The majority of returned soldiers looked for a building that would meet their immediate needs for association, while women's groups tended to favour a structure that would be commemorative. After ten years of debate, the RSSILA and the disabled veterans bodies all agreed on Anzac Day 1928 that the building "should be commemorative rather than utilitarian". As the RSSILA state president Fred Davison expressed it, the League had finally agreed to a "shrine of remembrance" such as their Victorian counterparts had begun to build. The soldiers' needs were not entirely abandoned and in the spirit of compromise one\-seventh of the funding was allocated to incorporate offices where the returned soldiers' organisations could look after their members. ### The Cenotaph, Martin Place {{main\|Sydney Cenotaph}} The uncertainty about both site and building style of the ANZAC Memorial combined with the long wait for its construction left Sydney without a focal point for Anzac Day ceremonies. Around 1925 the [Lang Labor](/wiki/Lang_Labor "Lang Labor") government responded to the urging of the NSW RSSILA by donating 10,000 pounds for a cenotaph in Martin Place, near where wartime appeals and recruitment rallies had been held. This was also the place where the Armistice Day crowds had honoured their "Glorious Dead" at the war's end on 11 November 1918\. It was consecrated on 8 August 1927, becoming the focus of Anzac Day ceremonies some eight years before the ANZAC Memorial building was available for such purposes. Sydney's Anzac Day Dawn Service was never moved to the ANZAC Memorial because the Cenotaph had already become the accepted site and Martin Place had stronger war\-time associations than Hyde Park. ### The ANZAC Memorial design competition A [competition](/wiki/Architectural_design_competition "Architectural design competition") for the design of the memorial was commissioned on 13 July 1929\. Entrants were required to be Australians qualified to work as architects within or outside NSW, the latter persons being required to register in the state if they won. Competitors could confer with an Australian sculptor, either while designing the competition entry or during its construction. All entrants had to register by 30 January 1930 and present their entries two weeks later. The judges were Professor A. S. Hook, Dean of the Sydney University Faculty of Architecture Professor [Leslie Wilkinson](/wiki/Leslie_Wilkinson "Leslie Wilkinson"), and the Public Trustee E. J. Payne. The winner would be appointed the ANZAC Memorial architect. The cost of the building was limited to {{Australian pound\|75,000}} calculated at rates current at the time of entry. In addition to the memorial itself the building was required to provide office accommodation for the Returned Soldiers and Sailors Imperial League, TB Soldiers' Association and the Limbless Soldiers' Association. The trustees received 117 entries in the competition and chose seven for second stage consideration which were exhibited in the Blaxland Galleries in Farmers Department Store (now Grace Bros). In February 1930 the prize\-winning entries were announced by the [Governor of New South Wales](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales "Governor of New South Wales"), Sir [Philip Game](/wiki/Philip_Game "Philip Game").{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article149353803 \|title\=MODEL WAR MEMORIAL\|newspaper\=Toodyay Herald \|issue\=18 \|location\=Western Australia \|date\=5 September 1930 \|access\-date\=1 April 2017 \|page\=4 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} Third prize was awarded to [Peter Kaad](/wiki/Peter_Kaad "Peter Kaad"), second prize to John D. Moore and the winner was Bruce Dellit. The successful contractors for the building works were [Kell \& Rigby](/wiki/Kell_%26_Rigby "Kell & Rigby").["How the Memorial came into being"](http://www.rslnsw.com.au/Default.aspx?PageID=2603798&A=SearchResult&SearchID=2345279&ObjectID=2603798&ObjectType=1) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215175712/http://www.rslnsw.com.au/Default.aspx?PageID\=2603798\&A\=SearchResult\&SearchID\=2345279\&ObjectID\=2603798\&ObjectType\=1 \|date\=15 December 2018 }} [Returned and Services League of Australia (NSW)](/wiki/Returned_and_Services_League_of_Australia "Returned and Services League of Australia"), Retrieved 15 February 2012 According to *Building* magazine, most people agreed that Dellit's design for the ANZAC Memorial was the best in the competition. In his entry, Dellit submitted a model with photographs of it from all angles and 17 drawing sheets including an aerial perspective and an isometric section in Dellit's own words: "ENDURANCE COURAGE AND SACRIFICE – these are the three thoughts which have inspired the accompanying design, and it is around the last mentioned that it develops". Dellit explained that the central sculpture "sacrifice" was placed in the lower chamber "like a famous French tomb" – Napoleon's tomb – to "offer visitors an opportunity for a quiet, dignified, physical and mental acknowledgment of the message". #### Bruce Dellit, the architect {{main\|Bruce Dellit}} [thumb\|260px\|Dellit's architectural sketch of the memorial; 1930](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial%2C_Hyde_Park_-_drawing_by_Charles_Bruce_Dellit%2C_Architect.jpg "ANZAC War Memorial, Hyde Park - drawing by Charles Bruce Dellit, Architect.jpg") Australian\-born Charles Bruce Dellit studied at [Sydney Technical College](/wiki/Sydney_Technical_College "Sydney Technical College") under Byera Hadley from 1912 to 1918 and continued his professional education at the [University of Sydney](/wiki/University_of_Sydney "University of Sydney"). Dellit registered as an architect in June 1923 and established his own practice six years later. Before winning the ANZAC Memorial competition, he had designed Kyle House in Macquarie Place featuring the "monumental entrance arch" that became one of his characteristic motifs. It also shows his interest in American Art Deco skyscrapers and the patterned brickwork espoused by contemporary Dutch and German schools. Along with his contemporary [Emil Sodersten](/wiki/Emil_Sodersten "Emil Sodersten"), he is considered to have pioneered the Art Deco style in Australia. Dellit employed a more pronounced use of ornament and symbolism while Sodersten relied more on form and materials for his architecture. Many of the notable Art Deco buildings in Sydney were designed by these architects. In designing the ANZAC Memorial, Dellit used sculptural and architectural imagery to express collective mourning at the death of so many young men from NSW. The form of the sculpture changed with the involvement of Rayner Hoff, whom Dellit engaged after he had won the competition. Hoff greatly strengthened the imagery by replacing Dellit's seasons and sculptures representing the arts of war and peace with figures representing all branches of the armed services. The Pool of Reflection that mirrors the building on the northern side remains Dellit's call for passers\-by to stop and remember. Similarly, while the central sculpture "Sacrifice" at the heart of the building is Hoff's, the form of the interior, itself very emotive, is Dellit's. Dellit used impressive staircases flanked by memorial urns to lead the visitor up into the Hall of Memory. Once there, they must bow their heads to look into the Well of Contemplation in order to contemplate "Sacrifice", which is in the Hall of Silence below or look up to see the dome decorated with 120,000 golden "Stars of Memory", each representing a serviceman or woman from NSW. Dellit's architecture and Hoff's sculptures greatly enhance each other to provide an artistically integrated emotional message. According to Maisy Stapleton, the greatest exponents of the Art Deco style in Sydney were the architects C. Bruce Dellit and Emil Sodersten. She considered that Dellit's highest achievement was the ANZAC Memorial, "a vision of modern form and strong, emotive expression closely allied to popular sentiment" and described the memorial as "the epitome of Art Deco in Australia". Dellit died of cancer on 21 August 1942 only eight years after the ANZAC Memorial was ceremoniously opened. It is considered his finest achievement by some, "a vision of modern form and strong, emotive expression closely allied to popular sentiment." His later works included two chapels at Kinsela's Funeral Parlour, [Darlinghurst](/wiki/Darlinghurst%2C_New_South_Wales "Darlinghurst, New South Wales"), 1933 and several bank buildings in the city as well as numerous competition entries. [The Bulletin](/wiki/The_Bulletin_%28Australian_periodical%29 "The Bulletin (Australian periodical)") obituary described him as an "arresting and vital figure Everything about him was big". #### Rayner Hoff, the sculptor {{main\|Rayner Hoff}} George Rayner Hoff was born in 1894 on the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man"). His father later moved the family to Nottingham in England where Rayner Hoff worked in a stonemason's yard while still at school. At 14 he commenced work in an architect's office and later furthered his training by studying drawing and design at the Nottingham School of Art. In 1915 Hoff enlisted in the army and served on the Western Front the following year. After the war he studied sculpture at the Royal College of Art in London under Frances Derwent Wood and in 1922 he won the Prix de Rome. Hoff arrived in Sydney in August 1923 and began work as head teacher of modelling and sculpture at East Sydney Technical College, Darlinghurst (Sydney's major art school), where he also established his private studio. Hoff exerted an enormous influence on the progress of Australian sculpture. By the end of the decade, Hoff's work at the college produced a school of gifted sculptors and assistants. It was, according to [Deborah Edwards](/wiki/Deborah_Edwards "Deborah Edwards"), "perhaps the sole instance of a coherent school of production among sculptors in Australian history". In 1925 Hoff completed reliefs for the [Dubbo](/wiki/Dubbo "Dubbo") War Memorial and in 1927 he was commissioned to design the sculptures on the National War Memorial, [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia "South Australia"). In 1930 Dellit commissioned Hoff to design the sculptures for the ANZAC Memorial. Creating the numerous sculptures on the ANZAC Memorial became the pinnacle of Hoff 's career. The task involved creation of sixteen seated and four standing figures of servicemen and women in cast synthetic stone, four corner cast stone reliefs and two long bronze bas\-reliefs over the eastern and western doors outside the building. Hoff's contributions to the interior also included designing the form of the 120,000 faceted gold stars that covered the domed ceiling, four relief panels showing the march of the dead, each superimposed with symbolic representations of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps, and the marble wreath surrounding the Well of Contemplation that framed the view of Sacrifice below. Hoff and eight assistants were fully employed on the memorial between 1931 and 1934\. Hoff gave considerable prominence to the female contributors to the war effort in the ANZAC Memorial, including the women who lost their fathers, husbands and sons. Nurses were prominent among the figures representing the services and women were central to the group sculpture, "Sacrifice". Hoff explained the prominent position of the women in this work in 1932: "Thousands of women, although not directly engaged in war activities lost all that was dearest to them. There was no acknowledgment of them in casualty lists, lists of wounded, maimed and killed. In this spirit I have shown them carrying their load, the sacrifice of their menfolk". In 1932 models for the two massive bronze groups intended for placement in front of the east and west windows were publicly exhibited. Hoff's "The Crucifixion of Civilisation 1914" and "Victory after Sacrifice 1918" both featured naked women as the central figures. The violent controversy that greeted the exhibition of these models prevented their development into full\-size sculptures, with the sexual aspect of the imagery attracting the most intense criticism. In despair over the controversy, Hoff eventually destroyed the plaster models and refused to compromise his designs when the possibility of making them was raised again in 1934\. The sculptures were never completed. Hoff's other public sculptures in Sydney included a bas\-relief of Mercury in Transport House, [York Street](/wiki/York_Street%2C_Sydney "York Street, Sydney") and several sculptures in Emil Sodersten's City Mutual Life Building in [Hunter Street](/wiki/Hunter_Street%2C_Sydney "Hunter Street, Sydney"). However, in spite of his obvious success, Hoff was unable to shake the controversy about the unexecuted ANZAC Memorial sculptures. It remained with him until his early death from pancreatitis on 19 November 1937\. ### Builders and contractors The trustees specified that the memorial must be built of Australian materials and by Australian workmen. Having been encouraged to give preference to returned servicemen, the contractors Kell \& Rigby applied to the RSSILA Labour Bureau for their workers. Also working on the ANZAC Memorial were numerous sub\-contractors. These professionals and artisans included structural engineers RS Morris \& Co Ltd, masons Melocco Bros Ltd who carved the wreath around the Well of Contemplation, Messrs Loveridge and Hudson Ltd who prepared the granite facing on the outside walls, JC Goodwin and Co Ltd who supplied the amber glass, Art Glass Ltd, which completed the sandblasting, and T. Grounds and Sons who manufactured the stone figures on the buttresses and the funerary urns to Hoff's design. The London firm of Morris Singer \& Co Ltd cast central sculpture and bronze panels over the doors but the flame surrounding the sculpture and the bronze grilles on the lower windows were made in Australia by Castle Bros, while Kell \& Rigby themselves produced the bronze nails studding the doors. [Homebush](/wiki/Homebush%2C_New_South_Wales "Homebush, New South Wales") Ceiling Works made the ceilings and supplied the 120,000 stars for the dome, the latter being gilded by A. Zimmerman. Kellor and Yates completed the plasterwork. The Electrical and General Installation Co was responsible for the electrical installation and Nielsen and Moller made the light fixtures. Later, Dellit was able to persuade the City Council to supply temporary floodlighting for the building, a service made permanent in 1938\. ### Changes in the course of constructing the ANZAC Memorial Originally, Dellit wanted the memorial to be built of sandstone or synthetic granite on an 18\-inch base of [Bowral](/wiki/Bowral "Bowral") trachyte. However, the building was actually constructed in red granite from quarries near [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales "Bathurst, New South Wales"), NSW. The podium and semi\-circular stairs were faced in granite; and the terrace was formed in terrazzo. In 1932 Dellit incorporated four stones from battlefields at Gallipoli, France, Palestine and New Guinea into the floors of the niches in the Hall of Memory in the form of the AIF Rising Sun. The names of major battles at each of these sites were added to the niche walls. The dome of stars approved in 1933 was also a late inclusion. This feature began as a fundraiser when the project had lost support through the fracas over Hoff's exterior statues. To cover the shortfall in funding the memorial, the RSSILA offered 150,000 stars for sale at two shillings each. Although they were unable to sell the full number, 120,000 stars were fixed to the ceiling to represent all the state's volunteers. In order to facilitate their attachment to the plaster ceiling, they were fashioned from plaster of Paris and gilded. In another late change, the interior walls were lined in unpolished marble while polished marble covered the floors. All doors were originally to be bronze but funding shortages caused that specification to be changed to maple, studded with bronze nails. Dellit intended that each of the great amber windows would bear a different design for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Medical Corps. However, the building subcommittee asked for an alternative and a new design was etched on all the windows which combined the AIF symbol with a pattern of eternal flames. Dellit always intended that the office accommodation at the base of the building should be incorporated into the memorial when the need for its original use had passed. The ex\-servicemen's offices featured joinery in silky oak and parquetry floors of red mahogany. Light fittings in the shape of stars echoed the dome in the Hall of Memories. On the eastern side Dellit added an [Assembly Hall](/wiki/Assembly_Hall%2C_Warwick "Assembly Hall, Warwick") to balance the entry foyer on the west. This room had seating for 130 people and was available to all ex\-servicemen's groups. In practice it was used mainly by the associations with offices in the building. Its small size and the ban on alcohol (which applied to the whole memorial) meant that few associations sought to hire it. It was not available for outside use from 1942 to 1957 while the RSL occupied it as an extension to their office. The inscriptions that Dellit intended for the memorial were another casualty of the design process. The trustees consulted the poet Leon Gellert, then Professor Hook, who consulted Professor Mungo McCallum, librarian H. M. Green and historian C. E. W. Bean, about the inscriptions. These experts ruled against most of the numerous labels suggested by Dellit. The surviving inscriptions include those on the foundation stones laid by [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales "Governor of New South Wales") Game and Premier Bevan on 19 July 1932 which bear the words "A soldier set this stone" and "A citizen set this stone" to indicate the contributions both soldiers and citizens had made to the building. An inscription in the floor at the western entrance to the Hall of Silence, "Let Silent Contemplation be Your Offering" was also kept, as was a list of the major battles in the Hall of Silence. The experts chose a simple statement submitted by Hook, Green and Bean to mark the dedication of the building, stating, "This Memorial was opened by a son of the King on 24th November 1934". Another feature that was considerably altered was the landscaping. Dellit planned water gardens for either side of the memorial in the form of a narrow pool to the north and a cascading waterfall to the south. However, as the bulk of the building began to rise above the park, it became apparent that the scale of the water features needed to be increased to balance it. As a result, the cascades were eliminated and the pool extended to 170 feet (52 metres) long by 72 feet (22 metres) wide. Landscaping was completed by the City Council, which was responsible for the park. Finance for the additional work came from the state Unemployment Relief Fund and a large number of council employees and relief labourers poured the concrete for the pool in a single day to eliminate the need for joints and ensure that it was watertight. The Council acceded to Dellit's request to keep a clear open space around the memorial. It also followed his plan for a line of poplars on either side of the pool to symbolise the French battlefields. Dellit also wanted beds filled with the red poppies of Flanders and other plantings from the eastern and western fronts. ### The Opening Ceremony, 24 November 1934 [thumb\|The memorial in 1934](/wiki/File:The_ANZAC_War_Memorial%2C_Sydney%2C_1934_or_1937_photograph_by_Sam_Hood.jpg "The ANZAC War Memorial, Sydney, 1934 or 1937 photograph by Sam Hood.jpg") Crowds attending the opening of the ANZAC Memorial were estimated at 100,000\. Archbishop Sheehan boycotted the event on the grounds that it was "not entirely Catholic in character". In keeping with the words on the foundation tablets, the ceremony aimed to show that the building was of and for the people. The [Duke of Gloucester](/wiki/Prince_Henry%2C_Duke_of_Gloucester "Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester") made the dedication speech and the [Anglican Archbishop of Sydney](/wiki/Anglican_Archbishop_of_Sydney "Anglican Archbishop of Sydney") Dr [Howard Mowll](/wiki/Howard_Mowll "Howard Mowll") gave the prayer: 'To the Glory of God, and as a lasting monument of all the members of the Australian Forces of the State of NSW, who served their King and country in the Great War, and especially in grateful remembrance of those who laid down their lives, we dedicate this ANZAC Memorial'. To familiarise the public with the symbolism of the monument and to mark its completion, in 1934 the Trustees published The Book of the Anzac Memorial in a limited edition. This volume both commemorated and explained the memorial. The December 1934 issue of Building magazine also focused on the ANZAC Memorial, devoted nine pages to explain its details and symbolism. ### Offices at the memorial [thumb\|Decorations on the memorial in 1937 during the [coronation of George VI and Elizabeth](/wiki/Coronation_of_George_VI_and_Elizabeth "Coronation of George VI and Elizabeth")](/wiki/File:Coronation_decorations%2C_illuminations_of_Sydney%2C_Anzac_War_Memorial%2C_Hyde_Park%2C_Sydney%2C_1937_photographer%2C_Sam_Hood.jpg "Coronation decorations, illuminations of Sydney, Anzac War Memorial, Hyde Park, Sydney, 1937 photographer, Sam Hood.jpg") All associations with offices in the ANZAC Memorial building helped members with their applications to the Repatriation Department and assistance with medical needs. Each office in the memorial had a counter where members could apply for assistance, a waiting lobby, and secretarial and general offices. By the mid 1930s the ex\-servicemen's offices in the ANZAC Memorial were already overcrowded, and the situation became critical when veterans from World War II began accessing the building for services in the 1940s. The RSL gained permission to extend its rooms into the Assembly Hall in 1942 but its situation was not significantly improved until it moved to nearby Anzac House in [College Street](/wiki/College_Street%2C_Sydney "College Street, Sydney") in 1957\. The TB Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen also moved into Anzac House but returned to the ANZAC Memorial in 1980\. The Limbless and Maimed Soldiers' Association stayed in the memorial through the whole period that its members survived. ### Changing perceptions of the ANZAC Memorial Australia was embroiled in World War II less than five years after the ANZAC Memorial opened. Attempts to physically make changes and add additional symbols to reflect this and later wars did not proceed due to difficulties envisaging how this might be achieved without compromising the design. Although the ANZAC Memorial experienced no significant structural changes, in the latter half of the twentieth century people did tend to assume that it was a memorial for all wars. The memorial also became a symbol of all wars in a negative way, particularly in the case of the Australian [Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales "Government of New South Wales")'s support of the United States in Vietnam, which polarised the nation. In the prolonged civil protests about Australian involvement in that war – characterised by the moratorium marches of the late 1960s – the ANZAC Memorial became a rallying point. It was also the site of an anti\-war sit\-in in 1970 and the centre for a Ban the Bomb protest in 1983\. In 1975 feminists inferred it was a symbol of male domination when they painted on it, "Women march for Liberation". In 1984 an amendment of the Anzac Memorial Building Act of 1923 legally acknowledged the meaning of the ANZAC Memorial that most people had already accepted when it authorised the building's re\-dedication as the principal war memorial of NSW. Governor Sir [James Rowland](/wiki/James_Rowland_%28RAAF_officer%29 "James Rowland (RAAF officer)") performed the ceremony on 30 November, fifty years and six days after the first dedication by the Duke of Gloucester. From that time, the ANZAC Memorial's stated purpose was to honour the men and women of NSW who served in all wars where Australia had been involved. In the same year a "museum" or exhibition space was established to inform the public both about the wars in which Australia has been involved and those who served in them. It was originally opened on the 50th Anniversary of the official opening of the memorial, on 18 November 1984\. A bronze plaque marking the event was mounted on a wall in the Vestibule. A permanent photographic exhibition titled "Australians at War" opened during this month and became a great success with visiting school groups and tourists. [thumb\|The ANZAC Memorial illuminated at night, 2007](/wiki/File:ANZAC_Memorial_Sydney_Australia_-_June_2007.jpg "ANZAC Memorial Sydney Australia - June 2007.jpg") A recent mark of respect to NSW service men and women was the 1995 addition of a Remembrance Flame to the Hall of Memory. The trustees made space for this new symbol by removing the door to the Archives Room and commissioning the [Australian Gas Light Company](/wiki/Australian_Gas_Light_Company "Australian Gas Light Company") Limited (AGL) to install the burner which is currently lit 8 hours a day between 9 am and 5 pm. The ANZAC Memorial has been variously described as "a unique statement of architectural and sculptural unity", "the ultimate conception of the Art Deco style in this country" and "the epitome of Art Deco in Australia." It has become a site of increasing visitation in the 21st century, including a marked increase in the number of schools and other educational bodies. The ANZAC Memorial Building is "a lasting memorial", \[an] "outstanding legacy" that continues to move present\-day Australians to bow their heads 'in honoured memory of all those who have fought on the nation's behalf'. ### Centenary Extension [left\|thumb\|The Hall of Service](/wiki/File:Anzac_Memorial_Hyde_Park_003.jpg "Anzac Memorial Hyde Park 003.jpg") On 22 August 2016, work commenced on the $40 million enhancement of the Anzac Memorial. The extension was the “centrepiece of the State's Centenary of Anzac commemorations, marking the 100th anniversary of the ending of the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I")”.{{Cite web\|last\=Community Relations Division\|first\=NSW Department of Justice\|title\=Anzac Memorial Centenary Extension opens\|url\=https://www.justice.nsw.gov.au:443/Pages/media\-news/news/2018/Anzac\-Memorial\-Centenary\-Extension\-opens.aspx\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-25\|website\=www.justice.nsw.gov.au\|language\=en}} [alt\=\|thumb\|View of the waterfall extension and [oculus](/wiki/Oculus_%28architecture%29 "Oculus (architecture)").](/wiki/File:ANZAC_Memorial_Hyde_Park_004a.jpg "ANZAC Memorial Hyde Park 004a.jpg") The major extension realised architect [Bruce Dellit](/wiki/Bruce_Dellit "Bruce Dellit")'s original concept for the Memorial {{Cite web\|title\=The Centenary Project {{!}} Anzac Memorial, Hyde Park, Sydney\|url\=https://www.anzacmemorial.nsw.gov.au/our\-stories/centenary\-project\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-25\|website\=www.anzacmemorial.nsw.gov.au\|date\=27 September 2018 }} and added new underground exhibition and education spaces. Premier [Mike Baird](/wiki/Mike_Baird "Mike Baird") said "by enhancing this memorial we are ensuring future generations can continue to honour those who fought for the freedoms we enjoy today". Construction was completed by Built and jointly funded by the NSW and Australian Governments.NSW Government e\-news, 26 August 2016 The upgrades included: * A large water cascade feature on the southern side of the memorial, with new entrance and walkway. * The Hall of Service: including “a major artwork by [Fiona Hall](/wiki/Fiona_Hall_%28artist%29 "Fiona Hall (artist)") featuring 1,701 soil samples from each NSW town, suburb and district given as the home address by First World War enlistees”. * The Oculus, which is centred above the Hall of Service with a view out to the Memorial exterior. The extension was designed by architects Johnson Pilton Walker{{Cite web \|title\=Anzac Memorial Centenary Project » JPW \|url\=https://jpw.com.au/projects/anzac\-memorial\-centenary\-project/ \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-12 \|website\=JPW \|language\=en}} and officially opened on 20 October 2018\.{{Cite web\|last\=Barlass\|first\=Tim\|date\=2018\-10\-20\|title\=Prince Harry opens Anzac Memorial in Hyde Park\|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/celebrity/prince\-harry\-opens\-anzac\-memorial\-in\-hyde\-park\-20181020\-p50aw3\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-25\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|language\=en}} In June 2020 the Centenary Extension was awarded the [Sir John Sulman Medal](/wiki/Sir_John_Sulman_Medal "Sir John Sulman Medal"), the highest award for public architecture in New South Wales. Later that year in November 2020 the project was also awarded the [Sir Zelman Cowen Award for Public Architecture](/wiki/Sir_Zelman_Cowen_Award_for_Public_Architecture "Sir Zelman Cowen Award for Public Architecture") by the [Australian Institute of Architects](/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Architects "Australian Institute of Architects") at the national awards.{{Cite web \|title\=ANZAC Memorial Centenary Extension, NSW Architecture Awards 2020 Showcase \|url\=https://www.architecture.com.au/archives/33172 \|access\-date\=14 November 2023 \|website\=Architecture.coma.au\|date\=11 September 2020 }}{{Cite web \|date\=5 November 2020 \|title\=2020 National Architecture Awards: The Sir Zelman Cowen Award for Public Architecture \|url\=https://architectureau.com/articles/2020\-national\-architecture\-awards\-the\-sir\-zelman\-cowen\-award\-for\-public\-architecture/ \|access\-date\=14 November 2023 \|website\=ArchitectureAU.com}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Aboriginal land", "Material in rock shelters reveals that [Aboriginal](/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians \"Aboriginal Australians\") people inhabited the [Sydney Harbour](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour \"Sydney Harbour\") area from at least 25,000 years ago. The Gadigal, who formed part of the [Darug](/wiki/Darug \"Darug\") nation, were the [Aboriginal traditional owners](/wiki/Aboriginal_traditional_owner \"Aboriginal traditional owner\") of the inner Sydney area, upon which the Anzac Memorial stands.Haglun, 1996Clendinning, 2003 It is believed that the southern end of [Hyde Park](/wiki/Hyde_Park%2C_Sydney \"Hyde Park, Sydney\"), where the ANZAC Memorial is located, was used as a \"contest ground\" for staging combative trials between Aboriginal warriors, watched avidly by the British in the early days of the colony.Karskens, 2009, pp. 440–1 It is remarkable that the State's most grand and monumental war memorial should be positioned on this historical site of indigenous combat.", "### Origins of the term \"Anzac\"", "The term \"Anzac\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dva.gov.au/commemorations\\-memorials\\-and\\-war\\-graves/protecting\\-word\\-anzac\\|title\\=Protecting the word Anzac\\|last\\=Affairs\\|first\\=Australian Government Department of Veterans\\|date\\=2016\\-06\\-23\\|website\\=www.dva.gov.au\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-05}} began as an acronym for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps in World War I, but it was soon accepted as a word in its own right. The Anzacs formed part of the expeditionary force organised by Britain and France to invade the Gallipoli Peninsula and clear the Dardanelles Straits for the British Navy. The Australian Anzacs represented the national effort from a young nation taking its part in the Great War and reports of the courage they displayed at Gallipoli became the most enduring legend of Australian military history ([Government Architect's](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Government_Architect \"New South Wales Government Architect\") CMP, 2007\\).", "After the withdrawal from Gallipoli, the Anzac infantry divisions went on to fight against Germany on the Western Front. The Light Horse fought to protect the Suez Canal against the Turks and joined the forces fighting in the Middle East. On the anniversary of Anzac Day in 1918, the Australian infantry reinforced the legend when it stopped the German advance at Villers\\-Bretonneux on the [Somme](/wiki/Somme%2C_Queensland \"Somme, Queensland\"). Australians were successfully used as shock troops at Ypres, [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens%2C_Queensland \"Amiens, Queensland\"), Mont St Quentin and Peronne, and took a leading part in breaking through the Hindenburg Line, in their last major offensive.Government Architect's CMP, 2007", "From an Australian population of around four and a half million, enlistments in the army and navy numbered 416,809, a total that represents one\\-half of the men of military age in Australia at that time. Altogether, 60,000 Australians were killed and 167,000 were injured, a higher toll proportionately than was suffered by any other British [Empire](/wiki/Empire_%28newspaper%29 \"Empire (newspaper)\") country. Small wonder that those who returned wanted to see the sacrifice of their dead comrades remembered.", "The first Anzac Day in NSW was organised by a committee within the Returned Soldiers Association (RSA) of NSW, an organisation formed by men who had been invalided home. Later the organisation was subsumed by the Returned Soldiers' Sailors' (and Airmen's) Imperial League of Australia (RSSILA), finally named the Returned and Services League (RSL). The original objectives of the day of commemoration were to remember dead comrades, induce young men to enlist and collect money for an ANZAC Memorial monument. NSW [Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_New_South_Wales \"Premier of New South Wales\") [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") Holman's Labor government promised a pound for pound subsidy to match the money raised on the first Anzac Day. In 1917 the RSSILA requested that 25 April be declared 'Australia's National Day' and gazetted as a public holiday. Both the [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") and Australian governments made Anzac Day a public holiday in 1921\\. The official public holiday was first gazetted in NSW in 1925\\.", "### Developing the memorial concept in Australia", "Historian Ken Inglis believes that the \"war memorial\" is a twentieth century concept which memorialised the human cost of war rather than the victorious outcome, as the former military monuments had done, and celebrated the sacrifice of ordinary soldiers rather than focusing on the men who led them. The names of those who made the ultimate sacrifice are differentiated from the names of those who returned. Whether returned or not, the memorials record the soldiers' service to the nation. This trend to list both the returned and the fallen was uniquely Australian, reflecting the all volunteer nature of the Australian forces.", "Each capital city developed its own major memorial, with many smaller memorials in the suburbs, and regional areas. The major memorials and their dates of construction are as follows:", "* [Darwin Cenotaph](/wiki/Bicentennial_Park_%28Darwin%29 \"Bicentennial Park (Darwin)\"), [Darwin](/wiki/Darwin%2C_Northern_Territory \"Darwin, Northern Territory\") – 1921\n* [War Memorial](/wiki/Hobart_Cenotaph \"Hobart Cenotaph\"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart \"Hobart\") − 1925\n* [State War Memorial Cenotaph](/wiki/Kings_Park%2C_Western_Australia \"Kings Park, Western Australia\"), [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\") – 1928–1929\n* [Shrine of Remembrance](/wiki/Shrine_of_Remembrance%2C_Brisbane \"Shrine of Remembrance, Brisbane\"), [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\") – 1930\n* [National War Memorial](/wiki/National_War_Memorial_%28South_Australia%29 \"National War Memorial (South Australia)\"), [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\") – 1931\n* [Shrine of Remembrance](/wiki/Shrine_of_Remembrance \"Shrine of Remembrance\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\") – 1928–1934\n* ANZAC Memorial, [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") – 1934\n* [Australian War Memorial](/wiki/Australian_War_Memorial \"Australian War Memorial\"), [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\") – 1941", "The earlier memorials are generally in the form of obelisks, sometimes with applied sculpture, while most of the later examples are commemorative buildings with a range of rooms and uses. The social meanings of war memorials increased in complexity as time went on. The later examples such as the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, 1934, the ANZAC Memorial in Sydney, 1934 and the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, 1941, represented the new trends in the symbolism of memorials more than the simple columns, obelisks and statues of citizen soldiers erected during the fighting and immediately after it. The Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne is the most comparable monument to the ANZAC Memorial in Australia, both comprising one principal commemorative space, surrounded and above a series of administrative and exhibition spaces, contained within an imposing landmark building in differing architectural styles, set within a formal landscape.", "### Authorising the ANZAC Memorial", "In 1918 the RSSILA in 1918 published its aims for the monument:\n1. The building was to be a memorial for those who died;\n2. It was to be architecturally worthy of its high purpose;\n3. It was to provide headquarters for those working to assist widows and children of those who were killed and also, those AIF members who returned;\n4. It was to house the records of the AIF;\n5. It would be a meeting place and a source of assistance with repatriation; and\n6. It would provide a centre for any later campaigns on behalf of the AIF and their dependants.", "After 1919, all the state's war memorial building committees were required to seek expert advice from a War Memorials Advisory Committee comprising representatives from the Town Planning Association, Institute of Architects (NSW), Royal Society of Artists and the National Art Gallery (NSW). A proposal to build the memorial on Observatory Hill was withdrawn due to the planned proximity of the roads leading onto the [Sydney Harbour Bridge](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Bridge \"Sydney Harbour Bridge\").Hansard, 19 September 1984, p1129 The proposal to use part of Hyde Park for the Anzac Memorial was promoted by former city surveyor Norman Weekes who was redesigning Hyde Park after it had been virtually destroyed during the construction of the city railway. Assisted by architect [Raymond McGrath](/wiki/Raymond_McGrath \"Raymond McGrath\"), Weekes produced a plan with two axial avenues running north \\-south and east–west, the latter being in line with the transept of [St Mary's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Cathedral%2C_Sydney \"St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney\"). He envisaged the intersection of these avenues as an ideal site for a commemorative column and balanced that with an Anzac Memorial at the southern end. However, progress on the memorial was impeded until legislation established a board of trustees for the building and the manner in which the site would be chosen was passed in 1923\\.", "The Trustees gained Parliamentary approval for Weekes' plan in 1929 on the condition that the area dedicated to the memorial would be limited in size. The Advisory Board for the Hyde Park Remodelling chose the southern end of the park to site the monument. The National Council of Women and Anzac Fellowship of Women objected to this site because it was considered to be insufficiently commanding, while artist Julian Ashton pointed out that skyscrapers would soon overshadow its position.", "About this time another war memorial was bequeathed to Australians by the late JF Archibald, co\\-founder of the Bulletin newspaper, to commemorate the association of Australia and France in the Great War of 1914–1918\\. Created by [Francois Sicard](/wiki/Francois_Sicard \"Francois Sicard\"), winner of the Prix de Rome in 1891, the Public Trustee requested that it be installed at the site of Weekes' proposed column at the northern end of Hyde Park. Major Hubert Colette and JB Waterhouse supervised the erection of the [Archibald Memorial Fountain](/wiki/Archibald_Fountain \"Archibald Fountain\"), which was completed on 14 March 1932\\. This was when work was beginning on the ANZAC Memorial building at the southern end of the same avenue.", "Debates about the style of the ANZAC Memorial can be generally divided into soldiers' versus women's groups which supported utility versus beauty respectively. The majority of returned soldiers looked for a building that would meet their immediate needs for association, while women's groups tended to favour a structure that would be commemorative. After ten years of debate, the RSSILA and the disabled veterans bodies all agreed on Anzac Day 1928 that the building \"should be commemorative rather than utilitarian\". As the RSSILA state president Fred Davison expressed it, the League had finally agreed to a \"shrine of remembrance\" such as their Victorian counterparts had begun to build. The soldiers' needs were not entirely abandoned and in the spirit of compromise one\\-seventh of the funding was allocated to incorporate offices where the returned soldiers' organisations could look after their members.", "### The Cenotaph, Martin Place", "{{main\\|Sydney Cenotaph}}\nThe uncertainty about both site and building style of the ANZAC Memorial combined with the long wait for its construction left Sydney without a focal point for Anzac Day ceremonies. Around 1925 the [Lang Labor](/wiki/Lang_Labor \"Lang Labor\") government responded to the urging of the NSW RSSILA by donating 10,000 pounds for a cenotaph in Martin Place, near where wartime appeals and recruitment rallies had been held. This was also the place where the Armistice Day crowds had honoured their \"Glorious Dead\" at the war's end on 11 November 1918\\. It was consecrated on 8 August 1927, becoming the focus of Anzac Day ceremonies some eight years before the ANZAC Memorial building was available for such purposes. Sydney's Anzac Day Dawn Service was never moved to the ANZAC Memorial because the Cenotaph had already become the accepted site and Martin Place had stronger war\\-time associations than Hyde Park.", "### The ANZAC Memorial design competition", "A [competition](/wiki/Architectural_design_competition \"Architectural design competition\") for the design of the memorial was commissioned on 13 July 1929\\. Entrants were required to be Australians qualified to work as architects within or outside NSW, the latter persons being required to register in the state if they won. Competitors could confer with an Australian sculptor, either while designing the competition entry or during its construction. All entrants had to register by 30 January 1930 and present their entries two weeks later. The judges were Professor A. S. Hook, Dean of the Sydney University Faculty of Architecture Professor [Leslie Wilkinson](/wiki/Leslie_Wilkinson \"Leslie Wilkinson\"), and the Public Trustee E. J. Payne. The winner would be appointed the ANZAC Memorial architect. The cost of the building was limited to {{Australian pound\\|75,000}} calculated at rates current at the time of entry. In addition to the memorial itself the building was required to provide office accommodation for the Returned Soldiers and Sailors Imperial League, TB Soldiers' Association and the Limbless Soldiers' Association. The trustees received 117 entries in the competition and chose seven for second stage consideration which were exhibited in the Blaxland Galleries in Farmers Department Store (now Grace Bros). In February 1930 the prize\\-winning entries were announced by the [Governor of New South Wales](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales \"Governor of New South Wales\"), Sir [Philip Game](/wiki/Philip_Game \"Philip Game\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article149353803 \\|title\\=MODEL WAR MEMORIAL\\|newspaper\\=Toodyay Herald \\|issue\\=18 \\|location\\=Western Australia \\|date\\=5 September 1930 \\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2017 \\|page\\=4 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} Third prize was awarded to [Peter Kaad](/wiki/Peter_Kaad \"Peter Kaad\"), second prize to John D. Moore and the winner was Bruce Dellit. The successful contractors for the building works were [Kell \\& Rigby](/wiki/Kell_%26_Rigby \"Kell & Rigby\").[\"How the Memorial came into being\"](http://www.rslnsw.com.au/Default.aspx?PageID=2603798&A=SearchResult&SearchID=2345279&ObjectID=2603798&ObjectType=1) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215175712/http://www.rslnsw.com.au/Default.aspx?PageID\\=2603798\\&A\\=SearchResult\\&SearchID\\=2345279\\&ObjectID\\=2603798\\&ObjectType\\=1 \\|date\\=15 December 2018 }} [Returned and Services League of Australia (NSW)](/wiki/Returned_and_Services_League_of_Australia \"Returned and Services League of Australia\"), Retrieved 15 February 2012 According to *Building* magazine, most people agreed that Dellit's design for the ANZAC Memorial was the best in the competition.", "In his entry, Dellit submitted a model with photographs of it from all angles and 17 drawing sheets including an aerial perspective and an isometric section in Dellit's own words: \"ENDURANCE COURAGE AND SACRIFICE – these are the three thoughts which have inspired the accompanying design, and it is around the last mentioned that it develops\". Dellit explained that the central sculpture \"sacrifice\" was placed in the lower chamber \"like a famous French tomb\" – Napoleon's tomb – to \"offer visitors an opportunity for a quiet, dignified, physical and mental acknowledgment of the message\".", "#### Bruce Dellit, the architect", "{{main\\|Bruce Dellit}}\n[thumb\\|260px\\|Dellit's architectural sketch of the memorial; 1930](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial%2C_Hyde_Park_-_drawing_by_Charles_Bruce_Dellit%2C_Architect.jpg \"ANZAC War Memorial, Hyde Park - drawing by Charles Bruce Dellit, Architect.jpg\")\nAustralian\\-born Charles Bruce Dellit studied at [Sydney Technical College](/wiki/Sydney_Technical_College \"Sydney Technical College\") under Byera Hadley from 1912 to 1918 and continued his professional education at the [University of Sydney](/wiki/University_of_Sydney \"University of Sydney\"). Dellit registered as an architect in June 1923 and established his own practice six years later. Before winning the ANZAC Memorial competition, he had designed Kyle House in Macquarie Place featuring the \"monumental entrance arch\" that became one of his characteristic motifs. It also shows his interest in American Art Deco skyscrapers and the patterned brickwork espoused by contemporary Dutch and German schools. Along with his contemporary [Emil Sodersten](/wiki/Emil_Sodersten \"Emil Sodersten\"), he is considered to have pioneered the Art Deco style in Australia. Dellit employed a more pronounced use of ornament and symbolism while Sodersten relied more on form and materials for his architecture. Many of the notable Art Deco buildings in Sydney were designed by these architects.", "In designing the ANZAC Memorial, Dellit used sculptural and architectural imagery to express collective mourning at the death of so many young men from NSW. The form of the sculpture changed with the involvement of Rayner Hoff, whom Dellit engaged after he had won the competition. Hoff greatly strengthened the imagery by replacing Dellit's seasons and sculptures representing the arts of war and peace with figures representing all branches of the armed services. The Pool of Reflection that mirrors the building on the northern side remains Dellit's call for passers\\-by to stop and remember.", "Similarly, while the central sculpture \"Sacrifice\" at the heart of the building is Hoff's, the form of the interior, itself very emotive, is Dellit's. Dellit used impressive staircases flanked by memorial urns to lead the visitor up into the Hall of Memory. Once there, they must bow their heads to look into the Well of Contemplation in order to contemplate \"Sacrifice\", which is in the Hall of Silence below or look up to see the dome decorated with 120,000 golden \"Stars of Memory\", each representing a serviceman or woman from NSW. Dellit's architecture and Hoff's sculptures greatly enhance each other to provide an artistically integrated emotional message.", "According to Maisy Stapleton, the greatest exponents of the Art Deco style in Sydney were the architects C. Bruce Dellit and Emil Sodersten. She considered that Dellit's highest achievement was the ANZAC Memorial, \"a vision of modern form and strong, emotive expression closely allied to popular sentiment\" and described the memorial as \"the epitome of Art Deco in Australia\".", "Dellit died of cancer on 21 August 1942 only eight years after the ANZAC Memorial was ceremoniously opened. It is considered his finest achievement by some, \"a vision of modern form and strong, emotive expression closely allied to popular sentiment.\" His later works included two chapels at Kinsela's Funeral Parlour, [Darlinghurst](/wiki/Darlinghurst%2C_New_South_Wales \"Darlinghurst, New South Wales\"), 1933 and several bank buildings in the city as well as numerous competition entries. [The Bulletin](/wiki/The_Bulletin_%28Australian_periodical%29 \"The Bulletin (Australian periodical)\") obituary described him as an \"arresting and vital figure Everything about him was big\".", "#### Rayner Hoff, the sculptor", "{{main\\|Rayner Hoff}}\nGeorge Rayner Hoff was born in 1894 on the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man \"Isle of Man\"). His father later moved the family to Nottingham in England where Rayner Hoff worked in a stonemason's yard while still at school. At 14 he commenced work in an architect's office and later furthered his training by studying drawing and design at the Nottingham School of Art. In 1915 Hoff enlisted in the army and served on the Western Front the following year. After the war he studied sculpture at the Royal College of Art in London under Frances Derwent Wood and in 1922 he won the Prix de Rome.", "Hoff arrived in Sydney in August 1923 and began work as head teacher of modelling and sculpture at East Sydney Technical College, Darlinghurst (Sydney's major art school), where he also established his private studio. Hoff exerted an enormous influence on the progress of Australian sculpture. By the end of the decade, Hoff's work at the college produced a school of gifted sculptors and assistants. It was, according to [Deborah Edwards](/wiki/Deborah_Edwards \"Deborah Edwards\"), \"perhaps the sole instance of a coherent school of production among sculptors in Australian history\". In 1925 Hoff completed reliefs for the [Dubbo](/wiki/Dubbo \"Dubbo\") War Memorial and in 1927 he was commissioned to design the sculptures on the National War Memorial, [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\").", "In 1930 Dellit commissioned Hoff to design the sculptures for the ANZAC Memorial. Creating the numerous sculptures on the ANZAC Memorial became the pinnacle of Hoff 's career. The task involved creation of sixteen seated and four standing figures of servicemen and women in cast synthetic stone, four corner cast stone reliefs and two long bronze bas\\-reliefs over the eastern and western doors outside the building. Hoff's contributions to the interior also included designing the form of the 120,000 faceted gold stars that covered the domed ceiling, four relief panels showing the march of the dead, each superimposed with symbolic representations of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps, and the marble wreath surrounding the Well of Contemplation that framed the view of Sacrifice below. Hoff and eight assistants were fully employed on the memorial between 1931 and 1934\\.", "Hoff gave considerable prominence to the female contributors to the war effort in the ANZAC Memorial, including the women who lost their fathers, husbands and sons. Nurses were prominent among the figures representing the services and women were central to the group sculpture, \"Sacrifice\". Hoff explained the prominent position of the women in this work in 1932: \"Thousands of women, although not directly engaged in war activities lost all that was dearest to them. There was no acknowledgment of them in casualty lists, lists of wounded, maimed and killed. In this spirit I have shown them carrying their load, the sacrifice of their menfolk\".", "In 1932 models for the two massive bronze groups intended for placement in front of the east and west windows were publicly exhibited. Hoff's \"The Crucifixion of Civilisation 1914\" and \"Victory after Sacrifice 1918\" both featured naked women as the central figures. The violent controversy that greeted the exhibition of these models prevented their development into full\\-size sculptures, with the sexual aspect of the imagery attracting the most intense criticism. In despair over the controversy, Hoff eventually destroyed the plaster models and refused to compromise his designs when the possibility of making them was raised again in 1934\\. The sculptures were never completed.", "Hoff's other public sculptures in Sydney included a bas\\-relief of Mercury in Transport House, [York Street](/wiki/York_Street%2C_Sydney \"York Street, Sydney\") and several sculptures in Emil Sodersten's City Mutual Life Building in [Hunter Street](/wiki/Hunter_Street%2C_Sydney \"Hunter Street, Sydney\"). However, in spite of his obvious success, Hoff was unable to shake the controversy about the unexecuted ANZAC Memorial sculptures. It remained with him until his early death from pancreatitis on 19 November 1937\\.", "### Builders and contractors", "The trustees specified that the memorial must be built of Australian materials and by Australian workmen. Having been encouraged to give preference to returned servicemen, the contractors Kell \\& Rigby applied to the RSSILA Labour Bureau for their workers. Also working on the ANZAC Memorial were numerous sub\\-contractors. These professionals and artisans included structural engineers RS Morris \\& Co Ltd, masons Melocco Bros Ltd who carved the wreath around the Well of Contemplation, Messrs Loveridge and Hudson Ltd who prepared the granite facing on the outside walls, JC Goodwin and Co Ltd who supplied the amber glass, Art Glass Ltd, which completed the sandblasting, and T. Grounds and Sons who manufactured the stone figures on the buttresses and the funerary urns to Hoff's design. The London firm of Morris Singer \\& Co Ltd cast central sculpture and bronze panels over the doors but the flame surrounding the sculpture and the bronze grilles on the lower windows were made in Australia by Castle Bros, while Kell \\& Rigby themselves produced the bronze nails studding the doors. [Homebush](/wiki/Homebush%2C_New_South_Wales \"Homebush, New South Wales\") Ceiling Works made the ceilings and supplied the 120,000 stars for the dome, the latter being gilded by A. Zimmerman. Kellor and Yates completed the plasterwork. The Electrical and General Installation Co was responsible for the electrical installation and Nielsen and Moller made the light fixtures. Later, Dellit was able to persuade the City Council to supply temporary floodlighting for the building, a service made permanent in 1938\\.", "### Changes in the course of constructing the ANZAC Memorial", "Originally, Dellit wanted the memorial to be built of sandstone or synthetic granite on an 18\\-inch base of [Bowral](/wiki/Bowral \"Bowral\") trachyte. However, the building was actually constructed in red granite from quarries near [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales \"Bathurst, New South Wales\"), NSW. The podium and semi\\-circular stairs were faced in granite; and the terrace was formed in terrazzo.", "In 1932 Dellit incorporated four stones from battlefields at Gallipoli, France, Palestine and New Guinea into the floors of the niches in the Hall of Memory in the form of the AIF Rising Sun. The names of major battles at each of these sites were added to the niche walls. The dome of stars approved in 1933 was also a late inclusion. This feature began as a fundraiser when the project had lost support through the fracas over Hoff's exterior statues. To cover the shortfall in funding the memorial, the RSSILA offered 150,000 stars for sale at two shillings each. Although they were unable to sell the full number, 120,000 stars were fixed to the ceiling to represent all the state's volunteers. In order to facilitate their attachment to the plaster ceiling, they were fashioned from plaster of Paris and gilded.", "In another late change, the interior walls were lined in unpolished marble while polished marble covered the floors. All doors were originally to be bronze but funding shortages caused that specification to be changed to maple, studded with bronze nails. Dellit intended that each of the great amber windows would bear a different design for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Medical Corps. However, the building subcommittee asked for an alternative and a new design was etched on all the windows which combined the AIF symbol with a pattern of eternal flames.", "Dellit always intended that the office accommodation at the base of the building should be incorporated into the memorial when the need for its original use had passed. The ex\\-servicemen's offices featured joinery in silky oak and parquetry floors of red mahogany. Light fittings in the shape of stars echoed the dome in the Hall of Memories. On the eastern side Dellit added an [Assembly Hall](/wiki/Assembly_Hall%2C_Warwick \"Assembly Hall, Warwick\") to balance the entry foyer on the west. This room had seating for 130 people and was available to all ex\\-servicemen's groups. In practice it was used mainly by the associations with offices in the building. Its small size and the ban on alcohol (which applied to the whole memorial) meant that few associations sought to hire it. It was not available for outside use from 1942 to 1957 while the RSL occupied it as an extension to their office.", "The inscriptions that Dellit intended for the memorial were another casualty of the design process. The trustees consulted the poet Leon Gellert, then Professor Hook, who consulted Professor Mungo McCallum, librarian H. M. Green and historian C. E. W. Bean, about the inscriptions. These experts ruled against most of the numerous labels suggested by Dellit. The surviving inscriptions include those on the foundation stones laid by [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales \"Governor of New South Wales\") Game and Premier Bevan on 19 July 1932 which bear the words \"A soldier set this stone\" and \"A citizen set this stone\" to indicate the contributions both soldiers and citizens had made to the building. An inscription in the floor at the western entrance to the Hall of Silence, \"Let Silent Contemplation be Your Offering\" was also kept, as was a list of the major battles in the Hall of Silence. The experts chose a simple statement submitted by Hook, Green and Bean to mark the dedication of the building, stating, \"This Memorial was opened by a son of the King on 24th November 1934\".", "Another feature that was considerably altered was the landscaping. Dellit planned water gardens for either side of the memorial in the form of a narrow pool to the north and a cascading waterfall to the south. However, as the bulk of the building began to rise above the park, it became apparent that the scale of the water features needed to be increased to balance it. As a result, the cascades were eliminated and the pool extended to 170 feet (52 metres) long by 72 feet (22 metres) wide. Landscaping was completed by the City Council, which was responsible for the park. Finance for the additional work came from the state Unemployment Relief Fund and a large number of council employees and relief labourers poured the concrete for the pool in a single day to eliminate the need for joints and ensure that it was watertight. The Council acceded to Dellit's request to keep a clear open space around the memorial. It also followed his plan for a line of poplars on either side of the pool to symbolise the French battlefields. Dellit also wanted beds filled with the red poppies of Flanders and other plantings from the eastern and western fronts.", "### The Opening Ceremony, 24 November 1934", "[thumb\\|The memorial in 1934](/wiki/File:The_ANZAC_War_Memorial%2C_Sydney%2C_1934_or_1937_photograph_by_Sam_Hood.jpg \"The ANZAC War Memorial, Sydney, 1934 or 1937 photograph by Sam Hood.jpg\")\nCrowds attending the opening of the ANZAC Memorial were estimated at 100,000\\. Archbishop Sheehan boycotted the event on the grounds that it was \"not entirely Catholic in character\". In keeping with the words on the foundation tablets, the ceremony aimed to show that the building was of and for the people. The [Duke of Gloucester](/wiki/Prince_Henry%2C_Duke_of_Gloucester \"Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester\") made the dedication speech and the [Anglican Archbishop of Sydney](/wiki/Anglican_Archbishop_of_Sydney \"Anglican Archbishop of Sydney\") Dr [Howard Mowll](/wiki/Howard_Mowll \"Howard Mowll\") gave the prayer:\n'To the Glory of God, and as a lasting monument of all the members of the Australian Forces of the State of NSW, who served their King and country in the Great War, and especially in grateful remembrance of those who laid down their lives, we dedicate this ANZAC Memorial'.", "To familiarise the public with the symbolism of the monument and to mark its completion, in 1934 the Trustees published The Book of the Anzac Memorial in a limited edition. This volume both commemorated and explained the memorial. The December 1934 issue of Building magazine also focused on the ANZAC Memorial, devoted nine pages to explain its details and symbolism.", "### Offices at the memorial", "[thumb\\|Decorations on the memorial in 1937 during the [coronation of George VI and Elizabeth](/wiki/Coronation_of_George_VI_and_Elizabeth \"Coronation of George VI and Elizabeth\")](/wiki/File:Coronation_decorations%2C_illuminations_of_Sydney%2C_Anzac_War_Memorial%2C_Hyde_Park%2C_Sydney%2C_1937_photographer%2C_Sam_Hood.jpg \"Coronation decorations, illuminations of Sydney, Anzac War Memorial, Hyde Park, Sydney, 1937 photographer, Sam Hood.jpg\")\nAll associations with offices in the ANZAC Memorial building helped members with their applications to the Repatriation Department and assistance with medical needs. Each office in the memorial had a counter where members could apply for assistance, a waiting lobby, and secretarial and general offices.", "By the mid 1930s the ex\\-servicemen's offices in the ANZAC Memorial were already overcrowded, and the situation became critical when veterans from World War II began accessing the building for services in the 1940s. The RSL gained permission to extend its rooms into the Assembly Hall in 1942 but its situation was not significantly improved until it moved to nearby Anzac House in [College Street](/wiki/College_Street%2C_Sydney \"College Street, Sydney\") in 1957\\. The TB Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen also moved into Anzac House but returned to the ANZAC Memorial in 1980\\. The Limbless and Maimed Soldiers' Association stayed in the memorial through the whole period that its members survived.", "### Changing perceptions of the ANZAC Memorial", "Australia was embroiled in World War II less than five years after the ANZAC Memorial opened. Attempts to physically make changes and add additional symbols to reflect this and later wars did not proceed due to difficulties envisaging how this might be achieved without compromising the design.", "Although the ANZAC Memorial experienced no significant structural changes, in the latter half of the twentieth century people did tend to assume that it was a memorial for all wars. The memorial also became a symbol of all wars in a negative way, particularly in the case of the Australian [Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales \"Government of New South Wales\")'s support of the United States in Vietnam, which polarised the nation. In the prolonged civil protests about Australian involvement in that war – characterised by the moratorium marches of the late 1960s – the ANZAC Memorial became a rallying point. It was also the site of an anti\\-war sit\\-in in 1970 and the centre for a Ban the Bomb protest in 1983\\. In 1975 feminists inferred it was a symbol of male domination when they painted on it, \"Women march for Liberation\".", "In 1984 an amendment of the Anzac Memorial Building Act of 1923 legally acknowledged the meaning of the ANZAC Memorial that most people had already accepted when it authorised the building's re\\-dedication as the principal war memorial of NSW. Governor Sir [James Rowland](/wiki/James_Rowland_%28RAAF_officer%29 \"James Rowland (RAAF officer)\") performed the ceremony on 30 November, fifty years and six days after the first dedication by the Duke of Gloucester. From that time, the ANZAC Memorial's stated purpose was to honour the men and women of NSW who served in all wars where Australia had been involved.", "In the same year a \"museum\" or exhibition space was established to inform the public both about the wars in which Australia has been involved and those who served in them. It was originally opened on the 50th Anniversary of the official opening of the memorial, on 18 November 1984\\. A bronze plaque marking the event was mounted on a wall in the Vestibule. A permanent photographic exhibition titled \"Australians at War\" opened during this month and became a great success with visiting school groups and tourists.\n[thumb\\|The ANZAC Memorial illuminated at night, 2007](/wiki/File:ANZAC_Memorial_Sydney_Australia_-_June_2007.jpg \"ANZAC Memorial Sydney Australia - June 2007.jpg\")\nA recent mark of respect to NSW service men and women was the 1995 addition of a Remembrance Flame to the Hall of Memory. The trustees made space for this new symbol by removing the door to the Archives Room and commissioning the [Australian Gas Light Company](/wiki/Australian_Gas_Light_Company \"Australian Gas Light Company\") Limited (AGL) to install the burner which is currently lit 8 hours a day between 9 am and 5 pm.", "The ANZAC Memorial has been variously described as \"a unique statement of architectural and sculptural unity\", \"the ultimate conception of the Art Deco style in this country\" and \"the epitome of Art Deco in Australia.\" It has become a site of increasing visitation in the 21st century, including a marked increase in the number of schools and other educational bodies. The ANZAC Memorial Building is \"a lasting memorial\", \\[an] \"outstanding legacy\" that continues to move present\\-day Australians to bow their heads 'in honoured memory of all those who have fought on the nation's behalf'.", "### Centenary Extension", "[left\\|thumb\\|The Hall of Service](/wiki/File:Anzac_Memorial_Hyde_Park_003.jpg \"Anzac Memorial Hyde Park 003.jpg\")\nOn 22 August 2016, work commenced on the $40 million enhancement of the Anzac Memorial. The extension was the “centrepiece of the State's Centenary of Anzac commemorations, marking the 100th anniversary of the ending of the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\")”.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Community Relations Division\\|first\\=NSW Department of Justice\\|title\\=Anzac Memorial Centenary Extension opens\\|url\\=https://www.justice.nsw.gov.au:443/Pages/media\\-news/news/2018/Anzac\\-Memorial\\-Centenary\\-Extension\\-opens.aspx\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-25\\|website\\=www.justice.nsw.gov.au\\|language\\=en}}\n[alt\\=\\|thumb\\|View of the waterfall extension and [oculus](/wiki/Oculus_%28architecture%29 \"Oculus (architecture)\").](/wiki/File:ANZAC_Memorial_Hyde_Park_004a.jpg \"ANZAC Memorial Hyde Park 004a.jpg\")\nThe major extension realised architect [Bruce Dellit](/wiki/Bruce_Dellit \"Bruce Dellit\")'s original concept for the Memorial {{Cite web\\|title\\=The Centenary Project {{!}} Anzac Memorial, Hyde Park, Sydney\\|url\\=https://www.anzacmemorial.nsw.gov.au/our\\-stories/centenary\\-project\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-25\\|website\\=www.anzacmemorial.nsw.gov.au\\|date\\=27 September 2018 }} and added new underground exhibition and education spaces. Premier [Mike Baird](/wiki/Mike_Baird \"Mike Baird\") said \"by enhancing this memorial we are ensuring future generations can continue to honour those who fought for the freedoms we enjoy today\". Construction was completed by Built and jointly funded by the NSW and Australian Governments.NSW Government e\\-news, 26 August 2016", "The upgrades included:", "* A large water cascade feature on the southern side of the memorial, with new entrance and walkway.\n* The Hall of Service: including “a major artwork by [Fiona Hall](/wiki/Fiona_Hall_%28artist%29 \"Fiona Hall (artist)\") featuring 1,701 soil samples from each NSW town, suburb and district given as the home address by First World War enlistees”.\n* The Oculus, which is centred above the Hall of Service with a view out to the Memorial exterior.", "The extension was designed by architects Johnson Pilton Walker{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anzac Memorial Centenary Project » JPW \\|url\\=https://jpw.com.au/projects/anzac\\-memorial\\-centenary\\-project/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-12 \\|website\\=JPW \\|language\\=en}} and officially opened on 20 October 2018\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Barlass\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-20\\|title\\=Prince Harry opens Anzac Memorial in Hyde Park\\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/celebrity/prince\\-harry\\-opens\\-anzac\\-memorial\\-in\\-hyde\\-park\\-20181020\\-p50aw3\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-25\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|language\\=en}}", "In June 2020 the Centenary Extension was awarded the [Sir John Sulman Medal](/wiki/Sir_John_Sulman_Medal \"Sir John Sulman Medal\"), the highest award for public architecture in New South Wales. Later that year in November 2020 the project was also awarded the [Sir Zelman Cowen Award for Public Architecture](/wiki/Sir_Zelman_Cowen_Award_for_Public_Architecture \"Sir Zelman Cowen Award for Public Architecture\") by the [Australian Institute of Architects](/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Architects \"Australian Institute of Architects\") at the national awards.{{Cite web \\|title\\=ANZAC Memorial Centenary Extension, NSW Architecture Awards 2020 Showcase \\|url\\=https://www.architecture.com.au/archives/33172 \\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2023 \\|website\\=Architecture.coma.au\\|date\\=11 September 2020 }}{{Cite web \\|date\\=5 November 2020 \\|title\\=2020 National Architecture Awards: The Sir Zelman Cowen Award for Public Architecture \\|url\\=https://architectureau.com/articles/2020\\-national\\-architecture\\-awards\\-the\\-sir\\-zelman\\-cowen\\-award\\-for\\-public\\-architecture/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2023 \\|website\\=ArchitectureAU.com}}", "" ]
### Authorising the ANZAC Memorial In 1918 the RSSILA in 1918 published its aims for the monument: 1. The building was to be a memorial for those who died; 2. It was to be architecturally worthy of its high purpose; 3. It was to provide headquarters for those working to assist widows and children of those who were killed and also, those AIF members who returned; 4. It was to house the records of the AIF; 5. It would be a meeting place and a source of assistance with repatriation; and 6. It would provide a centre for any later campaigns on behalf of the AIF and their dependants. After 1919, all the state's war memorial building committees were required to seek expert advice from a War Memorials Advisory Committee comprising representatives from the Town Planning Association, Institute of Architects (NSW), Royal Society of Artists and the National Art Gallery (NSW). A proposal to build the memorial on Observatory Hill was withdrawn due to the planned proximity of the roads leading onto the [Sydney Harbour Bridge](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Bridge "Sydney Harbour Bridge").Hansard, 19 September 1984, p1129 The proposal to use part of Hyde Park for the Anzac Memorial was promoted by former city surveyor Norman Weekes who was redesigning Hyde Park after it had been virtually destroyed during the construction of the city railway. Assisted by architect [Raymond McGrath](/wiki/Raymond_McGrath "Raymond McGrath"), Weekes produced a plan with two axial avenues running north \-south and east–west, the latter being in line with the transept of [St Mary's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Cathedral%2C_Sydney "St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney"). He envisaged the intersection of these avenues as an ideal site for a commemorative column and balanced that with an Anzac Memorial at the southern end. However, progress on the memorial was impeded until legislation established a board of trustees for the building and the manner in which the site would be chosen was passed in 1923\. The Trustees gained Parliamentary approval for Weekes' plan in 1929 on the condition that the area dedicated to the memorial would be limited in size. The Advisory Board for the Hyde Park Remodelling chose the southern end of the park to site the monument. The National Council of Women and Anzac Fellowship of Women objected to this site because it was considered to be insufficiently commanding, while artist Julian Ashton pointed out that skyscrapers would soon overshadow its position. About this time another war memorial was bequeathed to Australians by the late JF Archibald, co\-founder of the Bulletin newspaper, to commemorate the association of Australia and France in the Great War of 1914–1918\. Created by [Francois Sicard](/wiki/Francois_Sicard "Francois Sicard"), winner of the Prix de Rome in 1891, the Public Trustee requested that it be installed at the site of Weekes' proposed column at the northern end of Hyde Park. Major Hubert Colette and JB Waterhouse supervised the erection of the [Archibald Memorial Fountain](/wiki/Archibald_Fountain "Archibald Fountain"), which was completed on 14 March 1932\. This was when work was beginning on the ANZAC Memorial building at the southern end of the same avenue. Debates about the style of the ANZAC Memorial can be generally divided into soldiers' versus women's groups which supported utility versus beauty respectively. The majority of returned soldiers looked for a building that would meet their immediate needs for association, while women's groups tended to favour a structure that would be commemorative. After ten years of debate, the RSSILA and the disabled veterans bodies all agreed on Anzac Day 1928 that the building "should be commemorative rather than utilitarian". As the RSSILA state president Fred Davison expressed it, the League had finally agreed to a "shrine of remembrance" such as their Victorian counterparts had begun to build. The soldiers' needs were not entirely abandoned and in the spirit of compromise one\-seventh of the funding was allocated to incorporate offices where the returned soldiers' organisations could look after their members.
[ "### Authorising the ANZAC Memorial", "In 1918 the RSSILA in 1918 published its aims for the monument:\n1. The building was to be a memorial for those who died;\n2. It was to be architecturally worthy of its high purpose;\n3. It was to provide headquarters for those working to assist widows and children of those who were killed and also, those AIF members who returned;\n4. It was to house the records of the AIF;\n5. It would be a meeting place and a source of assistance with repatriation; and\n6. It would provide a centre for any later campaigns on behalf of the AIF and their dependants.", "After 1919, all the state's war memorial building committees were required to seek expert advice from a War Memorials Advisory Committee comprising representatives from the Town Planning Association, Institute of Architects (NSW), Royal Society of Artists and the National Art Gallery (NSW). A proposal to build the memorial on Observatory Hill was withdrawn due to the planned proximity of the roads leading onto the [Sydney Harbour Bridge](/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Bridge \"Sydney Harbour Bridge\").Hansard, 19 September 1984, p1129 The proposal to use part of Hyde Park for the Anzac Memorial was promoted by former city surveyor Norman Weekes who was redesigning Hyde Park after it had been virtually destroyed during the construction of the city railway. Assisted by architect [Raymond McGrath](/wiki/Raymond_McGrath \"Raymond McGrath\"), Weekes produced a plan with two axial avenues running north \\-south and east–west, the latter being in line with the transept of [St Mary's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Cathedral%2C_Sydney \"St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney\"). He envisaged the intersection of these avenues as an ideal site for a commemorative column and balanced that with an Anzac Memorial at the southern end. However, progress on the memorial was impeded until legislation established a board of trustees for the building and the manner in which the site would be chosen was passed in 1923\\.", "The Trustees gained Parliamentary approval for Weekes' plan in 1929 on the condition that the area dedicated to the memorial would be limited in size. The Advisory Board for the Hyde Park Remodelling chose the southern end of the park to site the monument. The National Council of Women and Anzac Fellowship of Women objected to this site because it was considered to be insufficiently commanding, while artist Julian Ashton pointed out that skyscrapers would soon overshadow its position.", "About this time another war memorial was bequeathed to Australians by the late JF Archibald, co\\-founder of the Bulletin newspaper, to commemorate the association of Australia and France in the Great War of 1914–1918\\. Created by [Francois Sicard](/wiki/Francois_Sicard \"Francois Sicard\"), winner of the Prix de Rome in 1891, the Public Trustee requested that it be installed at the site of Weekes' proposed column at the northern end of Hyde Park. Major Hubert Colette and JB Waterhouse supervised the erection of the [Archibald Memorial Fountain](/wiki/Archibald_Fountain \"Archibald Fountain\"), which was completed on 14 March 1932\\. This was when work was beginning on the ANZAC Memorial building at the southern end of the same avenue.", "Debates about the style of the ANZAC Memorial can be generally divided into soldiers' versus women's groups which supported utility versus beauty respectively. The majority of returned soldiers looked for a building that would meet their immediate needs for association, while women's groups tended to favour a structure that would be commemorative. After ten years of debate, the RSSILA and the disabled veterans bodies all agreed on Anzac Day 1928 that the building \"should be commemorative rather than utilitarian\". As the RSSILA state president Fred Davison expressed it, the League had finally agreed to a \"shrine of remembrance\" such as their Victorian counterparts had begun to build. The soldiers' needs were not entirely abandoned and in the spirit of compromise one\\-seventh of the funding was allocated to incorporate offices where the returned soldiers' organisations could look after their members.", "" ]
### The ANZAC Memorial design competition A [competition](/wiki/Architectural_design_competition "Architectural design competition") for the design of the memorial was commissioned on 13 July 1929\. Entrants were required to be Australians qualified to work as architects within or outside NSW, the latter persons being required to register in the state if they won. Competitors could confer with an Australian sculptor, either while designing the competition entry or during its construction. All entrants had to register by 30 January 1930 and present their entries two weeks later. The judges were Professor A. S. Hook, Dean of the Sydney University Faculty of Architecture Professor [Leslie Wilkinson](/wiki/Leslie_Wilkinson "Leslie Wilkinson"), and the Public Trustee E. J. Payne. The winner would be appointed the ANZAC Memorial architect. The cost of the building was limited to {{Australian pound\|75,000}} calculated at rates current at the time of entry. In addition to the memorial itself the building was required to provide office accommodation for the Returned Soldiers and Sailors Imperial League, TB Soldiers' Association and the Limbless Soldiers' Association. The trustees received 117 entries in the competition and chose seven for second stage consideration which were exhibited in the Blaxland Galleries in Farmers Department Store (now Grace Bros). In February 1930 the prize\-winning entries were announced by the [Governor of New South Wales](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales "Governor of New South Wales"), Sir [Philip Game](/wiki/Philip_Game "Philip Game").{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article149353803 \|title\=MODEL WAR MEMORIAL\|newspaper\=Toodyay Herald \|issue\=18 \|location\=Western Australia \|date\=5 September 1930 \|access\-date\=1 April 2017 \|page\=4 \|via\=National Library of Australia}} Third prize was awarded to [Peter Kaad](/wiki/Peter_Kaad "Peter Kaad"), second prize to John D. Moore and the winner was Bruce Dellit. The successful contractors for the building works were [Kell \& Rigby](/wiki/Kell_%26_Rigby "Kell & Rigby").["How the Memorial came into being"](http://www.rslnsw.com.au/Default.aspx?PageID=2603798&A=SearchResult&SearchID=2345279&ObjectID=2603798&ObjectType=1) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215175712/http://www.rslnsw.com.au/Default.aspx?PageID\=2603798\&A\=SearchResult\&SearchID\=2345279\&ObjectID\=2603798\&ObjectType\=1 \|date\=15 December 2018 }} [Returned and Services League of Australia (NSW)](/wiki/Returned_and_Services_League_of_Australia "Returned and Services League of Australia"), Retrieved 15 February 2012 According to *Building* magazine, most people agreed that Dellit's design for the ANZAC Memorial was the best in the competition. In his entry, Dellit submitted a model with photographs of it from all angles and 17 drawing sheets including an aerial perspective and an isometric section in Dellit's own words: "ENDURANCE COURAGE AND SACRIFICE – these are the three thoughts which have inspired the accompanying design, and it is around the last mentioned that it develops". Dellit explained that the central sculpture "sacrifice" was placed in the lower chamber "like a famous French tomb" – Napoleon's tomb – to "offer visitors an opportunity for a quiet, dignified, physical and mental acknowledgment of the message". #### Bruce Dellit, the architect {{main\|Bruce Dellit}} [thumb\|260px\|Dellit's architectural sketch of the memorial; 1930](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial%2C_Hyde_Park_-_drawing_by_Charles_Bruce_Dellit%2C_Architect.jpg "ANZAC War Memorial, Hyde Park - drawing by Charles Bruce Dellit, Architect.jpg") Australian\-born Charles Bruce Dellit studied at [Sydney Technical College](/wiki/Sydney_Technical_College "Sydney Technical College") under Byera Hadley from 1912 to 1918 and continued his professional education at the [University of Sydney](/wiki/University_of_Sydney "University of Sydney"). Dellit registered as an architect in June 1923 and established his own practice six years later. Before winning the ANZAC Memorial competition, he had designed Kyle House in Macquarie Place featuring the "monumental entrance arch" that became one of his characteristic motifs. It also shows his interest in American Art Deco skyscrapers and the patterned brickwork espoused by contemporary Dutch and German schools. Along with his contemporary [Emil Sodersten](/wiki/Emil_Sodersten "Emil Sodersten"), he is considered to have pioneered the Art Deco style in Australia. Dellit employed a more pronounced use of ornament and symbolism while Sodersten relied more on form and materials for his architecture. Many of the notable Art Deco buildings in Sydney were designed by these architects. In designing the ANZAC Memorial, Dellit used sculptural and architectural imagery to express collective mourning at the death of so many young men from NSW. The form of the sculpture changed with the involvement of Rayner Hoff, whom Dellit engaged after he had won the competition. Hoff greatly strengthened the imagery by replacing Dellit's seasons and sculptures representing the arts of war and peace with figures representing all branches of the armed services. The Pool of Reflection that mirrors the building on the northern side remains Dellit's call for passers\-by to stop and remember. Similarly, while the central sculpture "Sacrifice" at the heart of the building is Hoff's, the form of the interior, itself very emotive, is Dellit's. Dellit used impressive staircases flanked by memorial urns to lead the visitor up into the Hall of Memory. Once there, they must bow their heads to look into the Well of Contemplation in order to contemplate "Sacrifice", which is in the Hall of Silence below or look up to see the dome decorated with 120,000 golden "Stars of Memory", each representing a serviceman or woman from NSW. Dellit's architecture and Hoff's sculptures greatly enhance each other to provide an artistically integrated emotional message. According to Maisy Stapleton, the greatest exponents of the Art Deco style in Sydney were the architects C. Bruce Dellit and Emil Sodersten. She considered that Dellit's highest achievement was the ANZAC Memorial, "a vision of modern form and strong, emotive expression closely allied to popular sentiment" and described the memorial as "the epitome of Art Deco in Australia". Dellit died of cancer on 21 August 1942 only eight years after the ANZAC Memorial was ceremoniously opened. It is considered his finest achievement by some, "a vision of modern form and strong, emotive expression closely allied to popular sentiment." His later works included two chapels at Kinsela's Funeral Parlour, [Darlinghurst](/wiki/Darlinghurst%2C_New_South_Wales "Darlinghurst, New South Wales"), 1933 and several bank buildings in the city as well as numerous competition entries. [The Bulletin](/wiki/The_Bulletin_%28Australian_periodical%29 "The Bulletin (Australian periodical)") obituary described him as an "arresting and vital figure Everything about him was big". #### Rayner Hoff, the sculptor {{main\|Rayner Hoff}} George Rayner Hoff was born in 1894 on the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man"). His father later moved the family to Nottingham in England where Rayner Hoff worked in a stonemason's yard while still at school. At 14 he commenced work in an architect's office and later furthered his training by studying drawing and design at the Nottingham School of Art. In 1915 Hoff enlisted in the army and served on the Western Front the following year. After the war he studied sculpture at the Royal College of Art in London under Frances Derwent Wood and in 1922 he won the Prix de Rome. Hoff arrived in Sydney in August 1923 and began work as head teacher of modelling and sculpture at East Sydney Technical College, Darlinghurst (Sydney's major art school), where he also established his private studio. Hoff exerted an enormous influence on the progress of Australian sculpture. By the end of the decade, Hoff's work at the college produced a school of gifted sculptors and assistants. It was, according to [Deborah Edwards](/wiki/Deborah_Edwards "Deborah Edwards"), "perhaps the sole instance of a coherent school of production among sculptors in Australian history". In 1925 Hoff completed reliefs for the [Dubbo](/wiki/Dubbo "Dubbo") War Memorial and in 1927 he was commissioned to design the sculptures on the National War Memorial, [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia "South Australia"). In 1930 Dellit commissioned Hoff to design the sculptures for the ANZAC Memorial. Creating the numerous sculptures on the ANZAC Memorial became the pinnacle of Hoff 's career. The task involved creation of sixteen seated and four standing figures of servicemen and women in cast synthetic stone, four corner cast stone reliefs and two long bronze bas\-reliefs over the eastern and western doors outside the building. Hoff's contributions to the interior also included designing the form of the 120,000 faceted gold stars that covered the domed ceiling, four relief panels showing the march of the dead, each superimposed with symbolic representations of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps, and the marble wreath surrounding the Well of Contemplation that framed the view of Sacrifice below. Hoff and eight assistants were fully employed on the memorial between 1931 and 1934\. Hoff gave considerable prominence to the female contributors to the war effort in the ANZAC Memorial, including the women who lost their fathers, husbands and sons. Nurses were prominent among the figures representing the services and women were central to the group sculpture, "Sacrifice". Hoff explained the prominent position of the women in this work in 1932: "Thousands of women, although not directly engaged in war activities lost all that was dearest to them. There was no acknowledgment of them in casualty lists, lists of wounded, maimed and killed. In this spirit I have shown them carrying their load, the sacrifice of their menfolk". In 1932 models for the two massive bronze groups intended for placement in front of the east and west windows were publicly exhibited. Hoff's "The Crucifixion of Civilisation 1914" and "Victory after Sacrifice 1918" both featured naked women as the central figures. The violent controversy that greeted the exhibition of these models prevented their development into full\-size sculptures, with the sexual aspect of the imagery attracting the most intense criticism. In despair over the controversy, Hoff eventually destroyed the plaster models and refused to compromise his designs when the possibility of making them was raised again in 1934\. The sculptures were never completed. Hoff's other public sculptures in Sydney included a bas\-relief of Mercury in Transport House, [York Street](/wiki/York_Street%2C_Sydney "York Street, Sydney") and several sculptures in Emil Sodersten's City Mutual Life Building in [Hunter Street](/wiki/Hunter_Street%2C_Sydney "Hunter Street, Sydney"). However, in spite of his obvious success, Hoff was unable to shake the controversy about the unexecuted ANZAC Memorial sculptures. It remained with him until his early death from pancreatitis on 19 November 1937\.
[ "### The ANZAC Memorial design competition", "A [competition](/wiki/Architectural_design_competition \"Architectural design competition\") for the design of the memorial was commissioned on 13 July 1929\\. Entrants were required to be Australians qualified to work as architects within or outside NSW, the latter persons being required to register in the state if they won. Competitors could confer with an Australian sculptor, either while designing the competition entry or during its construction. All entrants had to register by 30 January 1930 and present their entries two weeks later. The judges were Professor A. S. Hook, Dean of the Sydney University Faculty of Architecture Professor [Leslie Wilkinson](/wiki/Leslie_Wilkinson \"Leslie Wilkinson\"), and the Public Trustee E. J. Payne. The winner would be appointed the ANZAC Memorial architect. The cost of the building was limited to {{Australian pound\\|75,000}} calculated at rates current at the time of entry. In addition to the memorial itself the building was required to provide office accommodation for the Returned Soldiers and Sailors Imperial League, TB Soldiers' Association and the Limbless Soldiers' Association. The trustees received 117 entries in the competition and chose seven for second stage consideration which were exhibited in the Blaxland Galleries in Farmers Department Store (now Grace Bros). In February 1930 the prize\\-winning entries were announced by the [Governor of New South Wales](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales \"Governor of New South Wales\"), Sir [Philip Game](/wiki/Philip_Game \"Philip Game\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article149353803 \\|title\\=MODEL WAR MEMORIAL\\|newspaper\\=Toodyay Herald \\|issue\\=18 \\|location\\=Western Australia \\|date\\=5 September 1930 \\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2017 \\|page\\=4 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} Third prize was awarded to [Peter Kaad](/wiki/Peter_Kaad \"Peter Kaad\"), second prize to John D. Moore and the winner was Bruce Dellit. The successful contractors for the building works were [Kell \\& Rigby](/wiki/Kell_%26_Rigby \"Kell & Rigby\").[\"How the Memorial came into being\"](http://www.rslnsw.com.au/Default.aspx?PageID=2603798&A=SearchResult&SearchID=2345279&ObjectID=2603798&ObjectType=1) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215175712/http://www.rslnsw.com.au/Default.aspx?PageID\\=2603798\\&A\\=SearchResult\\&SearchID\\=2345279\\&ObjectID\\=2603798\\&ObjectType\\=1 \\|date\\=15 December 2018 }} [Returned and Services League of Australia (NSW)](/wiki/Returned_and_Services_League_of_Australia \"Returned and Services League of Australia\"), Retrieved 15 February 2012 According to *Building* magazine, most people agreed that Dellit's design for the ANZAC Memorial was the best in the competition.", "In his entry, Dellit submitted a model with photographs of it from all angles and 17 drawing sheets including an aerial perspective and an isometric section in Dellit's own words: \"ENDURANCE COURAGE AND SACRIFICE – these are the three thoughts which have inspired the accompanying design, and it is around the last mentioned that it develops\". Dellit explained that the central sculpture \"sacrifice\" was placed in the lower chamber \"like a famous French tomb\" – Napoleon's tomb – to \"offer visitors an opportunity for a quiet, dignified, physical and mental acknowledgment of the message\".", "#### Bruce Dellit, the architect", "{{main\\|Bruce Dellit}}\n[thumb\\|260px\\|Dellit's architectural sketch of the memorial; 1930](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial%2C_Hyde_Park_-_drawing_by_Charles_Bruce_Dellit%2C_Architect.jpg \"ANZAC War Memorial, Hyde Park - drawing by Charles Bruce Dellit, Architect.jpg\")\nAustralian\\-born Charles Bruce Dellit studied at [Sydney Technical College](/wiki/Sydney_Technical_College \"Sydney Technical College\") under Byera Hadley from 1912 to 1918 and continued his professional education at the [University of Sydney](/wiki/University_of_Sydney \"University of Sydney\"). Dellit registered as an architect in June 1923 and established his own practice six years later. Before winning the ANZAC Memorial competition, he had designed Kyle House in Macquarie Place featuring the \"monumental entrance arch\" that became one of his characteristic motifs. It also shows his interest in American Art Deco skyscrapers and the patterned brickwork espoused by contemporary Dutch and German schools. Along with his contemporary [Emil Sodersten](/wiki/Emil_Sodersten \"Emil Sodersten\"), he is considered to have pioneered the Art Deco style in Australia. Dellit employed a more pronounced use of ornament and symbolism while Sodersten relied more on form and materials for his architecture. Many of the notable Art Deco buildings in Sydney were designed by these architects.", "In designing the ANZAC Memorial, Dellit used sculptural and architectural imagery to express collective mourning at the death of so many young men from NSW. The form of the sculpture changed with the involvement of Rayner Hoff, whom Dellit engaged after he had won the competition. Hoff greatly strengthened the imagery by replacing Dellit's seasons and sculptures representing the arts of war and peace with figures representing all branches of the armed services. The Pool of Reflection that mirrors the building on the northern side remains Dellit's call for passers\\-by to stop and remember.", "Similarly, while the central sculpture \"Sacrifice\" at the heart of the building is Hoff's, the form of the interior, itself very emotive, is Dellit's. Dellit used impressive staircases flanked by memorial urns to lead the visitor up into the Hall of Memory. Once there, they must bow their heads to look into the Well of Contemplation in order to contemplate \"Sacrifice\", which is in the Hall of Silence below or look up to see the dome decorated with 120,000 golden \"Stars of Memory\", each representing a serviceman or woman from NSW. Dellit's architecture and Hoff's sculptures greatly enhance each other to provide an artistically integrated emotional message.", "According to Maisy Stapleton, the greatest exponents of the Art Deco style in Sydney were the architects C. Bruce Dellit and Emil Sodersten. She considered that Dellit's highest achievement was the ANZAC Memorial, \"a vision of modern form and strong, emotive expression closely allied to popular sentiment\" and described the memorial as \"the epitome of Art Deco in Australia\".", "Dellit died of cancer on 21 August 1942 only eight years after the ANZAC Memorial was ceremoniously opened. It is considered his finest achievement by some, \"a vision of modern form and strong, emotive expression closely allied to popular sentiment.\" His later works included two chapels at Kinsela's Funeral Parlour, [Darlinghurst](/wiki/Darlinghurst%2C_New_South_Wales \"Darlinghurst, New South Wales\"), 1933 and several bank buildings in the city as well as numerous competition entries. [The Bulletin](/wiki/The_Bulletin_%28Australian_periodical%29 \"The Bulletin (Australian periodical)\") obituary described him as an \"arresting and vital figure Everything about him was big\".", "#### Rayner Hoff, the sculptor", "{{main\\|Rayner Hoff}}\nGeorge Rayner Hoff was born in 1894 on the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man \"Isle of Man\"). His father later moved the family to Nottingham in England where Rayner Hoff worked in a stonemason's yard while still at school. At 14 he commenced work in an architect's office and later furthered his training by studying drawing and design at the Nottingham School of Art. In 1915 Hoff enlisted in the army and served on the Western Front the following year. After the war he studied sculpture at the Royal College of Art in London under Frances Derwent Wood and in 1922 he won the Prix de Rome.", "Hoff arrived in Sydney in August 1923 and began work as head teacher of modelling and sculpture at East Sydney Technical College, Darlinghurst (Sydney's major art school), where he also established his private studio. Hoff exerted an enormous influence on the progress of Australian sculpture. By the end of the decade, Hoff's work at the college produced a school of gifted sculptors and assistants. It was, according to [Deborah Edwards](/wiki/Deborah_Edwards \"Deborah Edwards\"), \"perhaps the sole instance of a coherent school of production among sculptors in Australian history\". In 1925 Hoff completed reliefs for the [Dubbo](/wiki/Dubbo \"Dubbo\") War Memorial and in 1927 he was commissioned to design the sculptures on the National War Memorial, [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\").", "In 1930 Dellit commissioned Hoff to design the sculptures for the ANZAC Memorial. Creating the numerous sculptures on the ANZAC Memorial became the pinnacle of Hoff 's career. The task involved creation of sixteen seated and four standing figures of servicemen and women in cast synthetic stone, four corner cast stone reliefs and two long bronze bas\\-reliefs over the eastern and western doors outside the building. Hoff's contributions to the interior also included designing the form of the 120,000 faceted gold stars that covered the domed ceiling, four relief panels showing the march of the dead, each superimposed with symbolic representations of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps, and the marble wreath surrounding the Well of Contemplation that framed the view of Sacrifice below. Hoff and eight assistants were fully employed on the memorial between 1931 and 1934\\.", "Hoff gave considerable prominence to the female contributors to the war effort in the ANZAC Memorial, including the women who lost their fathers, husbands and sons. Nurses were prominent among the figures representing the services and women were central to the group sculpture, \"Sacrifice\". Hoff explained the prominent position of the women in this work in 1932: \"Thousands of women, although not directly engaged in war activities lost all that was dearest to them. There was no acknowledgment of them in casualty lists, lists of wounded, maimed and killed. In this spirit I have shown them carrying their load, the sacrifice of their menfolk\".", "In 1932 models for the two massive bronze groups intended for placement in front of the east and west windows were publicly exhibited. Hoff's \"The Crucifixion of Civilisation 1914\" and \"Victory after Sacrifice 1918\" both featured naked women as the central figures. The violent controversy that greeted the exhibition of these models prevented their development into full\\-size sculptures, with the sexual aspect of the imagery attracting the most intense criticism. In despair over the controversy, Hoff eventually destroyed the plaster models and refused to compromise his designs when the possibility of making them was raised again in 1934\\. The sculptures were never completed.", "Hoff's other public sculptures in Sydney included a bas\\-relief of Mercury in Transport House, [York Street](/wiki/York_Street%2C_Sydney \"York Street, Sydney\") and several sculptures in Emil Sodersten's City Mutual Life Building in [Hunter Street](/wiki/Hunter_Street%2C_Sydney \"Hunter Street, Sydney\"). However, in spite of his obvious success, Hoff was unable to shake the controversy about the unexecuted ANZAC Memorial sculptures. It remained with him until his early death from pancreatitis on 19 November 1937\\.", "" ]
#### Rayner Hoff, the sculptor {{main\|Rayner Hoff}} George Rayner Hoff was born in 1894 on the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man"). His father later moved the family to Nottingham in England where Rayner Hoff worked in a stonemason's yard while still at school. At 14 he commenced work in an architect's office and later furthered his training by studying drawing and design at the Nottingham School of Art. In 1915 Hoff enlisted in the army and served on the Western Front the following year. After the war he studied sculpture at the Royal College of Art in London under Frances Derwent Wood and in 1922 he won the Prix de Rome. Hoff arrived in Sydney in August 1923 and began work as head teacher of modelling and sculpture at East Sydney Technical College, Darlinghurst (Sydney's major art school), where he also established his private studio. Hoff exerted an enormous influence on the progress of Australian sculpture. By the end of the decade, Hoff's work at the college produced a school of gifted sculptors and assistants. It was, according to [Deborah Edwards](/wiki/Deborah_Edwards "Deborah Edwards"), "perhaps the sole instance of a coherent school of production among sculptors in Australian history". In 1925 Hoff completed reliefs for the [Dubbo](/wiki/Dubbo "Dubbo") War Memorial and in 1927 he was commissioned to design the sculptures on the National War Memorial, [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia "South Australia"). In 1930 Dellit commissioned Hoff to design the sculptures for the ANZAC Memorial. Creating the numerous sculptures on the ANZAC Memorial became the pinnacle of Hoff 's career. The task involved creation of sixteen seated and four standing figures of servicemen and women in cast synthetic stone, four corner cast stone reliefs and two long bronze bas\-reliefs over the eastern and western doors outside the building. Hoff's contributions to the interior also included designing the form of the 120,000 faceted gold stars that covered the domed ceiling, four relief panels showing the march of the dead, each superimposed with symbolic representations of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps, and the marble wreath surrounding the Well of Contemplation that framed the view of Sacrifice below. Hoff and eight assistants were fully employed on the memorial between 1931 and 1934\. Hoff gave considerable prominence to the female contributors to the war effort in the ANZAC Memorial, including the women who lost their fathers, husbands and sons. Nurses were prominent among the figures representing the services and women were central to the group sculpture, "Sacrifice". Hoff explained the prominent position of the women in this work in 1932: "Thousands of women, although not directly engaged in war activities lost all that was dearest to them. There was no acknowledgment of them in casualty lists, lists of wounded, maimed and killed. In this spirit I have shown them carrying their load, the sacrifice of their menfolk". In 1932 models for the two massive bronze groups intended for placement in front of the east and west windows were publicly exhibited. Hoff's "The Crucifixion of Civilisation 1914" and "Victory after Sacrifice 1918" both featured naked women as the central figures. The violent controversy that greeted the exhibition of these models prevented their development into full\-size sculptures, with the sexual aspect of the imagery attracting the most intense criticism. In despair over the controversy, Hoff eventually destroyed the plaster models and refused to compromise his designs when the possibility of making them was raised again in 1934\. The sculptures were never completed. Hoff's other public sculptures in Sydney included a bas\-relief of Mercury in Transport House, [York Street](/wiki/York_Street%2C_Sydney "York Street, Sydney") and several sculptures in Emil Sodersten's City Mutual Life Building in [Hunter Street](/wiki/Hunter_Street%2C_Sydney "Hunter Street, Sydney"). However, in spite of his obvious success, Hoff was unable to shake the controversy about the unexecuted ANZAC Memorial sculptures. It remained with him until his early death from pancreatitis on 19 November 1937\.
[ "#### Rayner Hoff, the sculptor", "{{main\\|Rayner Hoff}}\nGeorge Rayner Hoff was born in 1894 on the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man \"Isle of Man\"). His father later moved the family to Nottingham in England where Rayner Hoff worked in a stonemason's yard while still at school. At 14 he commenced work in an architect's office and later furthered his training by studying drawing and design at the Nottingham School of Art. In 1915 Hoff enlisted in the army and served on the Western Front the following year. After the war he studied sculpture at the Royal College of Art in London under Frances Derwent Wood and in 1922 he won the Prix de Rome.", "Hoff arrived in Sydney in August 1923 and began work as head teacher of modelling and sculpture at East Sydney Technical College, Darlinghurst (Sydney's major art school), where he also established his private studio. Hoff exerted an enormous influence on the progress of Australian sculpture. By the end of the decade, Hoff's work at the college produced a school of gifted sculptors and assistants. It was, according to [Deborah Edwards](/wiki/Deborah_Edwards \"Deborah Edwards\"), \"perhaps the sole instance of a coherent school of production among sculptors in Australian history\". In 1925 Hoff completed reliefs for the [Dubbo](/wiki/Dubbo \"Dubbo\") War Memorial and in 1927 he was commissioned to design the sculptures on the National War Memorial, [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\").", "In 1930 Dellit commissioned Hoff to design the sculptures for the ANZAC Memorial. Creating the numerous sculptures on the ANZAC Memorial became the pinnacle of Hoff 's career. The task involved creation of sixteen seated and four standing figures of servicemen and women in cast synthetic stone, four corner cast stone reliefs and two long bronze bas\\-reliefs over the eastern and western doors outside the building. Hoff's contributions to the interior also included designing the form of the 120,000 faceted gold stars that covered the domed ceiling, four relief panels showing the march of the dead, each superimposed with symbolic representations of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps, and the marble wreath surrounding the Well of Contemplation that framed the view of Sacrifice below. Hoff and eight assistants were fully employed on the memorial between 1931 and 1934\\.", "Hoff gave considerable prominence to the female contributors to the war effort in the ANZAC Memorial, including the women who lost their fathers, husbands and sons. Nurses were prominent among the figures representing the services and women were central to the group sculpture, \"Sacrifice\". Hoff explained the prominent position of the women in this work in 1932: \"Thousands of women, although not directly engaged in war activities lost all that was dearest to them. There was no acknowledgment of them in casualty lists, lists of wounded, maimed and killed. In this spirit I have shown them carrying their load, the sacrifice of their menfolk\".", "In 1932 models for the two massive bronze groups intended for placement in front of the east and west windows were publicly exhibited. Hoff's \"The Crucifixion of Civilisation 1914\" and \"Victory after Sacrifice 1918\" both featured naked women as the central figures. The violent controversy that greeted the exhibition of these models prevented their development into full\\-size sculptures, with the sexual aspect of the imagery attracting the most intense criticism. In despair over the controversy, Hoff eventually destroyed the plaster models and refused to compromise his designs when the possibility of making them was raised again in 1934\\. The sculptures were never completed.", "Hoff's other public sculptures in Sydney included a bas\\-relief of Mercury in Transport House, [York Street](/wiki/York_Street%2C_Sydney \"York Street, Sydney\") and several sculptures in Emil Sodersten's City Mutual Life Building in [Hunter Street](/wiki/Hunter_Street%2C_Sydney \"Hunter Street, Sydney\"). However, in spite of his obvious success, Hoff was unable to shake the controversy about the unexecuted ANZAC Memorial sculptures. It remained with him until his early death from pancreatitis on 19 November 1937\\.", "" ]
### Changes in the course of constructing the ANZAC Memorial Originally, Dellit wanted the memorial to be built of sandstone or synthetic granite on an 18\-inch base of [Bowral](/wiki/Bowral "Bowral") trachyte. However, the building was actually constructed in red granite from quarries near [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales "Bathurst, New South Wales"), NSW. The podium and semi\-circular stairs were faced in granite; and the terrace was formed in terrazzo. In 1932 Dellit incorporated four stones from battlefields at Gallipoli, France, Palestine and New Guinea into the floors of the niches in the Hall of Memory in the form of the AIF Rising Sun. The names of major battles at each of these sites were added to the niche walls. The dome of stars approved in 1933 was also a late inclusion. This feature began as a fundraiser when the project had lost support through the fracas over Hoff's exterior statues. To cover the shortfall in funding the memorial, the RSSILA offered 150,000 stars for sale at two shillings each. Although they were unable to sell the full number, 120,000 stars were fixed to the ceiling to represent all the state's volunteers. In order to facilitate their attachment to the plaster ceiling, they were fashioned from plaster of Paris and gilded. In another late change, the interior walls were lined in unpolished marble while polished marble covered the floors. All doors were originally to be bronze but funding shortages caused that specification to be changed to maple, studded with bronze nails. Dellit intended that each of the great amber windows would bear a different design for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Medical Corps. However, the building subcommittee asked for an alternative and a new design was etched on all the windows which combined the AIF symbol with a pattern of eternal flames. Dellit always intended that the office accommodation at the base of the building should be incorporated into the memorial when the need for its original use had passed. The ex\-servicemen's offices featured joinery in silky oak and parquetry floors of red mahogany. Light fittings in the shape of stars echoed the dome in the Hall of Memories. On the eastern side Dellit added an [Assembly Hall](/wiki/Assembly_Hall%2C_Warwick "Assembly Hall, Warwick") to balance the entry foyer on the west. This room had seating for 130 people and was available to all ex\-servicemen's groups. In practice it was used mainly by the associations with offices in the building. Its small size and the ban on alcohol (which applied to the whole memorial) meant that few associations sought to hire it. It was not available for outside use from 1942 to 1957 while the RSL occupied it as an extension to their office. The inscriptions that Dellit intended for the memorial were another casualty of the design process. The trustees consulted the poet Leon Gellert, then Professor Hook, who consulted Professor Mungo McCallum, librarian H. M. Green and historian C. E. W. Bean, about the inscriptions. These experts ruled against most of the numerous labels suggested by Dellit. The surviving inscriptions include those on the foundation stones laid by [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales "Governor of New South Wales") Game and Premier Bevan on 19 July 1932 which bear the words "A soldier set this stone" and "A citizen set this stone" to indicate the contributions both soldiers and citizens had made to the building. An inscription in the floor at the western entrance to the Hall of Silence, "Let Silent Contemplation be Your Offering" was also kept, as was a list of the major battles in the Hall of Silence. The experts chose a simple statement submitted by Hook, Green and Bean to mark the dedication of the building, stating, "This Memorial was opened by a son of the King on 24th November 1934". Another feature that was considerably altered was the landscaping. Dellit planned water gardens for either side of the memorial in the form of a narrow pool to the north and a cascading waterfall to the south. However, as the bulk of the building began to rise above the park, it became apparent that the scale of the water features needed to be increased to balance it. As a result, the cascades were eliminated and the pool extended to 170 feet (52 metres) long by 72 feet (22 metres) wide. Landscaping was completed by the City Council, which was responsible for the park. Finance for the additional work came from the state Unemployment Relief Fund and a large number of council employees and relief labourers poured the concrete for the pool in a single day to eliminate the need for joints and ensure that it was watertight. The Council acceded to Dellit's request to keep a clear open space around the memorial. It also followed his plan for a line of poplars on either side of the pool to symbolise the French battlefields. Dellit also wanted beds filled with the red poppies of Flanders and other plantings from the eastern and western fronts.
[ "### Changes in the course of constructing the ANZAC Memorial", "Originally, Dellit wanted the memorial to be built of sandstone or synthetic granite on an 18\\-inch base of [Bowral](/wiki/Bowral \"Bowral\") trachyte. However, the building was actually constructed in red granite from quarries near [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales \"Bathurst, New South Wales\"), NSW. The podium and semi\\-circular stairs were faced in granite; and the terrace was formed in terrazzo.", "In 1932 Dellit incorporated four stones from battlefields at Gallipoli, France, Palestine and New Guinea into the floors of the niches in the Hall of Memory in the form of the AIF Rising Sun. The names of major battles at each of these sites were added to the niche walls. The dome of stars approved in 1933 was also a late inclusion. This feature began as a fundraiser when the project had lost support through the fracas over Hoff's exterior statues. To cover the shortfall in funding the memorial, the RSSILA offered 150,000 stars for sale at two shillings each. Although they were unable to sell the full number, 120,000 stars were fixed to the ceiling to represent all the state's volunteers. In order to facilitate their attachment to the plaster ceiling, they were fashioned from plaster of Paris and gilded.", "In another late change, the interior walls were lined in unpolished marble while polished marble covered the floors. All doors were originally to be bronze but funding shortages caused that specification to be changed to maple, studded with bronze nails. Dellit intended that each of the great amber windows would bear a different design for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Medical Corps. However, the building subcommittee asked for an alternative and a new design was etched on all the windows which combined the AIF symbol with a pattern of eternal flames.", "Dellit always intended that the office accommodation at the base of the building should be incorporated into the memorial when the need for its original use had passed. The ex\\-servicemen's offices featured joinery in silky oak and parquetry floors of red mahogany. Light fittings in the shape of stars echoed the dome in the Hall of Memories. On the eastern side Dellit added an [Assembly Hall](/wiki/Assembly_Hall%2C_Warwick \"Assembly Hall, Warwick\") to balance the entry foyer on the west. This room had seating for 130 people and was available to all ex\\-servicemen's groups. In practice it was used mainly by the associations with offices in the building. Its small size and the ban on alcohol (which applied to the whole memorial) meant that few associations sought to hire it. It was not available for outside use from 1942 to 1957 while the RSL occupied it as an extension to their office.", "The inscriptions that Dellit intended for the memorial were another casualty of the design process. The trustees consulted the poet Leon Gellert, then Professor Hook, who consulted Professor Mungo McCallum, librarian H. M. Green and historian C. E. W. Bean, about the inscriptions. These experts ruled against most of the numerous labels suggested by Dellit. The surviving inscriptions include those on the foundation stones laid by [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales \"Governor of New South Wales\") Game and Premier Bevan on 19 July 1932 which bear the words \"A soldier set this stone\" and \"A citizen set this stone\" to indicate the contributions both soldiers and citizens had made to the building. An inscription in the floor at the western entrance to the Hall of Silence, \"Let Silent Contemplation be Your Offering\" was also kept, as was a list of the major battles in the Hall of Silence. The experts chose a simple statement submitted by Hook, Green and Bean to mark the dedication of the building, stating, \"This Memorial was opened by a son of the King on 24th November 1934\".", "Another feature that was considerably altered was the landscaping. Dellit planned water gardens for either side of the memorial in the form of a narrow pool to the north and a cascading waterfall to the south. However, as the bulk of the building began to rise above the park, it became apparent that the scale of the water features needed to be increased to balance it. As a result, the cascades were eliminated and the pool extended to 170 feet (52 metres) long by 72 feet (22 metres) wide. Landscaping was completed by the City Council, which was responsible for the park. Finance for the additional work came from the state Unemployment Relief Fund and a large number of council employees and relief labourers poured the concrete for the pool in a single day to eliminate the need for joints and ensure that it was watertight. The Council acceded to Dellit's request to keep a clear open space around the memorial. It also followed his plan for a line of poplars on either side of the pool to symbolise the French battlefields. Dellit also wanted beds filled with the red poppies of Flanders and other plantings from the eastern and western fronts.", "" ]
### Changing perceptions of the ANZAC Memorial Australia was embroiled in World War II less than five years after the ANZAC Memorial opened. Attempts to physically make changes and add additional symbols to reflect this and later wars did not proceed due to difficulties envisaging how this might be achieved without compromising the design. Although the ANZAC Memorial experienced no significant structural changes, in the latter half of the twentieth century people did tend to assume that it was a memorial for all wars. The memorial also became a symbol of all wars in a negative way, particularly in the case of the Australian [Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales "Government of New South Wales")'s support of the United States in Vietnam, which polarised the nation. In the prolonged civil protests about Australian involvement in that war – characterised by the moratorium marches of the late 1960s – the ANZAC Memorial became a rallying point. It was also the site of an anti\-war sit\-in in 1970 and the centre for a Ban the Bomb protest in 1983\. In 1975 feminists inferred it was a symbol of male domination when they painted on it, "Women march for Liberation". In 1984 an amendment of the Anzac Memorial Building Act of 1923 legally acknowledged the meaning of the ANZAC Memorial that most people had already accepted when it authorised the building's re\-dedication as the principal war memorial of NSW. Governor Sir [James Rowland](/wiki/James_Rowland_%28RAAF_officer%29 "James Rowland (RAAF officer)") performed the ceremony on 30 November, fifty years and six days after the first dedication by the Duke of Gloucester. From that time, the ANZAC Memorial's stated purpose was to honour the men and women of NSW who served in all wars where Australia had been involved. In the same year a "museum" or exhibition space was established to inform the public both about the wars in which Australia has been involved and those who served in them. It was originally opened on the 50th Anniversary of the official opening of the memorial, on 18 November 1984\. A bronze plaque marking the event was mounted on a wall in the Vestibule. A permanent photographic exhibition titled "Australians at War" opened during this month and became a great success with visiting school groups and tourists. [thumb\|The ANZAC Memorial illuminated at night, 2007](/wiki/File:ANZAC_Memorial_Sydney_Australia_-_June_2007.jpg "ANZAC Memorial Sydney Australia - June 2007.jpg") A recent mark of respect to NSW service men and women was the 1995 addition of a Remembrance Flame to the Hall of Memory. The trustees made space for this new symbol by removing the door to the Archives Room and commissioning the [Australian Gas Light Company](/wiki/Australian_Gas_Light_Company "Australian Gas Light Company") Limited (AGL) to install the burner which is currently lit 8 hours a day between 9 am and 5 pm. The ANZAC Memorial has been variously described as "a unique statement of architectural and sculptural unity", "the ultimate conception of the Art Deco style in this country" and "the epitome of Art Deco in Australia." It has become a site of increasing visitation in the 21st century, including a marked increase in the number of schools and other educational bodies. The ANZAC Memorial Building is "a lasting memorial", \[an] "outstanding legacy" that continues to move present\-day Australians to bow their heads 'in honoured memory of all those who have fought on the nation's behalf'.
[ "### Changing perceptions of the ANZAC Memorial", "Australia was embroiled in World War II less than five years after the ANZAC Memorial opened. Attempts to physically make changes and add additional symbols to reflect this and later wars did not proceed due to difficulties envisaging how this might be achieved without compromising the design.", "Although the ANZAC Memorial experienced no significant structural changes, in the latter half of the twentieth century people did tend to assume that it was a memorial for all wars. The memorial also became a symbol of all wars in a negative way, particularly in the case of the Australian [Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales \"Government of New South Wales\")'s support of the United States in Vietnam, which polarised the nation. In the prolonged civil protests about Australian involvement in that war – characterised by the moratorium marches of the late 1960s – the ANZAC Memorial became a rallying point. It was also the site of an anti\\-war sit\\-in in 1970 and the centre for a Ban the Bomb protest in 1983\\. In 1975 feminists inferred it was a symbol of male domination when they painted on it, \"Women march for Liberation\".", "In 1984 an amendment of the Anzac Memorial Building Act of 1923 legally acknowledged the meaning of the ANZAC Memorial that most people had already accepted when it authorised the building's re\\-dedication as the principal war memorial of NSW. Governor Sir [James Rowland](/wiki/James_Rowland_%28RAAF_officer%29 \"James Rowland (RAAF officer)\") performed the ceremony on 30 November, fifty years and six days after the first dedication by the Duke of Gloucester. From that time, the ANZAC Memorial's stated purpose was to honour the men and women of NSW who served in all wars where Australia had been involved.", "In the same year a \"museum\" or exhibition space was established to inform the public both about the wars in which Australia has been involved and those who served in them. It was originally opened on the 50th Anniversary of the official opening of the memorial, on 18 November 1984\\. A bronze plaque marking the event was mounted on a wall in the Vestibule. A permanent photographic exhibition titled \"Australians at War\" opened during this month and became a great success with visiting school groups and tourists.\n[thumb\\|The ANZAC Memorial illuminated at night, 2007](/wiki/File:ANZAC_Memorial_Sydney_Australia_-_June_2007.jpg \"ANZAC Memorial Sydney Australia - June 2007.jpg\")\nA recent mark of respect to NSW service men and women was the 1995 addition of a Remembrance Flame to the Hall of Memory. The trustees made space for this new symbol by removing the door to the Archives Room and commissioning the [Australian Gas Light Company](/wiki/Australian_Gas_Light_Company \"Australian Gas Light Company\") Limited (AGL) to install the burner which is currently lit 8 hours a day between 9 am and 5 pm.", "The ANZAC Memorial has been variously described as \"a unique statement of architectural and sculptural unity\", \"the ultimate conception of the Art Deco style in this country\" and \"the epitome of Art Deco in Australia.\" It has become a site of increasing visitation in the 21st century, including a marked increase in the number of schools and other educational bodies. The ANZAC Memorial Building is \"a lasting memorial\", \\[an] \"outstanding legacy\" that continues to move present\\-day Australians to bow their heads 'in honoured memory of all those who have fought on the nation's behalf'.", "" ]
Description ----------- [thumb\|The [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") exterior of the building](/wiki/File:Anzac_Memorial_Hyde_Park_001.jpg "Anzac Memorial Hyde Park 001.jpg") The building is constructed of concrete, with an exterior cladding of pink [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite"), and consists of a massed square [superstructure](/wiki/Superstructure "Superstructure") with typically Art Deco setbacks and buttresses, punctuated on each side by a large arched window of yellow stained glass, and crowned with a [ziggurat](/wiki/Ziggurat "Ziggurat")\-inspired stepped roof. It is positioned atop a [cruciform](/wiki/Cruciform "Cruciform") pedestal within which are located administrative offices and a small museum. The interior is largely faced in white marble, and features a domed ceiling adorned with 120,000 gold stars – one for each of those men and women from [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales "New South Wales") who served during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). Access to the main hall is provided via broad stairways on each side of the building's north–south axis, while ground\-level doorways on the east and west sides offer entry to the lower section. The main focus of the interior is Rayner Hoff's monumental [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") sculpture of a deceased youth, representing a soldier, held aloft on his shield by a [caryatid](/wiki/Caryatid "Caryatid") – three female figures, representing his mother, sister and wife. The male figure's nudity was considered shocking at the time of the monument's opening, and it is said to be the only such representation of a naked male form within any war memorial. Two other even more controversial figural sculptures designed by Hoff—one featuring a naked female figure—were never installed on the eastern and western faces of the structure as intended, partly as a result of opposition from high ranking representatives of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"). The building's exterior is adorned with several bronze [friezes](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze"), carved granite [relief](/wiki/Relief "Relief") panels and twenty monumental stone figural sculptures symbolising military personnel, also by Hoff. Immediately to the north of the ANZAC Memorial is a large rectangular "Lake of Reflections" flanked by rows of [poplars](/wiki/Populus "Populus"). The poplars, not native to Australia, symbolise the areas of France in which Australian troops fought. Original plans called for the construction of similar pools on each of the other sides of the building, but these were never built. The memorial setting [thumb\|The memorial and surrounds](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADdney_08.jpg "Sídney 08.jpg") The ANZAC Memorial is located in Hyde Park South and is a principal physical focal point in the axis joining it and the Pool of Reflection with the Archibald Fountain in Hyde Park north. There are many prominent views of the memorial through Hyde Park South and the main axis is aligned with an avenue of fig trees, which accentuates the main path. The ziggurat form of ANZAC Memorial is also evident from Oxford Street for several blocks east of Whitlam Square. The plantings around the ANZAC Memorial have strong associations with the building. The Allepo pine trees arranged around the building have significance because of their symbolic connection to Lone Pine Ridge in Anzac Cove in Turkey. Other symbolic trees have been brought as seedlings and planted in Hyde Park near the memorial, including Gallipoli Rose. The 14 poplars planted in two rows on either side of the Pool of Remembrance were planted in 1934, the date the pool was completed. [left\|thumb\|The Pool of Reflection](/wiki/File:ANZAC_memorial%2C_Hyde_Park%2C_Sydney.jpg "ANZAC memorial, Hyde Park, Sydney.jpg") The pool underwent renovations in 1992 when a waterproof membrane was installed. This work was co\-ordinated with paving around the memorial and the installation of a waterproofing membrane to the steps and [podium](/wiki/Podium "Podium") level of the building. Aligned between the Pool of Reflection and the memorial building staircase are two rows of flag poles that are used on ANZAC Day and commemorative occasions as part of the formal ceremonies at the memorial. Flags are flown permanently throughout the year. The three on the eastern side display the NSW flag and the three on the western side display the Australian national flag. The flagpole on the podium level of the memorial building is for the Governor's Flag and is only used when the Governor formally visits the site. The external building The ANZAC Memorial was designed as a sculptural monument. The building is symmetrical on both axes. It uses elements reminiscent of traditional gothic church buildings ([buttresses](/wiki/Buttress "Buttress"), tall windows, high ceilings), but interprets them in an Art Deco style. Grand staircases lead to the podium level and extend symmetrically on the north and south sides of the building on the main axis of Hyde Park. The [balustrade](/wiki/Balustrade "Balustrade") around the exterior of the podium level is surmounted with cast stone urns. Large timber moulded doors slide into cavities in the external walls to allow entry. The ground floor provides the visual base of the building form and is fenestrated with timber framed double hung windows and bronze security [grilles](/wiki/Grille_%28architecture%29 "Grille (architecture)"). A string course of [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite") extends around the building and becomes the sill at windows. {{Multiple image \| direction \= vertical \| image1 \= ANZAC Memorial Hyde Park figures.jpg \| image2 \= ANZAC Memorial Hyde Park \- 21638202194\.jpg \| footer \= "Sentinel" figures adorning the exterior }} The memorial is adorned externally with many sculptures representing the various Australian armed forces and support units. They are the sentinels of the building, keeping watch whilst representing the fallen for whom the building is dedicated. Between the seated figures in each corner are cast stone bas reliefs. The four large standing figures at the top of each corner of the building represent the Australian Infantry, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps. Another 16 seated figures are positioned at the top of the buttresses, below the corner figures, and represent the various units. These statues include a Naval Signaller, Aviator, Nurse and Lewis Gunner fabricated from cast stone to resemble the granite facing of the building "so they should have the effect of having been hewn out of the moment rather than placed thereon". Above the Eastern and Western Entrances, bronze bas reliefs depict scenes of Australians in the Eastern and Western Fronts. The bronze bas reliefs are generally in good condition, however they require cleaning and the repair of some minor corrosion. A dark pink granosite (synthetic coating) applied to the external statues in the mid 1980s does not reinterpret the architect's original design intention of the statues being hewn from the stone. The internal building The memorial's main entrance from ground level is from the Western side. The vestibule area is lined in Ulum white [marble](/wiki/Marble "Marble"). Two timber cabinets of silky oak with obscured glass are recessed into opposite walls. In the centre of the ceiling is a large brass "Star" light, designed by Dellit. This vestibule has glazed doors leading to the association and management offices to the north, exhibition area to the south, and opens to the west to the stair hall and the Hall of Silence. Originally, internal access between the upper and lower levels of the building was via two "mirror imaged" stairwells, which extended from the Stair Hall in the Vestibule to the Hall of Memory and down to the basement. One of these stairwells has been converted into a new lift, constructed in 2009, linking all three levels. This controlled lift was installed to provide equitable access to the Hall of Memory for ageing veterans and people with a disability. In the remaining stairwell is a bronze, Art Deco\-styled skylight with amber glass. That has been converted to a light. Both stairwells are lined in marble with marble treads. A bronze [handrail](/wiki/Handrail "Handrail") was fixed to each of the stair walls in 1997, designed by Louis Berczi, in a style to match the external copper [handrails](/wiki/Handrails "Handrails") designed by Dellit. At the edge of the Stair Hall is a barred entrance to the Hall of Silence. A large bronze moulded banister, too heavy to move, prevents access to the "tomb" of the fallen soldier, in the "Hall of Silence". At the foot of the entrance, engraved in black granite, with inset brass lettering are the words "LET SILENT CONTEMPLATION BE YOUR OFFERING". At the top of the stairwell is a plaster [niche](/wiki/Niche_%28architecture%29 "Niche (architecture)") framed with marble. The niche displays the original wreath laid by the trustees at the building opening. The wreath is kept in a glass display case and was restored in late 2009\. Hall of Silence [left\|thumb\|The Hall of Silence](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial_001.jpg "ANZAC War Memorial 001.jpg") The room located in the centre of the building is striking in its starkness and wields a powerful influence on visitors. The room is circular in plan with the sculpture "Sacrifice" located at its centre, as if to hold the sculpture in its embrace. The floor is Ulum white marble, inlayed with a bronze flame that flares out from the centrally located sculpture. The ceiling of the room curves up toward the carved marble banister that defines the "Well of Contemplation", a large circular opening in the centre of the shallow domed ceiling. This opening provides the only natural [lighting](/wiki/Lighting "Lighting") to the "Hall of Silence" and has the effect of focussing that light onto the central sculpture. The [cornice](/wiki/Cornice "Cornice") is a marble [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") in which is carved the names of the great battles where Australian forces participated in the war. According to Dellit, the names 'complete the message which the group of sculpture symbolising "Sacrifice" is intended to deliver'. Located on the north–south and east–west axes, the room has three large silky oak double doors, gold painted, that slide open into wall cavities. Two of the doors are now permanently left open and glass doors installed in front of the reveals to allow visitors a view of the sculpture "Sacrifice" from inside the Exhibition space and the Assembly Hall. Sacrifice [thumb\|[Rayner Hoff's](/wiki/Rayner_Hoff "Rayner Hoff") "Sacrifice" sculpture](/wiki/File:Anzac_Memorial_-_Hyde_Park_-_Sydney_-_Australia_%2811202939916%29.jpg "Anzac Memorial - Hyde Park - Sydney - Australia (11202939916).jpg") At the heart of the memorial is the bronze sculpture, "Sacrifice", by Rayner Hoff. It powerfully symbolises the sacrifice made in times of war by both those who go to fight and those left behind. The sculpture can be seen from above through the Well of Contemplation, with heads bowed, or at ground level from the vestibule, Assembly Hall and Exhibition space. The sculpture is also visible from Hyde Park, as originally proposed by Dellit, with glazed eastern doors to the Assembly Hall. Hall of Memory [thumb\|The Hall of Memory](/wiki/File:%281%29Anzac_War_Memorial6.jpg "(1)Anzac War Memorial6.jpg") The "Hall of Memory" is also a circular room that occupies the podium level of the building centred on and located directly above the "Hall of Silence". The large external staircases that lead to the external timber sliding double doors on the podium level on the northern and southern sides were intended to form the grand entrances to the memorial. The "Hall of Memory" is clad in Ulum marble. In the centre of the room, carved in the form of a wreath is the marble balustrade around the "Well of Contemplation". Located in the four "corners" of the room are semi\-circular "Niches of Remembrance", each devoted to one of the major theatres of World War I in which Australians fought, and each commemorating the names of major campaigns in those theatres. The name of the theatre is carved in relief into the face of the marble wall at the top of each niche with the names of the battles beneath it, another example of the fusion of sculpture and building. At the base of each niche, laid in the paving is a headstone from Flanders, Gallipoli, Palestine and New Guinea. Above the tall niches are marble cast bas reliefs by Rayner Hoff that represent the Army, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps and therefore correspond to the four large standing external sculptures. Hoff called them "The March of the Dead". Each relief is bracketed by winged [finial](/wiki/Finial "Finial") lights. Above all this is the high soaring [dome](/wiki/Dome "Dome") of the ceiling covered with 120,000 stars, one for every man and woman in NSW who served in the Great War, made of plaster of paris and painted gold leaf. The height of the room is accentuated with the four grand cathedral windows of etched amber glass, designed by Dellit with Hoff. To the west of Hall of Memory are the internal [stairs](/wiki/Stairs "Stairs") from the ground floor vestibule. To the east is the Remembrance Flame Room, originally the Archives Room and intended to list the names of those 21,000 NSW men and women who died serving their county in the Great War. The room's entrance is accentuated with [pilasters](/wiki/Pilasters "Pilasters") and carvings. Over the doorway is carved "1914–1918" and above that is a winged flaming sword (a symbol of sacrifice) over a rising sun emblem. The room holds the Remembrance Flame that was first officially lit on 11 November 1995\. The Great Doors to the room are left open to keep the flame exposed to view at all times. A braided rope hangs across the entrance to prevent visitors from entering. The exhibition space The exhibition space occupies the southern office area originally provided for the RSL. In 1986, changes to the existing room layout were made, including removal of a number of small offices. The original Strong Room with its Chubb security door is still intact. The items displayed in the museum collection were donated by the public and they include personal letters, medals, books, diaries, uniforms, souvenirs, relics and banners relating to the various conflicts in which Australians were involved. In 2000 an Abloy anti\-theft proof locking system was installed in the exhibition cases. To commemorate the 75th anniversary of the Memorial in 2009, the space was refurbished (for example the original marquetry counter was reused as the visitor's counter) and a new exhibition was installed. The Assembly Hall Located opposite the entry vestibule on the eastern side of the memorial, the Assembly Hall was originally designed as a large open space used for meetings and forums by the different building occupants. In recent years it had been partitioned to allow for a smaller meeting space, office accommodation and archive storage at the northern end. It has been restored and reopened to the public, with new glazed doors to the east and west and a large freestanding AV unit, screening a short film about the Memorial. The room can also be used as a travelling exhibition space. The original plans for the room proposed a raised dais on the southern endwith protruding stage and steps but this was never built. The original dais area was fitted as a kitchen for the memorial staff. This was subsequently removed in 2009, providing a linking space between the exhibition and the Assembly Hall. The design of the room is more ornate than the general office space. The Art Deco detailing extends to the fittings and fixtures in the room. The ceiling is moulded with large Art Deco [coffers](/wiki/Coffer "Coffer") and the walls are punctuated with plaster pilasters. A set of gold painted great doors opens back to reveal the sculpture "Sacrifice". This room has marble door [architraves](/wiki/Architraves "Architraves") and "star lights" designed by Dellit. The original flange wall lights are still in use and many of the original switches still exist in the room. The floors of the Assembly Hall are two\-inch hardwood seasoned Red Mahogany. The bearers are built directly onto the concrete slab. The flooring structure suggests that the original intent may have been to install parquetry flooring throughout the hall. These floor boards were lifted, patched, repaired and relaid as part of building works during 2009\. Offices for the TB Soldiers and Limbless Soldiers Association The northern side of the ANZAC Memorial was originally designated for offices for the TB Soldiers Association and for the Limbless Soldiers Association with parquetry floors, marquetry counters and maple panelled timber partitions. The association's rooms are accessed by the public from the front vestibule via a tiled corridor with maple\-framed [clerestory](/wiki/Clerestory "Clerestory") windows glazed with obscured glass. The offices as built did not follow the original plan. The original partitions in the TB Soldiers Association were removed in 1986 and substituted with aluminium\-framed timber panel and glass partitions. These were subsequently replaced in 2009 with stud\-framed plasterboard walls in a new configuration. The Limbless Soldiers offices changed only slightly from the original layout. The marquetry counter ran across the room and the entrance door was placed to the top of this room. The general activity room was also changed just slightly from the plan, the door is in the middle of the room and the wall curves slightly to make a concave shape in the corridor. Building works in 2009 included restoration of the remaining original offices, creation of a new meeting room/library, kitchenette and management offices. The timber panelled partitions in this area are still in good order but only some of the original furniture remains. The Limbless Soldiers Association moved out of their offices in 2004 and the area has been used by the RSL since that date. The original Chubb Strong Rooms are still retained in both rooms (there are three strong rooms in all). Basement The basement of the ANZAC Memorial contains toilets for both men and women and the original timber lockers are still used by the memorial staff today. The basement has had some alterations within the original layout, however the toilet partitions and doors as well as many fixtures have not been altered and are in good order. Construction during 2009 included the insertion of a new disabled toilet (associated with the new lift), and a purpose\-made cleaners room. Two light wells were originally created to provide fresh air and natural light for the toilets. These light wells now also contain the air conditioning plant, air intake and exhaust system for the building. A major stormwater pit (approximately 1m x 1m) is also located in the basement, in the central cleaner's store with a submersible pump, and is known as the Underground Plant Room. The stairs and flooring of the basement are terrazzo in good condition. The partitions in the male and female toilets are marble and the original timber doors and hardware are in good order. In addition to the existing original timber handrail, a new brass handrail was added in 1985 to match the style of the handrail in the stairwell to the "Hall of Memory". Undercroft and vertical security screens The undercrofts are located under the external stairs leading to the podium level of the memorial. Originally intended for storage spaces for the offices of the RSL and the TB and Limbless Associations, they were largely unusable until 1992 when a water proof membrane was installed over the external stairs to deal with the damp and water ingress issues. The north [undercroft](/wiki/Undercroft "Undercroft") now stores the original unused furniture from the memorial. To provide protection against increasing vandalism of the ANZAC Memorial, external security screens were installed in 1999\. The panels of the screen are made of safety glass etched with designs that continue the original concept of the symbolic use of building elements to reinforce the memorial's purpose. When lowered (normally between 9am and 5pm) they are virtually invisible and allow unobstructed public access. The great doors and windows There are ten sets of great doors to the building, seven on the ground floor and three on the podium level. All the doors are double leaf sliding doors of solid silky oak timber with brass furniture. The sets of external doors are painted green externally and gold internally. The doors slide on tracks that are recessed in the masonry walls of the building. The sets of doors are all panelled and decorated with carvings of urns, eternals flames, swords and crosses all symbolic of the memorial. These doors were repaired and repainted in 2006\. Moveable heritage There is an extensive collection of artefacts, items of memorabilia and tributes on display in the Museum space or stored in a number of small spaces on site, including one of the safes. These items have all been donated by members of the public. Mechanical and electrical services Construction works during 2009 upgraded the services in the building, including the air\-conditioning with the installation of new suspended services spine for ductwork, lighting and security services through the exhibition area and offices. Many of the original electrical fittings remain in use in the building. These include switches and lighting. The original star lights, designed by Dellit and inspired by the stars on the ceiling of the Hall of Memories, are still used throughout the building. The original wall [bracket](/wiki/Bracket_%28architecture%29 "Bracket (architecture)") light fittings in the Assembly Hall are also still used. ### Condition As at 26 February 2010, following many years of major catch\-up maintenance and repair works, the general condition of the Memorial in 2010 is very good. Water ingress has been a constant issue within the building since it opened in 1934\. In 2009 this was resolved with modifications to the podium drainage and paving system. #### Archaeology The archaeological potential of the site has not been formally assessed. Hyde Park was the site of Australia's first race course and cricket pitch. Recent scholarship suggests Hyde Park north was also the site of a "fighting ground" for staging combative trials, first by the Aboriginal people between their own clans, later by Aboriginal people in demonstrating their fighting prowess against the British.Karskens, 2009 Evidence associated with these uses as well as former park layouts may still exist within the park precinct, although it is likely to have been substantially disturbed by construction of the railway stations and tunnels as well as the memorial itself. The outlet to Busby's Bore is immediately to the east of the memorial within the broader site curtilage. The Anzac Memorial is remarkably intact, and contains a great deal of original fabric. This includes moveable items such as the wreath laid by the Duke of Gloucester. ### Wreath The memorial contains a number of moveable heritage items including the wreath, rail designed by Bruce Dellit. Two larger plaster models of the building and possibly some furniture within the office spaces. [thumb\|centre\|800px\|A ten\-metre\-long bronze relief, over the west door by Rayner Hoff.](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial_Bronze_Relief_1.jpg "ANZAC War Memorial Bronze Relief 1.jpg") [thumb\|centre\|800px\|The other {{convert\|10\|m\|ft\|1\|abbr\=on}} long bronze relief, over the east door. These two sculptures illustrate the functions and activities of elements of the Australian Imperial Force overseas.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.artdecosydney.com/Warmemorial.html\|title\=ANZAC War Memorial Hyde Park\|publisher\=Art Deco Sydney\|access\-date\=3 February 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215020554/http://www.artdecosydney.com/Warmemorial.html\|archive\-date\=15 February 2008}}](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial_Bronze_Relief_2.jpg "ANZAC War Memorial Bronze Relief 2.jpg")
[ "Description\n-----------", "[thumb\\|The [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") exterior of the building](/wiki/File:Anzac_Memorial_Hyde_Park_001.jpg \"Anzac Memorial Hyde Park 001.jpg\")\nThe building is constructed of concrete, with an exterior cladding of pink [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\"), and consists of a massed square [superstructure](/wiki/Superstructure \"Superstructure\") with typically Art Deco setbacks and buttresses, punctuated on each side by a large arched window of yellow stained glass, and crowned with a [ziggurat](/wiki/Ziggurat \"Ziggurat\")\\-inspired stepped roof. It is positioned atop a [cruciform](/wiki/Cruciform \"Cruciform\") pedestal within which are located administrative offices and a small museum. The interior is largely faced in white marble, and features a domed ceiling adorned with 120,000 gold stars – one for each of those men and women from [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\") who served during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). Access to the main hall is provided via broad stairways on each side of the building's north–south axis, while ground\\-level doorways on the east and west sides offer entry to the lower section. The main focus of the interior is Rayner Hoff's monumental [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") sculpture of a deceased youth, representing a soldier, held aloft on his shield by a [caryatid](/wiki/Caryatid \"Caryatid\") – three female figures, representing his mother, sister and wife. The male figure's nudity was considered shocking at the time of the monument's opening, and it is said to be the only such representation of a naked male form within any war memorial. Two other even more controversial figural sculptures designed by Hoff—one featuring a naked female figure—were never installed on the eastern and western faces of the structure as intended, partly as a result of opposition from high ranking representatives of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"). The building's exterior is adorned with several bronze [friezes](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\"), carved granite [relief](/wiki/Relief \"Relief\") panels and twenty monumental stone figural sculptures symbolising military personnel, also by Hoff. Immediately to the north of the ANZAC Memorial is a large rectangular \"Lake of Reflections\" flanked by rows of [poplars](/wiki/Populus \"Populus\"). The poplars, not native to Australia, symbolise the areas of France in which Australian troops fought. Original plans called for the construction of similar pools on each of the other sides of the building, but these were never built.", "The memorial setting\n[thumb\\|The memorial and surrounds](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADdney_08.jpg \"Sídney 08.jpg\")\nThe ANZAC Memorial is located in Hyde Park South and is a principal physical focal point in the axis joining it and the Pool of Reflection with the Archibald Fountain in Hyde Park north. There are many prominent views of the memorial through Hyde Park South and the main axis is aligned with an avenue of fig trees, which accentuates the main path. The ziggurat form of ANZAC Memorial is also evident from Oxford Street for several blocks east of Whitlam Square.\nThe plantings around the ANZAC Memorial have strong associations with the building. The Allepo pine trees arranged around the building have significance because of their symbolic connection to Lone Pine Ridge in Anzac Cove in Turkey. Other symbolic trees have been brought as seedlings and planted in Hyde Park near the memorial, including Gallipoli Rose. The 14 poplars planted in two rows on either side of the Pool of Remembrance were planted in 1934, the date the pool was completed.\n[left\\|thumb\\|The Pool of Reflection](/wiki/File:ANZAC_memorial%2C_Hyde_Park%2C_Sydney.jpg \"ANZAC memorial, Hyde Park, Sydney.jpg\")\nThe pool underwent renovations in 1992 when a waterproof membrane was installed. This work was co\\-ordinated with paving around the memorial and the installation of a waterproofing membrane to the steps and [podium](/wiki/Podium \"Podium\") level of the building.", "Aligned between the Pool of Reflection and the memorial building staircase are two rows of flag poles that are used on ANZAC Day and commemorative occasions as part of the formal ceremonies at the memorial. Flags are flown permanently throughout the year. The three on the eastern side display the NSW flag and the three on the western side display the Australian national flag. The flagpole on the podium level of the memorial building is for the Governor's Flag and is only used when the Governor formally visits the site.", "The external building\nThe ANZAC Memorial was designed as a sculptural monument. The building is symmetrical on both axes. It uses elements reminiscent of traditional gothic church buildings ([buttresses](/wiki/Buttress \"Buttress\"), tall windows, high ceilings), but interprets them in an Art Deco style. Grand staircases lead to the podium level and extend symmetrically on the north and south sides of the building on the main axis of Hyde Park. The [balustrade](/wiki/Balustrade \"Balustrade\") around the exterior of the podium level is surmounted with cast stone urns. Large timber moulded doors slide into cavities in the external walls to allow entry. The ground floor provides the visual base of the building form and is fenestrated with timber framed double hung windows and bronze security [grilles](/wiki/Grille_%28architecture%29 \"Grille (architecture)\"). A string course of [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\") extends around the building and becomes the sill at windows.\n{{Multiple image\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| image1 \\= ANZAC Memorial Hyde Park figures.jpg\n\\| image2 \\= ANZAC Memorial Hyde Park \\- 21638202194\\.jpg\n\\| footer \\= \"Sentinel\" figures adorning the exterior\n}}", "The memorial is adorned externally with many sculptures representing the various Australian armed forces and support units. They are the sentinels of the building, keeping watch whilst representing the fallen for whom the building is dedicated. Between the seated figures in each corner are cast stone bas reliefs. The four large standing figures at the top of each corner of the building represent the Australian Infantry, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps. Another 16 seated figures are positioned at the top of the buttresses, below the corner figures, and represent the various units. These statues include a Naval Signaller, Aviator, Nurse and Lewis Gunner fabricated from cast stone to resemble the granite facing of the building \"so they should have the effect of having been hewn out of the moment rather than placed thereon\". Above the Eastern and Western Entrances, bronze bas reliefs depict scenes of Australians in the Eastern and Western Fronts. The bronze bas reliefs are generally in good condition, however they require cleaning and the repair of some minor corrosion.", "A dark pink granosite (synthetic coating) applied to the external statues in the mid 1980s does not reinterpret the architect's original design intention of the statues being hewn from the stone.", "The internal building\nThe memorial's main entrance from ground level is from the Western side. The vestibule area is lined in Ulum white [marble](/wiki/Marble \"Marble\"). Two timber cabinets of silky oak with obscured glass are recessed into opposite walls. In the centre of the ceiling is a large brass \"Star\" light, designed by Dellit.\nThis vestibule has glazed doors leading to the association and management offices to the north, exhibition area to the south, and opens to the west to the stair hall and the Hall of Silence. Originally, internal access between the upper and lower levels of the building was via two \"mirror imaged\" stairwells, which extended from the Stair Hall in the Vestibule to the Hall of Memory and down to the basement. One of these stairwells has been converted into a new lift, constructed in 2009, linking all three levels. This controlled lift was installed to provide equitable access to the Hall of Memory for ageing veterans and people with a disability. In the remaining stairwell is a bronze, Art Deco\\-styled skylight with amber glass. That has been converted to a light. Both stairwells are lined in marble with marble treads. A bronze [handrail](/wiki/Handrail \"Handrail\") was fixed to each of the stair walls in 1997, designed by Louis Berczi, in a style to match the external copper [handrails](/wiki/Handrails \"Handrails\") designed by Dellit.", "At the edge of the Stair Hall is a barred entrance to the Hall of Silence. A large bronze moulded banister, too heavy to move, prevents access to the \"tomb\" of the fallen soldier, in the \"Hall of Silence\". At the foot of the entrance, engraved in black granite, with inset brass lettering are the words \"LET SILENT CONTEMPLATION BE YOUR OFFERING\".", "At the top of the stairwell is a plaster [niche](/wiki/Niche_%28architecture%29 \"Niche (architecture)\") framed with marble. The niche displays the original wreath laid by the trustees at the building opening. The wreath is kept in a glass display case and was restored in late 2009\\.", "Hall of Silence\n[left\\|thumb\\|The Hall of Silence](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial_001.jpg \"ANZAC War Memorial 001.jpg\")\nThe room located in the centre of the building is striking in its starkness and wields a powerful influence on visitors. The room is circular in plan with the sculpture \"Sacrifice\" located at its centre, as if to hold the sculpture in its embrace. The floor is Ulum white marble, inlayed with a bronze flame that flares out from the centrally located sculpture. The ceiling of the room curves up toward the carved marble banister that defines the \"Well of Contemplation\", a large circular opening in the centre of the shallow domed ceiling. This opening provides the only natural [lighting](/wiki/Lighting \"Lighting\") to the \"Hall of Silence\" and has the effect of focussing that light onto the central sculpture. The [cornice](/wiki/Cornice \"Cornice\") is a marble [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") in which is carved the names of the great battles where Australian forces participated in the war. According to Dellit, the names 'complete the message which the group of sculpture symbolising \"Sacrifice\" is intended to deliver'.\nLocated on the north–south and east–west axes, the room has three large silky oak double doors, gold painted, that slide open into wall cavities. Two of the doors are now permanently left open and glass doors installed in front of the reveals to allow visitors a view of the sculpture \"Sacrifice\" from inside the Exhibition space and the Assembly Hall.", "Sacrifice\n[thumb\\|[Rayner Hoff's](/wiki/Rayner_Hoff \"Rayner Hoff\") \"Sacrifice\" sculpture](/wiki/File:Anzac_Memorial_-_Hyde_Park_-_Sydney_-_Australia_%2811202939916%29.jpg \"Anzac Memorial - Hyde Park - Sydney - Australia (11202939916).jpg\")\nAt the heart of the memorial is the bronze sculpture, \"Sacrifice\", by Rayner Hoff. It powerfully symbolises the sacrifice made in times of war by both those who go to fight and those left behind. The sculpture can be seen from above through the Well of Contemplation, with heads bowed, or at ground level from the vestibule, Assembly Hall and Exhibition space. The sculpture is also visible from Hyde Park, as originally proposed by Dellit, with glazed eastern doors to the Assembly Hall.\nHall of Memory\n[thumb\\|The Hall of Memory](/wiki/File:%281%29Anzac_War_Memorial6.jpg \"(1)Anzac War Memorial6.jpg\")\nThe \"Hall of Memory\" is also a circular room that occupies the podium level of the building centred on and located directly above the \"Hall of Silence\". The large external staircases that lead to the external timber sliding double doors on the podium level on the northern and southern sides were intended to form the grand entrances to the memorial. The \"Hall of Memory\" is clad in Ulum marble. In the centre of the room, carved in the form of a wreath is the marble balustrade around the \"Well of Contemplation\".\nLocated in the four \"corners\" of the room are semi\\-circular \"Niches of Remembrance\", each devoted to one of the major theatres of World War I in which Australians fought, and each commemorating the names of major campaigns in those theatres. The name of the theatre is carved in relief into the face of the marble wall at the top of each niche with the names of the battles beneath it, another example of the fusion of sculpture and building. At the base of each niche, laid in the paving is a headstone from Flanders, Gallipoli, Palestine and New Guinea.", "Above the tall niches are marble cast bas reliefs by Rayner Hoff that represent the Army, Navy, Air Force and Army Medical Corps and therefore correspond to the four large standing external sculptures. Hoff called them \"The March of the Dead\". Each relief is bracketed by winged [finial](/wiki/Finial \"Finial\") lights. Above all this is the high soaring [dome](/wiki/Dome \"Dome\") of the ceiling covered with 120,000 stars, one for every man and woman in NSW who served in the Great War, made of plaster of paris and painted gold leaf. The height of the room is accentuated with the four grand cathedral windows of etched amber glass, designed by Dellit with Hoff.", "To the west of Hall of Memory are the internal [stairs](/wiki/Stairs \"Stairs\") from the ground floor vestibule. To the east is the Remembrance Flame Room, originally the Archives Room and intended to list the names of those 21,000 NSW men and women who died serving their county in the Great War. The room's entrance is accentuated with [pilasters](/wiki/Pilasters \"Pilasters\") and carvings. Over the doorway is carved \"1914–1918\" and above that is a winged flaming sword (a symbol of sacrifice) over a rising sun emblem. The room holds the Remembrance Flame that was first officially lit on 11 November 1995\\. The Great Doors to the room are left open to keep the flame exposed to view at all times. A braided rope hangs across the entrance to prevent visitors from entering.", "The exhibition space\nThe exhibition space occupies the southern office area originally provided for the RSL. In 1986, changes to the existing room layout were made, including removal of a number of small offices. The original Strong Room with its Chubb security door is still intact. The items displayed in the museum collection were donated by the public and they include personal letters, medals, books, diaries, uniforms, souvenirs, relics and banners relating to the various conflicts in which Australians were involved. In 2000 an Abloy anti\\-theft proof locking system was installed in the exhibition cases. To commemorate the 75th anniversary of the Memorial in 2009, the space was refurbished (for example the original marquetry counter was reused as the visitor's counter) and a new exhibition was installed.\nThe Assembly Hall\nLocated opposite the entry vestibule on the eastern side of the memorial, the Assembly Hall was originally designed as a large open space used for meetings and forums by the different building occupants. In recent years it had been partitioned to allow for a smaller meeting space, office accommodation and archive storage at the northern end. It has been restored and reopened to the public, with new glazed doors to the east and west and a large freestanding AV unit, screening a short film about the Memorial. The room can also be used as a travelling exhibition space.\nThe original plans for the room proposed a raised dais on the southern endwith protruding stage and steps but this was never built. The original dais area was fitted as a kitchen for the memorial staff. This was subsequently removed in 2009, providing a linking space between the exhibition and the Assembly Hall.", "The design of the room is more ornate than the general office space. The Art Deco detailing extends to the fittings and fixtures in the room. The ceiling is moulded with large Art Deco [coffers](/wiki/Coffer \"Coffer\") and the walls are punctuated with plaster pilasters. A set of gold painted great doors opens back to reveal the sculpture \"Sacrifice\". This room has marble door [architraves](/wiki/Architraves \"Architraves\") and \"star lights\" designed by Dellit. The original flange wall lights are still in use and many of the original switches still exist in the room. The floors of the Assembly Hall are two\\-inch hardwood seasoned Red Mahogany.", "The bearers are built directly onto the concrete slab. The flooring structure suggests that the original intent may have been to install parquetry flooring throughout the hall. These floor boards were lifted, patched, repaired and relaid as part of building works during 2009\\.", "Offices for the TB Soldiers and Limbless Soldiers Association\nThe northern side of the ANZAC Memorial was originally designated for offices for the TB Soldiers Association and for the Limbless Soldiers Association with parquetry floors, marquetry counters and maple panelled timber partitions. The association's rooms are accessed by the public from the front vestibule via a tiled corridor with maple\\-framed [clerestory](/wiki/Clerestory \"Clerestory\") windows glazed with obscured glass. The offices as built did not follow the original plan. The original partitions in the TB Soldiers Association were removed in 1986 and substituted with aluminium\\-framed timber panel and glass partitions. These were subsequently replaced in 2009 with stud\\-framed plasterboard walls in a new configuration.", "The Limbless Soldiers offices changed only slightly from the original layout. The marquetry counter ran across the room and the entrance door was placed to the top of this room. The general activity room was also changed just slightly from the plan, the door is in the middle of the room and the wall curves slightly to make a concave shape in the corridor. Building works in 2009 included restoration of the remaining original offices, creation of a new meeting room/library, kitchenette and management offices. The timber panelled partitions in this area are still in good order but only some of the original furniture remains. The Limbless Soldiers Association moved out of their offices in 2004 and the area has been used by the RSL since that date.", "The original Chubb Strong Rooms are still retained in both rooms (there are three strong rooms in all).", "Basement\nThe basement of the ANZAC Memorial contains toilets for both men and women and the original timber lockers are still used by the memorial staff today. The basement has had some alterations within the original layout, however the toilet partitions and doors as well as many fixtures have not been altered and are in good order. Construction during 2009 included the insertion of a new disabled toilet (associated with the new lift), and a purpose\\-made cleaners room. Two light wells were originally created to provide fresh air and natural light for the toilets. These light wells now also contain the air conditioning plant, air intake and exhaust system for the building. A major stormwater pit (approximately 1m x 1m) is also located in the basement, in the central cleaner's store with a submersible pump, and is known as the Underground Plant Room. The stairs and flooring of the basement are terrazzo in good condition. The partitions in the male and female toilets are marble and the original timber doors and hardware are in good order. In addition to the existing original timber handrail, a new brass handrail was added in 1985 to match the style of the handrail in the stairwell to the \"Hall of Memory\".\nUndercroft and vertical security screens\nThe undercrofts are located under the external stairs leading to the podium level of the memorial. Originally intended for storage spaces for the offices of the RSL and the TB and Limbless Associations, they were largely unusable until 1992 when a water proof membrane was installed over the external stairs to deal with the damp and water ingress issues. The north [undercroft](/wiki/Undercroft \"Undercroft\") now stores the original unused furniture from the memorial.\nTo provide protection against increasing vandalism of the ANZAC Memorial, external security screens were installed in 1999\\. The panels of the screen are made of safety glass etched with designs that continue the original concept of the symbolic use of building elements to reinforce the memorial's purpose. When lowered (normally between 9am and 5pm) they are virtually invisible and allow unobstructed public access.", "The great doors and windows\nThere are ten sets of great doors to the building, seven on the ground floor and three on the podium level. All the doors are double leaf sliding doors of solid silky oak timber with brass furniture. The sets of external doors are painted green externally and gold internally. The doors slide on tracks that are recessed in the masonry walls of the building. The sets of doors are all panelled and decorated with carvings of urns, eternals flames, swords and crosses all symbolic of the memorial. These doors were repaired and repainted in 2006\\.\nMoveable heritage\nThere is an extensive collection of artefacts, items of memorabilia and tributes on display in the Museum space or stored in a number of small spaces on site, including one of the safes. These items have all been donated by members of the public.\nMechanical and electrical services\nConstruction works during 2009 upgraded the services in the building, including the air\\-conditioning with the installation of new suspended services spine for ductwork, lighting and security services through the exhibition area and offices.\nMany of the original electrical fittings remain in use in the building. These include switches and lighting. The original star lights, designed by Dellit and inspired by the stars on the ceiling of the Hall of Memories, are still used throughout the building. The original wall [bracket](/wiki/Bracket_%28architecture%29 \"Bracket (architecture)\") light fittings in the Assembly Hall are also still used.", "### Condition", "As at 26 February 2010, following many years of major catch\\-up maintenance and repair works, the general condition of the Memorial in 2010 is very good. Water ingress has been a constant issue within the building since it opened in 1934\\. In 2009 this was resolved with modifications to the podium drainage and paving system.", "#### Archaeology", "The archaeological potential of the site has not been formally assessed. Hyde Park was the site of Australia's first race course and cricket pitch. Recent scholarship suggests Hyde Park north was also the site of a \"fighting ground\" for staging combative trials, first by the Aboriginal people between their own clans, later by Aboriginal people in demonstrating their fighting prowess against the British.Karskens, 2009 Evidence associated with these uses as well as former park layouts may still exist within the park precinct, although it is likely to have been substantially disturbed by construction of the railway stations and tunnels as well as the memorial itself. The outlet to Busby's Bore is immediately to the east of the memorial within the broader site curtilage.", "The Anzac Memorial is remarkably intact, and contains a great deal of original fabric. This includes moveable items such as the wreath laid by the Duke of Gloucester.", "### Wreath", "The memorial contains a number of moveable heritage items including the wreath, rail designed by Bruce Dellit. Two larger plaster models of the building and possibly some furniture within the office spaces.", "[thumb\\|centre\\|800px\\|A ten\\-metre\\-long bronze relief, over the west door by Rayner Hoff.](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial_Bronze_Relief_1.jpg \"ANZAC War Memorial Bronze Relief 1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|centre\\|800px\\|The other {{convert\\|10\\|m\\|ft\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} long bronze relief, over the east door. These two sculptures illustrate the functions and activities of elements of the Australian Imperial Force overseas.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.artdecosydney.com/Warmemorial.html\\|title\\=ANZAC War Memorial Hyde Park\\|publisher\\=Art Deco Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215020554/http://www.artdecosydney.com/Warmemorial.html\\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2008}}](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial_Bronze_Relief_2.jpg \"ANZAC War Memorial Bronze Relief 2.jpg\")", "" ]
Heritage listing ---------------- [thumb\|The Anzac War Memorial during the 1938 Sesquicentenary Celebrations](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial%2C_Hyde_Park_%2812062395093%29.jpg "ANZAC War Memorial, Hyde Park (12062395093).jpg") As at 19 September 2011, The ANZAC Memorial, completed in 1934, is of historical significance to the State for its embodiment of the collective grief of the people of NSW at the loss of Australian servicemen and women since World War I. It is associated with the landing of Australian troops at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915, since fundraising for the memorial was established on the first anniversary of the landing. It is also associated with returned servicemen and their organisations including the RSL, which lobbied for the erection of the monument and occupied offices within it. The ANZAC Memorial is of State aesthetic significance as a great work of public art which is arguably the finest expression of Art Deco monumentality in Australia. The result of an outstanding creative collaboration between architect Bruce Dellit and sculptor Rayner Hoff, it contains complex symbolic embellishments that reinforce and enhance the commemorative meanings of the building. Its landscape context in Hyde Park was purposefully designed for it by Dellit including the large Pool of Reflection lined by poplars. Its positioning on a major axis linked to the [Archibald Fountain](/wiki/Archibald_Fountain "Archibald Fountain") contributes significantly to the physical character of Hyde Park and the city of Sydney. The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance as the largest and most ambitious of the numerous war memorials constructed throughout NSW after the Great War. The memorial is also representative as NSW's contribution to the group of "national war memorials", whereby each state capital city developed its own major war memorial in the inter\-war period. In this group the ANZAC Memorial is outstanding in its size, integrity and aesthetic appeal. ANZAC War Memorial was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register "New South Wales State Heritage Register") on 23 April 2010 having satisfied the following criteria. **The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.** The ANZAC Memorial in Hyde Park is of historical significance to the State as an embodiment of the collective grief felt by the people of New South Wales at the loss of Australian servicemen at Gallipoli and other conflicts since then. Authorised by NSW legislation in 1923, it is of State significance as a major place of commemoration and for its associations with the celebration of Anzac Day since 1941\. The ANZAC Memorial is also of historical significance because its construction provided much needed employment for returned veterans during the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia "Great Depression in Australia"). The Lake of Reflection was constructed through the Unemployment Relief Fund established by the State government. **The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.** The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance for its association with the landing of Australian troops at Gallipoli on 15 April 1915\. The landing at Gallipoli was a significant event in Australian history, having an enormous impact on the Australian psyche and the formation of the Australian character and fundraising for the memorial was established on the first anniversary of the landing. This association is strengthened by the presence of an Aleppo Pine in the western ground of the memorial, taken from the Lone Pine at Lone Pine [Gap](/wiki/Gap%2C_New_South_Wales "Gap, New South Wales") in Gallipoli. The ANZAC Memorial is also of State significance for its association with returned servicemen and their organisations including the RSL, Limbless and Maimed Soldier's Association and the T.B. Sailors and Soldier's Association of Australia. These groups both lobbied for the erection of the monument and have occupied offices within it. The ANZAC Memorial is also of State significance as for its associations with its architect Bruce Dellit and its sculptor Rayner Hoff, both of whom are famous largely because of their design work in creating the memorial, which is arguably the finest Art Deco building in Australia. The memorial is associated with Anzac Day and the Anzac Day march on 25 April each year which starts at the Cenotaph and concludes near Hyde Park. **The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.** The ANZAC Memorial is of State aesthetic significance as a great work of public art which is arguably the finest expression of Art Deco monumentality in Australia. It is the result of an outstanding creative collaboration between architect Bruce Dellit and sculptor Rayner Hoff and contains complex symbolic embellishments that reinforce and enhance the commemorative meanings of the building. Its relative lack of religious symbology provides evidence of the processes of secularisation in NSW during the inter war period. The memorial has been praised for its "unity of architecture, carving and sculpture" and for "achieving a remarkable dignity of expression".Inglis, p.312\-3 Rayner Hoff's sculpture has been described as "a masterpiece of craftsmanship... romantic without being sentimental, austere without being severe" (Sturgeon). The ANZAC Memorial is also of State significance for the landscape purposefully designed for it by Dellit including a large reflection pool lined by poplars. The building is a prominent element in Hyde Park where it shares a principal axis with another major memorial to World War I, the Archibald Fountain. Its position contributes significantly to the physical character of Hyde Park and the city of Sydney. **The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.** The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance as a major focus for the public commemoration of Australians lost at war since its completion. Its construction is linked to acceptance of the term "Anzac" by the Australian people and the legend that is associated with the name. The memorial remains an integral part of Anzac Day commemorations each year. Its sculpture is likely to be of State social significance for its commemoration of the role of women in war, both as war workers and as mothers of soldiers, which was almost unheard of in the 1930s and remains unusual today. The Returned Soldiers Association of NSW wanted the memorial to be "A lasting memorial, some outstanding legacy that shall quicken the blood of future generations, and move them to bare their heads in honoured memory of those who won for Australia its place amongst the nations". The ANZAC Memorial provides an important place of communal commemoration. **The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.** The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance for its rarity as an impressive and intact example of Art Deco public architecture. It is a rare example of a profound creative collaboration between architect and artist. The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance for its uniqueness as the grandest and most monumental war memorial in New South Wales. **The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.** The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance as the largest and most ambitious of the numerous war memorials constructed throughout New South Wales after World War I and as a remarkable example of commemorative architecture and Art Deco design. The memorial is also representative as NSW's contribution to the group of "national war memorials", whereby each state capital city developed its own major war memorial in the inter\-war period. In this group the ANZAC Memorial is outstanding in its size, integrity and aesthetic appeal.
[ "Heritage listing\n----------------", "[thumb\\|The Anzac War Memorial during the 1938 Sesquicentenary Celebrations](/wiki/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial%2C_Hyde_Park_%2812062395093%29.jpg \"ANZAC War Memorial, Hyde Park (12062395093).jpg\")\nAs at 19 September 2011, The ANZAC Memorial, completed in 1934, is of historical significance to the State for its embodiment of the collective grief of the people of NSW at the loss of Australian servicemen and women since World War I. It is associated with the landing of Australian troops at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915, since fundraising for the memorial was established on the first anniversary of the landing. It is also associated with returned servicemen and their organisations including the RSL, which lobbied for the erection of the monument and occupied offices within it. The ANZAC Memorial is of State aesthetic significance as a great work of public art which is arguably the finest expression of Art Deco monumentality in Australia. The result of an outstanding creative collaboration between architect Bruce Dellit and sculptor Rayner Hoff, it contains complex symbolic embellishments that reinforce and enhance the commemorative meanings of the building. Its landscape context in Hyde Park was purposefully designed for it by Dellit including the large Pool of Reflection lined by poplars. Its positioning on a major axis linked to the [Archibald Fountain](/wiki/Archibald_Fountain \"Archibald Fountain\") contributes significantly to the physical character of Hyde Park and the city of Sydney. The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance as the largest and most ambitious of the numerous war memorials constructed throughout NSW after the Great War. The memorial is also representative as NSW's contribution to the group of \"national war memorials\", whereby each state capital city developed its own major war memorial in the inter\\-war period. In this group the ANZAC Memorial is outstanding in its size, integrity and aesthetic appeal.", "ANZAC War Memorial was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register \"New South Wales State Heritage Register\") on 23 April 2010 having satisfied the following criteria.", "**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**", "The ANZAC Memorial in Hyde Park is of historical significance to the State as an embodiment of the collective grief felt by the people of New South Wales at the loss of Australian servicemen at Gallipoli and other conflicts since then. Authorised by NSW legislation in 1923, it is of State significance as a major place of commemoration and for its associations with the celebration of Anzac Day since 1941\\. The ANZAC Memorial is also of historical significance because its construction provided much needed employment for returned veterans during the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia \"Great Depression in Australia\"). The Lake of Reflection was constructed through the Unemployment Relief Fund established by the State government.", "**The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.**", "The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance for its association with the landing of Australian troops at Gallipoli on 15 April 1915\\. The landing at Gallipoli was a significant event in Australian history, having an enormous impact on the Australian psyche and the formation of the Australian character and fundraising for the memorial was established on the first anniversary of the landing. This association is strengthened by the presence of an Aleppo Pine in the western ground of the memorial, taken from the Lone Pine at Lone Pine [Gap](/wiki/Gap%2C_New_South_Wales \"Gap, New South Wales\") in Gallipoli. The ANZAC Memorial is also of State significance for its association with returned servicemen and their organisations including the RSL, Limbless and Maimed Soldier's Association and the T.B. Sailors and Soldier's Association of Australia. These groups both lobbied for the erection of the monument and have occupied offices within it. The ANZAC Memorial is also of State significance as for its associations with its architect Bruce Dellit and its sculptor Rayner Hoff, both of whom are famous largely because of their design work in creating the memorial, which is arguably the finest Art Deco building in Australia. The memorial is associated with Anzac Day and the Anzac Day march on 25 April each year which starts at the Cenotaph and concludes near Hyde Park.", "**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**", "The ANZAC Memorial is of State aesthetic significance as a great work of public art which is arguably the finest expression of Art Deco monumentality in Australia. It is the result of an outstanding creative collaboration between architect Bruce Dellit and sculptor Rayner Hoff and contains complex symbolic embellishments that reinforce and enhance the commemorative meanings of the building. Its relative lack of religious symbology provides evidence of the processes of secularisation in NSW during the inter war period. The memorial has been praised for its \"unity of architecture, carving and sculpture\" and for \"achieving a remarkable dignity of expression\".Inglis, p.312\\-3 Rayner Hoff's sculpture has been described as \"a masterpiece of craftsmanship... romantic without being sentimental, austere without being severe\" (Sturgeon). The ANZAC Memorial is also of State significance for the landscape purposefully designed for it by Dellit including a large reflection pool lined by poplars. The building is a prominent element in Hyde Park where it shares a principal axis with another major memorial to World War I, the Archibald Fountain. Its position contributes significantly to the physical character of Hyde Park and the city of Sydney.", "**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**", "The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance as a major focus for the public commemoration of Australians lost at war since its completion. Its construction is linked to acceptance of the term \"Anzac\" by the Australian people and the legend that is associated with the name. The memorial remains an integral part of Anzac Day commemorations each year. Its sculpture is likely to be of State social significance for its commemoration of the role of women in war, both as war workers and as mothers of soldiers, which was almost unheard of in the 1930s and remains unusual today. The Returned Soldiers Association of NSW wanted the memorial to be \"A lasting memorial, some outstanding legacy that shall quicken the blood of future generations, and move them to bare their heads in honoured memory of those who won for Australia its place amongst the nations\". The ANZAC Memorial provides an important place of communal commemoration.", "**The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**", "The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance for its rarity as an impressive and intact example of Art Deco public architecture. It is a rare example of a profound creative collaboration between architect and artist. The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance for its uniqueness as the grandest and most monumental war memorial in New South Wales.", "**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.**", "The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance as the largest and most ambitious of the numerous war memorials constructed throughout New South Wales after World War I and as a remarkable example of commemorative architecture and Art Deco design. The memorial is also representative as NSW's contribution to the group of \"national war memorials\", whereby each state capital city developed its own major war memorial in the inter\\-war period. In this group the ANZAC Memorial is outstanding in its size, integrity and aesthetic appeal.", "", "", "" ]
History ------- Although the first version of *STOS* to be released in the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") (version 2\.3\) was released in late 1988 by [Mandarin Software](/wiki/Mandarin_Software "Mandarin Software"), a version had been released earlier in [France](/wiki/France "France"). Version 2\.3 was bundled with three complete games (*Orbit*, *Zoltar* and *Bullet Train*), and many accessories and utilities (such as [sprite](/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29 "Sprite (computer graphics)") and music editors). Initially implemented as a [BASIC interpreter](/wiki/BASIC_interpreter "BASIC interpreter"), a [compiler](/wiki/Compiler "Compiler") was soon released that enabled the user to compile the *STOS Basic* program into an executable file that ran a lot faster because it was [compiled](/wiki/Compiler "Compiler") rather than [interpreted](/wiki/Interpreter_%28computer_software%29 "Interpreter (computer software)"). In order to be compatible with the compiler, STOS needed to be upgraded to version 2\.4 (which came with the compiler). STOS 2\.4 also fixed a few bugs and had faster [floating point](/wiki/Floating_point "Floating point") mathematics code, but the floating point numbers had a smaller range. STOS 2\.5 was released to make STOS run on Atari STEs with [TOS](/wiki/Atari_TOS "Atari TOS") 1\.06 (1\.6\), and then STOS 2\.6 was needed to make STOS run on Atari STEs with TOS 1\.62\. STOS 2\.7 was a compiler\-only upgrade that made programs with the STOS [tracker](/wiki/Music_tracker "Music tracker") extension (used to play [MOD](/wiki/Module_file "Module file") music) compile. There was a 3rd\-party hack called STOS 2\.07 designed to make *STOS* run on even more TOS versions, and behave on the [Atari Falcon](/wiki/Atari_Falcon "Atari Falcon"). Around 2001 [François Lionet](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Lionet "François Lionet") released via the [Clickteam](/wiki/Clickteam "Clickteam") website the [source code](/wiki/Source_code "Source code") of STOS BASIC.[Amos \& Stos » Main Download](https://web.archive.org/web/20071130053321/http://clickteam.com/eng/downloadcenter.php?i=58) on clickteam.com (archived 2007\) On the 4th of April, 2019 [François Lionet](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Lionet "François Lionet") announced the release of AMOS2 on his website [Amos2\.tech](http://amos2.tech/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923044846/http://amos2\.tech/ \|date\=2020\-09\-23 }}. AMOS2 replaces STOS and AMOS together, using [JavaScript](/wiki/JavaScript "JavaScript") as its code interpreter, making the new development system independent and generally deployed in internet browsers. AMOS2 is now known as AOZ Studio.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.aoz.studio/\|title\=AOZ Studio to create your apps and games\|website\=AOZ Studio\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-12}}
[ "History\n-------", "Although the first version of *STOS* to be released in the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") (version 2\\.3\\) was released in late 1988 by [Mandarin Software](/wiki/Mandarin_Software \"Mandarin Software\"), a version had been released earlier in [France](/wiki/France \"France\").", "Version 2\\.3 was bundled with three complete games (*Orbit*, *Zoltar* and *Bullet Train*), and many accessories and utilities (such as [sprite](/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Sprite (computer graphics)\") and music editors). Initially implemented as a [BASIC interpreter](/wiki/BASIC_interpreter \"BASIC interpreter\"), a [compiler](/wiki/Compiler \"Compiler\") was soon released that enabled the user to compile the *STOS Basic* program into an executable file that ran a lot faster because it was [compiled](/wiki/Compiler \"Compiler\") rather than [interpreted](/wiki/Interpreter_%28computer_software%29 \"Interpreter (computer software)\"). In order to be compatible with the compiler, STOS needed to be upgraded to version 2\\.4 (which came with the compiler). STOS 2\\.4 also fixed a few bugs and had faster [floating point](/wiki/Floating_point \"Floating point\") mathematics code, but the floating point numbers had a smaller range.", "STOS 2\\.5 was released to make STOS run on Atari STEs with [TOS](/wiki/Atari_TOS \"Atari TOS\") 1\\.06 (1\\.6\\), and then STOS 2\\.6 was needed to make STOS run on Atari STEs with TOS 1\\.62\\. STOS 2\\.7 was a compiler\\-only upgrade that made programs with the STOS [tracker](/wiki/Music_tracker \"Music tracker\") extension (used to play [MOD](/wiki/Module_file \"Module file\") music) compile.", "There was a 3rd\\-party hack called STOS 2\\.07 designed to make *STOS* run on even more TOS versions, and behave on the [Atari Falcon](/wiki/Atari_Falcon \"Atari Falcon\").", "Around 2001 [François Lionet](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Lionet \"François Lionet\") released via the [Clickteam](/wiki/Clickteam \"Clickteam\") website the [source code](/wiki/Source_code \"Source code\") of STOS BASIC.[Amos \\& Stos » Main Download](https://web.archive.org/web/20071130053321/http://clickteam.com/eng/downloadcenter.php?i=58) on clickteam.com (archived 2007\\)", "On the 4th of April, 2019 [François Lionet](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Lionet \"François Lionet\") announced the release of AMOS2 on his website [Amos2\\.tech](http://amos2.tech/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923044846/http://amos2\\.tech/ \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-23 }}. AMOS2 replaces STOS and AMOS together, using [JavaScript](/wiki/JavaScript \"JavaScript\") as its code interpreter, making the new development system independent and generally deployed in internet browsers.", "AMOS2 is now known as AOZ Studio.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.aoz.studio/\\|title\\=AOZ Studio to create your apps and games\\|website\\=AOZ Studio\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-12}}", "" ]
History ------- The first edition of *Hamar Arbeiderblad* was published on 30 March 1925 with a print run of 1200 copies. Local branches of the [Labour Party](/wiki/Norwegian_Labour_Party "Norwegian Labour Party") in Hamar, Vang, Stange, Romedal, Løten, Ringsaker and Nes were behind the founding of the newspaper. It was considered that Hamar and the surrounding areas needed their own newspaper. The paper's first editor was Nils Hønsvald. The paper got its own printing press in 1927\. The paper was originally distributed to municipalities around Hedmarken. In 1932 distribution was extended to include Østerdalen. The paper is now the largest newspaper in Hedmark. It has also grown from being a party organ of the Norwegian Labour Party to being a politically independent local newspaper, but it kept its original name all the same. A new period of investment started in 1985, which meant that new equipment and a new production site came on stream in May 1987\. Starting in January 1998 the paper began a gradual change to tabloid format, a process which was completed by 12 April 1991\. The paper published a 20\-page supplement when [HamKam](/wiki/HamKam "HamKam") was promoted to the Norwegian Premier League in 2003\. The paper has published a feature\-heavy magazine called *HA Pluss* on Saturdays since 2005\. ### Second World War On 9 April 1940 \-the day Germany invaded Norway\- the paper came out strongly against the invasion. From 15 April to 18 April the paper cooperated with *Hamar Stiftstidende* and switched printing presses, before it was evaluated whether the business could continue. The paper was published again on 3 May with Håkon Hoff as editor. The paper expressed the opinion that war had come to Norway because of France and England, but also was of the opinion that the [Nasjonal Samling](/wiki/Nasjonal_Samling "Nasjonal Samling") had no mandate to represent Norwegian interests. On 25 September 1940 the offices in Hamar and [Elverum](/wiki/Elverum "Elverum") were closed by German police. The board was fired and Hoff (the editor) was informed by telegramme from the Police Department that he was no longer allowed to work at the paper. Later the same day he was informed that there had been a misunderstanding. The paper was published again after a week, but Nazi propaganda was now more significant. In March 1941 Sigmund Stafne, a journalist, was dismissed by the Press Directorate. Arthur Martinsen quit. Both ended up in Sweden. Hoff resigned on 12 July 1941\. "One of a newspaper's duties is to build on reality, however hard and uncomfortable they may be." he wrote in his last article for the paper. Hoff later became the editor of an illegal newspaper. Oddvar Røst took over as editor of HA. On 25 September 1941 the paper was instructed to comment on the fact that it had been one year since [Josef Terboven](/wiki/Josef_Terboven "Josef Terboven"), *[Reichskommissar](/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Norwegen "Reichskommissariat Norwegen")* of Norway had named members of the Council of State, but Røst did not write what the Germans had been expecting. Norwegians would never "give up the dream of a free Norway as long as the soldiers of another nation were on Norwegian soil." Røst was interrogated for six hours by the head of the [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo "Gestapo") in [Lillehammer](/wiki/Lillehammer "Lillehammer"). He was not allowed to leave the paper, but was not allowed to write for it either. He left the paper on 31 January 1942\. Bernhard Dippner, a member of *Nasjonal Samling* took over. He was later arrested and accused of being a communist. Bjørn Wentzel and Arthur Lodding were also editors before publication was stopped. The paper was merged with *Hamar Stiftstidende* in 1943, a plan which had originally been mooted by the Department of Culture and People's Information in 1940\. The authorities changed the name of the paper to *Hedmark* in 1943\. On 1 July the Press Directorate stopped publication of both newspapers and started a paper called *Dagbladet Hedmark* in their place. It was printed at the press previously used by *Hamar Stiftstidende.*
[ "History\n-------", "The first edition of *Hamar Arbeiderblad* was published on 30 March 1925 with a print run of 1200 copies. Local branches of the [Labour Party](/wiki/Norwegian_Labour_Party \"Norwegian Labour Party\")\nin Hamar, Vang, Stange, Romedal, Løten, Ringsaker and Nes were behind the founding of the newspaper. It was considered that Hamar and the surrounding areas needed their own newspaper. The paper's first editor was Nils Hønsvald. The paper got its own printing press in 1927\\.", "The paper was originally distributed to municipalities around Hedmarken. In 1932 distribution was extended to include Østerdalen.", "The paper is now the largest newspaper in Hedmark. It has also grown from being a party organ of the Norwegian Labour Party to being a politically independent local newspaper, but it kept its original name all the same.", "A new period of investment started in 1985, which meant that new equipment and a new production site came on stream in May 1987\\. Starting in January 1998 the paper began a gradual change to tabloid format, a process which was completed by 12 April 1991\\.", "The paper published a 20\\-page supplement when [HamKam](/wiki/HamKam \"HamKam\") was promoted to the Norwegian Premier League in 2003\\. The paper has published a feature\\-heavy magazine called *HA Pluss* on Saturdays since 2005\\.", "### Second World War", "On 9 April 1940 \\-the day Germany invaded Norway\\- the paper came out strongly against the invasion. From 15 April to 18 April the paper cooperated with *Hamar Stiftstidende* and switched printing presses, before it was evaluated whether the business could continue. The paper was published again on 3 May with Håkon Hoff as editor. The paper expressed the opinion that war had come to Norway because of France and England, but also was of the opinion that the [Nasjonal Samling](/wiki/Nasjonal_Samling \"Nasjonal Samling\") had no mandate to represent Norwegian interests.", "On 25 September 1940 the offices in Hamar and [Elverum](/wiki/Elverum \"Elverum\") were closed by German police. The board was fired and Hoff (the editor) was informed by telegramme from the Police Department that he was no longer allowed to work at the paper. Later the same day he was informed that there had been a misunderstanding. The paper was published again after a week, but Nazi propaganda was now more significant. In March 1941 Sigmund Stafne, a journalist, was dismissed by the Press Directorate. Arthur Martinsen quit. Both ended up in Sweden. Hoff resigned on 12 July 1941\\. \"One of a newspaper's duties is to build on reality, however hard and uncomfortable they may be.\" he wrote in his last article for the paper. Hoff later became the editor of an illegal newspaper. Oddvar Røst took over as editor of HA.", "On 25 September 1941 the paper was instructed to comment on the fact that it had been one year since [Josef Terboven](/wiki/Josef_Terboven \"Josef Terboven\"), *[Reichskommissar](/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Norwegen \"Reichskommissariat Norwegen\")* of Norway had named members of the Council of State, but Røst did not write what the Germans had been expecting. Norwegians would never \"give up the dream of a free Norway as long as the soldiers of another nation were on Norwegian soil.\" Røst was interrogated for six hours by the head of the [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo \"Gestapo\") in [Lillehammer](/wiki/Lillehammer \"Lillehammer\"). He was not allowed to leave the paper, but was not allowed to write for it either. He left the paper on 31 January 1942\\. Bernhard Dippner, a member of *Nasjonal Samling* took over. He was later arrested and accused of being a communist. Bjørn Wentzel and Arthur Lodding were also editors before publication was stopped.", "The paper was merged with *Hamar Stiftstidende* in 1943, a plan which had originally been mooted by the Department of Culture and People's Information in 1940\\. The authorities changed the name of the paper to *Hedmark* in 1943\\. On 1 July the Press Directorate stopped publication of both newspapers and started a paper called *Dagbladet Hedmark* in their place. It was printed at the press previously used by *Hamar Stiftstidende.*", "" ]
Time trials ----------- Time trials were scheduled for three days, May 27–29\. Elimination trials consisted of one timed lap. This would be the final time single\-lap qualifying runs were used at Indianapolis. In 1920, four\-lap time trial runs would be introduced. For the first time, qualifiers would line up in the grid by speed based on the day they qualified. All cars that qualified on the first day would line up by speed rank first, with the fastest qualifier starting on the pole position. The remaining cars that qualified on subsequent days would line up by speed rank behind the first day qualifiers. The cars from the second and third days, however, were merged on the grid. This format was adopted in order to encourage more drivers to qualify early on, instead of waiting until the last minute. Originally it was planned for all elimination trials to be held on Tuesday, but due to inclement weather, the schedule was expanded to allow Wednesday and Thursday as well.{{cite news\|title\=Elimination Trials Are Started At Speedway\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2355287/1919\_indianapolis\_time\_trials\_may\_27/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|page\=20\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 27, 1919\|access\-date\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}} The minimum speed to qualify was set at 80 mph, and the field was set at a maximum of 33 cars. Based on the entries prepared at the track, the expectation was that about six cars would fail to qualify. In an effort to foil the "bootleg" programs that were being printed and sold in and around the Speedway, car numbers were not assigned until race morning. ### Tuesday May 27 The first day of time trials was held Tuesday May 27 starting at 10:00 a.m. [Ralph DePalma](/wiki/Ralph_DePalma "Ralph DePalma") (98\.2 mph) was the first car in the field. Former winner [René Thomas](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "René Thomas (racing driver)") shattered the track record with a lap of 104\.7 mph to secure the pole position. Thomas went out late in the afternoon, deciding to wait out windy conditions. A total of eleven cars completed runs, all over 90 mph. [Howdy Wilcox](/wiki/Howdy_Wilcox "Howdy Wilcox") went out after Thomas, and qualified second with a speed of 100\.0 mph. | {{abbr\|Pos\|Position}} | Name | Average Speed(mph) | | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | {{Flagicon\|FRA}} [René Thomas](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "René Thomas (racing driver)") **{{Color box\|gold\|W\|border\=silver}}** | **104\.7** | 2 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Howdy Wilcox](/wiki/Howdy_Wilcox "Howdy Wilcox") | **100\.0** | 3 | {{Flagicon\|FRA}} [Albert Guyot](/wiki/Albert_Guyot "Albert Guyot") | **98\.3** | 4 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Ralph DePalma](/wiki/Ralph_DePalma "Ralph DePalma") **{{Color box\|gold\|W\|border\=silver}}** | **98\.2** | 5 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Eddie O'Donnell](/wiki/Eddie_O%27Donnell "Eddie O'Donnell") | **97\.3** | 6 | {{Flagicon\|FRA}} [Paul Bablot](/wiki/Paul_Bablot "Paul Bablot") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **94\.9** | 7 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Art Klein](/wiki/Art_Klein "Art Klein") | **94\.9** | 8 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Eddie Hearne](/wiki/Eddie_Hearne "Eddie Hearne") | **94\.5** | 9 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Earl Cooper](/wiki/Earl_Cooper "Earl Cooper") | **94\.2** | 10 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Ira Vail](/wiki/Ira_Vail "Ira Vail") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **94\.1** | 11 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Charles Kirkpatrick](/wiki/Charles_Kirkpatrick "Charles Kirkpatrick") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **90\.0** * Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning. Sources: *The Indianapolis Star*,{{cite news\|title\=Thomas Reels Of 104\-Mile Record Pace (Part 1\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2351777/1919\_indianapolis\_500\_time\_trials\_may/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|page\=1\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 28, 1919\|access\-date\=May 4, 2015}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\|title\=Thomas Reels Of 104\-Mile Record Pace (Part 2\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2351789/1919\_indianapolis\_500\_time\_trials\_may/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|page\=5\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 28, 1919\|access\-date\=May 4, 2015}}{{Open access}} *The Indianapolis News*{{cite news\|title\=Sensational Driving In Speedway Eliminations\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2354765/1919\_indianapolis\_time\_trials\_may\_28/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|page\=20\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 28, 1919\|access\-date\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}} ### Wednesday May 28 The second day of time trials was held Wednesday May 28\. The qualifiers on the second and third day would line up behind the qualifiers from the first day. [Louis Chevrolet](/wiki/Louis_Chevrolet "Louis Chevrolet") drove a Frontenac at a speed of 103\.1 mph to be the fastest car of the day. [Tommy Milton](/wiki/Tommy_Milton "Tommy Milton") was on his way to qualifying over 101 mph, but his car slowed, and he managed a lap of only 89\.9 mph. During a practice run, [Omar Toft](/wiki/Omar_Toft "Omar Toft") spun in the south turns, but avoided contact and was able to continue around. Two cars, [Al Cotey](/wiki/Al_Cotey "Al Cotey") and [Dave Lewis](/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28racing_driver%29 "Dave Lewis (racing driver)"), made an attempt but failed to qualify. Cotey was too slow (below the 80 mph minimum) and Lewis suffered engine failure. Both drivers were eligible to try again on Thursday. A total of 13 cars completed qualifying runs Wednesday, filling the field to 24 cars. The final starting positions, however, for those 13 cars would not be finalized until qualifying was completed on Thursday. | {{abbr\|Pos\|Grid Position}} | Name | Average Speed(mph) | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 12 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Louis Chevrolet](/wiki/Louis_Chevrolet "Louis Chevrolet") | **103\.1** | | 13 | {{Flagicon\|FRA}} [Louis Wagner](/wiki/Louis_Wagner_%28racing_driver%29 "Louis Wagner (racing driver)") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **101\.7** | | 14 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Joe Boyer](/wiki/Joe_Boyer "Joe Boyer") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **100\.9** | | 15 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Ralph Mulford](/wiki/Ralph_Mulford "Ralph Mulford") | **100\.5** | | 16 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Gaston Chevrolet](/wiki/Gaston_Chevrolet "Gaston Chevrolet") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **100\.4** | | 18 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Arthur Thurman](/wiki/Arthur_Thurman "Arthur Thurman") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **98\.0** | | 20 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Cliff Durant](/wiki/Cliff_Durant "Cliff Durant") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **96\.5** | | 23 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Wilbur D'Alene](/wiki/Wilbur_D%27Alene "Wilbur D'Alene") | **94\.2** | | 25 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Louis LeCocq](/wiki/Louis_LeCocq "Louis LeCocq") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **92\.9** | | 27 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Denny Hickey](/wiki/Denny_Hickey "Denny Hickey") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **92\.5** | | 29 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Elmer T. Shannon](/wiki/Elmer_T._Shannon "Elmer T. Shannon") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **91\.7** | | 31 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Tommy Milton](/wiki/Tommy_Milton "Tommy Milton") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **89\.9** | | 32 | {{Flagicon\|FRA}} [André Boillot](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Boillot "André Boillot") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | **89\.5** | | — | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Al Cotey](/wiki/Al_Cotey "Al Cotey") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 74\.6 Below 80 mph minimum | | — | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Dave Lewis](/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28racing_driver%29 "Dave Lewis (racing driver)") | Incomplete Engine failure | * Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning. Sources: *The Indianapolis Star*,{{cite news\|title\=Frontenacs Average More Than 100 Miles in Tests\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2354940/1919\_indianapolis\_time\_trials\_may\_29/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|page\=14\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 29, 1919\|access\-date\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}} *The Indianapolis News*{{cite news\|title\=Racing Officials To Select Thirty\-Three\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2351756/1919\_indianapolis\_500\_time\_trials\_may/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|last\=Eiler\|first\=Herbert\|page\=12\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 29, 1919\|access\-date\=May 4, 2015}}{{Open access}} ### Thursday May 29 The third and final day of time trials was held Thursday May 29\. The day opened with nine spots available in the field. The [1913 winner](/wiki/1913_Indianapolis_500 "1913 Indianapolis 500") [Jules Goux](/wiki/Jules_Goux "Jules Goux") was the final car to qualify. During a practice run on Thursday, he suffered a broken piston and broken connecting rod, which blew a hole in the [Peugeot](/wiki/Peugeot "Peugeot")'s engine block. The [Premier](/wiki/Premier_Motor_Manufacturing_Company "Premier Motor Manufacturing Company") team offered him a spare engine, and Goux spent the entire day working to install it. Late in the day, just minutes before sundown, Goux took the car to the track. After one single warm\-up lap, he signaled to officials to start the run. His lap of 95 mph bumped James Reynolds, and Goux surprisingly made the field. Not as lucky was [Dave Lewis](/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28racing_driver%29 "Dave Lewis (racing driver)"). A day after suffering engine problems, Evans was on his qualifying lap, running over 100 mph. Two\-thirds of the way through the lap, the [bearings](/wiki/Main_bearing "Main bearing") in the engine burned out, and broke the [crankcase](/wiki/Crankcase "Crankcase"). During an exhibition run, [Ralph DePalma](/wiki/Ralph_DePalma "Ralph DePalma") attempted to set track records in a 950\-c.i.d. car, the same car he set records in at [Daytona](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_and_Road_Course "Daytona Beach and Road Course"). He failed to break [René Thomas](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "René Thomas (racing driver)")'s one\-lap record from Tuesday, but he did set 5\-mile and 10\-mile distance speed records. | {{abbr\|Pos\|Grid Position}} | Name | Average Speed(mph) | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 17 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [W. W. Brown](/wiki/W._W._Brown "W. W. Brown") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 99\.8 | | 19 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Roscoe Sarles](/wiki/Roscoe_Sarles "Roscoe Sarles") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 97\.75 | | 21 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Ray Howard](/wiki/Ray_Howard "Ray Howard") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 95\.0 | | 22 | {{Flagicon\|FRA}} [Jules Goux](/wiki/Jules_Goux "Jules Goux") **{{Color box\|gold\|W\|border\=silver}}** | 95\.0 | | 24 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Kurt Hitke](/wiki/Kurt_Hitke "Kurt Hitke") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 93\.5 | | 26 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Ora Haibe](/wiki/Ora_Haibe "Ora Haibe") | 92\.8 | | 28 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Tom Alley](/wiki/Tom_Alley "Tom Alley") | 92\.2 | | 30 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Omar Toft](/wiki/Omar_Toft "Omar Toft") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 91\.5 | | 33 | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [J. J. McCoy](/wiki/J._J._McCoy_%28racing_driver%29 "J. J. McCoy (racing driver)") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 86\.5 | | — | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} James M. Reynolds **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 83\.5 Bumped by Goux | | — | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Al Cotey](/wiki/Al_Cotey "Al Cotey") **{{Color box\|orange\|R\|border\=silver}}** | 82\.9 Too slow | | — | {{Flagicon\|USA\|1912}} [Dave Lewis](/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28racing_driver%29 "Dave Lewis (racing driver)") | Incomplete Connecting rod | * Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning. Sources: *The Indianapolis Star*,{{cite news\|title\=33 Qualify For Speedway Race (part 1\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2355033/1919\_indianapolis\_time\_trials\_may\_30/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|page\=1\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 30, 1919\|access\-date\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\|title\=33 Qualify For Speedway Race (part 2\)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2355041/1919\_indianapolis\_time\_trials\_may\_30/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|page\=3\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 30, 1919\|access\-date\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}} *The Indianapolis News*{{cite news\|title\=Elimination Trials Statistics\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2355085/1919\_indianapolis\_time\_trials\_may\_30/\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|page\=20\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=May 30, 1919\|access\-date\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}}
[ "Time trials\n-----------", "Time trials were scheduled for three days, May 27–29\\. Elimination trials consisted of one timed lap. This would be the final time single\\-lap qualifying runs were used at Indianapolis. In 1920, four\\-lap time trial runs would be introduced. For the first time, qualifiers would line up in the grid by speed based on the day they qualified. All cars that qualified on the first day would line up by speed rank first, with the fastest qualifier starting on the pole position. The remaining cars that qualified on subsequent days would line up by speed rank behind the first day qualifiers. The cars from the second and third days, however, were merged on the grid. This format was adopted in order to encourage more drivers to qualify early on, instead of waiting until the last minute.", "Originally it was planned for all elimination trials to be held on Tuesday, but due to inclement weather, the schedule was expanded to allow Wednesday and Thursday as well.{{cite news\\|title\\=Elimination Trials Are Started At Speedway\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2355287/1919\\_indianapolis\\_time\\_trials\\_may\\_27/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|page\\=20\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 27, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}} The minimum speed to qualify was set at 80 mph, and the field was set at a maximum of 33 cars. Based on the entries prepared at the track, the expectation was that about six cars would fail to qualify.", "In an effort to foil the \"bootleg\" programs that were being printed and sold in and around the Speedway, car numbers were not assigned until race morning.", "### Tuesday May 27", "The first day of time trials was held Tuesday May 27 starting at 10:00 a.m. [Ralph DePalma](/wiki/Ralph_DePalma \"Ralph DePalma\") (98\\.2 mph) was the first car in the field. Former winner [René Thomas](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"René Thomas (racing driver)\") shattered the track record with a lap of 104\\.7 mph to secure the pole position. Thomas went out late in the afternoon, deciding to wait out windy conditions. A total of eleven cars completed runs, all over 90 mph. [Howdy Wilcox](/wiki/Howdy_Wilcox \"Howdy Wilcox\") went out after Thomas, and qualified second with a speed of 100\\.0 mph.", "", "| {{abbr\\|Pos\\|Position}} | Name | Average Speed(mph) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{Flagicon\\|FRA}} [René Thomas](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"René Thomas (racing driver)\") **{{Color box\\|gold\\|W\\|border\\=silver}}** | **104\\.7**", "| 2 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Howdy Wilcox](/wiki/Howdy_Wilcox \"Howdy Wilcox\") | **100\\.0**", "| 3 | {{Flagicon\\|FRA}} [Albert Guyot](/wiki/Albert_Guyot \"Albert Guyot\") | **98\\.3**", "| 4 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Ralph DePalma](/wiki/Ralph_DePalma \"Ralph DePalma\") **{{Color box\\|gold\\|W\\|border\\=silver}}** | **98\\.2**", "| 5 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Eddie O'Donnell](/wiki/Eddie_O%27Donnell \"Eddie O'Donnell\") | **97\\.3**", "| 6 | {{Flagicon\\|FRA}} [Paul Bablot](/wiki/Paul_Bablot \"Paul Bablot\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **94\\.9**", "| 7 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Art Klein](/wiki/Art_Klein \"Art Klein\") | **94\\.9**", "| 8 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Eddie Hearne](/wiki/Eddie_Hearne \"Eddie Hearne\") | **94\\.5**", "| 9 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Earl Cooper](/wiki/Earl_Cooper \"Earl Cooper\") | **94\\.2**", "| 10 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Ira Vail](/wiki/Ira_Vail \"Ira Vail\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **94\\.1**", "| 11 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Charles Kirkpatrick](/wiki/Charles_Kirkpatrick \"Charles Kirkpatrick\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **90\\.0**", "", "* Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.", "Sources: *The Indianapolis Star*,{{cite news\\|title\\=Thomas Reels Of 104\\-Mile Record Pace (Part 1\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2351777/1919\\_indianapolis\\_500\\_time\\_trials\\_may/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|page\\=1\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 28, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2015}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Thomas Reels Of 104\\-Mile Record Pace (Part 2\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2351789/1919\\_indianapolis\\_500\\_time\\_trials\\_may/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|page\\=5\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 28, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2015}}{{Open access}} *The Indianapolis News*{{cite news\\|title\\=Sensational Driving In Speedway Eliminations\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2354765/1919\\_indianapolis\\_time\\_trials\\_may\\_28/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|page\\=20\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 28, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}}", "### Wednesday May 28", "The second day of time trials was held Wednesday May 28\\. The qualifiers on the second and third day would line up behind the qualifiers from the first day. [Louis Chevrolet](/wiki/Louis_Chevrolet \"Louis Chevrolet\") drove a Frontenac at a speed of 103\\.1 mph to be the fastest car of the day. [Tommy Milton](/wiki/Tommy_Milton \"Tommy Milton\") was on his way to qualifying over 101 mph, but his car slowed, and he managed a lap of only 89\\.9 mph.", "During a practice run, [Omar Toft](/wiki/Omar_Toft \"Omar Toft\") spun in the south turns, but avoided contact and was able to continue around. Two cars, [Al Cotey](/wiki/Al_Cotey \"Al Cotey\") and [Dave Lewis](/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28racing_driver%29 \"Dave Lewis (racing driver)\"), made an attempt but failed to qualify. Cotey was too slow (below the 80 mph minimum) and Lewis suffered engine failure. Both drivers were eligible to try again on Thursday.", "A total of 13 cars completed qualifying runs Wednesday, filling the field to 24 cars. The final starting positions, however, for those 13 cars would not be finalized until qualifying was completed on Thursday.", "", "| {{abbr\\|Pos\\|Grid Position}} | Name | Average Speed(mph) | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 12 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Louis Chevrolet](/wiki/Louis_Chevrolet \"Louis Chevrolet\") | **103\\.1** |\n| 13 | {{Flagicon\\|FRA}} [Louis Wagner](/wiki/Louis_Wagner_%28racing_driver%29 \"Louis Wagner (racing driver)\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **101\\.7** |\n| 14 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Joe Boyer](/wiki/Joe_Boyer \"Joe Boyer\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **100\\.9** |\n| 15 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Ralph Mulford](/wiki/Ralph_Mulford \"Ralph Mulford\") | **100\\.5** |\n| 16 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Gaston Chevrolet](/wiki/Gaston_Chevrolet \"Gaston Chevrolet\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **100\\.4** |\n| 18 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Arthur Thurman](/wiki/Arthur_Thurman \"Arthur Thurman\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **98\\.0** |\n| 20 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Cliff Durant](/wiki/Cliff_Durant \"Cliff Durant\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **96\\.5** |\n| 23 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Wilbur D'Alene](/wiki/Wilbur_D%27Alene \"Wilbur D'Alene\") | **94\\.2** |\n| 25 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Louis LeCocq](/wiki/Louis_LeCocq \"Louis LeCocq\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **92\\.9** |\n| 27 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Denny Hickey](/wiki/Denny_Hickey \"Denny Hickey\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **92\\.5** |\n| 29 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Elmer T. Shannon](/wiki/Elmer_T._Shannon \"Elmer T. Shannon\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **91\\.7** |\n| 31 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Tommy Milton](/wiki/Tommy_Milton \"Tommy Milton\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **89\\.9** |\n| 32 | {{Flagicon\\|FRA}} [André Boillot](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Boillot \"André Boillot\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | **89\\.5** |\n| — | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Al Cotey](/wiki/Al_Cotey \"Al Cotey\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 74\\.6 Below 80 mph minimum |\n| — | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Dave Lewis](/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28racing_driver%29 \"Dave Lewis (racing driver)\") | Incomplete Engine failure |", "* Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.", "Sources: *The Indianapolis Star*,{{cite news\\|title\\=Frontenacs Average More Than 100 Miles in Tests\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2354940/1919\\_indianapolis\\_time\\_trials\\_may\\_29/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|page\\=14\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 29, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}} *The Indianapolis News*{{cite news\\|title\\=Racing Officials To Select Thirty\\-Three\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2351756/1919\\_indianapolis\\_500\\_time\\_trials\\_may/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|last\\=Eiler\\|first\\=Herbert\\|page\\=12\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 29, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2015}}{{Open access}}", "### Thursday May 29", "The third and final day of time trials was held Thursday May 29\\. The day opened with nine spots available in the field.", "The [1913 winner](/wiki/1913_Indianapolis_500 \"1913 Indianapolis 500\") [Jules Goux](/wiki/Jules_Goux \"Jules Goux\") was the final car to qualify. During a practice run on Thursday, he suffered a broken piston and broken connecting rod, which blew a hole in the [Peugeot](/wiki/Peugeot \"Peugeot\")'s engine block. The [Premier](/wiki/Premier_Motor_Manufacturing_Company \"Premier Motor Manufacturing Company\") team offered him a spare engine, and Goux spent the entire day working to install it. Late in the day, just minutes before sundown, Goux took the car to the track. After one single warm\\-up lap, he signaled to officials to start the run. His lap of 95 mph bumped James Reynolds, and Goux surprisingly made the field. Not as lucky was [Dave Lewis](/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28racing_driver%29 \"Dave Lewis (racing driver)\"). A day after suffering engine problems, Evans was on his qualifying lap, running over 100 mph. Two\\-thirds of the way through the lap, the [bearings](/wiki/Main_bearing \"Main bearing\") in the engine burned out, and broke the [crankcase](/wiki/Crankcase \"Crankcase\").", "During an exhibition run, [Ralph DePalma](/wiki/Ralph_DePalma \"Ralph DePalma\") attempted to set track records in a 950\\-c.i.d. car, the same car he set records in at [Daytona](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_and_Road_Course \"Daytona Beach and Road Course\"). He failed to break [René Thomas](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"René Thomas (racing driver)\")'s one\\-lap record from Tuesday, but he did set 5\\-mile and 10\\-mile distance speed records.", "", "| {{abbr\\|Pos\\|Grid Position}} | Name | Average Speed(mph) | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 17 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [W. W. Brown](/wiki/W._W._Brown \"W. W. Brown\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 99\\.8 |\n| 19 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Roscoe Sarles](/wiki/Roscoe_Sarles \"Roscoe Sarles\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 97\\.75 |\n| 21 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Ray Howard](/wiki/Ray_Howard \"Ray Howard\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 95\\.0 |\n| 22 | {{Flagicon\\|FRA}} [Jules Goux](/wiki/Jules_Goux \"Jules Goux\") **{{Color box\\|gold\\|W\\|border\\=silver}}** | 95\\.0 |\n| 24 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Kurt Hitke](/wiki/Kurt_Hitke \"Kurt Hitke\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 93\\.5 |\n| 26 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Ora Haibe](/wiki/Ora_Haibe \"Ora Haibe\") | 92\\.8 |\n| 28 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Tom Alley](/wiki/Tom_Alley \"Tom Alley\") | 92\\.2 |\n| 30 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Omar Toft](/wiki/Omar_Toft \"Omar Toft\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 91\\.5 |\n| 33 | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [J. J. McCoy](/wiki/J._J._McCoy_%28racing_driver%29 \"J. J. McCoy (racing driver)\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 86\\.5 |\n| — | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} James M. Reynolds **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 83\\.5 Bumped by Goux |\n| — | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Al Cotey](/wiki/Al_Cotey \"Al Cotey\") **{{Color box\\|orange\\|R\\|border\\=silver}}** | 82\\.9 Too slow |\n| — | {{Flagicon\\|USA\\|1912}} [Dave Lewis](/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28racing_driver%29 \"Dave Lewis (racing driver)\") | Incomplete Connecting rod |", "* Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.", "Sources: *The Indianapolis Star*,{{cite news\\|title\\=33 Qualify For Speedway Race (part 1\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2355033/1919\\_indianapolis\\_time\\_trials\\_may\\_30/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|page\\=1\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 30, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}}{{cite news\\|title\\=33 Qualify For Speedway Race (part 2\\)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2355041/1919\\_indianapolis\\_time\\_trials\\_may\\_30/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|page\\=3\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 30, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}} *The Indianapolis News*{{cite news\\|title\\=Elimination Trials Statistics\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2355085/1919\\_indianapolis\\_time\\_trials\\_may\\_30/\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|page\\=20\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=May 30, 1919\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2015}}{{Open access}}", "" ]
From Madrid to Moscow --------------------- ### The transfer order and its motivations On September 13, 1936, the confidential decree from the Ministry of Finance which authorized the transportation of the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain was signed, on the initiative of Minister of Finance of the time, Juan Negrín. The decree also called for the Government to eventually answer for their actions to the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales "Cortes Generales") (Spain's legislative body), a clause that was never fulfilled:[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 "#refBolloten1989"), p. 261[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 "#refViñas1976"), p. 133–4 * + {{Quote box \|quote \= By His Excellence the President of the Republic, on the 13th of this present month, the following confidential decree has been signed: The abnormal situation created within the country by the military insurrection compels the government to adopt these precautionary measures considered necessary to safeguard the metallic reserves of the Bank of Spain, basis of the public credit. The nature of the measure itself and the reasons behind its adoption demand that this agreement be kept confidential. Based on the aforementioned considerations, in agreement with the Council of Ministers, and on the proposal of the Ministry of Finance, I hereby ordain, in confidentiality, the following: \*Article I: The Ministry of Finance is hereby authorized to mandate, when considered necessary, the transportation, with the highest guarantees, and to the location esteemed to be the safest, of the gold, silver, and bills present at the time at the central headquarters of the Bank of Spain. \*Article II: The Government will, when appropriate, answer to the Cortes Generales for the present decree. Madrid, 13th of September, 1936\. \|source \= Juan Negrín, Minister of Finance\[\[\#refSarda1970\|Sardá 1970]], p. 433\[\[\#refOlayaMorales2004a\|Olaya Morales 2004a]], p. 286–7 \|align \= center \|width \= }} The decree was also signed by the [President of the Republic](/wiki/President_of_Spain "President of Spain") of the time, [Manuel Azaña](/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a "Manuel Azaña"), who would later affirm that the final destination of the reserves was unknown to him. According to Largo Caballero, Azaña was informed afterwards about this decision due to his emotional state and his reserved character towards the operation:Olaya Morales indicates ([2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 447\) that this could be in violation of article 76 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1931 "Spanish Constitution of 1931"), which empowers the President to submit any government decrees to the *Cortes Generales* if he/she should believe that any such decree would violate an existing law. {{Quote\|Did this decision need to be known by a large number of people? No. An indiscretion would be the stone of an international scandal \[...] It was decided that the President of the Republic should not know about it, who was at the time in a truly pitiful spiritual state; thus, the decision was only known by the President of the Council of Ministers (Largo Caballero himself), the Minister of Finance (\[\[Juan Negrín\|Negrín]]), and the Minister of the Navy and the Airforce (\[\[Indalecio Prieto]]). But it were the first two the only ones who negotiated with the Russian government. \|Francisco Largo Caballero''Fundación Pablo Iglesias'', ''Archives of Francisco Largo Caballero'', XXIII, p. 477}} Many authors, such as Viñas, have pointed out that the decision to transfer the gold reserves outside of Madrid was motivated by the rapid advance of the [Army of Africa](/wiki/Spanish_Army_of_Africa "Spanish Army of Africa") (commanded by Nationalist General [Francisco Franco](/wiki/Francisco_Franco "Francisco Franco")) which, since its landing on the [Spanish mainland](/wiki/Peninsular_Spain "Peninsular Spain"), had incessantly marched forward towards the capital. At the time the decision was taken, the Army of Africa was stationed only 116 kilometres from Madrid, and the efforts made up to that point to halt its advance had not been even partially successful. However, Nationalist forces would not arrive at Madrid until two months later; not because of Republican resistance, but because of Francisco Franco, who decided to deviate his course to aid Nationalist sympathizers in the [Siege of Toledo](/wiki/Siege_of_the_Alc%C3%A1zar "Siege of the Alcázar") in a highly prestigious operation that consolidated Franco's political position and allowed him to be named Head of State by the Nationalist side on September 29, 1936\. Madrid withstood the Nationalist offensive until the end of the war, and the Republican government did not relocate to [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia%2C_Spain "Valencia, Spain") until November 6\. One of the main protagonists in these events, [Prime Minister Largo Caballero](/wiki/Francisco_Largo_Caballero "Francisco Largo Caballero"), argued that the transfer of the gold reserves was necessary because of the Non\-Intervention Pact and the defection of democratic states previously favourable towards the Republic, which left Madrid under threat from the Nationalist forces. {{Quote\|Since the fascists were at the gates of the capital of Spain, \[Minister of Finance Negrín] asked the Council of Ministers for authorization to relocate the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain outside of the country, in order to take them to a safe place, without specifying where. \[...] As a first measure, he transported them to the forts of \[\[Cartagena, Spain\|Cartagena]]. After, fearing a Nationalist disembarkation, he decided to transfer them outside of Spain. \[...] There was no other place but Russia, a country that aided us with arms and provisions. And so, to Russia they were delivered.\|Francisco Largo Caballero\[\[\#refMoa2001\|Moa 2001]], p. 395}} However, [Luis Araquistáin](/wiki/Luis_Araquist%C3%A1in "Luis Araquistáin"), member of the same political party as Largo Caballero, attributed the events to Soviet constraint. {{Quote\|Since I am sure that Largo Caballero, of whom I was an intimate friend, was not in such a state of hopelessness with regard to the final outcome of the war, and it is hard for me to believe that Negrín also fell victim to such discouragement, I find no other alternative but to return to the hypothesis of Soviet coercion, or to simply declare that the transfer of the gold to Russia was a completely inexplicable madness.\|Luis Araquistáin''Congress for Cultural Freedom'' (1965\), p. 58}} The intentions of the [Federación Anarquista Ibérica](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Anarquista_Ib%C3%A9rica "Federación Anarquista Ibérica") (FAI, Iberian Anarchist Federation) of assaulting the vaults of the Bank of Spain to transfer the gold reserves to [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona"), the main bastion of the FAI, were also discussed. The anarchists intended not only to protect the gold reserves, but to buy war supplies on their own account.[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 "#refBolloten1989"), p. 268–9 This plan would have been prepared by [Diego Abad de Santillán](/wiki/Diego_Abad_de_Santill%C3%A1n "Diego Abad de Santillán"), one of the most fervent adversaries of Negrín; however, this is considered inaccurate by the [libertarian](/wiki/Libertarianism "Libertarianism") historian Francisco Olaya Morales, who argues that the gold reserves were transferred to [Cartagena](/wiki/Cartagena%2C_Spain "Cartagena, Spain") not for security purposes, but because of a preconceived intention to send the gold to Moscow.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 289–93 While the majority of historians consider Minister of Finance Negrín the primary actor of the transfer (either by his own initiative or by the manipulation of the Soviets, depending on different interpretations), it is not clear who first had the idea of sending the reserves outside of Spain. The British historian [Antony Beevor](/wiki/Antony_Beevor "Antony Beevor") cites versions that attribute to the Soviet agent Arthur Stashevski the suggestion to Negrín of establishing a "gold account" in Moscow, due to the threat posed on Madrid by Nationalist forces and the need to purchase [matériel](/wiki/Mat%C3%A9riel "Matériel") and raw materials.[Beevor 2005](/wiki/%23refBeevor2005 "#refBeevor2005"), p. 232 Beevor also cites Gabriel Jackson and Víctor Alba, who in their book *Juan Negrín*, attribute the idea to Negrín himself, arguing that the idea took the Soviets by surprise and that Negrín had to carefully explain his plan to the Soviet ambassador.[Beevor](/wiki/%23refBeevor2005 "#refBeevor2005"), p. 716–717 His friend, [Mariano Ansó](/wiki/Mariano_Ans%C3%B3 "Mariano Ansó"), defended him by affirming that he "could not have been and was not the author of the transfer of Spanish gold to Russia; at most, he was a cooperative of minor importance of the Spanish Lenin \[Largo Caballero] and his counsellors, at the head of which was [Luis Araquistáin](/wiki/Luis_Araquist%C3%A1in "Luis Araquistáin")."[Ansó 1976](/wiki/%23refAnso1976 "#refAnso1976"), p. 317 According to [Martín Aceña](/wiki/Pablo_Mart%C3%ADn_Ace%C3%B1a "Pablo Martín Aceña"),[Martín Aceña 2001](/wiki/%23refMartinAce%C3%B1a2001 "#refMartinAceña2001"), p. 95 it was Stashevski who proposed the deposit of the gold reserves in Moscow. [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky "Walter Krivitsky"), a Soviet agent responsible for military intelligence in Western Europe at the time, who later fled to the United States, stated that when Stalin decided to intervene in Spain, he wanted to ensure that there was enough gold so as to pay for the Soviet Union's aid to the Republic.[*The hand of Stalin over Spain*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070429154605/http://www.fundanin.org/krivitsky.htm), by [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky "Walter Krivitsky"), translated from *The Saturday Post*, Philadelphia, and published in Spanish by Editorial Claridad, Buenos Aires, 1946\. Compiled by the Andreu Nin Foundation. In any case, it was not until the following day, September 14, that the Council of the Bank of Spain (very reduced after the start of the war) was informed of the Government's decision to appropriate the gold and transfer it.Coincidentally, 14 September was also the day on which the Nationalists created in [Burgos](/wiki/Burgos "Burgos") their own Bank of Spain, whose Council, presided by former lieutenant governor, [Pedro Pan Gómez](/wiki/Pedro_Pan_G%C3%B3mez "Pedro Pan Gómez"), fixed as their fundamental objective to prevent the Republic by any means necessary to make use of the gold reserves of the Bank. Given that the transfer of the gold had commenced hours before the beginning of the session, the Council was unable to prevent such a decision. Nevertheless, the only two stockholder representatives of the Bank of Spain that had not allied themselves with the Nationalists (José Álvarez Guerra and Lorenzo Martínez Fresneda), submitted their resignation.Fernando Schwarz. *The internationalization of the Spanish civil war*, Barcelona, 1971, p. 210; quoted by: [Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 287 Martínez Fresneda protested, arguing that the transfer was illegal, since the gold was of the exclusive property of the Bank of Spain, and thus neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it; he also pointed out that the gold guaranteed by law the convertibility of Bank notes, and should therefore remain in the security vaults of the Bank: {{Quote box \|quote \= Mid\-September of 1937, according to the personal and direct information of Mr. Martínez Fresneda to the Chief Counsellor, on the 14th, an extraordinary and secret meeting of the Council was called for the following day, the 15th. On that day Fresneda was told by the Governor that the Government had made arrangements, before the advance of the rebel troops, to take hold of all the gold of the Bank, to transport it to a place and locality where it could be safeguarded with greater security than provided by Madrid, towards which the aforementioned troops were heading with the intention of capturing, and that in effect the transport has already begun. Then Mr. Martínez Fresneda said that, since the execution of the Government agreement was already under way, there was no place to discuss the possibility of contesting and impeding its realization, but if there was no place for discussion, there was place to express, in his most solemn fashion, his energetic opposition, because he considered the agreement to be illegal and ineffective by right. It was illegal, because being the gold exclusive property of the Bank, neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it. On another account, he said, the gold is the reserve that is backed by the law and that guarantees the convertibility of currency notes, and this being so, the gold could not be kept anywhere else but in the vault of the Bank, precisely when the new vault has been inaugurated, which responds to all the advancements in security against fires, bombs, etc., all that demonstrates the unfortunateness of the agreement. He concluded re\-declaring his opposition to the measure, and to such an opinion Mr. Álvarez Guerra (Chief Counsellor) also subscribed. He added that it was the logical consequence of his opposition that be presented his resignation to the Council. \|source \= — Extract of the report ''in voce'', pronounced before the General Council of the Bank of Spain of Burgos, 22 September 1937\[\[\#refSanchezAsiain1999\|Sánchez Asiaín 1999]], p. 114–115 \|align \= center \|width \= 90%}} ### Transport of the gold to Cartagena [thumb\|400 px\|View of the [Atocha railway station](/wiki/Atocha_railway_station "Atocha railway station") of Madrid.](/wiki/Image:Estacion_Atocha_-_Jorge_Lascar.jpg "Estacion Atocha - Jorge Lascar.jpg") Less than 24 hours after the signing of the decree, on the morning of September 14, 1936, members of the [Spanish Carabineers](/wiki/Carabineros "Carabineros") and various militiamen, sent by the Ministry of Finance, walked into the Bank of Spain. The appropriation operation was led by the Treasury Director\-General and future Minister of Finance under the government of [Juan Negrín](/wiki/Juan_Negr%C3%ADn "Juan Negrín"), [Francisco Méndez Aspe](/wiki/Francisco_M%C3%A9ndez_Aspe "Francisco Méndez Aspe"). He was accompanied by Captain [Julio López Masegosa](/wiki/Julio_L%C3%B3pez_Masegosa "Julio López Masegosa") and 50 or 60 metallurgists and locksmiths.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 289[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 "#refViñas1976"), p. 127 The vaults where the reserves were kept were opened, and during numerous days Government agents extracted all the gold there deposited. The gold was placed in wooden boxes, and transported in trucks to the [Atocha railway station](/wiki/Atocha_railway_station "Atocha railway station"), from where it was then transported to [Cartagena](/wiki/Cartagena%2C_Spain "Cartagena, Spain"). The city of Cartagena was chosen because, in the words of historian Angel Viñas, "it was an important naval station, adequately supplied and defended, somewhat distanced from the theatre of military operations and from which the possibility of transporting the reserves through a maritime route somewhere else was available."[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 "#refViñas1976"), p. 139 The gold was heavily escorted and was transported via railway, according to witnesses of the events.[Luengo 1974](/wiki/%23refLuengo1974 "#refLuengo1974")[Rosal 1977](/wiki/%23refRosal1977 "#refRosal1977"), pp. 30–1 A few days after the extraction of the gold from the Bank of Spain, Bank functionaries retrieved the Bank's silver, valued at a total of 656,708,702\.59 Spanish pesetas of the time,Balance of July 18, 1936\. which was later sold to the United States and France between June 1938 and July 1939 for a sum slightly more than 20 million U.S. dollars of the time (a portion of the silver was confiscated by French authorities).[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 328[Viñas 1984](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1984 "#refViñas1984"), p. 174 With the gold reserves stored hundreds of kilometres away from the fighting fronts, it seemed that the mandate of the confidential decree of September 13 had been fulfilled. The Nationalists, when informed of the movement of the gold, protested against the events.The newspaper *[El Heraldo de Aragón](/wiki/El_Heraldo_de_Arag%C3%B3n "El Heraldo de Aragón")* was published on Thursday October 15, 1936 with the following heading: "In an official note, the head of the State's government, General Franco, protests against the spoliation without precedents carried by the so\-called government of Madrid by freely taking control of the national gold reserves." However, on October 15, Negrín and Largo Caballero decided to transfer the gold from Cartagena to Russia. On October 20, the director of the [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD "NKVD") in Spain, [Alexander Orlov](/wiki/Aleksandr_Mikhailovich_Orlov "Aleksandr Mikhailovich Orlov"), received a ciphered telegram from Stalin,The telegram in question read the following:{{Quote box \|quote \= Alongside ambassador Rosenberg, I organized with the head of the Spanish government, Caballero, the sending of the Spanish gold reserves to the Soviet Union.... This operation must be carried out in the utmost secrecy. If the Spanish demand a receipt for the cargo, refuse. I repeat, refuse to sign anything and say that the Bank of Spain will prepare a formal receipt in Moscow. \|source \= \[\[Iván Vasiliévich]], \[\[\#refBolloten1989\|Bolloten 1989]], p. 265\. \|align \= left}} ordering him to organize the shipment of the gold to the USSR, and he agreed on the preparations with Negrín. Orlov responded that he would carry out the operation with the Soviet tankmen that had just arrived in Spain. In his later statement to a United States Senate Subcommittee, he declared the following: {{Quote box \|quote \= I wish to note that, at that time, the Spanish government (...) did not fully control the situation. I truthfully told the Minister of Finance Negrín that if anyone were to find out about it, if the anarchists intercepted my men, Russians, with their trucks full with Spanish gold, they would kill them and it would be an enormous worldwide political scandal, that could even provoke an internal revolution. Considering this (...) I asked him if the Spanish government could offer me credentials under a fictitious name (...) as a representative of the Bank of England or the Bank of America, because then (...) I could say that the gold was being transported to America for security reasons (...) Negrín did not object. He thought it was a good idea. I could speak relatively good English and could pass by as a foreigner. Thus, he gave me the credentials of a man named Blackstone and I became the representative of the Bank of America. \|source \= — United States Congress, Senate, ''Scope of Soviet Activity'', p. 3431–32\.\[\[\#refBolloten1989\|Bolloten 1989]], p. 267–8 \|align \= center \|width \= 90%}} On October 22, 1936, Francisco Méndez Aspe, Director\-General of the Treasury and Negrín's "right hand" man, came to Cartagena and ordered the nocturnal extraction of the majority of gold\-containing boxes, of an approximate weight of seventy\-five kilograms each, which were transported in trucks and loaded onto the vessels *Kine*, *Kursk*, *Neva* and *Volgoles*. According to Orlov: {{Quote box \|quote \= A brigade of soviet tanks had disembarked in Cartagena two weeks before and was now stationed in \[\[Archena]], 40 miles away. It was commanded by Colonel S. Krovoshein, who the Spanish knew as Melé. Krovoshein assigned me twenty military trucks and a few other of his best tankers (...) The sixty Spanish sailors had been sent to the gunpowder depository about an hour or two before in anticipation (...) And thus, on October 22, by nightfall, I went, followed by a caravan of trucks, towards the munitions depository (...) The health of Ménez Aspe was a very serious issue. He was a very nervous man. He told us that we should half the loading or we would perish \[because of a German bombardment]. I responded that we could not do so, because the Germans would continue to bombard the port and the ship would sink, and so we must continue. Then he fled and left behind only his assistant, a very pleasant Spaniard who took the responsibility for counting the boxes of gold. \|source \= — United States Congress, Senate, ''Scope of Soviet Activity'', p. 3431–32\.\[\[\#refBolloten1989\|Bolloten 1989]], p. 269 \|align \= center \|width \= 90%}} The gold took three nights to be loaded, and on October 25 the four vessels set out en route to [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa "Odessa"), a Soviet port in the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea"). Four Spaniards who were charged with guarding the keys to the security vaults of the Bank of Spain accompanied the expedition. Out of the 10,000 boxes,Indalecio Prieto noted that the total number of stored boxes in Cartagena were 13,000, of which only 7,800 were transported. However, most scholars on the subject, such as [Sardá (1970\)](/wiki/%23refSarda1970 "#refSarda1970"), Ruiz Martín (1970\), [Viñas (1976\)](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 "#refViñas1976"), (Howson (1998\) or [Martín Aceña (2001\)](/wiki/%23refMartinAce%C3%B1a2001 "#refMartinAceña2001"), concur that the total number of boxes was 10,000\. corresponding to approximately 560 tonnes of gold, only 7,800 were taken to Odessa, corresponding to 510 tonnes. Orlov declared that 7,900 boxes of gold were transported, while Méndez Aspe stated there were only 7,800\. The final receipt showed 7,800, and it is not known whether Orlov's declaration was an error or if the 100 boxes of gold disappeared.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 294 and p. 448 ### The travel and its reception in Moscow The convoy set sail for the USSR, arriving at the port of [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa "Odessa") on November 2 — the *Kursk*, however, would arrive several days later because of technical problems. One of [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky "Walter Krivitsky")'s collaborators, General of the [State Political Directorate](/wiki/State_Political_Directorate "State Political Directorate"), described the scene at the Soviet port as follows: {{Quote box \|quote \= The area around the dike was cleared and surrounded by Soviet troops. Through this empty space between the wharf and the railway tracks, the highest chiefs of the \[\[State Political Directorate\|OGPU]] transported the boxes of gold on their backs. Throughout numerous days they were transporting the gold, loading it on the trucks and taking it to Moscow in armed convoys. He tried to give me an idea of the amount of gold that they had unloaded in Odessa while we were walking down the \[\[Red Square]]. He pointed out the area that surrounded us and said "if all the boxes of gold that we piled up on the wharfs of Odessa were to be placed here side by side, they would completely cover up the Red Square." \|source \= — Walter Krivitsky, ''In Stalin's Secret Service'', pp. 112–3\.\[\[\#refBolloten1989\|Bolloten 1989]], p. 270 \|width \= \|align \= center}} The gold, protected by the 173rd regiment of the [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD "NKVD"), was immediately moved to the State Depository for Valuables (*Goskhran*), in Moscow, where it was received as a deposit according to a protocol, dated November 5, by which a reception commission was established. The gold arrived at the Soviet capital a day before the 19th anniversary of the [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution"). According to Orlov, [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin") celebrated the arrival of the gold with a banquet attended by members of the politburo, in which he was famously quoted as saying, "The Spaniards will never see their gold again, just as they don't see their ears," an expression based on a Russian proverb.United States Congress, Senate, *Scope of Soviet Activity*, pp. 3431, 3433–34, in: [Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 "#refBolloten1989"), pp. 280–1 [thumb\|right\|Coins made up 99\.8% of Bank of Spain transferred gold, 70% of which were [sovereigns](/wiki/Sovereign_%28British_coin%29 "Sovereign (British coin)") (pictured) and [half\-sovereigns](/wiki/Half-sovereign "Half-sovereign").](/wiki/Image:Australia_1857_Sovereign_%28proof%29.jpg "Australia 1857 Sovereign (proof).jpg") The gold was stored in the *Goskhran* under military vigilance, and the remaining boxes of gold carried by the *Kursk* arrived between November 9 and 10\. Shortly after, a recount on the total deposits was carried out; initial estimates suggested that the recount would take a year to complete, and despite it having been done with the utmost care, the recount was finalized in less than two months, having begun on December 5, 1936, and completed on January 24, 1937\. 15,571 sacks of gold were opened, and 16 different types of gold coins were found inside: [pounds sterling](/wiki/Pound_sterling "Pound sterling") ([sovereigns](/wiki/Sovereign_%28British_coin%29 "Sovereign (British coin)") or [half sovereigns](/wiki/Half_sovereign "Half sovereign")) (70% of the total), [Spanish pesetas](/wiki/Spanish_peseta "Spanish peseta"), [French francs](/wiki/French_franc "French franc"), [Louis](/wiki/Louis_d%27or "Louis d'or"), [German marks](/wiki/German_mark "German mark"), [Belgian francs](/wiki/Belgian_franc "Belgian franc"), [Italian lire](/wiki/Italian_lira "Italian lira"), [Portuguese escudos](/wiki/Portuguese_escudo "Portuguese escudo"), [Russian rubles](/wiki/Russian_ruble "Russian ruble"), [Austrian schillings](/wiki/Austrian_schilling "Austrian schilling"), [Dutch guilders](/wiki/Dutch_guilder "Dutch guilder"), [Swiss francs](/wiki/Swiss_franc "Swiss franc"), [Mexican pesos](/wiki/Mexican_peso "Mexican peso"), [Argentine pesos](/wiki/Argentine_peso "Argentine peso"), [Chilean pesos](/wiki/Chilean_peso "Chilean peso"), and an extraordinary amount of [U.S. dollars](/wiki/U.S._dollar "U.S. dollar").[Martín Aceña 2001](/wiki/%23refMartinAce%C3%B1a2001 "#refMartinAceña2001"), p. 26 The total deposit was constituted of 509,287\.183 kilograms of [gold coins](/wiki/Gold_coin "Gold coin") and 792\.346 kilograms of gold in the form of [ingots](/wiki/Gold_ingot "Gold ingot"): thus, a total of 510,079,529\.30 [grams](/wiki/Gram "Gram") of crude gold, which at an average of .900 millesimal fineness, was equivalent to 460,568,245\.59 grams of fine gold (approximately 14,807,363\.8 [troy ounces](/wiki/Troy_ounce "Troy ounce")).[Preston 2001](/wiki/%23refPreston2001 "#refPreston2001"), p. 270 This amount of gold was valued at 1,592,851,910 gold\-pesetas (518 million U.S. dollars). Additionally, the [numismatic](/wiki/Numismatics "Numismatics") value of the coins was much higher than the amount of gold they contained, but the Soviets disregarded this when calculating its value.[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 "#refViñas1976"), p. 210 The Soviets did, however, scrupulously examine all coins to identify those that were fake, defective, or did not contain enough gold. The Soviets never explained what was done with the rare or antique coins, but it is doubtful that they were melted. [Burnett Bolloten](/wiki/Burnett_Bolloten "Burnett Bolloten") suggests that it is possible that all coins with numismatic value were separated with the intention of gradually selling them on the international market.[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 "#refBolloten1989"), p. 270–1 On February 5, 1937 the Spanish ambassador and the Soviet representatives G. F. Grinko, Commissar of Finance, and N. N. Krestinsky, Commissar of Foreign Affairs, signed the final reception act on the deposit of Spanish gold, a document written in French and Russian.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 294 Paragraph 2, section 4 of the document stipulated that the Spanish government retained the right of re\-exporting or utilizing the gold, and the last clause of the document indicated that the Soviet Union would not be held responsible for the utilization of the gold by Spanish authorities. Said clause established that "if the Government of the Republic ordered the exportation of the gold received as a deposit by the USSR, or utilized said gold in any other way, the responsibility assumed by the People's Commissariat of Finance would automatically be reduced, in whole or in part in proportion to the actions taken by the Government of the Spanish Republic". It was thus clear that the gold reserves deposited in Moscow could be freely employed by the Republic, exporting it or alienating it, and Soviet authorities assumed no responsibility. It is worth noting that the USSR granted the ownership of the gold to the Government of the Republic, instead of to the Bank of Spain, its legal owner.Original Act in the Historical Archive of the Bank of Spain. When, on January 15, 1937, the newspaper of the [CNT](/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3n_Nacional_del_Trabajo "Confederación Nacional del Trabajo") *[Solidaridad Obrera](/wiki/Solidaridad_Obrera_%28periodical%29 "Solidaridad Obrera (periodical)")* denounced the "absurd idea of sending the gold reserves abroad", the government agency *Cosmos* published a semi\-official note (January 20\), affirming that the reserves were still in Spain.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 296 Not long after, the disputes between the socialist and communist dominated Republican government and the anarchist organizations and the [POUM](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Marxist_Unification "Workers' Party of Marxist Unification") would result in the [violent clashes of May 1937](/wiki/Barcelona_May_Days "Barcelona May Days"),{{cite book\| last \= Eslava Galán\| first \= Juan\| title \= La jaula de grillos republicana\| year \= 2006\| isbn \= 84\-08\-06511\-4\| no\-pp \= true\| page \= Chapter: "Una historia de la guerra civil que no va a gustar a nadie"\| publisher \= Planeta}} ending in an anarchist defeat. Those involved in the events were soon removed from the scene. Stashevski and the Soviet ambassador to Spain, Rosenberg, were executed in 1937 and 1938\. Orlov, fearing for his life, fled in 1938 to the United States upon receiving a telegram from Stalin. The Soviet Commissars of Finance, Grinko, Krestinsky, Margoulis and Kagan, were executed on May 15, 1938 or [disappeared](/wiki/Forced_disappearance "Forced disappearance") in varying ways, accused of being part of the anti\-Soviet "Trotskyist\-rightist bloc". Grinko was accused of making "efforts to undermine the financial power of the USSR." The four Spanish functionaries sent to supervise the operation were retained by Stalin until October 1938, when they were permitted to leave the Soviet Union for [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm"), [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires "Buenos Aires"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") and [México City](/wiki/M%C3%A9xico_City "México City"), respectively. The Spanish ambassador, Marcelino Pascua, was transferred to Paris.[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 "#refBolloten1989"), p. 273[Martínez Amutio 1974](/wiki/%23refMartinezAmutio1974 "#refMartinezAmutio1974"), p. 58[Prieto Tuero 1997](/wiki/%23refPrietoTuero1997 "#refPrietoTuero1997"), p. 130
[ "From Madrid to Moscow\n---------------------", "### The transfer order and its motivations", "On September 13, 1936, the confidential decree from the Ministry of Finance which authorized the transportation of the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain was signed, on the initiative of Minister of Finance of the time, Juan Negrín. The decree also called for the Government to eventually answer for their actions to the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales \"Cortes Generales\") (Spain's legislative body), a clause that was never fulfilled:[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 \"#refBolloten1989\"), p. 261[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 \"#refViñas1976\"), p. 133–4", "* + {{Quote box\n\t\\|quote \\= By His Excellence the President of the Republic, on the 13th of this present month, the following confidential decree has been signed: The abnormal situation created within the country by the military insurrection compels the government to adopt these precautionary measures considered necessary to safeguard the metallic reserves of the Bank of Spain, basis of the public credit. The nature of the measure itself and the reasons behind its adoption demand that this agreement be kept confidential. Based on the aforementioned considerations, in agreement with the Council of Ministers, and on the proposal of the Ministry of Finance, I hereby ordain, in confidentiality, the following:\n\t\n\t\\*Article I: The Ministry of Finance is hereby authorized to mandate, when considered necessary, the transportation, with the highest guarantees, and to the location esteemed to be the safest, of the gold, silver, and bills present at the time at the central headquarters of the Bank of Spain.\n\t\\*Article II: The Government will, when appropriate, answer to the Cortes Generales for the present decree. \n\tMadrid, 13th of September, 1936\\.\n\t\\|source \\= Juan Negrín, Minister of Finance\\[\\[\\#refSarda1970\\|Sardá 1970]], p. 433\\[\\[\\#refOlayaMorales2004a\\|Olaya Morales 2004a]], p. 286–7\n\t\\|align \\= center\n\t\\|width \\= }}", "The decree was also signed by the [President of the Republic](/wiki/President_of_Spain \"President of Spain\") of the time, [Manuel Azaña](/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a \"Manuel Azaña\"), who would later affirm that the final destination of the reserves was unknown to him. According to Largo Caballero, Azaña was informed afterwards about this decision due to his emotional state and his reserved character towards the operation:Olaya Morales indicates ([2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 447\\) that this could be in violation of article 76 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1931 \"Spanish Constitution of 1931\"), which empowers the President to submit any government decrees to the *Cortes Generales* if he/she should believe that any such decree would violate an existing law.", "{{Quote\\|Did this decision need to be known by a large number of people? No. An indiscretion would be the stone of an international scandal \\[...] It was decided that the President of the Republic should not know about it, who was at the time in a truly pitiful spiritual state; thus, the decision was only known by the President of the Council of Ministers (Largo Caballero himself), the Minister of Finance (\\[\\[Juan Negrín\\|Negrín]]), and the Minister of the Navy and the Airforce (\\[\\[Indalecio Prieto]]). But it were the first two the only ones who negotiated with the Russian government.\n\\|Francisco Largo Caballero''Fundación Pablo Iglesias'', ''Archives of Francisco Largo Caballero'', XXIII, p. 477}}", "Many authors, such as Viñas, have pointed out that the decision to transfer the gold reserves outside of Madrid was motivated by the rapid advance of the [Army of Africa](/wiki/Spanish_Army_of_Africa \"Spanish Army of Africa\") (commanded by Nationalist General [Francisco Franco](/wiki/Francisco_Franco \"Francisco Franco\")) which, since its landing on the [Spanish mainland](/wiki/Peninsular_Spain \"Peninsular Spain\"), had incessantly marched forward towards the capital. At the time the decision was taken, the Army of Africa was stationed only 116 kilometres from Madrid, and the efforts made up to that point to halt its advance had not been even partially successful. However, Nationalist forces would not arrive at Madrid until two months later; not because of Republican resistance, but because of Francisco Franco, who decided to deviate his course to aid Nationalist sympathizers in the [Siege of Toledo](/wiki/Siege_of_the_Alc%C3%A1zar \"Siege of the Alcázar\") in a highly prestigious operation that consolidated Franco's political position and allowed him to be named Head of State by the Nationalist side on September 29, 1936\\. Madrid withstood the Nationalist offensive until the end of the war, and the Republican government did not relocate to [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia%2C_Spain \"Valencia, Spain\") until November 6\\.", "One of the main protagonists in these events, [Prime Minister Largo Caballero](/wiki/Francisco_Largo_Caballero \"Francisco Largo Caballero\"), argued that the transfer of the gold reserves was necessary because of the Non\\-Intervention Pact and the defection of democratic states previously favourable towards the Republic, which left Madrid under threat from the Nationalist forces.", "{{Quote\\|Since the fascists were at the gates of the capital of Spain, \\[Minister of Finance Negrín] asked the Council of Ministers for authorization to relocate the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain outside of the country, in order to take them to a safe place, without specifying where. \\[...] As a first measure, he transported them to the forts of \\[\\[Cartagena, Spain\\|Cartagena]]. After, fearing a Nationalist disembarkation, he decided to transfer them outside of Spain. \\[...] There was no other place but Russia, a country that aided us with arms and provisions. And so, to Russia they were delivered.\\|Francisco Largo Caballero\\[\\[\\#refMoa2001\\|Moa 2001]], p. 395}}", "However, [Luis Araquistáin](/wiki/Luis_Araquist%C3%A1in \"Luis Araquistáin\"), member of the same political party as Largo Caballero, attributed the events to Soviet constraint.", "{{Quote\\|Since I am sure that Largo Caballero, of whom I was an intimate friend, was not in such a state of hopelessness with regard to the final outcome of the war, and it is hard for me to believe that Negrín also fell victim to such discouragement, I find no other alternative but to return to the hypothesis of Soviet coercion, or to simply declare that the transfer of the gold to Russia was a completely inexplicable madness.\\|Luis Araquistáin''Congress for Cultural Freedom'' (1965\\), p. 58}}", "The intentions of the [Federación Anarquista Ibérica](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Anarquista_Ib%C3%A9rica \"Federación Anarquista Ibérica\") (FAI, Iberian Anarchist Federation) of assaulting the vaults of the Bank of Spain to transfer the gold reserves to [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\"), the main bastion of the FAI, were also discussed. The anarchists intended not only to protect the gold reserves, but to buy war supplies on their own account.[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 \"#refBolloten1989\"), p. 268–9 This plan would have been prepared by [Diego Abad de Santillán](/wiki/Diego_Abad_de_Santill%C3%A1n \"Diego Abad de Santillán\"), one of the most fervent adversaries of Negrín; however, this is considered inaccurate by the [libertarian](/wiki/Libertarianism \"Libertarianism\") historian Francisco Olaya Morales, who argues that the gold reserves were transferred to [Cartagena](/wiki/Cartagena%2C_Spain \"Cartagena, Spain\") not for security purposes, but because of a preconceived intention to send the gold to Moscow.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 289–93", "While the majority of historians consider Minister of Finance Negrín the primary actor of the transfer (either by his own initiative or by the manipulation of the Soviets, depending on different interpretations), it is not clear who first had the idea of sending the reserves outside of Spain. The British historian [Antony Beevor](/wiki/Antony_Beevor \"Antony Beevor\") cites versions that attribute to the Soviet agent Arthur Stashevski the suggestion to Negrín of establishing a \"gold account\" in Moscow, due to the threat posed on Madrid by Nationalist forces and the need to purchase [matériel](/wiki/Mat%C3%A9riel \"Matériel\") and raw materials.[Beevor 2005](/wiki/%23refBeevor2005 \"#refBeevor2005\"), p. 232 Beevor also cites Gabriel Jackson and Víctor Alba, who in their book *Juan Negrín*, attribute the idea to Negrín himself, arguing that the idea took the Soviets by surprise and that Negrín had to carefully explain his plan to the Soviet ambassador.[Beevor](/wiki/%23refBeevor2005 \"#refBeevor2005\"), p. 716–717 His friend, [Mariano Ansó](/wiki/Mariano_Ans%C3%B3 \"Mariano Ansó\"), defended him by affirming that he \"could not have been and was not the author of the transfer of Spanish gold to Russia; at most, he was a cooperative of minor importance of the Spanish Lenin \\[Largo Caballero] and his counsellors, at the head of which was [Luis Araquistáin](/wiki/Luis_Araquist%C3%A1in \"Luis Araquistáin\").\"[Ansó 1976](/wiki/%23refAnso1976 \"#refAnso1976\"), p. 317 According to [Martín Aceña](/wiki/Pablo_Mart%C3%ADn_Ace%C3%B1a \"Pablo Martín Aceña\"),[Martín Aceña 2001](/wiki/%23refMartinAce%C3%B1a2001 \"#refMartinAceña2001\"), p. 95 it was Stashevski who proposed the deposit of the gold reserves in Moscow. [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky \"Walter Krivitsky\"), a Soviet agent responsible for military intelligence in Western Europe at the time, who later fled to the United States, stated that when Stalin decided to intervene in Spain, he wanted to ensure that there was enough gold so as to pay for the Soviet Union's aid to the Republic.[*The hand of Stalin over Spain*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070429154605/http://www.fundanin.org/krivitsky.htm), by [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky \"Walter Krivitsky\"), translated from *The Saturday Post*, Philadelphia, and published in Spanish by Editorial Claridad, Buenos Aires, 1946\\. Compiled by the Andreu Nin Foundation.", "In any case, it was not until the following day, September 14, that the Council of the Bank of Spain (very reduced after the start of the war) was informed of the Government's decision to appropriate the gold and transfer it.Coincidentally, 14 September was also the day on which the Nationalists created in [Burgos](/wiki/Burgos \"Burgos\") their own Bank of Spain, whose Council, presided by former lieutenant governor, [Pedro Pan Gómez](/wiki/Pedro_Pan_G%C3%B3mez \"Pedro Pan Gómez\"), fixed as their fundamental objective to prevent the Republic by any means necessary to make use of the gold reserves of the Bank. Given that the transfer of the gold had commenced hours before the beginning of the session, the Council was unable to prevent such a decision. Nevertheless, the only two stockholder representatives of the Bank of Spain that had not allied themselves with the Nationalists (José Álvarez Guerra and Lorenzo Martínez Fresneda), submitted their resignation.Fernando Schwarz. *The internationalization of the Spanish civil war*, Barcelona, 1971, p. 210; quoted by: [Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 287 Martínez Fresneda protested, arguing that the transfer was illegal, since the gold was of the exclusive property of the Bank of Spain, and thus neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it; he also pointed out that the gold guaranteed by law the convertibility of Bank notes, and should therefore remain in the security vaults of the Bank:", "{{Quote box\n\\|quote \\= Mid\\-September of 1937, according to the personal and direct information of Mr. Martínez Fresneda to the Chief Counsellor, on the 14th, an extraordinary and secret meeting of the Council was called for the following day, the 15th. On that day Fresneda was told by the Governor that the Government had made arrangements, before the advance of the rebel troops, to take hold of all the gold of the Bank, to transport it to a place and locality where it could be safeguarded with greater security than provided by Madrid, towards which the aforementioned troops were heading with the intention of capturing, and that in effect the transport has already begun. Then Mr. Martínez Fresneda said that, since the execution of the Government agreement was already under way, there was no place to discuss the possibility of contesting and impeding its realization, but if there was no place for discussion, there was place to express, in his most solemn fashion, his energetic opposition, because he considered the agreement to be illegal and ineffective by right. It was illegal, because being the gold exclusive property of the Bank, neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it. On another account, he said, the gold is the reserve that is backed by the law and that guarantees the convertibility of currency notes, and this being so, the gold could not be kept anywhere else but in the vault of the Bank, precisely when the new vault has been inaugurated, which responds to all the advancements in security against fires, bombs, etc., all that demonstrates the unfortunateness of the agreement. He concluded re\\-declaring his opposition to the measure, and to such an opinion Mr. Álvarez Guerra (Chief Counsellor) also subscribed. He added that it was the logical consequence of his opposition that be presented his resignation to the Council.\n\\|source \\= — Extract of the report ''in voce'', pronounced before the General Council of the Bank of Spain of Burgos, 22 September 1937\\[\\[\\#refSanchezAsiain1999\\|Sánchez Asiaín 1999]], p. 114–115\n\\|align \\= center\n\\|width \\= 90%}}", "### Transport of the gold to Cartagena", "[thumb\\|400 px\\|View of the [Atocha railway station](/wiki/Atocha_railway_station \"Atocha railway station\") of Madrid.](/wiki/Image:Estacion_Atocha_-_Jorge_Lascar.jpg \"Estacion Atocha - Jorge Lascar.jpg\")\nLess than 24 hours after the signing of the decree, on the morning of September 14, 1936, members of the [Spanish Carabineers](/wiki/Carabineros \"Carabineros\") and various militiamen, sent by the Ministry of Finance, walked into the Bank of Spain. The appropriation operation was led by the Treasury Director\\-General and future Minister of Finance under the government of [Juan Negrín](/wiki/Juan_Negr%C3%ADn \"Juan Negrín\"), [Francisco Méndez Aspe](/wiki/Francisco_M%C3%A9ndez_Aspe \"Francisco Méndez Aspe\"). He was accompanied by Captain [Julio López Masegosa](/wiki/Julio_L%C3%B3pez_Masegosa \"Julio López Masegosa\") and 50 or 60 metallurgists and locksmiths.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 289[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 \"#refViñas1976\"), p. 127", "The vaults where the reserves were kept were opened, and during numerous days Government agents extracted all the gold there deposited. The gold was placed in wooden boxes, and transported in trucks to the [Atocha railway station](/wiki/Atocha_railway_station \"Atocha railway station\"), from where it was then transported to [Cartagena](/wiki/Cartagena%2C_Spain \"Cartagena, Spain\"). The city of Cartagena was chosen because, in the words of historian Angel Viñas, \"it was an important naval station, adequately supplied and defended, somewhat distanced from the theatre of military operations and from which the possibility of transporting the reserves through a maritime route somewhere else was available.\"[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 \"#refViñas1976\"), p. 139", "The gold was heavily escorted and was transported via railway, according to witnesses of the events.[Luengo 1974](/wiki/%23refLuengo1974 \"#refLuengo1974\")[Rosal 1977](/wiki/%23refRosal1977 \"#refRosal1977\"), pp. 30–1 A few days after the extraction of the gold from the Bank of Spain, Bank functionaries retrieved the Bank's silver, valued at a total of 656,708,702\\.59 Spanish pesetas of the time,Balance of July 18, 1936\\. which was later sold to the United States and France between June 1938 and July 1939 for a sum slightly more than 20 million U.S. dollars of the time (a portion of the silver was confiscated by French authorities).[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 328[Viñas 1984](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1984 \"#refViñas1984\"), p. 174", "With the gold reserves stored hundreds of kilometres away from the fighting fronts, it seemed that the mandate of the confidential decree of September 13 had been fulfilled. The Nationalists, when informed of the movement of the gold, protested against the events.The newspaper *[El Heraldo de Aragón](/wiki/El_Heraldo_de_Arag%C3%B3n \"El Heraldo de Aragón\")* was published on Thursday October 15, 1936 with the following heading: \"In an official note, the head of the State's government, General Franco, protests against the spoliation without precedents carried by the so\\-called government of Madrid by freely taking control of the national gold reserves.\" However, on October 15, Negrín and Largo Caballero decided to transfer the gold from Cartagena to Russia.", "On October 20, the director of the [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD \"NKVD\") in Spain, [Alexander Orlov](/wiki/Aleksandr_Mikhailovich_Orlov \"Aleksandr Mikhailovich Orlov\"), received a ciphered telegram from Stalin,The telegram in question read the following:{{Quote box\n\\|quote \\= Alongside ambassador Rosenberg, I organized with the head of the Spanish government, Caballero, the sending of the Spanish gold reserves to the Soviet Union.... This operation must be carried out in the utmost secrecy.", "If the Spanish demand a receipt for the cargo, refuse. I repeat, refuse to sign anything and say that the Bank of Spain will prepare a formal receipt in Moscow.\n\\|source \\= \\[\\[Iván Vasiliévich]], \\[\\[\\#refBolloten1989\\|Bolloten 1989]], p. 265\\.\n\\|align \\= left}} ordering him to organize the shipment of the gold to the USSR, and he agreed on the preparations with Negrín. Orlov responded that he would carry out the operation with the Soviet tankmen that had just arrived in Spain. In his later statement to a United States Senate Subcommittee, he declared the following:", "{{Quote box\n\\|quote \\= I wish to note that, at that time, the Spanish government (...) did not fully control the situation. I truthfully told the Minister of Finance Negrín that if anyone were to find out about it, if the anarchists intercepted my men, Russians, with their trucks full with Spanish gold, they would kill them and it would be an enormous worldwide political scandal, that could even provoke an internal revolution. Considering this (...) I asked him if the Spanish government could offer me credentials under a fictitious name (...) as a representative of the Bank of England or the Bank of America, because then (...) I could say that the gold was being transported to America for security reasons (...) Negrín did not object. He thought it was a good idea. I could speak relatively good English and could pass by as a foreigner. Thus, he gave me the credentials of a man named Blackstone and I became the representative of the Bank of America.\n\\|source \\= — United States Congress, Senate, ''Scope of Soviet Activity'', p. 3431–32\\.\\[\\[\\#refBolloten1989\\|Bolloten 1989]], p. 267–8\n\\|align \\= center\n\\|width \\= 90%}}", "On October 22, 1936, Francisco Méndez Aspe, Director\\-General of the Treasury and Negrín's \"right hand\" man, came to Cartagena and ordered the nocturnal extraction of the majority of gold\\-containing boxes, of an approximate weight of seventy\\-five kilograms each, which were transported in trucks and loaded onto the vessels *Kine*, *Kursk*, *Neva* and *Volgoles*. According to Orlov:", "{{Quote box\n\\|quote \\= A brigade of soviet tanks had disembarked in Cartagena two weeks before and was now stationed in \\[\\[Archena]], 40 miles away. It was commanded by Colonel S. Krovoshein, who the Spanish knew as Melé. Krovoshein assigned me twenty military trucks and a few other of his best tankers (...) The sixty Spanish sailors had been sent to the gunpowder depository about an hour or two before in anticipation (...) And thus, on October 22, by nightfall, I went, followed by a caravan of trucks, towards the munitions depository (...) The health of Ménez Aspe was a very serious issue. He was a very nervous man. He told us that we should half the loading or we would perish \\[because of a German bombardment]. I responded that we could not do so, because the Germans would continue to bombard the port and the ship would sink, and so we must continue. Then he fled and left behind only his assistant, a very pleasant Spaniard who took the responsibility for counting the boxes of gold.\n\\|source \\= — United States Congress, Senate, ''Scope of Soviet Activity'', p. 3431–32\\.\\[\\[\\#refBolloten1989\\|Bolloten 1989]], p. 269\n\\|align \\= center\n\\|width \\= 90%}}", "The gold took three nights to be loaded, and on October 25 the four vessels set out en route to [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa \"Odessa\"), a Soviet port in the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea \"Black Sea\"). Four Spaniards who were charged with guarding the keys to the security vaults of the Bank of Spain accompanied the expedition. Out of the 10,000 boxes,Indalecio Prieto noted that the total number of stored boxes in Cartagena were 13,000, of which only 7,800 were transported. However, most scholars on the subject, such as [Sardá (1970\\)](/wiki/%23refSarda1970 \"#refSarda1970\"), Ruiz Martín (1970\\), [Viñas (1976\\)](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 \"#refViñas1976\"), (Howson (1998\\) or [Martín Aceña (2001\\)](/wiki/%23refMartinAce%C3%B1a2001 \"#refMartinAceña2001\"), concur that the total number of boxes was 10,000\\. corresponding to approximately 560 tonnes of gold, only 7,800 were taken to Odessa, corresponding to 510 tonnes. Orlov declared that 7,900 boxes of gold were transported, while Méndez Aspe stated there were only 7,800\\. The final receipt showed 7,800, and it is not known whether Orlov's declaration was an error or if the 100 boxes of gold disappeared.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 294 and p. 448", "### The travel and its reception in Moscow", "The convoy set sail for the USSR, arriving at the port of [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa \"Odessa\") on November 2 — the *Kursk*, however, would arrive several days later because of technical problems. One of [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky \"Walter Krivitsky\")'s collaborators, General of the [State Political Directorate](/wiki/State_Political_Directorate \"State Political Directorate\"), described the scene at the Soviet port as follows:", "{{Quote box\n\\|quote \\= The area around the dike was cleared and surrounded by Soviet troops. Through this empty space between the wharf and the railway tracks, the highest chiefs of the \\[\\[State Political Directorate\\|OGPU]] transported the boxes of gold on their backs. Throughout numerous days they were transporting the gold, loading it on the trucks and taking it to Moscow in armed convoys. He tried to give me an idea of the amount of gold that they had unloaded in Odessa while we were walking down the \\[\\[Red Square]]. He pointed out the area that surrounded us and said \"if all the boxes of gold that we piled up on the wharfs of Odessa were to be placed here side by side, they would completely cover up the Red Square.\"\n\\|source \\= — Walter Krivitsky, ''In Stalin's Secret Service'', pp. 112–3\\.\\[\\[\\#refBolloten1989\\|Bolloten 1989]], p. 270\n\\|width \\=\n\\|align \\= center}}", "The gold, protected by the 173rd regiment of the [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD \"NKVD\"), was immediately moved to the State Depository for Valuables (*Goskhran*), in Moscow, where it was received as a deposit according to a protocol, dated November 5, by which a reception commission was established. The gold arrived at the Soviet capital a day before the 19th anniversary of the [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\"). According to Orlov, [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\") celebrated the arrival of the gold with a banquet attended by members of the politburo, in which he was famously quoted as saying, \"The Spaniards will never see their gold again, just as they don't see their ears,\" an expression based on a Russian proverb.United States Congress, Senate, *Scope of Soviet Activity*, pp. 3431, 3433–34, in: [Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 \"#refBolloten1989\"), pp. 280–1", "[thumb\\|right\\|Coins made up 99\\.8% of Bank of Spain transferred gold, 70% of which were [sovereigns](/wiki/Sovereign_%28British_coin%29 \"Sovereign (British coin)\") (pictured) and [half\\-sovereigns](/wiki/Half-sovereign \"Half-sovereign\").](/wiki/Image:Australia_1857_Sovereign_%28proof%29.jpg \"Australia 1857 Sovereign (proof).jpg\")\nThe gold was stored in the *Goskhran* under military vigilance, and the remaining boxes of gold carried by the *Kursk* arrived between November 9 and 10\\. Shortly after, a recount on the total deposits was carried out; initial estimates suggested that the recount would take a year to complete, and despite it having been done with the utmost care, the recount was finalized in less than two months, having begun on December 5, 1936, and completed on January 24, 1937\\. 15,571 sacks of gold were opened, and 16 different types of gold coins were found inside: [pounds sterling](/wiki/Pound_sterling \"Pound sterling\") ([sovereigns](/wiki/Sovereign_%28British_coin%29 \"Sovereign (British coin)\") or [half sovereigns](/wiki/Half_sovereign \"Half sovereign\")) (70% of the total), [Spanish pesetas](/wiki/Spanish_peseta \"Spanish peseta\"), [French francs](/wiki/French_franc \"French franc\"), [Louis](/wiki/Louis_d%27or \"Louis d'or\"), [German marks](/wiki/German_mark \"German mark\"), [Belgian francs](/wiki/Belgian_franc \"Belgian franc\"), [Italian lire](/wiki/Italian_lira \"Italian lira\"), [Portuguese escudos](/wiki/Portuguese_escudo \"Portuguese escudo\"), [Russian rubles](/wiki/Russian_ruble \"Russian ruble\"), [Austrian schillings](/wiki/Austrian_schilling \"Austrian schilling\"), [Dutch guilders](/wiki/Dutch_guilder \"Dutch guilder\"), [Swiss francs](/wiki/Swiss_franc \"Swiss franc\"), [Mexican pesos](/wiki/Mexican_peso \"Mexican peso\"), [Argentine pesos](/wiki/Argentine_peso \"Argentine peso\"), [Chilean pesos](/wiki/Chilean_peso \"Chilean peso\"), and an extraordinary amount of [U.S. dollars](/wiki/U.S._dollar \"U.S. dollar\").[Martín Aceña 2001](/wiki/%23refMartinAce%C3%B1a2001 \"#refMartinAceña2001\"), p. 26 The total deposit was constituted of 509,287\\.183 kilograms of [gold coins](/wiki/Gold_coin \"Gold coin\") and 792\\.346 kilograms of gold in the form of [ingots](/wiki/Gold_ingot \"Gold ingot\"): thus, a total of 510,079,529\\.30 [grams](/wiki/Gram \"Gram\") of crude gold, which at an average of .900 millesimal fineness, was equivalent to 460,568,245\\.59 grams of fine gold (approximately 14,807,363\\.8 [troy ounces](/wiki/Troy_ounce \"Troy ounce\")).[Preston 2001](/wiki/%23refPreston2001 \"#refPreston2001\"), p. 270 This amount of gold was valued at 1,592,851,910 gold\\-pesetas (518 million U.S. dollars). Additionally, the [numismatic](/wiki/Numismatics \"Numismatics\") value of the coins was much higher than the amount of gold they contained, but the Soviets disregarded this when calculating its value.[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 \"#refViñas1976\"), p. 210 The Soviets did, however, scrupulously examine all coins to identify those that were fake, defective, or did not contain enough gold. The Soviets never explained what was done with the rare or antique coins, but it is doubtful that they were melted. [Burnett Bolloten](/wiki/Burnett_Bolloten \"Burnett Bolloten\") suggests that it is possible that all coins with numismatic value were separated with the intention of gradually selling them on the international market.[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 \"#refBolloten1989\"), p. 270–1", "On February 5, 1937 the Spanish ambassador and the Soviet representatives G. F. Grinko, Commissar of Finance, and N. N. Krestinsky, Commissar of Foreign Affairs, signed the final reception act on the deposit of Spanish gold, a document written in French and Russian.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 294 Paragraph 2, section 4 of the document stipulated that the Spanish government retained the right of re\\-exporting or utilizing the gold, and the last clause of the document indicated that the Soviet Union would not be held responsible for the utilization of the gold by Spanish authorities. Said clause established that \"if the Government of the Republic ordered the exportation of the gold received as a deposit by the USSR, or utilized said gold in any other way, the responsibility assumed by the People's Commissariat of Finance would automatically be reduced, in whole or in part in proportion to the actions taken by the Government of the Spanish Republic\". It was thus clear that the gold reserves deposited in Moscow could be freely employed by the Republic, exporting it or alienating it, and Soviet authorities assumed no responsibility. It is worth noting that the USSR granted the ownership of the gold to the Government of the Republic, instead of to the Bank of Spain, its legal owner.Original Act in the Historical Archive of the Bank of Spain.", "When, on January 15, 1937, the newspaper of the [CNT](/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3n_Nacional_del_Trabajo \"Confederación Nacional del Trabajo\") *[Solidaridad Obrera](/wiki/Solidaridad_Obrera_%28periodical%29 \"Solidaridad Obrera (periodical)\")* denounced the \"absurd idea of sending the gold reserves abroad\", the government agency *Cosmos* published a semi\\-official note (January 20\\), affirming that the reserves were still in Spain.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 296 Not long after, the disputes between the socialist and communist dominated Republican government and the anarchist organizations and the [POUM](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Marxist_Unification \"Workers' Party of Marxist Unification\") would result in the [violent clashes of May 1937](/wiki/Barcelona_May_Days \"Barcelona May Days\"),{{cite book\\| last \\= Eslava Galán\\| first \\= Juan\\| title \\= La jaula de grillos republicana\\| year \\= 2006\\| isbn \\= 84\\-08\\-06511\\-4\\| no\\-pp \\= true\\| page \\= Chapter: \"Una historia de la guerra civil que no va a gustar a nadie\"\\| publisher \\= Planeta}} ending in an anarchist defeat.", "Those involved in the events were soon removed from the scene. Stashevski and the Soviet ambassador to Spain, Rosenberg, were executed in 1937 and 1938\\. Orlov, fearing for his life, fled in 1938 to the United States upon receiving a telegram from Stalin. The Soviet Commissars of Finance, Grinko, Krestinsky, Margoulis and Kagan, were executed on May 15, 1938 or [disappeared](/wiki/Forced_disappearance \"Forced disappearance\") in varying ways, accused of being part of the anti\\-Soviet \"Trotskyist\\-rightist bloc\". Grinko was accused of making \"efforts to undermine the financial power of the USSR.\" The four Spanish functionaries sent to supervise the operation were retained by Stalin until October 1938, when they were permitted to leave the Soviet Union for [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\"), [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") and [México City](/wiki/M%C3%A9xico_City \"México City\"), respectively. The Spanish ambassador, Marcelino Pascua, was transferred to Paris.[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 \"#refBolloten1989\"), p. 273[Martínez Amutio 1974](/wiki/%23refMartinezAmutio1974 \"#refMartinezAmutio1974\"), p. 58[Prieto Tuero 1997](/wiki/%23refPrietoTuero1997 \"#refPrietoTuero1997\"), p. 130", "" ]
### The transfer order and its motivations On September 13, 1936, the confidential decree from the Ministry of Finance which authorized the transportation of the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain was signed, on the initiative of Minister of Finance of the time, Juan Negrín. The decree also called for the Government to eventually answer for their actions to the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales "Cortes Generales") (Spain's legislative body), a clause that was never fulfilled:[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 "#refBolloten1989"), p. 261[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 "#refViñas1976"), p. 133–4 * + {{Quote box \|quote \= By His Excellence the President of the Republic, on the 13th of this present month, the following confidential decree has been signed: The abnormal situation created within the country by the military insurrection compels the government to adopt these precautionary measures considered necessary to safeguard the metallic reserves of the Bank of Spain, basis of the public credit. The nature of the measure itself and the reasons behind its adoption demand that this agreement be kept confidential. Based on the aforementioned considerations, in agreement with the Council of Ministers, and on the proposal of the Ministry of Finance, I hereby ordain, in confidentiality, the following: \*Article I: The Ministry of Finance is hereby authorized to mandate, when considered necessary, the transportation, with the highest guarantees, and to the location esteemed to be the safest, of the gold, silver, and bills present at the time at the central headquarters of the Bank of Spain. \*Article II: The Government will, when appropriate, answer to the Cortes Generales for the present decree. Madrid, 13th of September, 1936\. \|source \= Juan Negrín, Minister of Finance\[\[\#refSarda1970\|Sardá 1970]], p. 433\[\[\#refOlayaMorales2004a\|Olaya Morales 2004a]], p. 286–7 \|align \= center \|width \= }} The decree was also signed by the [President of the Republic](/wiki/President_of_Spain "President of Spain") of the time, [Manuel Azaña](/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a "Manuel Azaña"), who would later affirm that the final destination of the reserves was unknown to him. According to Largo Caballero, Azaña was informed afterwards about this decision due to his emotional state and his reserved character towards the operation:Olaya Morales indicates ([2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 447\) that this could be in violation of article 76 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1931 "Spanish Constitution of 1931"), which empowers the President to submit any government decrees to the *Cortes Generales* if he/she should believe that any such decree would violate an existing law. {{Quote\|Did this decision need to be known by a large number of people? No. An indiscretion would be the stone of an international scandal \[...] It was decided that the President of the Republic should not know about it, who was at the time in a truly pitiful spiritual state; thus, the decision was only known by the President of the Council of Ministers (Largo Caballero himself), the Minister of Finance (\[\[Juan Negrín\|Negrín]]), and the Minister of the Navy and the Airforce (\[\[Indalecio Prieto]]). But it were the first two the only ones who negotiated with the Russian government. \|Francisco Largo Caballero''Fundación Pablo Iglesias'', ''Archives of Francisco Largo Caballero'', XXIII, p. 477}} Many authors, such as Viñas, have pointed out that the decision to transfer the gold reserves outside of Madrid was motivated by the rapid advance of the [Army of Africa](/wiki/Spanish_Army_of_Africa "Spanish Army of Africa") (commanded by Nationalist General [Francisco Franco](/wiki/Francisco_Franco "Francisco Franco")) which, since its landing on the [Spanish mainland](/wiki/Peninsular_Spain "Peninsular Spain"), had incessantly marched forward towards the capital. At the time the decision was taken, the Army of Africa was stationed only 116 kilometres from Madrid, and the efforts made up to that point to halt its advance had not been even partially successful. However, Nationalist forces would not arrive at Madrid until two months later; not because of Republican resistance, but because of Francisco Franco, who decided to deviate his course to aid Nationalist sympathizers in the [Siege of Toledo](/wiki/Siege_of_the_Alc%C3%A1zar "Siege of the Alcázar") in a highly prestigious operation that consolidated Franco's political position and allowed him to be named Head of State by the Nationalist side on September 29, 1936\. Madrid withstood the Nationalist offensive until the end of the war, and the Republican government did not relocate to [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia%2C_Spain "Valencia, Spain") until November 6\. One of the main protagonists in these events, [Prime Minister Largo Caballero](/wiki/Francisco_Largo_Caballero "Francisco Largo Caballero"), argued that the transfer of the gold reserves was necessary because of the Non\-Intervention Pact and the defection of democratic states previously favourable towards the Republic, which left Madrid under threat from the Nationalist forces. {{Quote\|Since the fascists were at the gates of the capital of Spain, \[Minister of Finance Negrín] asked the Council of Ministers for authorization to relocate the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain outside of the country, in order to take them to a safe place, without specifying where. \[...] As a first measure, he transported them to the forts of \[\[Cartagena, Spain\|Cartagena]]. After, fearing a Nationalist disembarkation, he decided to transfer them outside of Spain. \[...] There was no other place but Russia, a country that aided us with arms and provisions. And so, to Russia they were delivered.\|Francisco Largo Caballero\[\[\#refMoa2001\|Moa 2001]], p. 395}} However, [Luis Araquistáin](/wiki/Luis_Araquist%C3%A1in "Luis Araquistáin"), member of the same political party as Largo Caballero, attributed the events to Soviet constraint. {{Quote\|Since I am sure that Largo Caballero, of whom I was an intimate friend, was not in such a state of hopelessness with regard to the final outcome of the war, and it is hard for me to believe that Negrín also fell victim to such discouragement, I find no other alternative but to return to the hypothesis of Soviet coercion, or to simply declare that the transfer of the gold to Russia was a completely inexplicable madness.\|Luis Araquistáin''Congress for Cultural Freedom'' (1965\), p. 58}} The intentions of the [Federación Anarquista Ibérica](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Anarquista_Ib%C3%A9rica "Federación Anarquista Ibérica") (FAI, Iberian Anarchist Federation) of assaulting the vaults of the Bank of Spain to transfer the gold reserves to [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona"), the main bastion of the FAI, were also discussed. The anarchists intended not only to protect the gold reserves, but to buy war supplies on their own account.[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 "#refBolloten1989"), p. 268–9 This plan would have been prepared by [Diego Abad de Santillán](/wiki/Diego_Abad_de_Santill%C3%A1n "Diego Abad de Santillán"), one of the most fervent adversaries of Negrín; however, this is considered inaccurate by the [libertarian](/wiki/Libertarianism "Libertarianism") historian Francisco Olaya Morales, who argues that the gold reserves were transferred to [Cartagena](/wiki/Cartagena%2C_Spain "Cartagena, Spain") not for security purposes, but because of a preconceived intention to send the gold to Moscow.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 289–93 While the majority of historians consider Minister of Finance Negrín the primary actor of the transfer (either by his own initiative or by the manipulation of the Soviets, depending on different interpretations), it is not clear who first had the idea of sending the reserves outside of Spain. The British historian [Antony Beevor](/wiki/Antony_Beevor "Antony Beevor") cites versions that attribute to the Soviet agent Arthur Stashevski the suggestion to Negrín of establishing a "gold account" in Moscow, due to the threat posed on Madrid by Nationalist forces and the need to purchase [matériel](/wiki/Mat%C3%A9riel "Matériel") and raw materials.[Beevor 2005](/wiki/%23refBeevor2005 "#refBeevor2005"), p. 232 Beevor also cites Gabriel Jackson and Víctor Alba, who in their book *Juan Negrín*, attribute the idea to Negrín himself, arguing that the idea took the Soviets by surprise and that Negrín had to carefully explain his plan to the Soviet ambassador.[Beevor](/wiki/%23refBeevor2005 "#refBeevor2005"), p. 716–717 His friend, [Mariano Ansó](/wiki/Mariano_Ans%C3%B3 "Mariano Ansó"), defended him by affirming that he "could not have been and was not the author of the transfer of Spanish gold to Russia; at most, he was a cooperative of minor importance of the Spanish Lenin \[Largo Caballero] and his counsellors, at the head of which was [Luis Araquistáin](/wiki/Luis_Araquist%C3%A1in "Luis Araquistáin")."[Ansó 1976](/wiki/%23refAnso1976 "#refAnso1976"), p. 317 According to [Martín Aceña](/wiki/Pablo_Mart%C3%ADn_Ace%C3%B1a "Pablo Martín Aceña"),[Martín Aceña 2001](/wiki/%23refMartinAce%C3%B1a2001 "#refMartinAceña2001"), p. 95 it was Stashevski who proposed the deposit of the gold reserves in Moscow. [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky "Walter Krivitsky"), a Soviet agent responsible for military intelligence in Western Europe at the time, who later fled to the United States, stated that when Stalin decided to intervene in Spain, he wanted to ensure that there was enough gold so as to pay for the Soviet Union's aid to the Republic.[*The hand of Stalin over Spain*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070429154605/http://www.fundanin.org/krivitsky.htm), by [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky "Walter Krivitsky"), translated from *The Saturday Post*, Philadelphia, and published in Spanish by Editorial Claridad, Buenos Aires, 1946\. Compiled by the Andreu Nin Foundation. In any case, it was not until the following day, September 14, that the Council of the Bank of Spain (very reduced after the start of the war) was informed of the Government's decision to appropriate the gold and transfer it.Coincidentally, 14 September was also the day on which the Nationalists created in [Burgos](/wiki/Burgos "Burgos") their own Bank of Spain, whose Council, presided by former lieutenant governor, [Pedro Pan Gómez](/wiki/Pedro_Pan_G%C3%B3mez "Pedro Pan Gómez"), fixed as their fundamental objective to prevent the Republic by any means necessary to make use of the gold reserves of the Bank. Given that the transfer of the gold had commenced hours before the beginning of the session, the Council was unable to prevent such a decision. Nevertheless, the only two stockholder representatives of the Bank of Spain that had not allied themselves with the Nationalists (José Álvarez Guerra and Lorenzo Martínez Fresneda), submitted their resignation.Fernando Schwarz. *The internationalization of the Spanish civil war*, Barcelona, 1971, p. 210; quoted by: [Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a "#refOlayaMorales2004a"), p. 287 Martínez Fresneda protested, arguing that the transfer was illegal, since the gold was of the exclusive property of the Bank of Spain, and thus neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it; he also pointed out that the gold guaranteed by law the convertibility of Bank notes, and should therefore remain in the security vaults of the Bank: {{Quote box \|quote \= Mid\-September of 1937, according to the personal and direct information of Mr. Martínez Fresneda to the Chief Counsellor, on the 14th, an extraordinary and secret meeting of the Council was called for the following day, the 15th. On that day Fresneda was told by the Governor that the Government had made arrangements, before the advance of the rebel troops, to take hold of all the gold of the Bank, to transport it to a place and locality where it could be safeguarded with greater security than provided by Madrid, towards which the aforementioned troops were heading with the intention of capturing, and that in effect the transport has already begun. Then Mr. Martínez Fresneda said that, since the execution of the Government agreement was already under way, there was no place to discuss the possibility of contesting and impeding its realization, but if there was no place for discussion, there was place to express, in his most solemn fashion, his energetic opposition, because he considered the agreement to be illegal and ineffective by right. It was illegal, because being the gold exclusive property of the Bank, neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it. On another account, he said, the gold is the reserve that is backed by the law and that guarantees the convertibility of currency notes, and this being so, the gold could not be kept anywhere else but in the vault of the Bank, precisely when the new vault has been inaugurated, which responds to all the advancements in security against fires, bombs, etc., all that demonstrates the unfortunateness of the agreement. He concluded re\-declaring his opposition to the measure, and to such an opinion Mr. Álvarez Guerra (Chief Counsellor) also subscribed. He added that it was the logical consequence of his opposition that be presented his resignation to the Council. \|source \= — Extract of the report ''in voce'', pronounced before the General Council of the Bank of Spain of Burgos, 22 September 1937\[\[\#refSanchezAsiain1999\|Sánchez Asiaín 1999]], p. 114–115 \|align \= center \|width \= 90%}}
[ "### The transfer order and its motivations", "On September 13, 1936, the confidential decree from the Ministry of Finance which authorized the transportation of the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain was signed, on the initiative of Minister of Finance of the time, Juan Negrín. The decree also called for the Government to eventually answer for their actions to the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales \"Cortes Generales\") (Spain's legislative body), a clause that was never fulfilled:[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 \"#refBolloten1989\"), p. 261[Viñas 1976](/wiki/%23refVi%C3%B1as1976 \"#refViñas1976\"), p. 133–4", "* + {{Quote box\n\t\\|quote \\= By His Excellence the President of the Republic, on the 13th of this present month, the following confidential decree has been signed: The abnormal situation created within the country by the military insurrection compels the government to adopt these precautionary measures considered necessary to safeguard the metallic reserves of the Bank of Spain, basis of the public credit. The nature of the measure itself and the reasons behind its adoption demand that this agreement be kept confidential. Based on the aforementioned considerations, in agreement with the Council of Ministers, and on the proposal of the Ministry of Finance, I hereby ordain, in confidentiality, the following:\n\t\n\t\\*Article I: The Ministry of Finance is hereby authorized to mandate, when considered necessary, the transportation, with the highest guarantees, and to the location esteemed to be the safest, of the gold, silver, and bills present at the time at the central headquarters of the Bank of Spain.\n\t\\*Article II: The Government will, when appropriate, answer to the Cortes Generales for the present decree. \n\tMadrid, 13th of September, 1936\\.\n\t\\|source \\= Juan Negrín, Minister of Finance\\[\\[\\#refSarda1970\\|Sardá 1970]], p. 433\\[\\[\\#refOlayaMorales2004a\\|Olaya Morales 2004a]], p. 286–7\n\t\\|align \\= center\n\t\\|width \\= }}", "The decree was also signed by the [President of the Republic](/wiki/President_of_Spain \"President of Spain\") of the time, [Manuel Azaña](/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a \"Manuel Azaña\"), who would later affirm that the final destination of the reserves was unknown to him. According to Largo Caballero, Azaña was informed afterwards about this decision due to his emotional state and his reserved character towards the operation:Olaya Morales indicates ([2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 447\\) that this could be in violation of article 76 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1931 \"Spanish Constitution of 1931\"), which empowers the President to submit any government decrees to the *Cortes Generales* if he/she should believe that any such decree would violate an existing law.", "{{Quote\\|Did this decision need to be known by a large number of people? No. An indiscretion would be the stone of an international scandal \\[...] It was decided that the President of the Republic should not know about it, who was at the time in a truly pitiful spiritual state; thus, the decision was only known by the President of the Council of Ministers (Largo Caballero himself), the Minister of Finance (\\[\\[Juan Negrín\\|Negrín]]), and the Minister of the Navy and the Airforce (\\[\\[Indalecio Prieto]]). But it were the first two the only ones who negotiated with the Russian government.\n\\|Francisco Largo Caballero''Fundación Pablo Iglesias'', ''Archives of Francisco Largo Caballero'', XXIII, p. 477}}", "Many authors, such as Viñas, have pointed out that the decision to transfer the gold reserves outside of Madrid was motivated by the rapid advance of the [Army of Africa](/wiki/Spanish_Army_of_Africa \"Spanish Army of Africa\") (commanded by Nationalist General [Francisco Franco](/wiki/Francisco_Franco \"Francisco Franco\")) which, since its landing on the [Spanish mainland](/wiki/Peninsular_Spain \"Peninsular Spain\"), had incessantly marched forward towards the capital. At the time the decision was taken, the Army of Africa was stationed only 116 kilometres from Madrid, and the efforts made up to that point to halt its advance had not been even partially successful. However, Nationalist forces would not arrive at Madrid until two months later; not because of Republican resistance, but because of Francisco Franco, who decided to deviate his course to aid Nationalist sympathizers in the [Siege of Toledo](/wiki/Siege_of_the_Alc%C3%A1zar \"Siege of the Alcázar\") in a highly prestigious operation that consolidated Franco's political position and allowed him to be named Head of State by the Nationalist side on September 29, 1936\\. Madrid withstood the Nationalist offensive until the end of the war, and the Republican government did not relocate to [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia%2C_Spain \"Valencia, Spain\") until November 6\\.", "One of the main protagonists in these events, [Prime Minister Largo Caballero](/wiki/Francisco_Largo_Caballero \"Francisco Largo Caballero\"), argued that the transfer of the gold reserves was necessary because of the Non\\-Intervention Pact and the defection of democratic states previously favourable towards the Republic, which left Madrid under threat from the Nationalist forces.", "{{Quote\\|Since the fascists were at the gates of the capital of Spain, \\[Minister of Finance Negrín] asked the Council of Ministers for authorization to relocate the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain outside of the country, in order to take them to a safe place, without specifying where. \\[...] As a first measure, he transported them to the forts of \\[\\[Cartagena, Spain\\|Cartagena]]. After, fearing a Nationalist disembarkation, he decided to transfer them outside of Spain. \\[...] There was no other place but Russia, a country that aided us with arms and provisions. And so, to Russia they were delivered.\\|Francisco Largo Caballero\\[\\[\\#refMoa2001\\|Moa 2001]], p. 395}}", "However, [Luis Araquistáin](/wiki/Luis_Araquist%C3%A1in \"Luis Araquistáin\"), member of the same political party as Largo Caballero, attributed the events to Soviet constraint.", "{{Quote\\|Since I am sure that Largo Caballero, of whom I was an intimate friend, was not in such a state of hopelessness with regard to the final outcome of the war, and it is hard for me to believe that Negrín also fell victim to such discouragement, I find no other alternative but to return to the hypothesis of Soviet coercion, or to simply declare that the transfer of the gold to Russia was a completely inexplicable madness.\\|Luis Araquistáin''Congress for Cultural Freedom'' (1965\\), p. 58}}", "The intentions of the [Federación Anarquista Ibérica](/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Anarquista_Ib%C3%A9rica \"Federación Anarquista Ibérica\") (FAI, Iberian Anarchist Federation) of assaulting the vaults of the Bank of Spain to transfer the gold reserves to [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\"), the main bastion of the FAI, were also discussed. The anarchists intended not only to protect the gold reserves, but to buy war supplies on their own account.[Bolloten 1989](/wiki/%23refBolloten1989 \"#refBolloten1989\"), p. 268–9 This plan would have been prepared by [Diego Abad de Santillán](/wiki/Diego_Abad_de_Santill%C3%A1n \"Diego Abad de Santillán\"), one of the most fervent adversaries of Negrín; however, this is considered inaccurate by the [libertarian](/wiki/Libertarianism \"Libertarianism\") historian Francisco Olaya Morales, who argues that the gold reserves were transferred to [Cartagena](/wiki/Cartagena%2C_Spain \"Cartagena, Spain\") not for security purposes, but because of a preconceived intention to send the gold to Moscow.[Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 289–93", "While the majority of historians consider Minister of Finance Negrín the primary actor of the transfer (either by his own initiative or by the manipulation of the Soviets, depending on different interpretations), it is not clear who first had the idea of sending the reserves outside of Spain. The British historian [Antony Beevor](/wiki/Antony_Beevor \"Antony Beevor\") cites versions that attribute to the Soviet agent Arthur Stashevski the suggestion to Negrín of establishing a \"gold account\" in Moscow, due to the threat posed on Madrid by Nationalist forces and the need to purchase [matériel](/wiki/Mat%C3%A9riel \"Matériel\") and raw materials.[Beevor 2005](/wiki/%23refBeevor2005 \"#refBeevor2005\"), p. 232 Beevor also cites Gabriel Jackson and Víctor Alba, who in their book *Juan Negrín*, attribute the idea to Negrín himself, arguing that the idea took the Soviets by surprise and that Negrín had to carefully explain his plan to the Soviet ambassador.[Beevor](/wiki/%23refBeevor2005 \"#refBeevor2005\"), p. 716–717 His friend, [Mariano Ansó](/wiki/Mariano_Ans%C3%B3 \"Mariano Ansó\"), defended him by affirming that he \"could not have been and was not the author of the transfer of Spanish gold to Russia; at most, he was a cooperative of minor importance of the Spanish Lenin \\[Largo Caballero] and his counsellors, at the head of which was [Luis Araquistáin](/wiki/Luis_Araquist%C3%A1in \"Luis Araquistáin\").\"[Ansó 1976](/wiki/%23refAnso1976 \"#refAnso1976\"), p. 317 According to [Martín Aceña](/wiki/Pablo_Mart%C3%ADn_Ace%C3%B1a \"Pablo Martín Aceña\"),[Martín Aceña 2001](/wiki/%23refMartinAce%C3%B1a2001 \"#refMartinAceña2001\"), p. 95 it was Stashevski who proposed the deposit of the gold reserves in Moscow. [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky \"Walter Krivitsky\"), a Soviet agent responsible for military intelligence in Western Europe at the time, who later fled to the United States, stated that when Stalin decided to intervene in Spain, he wanted to ensure that there was enough gold so as to pay for the Soviet Union's aid to the Republic.[*The hand of Stalin over Spain*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070429154605/http://www.fundanin.org/krivitsky.htm), by [Walter Krivitsky](/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky \"Walter Krivitsky\"), translated from *The Saturday Post*, Philadelphia, and published in Spanish by Editorial Claridad, Buenos Aires, 1946\\. Compiled by the Andreu Nin Foundation.", "In any case, it was not until the following day, September 14, that the Council of the Bank of Spain (very reduced after the start of the war) was informed of the Government's decision to appropriate the gold and transfer it.Coincidentally, 14 September was also the day on which the Nationalists created in [Burgos](/wiki/Burgos \"Burgos\") their own Bank of Spain, whose Council, presided by former lieutenant governor, [Pedro Pan Gómez](/wiki/Pedro_Pan_G%C3%B3mez \"Pedro Pan Gómez\"), fixed as their fundamental objective to prevent the Republic by any means necessary to make use of the gold reserves of the Bank. Given that the transfer of the gold had commenced hours before the beginning of the session, the Council was unable to prevent such a decision. Nevertheless, the only two stockholder representatives of the Bank of Spain that had not allied themselves with the Nationalists (José Álvarez Guerra and Lorenzo Martínez Fresneda), submitted their resignation.Fernando Schwarz. *The internationalization of the Spanish civil war*, Barcelona, 1971, p. 210; quoted by: [Olaya Morales 2004a](/wiki/%23refOlayaMorales2004a \"#refOlayaMorales2004a\"), p. 287 Martínez Fresneda protested, arguing that the transfer was illegal, since the gold was of the exclusive property of the Bank of Spain, and thus neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it; he also pointed out that the gold guaranteed by law the convertibility of Bank notes, and should therefore remain in the security vaults of the Bank:", "{{Quote box\n\\|quote \\= Mid\\-September of 1937, according to the personal and direct information of Mr. Martínez Fresneda to the Chief Counsellor, on the 14th, an extraordinary and secret meeting of the Council was called for the following day, the 15th. On that day Fresneda was told by the Governor that the Government had made arrangements, before the advance of the rebel troops, to take hold of all the gold of the Bank, to transport it to a place and locality where it could be safeguarded with greater security than provided by Madrid, towards which the aforementioned troops were heading with the intention of capturing, and that in effect the transport has already begun. Then Mr. Martínez Fresneda said that, since the execution of the Government agreement was already under way, there was no place to discuss the possibility of contesting and impeding its realization, but if there was no place for discussion, there was place to express, in his most solemn fashion, his energetic opposition, because he considered the agreement to be illegal and ineffective by right. It was illegal, because being the gold exclusive property of the Bank, neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it. On another account, he said, the gold is the reserve that is backed by the law and that guarantees the convertibility of currency notes, and this being so, the gold could not be kept anywhere else but in the vault of the Bank, precisely when the new vault has been inaugurated, which responds to all the advancements in security against fires, bombs, etc., all that demonstrates the unfortunateness of the agreement. He concluded re\\-declaring his opposition to the measure, and to such an opinion Mr. Álvarez Guerra (Chief Counsellor) also subscribed. He added that it was the logical consequence of his opposition that be presented his resignation to the Council.\n\\|source \\= — Extract of the report ''in voce'', pronounced before the General Council of the Bank of Spain of Burgos, 22 September 1937\\[\\[\\#refSanchezAsiain1999\\|Sánchez Asiaín 1999]], p. 114–115\n\\|align \\= center\n\\|width \\= 90%}}", "" ]
Plot ---- After meeting each other for the first time in the gift shop of the [Las Cruces, New Mexico](/wiki/Las_Cruces%2C_New_Mexico "Las Cruces, New Mexico") hotel where they are both staying, insomniac writers Julia Mann and Kevin Vallick fight over the last box of sleep medicine. Initially, they do not realise both are speechwriters for rival candidates in a [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico "New Mexico") Senate election, so they both fall in love. Julia works for [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") candidate Lloyd Wannamaker and Kevin for [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") candidate Ray Garvin. Inadvertently influencing each other's work, they discover each other's jobs when they are both invited to speak at a school. Both shocked, they end up attacking each other verbally on stage. Later, in their campaign speeches, they continue to argue, unbeknownst to everyone else. Their romance causes great confusion, as they have to decide if love and politics can mix. Also complicating matters are, amongst other things, Kevin's cutthroat ex\-wife Annette, who got Kevin the job on the Republican's campaign. Julia's estranged fiancé, television war correspondent Robert "Baghdad Bob" Freed (also known as "Mr. Flak Jacket") turns up and wants her back. She had broken off the engagement, as she believed he wanted a cheering section more than he wanted a wife. Julia's organizer accidentally falls into Kevin's hands, and he hacks into her candidate's speech, making Wannamaker sound foolish. Then, Julia's team meets with Kevin's in his offices. He doesn't attend, but meets with Julia that night; she tells him she's engaged again and he warns her she's getting fired. She takes advice from him to make her candidate more loved by the people by having him help rescue a missing bear cub that has been dominating the news. This gives Julia a promotion to press secretary. At a televised debate, Julia breaks off the engagement, and immediately after Kevin tells her he's crazy for her. They sneak off, spending the night together. The next morning at dawn, Annette shows up, tasking Kevin to write a campaign ad. Not able to wake him, Julia writes a sitcom\-style ad. The next morning, Kevin chews out Julia because he thinks she leaked financial info to the press, not thanking her for the successful ad. Later on, one of Julia's staff tells Kevin that both of their candidates took bribes. A man named Proctor is responsible for both bribes, but has chosen Wannamaker. Julia is told by a workmate, as they approach the stage in victory. Kevin arrives, interrupting Wannamaker's victory speech, to declare his love, swooping down into Julia's arms. The film closes with a news report given by Bob of Julia's late entry into a senatorial race, with Kevin as campaign manager.
[ "Plot\n----", "After meeting each other for the first time in the gift shop of the [Las Cruces, New Mexico](/wiki/Las_Cruces%2C_New_Mexico \"Las Cruces, New Mexico\") hotel where they are both staying, insomniac writers Julia Mann and Kevin Vallick fight over the last box of sleep medicine.", "Initially, they do not realise both are speechwriters for rival candidates in a [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico \"New Mexico\") Senate election, so they both fall in love. Julia works for [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") candidate Lloyd Wannamaker and Kevin for [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") candidate Ray Garvin. Inadvertently influencing each other's work, they discover each other's jobs when they are both invited to speak at a school. Both shocked, they end up attacking each other verbally on stage. Later, in their campaign speeches, they continue to argue, unbeknownst to everyone else. Their romance causes great confusion, as they have to decide if love and politics can mix.", "Also complicating matters are, amongst other things, Kevin's cutthroat ex\\-wife Annette, who got Kevin the job on the Republican's campaign. Julia's estranged fiancé, television war correspondent Robert \"Baghdad Bob\" Freed (also known as \"Mr. Flak Jacket\") turns up and wants her back. She had broken off the engagement, as she believed he wanted a cheering section more than he wanted a wife.", "Julia's organizer accidentally falls into Kevin's hands, and he hacks into her candidate's speech, making Wannamaker sound foolish. Then, Julia's team meets with Kevin's in his offices. He doesn't attend, but meets with Julia that night; she tells him she's engaged again and he warns her she's getting fired. She takes advice from him to make her candidate more loved by the people by having him help rescue a missing bear cub that has been dominating the news. This gives Julia a promotion to press secretary.", "At a televised debate, Julia breaks off the engagement, and immediately after Kevin tells her he's crazy for her. They sneak off, spending the night together. The next morning at dawn, Annette shows up, tasking Kevin to write a campaign ad. Not able to wake him, Julia writes a sitcom\\-style ad.", "The next morning, Kevin chews out Julia because he thinks she leaked financial info to the press, not thanking her for the successful ad. Later on, one of Julia's staff tells Kevin that both of their candidates took bribes. A man named Proctor is responsible for both bribes, but has chosen Wannamaker. Julia is told by a workmate, as they approach the stage in victory.", "Kevin arrives, interrupting Wannamaker's victory speech, to declare his love, swooping down into Julia's arms. The film closes with a news report given by Bob of Julia's late entry into a senatorial race, with Kevin as campaign manager.", "" ]
Career ------ In the early 1960s, Hine formed half of the folk duo Rupert \& David with David MacIver. The duo performed in pubs and clubs and occasionally shared the stage with a then\-unknown [Paul Simon](/wiki/Paul_Simon "Paul Simon"). The duo's one released single (on the [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") label in 1965\) was a cover of Simon's "[The Sound of Silence](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Silence "The Sound of Silence")". The single was not a success, but was notable for featuring a young [Jimmy Page](/wiki/Jimmy_Page "Jimmy Page") on guitar and [Herbie Flowers](/wiki/Herbie_Flowers "Herbie Flowers") on bass.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ruperthine.com\|title\=T a m b o o – The Rupert Hine Official web site\|website\=Ruperthine.com\|access\-date\=22 April 2010}} For several years Hine wrote songs with MacIver while working at temporary jobs, until he was helped by [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple "Deep Purple")'s bassist [Roger Glover](/wiki/Roger_Glover "Roger Glover"), whom Hine knew from Glover's previous band Episode 6\. Hine and MacIver were signed to Deep Purple's Purple label. Glover produced Hine's first solo album, *[Pick Up a Bone](/wiki/Pick_Up_a_Bone_%28album%29 "Pick Up a Bone (album)")* (1971\). *[Unfinished Picture](/wiki/Unfinished_Picture "Unfinished Picture")* (1973\) followed, but neither album was successful. However, Hine now became increasingly in demand as an independent producer, first with the 1972 single "Who Is the Doctor", featuring [Jon Pertwee](/wiki/Jon_Pertwee "Jon Pertwee") narrating over the theme music from TV's *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who "Doctor Who")*. He then produced [Yvonne Elliman](/wiki/Yvonne_Elliman "Yvonne Elliman")'s album *Food of Love* (1973\), a second world war\-themed compilation album called *Colditz* (1973\), and [Kevin Ayers](/wiki/Kevin_Ayers "Kevin Ayers")'s *The Confessions of Dr Dream and Other Stories* (1974\). In 1973, Hine, along with guitarist Mark Warner, bassist [John G. Perry](/wiki/John_G._Perry "John G. Perry") (then of [Caravan](/wiki/Caravan_%28band%29 "Caravan (band)")) and drummer [Trevor Morais](/wiki/Trevor_Morais "Trevor Morais") (formerly of [The Peddlers](/wiki/The_Peddlers "The Peddlers")) formed the band [Quantum Jump](/wiki/Quantum_Jump "Quantum Jump"), releasing two albums, *Quantum Jump* (1976\) and *Barracuda* (1977\). After the re\-release of the single "The Lone Ranger" (from *Quantum Jump*) became an unexpected UK Top five hit in 1979, a third album – *Mixing*, a reworking of tracks selected from the first two Quantum Jump albums – was released. After Quantum Jump disbanded, Hine released a trilogy of albums under his own name, including *[Immunity](/wiki/Immunity_%28Rupert_Hine_album%29 "Immunity (Rupert Hine album)")* (1981\); *[Waving Not Drowning](/wiki/Waving_Not_Drowning "Waving Not Drowning")* (1982\); and *[The Wildest Wish to Fly](/wiki/Wildest_Wish_to_Fly "Wildest Wish to Fly")* (1983\). The American release of *Wildest Wish* dropped two tracks, radically reworked two others and incorporated two tracks from 1981's *Immunity* – including "Misplaced Love", which featured a guest vocal by [Marianne Faithfull](/wiki/Marianne_Faithfull "Marianne Faithfull") and had been a minor hit in Australia, reaching number 14 on the chart.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.oz\-compilation\-albums.com/80s/1981/1981rockson/albuminfo.htm \|access\-date \= 18 February 2012 \|title\=1981\...Rocks On\|website\=Oz\-compilation\-albums.com}} In 1985, Hine wrote and produced much of the soundtrack for the [black comedy](/wiki/Black_comedy "Black comedy") film *[Better Off Dead](/wiki/Better_Off_Dead_%28film%29 "Better Off Dead (film)")*. Later he and composer [Eric Serra](/wiki/Eric_Serra "Eric Serra") wrote "The Experience of Love", the end title song for *[GoldenEye](/wiki/GoldenEye "GoldenEye")*. His film soundtrack credits also include *[The Fifth Element](/wiki/The_Fifth_Element "The Fifth Element")* (composed by Serra), and *[The Addams Family](/wiki/The_Addams_Family "The Addams Family")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://goldeneyedossier.wixsite.com/bond/post/rupert\-hine\-lyricist\-for\-the\-experience\-of\-love\-dies\-at\-72\|title\=Rupert Hine, lyricist for "The Experience of Love", dies at 72\|date\=6 June 2020\|website\=Goldeneyedossier.wixsite.com\|access\-date\=7 March 2023}} Hine obtained a number of credits with some of the biggest musicians of his era. In 1984, he topped the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart "UK Albums Chart") with Howard Jones' debut album, *[Human's Lib](/wiki/Human%27s_Lib "Human's Lib")*, and that same year enjoyed his most high\-profile achievement with his work on Tina Turner's album *[Private Dancer](/wiki/Private_Dancer "Private Dancer")*, which established Turner as a solo star and sold 20 million copies. Hine produced the Grammy\-winning single "[Better Be Good to Me](/wiki/Better_Be_Good_to_Me "Better Be Good to Me")" as well as co\-writing "[I Might Have Been Queen](/wiki/I_Might_Have_Been_Queen "I Might Have Been Queen")". In 1986, he created a solo project called Thinkman with a set of actors for stage performance. There were three albums released under this project: *The Formula* (1986\), *Life is a Full Time Occupation* (1988\), and *Hard Hat Zone* (1990\).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.discogs.com/artist/379565\-Thinkman\|title\=Thinkman Profile at Discogs\|website\=www.discogs.com\|access\-date\=18 March 2023}} Thinkman is credited for one song on the *[Better Off Dead](/wiki/Better_Off_Dead_%28film%29%23Soundtrack "Better Off Dead (film)#Soundtrack")* soundtrack, while Hine is credited for six. In 1990, Hine and [Kevin Godley](/wiki/Kevin_Godley "Kevin Godley") worked together on the project "One World One Voice", a musical chain letter that travelled the world starting with [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 "Sting (musician)") and [Afrika Bambaataa](/wiki/Afrika_Bambaataa "Afrika Bambaataa") in New York and ending 300 artists/musicians later, in Moscow. It was an environmental awareness album, and a two\-hour television program, broadcast the same day to 650 million people worldwide. In 1993, he joined with guitarist [Phil Palmer](/wiki/Phil_Palmer "Phil Palmer"), [Paul Carrack](/wiki/Paul_Carrack "Paul Carrack"), [Steve Ferrone](/wiki/Steve_Ferrone "Steve Ferrone") and [Tony Levin](/wiki/Tony_Levin "Tony Levin") to form the band Spin 1ne 2wo. The group released a self\-titled project, made up of rock covers of songs by artists including [Jimi Hendrix](/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix "Jimi Hendrix"), [The Who](/wiki/The_Who "The Who"), [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin"), [Blind Faith](/wiki/Blind_Faith "Blind Faith"), [Steely Dan](/wiki/Steely_Dan "Steely Dan") and [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan"). In 1994, Hine released *The Deep End*. In 2008, Hine oversaw the direction of the compilation album *Songs for Tibet: The Art of Peace*, and also contributed to it a remixed version of his song, "The Heart of the Matter" (from *The Deep End*). In 2008, during the Beijing Olympics, the album was iTunes third most downloaded around the globe. Hine wrote two songs for *Le Cheshire Cat et moi*, a 2009 CD by [Nolwenn Leroy](/wiki/Nolwenn_Leroy "Nolwenn Leroy") which was produced by [Teitur Lassen](/wiki/Teitur_Lassen "Teitur Lassen"). In 2011, Hine launched Auditorius, a joint music publishing project with BMG Rights Management. In November of the same year, following a glowing citation from [Bob Geldof](/wiki/Bob_Geldof "Bob Geldof"), Hine was honoured by the [APRS](/wiki/Association_of_Professional_Recording_Services "Association of Professional Recording Services") with a Sound Fellowship Award; presented to recognise special contributions to the 'Art, Science and Business of Recording'. Hine joined [Joe Boyd](/wiki/Joe_Boyd "Joe Boyd"), Clive Green, [Bob Ludwig](/wiki/Bob_Ludwig "Bob Ludwig"), [Jimmy Page](/wiki/Jimmy_Page "Jimmy Page") and [Chris Thomas](/wiki/Chris_Thomas_%28record_producer%29 "Chris Thomas (record producer)") to receive the award from Sir [George Martin](/wiki/George_Martin "George Martin"), APRS President, who together with a group of past recipients; sound and music innovators, including Sir [Paul McCartney](/wiki/Paul_McCartney "Paul McCartney"), [Peter Gabriel](/wiki/Peter_Gabriel "Peter Gabriel"), [Chris Blackwell](/wiki/Chris_Blackwell "Chris Blackwell"), also holds a Fellowship Award. In March 2015, [Esoteric Recordings](/wiki/Esoteric_Recordings "Esoteric Recordings") (part of [Cherry Red Records](/wiki/Cherry_Red_Records "Cherry Red Records")) issued "Unshy on the Skyline",[http://www.cherryred.co.uk/esoteric\-exd.asp?id\=4985/](http://www.cherryred.co.uk/esoteric-exd.asp?id=4985/) {{dead link\|date\=December 2017\|bot\=InternetArchiveBot\|fix\-attempted\=yes}} a compilation from a trio of albums Hine made between 1981 and 1983, *[Immunity](/wiki/Immunity_%28Rupert_Hine_album%29 "Immunity (Rupert Hine album)")*, *[Waving Not Drowning](/wiki/Waving_Not_Drowning "Waving Not Drowning")* and *[The Wildest Wish to Fly](/wiki/Wildest_Wish_to_Fly "Wildest Wish to Fly")*, complemented by the lyrics of poet and artist [Jeannette\-Thérèse Obstoj](/wiki/Jeannette_Obstoj "Jeannette Obstoj"), and featuring guest contributions from musicians [Robert Palmer](/wiki/Robert_Palmer_%28singer%29 "Robert Palmer (singer)"), [Phil Collins](/wiki/Phil_Collins "Phil Collins") and guitarist [Phil Palmer](/wiki/Phil_Palmer "Phil Palmer"). The album has been re\-mastered by sound engineer Stephen W Tayler, who had recorded, mixed and co\-produced the original albums. To recognise the [Dalai Lama](/wiki/Dalai_Lama "Dalai Lama")'s 80th birthday in July 2015, the Art of Peace Foundation commissioned Hine to produce *Songs for Tibet II*, to celebrate and honour the Dalai Lama's vision. A follow\-up to the Grammy\-nominated *Songs for Tibet* that Hine produced in 2008, artist contributions came from Sting, Peter Gabriel, [Lorde](/wiki/Lorde "Lorde"), [Kate Bush](/wiki/Kate_Bush "Kate Bush"), [Elbow](/wiki/Elbow_%28band%29 "Elbow (band)"), Duncan Sheik, Howard Jones, [The Family Crest](/wiki/The_Family_Crest "The Family Crest"), Ed Prosek, [Of Monsters and Men](/wiki/Of_Monsters_and_Men "Of Monsters and Men"), Bob Geldof, [Crystal Method](/wiki/The_Crystal_Method "The Crystal Method"), [Rival Sons](/wiki/Rival_Sons "Rival Sons"), [Eleanor McEvoy](/wiki/Eleanor_McEvoy "Eleanor McEvoy") and Hine himself. In 2017, Hine was appointed Chairman of the [Ivor Novello Awards](/wiki/Ivor_Novello_Awards "Ivor Novello Awards"), presented annually by [The Ivors Academy](/wiki/The_Ivors_Academy "The Ivors Academy") (formerly the BASCA).{{Cite web\|url\=https://ruperthine.com/2017/06/01/chairman\-ivor\-novello/\|title\=Rupert Hine appointed Chairman of the Ivor Novello Awards – Rupert Hine\|website\=Ruperthine.com\|access\-date\=7 March 2023}} On 30 August 2019, Esoteric Recordings (part of Cherry Red Records) issued "Fighting Apathy With Shock", a "best of" chosen by Hine from his Thinkman project, the albums *The Formula* (1986\), *Life Is A Full Time Occupation* (1988\) and *Hard Hat Zone* (1990\) all with lyrics by Jeannette Obstöj (1949\-2015\). Re\-mastering of the collection is by Stephen W Tayler who co\-produced the original albums. Although Hine performed nearly all the music himself, there are contributions from The Fixx's Jamie West\-Oram, [Stewart Copeland](/wiki/Stewart_Copeland "Stewart Copeland") of [The Police](/wiki/The_Police "The Police") and [Café Jacques](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Jacques "Café Jacques")' vocalist Chris Thomson. Tina Turner, Stevie Nicks, [Wilson Phillips](/wiki/Wilson_Phillips "Wilson Phillips") and [Dusty Springfield](/wiki/Dusty_Springfield "Dusty Springfield") are among the artists who have recorded Hine's songs. Hine has also directed videos for the artists he has produced.{{Cite web\|url\=https://ruperthine.com/bio/\|title\=Bio – Rupert Hine\|website\=Ruperthine.com\|access\-date\=7 March 2023}} He was an early adopter of electronic music production techniques, and Hine was a founding member of Music Producers Guild, the International MIDI Association and a member of the [National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences](/wiki/The_Recording_Academy "The Recording Academy") in the US. He has sat on the boards of committees for BASCA and the Ivors Academy.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/music/music\-news/rupert\-hine\-dead\-producer\-songwriter\-dies\-obit\-9396949/\|title\=Rock Producer Rupert Hine, Who Worked Alongside Tina Turner, The Fixx and Rush, Dies at 72\|first\=Marc\|last\=Schneider\|website\=Billboard.com\|date\=5 June 2020\|access\-date\=7 March 2023}} Hine had quadruple bypass surgery in 2010 and was diagnosed with [renal cancer](/wiki/Renal_cancer "Renal cancer") the following year. He died at his home in [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire "Wiltshire") on 4 June 2020 at the age of 72\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/obituary/9396949/rupert\-hine\-dead\-producer\-songwriter\-dies\-obit\|title\=Rupert Hine Dies: Producer Who Worked Alongside Tina Turner, The Fixx and Rush Was 72\|date\=4 June 2020\|website\=Billboard.com\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-05}} He is survived by his wife Fay and his son Kingsley from a previous marriage. At a London reception on September 20, 2023, Rupert was posthumously honoured by Ivors Academy with an award recognising 'exceptional people across the music industry who create positive change and champion music creators'. The inaugural Ivors Honour, also presented to Carla Marie Williams, Crispin Hunt and Kevin Brennan MP, replaces BASCA's Gold Badge Awards, last presented in 2019\.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2023}}
[ "Career\n------", "In the early 1960s, Hine formed half of the folk duo Rupert \\& David with David MacIver. The duo performed in pubs and clubs and occasionally shared the stage with a then\\-unknown [Paul Simon](/wiki/Paul_Simon \"Paul Simon\"). The duo's one released single (on the [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") label in 1965\\) was a cover of Simon's \"[The Sound of Silence](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Silence \"The Sound of Silence\")\". The single was not a success, but was notable for featuring a young [Jimmy Page](/wiki/Jimmy_Page \"Jimmy Page\") on guitar and [Herbie Flowers](/wiki/Herbie_Flowers \"Herbie Flowers\") on bass.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ruperthine.com\\|title\\=T a m b o o – The Rupert Hine Official web site\\|website\\=Ruperthine.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 April 2010}} For several years Hine wrote songs with MacIver while working at temporary jobs, until he was helped by [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple \"Deep Purple\")'s bassist [Roger Glover](/wiki/Roger_Glover \"Roger Glover\"), whom Hine knew from Glover's previous band Episode 6\\. Hine and MacIver were signed to Deep Purple's Purple label. Glover produced Hine's first solo album, *[Pick Up a Bone](/wiki/Pick_Up_a_Bone_%28album%29 \"Pick Up a Bone (album)\")* (1971\\). *[Unfinished Picture](/wiki/Unfinished_Picture \"Unfinished Picture\")* (1973\\) followed, but neither album was successful. However, Hine now became increasingly in demand as an independent producer, first with the 1972 single \"Who Is the Doctor\", featuring [Jon Pertwee](/wiki/Jon_Pertwee \"Jon Pertwee\") narrating over the theme music from TV's *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who \"Doctor Who\")*. He then produced [Yvonne Elliman](/wiki/Yvonne_Elliman \"Yvonne Elliman\")'s album *Food of Love* (1973\\), a second world war\\-themed compilation album called *Colditz* (1973\\), and [Kevin Ayers](/wiki/Kevin_Ayers \"Kevin Ayers\")'s *The Confessions of Dr Dream and Other Stories* (1974\\).", "In 1973, Hine, along with guitarist Mark Warner, bassist [John G. Perry](/wiki/John_G._Perry \"John G. Perry\") (then of [Caravan](/wiki/Caravan_%28band%29 \"Caravan (band)\")) and drummer [Trevor Morais](/wiki/Trevor_Morais \"Trevor Morais\") (formerly of [The Peddlers](/wiki/The_Peddlers \"The Peddlers\")) formed the band [Quantum Jump](/wiki/Quantum_Jump \"Quantum Jump\"), releasing two albums, *Quantum Jump* (1976\\) and *Barracuda* (1977\\). After the re\\-release of the single \"The Lone Ranger\" (from *Quantum Jump*) became an unexpected UK Top five hit in 1979, a third album – *Mixing*, a reworking of tracks selected from the first two Quantum Jump albums – was released.", "After Quantum Jump disbanded, Hine released a trilogy of albums under his own name, including *[Immunity](/wiki/Immunity_%28Rupert_Hine_album%29 \"Immunity (Rupert Hine album)\")* (1981\\); *[Waving Not Drowning](/wiki/Waving_Not_Drowning \"Waving Not Drowning\")* (1982\\); and *[The Wildest Wish to Fly](/wiki/Wildest_Wish_to_Fly \"Wildest Wish to Fly\")* (1983\\). The American release of *Wildest Wish* dropped two tracks, radically reworked two others and incorporated two tracks from 1981's *Immunity* – including \"Misplaced Love\", which featured a guest vocal by [Marianne Faithfull](/wiki/Marianne_Faithfull \"Marianne Faithfull\") and had been a minor hit in Australia, reaching number 14 on the chart.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.oz\\-compilation\\-albums.com/80s/1981/1981rockson/albuminfo.htm \\|access\\-date \\= 18 February 2012 \\|title\\=1981\\...Rocks On\\|website\\=Oz\\-compilation\\-albums.com}} In 1985, Hine wrote and produced much of the soundtrack for the [black comedy](/wiki/Black_comedy \"Black comedy\") film *[Better Off Dead](/wiki/Better_Off_Dead_%28film%29 \"Better Off Dead (film)\")*. Later he and composer [Eric Serra](/wiki/Eric_Serra \"Eric Serra\") wrote \"The Experience of Love\", the end title song for *[GoldenEye](/wiki/GoldenEye \"GoldenEye\")*. His film soundtrack credits also include *[The Fifth Element](/wiki/The_Fifth_Element \"The Fifth Element\")* (composed by Serra), and *[The Addams Family](/wiki/The_Addams_Family \"The Addams Family\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://goldeneyedossier.wixsite.com/bond/post/rupert\\-hine\\-lyricist\\-for\\-the\\-experience\\-of\\-love\\-dies\\-at\\-72\\|title\\=Rupert Hine, lyricist for \"The Experience of Love\", dies at 72\\|date\\=6 June 2020\\|website\\=Goldeneyedossier.wixsite.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2023}}", "Hine obtained a number of credits with some of the biggest musicians of his era. In 1984, he topped the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart \"UK Albums Chart\") with Howard Jones' debut album, *[Human's Lib](/wiki/Human%27s_Lib \"Human's Lib\")*, and that same year enjoyed his most high\\-profile achievement with his work on Tina Turner's album *[Private Dancer](/wiki/Private_Dancer \"Private Dancer\")*, which established Turner as a solo star and sold 20 million copies. Hine produced the Grammy\\-winning single \"[Better Be Good to Me](/wiki/Better_Be_Good_to_Me \"Better Be Good to Me\")\" as well as co\\-writing \"[I Might Have Been Queen](/wiki/I_Might_Have_Been_Queen \"I Might Have Been Queen\")\".", "In 1986, he created a solo project called Thinkman with a set of actors for stage performance. There were three albums released under this project: *The Formula* (1986\\), *Life is a Full Time Occupation* (1988\\), and *Hard Hat Zone* (1990\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.discogs.com/artist/379565\\-Thinkman\\|title\\=Thinkman Profile at Discogs\\|website\\=www.discogs.com\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2023}} Thinkman is credited for one song on the *[Better Off Dead](/wiki/Better_Off_Dead_%28film%29%23Soundtrack \"Better Off Dead (film)#Soundtrack\")* soundtrack, while Hine is credited for six.", "In 1990, Hine and [Kevin Godley](/wiki/Kevin_Godley \"Kevin Godley\") worked together on the project \"One World One Voice\", a musical chain letter that travelled the world starting with [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 \"Sting (musician)\") and [Afrika Bambaataa](/wiki/Afrika_Bambaataa \"Afrika Bambaataa\") in New York and ending 300 artists/musicians later, in Moscow. It was an environmental awareness album, and a two\\-hour television program, broadcast the same day to 650 million people worldwide.", "In 1993, he joined with guitarist [Phil Palmer](/wiki/Phil_Palmer \"Phil Palmer\"), [Paul Carrack](/wiki/Paul_Carrack \"Paul Carrack\"), [Steve Ferrone](/wiki/Steve_Ferrone \"Steve Ferrone\") and [Tony Levin](/wiki/Tony_Levin \"Tony Levin\") to form the band Spin 1ne 2wo. The group released a self\\-titled project, made up of rock covers of songs by artists including [Jimi Hendrix](/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix \"Jimi Hendrix\"), [The Who](/wiki/The_Who \"The Who\"), [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\"), [Blind Faith](/wiki/Blind_Faith \"Blind Faith\"), [Steely Dan](/wiki/Steely_Dan \"Steely Dan\") and [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\"). In 1994, Hine released *The Deep End*. In 2008, Hine oversaw the direction of the compilation album *Songs for Tibet: The Art of Peace*, and also contributed to it a remixed version of his song, \"The Heart of the Matter\" (from *The Deep End*). In 2008, during the Beijing Olympics, the album was iTunes third most downloaded around the globe. Hine wrote two songs for *Le Cheshire Cat et moi*, a 2009 CD by [Nolwenn Leroy](/wiki/Nolwenn_Leroy \"Nolwenn Leroy\") which was produced by [Teitur Lassen](/wiki/Teitur_Lassen \"Teitur Lassen\").", "In 2011, Hine launched Auditorius, a joint music publishing project with BMG Rights Management. In November of the same year, following a glowing citation from [Bob Geldof](/wiki/Bob_Geldof \"Bob Geldof\"), Hine was honoured by the [APRS](/wiki/Association_of_Professional_Recording_Services \"Association of Professional Recording Services\") with a Sound Fellowship Award; presented to recognise special contributions to the 'Art, Science and Business of Recording'. Hine joined [Joe Boyd](/wiki/Joe_Boyd \"Joe Boyd\"), Clive Green, [Bob Ludwig](/wiki/Bob_Ludwig \"Bob Ludwig\"), [Jimmy Page](/wiki/Jimmy_Page \"Jimmy Page\") and [Chris Thomas](/wiki/Chris_Thomas_%28record_producer%29 \"Chris Thomas (record producer)\") to receive the award from Sir [George Martin](/wiki/George_Martin \"George Martin\"), APRS President, who together with a group of past recipients; sound and music innovators, including Sir [Paul McCartney](/wiki/Paul_McCartney \"Paul McCartney\"), [Peter Gabriel](/wiki/Peter_Gabriel \"Peter Gabriel\"), [Chris Blackwell](/wiki/Chris_Blackwell \"Chris Blackwell\"), also holds a Fellowship Award.", "In March 2015, [Esoteric Recordings](/wiki/Esoteric_Recordings \"Esoteric Recordings\") (part of [Cherry Red Records](/wiki/Cherry_Red_Records \"Cherry Red Records\")) issued \"Unshy on the Skyline\",[http://www.cherryred.co.uk/esoteric\\-exd.asp?id\\=4985/](http://www.cherryred.co.uk/esoteric-exd.asp?id=4985/) {{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017\\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot\\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes}} a compilation from a trio of albums Hine made between 1981 and 1983, *[Immunity](/wiki/Immunity_%28Rupert_Hine_album%29 \"Immunity (Rupert Hine album)\")*, *[Waving Not Drowning](/wiki/Waving_Not_Drowning \"Waving Not Drowning\")* and *[The Wildest Wish to Fly](/wiki/Wildest_Wish_to_Fly \"Wildest Wish to Fly\")*, complemented by the lyrics of poet and artist [Jeannette\\-Thérèse Obstoj](/wiki/Jeannette_Obstoj \"Jeannette Obstoj\"), and featuring guest contributions from musicians [Robert Palmer](/wiki/Robert_Palmer_%28singer%29 \"Robert Palmer (singer)\"), [Phil Collins](/wiki/Phil_Collins \"Phil Collins\") and guitarist [Phil Palmer](/wiki/Phil_Palmer \"Phil Palmer\"). The album has been re\\-mastered by sound engineer Stephen W Tayler, who had recorded, mixed and co\\-produced the original albums. To recognise the [Dalai Lama](/wiki/Dalai_Lama \"Dalai Lama\")'s 80th birthday in July 2015, the Art of Peace Foundation commissioned Hine to produce *Songs for Tibet II*, to celebrate and honour the Dalai Lama's vision. A follow\\-up to the Grammy\\-nominated *Songs for Tibet* that Hine produced in 2008, artist contributions came from Sting, Peter Gabriel, [Lorde](/wiki/Lorde \"Lorde\"), [Kate Bush](/wiki/Kate_Bush \"Kate Bush\"), [Elbow](/wiki/Elbow_%28band%29 \"Elbow (band)\"), Duncan Sheik, Howard Jones, [The Family Crest](/wiki/The_Family_Crest \"The Family Crest\"), Ed Prosek, [Of Monsters and Men](/wiki/Of_Monsters_and_Men \"Of Monsters and Men\"), Bob Geldof, [Crystal Method](/wiki/The_Crystal_Method \"The Crystal Method\"), [Rival Sons](/wiki/Rival_Sons \"Rival Sons\"), [Eleanor McEvoy](/wiki/Eleanor_McEvoy \"Eleanor McEvoy\") and Hine himself.", "In 2017, Hine was appointed Chairman of the [Ivor Novello Awards](/wiki/Ivor_Novello_Awards \"Ivor Novello Awards\"), presented annually by [The Ivors Academy](/wiki/The_Ivors_Academy \"The Ivors Academy\") (formerly the BASCA).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ruperthine.com/2017/06/01/chairman\\-ivor\\-novello/\\|title\\=Rupert Hine appointed Chairman of the Ivor Novello Awards – Rupert Hine\\|website\\=Ruperthine.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2023}}", "On 30 August 2019, Esoteric Recordings (part of Cherry Red Records) issued \"Fighting Apathy With Shock\", a \"best of\" chosen by Hine from his Thinkman project, the albums *The Formula* (1986\\), *Life Is A Full Time Occupation* (1988\\) and *Hard Hat Zone* (1990\\) all with lyrics by Jeannette Obstöj (1949\\-2015\\). Re\\-mastering of the collection is by Stephen W Tayler who co\\-produced the original albums. Although Hine performed nearly all the music himself, there are contributions from The Fixx's Jamie West\\-Oram, [Stewart Copeland](/wiki/Stewart_Copeland \"Stewart Copeland\") of [The Police](/wiki/The_Police \"The Police\") and [Café Jacques](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Jacques \"Café Jacques\")' vocalist Chris Thomson.", "Tina Turner, Stevie Nicks, [Wilson Phillips](/wiki/Wilson_Phillips \"Wilson Phillips\") and [Dusty Springfield](/wiki/Dusty_Springfield \"Dusty Springfield\") are among the artists who have recorded Hine's songs. Hine has also directed videos for the artists he has produced.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ruperthine.com/bio/\\|title\\=Bio – Rupert Hine\\|website\\=Ruperthine.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2023}} He was an early adopter of electronic music production techniques, and Hine was a founding member of Music Producers Guild, the International MIDI Association and a member of the [National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences](/wiki/The_Recording_Academy \"The Recording Academy\") in the US. He has sat on the boards of committees for BASCA and the Ivors Academy.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/music/music\\-news/rupert\\-hine\\-dead\\-producer\\-songwriter\\-dies\\-obit\\-9396949/\\|title\\=Rock Producer Rupert Hine, Who Worked Alongside Tina Turner, The Fixx and Rush, Dies at 72\\|first\\=Marc\\|last\\=Schneider\\|website\\=Billboard.com\\|date\\=5 June 2020\\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2023}}", "Hine had quadruple bypass surgery in 2010 and was diagnosed with [renal cancer](/wiki/Renal_cancer \"Renal cancer\") the following year. He died at his home in [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire \"Wiltshire\") on 4 June 2020 at the age of 72\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/obituary/9396949/rupert\\-hine\\-dead\\-producer\\-songwriter\\-dies\\-obit\\|title\\=Rupert Hine Dies: Producer Who Worked Alongside Tina Turner, The Fixx and Rush Was 72\\|date\\=4 June 2020\\|website\\=Billboard.com\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-05}} He is survived by his wife Fay and his son Kingsley from a previous marriage.", "At a London reception on September 20, 2023, Rupert was posthumously honoured by Ivors Academy with an award recognising 'exceptional people across the music industry who create positive change and champion music creators'. The inaugural Ivors Honour, also presented to Carla Marie Williams, Crispin Hunt and Kevin Brennan MP, replaces BASCA's Gold Badge Awards, last presented in 2019\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2023}}", "" ]
History ------- Berrien County was officially established in 1831, but failed to secure a county seat until 1837\. County offices and courts bounced between [Niles](/wiki/Niles%2C_Michigan "Niles, Michigan") and [St. Joseph](/wiki/St._Joseph%2C_Michigan "St. Joseph, Michigan") before Berrien Springs was chosen for its central location. That same year, the county accepted the donation of property along Union Street and commissioned the construction of the first permanent county building \- a two\-story wooden jail. After requesting bids in 1838, the county commissioners chose Gilbert B. Avery to construct the County Courthouse. Completed in 1839, the building served as both a site of government and as a community center for Berrien Springs residents.{{citation\|author\=John Fedynsky\|title\=Michigan's County Courthouses\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ogrel7yYnvQC\&pg\=PA24\|pages\=24–25\|year\=2010\|publisher\=The University of Michigan Press\|isbn\=9780472117284}} Over the next several decades, the county's growth impacted its operations, and the Commissioners were faced with the need for additional space. In 1860, the county once again turned to Gilbert Avery who designed the Records Building. Built by George Murdock, the one\-story building also proved to be to small and a two\-story addition was added in 1973\. The county records were housed here along with the Registrar and the Probate Judge offices. With this addition, the complex stretched from Union Street to Madison Street and was now hemmed in on all four sides by roads. Two more building was constructed by the County \- the 1870 Sheriff's Office and the County Jail. As before, Avery was hired to design the building, although he ended up overseeing the construction after issues with the builder. The buildings were completed at the end of 1869, with the sheriff and his family moving into the building in January 1870\.{{Cite news\|date\=1870\-02\-04\|title\=Clipped From The Weekly Palladium\|pages\=3\|work\=The Weekly Palladium\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94368046/the\-weekly\-palladium/\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-06}} Once the prisoners being held at the old jail were moved to the new one, that building was then torn down. With a small road passing through the property, visitors to the complex had easy access to each building on foot or by buggy. ### Fight for the County Seat In the early 1870s, discontent with the Courthouse's location began and over the next two decades, the complaints grew louder.{{Cite news\|date\=1894\-03\-10\|title\=Clipped From St. Joseph Saturday Herald\|pages\=4\|work\=St. Joseph Saturday Herald\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94358784/st\-joseph\-saturday\-herald/\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-06}} Despite being located in the middle of the county, Berrien Springs lacked any direct transportation line, like a railroad. While attempts were made, they repeatedly failed.{{Cite book\|last\=Myers\|first\=Robert C.\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4q2wXwAACAAJ\|title\=Locomotives Along the Lakeshore: Railroads of Berrien County, Michigan\|date\=2010\|publisher\=Berrien County Historical Association\|language\=en}} By 1894, the calls for the county seat to be moved were too large to ignore and in April of that year, a vote was held to determine if it should be moved or not. The weeks leading up to election day were contentious as Berrien Springs, St. Joseph, and Niles vied for the county seat, with newspapers being a spirited part of the process. After [Benton Harbor](/wiki/Benton_Harbor%2C_Michigan "Benton Harbor, Michigan") threw its votes behind its sister city, St. Joseph won the election.{{Cite news\|date\=1894\-04\-14\|title\=Clipped From St. Joseph Saturday Herald\|pages\=4\|work\=St. Joseph Saturday Herald\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/84550247/st\-joseph\-saturday\-herald/\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-06}} The loss was a bitter one for Berrien Springs and *The Berrien Springs Era* didn't hold back as the county began its move, "The motive power used in the removal was mostly furnished by horses, but the direction of affairs was left to the jackasses, of which St. Joe has an abundance." For their part, St. Joseph was quite humble in their victory, tipping their hat to their neighbors after a contentious battle.{{Cite news\|date\=1894\-04\-07\|title\=Clipped From St. Joseph Saturday Herald\|pages\=4\|work\=St. Joseph Saturday Herald\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/84550521/st\-joseph\-saturday\-herald/\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-06}} In 1895, the county began construction on the new courthouse, but while some operations made the move seamless to St. Joseph, some remained in Berrien Springs for at least another year. This included the Sheriff, whose new residence and jail were completed in the early fall of 1895\.{{Cite news\|date\=1895\-08\-27\|title\=Clipped From The Weekly Palladium\|pages\=2\|work\=The Weekly Palladium\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94369028/the\-weekly\-palladium/\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-06}} ### A New Era Despite no longer needing the complex in Berrien Springs, the county was hesitant to sell at first. Residents of Berrien Springs continued to use the Courthouse for meetings, community events, and even established a dance hall and armory. In 1900, [Battle Creek College](/wiki/Battle_Creek_College "Battle Creek College"), a [Seventh\-day Adventist](/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church "Seventh-day Adventist Church") school, made the decision to move to a new location, opting for Berrien Springs. While their new campus was being constructed, the college, which had renamed itself Emmanuel Missionary College approached the county, seeking to rent the old complex buildings. The county agreed and the 1901–1902 school year was held, with administrative offices in the Records building, classes in the Sheriff's Residence and Courthouse, and the courtroom itself serving as the college chapel. After the college moved to its new campus, the buildings were once again left abandoned, with minimal use. By the 1910s, the county split the complex apart and sold off portions to private owners, including the Records Building and the Sheriff's Office. The jail, now in terrible condition, was torn down in 1916\. With only the courthouse remaining under county ownership, the old Courthouse Complex was no more. The Seventh\-day Adventist community had grown considerably, thanks in part to EMC (now Andrews University), and they approached the county to rent the Courthouse as a church. The agreement would remain in place until 1922, when the church elders opted to purchase the building.{{Cite web\|last\=Kusarawana\|first\=Michael\|title\=Our History\|url\=https://villagesda.org/about\-us/our\-history/\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-06\|website\=Village SDA Church\|language\=en\-US}} After purchasing land to the west of the courthouse, the church built an auxiliary building to host meetings for their various groups. By the 1950s, a second building at the corner of M\-139 and Madison Streets was constructed, serving as a doctor's office. The complex would remain under private ownership until the latter half of the 20th century. ### Preservation and Additions In 1965, the SDA Church realized their congregation had outgrown their space and built a new building on Niles Street, less than a mile from the Courthouse. The church officially moved into the new building in 1966 and two of the three buildings it owned on the grounds were shuttered. The sheriff's Residence remained under private ownership during this time and had been converted into apartments, while the Records Building had been turned into a mixed\-use building. In 1968, the Berrien County Historical Commission and Berrien County joined forces to purchase the portion of the complex owned by the SDA church, with the goal of saving the Courthouse. For the next eight years, the BCHC raised the funds needed to complete the restoration and completed it in 1975\. As the commission decided to rebrand that same year, they also began to focus on securing the remaining two buildings \- Records and Sheriff's Residence. By the late 1970s, the latter had been purchased and the former wouldn't be re\-added to the property until the 1990s, although the building wouldn't be available for restoration until 2000\. In 1968, the Murdoch Log Cabin was uncovered during a routine demolition. For the next five years, it was debated what would happen to the structure. Extensive research by local historians, aided by [Western Michigan University](/wiki/Western_Michigan_University "Western Michigan University"), established the cabin as having been built in approximately 1830 and was the original home for Berrien Springs co\-founder Francis Murdoch. In 1973, the BCHC agreed to have the building moved to the Courthouse property and it was placed just behind the courthouse. Two years later, the BCHC rebranded and became the Berrien County Historical Association to better reflect the growth of its mission and properties. As the BCHC was looking towards other projects, the old auxiliary building and doctor's office had been earmarked for demolition. However, in 1977, the family of local resident George Bennett approached the organization with a substantial donation in their father's name. It was decided that the best way to honor this history lover was to turn the auxiliary building into an exhibit space. The newly minted Bennett's Forge and Buggy Shop was opened to the public in 1978\. The doctor's office was torn down in the 1980s. The Sheriff's Residence was finally available for renovation in the early 1980s and all phases were completed by 1985\.. The upper levels were set aside as work space for staff, while the lower level included space for permanent and temporary exhibits. The addition on the back of the house was converted into vaults for the BCHA's growing collections. By 1995, the Jail Plaza, designed to mimic the floor and walls of the old jail, was completed. This would remain the last major renovation project until 2019\. Although the county and the BCHA owned the Records Building since the 1990s, it wasn't until the 2000s before the last of the tenants vacated the property. Plans for the building had been around since the early 1990s, but the cost of the building's rehabilitation meant the BCHA had to raise millions to make their exhibit designs a reality. However, the 2006 recession hampered a planned capital campaign and in 2007, the building caught fire. After repairs to the structure had been made, both the County and the BCHA shifted their priorities to other projects. The building remains closed to the public and serves as storage for oversized collection pieces and for various items belonging to both organizations. ### The Future In 2019, a series of renovations to the properties began in an effort to modernize existing exhibits and to bring much needed repairs to the buildings. The Courthouse received new windows in 2019 and in 2020, the building's wood rot was repair before the entire building was repainted. These were paid for by Berrien County. Interior renovations of permanent exhibit spaces have taken place each year since late 2019 and include the permanent exhibits of the 1839 Courthouse and the Sheriff's Residence. Temporary exhibit space was updated in 2019 and 2021\. In 2022, the BCHA will focus on much needed upgrade to the existing collection and archival storage spaces, including new storage to allow space for the existing collection to grow. Over the next few years, the cabin will be restored and receive exhibit upgrades for both levels while the adjacent garden will be gutted and restructures to be more historical accurate. Bennett's Forge will also be upgraded with new exhibits about early industries in Berrien County, a restructured blacksmith forge, and a new area dedicated to traditional arts education. This will allow for demonstrations and workshops to be safely hosted on the property. The Records Building will be the new home for programming and temporary exhibits as well as the future home for the every growing collections. The reimagining of these spaces will allow for continued use by audiences of ages and abilities while ensure the buildings remain preserved for years to come.
[ "History\n-------", "Berrien County was officially established in 1831, but failed to secure a county seat until 1837\\. County offices and courts bounced between [Niles](/wiki/Niles%2C_Michigan \"Niles, Michigan\") and [St. Joseph](/wiki/St._Joseph%2C_Michigan \"St. Joseph, Michigan\") before Berrien Springs was chosen for its central location. That same year, the county accepted the donation of property along Union Street and commissioned the construction of the first permanent county building \\- a two\\-story wooden jail. After requesting bids in 1838, the county commissioners chose Gilbert B. Avery to construct the County Courthouse. Completed in 1839, the building served as both a site of government and as a community center for Berrien Springs residents.{{citation\\|author\\=John Fedynsky\\|title\\=Michigan's County Courthouses\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ogrel7yYnvQC\\&pg\\=PA24\\|pages\\=24–25\\|year\\=2010\\|publisher\\=The University of Michigan Press\\|isbn\\=9780472117284}}", "Over the next several decades, the county's growth impacted its operations, and the Commissioners were faced with the need for additional space. In 1860, the county once again turned to Gilbert Avery who designed the Records Building. Built by George Murdock, the one\\-story building also proved to be to small and a two\\-story addition was added in 1973\\. The county records were housed here along with the Registrar and the Probate Judge offices. With this addition, the complex stretched from Union Street to Madison Street and was now hemmed in on all four sides by roads.", "Two more building was constructed by the County \\- the 1870 Sheriff's Office and the County Jail. As before, Avery was hired to design the building, although he ended up overseeing the construction after issues with the builder. The buildings were completed at the end of 1869, with the sheriff and his family moving into the building in January 1870\\.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1870\\-02\\-04\\|title\\=Clipped From The Weekly Palladium\\|pages\\=3\\|work\\=The Weekly Palladium\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94368046/the\\-weekly\\-palladium/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-06}} Once the prisoners being held at the old jail were moved to the new one, that building was then torn down. With a small road passing through the property, visitors to the complex had easy access to each building on foot or by buggy.", "### Fight for the County Seat", "In the early 1870s, discontent with the Courthouse's location began and over the next two decades, the complaints grew louder.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1894\\-03\\-10\\|title\\=Clipped From St. Joseph Saturday Herald\\|pages\\=4\\|work\\=St. Joseph Saturday Herald\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94358784/st\\-joseph\\-saturday\\-herald/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-06}} Despite being located in the middle of the county, Berrien Springs lacked any direct transportation line, like a railroad. While attempts were made, they repeatedly failed.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Myers\\|first\\=Robert C.\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4q2wXwAACAAJ\\|title\\=Locomotives Along the Lakeshore: Railroads of Berrien County, Michigan\\|date\\=2010\\|publisher\\=Berrien County Historical Association\\|language\\=en}} By 1894, the calls for the county seat to be moved were too large to ignore and in April of that year, a vote was held to determine if it should be moved or not. The weeks leading up to election day were contentious as Berrien Springs, St. Joseph, and Niles vied for the county seat, with newspapers being a spirited part of the process. After [Benton Harbor](/wiki/Benton_Harbor%2C_Michigan \"Benton Harbor, Michigan\") threw its votes behind its sister city, St. Joseph won the election.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1894\\-04\\-14\\|title\\=Clipped From St. Joseph Saturday Herald\\|pages\\=4\\|work\\=St. Joseph Saturday Herald\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/84550247/st\\-joseph\\-saturday\\-herald/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-06}} The loss was a bitter one for Berrien Springs and *The Berrien Springs Era* didn't hold back as the county began its move, \"The motive power used in the removal was mostly furnished by horses, but the direction of affairs was left to the jackasses, of which St. Joe has an abundance.\" For their part, St. Joseph was quite humble in their victory, tipping their hat to their neighbors after a contentious battle.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1894\\-04\\-07\\|title\\=Clipped From St. Joseph Saturday Herald\\|pages\\=4\\|work\\=St. Joseph Saturday Herald\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/84550521/st\\-joseph\\-saturday\\-herald/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-06}}", "In 1895, the county began construction on the new courthouse, but while some operations made the move seamless to St. Joseph, some remained in Berrien Springs for at least another year. This included the Sheriff, whose new residence and jail were completed in the early fall of 1895\\.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1895\\-08\\-27\\|title\\=Clipped From The Weekly Palladium\\|pages\\=2\\|work\\=The Weekly Palladium\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94369028/the\\-weekly\\-palladium/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-06}}", "### A New Era", "Despite no longer needing the complex in Berrien Springs, the county was hesitant to sell at first. Residents of Berrien Springs continued to use the Courthouse for meetings, community events, and even established a dance hall and armory. In 1900, [Battle Creek College](/wiki/Battle_Creek_College \"Battle Creek College\"), a [Seventh\\-day Adventist](/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church \"Seventh-day Adventist Church\") school, made the decision to move to a new location, opting for Berrien Springs. While their new campus was being constructed, the college, which had renamed itself Emmanuel Missionary College approached the county, seeking to rent the old complex buildings. The county agreed and the 1901–1902 school year was held, with administrative offices in the Records building, classes in the Sheriff's Residence and Courthouse, and the courtroom itself serving as the college chapel. After the college moved to its new campus, the buildings were once again left abandoned, with minimal use.", "By the 1910s, the county split the complex apart and sold off portions to private owners, including the Records Building and the Sheriff's Office. The jail, now in terrible condition, was torn down in 1916\\. With only the courthouse remaining under county ownership, the old Courthouse Complex was no more. The Seventh\\-day Adventist community had grown considerably, thanks in part to EMC (now Andrews University), and they approached the county to rent the Courthouse as a church. The agreement would remain in place until 1922, when the church elders opted to purchase the building.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Kusarawana\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=Our History\\|url\\=https://villagesda.org/about\\-us/our\\-history/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-06\\|website\\=Village SDA Church\\|language\\=en\\-US}} After purchasing land to the west of the courthouse, the church built an auxiliary building to host meetings for their various groups. By the 1950s, a second building at the corner of M\\-139 and Madison Streets was constructed, serving as a doctor's office.", "The complex would remain under private ownership until the latter half of the 20th century.", "### Preservation and Additions", "In 1965, the SDA Church realized their congregation had outgrown their space and built a new building on Niles Street, less than a mile from the Courthouse. The church officially moved into the new building in 1966 and two of the three buildings it owned on the grounds were shuttered. The sheriff's Residence remained under private ownership during this time and had been converted into apartments, while the Records Building had been turned into a mixed\\-use building.", "In 1968, the Berrien County Historical Commission and Berrien County joined forces to purchase the portion of the complex owned by the SDA church, with the goal of saving the Courthouse. For the next eight years, the BCHC raised the funds needed to complete the restoration and completed it in 1975\\. As the commission decided to rebrand that same year, they also began to focus on securing the remaining two buildings \\- Records and Sheriff's Residence. By the late 1970s, the latter had been purchased and the former wouldn't be re\\-added to the property until the 1990s, although the building wouldn't be available for restoration until 2000\\.", "In 1968, the Murdoch Log Cabin was uncovered during a routine demolition. For the next five years, it was debated what would happen to the structure. Extensive research by local historians, aided by [Western Michigan University](/wiki/Western_Michigan_University \"Western Michigan University\"), established the cabin as having been built in approximately 1830 and was the original home for Berrien Springs co\\-founder Francis Murdoch. In 1973, the BCHC agreed to have the building moved to the Courthouse property and it was placed just behind the courthouse. Two years later, the BCHC rebranded and became the Berrien County Historical Association to better reflect the growth of its mission and properties.", "As the BCHC was looking towards other projects, the old auxiliary building and doctor's office had been earmarked for demolition. However, in 1977, the family of local resident George Bennett approached the organization with a substantial donation in their father's name. It was decided that the best way to honor this history lover was to turn the auxiliary building into an exhibit space. The newly minted Bennett's Forge and Buggy Shop was opened to the public in 1978\\. The doctor's office was torn down in the 1980s.", "The Sheriff's Residence was finally available for renovation in the early 1980s and all phases were completed by 1985\\.. The upper levels were set aside as work space for staff, while the lower level included space for permanent and temporary exhibits. The addition on the back of the house was converted into vaults for the BCHA's growing collections. By 1995, the Jail Plaza, designed to mimic the floor and walls of the old jail, was completed. This would remain the last major renovation project until 2019\\.", "Although the county and the BCHA owned the Records Building since the 1990s, it wasn't until the 2000s before the last of the tenants vacated the property. Plans for the building had been around since the early 1990s, but the cost of the building's rehabilitation meant the BCHA had to raise millions to make their exhibit designs a reality. However, the 2006 recession hampered a planned capital campaign and in 2007, the building caught fire. After repairs to the structure had been made, both the County and the BCHA shifted their priorities to other projects. The building remains closed to the public and serves as storage for oversized collection pieces and for various items belonging to both organizations.", "### The Future", "In 2019, a series of renovations to the properties began in an effort to modernize existing exhibits and to bring much needed repairs to the buildings. The Courthouse received new windows in 2019 and in 2020, the building's wood rot was repair before the entire building was repainted. These were paid for by Berrien County. Interior renovations of permanent exhibit spaces have taken place each year since late 2019 and include the permanent exhibits of the 1839 Courthouse and the Sheriff's Residence. Temporary exhibit space was updated in 2019 and 2021\\.", "In 2022, the BCHA will focus on much needed upgrade to the existing collection and archival storage spaces, including new storage to allow space for the existing collection to grow.", "Over the next few years, the cabin will be restored and receive exhibit upgrades for both levels while the adjacent garden will be gutted and restructures to be more historical accurate. Bennett's Forge will also be upgraded with new exhibits about early industries in Berrien County, a restructured blacksmith forge, and a new area dedicated to traditional arts education. This will allow for demonstrations and workshops to be safely hosted on the property. The Records Building will be the new home for programming and temporary exhibits as well as the future home for the every growing collections.", "The reimagining of these spaces will allow for continued use by audiences of ages and abilities while ensure the buildings remain preserved for years to come.", "" ]
### Preservation and Additions In 1965, the SDA Church realized their congregation had outgrown their space and built a new building on Niles Street, less than a mile from the Courthouse. The church officially moved into the new building in 1966 and two of the three buildings it owned on the grounds were shuttered. The sheriff's Residence remained under private ownership during this time and had been converted into apartments, while the Records Building had been turned into a mixed\-use building. In 1968, the Berrien County Historical Commission and Berrien County joined forces to purchase the portion of the complex owned by the SDA church, with the goal of saving the Courthouse. For the next eight years, the BCHC raised the funds needed to complete the restoration and completed it in 1975\. As the commission decided to rebrand that same year, they also began to focus on securing the remaining two buildings \- Records and Sheriff's Residence. By the late 1970s, the latter had been purchased and the former wouldn't be re\-added to the property until the 1990s, although the building wouldn't be available for restoration until 2000\. In 1968, the Murdoch Log Cabin was uncovered during a routine demolition. For the next five years, it was debated what would happen to the structure. Extensive research by local historians, aided by [Western Michigan University](/wiki/Western_Michigan_University "Western Michigan University"), established the cabin as having been built in approximately 1830 and was the original home for Berrien Springs co\-founder Francis Murdoch. In 1973, the BCHC agreed to have the building moved to the Courthouse property and it was placed just behind the courthouse. Two years later, the BCHC rebranded and became the Berrien County Historical Association to better reflect the growth of its mission and properties. As the BCHC was looking towards other projects, the old auxiliary building and doctor's office had been earmarked for demolition. However, in 1977, the family of local resident George Bennett approached the organization with a substantial donation in their father's name. It was decided that the best way to honor this history lover was to turn the auxiliary building into an exhibit space. The newly minted Bennett's Forge and Buggy Shop was opened to the public in 1978\. The doctor's office was torn down in the 1980s. The Sheriff's Residence was finally available for renovation in the early 1980s and all phases were completed by 1985\.. The upper levels were set aside as work space for staff, while the lower level included space for permanent and temporary exhibits. The addition on the back of the house was converted into vaults for the BCHA's growing collections. By 1995, the Jail Plaza, designed to mimic the floor and walls of the old jail, was completed. This would remain the last major renovation project until 2019\. Although the county and the BCHA owned the Records Building since the 1990s, it wasn't until the 2000s before the last of the tenants vacated the property. Plans for the building had been around since the early 1990s, but the cost of the building's rehabilitation meant the BCHA had to raise millions to make their exhibit designs a reality. However, the 2006 recession hampered a planned capital campaign and in 2007, the building caught fire. After repairs to the structure had been made, both the County and the BCHA shifted their priorities to other projects. The building remains closed to the public and serves as storage for oversized collection pieces and for various items belonging to both organizations.
[ "### Preservation and Additions", "In 1965, the SDA Church realized their congregation had outgrown their space and built a new building on Niles Street, less than a mile from the Courthouse. The church officially moved into the new building in 1966 and two of the three buildings it owned on the grounds were shuttered. The sheriff's Residence remained under private ownership during this time and had been converted into apartments, while the Records Building had been turned into a mixed\\-use building.", "In 1968, the Berrien County Historical Commission and Berrien County joined forces to purchase the portion of the complex owned by the SDA church, with the goal of saving the Courthouse. For the next eight years, the BCHC raised the funds needed to complete the restoration and completed it in 1975\\. As the commission decided to rebrand that same year, they also began to focus on securing the remaining two buildings \\- Records and Sheriff's Residence. By the late 1970s, the latter had been purchased and the former wouldn't be re\\-added to the property until the 1990s, although the building wouldn't be available for restoration until 2000\\.", "In 1968, the Murdoch Log Cabin was uncovered during a routine demolition. For the next five years, it was debated what would happen to the structure. Extensive research by local historians, aided by [Western Michigan University](/wiki/Western_Michigan_University \"Western Michigan University\"), established the cabin as having been built in approximately 1830 and was the original home for Berrien Springs co\\-founder Francis Murdoch. In 1973, the BCHC agreed to have the building moved to the Courthouse property and it was placed just behind the courthouse. Two years later, the BCHC rebranded and became the Berrien County Historical Association to better reflect the growth of its mission and properties.", "As the BCHC was looking towards other projects, the old auxiliary building and doctor's office had been earmarked for demolition. However, in 1977, the family of local resident George Bennett approached the organization with a substantial donation in their father's name. It was decided that the best way to honor this history lover was to turn the auxiliary building into an exhibit space. The newly minted Bennett's Forge and Buggy Shop was opened to the public in 1978\\. The doctor's office was torn down in the 1980s.", "The Sheriff's Residence was finally available for renovation in the early 1980s and all phases were completed by 1985\\.. The upper levels were set aside as work space for staff, while the lower level included space for permanent and temporary exhibits. The addition on the back of the house was converted into vaults for the BCHA's growing collections. By 1995, the Jail Plaza, designed to mimic the floor and walls of the old jail, was completed. This would remain the last major renovation project until 2019\\.", "Although the county and the BCHA owned the Records Building since the 1990s, it wasn't until the 2000s before the last of the tenants vacated the property. Plans for the building had been around since the early 1990s, but the cost of the building's rehabilitation meant the BCHA had to raise millions to make their exhibit designs a reality. However, the 2006 recession hampered a planned capital campaign and in 2007, the building caught fire. After repairs to the structure had been made, both the County and the BCHA shifted their priorities to other projects. The building remains closed to the public and serves as storage for oversized collection pieces and for various items belonging to both organizations.", "" ]
The Buildings of the History Center at Courthouse Square -------------------------------------------------------- The Old Berrien County Courthouse Complex was renamed the History Center at Courthouse Square to better encompass the narrative the BCHA and Berrien County tell within its buildings. While five buildings are located on the property, only four are available to the public for current exhibits and events. ### 1839 County Courthouse {{main\|Berrien Springs Courthouse}} The Courthouse was built in 1839 and is a traditional [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture "Greek Revival architecture") style. The lower level once housed county offices prior to the construction of the Records Building and remained the location of court\-related needs until the county seat moved in 1984\. In addition to serving as a courthouse, it has been an armory, a dance hall, and a community center. It was also used by the [Christian Brethren](/wiki/Christian_Brethren "Christian Brethren"), the [Shakers](/wiki/Shakers "Shakers"), and the Seventh\-day Adventists as a house of workshop. At the time of its construction, the building cost $2,500\.{{citation\|author\=Robert O. Christensen\|title\=NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES INVENTORY\- NOMINATION FORM: Old Berrien County Courthouse Complex\|date\=March 11, 1982\|url\=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/25338952}} In addition to being on the state and national Register of Historic Places, the Courthouse was named a Michigan Bar Association legal milestone in 2013\. ### County Records Building [thumb](/wiki/File:Records_Building_%28Back_End%29.jpg "Records Building (Back End).jpg") [thumb](/wiki/File:The_Records_Building_of_Old_Berriem_County_Courthouse_Complex.jpg "The Records Building of Old Berriem County Courthouse Complex.jpg") By 1859, the county was facing a serious issue – its size and needs had grown so much in twenty years that the offices in the lower level of the Courthouse were no longer functional space.  That year, the commissioners approved the construction of a new office building with the requirement that it be fireproof. Gilbert Avery was once again hired to design the one story brick structure and George H. Murdock was granted the construction contract to the tune of $3,000\.  However, Murdock had difficulty completing the project and at the behest of the county, Avery stepped in as the contractor and was able to complete the building in less than a year.  In February 1860, the County Clerk, Treasurer, and Register of Deeds occupied their new space. The building continued to serve the county well and it was expanded in 1873\.  The two story Italianate addition allowed for expansion of the offices for the county Clerk and Register of Deeds and it also housed the offices for the Judge of Probate.  The building remained in use by the county until April 1894 when an election was held to move the town seat.  The bitter event eventually ended in the favor of St. Joseph and that summer, everything was moved to a temporary location until the 1896 Courthouse was completed. The buildings of the Courthouse Square (the courthouse, the Sheriff's residence, the jail, and the records building), faced a series of tenants and alterations to their structures for several years after the move.  For a period of time in 1901 and 1902, the entire grounds was used as the temporary campus for Emmanuel Missionary College (the future Andrews University).  This site was used for the administration's offices during the school year. Eventually the land was broken up, with different buildings purchased by private individuals.  The building was modified over the years, including two non\-brick additions in the 20th century.  While the building served as apartments for most of its post\-county existence, until the 2000s, a laundromat and a local soft water company occupied the two story section. By the time the County looked into repurchasing the property in the 1960s, the building was in terrible condition despite its occupation. The County committed itself to uniting the entirety of the Courthouse Square and by 1990, the building was under its ownership.  While the BCHA debated on what to do with the building, tenants remained as occupants until at least 2000\.  Plans over the years had included offices, storage, and exhibit space in various styles, however, continued costs associated with the renovation of the building and the new updates proved to be prohibitive. In 2006, the BCHA embarked on a capital campaign to raise 2\.3 million dollars to finally renovate the building, however a one\-two punch derailed it.  The first was the Great Recession, which saw available funding sources evaporate.  The second was a fire in October 2007, which destroyed the interior and the roof, but did not compromise the structural integrity of the building.  By 2009, a new roof and point tucking repair had been completed, but the damaged windows remain boarded up. ### Sheriff's Residence [thumb](/wiki/File:Residence_and_Jail_Illustration.jpg "Residence and Jail Illustration.jpg") [thumb](/wiki/File:Sheriff%27s_Office_2020.jpg "Sheriff's Office 2020.jpg") This building, completed in 1870, is two\-stories tall and was designed with living space and the sheriff's office on the lower levels and bedrooms on the second floor.  A rear wing housed the kitchen, the space is connected with a staircase and it was noted that kitchen was on both levels.{{Cite news\|title\=Clipping from St Joseph Herald \- Newspapers.com\|language\=en\|work\=Newspapers.com\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94377143/\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-06}}  The exterior porch as it is seen today was added to the building much later and was not part of the original design of the house.  The office and at least on room upstairs had a pass\-through door to the jail, allowing the sheriff to quickly access the space from inside the house.  Nine sheriffs called this building home while the county seat was in Berrien Springs and like other structures on the ground, was essentially abandoned after the seat was moved to St. Joseph. As with the Courthouse and Records building, the Sheriff's Residence was home to Emmanuel Missionary College (the future Andrews University) in 1901\-1902 as classroom space.  And after they moved to their new campus, the building remained empty for several years.  Eventually the county sold the building to a private party and it was converted into apartments.  Unlike the Records Building, however, no additions were added to the Sheriff's Residence and when the building was purchased by the Berrien County Historical Commission in 1975, the exterior updates went smoothly.  Before interior restoration could begin, a fire swept through the upper levels, forcing a full renovation. Under the original restoration project, only the office was designed as it had been in 1870 while the rest of the lower levels were converted to temporary exhibit space, allowing for the BCHA to host numerous exhibits throughout the year.  The Office underwent renovation in 2021 and the time period of interpretation is now 1885\. Additional permanent displays were added to the lower level at this time. The upper levels were converted to office spaces and the research library while the rear wing was modified to house the archives and collections.  For a brief period of time in the 2000s, the lower level was home to the gift shop, but has since reverted to exhibit space. ### Jail Plaza The jail was completed at the same time as the residence and was also two\-stories tall, but it was topped off with a skylight that illuminated the space and provided much needed ventilation.  The skylight was almost whimsical, shaped like an upside down cone topped with a glass globe and gave the rectangular building a distinctive silhouette. The interior was just as unique, with Avery employing a circular pattern to the jail cells layout, with the center rising the full two stories.  The upper level contained eight larger cells designed to house women and children along with “less desperate characters.”  The lower level cells were much smaller, with sixteen in total available to house male prisoners.  The small size of these cells is often commented on by visitors, but the county jail wasn't meant for long\-term housing of criminals and because of the design of the building, prisoners had a chance to take walks around the cells while remaining confined to the building. The lower cells also had two doorways – the outer being traditional cell bars while the interior was a solid door (likely made of metal) that allowed for prisoners to use the washtub located in the core.  The pump was connected to a 700 barrel rainwater cistern, which was located beneath the building.  Those housed on the upper levels were led in through an empty cell to use the space before being escorted back to their cell. The design worked sometimes too well and in July 1883, eight prisoners took advantage of the layout to launch a daring escape.  After removing the tub, they pumped the cistern until the levels were low enough for them to drop inside.  They dropped into the now open hole and began to dig a tunnel under the north wall of the jail, but the soft ground caused it to collapse and the prisoners were forced to tunnel upwards.  They were successful and soon were on the lam.  The sheriff was joined by the county clerk and several townspeople and within days most of them were recaptured.  The story was quite thrilling and people from around the county turned the site into a short\-lived tourist attraction.  Reports indicate a Niles woman took samples of the earth from their excavation site home with her. After the county moved to St. Joseph, the building was left to fall in disrepair.  By 1916, time and vandalism forced the county to tear down the building.  Nothing was done with the former site until the BCHA created the Jail Plaza in the early 1990s.  Funded by several organizations, the plaza includes a layout of the lower level cells and two of them were fully reconstructed. ### Murdock log house [thumb](/wiki/File:Murdock_Log_Cabin_2020.jpg "Murdock Log Cabin 2020.jpg") The cabin was dated to 1830, the year Francis Murdoch and his family arrived in Berrien County, although it is possible that the home was built prior to their arrival and may have been started in 1829\.  Most first time log cabin structures were simple in nature – something to get the family started in their new home.  Research indicated that the house had been two story since the very beginning and its likely given the Kimmels’ standing in Berrien County along with Francis’ career as a lawyer, a quality home would have been important to the family. It is believed that the precursor to the building's modern exterior was added around the time of the Civil War, with portions of the back wall removed for a new extension.  As families came and went, the house continued to be modernize, but the cabin remained hidden to the public.  In fact, upon its discovery, several individuals who had lived in the home in the past expressed shock and surprise that the cabin had been there all along, although the residents at the time of the home's presumed demolition knew it was a log cabin, but had not know its historical significance. Originally the Historical Commission had hoped to leave the house in its location and build a park around it.  However, that did not come to fruition and for five years the house stood on Kephart Lane, the victim of time, weather, and vandals. Eventually, recognition from the state pushed the preservation plans forward.  Funds from various donors and municipalities made the move possible. The building was moved intact to the Courthouse Square in 1973 and area experts created new wall sections to match the original in order to close the holes. In the early years, the house was outfitted in period artifacts, but currently the home is semi\-empty when not in use by re\-enactors and the upper level is off limits to the public until repairs can be made. By the early 1990s, a historically accurate garden was added by the [Michigan State University](/wiki/Michigan_State_University "Michigan State University") extension master gardener group as part of their course completion project.  Plans to renovate and expand the garden in addition to updating the cabin is on the books for the Historical Association. The Murdoch Cabin is one of the oldest surviving residential structures in the state of Michigan, with only a handful of other buildings surpassing it in age.  There is debate if it is the oldest two\-story log cabin as the Davenport House on Mackinac Island, which is older, is believed to be a two\-story structure.  However, with the modernization of the Davenport House, Murdoch remains the oldest two\-story cabin in its original state. ### Bennett's Forge [thumb](/wiki/File:Bennett%27s_Forge_2020.jpg "Bennett's Forge 2020.jpg") Not long after the Seventh\-day Adventist Church purchased the majority of available land around the courthouse, they began to expand with the addition of two buildings along Madison Street.  The first was a small cinder block building in the 1930s that became the home of the Women's Auxiliary group and the second, was a medical building that eventually became part of Andrews University. By the early 1970s, these two buildings and their land were purchased by the County in an effort to unite the original Courthouse Square.  The Historical Association and the County agreed to demolish them both as they had no historic value at the time.  Other plans for the use of the space were floated by both groups over the next few years until 1977 when a donation changed everything. George H. Bennett, a long\-time resident of Berrien County, had passed away and a memorial fund had been created.  The family knew of Bennett's love of history and his support of the on\-going project in Berrien Springs.  The family approached the Historical Association, suggesting that the Auxiliary Building become home to a forge and buggy shop, allowing for the grounds to have yet another building that interpreted early county history. They agreed and by August 1978, the renovation was completed.  The interior and exterior walls were covered in cedar boards, giving a historic look to the structure and the interior was split in half – one side serving as the buggy shop and the other as the forge.  Originally, a wall separated the forge from the public, but it was eventually removed to open the space more when it wasn't in use. Over the years, the building has been the site of blacksmithing demonstrations for various events and programs, including a festival dedicated to the art in 2016\.  The buggy shop eventually became storage for the BCHA's over\-sized collections, including a wagon and a large boat discovered in the St. Joseph River in the 1970s.  This section is off\-limits to the public as it is currently unsafe to enter.
[ "The Buildings of the History Center at Courthouse Square\n--------------------------------------------------------", "The Old Berrien County Courthouse Complex was renamed the History Center at Courthouse Square to better encompass the narrative the BCHA and Berrien County tell within its buildings. While five buildings are located on the property, only four are available to the public for current exhibits and events.", "### 1839 County Courthouse", "{{main\\|Berrien Springs Courthouse}}\nThe Courthouse was built in 1839 and is a traditional [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture \"Greek Revival architecture\") style. The lower level once housed county offices prior to the construction of the Records Building and remained the location of court\\-related needs until the county seat moved in 1984\\. In addition to serving as a courthouse, it has been an armory, a dance hall, and a community center. It was also used by the [Christian Brethren](/wiki/Christian_Brethren \"Christian Brethren\"), the [Shakers](/wiki/Shakers \"Shakers\"), and the Seventh\\-day Adventists as a house of workshop. At the time of its construction, the building cost $2,500\\.{{citation\\|author\\=Robert O. Christensen\\|title\\=NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES INVENTORY\\- NOMINATION FORM: Old Berrien County Courthouse Complex\\|date\\=March 11, 1982\\|url\\=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/25338952}} In addition to being on the state and national Register of Historic Places, the Courthouse was named a Michigan Bar Association legal milestone in 2013\\.", "### County Records Building", "[thumb](/wiki/File:Records_Building_%28Back_End%29.jpg \"Records Building (Back End).jpg\")\n[thumb](/wiki/File:The_Records_Building_of_Old_Berriem_County_Courthouse_Complex.jpg \"The Records Building of Old Berriem County Courthouse Complex.jpg\")\nBy 1859, the county was facing a serious issue – its size and needs had grown so much in twenty years that the offices in the lower level of the Courthouse were no longer functional space.  That year, the commissioners approved the construction of a new office building with the requirement that it be fireproof.", "Gilbert Avery was once again hired to design the one story brick structure and George H. Murdock was granted the construction contract to the tune of $3,000\\.  However, Murdock had difficulty completing the project and at the behest of the county, Avery stepped in as the contractor and was able to complete the building in less than a year.  In February 1860, the County Clerk, Treasurer, and Register of Deeds occupied their new space.", "The building continued to serve the county well and it was expanded in 1873\\.  The two story Italianate addition allowed for expansion of the offices for the county Clerk and Register of Deeds and it also housed the offices for the Judge of Probate.  The building remained in use by the county until April 1894 when an election was held to move the town seat.  The bitter event eventually ended in the favor of St. Joseph and that summer, everything was moved to a temporary location until the 1896 Courthouse was completed.", "The buildings of the Courthouse Square (the courthouse, the Sheriff's residence, the jail, and the records building), faced a series of tenants and alterations to their structures for several years after the move.  For a period of time in 1901 and 1902, the entire grounds was used as the temporary campus for Emmanuel Missionary College (the future Andrews University).  This site was used for the administration's offices during the school year.", "Eventually the land was broken up, with different buildings purchased by private individuals.  The building was modified over the years, including two non\\-brick additions in the 20th century.  While the building served as apartments for most of its post\\-county existence, until the 2000s, a laundromat and a local soft water company occupied the two story section. By the time the County looked into repurchasing the property in the 1960s, the building was in terrible condition despite its occupation.", "The County committed itself to uniting the entirety of the Courthouse Square and by 1990, the building was under its ownership.  While the BCHA debated on what to do with the building, tenants remained as occupants until at least 2000\\.  Plans over the years had included offices, storage, and exhibit space in various styles, however, continued costs associated with the renovation of the building and the new updates proved to be prohibitive.", "In 2006, the BCHA embarked on a capital campaign to raise 2\\.3 million dollars to finally renovate the building, however a one\\-two punch derailed it.  The first was the Great Recession, which saw available funding sources evaporate.  The second was a fire in October 2007, which destroyed the interior and the roof, but did not compromise the structural integrity of the building.  By 2009, a new roof and point tucking repair had been completed, but the damaged windows remain boarded up.", "### Sheriff's Residence", "[thumb](/wiki/File:Residence_and_Jail_Illustration.jpg \"Residence and Jail Illustration.jpg\")\n[thumb](/wiki/File:Sheriff%27s_Office_2020.jpg \"Sheriff's Office 2020.jpg\")\nThis building, completed in 1870, is two\\-stories tall and was designed with living space and the sheriff's office on the lower levels and bedrooms on the second floor.  A rear wing housed the kitchen, the space is connected with a staircase and it was noted that kitchen was on both levels.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Clipping from St Joseph Herald \\- Newspapers.com\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=Newspapers.com\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/94377143/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-06}}  The exterior porch as it is seen today was added to the building much later and was not part of the original design of the house.  The office and at least on room upstairs had a pass\\-through door to the jail, allowing the sheriff to quickly access the space from inside the house.  Nine sheriffs called this building home while the county seat was in Berrien Springs and like other structures on the ground, was essentially abandoned after the seat was moved to St. Joseph.", "As with the Courthouse and Records building, the Sheriff's Residence was home to Emmanuel Missionary College (the future Andrews University) in 1901\\-1902 as classroom space.  And after they moved to their new campus, the building remained empty for several years.  Eventually the county sold the building to a private party and it was converted into apartments.  Unlike the Records Building, however, no additions were added to the Sheriff's Residence and when the building was purchased by the Berrien County Historical Commission in 1975, the exterior updates went smoothly.  Before interior restoration could begin, a fire swept through the upper levels, forcing a full renovation.", "Under the original restoration project, only the office was designed as it had been in 1870 while the rest of the lower levels were converted to temporary exhibit space, allowing for the BCHA to host numerous exhibits throughout the year.  The Office underwent renovation in 2021 and the time period of interpretation is now 1885\\. Additional permanent displays were added to the lower level at this time. The upper levels were converted to office spaces and the research library while the rear wing was modified to house the archives and collections.  For a brief period of time in the 2000s, the lower level was home to the gift shop, but has since reverted to exhibit space.", "### Jail Plaza", "The jail was completed at the same time as the residence and was also two\\-stories tall, but it was topped off with a skylight that illuminated the space and provided much needed ventilation.  The skylight was almost whimsical, shaped like an upside down cone topped with a glass globe and gave the rectangular building a distinctive silhouette.", "The interior was just as unique, with Avery employing a circular pattern to the jail cells layout, with the center rising the full two stories.  The upper level contained eight larger cells designed to house women and children along with “less desperate characters.”  The lower level cells were much smaller, with sixteen in total available to house male prisoners.  The small size of these cells is often commented on by visitors, but the county jail wasn't meant for long\\-term housing of criminals and because of the design of the building, prisoners had a chance to take walks around the cells while remaining confined to the building.", "The lower cells also had two doorways – the outer being traditional cell bars while the interior was a solid door (likely made of metal) that allowed for prisoners to use the washtub located in the core.  The pump was connected to a 700 barrel rainwater cistern, which was located beneath the building.  Those housed on the upper levels were led in through an empty cell to use the space before being escorted back to their cell.", "The design worked sometimes too well and in July 1883, eight prisoners took advantage of the layout to launch a daring escape.  After removing the tub, they pumped the cistern until the levels were low enough for them to drop inside.  They dropped into the now open hole and began to dig a tunnel under the north wall of the jail, but the soft ground caused it to collapse and the prisoners were forced to tunnel upwards.  They were successful and soon were on the lam.  The sheriff was joined by the county clerk and several townspeople and within days most of them were recaptured.  The story was quite thrilling and people from around the county turned the site into a short\\-lived tourist attraction.  Reports indicate a Niles woman took samples of the earth from their excavation site home with her.", "After the county moved to St. Joseph, the building was left to fall in disrepair.  By 1916, time and vandalism forced the county to tear down the building.  Nothing was done with the former site until the BCHA created the Jail Plaza in the early 1990s.  Funded by several organizations, the plaza includes a layout of the lower level cells and two of them were fully reconstructed.", "### Murdock log house", "[thumb](/wiki/File:Murdock_Log_Cabin_2020.jpg \"Murdock Log Cabin 2020.jpg\")\nThe cabin was dated to 1830, the year Francis Murdoch and his family arrived in Berrien County, although it is possible that the home was built prior to their arrival and may have been started in 1829\\.  Most first time log cabin structures were simple in nature – something to get the family started in their new home.  Research indicated that the house had been two story since the very beginning and its likely given the Kimmels’ standing in Berrien County along with Francis’ career as a lawyer, a quality home would have been important to the family.", "It is believed that the precursor to the building's modern exterior was added around the time of the Civil War, with portions of the back wall removed for a new extension.  As families came and went, the house continued to be modernize, but the cabin remained hidden to the public.  In fact, upon its discovery, several individuals who had lived in the home in the past expressed shock and surprise that the cabin had been there all along, although the residents at the time of the home's presumed demolition knew it was a log cabin, but had not know its historical significance.", "Originally the Historical Commission had hoped to leave the house in its location and build a park around it.  However, that did not come to fruition and for five years the house stood on Kephart Lane, the victim of time, weather, and vandals. Eventually, recognition from the state pushed the preservation plans forward.  Funds from various donors and municipalities made the move possible. The building was moved intact to the Courthouse Square in 1973 and area experts created new wall sections to match the original in order to close the holes. In the early years, the house was outfitted in period artifacts, but currently the home is semi\\-empty when not in use by re\\-enactors and the upper level is off limits to the public until repairs can be made.", "By the early 1990s, a historically accurate garden was added by the [Michigan State University](/wiki/Michigan_State_University \"Michigan State University\") extension master gardener group as part of their course completion project.  Plans to renovate and expand the garden in addition to updating the cabin is on the books for the Historical Association.", "The Murdoch Cabin is one of the oldest surviving residential structures in the state of Michigan, with only a handful of other buildings surpassing it in age.  There is debate if it is the oldest two\\-story log cabin as the Davenport House on Mackinac Island, which is older, is believed to be a two\\-story structure.  However, with the modernization of the Davenport House, Murdoch remains the oldest two\\-story cabin in its original state.", "### Bennett's Forge", "[thumb](/wiki/File:Bennett%27s_Forge_2020.jpg \"Bennett's Forge 2020.jpg\")\nNot long after the Seventh\\-day Adventist Church purchased the majority of available land around the courthouse, they began to expand with the addition of two buildings along Madison Street.  The first was a small cinder block building in the 1930s that became the home of the Women's Auxiliary group and the second, was a medical building that eventually became part of Andrews University.", "By the early 1970s, these two buildings and their land were purchased by the County in an effort to unite the original Courthouse Square.  The Historical Association and the County agreed to demolish them both as they had no historic value at the time.  Other plans for the use of the space were floated by both groups over the next few years until 1977 when a donation changed everything.", "George H. Bennett, a long\\-time resident of Berrien County, had passed away and a memorial fund had been created.  The family knew of Bennett's love of history and his support of the on\\-going project in Berrien Springs.  The family approached the Historical Association, suggesting that the Auxiliary Building become home to a forge and buggy shop, allowing for the grounds to have yet another building that interpreted early county history.", "They agreed and by August 1978, the renovation was completed.  The interior and exterior walls were covered in cedar boards, giving a historic look to the structure and the interior was split in half – one side serving as the buggy shop and the other as the forge.  Originally, a wall separated the forge from the public, but it was eventually removed to open the space more when it wasn't in use.", "Over the years, the building has been the site of blacksmithing demonstrations for various events and programs, including a festival dedicated to the art in 2016\\.  The buggy shop eventually became storage for the BCHA's over\\-sized collections, including a wagon and a large boat discovered in the St. Joseph River in the 1970s.  This section is off\\-limits to the public as it is currently unsafe to enter.", "" ]
### County Records Building [thumb](/wiki/File:Records_Building_%28Back_End%29.jpg "Records Building (Back End).jpg") [thumb](/wiki/File:The_Records_Building_of_Old_Berriem_County_Courthouse_Complex.jpg "The Records Building of Old Berriem County Courthouse Complex.jpg") By 1859, the county was facing a serious issue – its size and needs had grown so much in twenty years that the offices in the lower level of the Courthouse were no longer functional space.  That year, the commissioners approved the construction of a new office building with the requirement that it be fireproof. Gilbert Avery was once again hired to design the one story brick structure and George H. Murdock was granted the construction contract to the tune of $3,000\.  However, Murdock had difficulty completing the project and at the behest of the county, Avery stepped in as the contractor and was able to complete the building in less than a year.  In February 1860, the County Clerk, Treasurer, and Register of Deeds occupied their new space. The building continued to serve the county well and it was expanded in 1873\.  The two story Italianate addition allowed for expansion of the offices for the county Clerk and Register of Deeds and it also housed the offices for the Judge of Probate.  The building remained in use by the county until April 1894 when an election was held to move the town seat.  The bitter event eventually ended in the favor of St. Joseph and that summer, everything was moved to a temporary location until the 1896 Courthouse was completed. The buildings of the Courthouse Square (the courthouse, the Sheriff's residence, the jail, and the records building), faced a series of tenants and alterations to their structures for several years after the move.  For a period of time in 1901 and 1902, the entire grounds was used as the temporary campus for Emmanuel Missionary College (the future Andrews University).  This site was used for the administration's offices during the school year. Eventually the land was broken up, with different buildings purchased by private individuals.  The building was modified over the years, including two non\-brick additions in the 20th century.  While the building served as apartments for most of its post\-county existence, until the 2000s, a laundromat and a local soft water company occupied the two story section. By the time the County looked into repurchasing the property in the 1960s, the building was in terrible condition despite its occupation. The County committed itself to uniting the entirety of the Courthouse Square and by 1990, the building was under its ownership.  While the BCHA debated on what to do with the building, tenants remained as occupants until at least 2000\.  Plans over the years had included offices, storage, and exhibit space in various styles, however, continued costs associated with the renovation of the building and the new updates proved to be prohibitive. In 2006, the BCHA embarked on a capital campaign to raise 2\.3 million dollars to finally renovate the building, however a one\-two punch derailed it.  The first was the Great Recession, which saw available funding sources evaporate.  The second was a fire in October 2007, which destroyed the interior and the roof, but did not compromise the structural integrity of the building.  By 2009, a new roof and point tucking repair had been completed, but the damaged windows remain boarded up.
[ "### County Records Building", "[thumb](/wiki/File:Records_Building_%28Back_End%29.jpg \"Records Building (Back End).jpg\")\n[thumb](/wiki/File:The_Records_Building_of_Old_Berriem_County_Courthouse_Complex.jpg \"The Records Building of Old Berriem County Courthouse Complex.jpg\")\nBy 1859, the county was facing a serious issue – its size and needs had grown so much in twenty years that the offices in the lower level of the Courthouse were no longer functional space.  That year, the commissioners approved the construction of a new office building with the requirement that it be fireproof.", "Gilbert Avery was once again hired to design the one story brick structure and George H. Murdock was granted the construction contract to the tune of $3,000\\.  However, Murdock had difficulty completing the project and at the behest of the county, Avery stepped in as the contractor and was able to complete the building in less than a year.  In February 1860, the County Clerk, Treasurer, and Register of Deeds occupied their new space.", "The building continued to serve the county well and it was expanded in 1873\\.  The two story Italianate addition allowed for expansion of the offices for the county Clerk and Register of Deeds and it also housed the offices for the Judge of Probate.  The building remained in use by the county until April 1894 when an election was held to move the town seat.  The bitter event eventually ended in the favor of St. Joseph and that summer, everything was moved to a temporary location until the 1896 Courthouse was completed.", "The buildings of the Courthouse Square (the courthouse, the Sheriff's residence, the jail, and the records building), faced a series of tenants and alterations to their structures for several years after the move.  For a period of time in 1901 and 1902, the entire grounds was used as the temporary campus for Emmanuel Missionary College (the future Andrews University).  This site was used for the administration's offices during the school year.", "Eventually the land was broken up, with different buildings purchased by private individuals.  The building was modified over the years, including two non\\-brick additions in the 20th century.  While the building served as apartments for most of its post\\-county existence, until the 2000s, a laundromat and a local soft water company occupied the two story section. By the time the County looked into repurchasing the property in the 1960s, the building was in terrible condition despite its occupation.", "The County committed itself to uniting the entirety of the Courthouse Square and by 1990, the building was under its ownership.  While the BCHA debated on what to do with the building, tenants remained as occupants until at least 2000\\.  Plans over the years had included offices, storage, and exhibit space in various styles, however, continued costs associated with the renovation of the building and the new updates proved to be prohibitive.", "In 2006, the BCHA embarked on a capital campaign to raise 2\\.3 million dollars to finally renovate the building, however a one\\-two punch derailed it.  The first was the Great Recession, which saw available funding sources evaporate.  The second was a fire in October 2007, which destroyed the interior and the roof, but did not compromise the structural integrity of the building.  By 2009, a new roof and point tucking repair had been completed, but the damaged windows remain boarded up.", "" ]
### Jail Plaza The jail was completed at the same time as the residence and was also two\-stories tall, but it was topped off with a skylight that illuminated the space and provided much needed ventilation.  The skylight was almost whimsical, shaped like an upside down cone topped with a glass globe and gave the rectangular building a distinctive silhouette. The interior was just as unique, with Avery employing a circular pattern to the jail cells layout, with the center rising the full two stories.  The upper level contained eight larger cells designed to house women and children along with “less desperate characters.”  The lower level cells were much smaller, with sixteen in total available to house male prisoners.  The small size of these cells is often commented on by visitors, but the county jail wasn't meant for long\-term housing of criminals and because of the design of the building, prisoners had a chance to take walks around the cells while remaining confined to the building. The lower cells also had two doorways – the outer being traditional cell bars while the interior was a solid door (likely made of metal) that allowed for prisoners to use the washtub located in the core.  The pump was connected to a 700 barrel rainwater cistern, which was located beneath the building.  Those housed on the upper levels were led in through an empty cell to use the space before being escorted back to their cell. The design worked sometimes too well and in July 1883, eight prisoners took advantage of the layout to launch a daring escape.  After removing the tub, they pumped the cistern until the levels were low enough for them to drop inside.  They dropped into the now open hole and began to dig a tunnel under the north wall of the jail, but the soft ground caused it to collapse and the prisoners were forced to tunnel upwards.  They were successful and soon were on the lam.  The sheriff was joined by the county clerk and several townspeople and within days most of them were recaptured.  The story was quite thrilling and people from around the county turned the site into a short\-lived tourist attraction.  Reports indicate a Niles woman took samples of the earth from their excavation site home with her. After the county moved to St. Joseph, the building was left to fall in disrepair.  By 1916, time and vandalism forced the county to tear down the building.  Nothing was done with the former site until the BCHA created the Jail Plaza in the early 1990s.  Funded by several organizations, the plaza includes a layout of the lower level cells and two of them were fully reconstructed.
[ "### Jail Plaza", "The jail was completed at the same time as the residence and was also two\\-stories tall, but it was topped off with a skylight that illuminated the space and provided much needed ventilation.  The skylight was almost whimsical, shaped like an upside down cone topped with a glass globe and gave the rectangular building a distinctive silhouette.", "The interior was just as unique, with Avery employing a circular pattern to the jail cells layout, with the center rising the full two stories.  The upper level contained eight larger cells designed to house women and children along with “less desperate characters.”  The lower level cells were much smaller, with sixteen in total available to house male prisoners.  The small size of these cells is often commented on by visitors, but the county jail wasn't meant for long\\-term housing of criminals and because of the design of the building, prisoners had a chance to take walks around the cells while remaining confined to the building.", "The lower cells also had two doorways – the outer being traditional cell bars while the interior was a solid door (likely made of metal) that allowed for prisoners to use the washtub located in the core.  The pump was connected to a 700 barrel rainwater cistern, which was located beneath the building.  Those housed on the upper levels were led in through an empty cell to use the space before being escorted back to their cell.", "The design worked sometimes too well and in July 1883, eight prisoners took advantage of the layout to launch a daring escape.  After removing the tub, they pumped the cistern until the levels were low enough for them to drop inside.  They dropped into the now open hole and began to dig a tunnel under the north wall of the jail, but the soft ground caused it to collapse and the prisoners were forced to tunnel upwards.  They were successful and soon were on the lam.  The sheriff was joined by the county clerk and several townspeople and within days most of them were recaptured.  The story was quite thrilling and people from around the county turned the site into a short\\-lived tourist attraction.  Reports indicate a Niles woman took samples of the earth from their excavation site home with her.", "After the county moved to St. Joseph, the building was left to fall in disrepair.  By 1916, time and vandalism forced the county to tear down the building.  Nothing was done with the former site until the BCHA created the Jail Plaza in the early 1990s.  Funded by several organizations, the plaza includes a layout of the lower level cells and two of them were fully reconstructed.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- The young Roman patrician Marcus Vinicius falls in love with Lygia, a barbarian hostage being raised in the house of the retired general [Aulus Plautius](/wiki/Aulus_Plautius "Aulus Plautius"). Vinicius' courtier uncle [Petronius](/wiki/Petronius "Petronius") uses his influence with the [Emperor Nero](/wiki/Emperor_Nero "Emperor Nero") to have Lygia placed in Vinicius' custody. But first, Nero forces her to appear at a feast on the [Palatine Hill](/wiki/Palatine_Hill "Palatine Hill"). Secretly a Christian after having been converted by Plautius' wife [Pomponia Graecina](/wiki/Pomponia_Graecina "Pomponia Graecina"), Lygia is appalled by the degenerate Roman court. She is rescued by her fellow Christians while being escorted to Vinicius' house the following day, and disappears. Petronius takes pity on the desolate Vinicius, and hires the cunning Greek philosopher Chilo Chilonis to help him find Lygia.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-08\-02 \|title\=Chilon Chilonides \- charakterystyka – Quo vadis \- opracowanie – Zinterpretuj.pl \|url\=https://zinterpretuj.pl/opracowania/chilon\-chilonides/ \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-23 \|language\=pl\-PL}} Chilo soon establishes that Lygia was Christian, and goes undercover in the Christian community in Rome to find her. When he tells Vinicius that the entire Christian community is going to meet at night outside the city to hear the [apostle Peter](/wiki/Apostle_Peter "Apostle Peter"), Vinicius insists on attending the meeting himself in hope of seeing Lygia there. At the meeting, a disguised Vinicius is strangely touched by Peter's words, but forgets everything when he sees Lygia. He traces Lygia to her hiding place in [Transtiber](/wiki/Trastavere "Trastavere") Rome, but is stopped and severely wounded by her barbarian bodyguard Ursus when he goes in to kidnap her. Instead of killing Vinicius, Lygia and her Christian friends take him in and nurse him back to health.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-30 \|title\=Marek Winicjusz \- charakterystyka – Quo vadis \- opracowanie – Zinterpretuj.pl \|url\=https://zinterpretuj.pl/opracowania/marek\-winicjusz/ \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-23 \|language\=pl\-PL}} At this point Lygia falls in love with him, and confides in the Apostle Paul. He tells her that she cannot marry a non\-Christian, so she leaves Vinicius' bedside and disappears a second time. After returning to health, Vinicius is a changed man. He starts treating his slaves with more kindness, and rejects the advances of the depraved empress [Poppaea Sabina](/wiki/Poppaea_Sabina "Poppaea Sabina"). When Chilo brings him information of Lygia's new hiding place and advises him to surround the house with soldiers, Vinicius has him whipped. Chilo swears revenge while Vinicius goes to Lygia's hiding place alone. After promising Lygia's guardians, the apostles [Peter](/wiki/Apostle_Peter "Apostle Peter") and [Paul](/wiki/Apostle_Paul "Apostle Paul"), to convert, he is engaged to Lygia with their blessing. The emperor Nero and his court, including Vinicius, go to [Antium](/wiki/Antium "Antium") for recreation. Nero is composing a poem about the burning of [Troy](/wiki/Troy "Troy"), and expresses regret at never having seen a real city burning. Later, the courtiers are shocked when news comes that [Rome is aflame](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome "Great Fire of Rome"). Vinicius rides back to Rome to save Lygia, and Peter baptizes him on the spot after he rescues him and Lygia from the flames. When Nero returns to Rome and sings his poem about Troy in public, the masses accuse him of igniting the fire. Nero's advisors decide they need a scapegoat. The [Prefect of the Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Prefect_of_the_Praetorian_Guard "Prefect of the Praetorian Guard"), [Tigellinus](/wiki/Tigellinus "Tigellinus"), suggests the Christians. It is revealed that the idea has been given to him by Chilo, still desperate for revenge on Vinicius after his whipping. Vinicius' uncle Petronius protests, but the empress Poppaea—still nursing a grudge against Vinicus for spurning her advances—overrules him. Chilo divulges the Christians's hiding place to the authorities, and many of the Christians are arrested, including Lygia. Nero has planned a series of games in the arena, at which the Christians will be butchered in "revenge" for the fire. But even the Roman mob is shocked by the cruelty of the exhibitions: in the penultimate show, Christians are set alight on crosses to illuminate a luxurious feast open to the Roman public. Chilo is so appalled by the scene that he repents and publicly accuses Nero of igniting the fire. As the court scatters, Paul emerges from the shadows and promises Chilo salvation if he truly repents. This gives Chilo the courage to die bravely in the arena the following day, after refusing to retract his accusation. Meanwhile Lygia and her bodyguard Ursus have been kept for the final show, in which they are exposed to an [aurochs](/wiki/Aurochs "Aurochs") in the arena,{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-30 \|title\=Ligia (Quo vadis) \- charakterystyka – Quo vadis \- opracowanie – Zinterpretuj.pl \|url\=https://zinterpretuj.pl/opracowania/ligia\-quo\-vadis\-charakterystyka/ \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-23 \|language\=pl\-PL}} but when Ursus manages to break the animal's neck, the crowd is impressed and forces Nero to spare the two. She is then married to Vinicius, and the two move away to the latter's mansion in [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily") where they live openly as Christians. The rest of the novel relates the historical events of Peter's martyrdom ("Quo vadis, Domine?"), Petronius' suicide in the aftermath of the [Pisonian conspiracy](/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy "Pisonian conspiracy"), and concludes with an account of Nero's ultimate death based on [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius").
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "The young Roman patrician Marcus Vinicius falls in love with Lygia, a barbarian hostage being raised in the house of the retired general [Aulus Plautius](/wiki/Aulus_Plautius \"Aulus Plautius\"). Vinicius' courtier uncle [Petronius](/wiki/Petronius \"Petronius\") uses his influence with the [Emperor Nero](/wiki/Emperor_Nero \"Emperor Nero\") to have Lygia placed in Vinicius' custody. But first, Nero forces her to appear at a feast on the [Palatine Hill](/wiki/Palatine_Hill \"Palatine Hill\"). Secretly a Christian after having been converted by Plautius' wife [Pomponia Graecina](/wiki/Pomponia_Graecina \"Pomponia Graecina\"), Lygia is appalled by the degenerate Roman court. She is rescued by her fellow Christians while being escorted to Vinicius' house the following day, and disappears.", "Petronius takes pity on the desolate Vinicius, and hires the cunning Greek philosopher Chilo Chilonis to help him find Lygia.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 \\|title\\=Chilon Chilonides \\- charakterystyka – Quo vadis \\- opracowanie – Zinterpretuj.pl \\|url\\=https://zinterpretuj.pl/opracowania/chilon\\-chilonides/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-23 \\|language\\=pl\\-PL}} Chilo soon establishes that Lygia was Christian, and goes undercover in the Christian community in Rome to find her. When he tells Vinicius that the entire Christian community is going to meet at night outside the city to hear the [apostle Peter](/wiki/Apostle_Peter \"Apostle Peter\"), Vinicius insists on attending the meeting himself in hope of seeing Lygia there. At the meeting, a disguised Vinicius is strangely touched by Peter's words, but forgets everything when he sees Lygia. He traces Lygia to her hiding place in [Transtiber](/wiki/Trastavere \"Trastavere\") Rome, but is stopped and severely wounded by her barbarian bodyguard Ursus when he goes in to kidnap her.", "Instead of killing Vinicius, Lygia and her Christian friends take him in and nurse him back to health.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-30 \\|title\\=Marek Winicjusz \\- charakterystyka – Quo vadis \\- opracowanie – Zinterpretuj.pl \\|url\\=https://zinterpretuj.pl/opracowania/marek\\-winicjusz/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-23 \\|language\\=pl\\-PL}} At this point Lygia falls in love with him, and confides in the Apostle Paul. He tells her that she cannot marry a non\\-Christian, so she leaves Vinicius' bedside and disappears a second time.", "After returning to health, Vinicius is a changed man. He starts treating his slaves with more kindness, and rejects the advances of the depraved empress [Poppaea Sabina](/wiki/Poppaea_Sabina \"Poppaea Sabina\"). When Chilo brings him information of Lygia's new hiding place and advises him to surround the house with soldiers, Vinicius has him whipped. Chilo swears revenge while Vinicius goes to Lygia's hiding place alone. After promising Lygia's guardians, the apostles [Peter](/wiki/Apostle_Peter \"Apostle Peter\") and [Paul](/wiki/Apostle_Paul \"Apostle Paul\"), to convert, he is engaged to Lygia with their blessing.", "The emperor Nero and his court, including Vinicius, go to [Antium](/wiki/Antium \"Antium\") for recreation. Nero is composing a poem about the burning of [Troy](/wiki/Troy \"Troy\"), and expresses regret at never having seen a real city burning. Later, the courtiers are shocked when news comes that [Rome is aflame](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome \"Great Fire of Rome\"). Vinicius rides back to Rome to save Lygia, and Peter baptizes him on the spot after he rescues him and Lygia from the flames.", "When Nero returns to Rome and sings his poem about Troy in public, the masses accuse him of igniting the fire. Nero's advisors decide they need a scapegoat. The [Prefect of the Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Prefect_of_the_Praetorian_Guard \"Prefect of the Praetorian Guard\"), [Tigellinus](/wiki/Tigellinus \"Tigellinus\"), suggests the Christians. It is revealed that the idea has been given to him by Chilo, still desperate for revenge on Vinicius after his whipping. Vinicius' uncle Petronius protests, but the empress Poppaea—still nursing a grudge against Vinicus for spurning her advances—overrules him.", "Chilo divulges the Christians's hiding place to the authorities, and many of the Christians are arrested, including Lygia. Nero has planned a series of games in the arena, at which the Christians will be butchered in \"revenge\" for the fire. But even the Roman mob is shocked by the cruelty of the exhibitions: in the penultimate show, Christians are set alight on crosses to illuminate a luxurious feast open to the Roman public. Chilo is so appalled by the scene that he repents and publicly accuses Nero of igniting the fire. As the court scatters, Paul emerges from the shadows and promises Chilo salvation if he truly repents. This gives Chilo the courage to die bravely in the arena the following day, after refusing to retract his accusation.", "Meanwhile Lygia and her bodyguard Ursus have been kept for the final show, in which they are exposed to an [aurochs](/wiki/Aurochs \"Aurochs\") in the arena,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-30 \\|title\\=Ligia (Quo vadis) \\- charakterystyka – Quo vadis \\- opracowanie – Zinterpretuj.pl \\|url\\=https://zinterpretuj.pl/opracowania/ligia\\-quo\\-vadis\\-charakterystyka/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-23 \\|language\\=pl\\-PL}} but when Ursus manages to break the animal's neck, the crowd is impressed and forces Nero to spare the two. She is then married to Vinicius, and the two move away to the latter's mansion in [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") where they live openly as Christians.", "The rest of the novel relates the historical events of Peter's martyrdom (\"Quo vadis, Domine?\"), Petronius' suicide in the aftermath of the [Pisonian conspiracy](/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy \"Pisonian conspiracy\"), and concludes with an account of Nero's ultimate death based on [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Second son of [Godefroy Maurice de La Tour d'Auvergne](/wiki/Godefroy_Maurice_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne "Godefroy Maurice de La Tour d'Auvergne") and his wife [Marie Anne Mancini](/wiki/Marie_Anne_Mancini "Marie Anne Mancini"), he was styled the *Prince of Turenne* till he succeeded to the Sovereign Duchy of Bouillon which had been in his family's possession since 1594\. His cousins included two famous generals, [Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme](/wiki/Louis_Joseph%2C_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me "Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme") and [Prince Eugene of Savoy](/wiki/Prince_Eugene_of_Savoy "Prince Eugene of Savoy") as well as his paternal cousins like [Emmanuel Maurice, Duke of Elbeuf](/wiki/Emmanuel_Maurice%2C_Duke_of_Elbeuf "Emmanuel Maurice, Duke of Elbeuf") and [Henri, Duke of Elbeuf](/wiki/Henri%2C_Duke_of_Elbeuf "Henri, Duke of Elbeuf"). His older brother [Louis Charles de La Tour d'Auvergne](/wiki/Louis_Charles_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne "Louis Charles de La Tour d'Auvergne") was the Prince of Turenne but died in the [Battle of Steenkerque](/wiki/Battle_of_Steenkerque "Battle of Steenkerque"). Prior to being the Prince of Turenne (heir to the duchy of Bouillon) he was the [Duke of Albret](/wiki/Duke_of_Albret "Duke of Albret"). He married [Marie Armande de La Trémoille](/wiki/Marie_Armande_de_La_Tr%C3%A9moille "Marie Armande de La Trémoille") on 1 February 1696 in the chapel of the Hôtel de Crequi, Paris. His second wife [Louise Françoise Angélique Le Tellier](/wiki/Louise_Fran%C3%A7oise_Ang%C3%A9lique_Le_Tellier "Louise Françoise Angélique Le Tellier"), was a daughter of [Louis François Marie Le Tellier](/wiki/Louis_Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Le_Tellier "Louis François Marie Le Tellier"), and as such, a grand daughter of the *[marquis de Louvois](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Michel_le_Tellier%2C_Marquis_de_Louvois "François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois")*. Married four times, his third wife Anne Marie Christiane de Simiane, daughter of François de Simiane, Count de Monchadied and Anne\-Marie Thérèse de Simiane, Marquise de Gordes, died giving birth to the couples only child. It was thorough that union that he and his wife were ancestors of the murdered [Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien](/wiki/Louis_Antoine%2C_Duke_of_Enghien "Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien"), his grandmother was [Charlotte de Rohan](/wiki/Charlotte_%C3%89lisabeth_Godefride_de_Rohan "Charlotte Élisabeth Godefride de Rohan"), wife of [Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé](/wiki/Louis_Joseph%2C_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9 "Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé"). He succeeded his father as the [Grand Chamberlain of France](/wiki/Grand_Chamberlain_of_France "Grand Chamberlain of France"). His uncle was the [Cardinal de Bouillon](/wiki/Cardinal_de_Bouillon "Cardinal de Bouillon") and his great uncle was the famed [Vicomte de Turenne](/wiki/Vicomte_de_Turenne "Vicomte de Turenne"). From his first marriage, three sons were produced, the eldest two dying in infancy. He was succeeded by his third son from his first marriage [Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne](/wiki/Charles_Godefroy_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne "Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne").
[ "Biography\n---------", "Second son of [Godefroy Maurice de La Tour d'Auvergne](/wiki/Godefroy_Maurice_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne \"Godefroy Maurice de La Tour d'Auvergne\") and his wife [Marie Anne Mancini](/wiki/Marie_Anne_Mancini \"Marie Anne Mancini\"), he was styled the *Prince of Turenne* till he succeeded to the Sovereign Duchy of Bouillon which had been in his family's possession since 1594\\. His cousins included two famous generals, [Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme](/wiki/Louis_Joseph%2C_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me \"Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme\") and [Prince Eugene of Savoy](/wiki/Prince_Eugene_of_Savoy \"Prince Eugene of Savoy\") as well as his paternal cousins like [Emmanuel Maurice, Duke of Elbeuf](/wiki/Emmanuel_Maurice%2C_Duke_of_Elbeuf \"Emmanuel Maurice, Duke of Elbeuf\") and [Henri, Duke of Elbeuf](/wiki/Henri%2C_Duke_of_Elbeuf \"Henri, Duke of Elbeuf\").", "His older brother [Louis Charles de La Tour d'Auvergne](/wiki/Louis_Charles_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne \"Louis Charles de La Tour d'Auvergne\") was the Prince of Turenne but died in the [Battle of Steenkerque](/wiki/Battle_of_Steenkerque \"Battle of Steenkerque\"). Prior to being the Prince of Turenne (heir to the duchy of Bouillon) he was the [Duke of Albret](/wiki/Duke_of_Albret \"Duke of Albret\"). He married [Marie Armande de La Trémoille](/wiki/Marie_Armande_de_La_Tr%C3%A9moille \"Marie Armande de La Trémoille\") on 1 February 1696 in the chapel of the Hôtel de Crequi, Paris.", "His second wife [Louise Françoise Angélique Le Tellier](/wiki/Louise_Fran%C3%A7oise_Ang%C3%A9lique_Le_Tellier \"Louise Françoise Angélique Le Tellier\"), was a daughter of [Louis François Marie Le Tellier](/wiki/Louis_Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Le_Tellier \"Louis François Marie Le Tellier\"), and as such, a grand daughter of the *[marquis de Louvois](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Michel_le_Tellier%2C_Marquis_de_Louvois \"François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois\")*.", "Married four times, his third wife Anne Marie Christiane de Simiane, daughter of François de Simiane, Count de Monchadied and Anne\\-Marie Thérèse de Simiane, Marquise de Gordes, died giving birth to the couples only child. It was thorough that union that he and his wife were ancestors of the murdered [Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien](/wiki/Louis_Antoine%2C_Duke_of_Enghien \"Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien\"), his grandmother was [Charlotte de Rohan](/wiki/Charlotte_%C3%89lisabeth_Godefride_de_Rohan \"Charlotte Élisabeth Godefride de Rohan\"), wife of [Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé](/wiki/Louis_Joseph%2C_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9 \"Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé\").\nHe succeeded his father as the [Grand Chamberlain of France](/wiki/Grand_Chamberlain_of_France \"Grand Chamberlain of France\"). His uncle was the [Cardinal de Bouillon](/wiki/Cardinal_de_Bouillon \"Cardinal de Bouillon\") and his great uncle was the famed [Vicomte de Turenne](/wiki/Vicomte_de_Turenne \"Vicomte de Turenne\").", "From his first marriage, three sons were produced, the eldest two dying in infancy. He was succeeded by his third son from his first marriage [Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne](/wiki/Charles_Godefroy_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne \"Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne\").", "" ]
List of the Twenty\-Four Deities -------------------------------- {{Multiple image \| image1 \= \| image2 \= \| align \= center \| header \= \[\[Ming dynasty]] mural painting of the Twenty Devas in \[\[Fahai Temple]] in \[\[Beijing]], \[\[China]] \| total\_width \= 1000 }} The list of deities consist of Maheśvara (Shiva), Brahma, Indra, Lakshmi, Saraswati, the Four Heavenly Kings, Surya, Chandra, Guhyapāda, Pañcika, Skanda, Prthivi, Spirit of the Bodhi Tree, Hārītī, Mārīcī, Sāgara, Yama, the Kinnara King, Emperor Zi Wei, Emperor Dongyue and the Thunder God (Leigong).[thumb\|Statue of Dàzìzàitiān (*Shiva*) on [Putuoshan](/wiki/Mount_Putuo "Mount Putuo") Guanyin Dharma Realm in [Zhejiang, China](/wiki/Zhejiang "Zhejiang")\|left\|252x252px](/wiki/File:60523bb7ly1goo37whi2rj20u0140125.jpg "60523bb7ly1goo37whi2rj20u0140125.jpg") ### [Maheśvara](/wiki/Mahe%C5%9Bvara_%28Buddhism%29 "Maheśvara (Buddhism)") ([Shiva](/wiki/Shiva "Shiva")) In Chinese, he is known as *Dàzìzàitiān* (大自在天), meaning "Great self\-existent deva", as well as *Móxīshǒuluótiān* (摩醯首羅天), which is a Chinese transcription of "Maheśvara" in Sanskrit.{{Cite web\|title\=大自在天\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25A4%25A7%25E8%2587%25AA%25E5%259C%25A8%25E5%25A4%25A9\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} Originally from Hinduism, he is considered the ruler of the [three realms](/wiki/Trailokya "Trailokya"). He is described under two forms, one as the prince of demons, the other as a divine Bodhisattva. As a Piśāca, head of the demons, he is represented in Buddhist iconography with three eyes and eight arms, and riding on a white bull; a bull or a linga being his symbol. As a Śuddhāvāsa, or Pure dwelling, he is described as a bodhisattva of the tenth or highest degree, on the point of entering Buddhahood. ### [Brahma](/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_%28Buddhism%29 "Brahmā (Buddhism)") In Chinese, he is known as *Dàfàntiān* (大梵天), meaning "Brahma\-deva", and *Sìmiànshén* (四面神), meaning "Four\-faced god". While he is considered to be the creator god in Hinduism, he is not regarded as such in Buddhism, which rejects the notion of any creator deities.{{Cite book\|last\=Harvey\|first\=Peter\|title\=Buddhism and Monotheism\|date\=2019\-07\-30\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-108\-75839\-0\|doi\=10\.1017/9781108758390\|s2cid\=201401572 }}{{Citation\|title\=Buddhism\|work\=Religion Without God\|year\=2002\|place\=Abingdon, UK\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|doi\=10\.4324/9780203206645\_chapter\_7\|isbn\=978\-0\-203\-25161\-4}}{{Cite book\|title\=The Routledge companion to theism\|date\=2013\|isbn\=978\-0\-203\-12329\-4\|editor\=Charles Taliaferro\|location\=New York\|oclc\=813993755\|editor2\=Victoria S. Harrison\|editor3\=Stewart Goetz}} In Buddhist iconographic form, he is often portrayed as a man dressed in traditional [Chinese Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_China "Emperor of China") robes and crown. In another iconographic form, he is portrayed as riding on a swan and as having four faces and four arms. One arm holds a [lotus flower](/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera "Nelumbo nucifera"), one arm holds [nianzhu (prayer beads)](/wiki/Japamala "Japamala"), one arm holds a water vase and one arm forms a [mudra](/wiki/Mudra "Mudra"). ### [Śakra](/wiki/%C5%9Aakra_%28Buddhism%29 "Śakra (Buddhism)") ([Indra](/wiki/Indra "Indra")) In Chinese, he is known as *Dìshìtiān* (帝釋天). Originally from Hinduism, he is considered the ruler of [Trāyastriṃśa](/wiki/Tr%C4%81yastri%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba "Trāyastriṃśa"){{Cite web\|title\=Sakka\|url\=http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali\_names/sa/sakka.htm\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=www.palikanon.com}} and sometimes conflated with the [Jade Emperor](/wiki/Jade_Emperor "Jade Emperor") in [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion"). In Buddhist iconographic form, he is portrayed in traditional [Chinese Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_China "Emperor of China") robes and crown. Behind his figure stands three female attendants, one holding an umbrella, one holding [Mount Meru](/wiki/Mount_Meru "Mount Meru") and one sitting within a [Nelumbo nucifera](/wiki/Lotus_flower "Lotus flower").[thumb\|Statue of Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ (*Lakshmi*) in [Huayan Temple](/wiki/Huayan_Temple_%28Datong%29 "Huayan Temple (Datong)") in [Datong](/wiki/Datong "Datong"), [Shanxi Province](/wiki/Shanxi "Shanxi"), [China](/wiki/China "China")\|270x270px](/wiki/File:Jixiang_Tiannu%2C_Huayan_Monastery.jpg "Jixiang Tiannu, Huayan Monastery.jpg") ### [Lakshmi](/wiki/Kissh%C5%8Dten "Kisshōten") In Chinese, she is known as *Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ* (吉祥天女), meaning "Auspicious Goddess", as well as *Gōngdétiān* (功德天), meaning "Meritous Deva". Originally from Hinduism, she is considered the goddess of wealth. In Buddhist iconographic form, based on her description in the [Golden Light Sutra](/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra "Golden Light Sutra"), she usually holds the [cintāmaṇi jewel](/wiki/Cintamani "Cintamani") in her left hand and forms a [mudra](/wiki/Mudra "Mudra") with her right hand. Her mantra, the Sri Devi Dharani (大吉祥天女咒; *Dà Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ Zhòu*) is classified as one of the Ten Small Mantras (十小咒; *Shí xiǎo zhòu*), which are a collection of dharanis that are commonly recited in Chinese Buddhist temples in during morning liturgical services.{{Cite web\|title\=Ten Small Mantras\|url\=http://www.buddhamountain.ca/Ten\_Small\_Mantras.php\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=www.buddhamountain.ca}}{{Cite web\|title\=大吉祥天女咒 \- "心灵法门" 佛教经文【学习版本】\|url\=http://xinlingfamen.info/jingwen/da\-ji\-xiang\-tian\-nv\-zhou\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=观世音菩萨心灵法门\|language\=zh}} ### [Saraswati](/wiki/Benzaiten "Benzaiten") In Chinese, she is known as *Biàncáitiān* (辯才天), meaning "Eloquent Devī", and *Miàoyīntiān* (妙音天), meaning "Devī of Wonderful Sounds". Originally from Hinduism, she is considered the goddess of knowledge and music as well as the sister of [Yama](/wiki/Yama_%28Buddhism%29 "Yama (Buddhism)"). In Buddhist iconographic form, based on her description in the [Golden Light Sutra](/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra "Golden Light Sutra"), she is portrayed as having eight arms, one holding a bow, one holding arrows, one holding a knife, one holding a lance, one holding an axe, one holding a pestle, one holding an iron wheel, and one holding ropes.{{Cite web\|title\=辯才天\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E8%25BE%25AF%25E6%2589%258D%25E5%25A4%25A9\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} In another popular Buddhist iconographic form, she is portrayed as sitting down and playing a [pipa](/wiki/Pipa "Pipa"), a Chinese lute\-like instrument. ### [Vaiśravaṇa](/wiki/Vai%C5%9Brava%E1%B9%87a "Vaiśravaṇa") In Chinese, he is known as *Duōwén Tiānwáng* (多聞天王), meaning "Heavenly King who listens to many teachings" in reference to the belief that he guards the place where the Buddha teaches and hence listens to many of the Buddhist teachings,{{Cite web\|title\=多聞天\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25A4%259A%25E8%2581%259E%25E5%25A4%25A9\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} as well as *Píshāméntiān* (毗沙門天), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the [Four Heavenly Kings](/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings "Four Heavenly Kings") who guards the north.{{Cite encyclopedia \|entry\=lokapala \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/lokapala\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|encyclopedia\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|language\=en\|title\=Lokapala \| Definition \& Facts}} In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a pagoda in his right hand and a trident in his left hand.{{cn\|date\=May 2022}} ### [Virūḍhaka](/wiki/Vir%C5%AB%E1%B8%8Dhaka_%28Heavenly_King%29 "Virūḍhaka (Heavenly King)") In Chinese, he is known as *Zēngzhǎng Tiānwáng* (增長天王), meaning "Heavenly King of growth" in reference to his ability to teach sentient beings to grow in compassion,{{Cite web\|title\=增長天\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25A2%259E%25E9%2595%25B7%25E5%25A4%25A9\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} as well as *Bílóulèchā* (毘楼勒叉), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the [Four Heavenly Kings](/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings "Four Heavenly Kings") who guards the south. In Buddhist iconographic form, he is usually colored green or blue and brandishes a sword. ### [Dhṛtarāṣṭra](/wiki/Dh%E1%B9%9Btar%C4%81%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADra "Dhṛtarāṣṭra") In Chinese, he is known as *Chíguó Tiānwáng* (持國天王), meaning "Heavenly King who holds a country" in reference to the belief that he can help support a country against enemies,{{Cite web\|title\=持國天\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E6%258C%2581%25E5%259C%258B%25E5%25A4%25A9\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} as well as *Títóulàizhā* (提頭頼吒), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the [Four Heavenly Kings](/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings "Four Heavenly Kings") who guards the east. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a [pipa](/wiki/Pipa "Pipa"). ### [Virūpākṣa](/wiki/Vir%C5%ABp%C4%81k%E1%B9%A3a "Virūpākṣa") In Chinese, he is known as *Guǎngmù Tiānwáng* (廣目天王), meaning "Heavenly King with broad eyes" in reference to the belief that he is very far\-sighted,{{Cite web\|title\=廣目天\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25BB%25A3%25E7%259B%25AE%25E5%25A4%25A9\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} as well as *Bílóubóchā* (毘楼博叉), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the [Four Heavenly Kings](/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings "Four Heavenly Kings") who guards the west. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a red naga or a red lasso in his hands. [center\|thumb\|700x700px\|Statues of the Four Heavenly Kings. From left to right: Duōwén Tiānwáng ({{IAST\|Vaiśravaṇa}}), Zēngzhǎng Tiānwáng ({{IAST\|Virūḍhaka}}), Chíguó Tiānwáng ({{IAST\|Dhṛtarāṣṭra}}), and Guăngmù Tiānwáng ({{IAST\|Virūpākṣa}}) in [Beihai Park](/wiki/Beihai_Park "Beihai Park") in [Beijing, China](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing").](/wiki/File:Fourheavenlykings4096x1360.jpg "Fourheavenlykings4096x1360.jpg") ### [Surya](/wiki/S%C5%ABryaprabha "Sūryaprabha") In Chinese, he is known as *Rìtiān* (日天) or *Rìgōng Tiānzǐ* (日宮天子). Originally from Hinduism, considered the sun god. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a [lotus flower](/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera "Nelumbo nucifera") in his hands. He sits in a chariot drawn by eight horses with two female attendants at his side. In another popular iconographic form, he is dressed in the robes and cap of a Chinese minister and holds the sun in his hands. ### [Chandra](/wiki/Candraprabha "Candraprabha") In Chinese, he is known as *Yuètiān* (月天) or *Yuègōng Tiānzǐ* (月宮天子). Originally from Hinduism, considered the moon god. In Buddhist iconographic form, he bears the full moon on his crown. On the moon, there is a jade rabbit. In another popular iconographic form, he is dressed in the robes and cap of a Chinese minister and holds the moon in his hands. [left\|thumb\|380x380px\|Statue of Mìjī Jīngāng (*Guhyapāda*), one out of several thousand statues, located at the [Maijishan Grottoes](/wiki/Maijishan_Grottoes "Maijishan Grottoes"), [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu "Gansu"), [China](/wiki/China "China"). ([World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site")). Carved during the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty "Song dynasty") (960–1279\).](/wiki/File:2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_23.JPG "2016-12-15 Maijishan Grotten 麥積山石窟 anagoria 23.JPG") ### [Guhyapāda](/wiki/Nio_%28Buddhism%29 "Nio (Buddhism)") In Chinese, he is known as *Mìjī Jīngāng* (密跡金剛) or *Jīngāng Mìjī* (金剛密跡) both meaning "The Vajra\-being of Secret Traces". He is a vajra\-holding protector deity from Buddhist scripture. In Buddhist iconographic form, he wields a *[vajra](/wiki/Vajra "Vajra")* mallet "*vajra\-pāṇi*" (a diamond club, thunderbolt stick, or sun symbol) and bares his teeth. His mouth is depicted as being open to form the "ha" or "ah" sound, which is the beginning character of the vocalization of the first [grapheme](/wiki/Grapheme "Grapheme") of Sanskrit [Devanāgarī](/wiki/Devan%C4%81gar%C4%AB "Devanāgarī") (ॐ ) representing the word [Om](/wiki/Om "Om").{{Cite web\|title\=Digital Dictionary of Buddhism\|url\=http://www.buddhism\-dict.net/ddb/\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=www.buddhism\-dict.net}} In [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion") and [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism "Taoism"), he is also known as [General Ha](/wiki/Heng_and_Ha "Heng and Ha") (哈将 *Hā Jiāng*) in reference to this iconographic detail. In Chinese Buddhist temples, his statue is usually built opposite that of another Vajra\-holding god (who is known as Nārāyaṇa) and the pair usually stand guarding temple entrance gates called *[Shānmén](/wiki/Shanmen "Shanmen")* (山門). In Chinese Buddhist belief, the two vajra\-wielders Guhyapāda and Nārāyaṇa are manifestations of the bodhisattva [Vajrapani](/wiki/Vajrapani "Vajrapani"). In addition, Guhyapada is also sometimes paired or identified with the Wisdom King [Ucchuṣma](/wiki/Ucchusma "Ucchusma"), who is commonly known as *Huìjì Jīngāng* (穢跡金剛).{{Cite book\|last\=Zhaohua.\|first\=Yang\|url\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/848167476\|title\=Devouring impurities : myth, ritual and talisman in the cult of Ucchusma in Tang China\|date\=2013\|oclc\=848167476}} In a thirteenth\-century Chinese long gāthā elaborating on the two major scriptures relating to Ucchusama, the *Huiji Jin’gang Shuo Shentong Daman Tuoluoni Fashu Lingyao Men* (穢跡金剛說神通大滿陀羅尼法術靈要 門經; lit "The Scripture of the Numinous and Essential Gate to the Ritual Techniques of the Great Perfection Dhāraṇī of Supernatural Power as Spoken by the Vajra\-being of Impure Traces"; T. 1228\), and the *Huiji Jin’gang Jin Baibian Fajing* (穢跡金剛禁百變法經; "The Scripture of the Rites of the Vajra\-being of Impure Traces for Binding the Hundred Transformations"; T. 1229\), Ucchuṣma’s Chinese name *Huìjì Jīngāng* was changed to *Mìjī Jīngāng* due to negative connotations associated with the former name. In the *Chongbian Zhutian Zhuan* ( 重編諸天傳; lit "Recompiled Biographies of Devas and Devīs") from the Southern Song period, one of the Sanskrit transliterations given for Guhyapāda is Ucchuṣma.{{Cite book\|last\=釋行霆.\|url\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/828410455\|title\=重編諸天傳 : \[上下卷]\|date\=2005\|publisher\=Xian zhuang shu ju\|isbn\=7\-80106\-234\-5\|oclc\=828410455}} In a repentance ritual for the [Śūraṅgama Sūtra](/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra "Śūraṅgama Sūtra"), both Guhyapāda and Ucchusama were invoked as a pair.{{Cite book\|last\=sheng.\|first\=Zhang, Shou yue. Lu, Guang zu. Xu qing. Che\|url\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/989511208\|title\=依楞嚴究竟事懺(二卷) : 2卷\|date\=1573–1722 \|publisher\=\[Ke shu zhe bu xiang]\|oclc\=989511208}} The two wrathful deities were also sometimes found standing opposite each other at the entrances of some monasteries.{{Cite book\|author\=Bonnefoy, Yves\|url\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/473747570\|title\=Asian mythologies\|date\=1993\|publisher\=University of Chicago Press\|isbn\=0\-226\-06456\-5\|oclc\=473747570}}{{Cite book\|last\=林克智.\|url\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/57071132\|title\=祥和洒脫之路\|date\=2000\|publisher\=Zong jiao wen hua chu ban she\|isbn\=7\-80123\-262\-3\|oclc\=57071132}} ### [Pañcika](/wiki/Pa%C3%B1cika "Pañcika") In Chinese, he is known as *Sànzhī Dàjiàng* (散脂大將). Originally from Hinduism, he is regarded as a yaksha and consort of Hārītī, whom he is often portrayed as standing next to in temple statues and iconography. He is also sometimes regarded as one of the [Eight Great Yakṣa Generals](/wiki/Eight_Great_Yak%E1%B9%A3a_Generals "Eight Great Yakṣa Generals") under the command of [Vaiśravaṇa](/wiki/Vai%C5%9Brava%E1%B9%87a "Vaiśravaṇa").{{Cite web\|title\=散脂大將\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E6%2595%25A3%25E8%2584%2582%25E5%25A4%25A7%25E5%25B0%2587\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} In Buddhist iconographic form, he bears a demonic face with fangs in his mouth and fire emerging from his eyes. ### [Skanda](/wiki/Skanda_%28Buddhism%29 "Skanda (Buddhism)") In Chinese, he is known as *Wéituó Tiān* (韋馱天) or *Wéituó Púsà* (韋馱菩薩), which is a corrupted form of his original Chinese name *Jiàntuó Tiān* (建陀天) or *Jiàntuó Púsà* (建陀菩薩),{{Cite web\|title\=韋馱天\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E9%259F%258B%25E9%25A6%25B1%25E5%25A4%25A9\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} which in turn is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. Originally regarded as a god of war in Hinduism, he is viewed as either a protective deva or as a Bodhisattva in Chinese Buddhism. His Buddhist iconography has been syncretized with Chinese elements to a large extent, so he is commonly depicted as wearing traditionary Chinese military armor and wielding a Chinese sword. According to a legend, a few days after the Buddha's passing and cremation, evil demons stole his [tooth relic](/wiki/Relic_of_the_tooth_of_the_Buddha "Relic of the tooth of the Buddha"). In response, Wéituó made a vow to protect the Buddhist Dharma and followed it up by defeating the evil demons and returning the relics. In Chinese Buddhist Temples, he is often enshrined together with his counterpart, Sangharama (personified as the historical general [Guan Yu](/wiki/Guan_Yu "Guan Yu")), protecting a third statue of a Buddha or a Bodhisattva. ### [Pṛthvī](/wiki/Vasudhara "Vasudhara") In Chinese, she is known as *Dìtiān* (地天), meaning "Earth Devī", or *Jiānláo Dìshén* (堅牢地神) and *Jiānláo Dìtiān* (堅牢地天), both meaning "Firm earth goddess". Originally from Hinduism, she is considered a goddess of the earth and one of the four beings wielding thunderbolts in the [Diamond Realm](/wiki/Diamond_Realm "Diamond Realm") of [Chinese Esoteric Buddhism](/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism "Chinese Esoteric Buddhism"). In Buddhist iconographic form, she has either four or two arms and wields a flower vase and farming tools in her hands. ### [Spirit of the Bodhi Tree](/wiki/Puti_Shushen "Puti Shushen") In Chinese, she is known as *Pútí Shùshén* (菩提樹神). She is regarded as a goddess who guards the Bodhi Tree or a manifestation of the tree itself.{{Cite web\|title\=菩提樹神\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E8%258F%25A9%25E6%258F%2590%25E6%25A8%25B9%25E7%25A5%259E.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} In Buddhist iconographic form, she holds branches of the Bodhi tree in her hands. [thumb\|317x317px\|[Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty "Ming dynasty") (1368 \- 1644\) statue of Guǐzǐmǔ (*Hārītī*) with a [child rakshasa](/wiki/Rakshasa "Rakshasa") in [Shanhua Temple](/wiki/Shanhua_Temple "Shanhua Temple") (善化寺 Shànhùasì) in [Datong](/wiki/Datong "Datong"), [Shanxi Province](/wiki/Shanxi "Shanxi"), [China](/wiki/China "China")\|left](/wiki/File:Statue_of_Hariti_%28%E9%AC%BC%E5%AD%90%E6%AF%8D_Guizimu%29_in_Shanhua_Temple_%28%E5%96%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AF%BA_Sh%C3%A0nh%C3%B9as%C3%AC%29_in_Datong%2C_Shanxi_Province%2C_China.jpg "Statue of Hariti (鬼子母 Guizimu) in Shanhua Temple (善化寺 Shànhùasì) in Datong, Shanxi Province, China.jpg") ### [Hārītī](/wiki/H%C4%81r%C4%ABt%C4%AB "Hārītī") In Chinese, she is known as *Guǐzǐmǔ* (鬼子母). Originally from Hinduism, considered a demon consort of Pañcika who was converted to Buddhism by the Buddha.{{Cite web\|title\=鬼子母神\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E9%25AC%25BC%25E5%25AD%2590%25E6%25AF%258D%25E7%25A5%259E.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} Considered a protector deity of children. According to Buddhist legends, Hārītī was originally a [rākṣasī](/wiki/Rakshasa "Rakshasa") of [Rajgir](/wiki/Rajgir "Rajgir") at the same time that [Gautama Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha "Gautama Buddha") also lived there. She had hundreds of children of her own, whom she loved and doted upon, but to feed them, she abducted and killed the children of others. The bereaved mothers of her victims pleaded to the Buddha to save them. So, the Buddha stole the most beloved of her sons, and hid him under his rice bowl. After having desperately searched for her missing son throughout the universe, Hārītī finally appealed to the Buddha for help. The Buddha pointed out that she was suffering because she lost one of hundreds of children, and asked if she could imagine the suffering of parents whose only child had been devoured. She then repented and vowed to protect all children. In doing so, Hārītī became regarded as the protector of children and women in childbirth. In Chinese Buddhist iconographic form, she is often portrayed as standing with a child or several children or as holding a child in her arm. [thumb\|Statue of Mólìzhītiān (*Mārīcī*) with eight\-arms and four faces riding on a boar in Hongfashan Temple, [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong")\|307x307px](/wiki/File:The_goddess_Marici_at_an_Esoteric_Buddhist_temple_in_Hong_Kong.jpg "The goddess Marici at an Esoteric Buddhist temple in Hong Kong.jpg") ### [Mārīcī](/wiki/Marici_%28Buddhism%29 "Marici (Buddhism)") In Chinese, she is known as *Mólìzhītiān* (摩利支天). She is sometimes regarded as a goddess and sometimes regarded as a Bodhisattva. In Chinese Buddhism, she is sometimes considered an incarnation of the [Bodhisattva Cundī](/wiki/Cundi_%28Buddhism%29 "Cundi (Buddhism)"), with whom she shares similar iconography.{{Cite book\|last\=Stevens\|first\=Keith G.\|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38184849\|title\=Chinese gods \= Fo xiang shen xiang\|date\=1997\|publisher\=Collins \& Brown\|isbn\=1\-85028\-409\-1\|location\=London\|oclc\=38184849}} She is also worshiped as the goddess of light and warfare and as the guardian of all nations, whom she protects from the fury of war.{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/275253538\|title\=A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms : with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit\-Pali index\|date\=2004\|publisher\=RoutledgeCurzon\|others\=Lewis Hodous, William Edward Soothill\|isbn\=0\-203\-64186\-8\|location\=London\|oclc\=275253538}} In addition, she is also identified with [Mahēśvarī](/wiki/Parvati "Parvati") ([Parvati](/wiki/Parvati "Parvati")), the consort of [Maheśvara](/wiki/Shiva "Shiva"), and therefore has the title Mātrikā (佛母 *Fo mǔ*), Mother of the Myriad Buddhas. In Buddhist iconographic form, she has eight arms, each holding different types of weapons, and rides on a chariot drawn by eight boars. In another iconographic form, she is portrayed sitting down holding a fan. In [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion") and [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism "Taoism"), she is sometimes identified as the goddess [Doumu](/wiki/Doumu "Doumu") (斗母元君; *Dǒumǔ Yuánjūn*), who is the personification of the Big Dipper as well as the feminine aspect of the cosmic [God of Heaven](/wiki/Chinese_theology "Chinese theology").{{Cite book\|last\=Heguanzi\|title\=The Pheasant Cap Master and the end of history : linking religion to philosophy in early China\|date\=2013\|others\=Marnix Wells\|isbn\=978\-1\-387\-08107\-3\|location\=St. Petersburg, FL\|oclc\=1005481319}} ### [Sāgara](/wiki/S%C4%81gara_%28Dragon_King%29 "Sāgara (Dragon King)") In Chinese, he is known as *Suōjiéluó Lóngwáng* (娑竭羅龍王). In Chinese Buddhism, he is regarded as one of the [Eight Dragon Kings](/wiki/Dragon_King "Dragon King") who presides over the world's supply of rain, as well as one of sixteen Nāga that are spared from the assault of the [garudas](/wiki/Garuda "Garuda").{{Cite web\|title\=娑竭羅龍王\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25A8%2591%25E7%25AB%25AD%25E7%25BE%2585%25E9%25BE%258D%25E7%258E%258B.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} He is also regarded as one of the Twenty\-Eight Guardian deities of the thousand\-armed manifestation of the [Bodhisattva Guanyin.](/wiki/Guanyin "Guanyin") In some [Mahayana sutras](/wiki/Mahayana_sutras "Mahayana sutras"), his palace is said to lie at the bottom of the ocean and is 84,000 [yojanas](/wiki/Yojanas "Yojanas") in length and width with an array of decorations that are seven\-fold, including walls, banisters, jeweled nets and seven rows of trees. The palace is adorned with the [seven treasures](/wiki/Seven_treasures "Seven treasures") and is filled with the song of innumerable birds. [thumb\|395x395px\|14th century Chinese [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty "Yuan dynasty") portrait of Yánluó Wáng (*Yama*). One of a series of paintings of the "Ten Kings of Hell" by Lu Xinzhong.\|left](/wiki/File:%E4%BA%94%E4%B8%83%E9%96%BB%E7%BE%85%E5%A4%A7%E7%8E%8B.jpg "五七閻羅大王.jpg") ### [Yama](/wiki/Yama_%28Buddhism%29 "Yama (Buddhism)") In Chinese, he is known as *[Yanluo Wang](/wiki/Yanluo_Wang "Yanluo Wang")* (閻羅王) or *Yánmóluówáng* (閻摩羅王). Originally from Hinduism, he is considered as one of the Ten Kings of Hell{{Cite web\|title\=閻羅十殿\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E9%2596%25BB%25E7%25BE%2585%25E5%258D%2581%25E6%25AE%25BF.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} who judges the souls of the dead in a court in the realm of the [underworld](/wiki/Diyu "Diyu").{{Cite web\|title\=閻魔王\|url\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E9%2596%25BB%25E9%25AD%2594%25E7%258E%258B.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-04\|website\=buddhaspace.org}} In Buddhist iconographic form, he is usually portrayed as a large man with a scowling red face, bulging eyes, and a long beard. He wears traditional judge robes and a judge's cap or a crown which bears the [character](/wiki/Hanzi "Hanzi") for "king" (王). He has also been syncretized into [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism "Taoism") and [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion") as a god of the dead as well, performing largely the same functions as his Chinese Buddhist counterpart. ### [Kinnara King](/wiki/Kinnara "Kinnara") In Chinese, he is known as *Jǐnnàluó Wáng* (緊那羅王). In Buddhist iconographic form, depicted as either male or female. The male form has a horse head with a male body. Some Buddhist also venerates him as their Kitchen God as an equivalent to the traditional [Taoist](/wiki/Taoism "Taoism") [Zao Jun](/wiki/Kitchen_God "Kitchen God"). In the [Shaolin](/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery "Shaolin Monastery") tradition, he is conflated with [Vajrapani](/wiki/Vajrapani "Vajrapani") (in his manifestation as [Nārāyaṇa](/wiki/Nio_%28Buddhism%29 "Nio (Buddhism)")) and is identified as an avatar of the [Bodhisattva Guanyin](/wiki/Guanyin "Guanyin"), who manifested to defend the Shaolin monastery from bandits during the [Yuan\-era](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty "Yuan dynasty") [Red Turban Rebellion](/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion "Red Turban Rebellion").{{Cite book\|last\=Shahar\|first\=Meir\|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvmxs5\|title\=The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts\|date\=2008\|publisher\=University of Hawai'i Press\|jstor\=j.ctvvmxs5\|isbn\=978\-0\-8248\-3110\-3}} ### [Emperor Zi Wei](/wiki/Zi_wei_emperor "Zi wei emperor") In Chinese, he is known as *Zǐwēi Dàdì* (紫微大帝). Originally from Taoism, he is a personification of the North Star and considered to be the keeper of the book of destiny as well as a dispeller of demons who is revered for his power to ward off evil influences and spirits.{{Cite book\|last\=Stevens\|first\=Keith G.\|title\=Chinese gods \= Fo xiang shen xiang\|date\=1997\|publisher\=Collins \& Brown\|isbn\=1\-85028\-409\-1\|location\=London\|oclc\=38184849}} In one iconographic form, he is portrayed as a standard Chinese official sitting on a throne. In another iconographic form, he is portrayed as a youth astride or sitting side\-saddle atop a reclining mythical beast, holding a conch in his hands and dressed in trousers and a cape and wearing a tiara from which two objects, like insect feelers, project upwards. ### Emperor Dongyue In Chinese, he is known as *Dōngyuè Dàdì* (東嶽大帝). Originally from Taoism, he is regarded as a god who resides at [Mount Tai](/wiki/Mount_Tai "Mount Tai") and judges what realm of [Saṃsāra](/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra "Saṃsāra") a person will be reborn in. He is also believed to be the leader of a large bureaucratic celestial ministry overseeing the maintenance of the Book of Life, a register of the due dates on which each and every human soul must be summoned before the Judges of Hell for judgement. ### [Thunder God](/wiki/Leigong "Leigong") In Chinese, he is known as *Léigōng* (雷公) or *Léishén* (雷神). Originally from Taoism, he is regarded as the god of thunder as well as a punisher of evil\-doers who is feared as being particularly merciless towards those who oppress widows and orphans and those who kidnap children. His Buddhist iconographic form has been strongly influenced by that of [Garuda](/wiki/Garuda "Garuda") from the Hindu pantheon to form a half\-man and half\-bird entity, bearing a pair of wings on his back and holding a hammer and a chisel in his hands as well as a sling of drums around his neck.
[ "List of the Twenty\\-Four Deities\n--------------------------------", "{{Multiple image\n\\| image1 \\=\n\\| image2 \\=\n\\| align \\= center\n\\| header \\= \\[\\[Ming dynasty]] mural painting of the Twenty Devas in \\[\\[Fahai Temple]] in \\[\\[Beijing]], \\[\\[China]]\n\\| total\\_width \\= 1000\n}}", "The list of deities consist of Maheśvara (Shiva), Brahma, Indra, Lakshmi, Saraswati, the Four Heavenly Kings, Surya, Chandra, Guhyapāda, Pañcika, Skanda, Prthivi, Spirit of the Bodhi Tree, Hārītī, Mārīcī, Sāgara, Yama, the Kinnara King, Emperor Zi Wei, Emperor Dongyue and the Thunder God (Leigong).[thumb\\|Statue of Dàzìzàitiān (*Shiva*) on [Putuoshan](/wiki/Mount_Putuo \"Mount Putuo\") Guanyin Dharma Realm in [Zhejiang, China](/wiki/Zhejiang \"Zhejiang\")\\|left\\|252x252px](/wiki/File:60523bb7ly1goo37whi2rj20u0140125.jpg \"60523bb7ly1goo37whi2rj20u0140125.jpg\")", "### [Maheśvara](/wiki/Mahe%C5%9Bvara_%28Buddhism%29 \"Maheśvara (Buddhism)\") ([Shiva](/wiki/Shiva \"Shiva\"))", "In Chinese, he is known as *Dàzìzàitiān* (大自在天), meaning \"Great self\\-existent deva\", as well as *Móxīshǒuluótiān* (摩醯首羅天), which is a Chinese transcription of \"Maheśvara\" in Sanskrit.{{Cite web\\|title\\=大自在天\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25A4%25A7%25E8%2587%25AA%25E5%259C%25A8%25E5%25A4%25A9\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} Originally from Hinduism, he is considered the ruler of the [three realms](/wiki/Trailokya \"Trailokya\"). He is described under two forms, one as the prince of demons, the other as a divine Bodhisattva. As a Piśāca, head of the demons, he is represented in Buddhist iconography with three eyes and eight arms, and riding on a white bull; a bull or a linga being his symbol. As a Śuddhāvāsa, or Pure dwelling, he is described as a bodhisattva of the tenth or highest degree, on the point of entering Buddhahood.", "### [Brahma](/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_%28Buddhism%29 \"Brahmā (Buddhism)\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Dàfàntiān* (大梵天), meaning \"Brahma\\-deva\", and *Sìmiànshén* (四面神), meaning \"Four\\-faced god\". While he is considered to be the creator god in Hinduism, he is not regarded as such in Buddhism, which rejects the notion of any creator deities.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Harvey\\|first\\=Peter\\|title\\=Buddhism and Monotheism\\|date\\=2019\\-07\\-30\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-108\\-75839\\-0\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/9781108758390\\|s2cid\\=201401572 }}{{Citation\\|title\\=Buddhism\\|work\\=Religion Without God\\|year\\=2002\\|place\\=Abingdon, UK\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9780203206645\\_chapter\\_7\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-203\\-25161\\-4}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Routledge companion to theism\\|date\\=2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-203\\-12329\\-4\\|editor\\=Charles Taliaferro\\|location\\=New York\\|oclc\\=813993755\\|editor2\\=Victoria S. Harrison\\|editor3\\=Stewart Goetz}} In Buddhist iconographic form, he is often portrayed as a man dressed in traditional [Chinese Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_China \"Emperor of China\") robes and crown. In another iconographic form, he is portrayed as riding on a swan and as having four faces and four arms. One arm holds a [lotus flower](/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera \"Nelumbo nucifera\"), one arm holds [nianzhu (prayer beads)](/wiki/Japamala \"Japamala\"), one arm holds a water vase and one arm forms a [mudra](/wiki/Mudra \"Mudra\").", "### [Śakra](/wiki/%C5%9Aakra_%28Buddhism%29 \"Śakra (Buddhism)\") ([Indra](/wiki/Indra \"Indra\"))", "In Chinese, he is known as *Dìshìtiān* (帝釋天). Originally from Hinduism, he is considered the ruler of [Trāyastriṃśa](/wiki/Tr%C4%81yastri%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba \"Trāyastriṃśa\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=Sakka\\|url\\=http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali\\_names/sa/sakka.htm\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=www.palikanon.com}} and sometimes conflated with the [Jade Emperor](/wiki/Jade_Emperor \"Jade Emperor\") in [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion \"Chinese folk religion\"). In Buddhist iconographic form, he is portrayed in traditional [Chinese Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_China \"Emperor of China\") robes and crown. Behind his figure stands three female attendants, one holding an umbrella, one holding [Mount Meru](/wiki/Mount_Meru \"Mount Meru\") and one sitting within a [Nelumbo nucifera](/wiki/Lotus_flower \"Lotus flower\").[thumb\\|Statue of Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ (*Lakshmi*) in [Huayan Temple](/wiki/Huayan_Temple_%28Datong%29 \"Huayan Temple (Datong)\") in [Datong](/wiki/Datong \"Datong\"), [Shanxi Province](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\")\\|270x270px](/wiki/File:Jixiang_Tiannu%2C_Huayan_Monastery.jpg \"Jixiang Tiannu, Huayan Monastery.jpg\")", "### [Lakshmi](/wiki/Kissh%C5%8Dten \"Kisshōten\")", "In Chinese, she is known as *Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ* (吉祥天女), meaning \"Auspicious Goddess\", as well as *Gōngdétiān* (功德天), meaning \"Meritous Deva\". Originally from Hinduism, she is considered the goddess of wealth. In Buddhist iconographic form, based on her description in the [Golden Light Sutra](/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra \"Golden Light Sutra\"), she usually holds the [cintāmaṇi jewel](/wiki/Cintamani \"Cintamani\") in her left hand and forms a [mudra](/wiki/Mudra \"Mudra\") with her right hand. Her mantra, the Sri Devi Dharani (大吉祥天女咒; *Dà Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ Zhòu*) is classified as one of the Ten Small Mantras (十小咒; *Shí xiǎo zhòu*), which are a collection of dharanis that are commonly recited in Chinese Buddhist temples in during morning liturgical services.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Ten Small Mantras\\|url\\=http://www.buddhamountain.ca/Ten\\_Small\\_Mantras.php\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=www.buddhamountain.ca}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=大吉祥天女咒 \\- \"心灵法门\" 佛教经文【学习版本】\\|url\\=http://xinlingfamen.info/jingwen/da\\-ji\\-xiang\\-tian\\-nv\\-zhou\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=观世音菩萨心灵法门\\|language\\=zh}}", "### [Saraswati](/wiki/Benzaiten \"Benzaiten\")", "In Chinese, she is known as *Biàncáitiān* (辯才天), meaning \"Eloquent Devī\", and *Miàoyīntiān* (妙音天), meaning \"Devī of Wonderful Sounds\". Originally from Hinduism, she is considered the goddess of knowledge and music as well as the sister of [Yama](/wiki/Yama_%28Buddhism%29 \"Yama (Buddhism)\"). In Buddhist iconographic form, based on her description in the [Golden Light Sutra](/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra \"Golden Light Sutra\"), she is portrayed as having eight arms, one holding a bow, one holding arrows, one holding a knife, one holding a lance, one holding an axe, one holding a pestle, one holding an iron wheel, and one holding ropes.{{Cite web\\|title\\=辯才天\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E8%25BE%25AF%25E6%2589%258D%25E5%25A4%25A9\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} In another popular Buddhist iconographic form, she is portrayed as sitting down and playing a [pipa](/wiki/Pipa \"Pipa\"), a Chinese lute\\-like instrument.", "### [Vaiśravaṇa](/wiki/Vai%C5%9Brava%E1%B9%87a \"Vaiśravaṇa\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Duōwén Tiānwáng* (多聞天王), meaning \"Heavenly King who listens to many teachings\" in reference to the belief that he guards the place where the Buddha teaches and hence listens to many of the Buddhist teachings,{{Cite web\\|title\\=多聞天\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25A4%259A%25E8%2581%259E%25E5%25A4%25A9\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} as well as *Píshāméntiān* (毗沙門天), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the [Four Heavenly Kings](/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings \"Four Heavenly Kings\") who guards the north.{{Cite encyclopedia \\|entry\\=lokapala \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/lokapala\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|title\\=Lokapala \\| Definition \\& Facts}} In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a pagoda in his right hand and a trident in his left hand.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2022}}", "### [Virūḍhaka](/wiki/Vir%C5%AB%E1%B8%8Dhaka_%28Heavenly_King%29 \"Virūḍhaka (Heavenly King)\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Zēngzhǎng Tiānwáng* (增長天王), meaning \"Heavenly King of growth\" in reference to his ability to teach sentient beings to grow in compassion,{{Cite web\\|title\\=增長天\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25A2%259E%25E9%2595%25B7%25E5%25A4%25A9\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} as well as *Bílóulèchā* (毘楼勒叉), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the [Four Heavenly Kings](/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings \"Four Heavenly Kings\") who guards the south. In Buddhist iconographic form, he is usually colored green or blue and brandishes a sword.", "### [Dhṛtarāṣṭra](/wiki/Dh%E1%B9%9Btar%C4%81%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADra \"Dhṛtarāṣṭra\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Chíguó Tiānwáng* (持國天王), meaning \"Heavenly King who holds a country\" in reference to the belief that he can help support a country against enemies,{{Cite web\\|title\\=持國天\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E6%258C%2581%25E5%259C%258B%25E5%25A4%25A9\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} as well as *Títóulàizhā* (提頭頼吒), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the [Four Heavenly Kings](/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings \"Four Heavenly Kings\") who guards the east. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a [pipa](/wiki/Pipa \"Pipa\").", "### [Virūpākṣa](/wiki/Vir%C5%ABp%C4%81k%E1%B9%A3a \"Virūpākṣa\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Guǎngmù Tiānwáng* (廣目天王), meaning \"Heavenly King with broad eyes\" in reference to the belief that he is very far\\-sighted,{{Cite web\\|title\\=廣目天\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25BB%25A3%25E7%259B%25AE%25E5%25A4%25A9\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} as well as *Bílóubóchā* (毘楼博叉), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the [Four Heavenly Kings](/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings \"Four Heavenly Kings\") who guards the west. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a red naga or a red lasso in his hands.", "[center\\|thumb\\|700x700px\\|Statues of the Four Heavenly Kings. From left to right: Duōwén Tiānwáng ({{IAST\\|Vaiśravaṇa}}), Zēngzhǎng Tiānwáng ({{IAST\\|Virūḍhaka}}), Chíguó Tiānwáng ({{IAST\\|Dhṛtarāṣṭra}}), and Guăngmù Tiānwáng ({{IAST\\|Virūpākṣa}}) in [Beihai Park](/wiki/Beihai_Park \"Beihai Park\") in [Beijing, China](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\").](/wiki/File:Fourheavenlykings4096x1360.jpg \"Fourheavenlykings4096x1360.jpg\")", "### [Surya](/wiki/S%C5%ABryaprabha \"Sūryaprabha\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Rìtiān* (日天) or *Rìgōng Tiānzǐ* (日宮天子). Originally from Hinduism, considered the sun god. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a [lotus flower](/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera \"Nelumbo nucifera\") in his hands. He sits in a chariot drawn by eight horses with two female attendants at his side. In another popular iconographic form, he is dressed in the robes and cap of a Chinese minister and holds the sun in his hands.", "### [Chandra](/wiki/Candraprabha \"Candraprabha\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Yuètiān* (月天) or *Yuègōng Tiānzǐ* (月宮天子). Originally from Hinduism, considered the moon god. In Buddhist iconographic form, he bears the full moon on his crown. On the moon, there is a jade rabbit. In another popular iconographic form, he is dressed in the robes and cap of a Chinese minister and holds the moon in his hands.\n[left\\|thumb\\|380x380px\\|Statue of Mìjī Jīngāng (*Guhyapāda*), one out of several thousand statues, located at the [Maijishan Grottoes](/wiki/Maijishan_Grottoes \"Maijishan Grottoes\"), [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"). ([World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\")). Carved during the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty \"Song dynasty\") (960–1279\\).](/wiki/File:2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_23.JPG \"2016-12-15 Maijishan Grotten 麥積山石窟 anagoria 23.JPG\")", "### [Guhyapāda](/wiki/Nio_%28Buddhism%29 \"Nio (Buddhism)\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Mìjī Jīngāng* (密跡金剛) or *Jīngāng Mìjī* (金剛密跡) both meaning \"The Vajra\\-being of Secret Traces\". He is a vajra\\-holding protector deity from Buddhist scripture. In Buddhist iconographic form, he wields a *[vajra](/wiki/Vajra \"Vajra\")* mallet \"*vajra\\-pāṇi*\" (a diamond club, thunderbolt stick, or sun symbol) and bares his teeth. His mouth is depicted as being open to form the \"ha\" or \"ah\" sound, which is the beginning character of the vocalization of the first [grapheme](/wiki/Grapheme \"Grapheme\") of Sanskrit [Devanāgarī](/wiki/Devan%C4%81gar%C4%AB \"Devanāgarī\") (ॐ ) representing the word [Om](/wiki/Om \"Om\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Digital Dictionary of Buddhism\\|url\\=http://www.buddhism\\-dict.net/ddb/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=www.buddhism\\-dict.net}} In [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion \"Chinese folk religion\") and [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism \"Taoism\"), he is also known as [General Ha](/wiki/Heng_and_Ha \"Heng and Ha\") (哈将 *Hā Jiāng*) in reference to this iconographic detail. In Chinese Buddhist temples, his statue is usually built opposite that of another Vajra\\-holding god (who is known as Nārāyaṇa) and the pair usually stand guarding temple entrance gates called *[Shānmén](/wiki/Shanmen \"Shanmen\")* (山門). In Chinese Buddhist belief, the two vajra\\-wielders Guhyapāda and Nārāyaṇa are manifestations of the bodhisattva [Vajrapani](/wiki/Vajrapani \"Vajrapani\").", "In addition, Guhyapada is also sometimes paired or identified with the Wisdom King [Ucchuṣma](/wiki/Ucchusma \"Ucchusma\"), who is commonly known as *Huìjì Jīngāng* (穢跡金剛).{{Cite book\\|last\\=Zhaohua.\\|first\\=Yang\\|url\\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/848167476\\|title\\=Devouring impurities : myth, ritual and talisman in the cult of Ucchusma in Tang China\\|date\\=2013\\|oclc\\=848167476}} In a thirteenth\\-century Chinese long gāthā elaborating on the two major scriptures relating to Ucchusama, the *Huiji Jin’gang Shuo Shentong Daman Tuoluoni Fashu Lingyao Men* (穢跡金剛說神通大滿陀羅尼法術靈要 門經; lit \"The Scripture of the Numinous and Essential Gate to the Ritual Techniques of the Great Perfection Dhāraṇī of Supernatural Power as Spoken by the Vajra\\-being of Impure Traces\"; T. 1228\\), and the *Huiji Jin’gang Jin Baibian Fajing* (穢跡金剛禁百變法經; \"The Scripture of the Rites of the Vajra\\-being of Impure Traces for Binding the Hundred Transformations\"; T. 1229\\), Ucchuṣma’s Chinese name *Huìjì Jīngāng* was changed to *Mìjī Jīngāng* due to negative connotations associated with the former name. In the *Chongbian Zhutian Zhuan* ( 重編諸天傳; lit \"Recompiled Biographies of Devas and Devīs\") from the Southern Song period, one of the Sanskrit transliterations given for Guhyapāda is Ucchuṣma.{{Cite book\\|last\\=釋行霆.\\|url\\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/828410455\\|title\\=重編諸天傳 : \\[上下卷]\\|date\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Xian zhuang shu ju\\|isbn\\=7\\-80106\\-234\\-5\\|oclc\\=828410455}} In a repentance ritual for the [Śūraṅgama Sūtra](/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra \"Śūraṅgama Sūtra\"), both Guhyapāda and Ucchusama were invoked as a pair.{{Cite book\\|last\\=sheng.\\|first\\=Zhang, Shou yue. Lu, Guang zu. Xu qing. Che\\|url\\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/989511208\\|title\\=依楞嚴究竟事懺(二卷) : 2卷\\|date\\=1573–1722 \\|publisher\\=\\[Ke shu zhe bu xiang]\\|oclc\\=989511208}} The two wrathful deities were also sometimes found standing opposite each other at the entrances of some monasteries.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Bonnefoy, Yves\\|url\\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/473747570\\|title\\=Asian mythologies\\|date\\=1993\\|publisher\\=University of Chicago Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-226\\-06456\\-5\\|oclc\\=473747570}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=林克智.\\|url\\=http://worldcat.org/oclc/57071132\\|title\\=祥和洒脫之路\\|date\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Zong jiao wen hua chu ban she\\|isbn\\=7\\-80123\\-262\\-3\\|oclc\\=57071132}}", "### [Pañcika](/wiki/Pa%C3%B1cika \"Pañcika\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Sànzhī Dàjiàng* (散脂大將). Originally from Hinduism, he is regarded as a yaksha and consort of Hārītī, whom he is often portrayed as standing next to in temple statues and iconography. He is also sometimes regarded as one of the [Eight Great Yakṣa Generals](/wiki/Eight_Great_Yak%E1%B9%A3a_Generals \"Eight Great Yakṣa Generals\") under the command of [Vaiśravaṇa](/wiki/Vai%C5%9Brava%E1%B9%87a \"Vaiśravaṇa\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=散脂大將\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E6%2595%25A3%25E8%2584%2582%25E5%25A4%25A7%25E5%25B0%2587\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} In Buddhist iconographic form, he bears a demonic face with fangs in his mouth and fire emerging from his eyes.", "### [Skanda](/wiki/Skanda_%28Buddhism%29 \"Skanda (Buddhism)\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Wéituó Tiān* (韋馱天) or *Wéituó Púsà* (韋馱菩薩), which is a corrupted form of his original Chinese name *Jiàntuó Tiān* (建陀天) or *Jiàntuó Púsà* (建陀菩薩),{{Cite web\\|title\\=韋馱天\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E9%259F%258B%25E9%25A6%25B1%25E5%25A4%25A9\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} which in turn is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. Originally regarded as a god of war in Hinduism, he is viewed as either a protective deva or as a Bodhisattva in Chinese Buddhism. His Buddhist iconography has been syncretized with Chinese elements to a large extent, so he is commonly depicted as wearing traditionary Chinese military armor and wielding a Chinese sword. According to a legend, a few days after the Buddha's passing and cremation, evil demons stole his [tooth relic](/wiki/Relic_of_the_tooth_of_the_Buddha \"Relic of the tooth of the Buddha\"). In response, Wéituó made a vow to protect the Buddhist Dharma and followed it up by defeating the evil demons and returning the relics. In Chinese Buddhist Temples, he is often enshrined together with his counterpart, Sangharama (personified as the historical general [Guan Yu](/wiki/Guan_Yu \"Guan Yu\")), protecting a third statue of a Buddha or a Bodhisattva.", "### [Pṛthvī](/wiki/Vasudhara \"Vasudhara\")", "In Chinese, she is known as *Dìtiān* (地天), meaning \"Earth Devī\", or *Jiānláo Dìshén* (堅牢地神) and *Jiānláo Dìtiān* (堅牢地天), both meaning \"Firm earth goddess\". Originally from Hinduism, she is considered a goddess of the earth and one of the four beings wielding thunderbolts in the [Diamond Realm](/wiki/Diamond_Realm \"Diamond Realm\") of [Chinese Esoteric Buddhism](/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism \"Chinese Esoteric Buddhism\"). In Buddhist iconographic form, she has either four or two arms and wields a flower vase and farming tools in her hands.", "### [Spirit of the Bodhi Tree](/wiki/Puti_Shushen \"Puti Shushen\")", "In Chinese, she is known as *Pútí Shùshén* (菩提樹神). She is regarded as a goddess who guards the Bodhi Tree or a manifestation of the tree itself.{{Cite web\\|title\\=菩提樹神\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E8%258F%25A9%25E6%258F%2590%25E6%25A8%25B9%25E7%25A5%259E.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} In Buddhist iconographic form, she holds branches of the Bodhi tree in her hands.\n[thumb\\|317x317px\\|[Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\") (1368 \\- 1644\\) statue of Guǐzǐmǔ (*Hārītī*) with a [child rakshasa](/wiki/Rakshasa \"Rakshasa\") in [Shanhua Temple](/wiki/Shanhua_Temple \"Shanhua Temple\") (善化寺 Shànhùasì) in [Datong](/wiki/Datong \"Datong\"), [Shanxi Province](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\")\\|left](/wiki/File:Statue_of_Hariti_%28%E9%AC%BC%E5%AD%90%E6%AF%8D_Guizimu%29_in_Shanhua_Temple_%28%E5%96%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AF%BA_Sh%C3%A0nh%C3%B9as%C3%AC%29_in_Datong%2C_Shanxi_Province%2C_China.jpg \"Statue of Hariti (鬼子母 Guizimu) in Shanhua Temple (善化寺 Shànhùasì) in Datong, Shanxi Province, China.jpg\")", "### [Hārītī](/wiki/H%C4%81r%C4%ABt%C4%AB \"Hārītī\")", "In Chinese, she is known as *Guǐzǐmǔ* (鬼子母). Originally from Hinduism, considered a demon consort of Pañcika who was converted to Buddhism by the Buddha.{{Cite web\\|title\\=鬼子母神\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E9%25AC%25BC%25E5%25AD%2590%25E6%25AF%258D%25E7%25A5%259E.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} Considered a protector deity of children. According to Buddhist legends, Hārītī was originally a [rākṣasī](/wiki/Rakshasa \"Rakshasa\") of [Rajgir](/wiki/Rajgir \"Rajgir\") at the same time that [Gautama Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha \"Gautama Buddha\") also lived there. She had hundreds of children of her own, whom she loved and doted upon, but to feed them, she abducted and killed the children of others. The bereaved mothers of her victims pleaded to the Buddha to save them. So, the Buddha stole the most beloved of her sons, and hid him under his rice bowl. After having desperately searched for her missing son throughout the universe, Hārītī finally appealed to the Buddha for help. The Buddha pointed out that she was suffering because she lost one of hundreds of children, and asked if she could imagine the suffering of parents whose only child had been devoured. She then repented and vowed to protect all children. In doing so, Hārītī became regarded as the protector of children and women in childbirth. In Chinese Buddhist iconographic form, she is often portrayed as standing with a child or several children or as holding a child in her arm.\n[thumb\\|Statue of Mólìzhītiān (*Mārīcī*) with eight\\-arms and four faces riding on a boar in Hongfashan Temple, [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\")\\|307x307px](/wiki/File:The_goddess_Marici_at_an_Esoteric_Buddhist_temple_in_Hong_Kong.jpg \"The goddess Marici at an Esoteric Buddhist temple in Hong Kong.jpg\")", "### [Mārīcī](/wiki/Marici_%28Buddhism%29 \"Marici (Buddhism)\")", "In Chinese, she is known as *Mólìzhītiān* (摩利支天). She is sometimes regarded as a goddess and sometimes regarded as a Bodhisattva. In Chinese Buddhism, she is sometimes considered an incarnation of the [Bodhisattva Cundī](/wiki/Cundi_%28Buddhism%29 \"Cundi (Buddhism)\"), with whom she shares similar iconography.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Stevens\\|first\\=Keith G.\\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38184849\\|title\\=Chinese gods \\= Fo xiang shen xiang\\|date\\=1997\\|publisher\\=Collins \\& Brown\\|isbn\\=1\\-85028\\-409\\-1\\|location\\=London\\|oclc\\=38184849}} She is also worshiped as the goddess of light and warfare and as the guardian of all nations, whom she protects from the fury of war.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/275253538\\|title\\=A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms : with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit\\-Pali index\\|date\\=2004\\|publisher\\=RoutledgeCurzon\\|others\\=Lewis Hodous, William Edward Soothill\\|isbn\\=0\\-203\\-64186\\-8\\|location\\=London\\|oclc\\=275253538}} In addition, she is also identified with [Mahēśvarī](/wiki/Parvati \"Parvati\") ([Parvati](/wiki/Parvati \"Parvati\")), the consort of [Maheśvara](/wiki/Shiva \"Shiva\"), and therefore has the title Mātrikā (佛母 *Fo mǔ*), Mother of the Myriad Buddhas. In Buddhist iconographic form, she has eight arms, each holding different types of weapons, and rides on a chariot drawn by eight boars. In another iconographic form, she is portrayed sitting down holding a fan. In [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion \"Chinese folk religion\") and [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism \"Taoism\"), she is sometimes identified as the goddess [Doumu](/wiki/Doumu \"Doumu\") (斗母元君; *Dǒumǔ Yuánjūn*), who is the personification of the Big Dipper as well as the feminine aspect of the cosmic [God of Heaven](/wiki/Chinese_theology \"Chinese theology\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Heguanzi\\|title\\=The Pheasant Cap Master and the end of history : linking religion to philosophy in early China\\|date\\=2013\\|others\\=Marnix Wells\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-387\\-08107\\-3\\|location\\=St. Petersburg, FL\\|oclc\\=1005481319}}", "### [Sāgara](/wiki/S%C4%81gara_%28Dragon_King%29 \"Sāgara (Dragon King)\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Suōjiéluó Lóngwáng* (娑竭羅龍王). In Chinese Buddhism, he is regarded as one of the [Eight Dragon Kings](/wiki/Dragon_King \"Dragon King\") who presides over the world's supply of rain, as well as one of sixteen Nāga that are spared from the assault of the [garudas](/wiki/Garuda \"Garuda\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=娑竭羅龍王\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E5%25A8%2591%25E7%25AB%25AD%25E7%25BE%2585%25E9%25BE%258D%25E7%258E%258B.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} He is also regarded as one of the Twenty\\-Eight Guardian deities of the thousand\\-armed manifestation of the [Bodhisattva Guanyin.](/wiki/Guanyin \"Guanyin\") In some [Mahayana sutras](/wiki/Mahayana_sutras \"Mahayana sutras\"), his palace is said to lie at the bottom of the ocean and is 84,000 [yojanas](/wiki/Yojanas \"Yojanas\") in length and width with an array of decorations that are seven\\-fold, including walls, banisters, jeweled nets and seven rows of trees. The palace is adorned with the [seven treasures](/wiki/Seven_treasures \"Seven treasures\") and is filled with the song of innumerable birds.\n[thumb\\|395x395px\\|14th century Chinese [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty \"Yuan dynasty\") portrait of Yánluó Wáng (*Yama*). One of a series of paintings of the \"Ten Kings of Hell\" by Lu Xinzhong.\\|left](/wiki/File:%E4%BA%94%E4%B8%83%E9%96%BB%E7%BE%85%E5%A4%A7%E7%8E%8B.jpg \"五七閻羅大王.jpg\")", "### [Yama](/wiki/Yama_%28Buddhism%29 \"Yama (Buddhism)\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *[Yanluo Wang](/wiki/Yanluo_Wang \"Yanluo Wang\")* (閻羅王) or *Yánmóluówáng* (閻摩羅王). Originally from Hinduism, he is considered as one of the Ten Kings of Hell{{Cite web\\|title\\=閻羅十殿\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E9%2596%25BB%25E7%25BE%2585%25E5%258D%2581%25E6%25AE%25BF.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} who judges the souls of the dead in a court in the realm of the [underworld](/wiki/Diyu \"Diyu\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=閻魔王\\|url\\=http://buddhaspace.org/dict/fk/data/%25E9%2596%25BB%25E9%25AD%2594%25E7%258E%258B.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=buddhaspace.org}} In Buddhist iconographic form, he is usually portrayed as a large man with a scowling red face, bulging eyes, and a long beard. He wears traditional judge robes and a judge's cap or a crown which bears the [character](/wiki/Hanzi \"Hanzi\") for \"king\" (王). He has also been syncretized into [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism \"Taoism\") and [Chinese folk religion](/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion \"Chinese folk religion\") as a god of the dead as well, performing largely the same functions as his Chinese Buddhist counterpart.", "### [Kinnara King](/wiki/Kinnara \"Kinnara\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Jǐnnàluó Wáng* (緊那羅王). In Buddhist iconographic form, depicted as either male or female. The male form has a horse head with a male body. Some Buddhist also venerates him as their Kitchen God as an equivalent to the traditional [Taoist](/wiki/Taoism \"Taoism\") [Zao Jun](/wiki/Kitchen_God \"Kitchen God\"). In the [Shaolin](/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery \"Shaolin Monastery\") tradition, he is conflated with [Vajrapani](/wiki/Vajrapani \"Vajrapani\") (in his manifestation as [Nārāyaṇa](/wiki/Nio_%28Buddhism%29 \"Nio (Buddhism)\")) and is identified as an avatar of the [Bodhisattva Guanyin](/wiki/Guanyin \"Guanyin\"), who manifested to defend the Shaolin monastery from bandits during the [Yuan\\-era](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty \"Yuan dynasty\") [Red Turban Rebellion](/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion \"Red Turban Rebellion\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Shahar\\|first\\=Meir\\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvmxs5\\|title\\=The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts\\|date\\=2008\\|publisher\\=University of Hawai'i Press\\|jstor\\=j.ctvvmxs5\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8248\\-3110\\-3}}", "### [Emperor Zi Wei](/wiki/Zi_wei_emperor \"Zi wei emperor\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Zǐwēi Dàdì* (紫微大帝). Originally from Taoism, he is a personification of the North Star and considered to be the keeper of the book of destiny as well as a dispeller of demons who is revered for his power to ward off evil influences and spirits.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Stevens\\|first\\=Keith G.\\|title\\=Chinese gods \\= Fo xiang shen xiang\\|date\\=1997\\|publisher\\=Collins \\& Brown\\|isbn\\=1\\-85028\\-409\\-1\\|location\\=London\\|oclc\\=38184849}} In one iconographic form, he is portrayed as a standard Chinese official sitting on a throne. In another iconographic form, he is portrayed as a youth astride or sitting side\\-saddle atop a reclining mythical beast, holding a conch in his hands and dressed in trousers and a cape and wearing a tiara from which two objects, like insect feelers, project upwards.", "### Emperor Dongyue", "In Chinese, he is known as *Dōngyuè Dàdì* (東嶽大帝). Originally from Taoism, he is regarded as a god who resides at [Mount Tai](/wiki/Mount_Tai \"Mount Tai\") and judges what realm of [Saṃsāra](/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra \"Saṃsāra\") a person will be reborn in. He is also believed to be the leader of a large bureaucratic celestial ministry overseeing the maintenance of the Book of Life, a register of the due dates on which each and every human soul must be summoned before the Judges of Hell for judgement.", "### [Thunder God](/wiki/Leigong \"Leigong\")", "In Chinese, he is known as *Léigōng* (雷公) or *Léishén* (雷神). Originally from Taoism, he is regarded as the god of thunder as well as a punisher of evil\\-doers who is feared as being particularly merciless towards those who oppress widows and orphans and those who kidnap children. His Buddhist iconographic form has been strongly influenced by that of [Garuda](/wiki/Garuda \"Garuda\") from the Hindu pantheon to form a half\\-man and half\\-bird entity, bearing a pair of wings on his back and holding a hammer and a chisel in his hands as well as a sling of drums around his neck.", "" ]
History ------- ### Background In 1937, the [Korean National Revolutionary Party](/wiki/Korean_National_Revolutionary_Party "Korean National Revolutionary Party"), the Korean Youth Vanguard League, the Korean National Liberation League, and the Korean Anarchist League, which had been campaigning for independence in China after the second national\-communist cooperation, had a joint meeting in [Wuhan](/wiki/Wuhan "Wuhan"), [Hubei Province](/wiki/Hubei_Province "Hubei Province"), and established the Korean National Front Federation. The Chosŏn Volunteer Corps was formed as an armed force under it. The Chosŏn National Revolutionary Party had [Kim Won\-bong](/wiki/Kim_Won-bong "Kim Won-bong"), who had led the [Heroic Corps](/wiki/Heroic_Corps "Heroic Corps") activities, as its leader, and the Chosŏn National Liberation Alliance was formed in 1936 with Kim San and others as the main axis. On the other hand, at that time, there were already about 50 members of the communist Chosŏn Youth War Service Corps led by Choi Chang\-ik, and they were also reorganized into the Chosŏn Volunteer Corps. The Chosŏn Volunteer Corps, with Kim Won\-bong as its commander\-in\- chief, was commanded by the Chinese Military Commission, headed by Chiang Kai\-shek, according to the national\-communist cooperation. In June 1938, Japanese forces launched an attack on Wuhan, starting the [Battle of Wuhan](/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan "Battle of Wuhan"). The Battle of Wuhan was the first large\-scale battle between China and Japan since the cooperation between the two countries. When the war turned unfavorable, Chiang Kai\-shek ordered the withdrawal of Wuhan on October 24, and the Chosŏn Volunteer Army also withdrew accordingly. After that, the Chosŏn Volunteer Corps had no choice but to disperse and move to various places depending on the situation of the war. In November 1945, the 2,000 Chosŏn Volunteer Army, who marched into Manchuria, were divided into units 1, 3, 5, and 7 and spread throughout the country. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army expanded and reorganized into the 166th and 164th divisions of the Chinese People's Liberation Army and the independent 15th division as they recruited local Korean youths.{{cite web\|url\= https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0052177 \|title\=조선의용군 \|website\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] \|language\=ko \|trans\-title\= Chosŏn Volunteer Army}} #### Formation In 1939, the **Korean Volunteer Army** (KVA), was formed in [Yan'an](/wiki/Yan%27an "Yan'an"), China.Scobell \& Sanford 2007, p. 18\. The two individuals responsible for the army were [Kim Tu\-bong](/wiki/Kim_Tu-bong "Kim Tu-bong") and [Mu Chong](/wiki/Mu_Chong "Mu Chong"). At the same time, a school was established near Yan'an for training military and political leaders for a future independent Korea. By 1945, the KVA had grown to approximately 1,000 men, mostly Korean deserters from the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army "Imperial Japanese Army"). During this period, the KVA fought alongside the Chinese communist [Northeast Anti\-Japanese United Army](/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army "Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army") from which it drew its arms and ammunition. After the defeat of the Japanese, the KVA accompanied the [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party "Chinese Communist Party") forces into eastern [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin "Jilin"), intending to gain recruits from ethnic [Koreans in China](/wiki/Koreans_in_China "Koreans in China"), particularly from [Yanbian](/wiki/Yanbian "Yanbian"), and then enter Korea.Elleman, Bruce. *Beijing's Power and China's Borders: Twenty Neighbors in Asia*. Routledge (2014\). pp. 116–117 The commander\-in\-chief of the Korean Volunteer Corps was Kim Won\-bong, but after the retreat from Wuhan, the zones that were scattered in many places were acting independently. The Kuomintang government gave the Chosŏn Volunteer Corps a role such as interrogation of prisoners, but did not directly participate in the battle. Within the Korean Volunteer Corps, dissatisfaction arose about not being able to fight. In 1939, Kim Hak\-moo, the deputy head of the Korean Volunteer Corps, argued for North Korea through a political speech, saying, "The rear struggle without gunfire is a fake anti\-Japanese struggle." In accordance with this internal demand, Choi Chang\-ik led his unit and formed the North China Chosŏn Youth Association with the Yan'an (Chinese region) socialists, the stronghold of the Chinese Communist Party. Meanwhile, the Chosŏn Volunteer Corps, which was under the command of the Chinese Nationalist Party in the Hubei region, moved to Mount Taihang, the base of the Chinese Communist Party's main unit, fearing sacrifices due to anti\-communism within the Kuomintang . In July 1941, the two powers were reorganized into the Hwabuk region of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army. Sangmu Village in Dongyokjin, Taihang Mountain, where the North China Zone of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was established, is currently managed as a historical site in China. On the other hand, the Heroic Corps Commemorative Society believes that Kim Won\-bong's failure to join the Hwabuk region is due to Choi Chang\-ik's check. {{cite web\|url\= https://m.blog.naver.com/unira/220595523199\|title\= 조선의용대와조선의용군\|website\=\[\[Naver]] \|language\=ko \|trans\-title\= Chosŏn Volunteer Corps and Korean Volunteer Army}} There were 147 people in the northern part of the Korean Medical Corps in Taihang Mountain, and the main mission was propaganda work, but there were several engagements with the Japanese army. In particular, the Battle of Hojiazhuang on December 12, 1941, was a fierce battle in which 29 Korean volunteers fought against about 500 Japanese troops. The Chinese Communist Party's official newspaper 《Liberation Daily》 reported on the war situation and became widely known. In 1942, when the main unit of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army in [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing "Chongqing") was incorporated into the [Korean Liberation Army](/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army "Korean Liberation Army"), a military unit of the [Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea](/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Korea "Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea"), the Chosŏn Youth Association in North China reorganized into the Chosŏn Independence Alliance and elected Kim Du\-bong as the president. Kim Du\-bong was a disciple of Ju Si\-gyeong and also a [Hangul](/wiki/Hangul "Hangul") activist. Also, the Chosŏn Volunteer Corp's Hwabuk area was reorganized into their party army, the Chosŏn Volunteer Army. At the beginning of its establishment, the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was a unit with independent command, but after 1943 it was commanded by the Palogun. From the point of view of the Korean Independence Alliance, the establishment of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was the realization of the wish of achieving independence through armed resistance, but from the point of view of the Chinese Communist Party, it was one of the responses to the [Northeast Anti\-Japanese United Army](/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army "Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army"), which was active in Manchuria with support from the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") at the time. Also, the consciousness of competition against the Korean Liberation Army, which was under the influence of the [Kuomintang](/wiki/Kuomintang "Kuomintang"), also worked. The commander\-in\-chief of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was Kim Moo\-jeong, who was located in Yan'an, and the commander of the North Hwabuk area was Park Hyo\-sam. After moving to Yeonan at the end of 1943, as the armed struggle with Japan continued, Koreans around them enlisted and the number of troops increased significantly. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army trained officers by successively opening Chosŏn Youth Military and Political Officers School in September 1944, Shandong branch school of Chosŏn Military Political School in October, and Yanan Chosŏn Military Political School in February 1945\. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army dispatched squads to Shandong and Shaanxi in Hebei from Taihang Mountain as a base, and dispatched members to Huazhong after the formation of the Sinsagun.{{cite web\|url\= http://contents.history.go.kr/front/tg/view.do?treeId\=0202\&levelId\=tg\_004\_2760\&ganada\=\&pageUnit\=1 \|title\=조선의용군 \|website\=\[\[National Institute of Korean History]] \|language\=ko \|trans\-title\= Chosŏn Volunteer Army}} ### Activities #### Propaganda campaign in Sunmu The main mission of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was the operation of Seonmu in the North Hwabuk region. They wrote posters on buildings in areas occupied by the Japanese military and distributed leaflets written in three languages: Korea, China, and Japan. An old man from Hebei Province who remembers what happened at the time reported the activities of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, saying, "Even though the enemy was tens of minutes away, we did everything we had to do." #### Battle of Hujiazhuang The Battle of Hojiazhuang is a battle with the Japanese army that took place when the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was still maintained as the northern part of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army. In December 1941, the north China region conducted activities such as Wonssi\-hyeon, Bukyeong, and Wangjiazhuang, and burned Japanese military fortifications. On December 11, at Seonongchae, they encountered Japanese forces and engaged in an engagement, and continued their activities without any casualties.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.okpedia.kr/Contents/ContentsView?localCode\=krcn\&contentsId\=GC05302542 \|title\=조선의용군 \|website\=\[\[Academy of Korean Studies]] \|language\=ko \|trans\-title\= Chosŏn Volunteer Army}} The next day, December 12, 29 members of the 2nd Corps, who conducted propaganda activities in the area of Hujiazhuang, Wenxi County, Hebei Province, stayed overnight in the village and were surrounded by 500 Japanese soldiers . While member Park Cheol\-dong broke through the siege and went to the Palo County to request support, Kim Hak\- cheol was shot in the leg and arrested. Members of the 2nd squad broke through the encirclement with the Eighth Army, who came out to support after resisting fiercely, and returned home while continuing to engage the pursuing Japanese army. On December 28, another battle took place in Xingtai, and Son Il\-bong, Choi Chul \-ho, Wang Hyeon \-soon, and Park Chul\-dong were killed in the battle, and Captain Kim Se\-gwang, squad leader Cho Yeol \- gwang, and member Jang Rye \-shin were wounded. Meanwhile, the Japanese suffered 18 killed and 32 wounded. Arresting Kim Hak\-cheol was not recognized as a party to the war and was tried for violating the "Public Safety Law", sentenced to 10 years in prison, imprisoned in Nagasaki Prison, and released on the occasion of the August 15th . The four soldiers who died in the Battle of Hojiazhuang were buried in Huangpeiping Village, and villagers cared for these graves until the Chosŏn Volunteer Cemetery was recognized as a historic site. After being designated as a historic site in 2002, a monument is erected. In 1993, Son Il\-bong and Choi Cheol\-ho were posthumously awarded the Patriotic Medal of the Order of the National Order of the Republic of Korea.{{cite web\|url\= https://m.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/A2023081215430002551\|title\=\[르포] '조선의용군 주둔지'에 왜 중국공산당 깃발이... 남북서 외면당한 타이항산의 별들 \|website\=\[\[Hankook Ilbo]] \|language\=ko \|trans\-title\= \[Repo] Why is the flag of the Communist Party of China in the 'Chosŏn Volunteer Army Garrison'... Stars of Mount Taihang ignored by North and South Korea}} #### Battle of Mount Taihang In February 1942, Japanese forces launched an attack on Mount Taihang in an attempt to annihilate the anti\-Japanese militants in the Hebei region. In May, the 41st Division of the Japanese Army completely surrounded Mount Taihang, and the Eighth Route Army and the Chosŏn Volunteer Army had to secure a retreat for retreat. In this battle, the Eighth Army's deputy chief of staff, Zuoquan, was killed (the area is today called Zuoquan County ), and about 10 members of the Chosŏn Uiyong Army, including Yun Se\-ju and Jin Gwang\-hwa, were killed. After the battle, the funerals of Zuoquan, Yun Se\-ju, and Jin Guang\-hwa were held, and the commander of the Eighth Route Army, Zhu De, read a eulogy.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.tongilnews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=132591\|title\= 독립동맹과 조선의용대·조선의용군①\|website\= Tongil News\|language\=ko \|trans\-title\= The Independence Alliance and the Chosŏn Volunteer Army ①}} #### Battle of Jinseobei On November 13, 1942, the Chosŏn Uiyong Army set up a squad north of Jinseo, located in the Luryang Mountains, a mountain range west of Shanxi . The head of the squad was Kim Se\-gwang and the organizer was Myung\-cheol Mun . The Jinseobuk Squad, which had been engaged with the Japanese army several times since its establishment, was surrounded by hundreds of Japanese soldiers on April 14, 1943, and Myung Myung\-cheol was killed during the battle. Myung Myeong\-cheol, a native of Jeollanam\-do, entered the Huangpu Military Academy for the anti\-Japanese struggle and continued to work as an officer of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army after joining the Korean Volunteer Corps in the Kuomintang district in 1941\.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.tongilnews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=132650\|title\=화북조선독립동맹과 조선의용대·조선의용군② \|website\= Tongil News \|language\=ko \|trans\-title\= North Korean Independence Alliance and Chosŏn Volunteer Corps and Chosŏn Volunteer Army②}} ### After liberation In August 1945, Kim Du\-bong, who predicted the defeat of Japanese imperialism, led four battalions of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army and headed for the Yalu River. However, Japan surrendered unconditionally before crossing the border, and the Soviet military government disarmed the Chosŏn Volunteer Army without recognizing it. On August 11, 1945, the Chinese Communist Party launched the Chosŏn Volunteer Army into Manchuria. The 2,000 Chosŏn Volunteer Army, which marched into Manchuria in November 1945, were divided into zones 1, 3, 5, and 7 and spread throughout the country. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army was expanded and reorganized into the 166th and 164th divisions of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, and the independent 15th division, which recruited local Korean youth . The Chosŏn Volunteer Army, under the command of the Eighth Army of China from 1943, grew from about 140 soldiers at the time of Gyeongseong to more than 1,000 troops in August 1945 when World War II ended. {{cite web\|url\= http://m.ecumenian.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=22631\|title\= 조선의용군의 분열과 해체 \|website\= Ecumenian \|language\=ko \|trans\-title\=Division and Dissolution of the Korean Volunteer Army}} About 100 commanders, including Kim Moo\-jeong, also entered Korea in December 1945 as individuals. Members of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, including Kim Moo\-jung, were called Yeonanpa and formed a major political force in the early days of the establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea Meanwhile, the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, which remained in China, was caught up in the Chinese Civil War . The members remaining in Yan'an moved to Manchuria according to the order of the Chinese Communist Party and gathered in Yanbian to protect the Koreans. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army's stationing in Yanbian later became the background for the formation of an autonomous state for ethnic Koreans. On December 17, 1946, seven battalions surrendered to the Kuomintang. The only remaining battalion to the end was the Korean battalion.” The operation to separate the Koreans from the Chinese Communist Party was in vain. It seems to come towards us, but eventually betrays us. It is a truly cunning and distrustful nation. The sacrifices are great, and the results are insignificant. In 1949, the 164th (12,000 men led by Vice Commander Kim Chang\- deok) and the 166th (10,000 men led by Division Commander Bang Ho\-san), organized by the Chosŏn Volunteer Army within the Chinese People’s Liberation Army, were organized and sent to North Korea. They sent not only their bodies, but also weapons and equipment. (Chinese People's Liberation Army 164th Division Korean People's Army 5th Division Reorganized Division Commander Kim Chang\- deok Chinese People's Liberation Army 166th Division Korean People's Army 6th Division Reorganized Division Commander Bang Ho\-san entered North Korea from July to August 1949\) Under the leadership of comrades , the 15th independent division of the People's Liberation Army of China (14,000 men) arrived in Wonsan from Sinuiju by train in early April 1950, and was reorganized into the 12th division of the People's Army (commander Jeon Woo ). In addition, about 55,000 to 60,000 troops led by the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, such as Shenyang Mixed Troops, Korean\-Chinese troops of the Railway Corps, and Jilin branch students of the Northeast Military Government University, were incorporated into the People's Army, and the North Korean military power was greatly increased. Received encouragement to “go to South Korea and annihilate the reactionary forces of Syngman Rhee,” he crossed the border and arrived in North Korea ( 80% of all officers were Koreans who belonged to the People's Liberation Army of China ) . After the Korean People's Army was created, many were incorporated into the People's Army after the Korean Civil War . The Yeonan Faction, which was associated with the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, was involved in the August Sect Incident after the Korean War and was purged by Kim Il\-sung in 1958\.
[ "History\n-------", "### Background", "In 1937, the [Korean National Revolutionary Party](/wiki/Korean_National_Revolutionary_Party \"Korean National Revolutionary Party\"), the Korean Youth Vanguard League, the Korean National Liberation League, and the Korean Anarchist League, which had been campaigning for independence in China after the second national\\-communist cooperation, had a joint meeting in [Wuhan](/wiki/Wuhan \"Wuhan\"), [Hubei Province](/wiki/Hubei_Province \"Hubei Province\"), and established the Korean National Front Federation. The Chosŏn Volunteer Corps was formed as an armed force under it. The Chosŏn National Revolutionary Party had [Kim Won\\-bong](/wiki/Kim_Won-bong \"Kim Won-bong\"), who had led the [Heroic Corps](/wiki/Heroic_Corps \"Heroic Corps\") activities, as its leader, and the Chosŏn National Liberation Alliance was formed in 1936 with Kim San and others as the main axis. On the other hand, at that time, there were already about 50 members of the communist Chosŏn Youth War Service Corps led by Choi Chang\\-ik, and they were also reorganized into the Chosŏn Volunteer Corps. The Chosŏn Volunteer Corps, with Kim Won\\-bong as its commander\\-in\\- chief, was commanded by the Chinese Military Commission, headed by Chiang Kai\\-shek, according to the national\\-communist cooperation.", "In June 1938, Japanese forces launched an attack on Wuhan, starting the [Battle of Wuhan](/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan \"Battle of Wuhan\"). The Battle of Wuhan was the first large\\-scale battle between China and Japan since the cooperation between the two countries. When the war turned unfavorable, Chiang Kai\\-shek ordered the withdrawal of Wuhan on October 24, and the Chosŏn Volunteer Army also withdrew accordingly. After that, the Chosŏn Volunteer Corps had no choice but to disperse and move to various places depending on the situation of the war. In November 1945, the 2,000 Chosŏn Volunteer Army, who marched into Manchuria, were divided into units 1, 3, 5, and 7 and spread throughout the country. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army expanded and reorganized into the 166th and 164th divisions of the Chinese People's Liberation Army and the independent 15th division as they recruited local Korean youths.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0052177 \\|title\\=조선의용군 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] \\|language\\=ko \\|trans\\-title\\= Chosŏn Volunteer Army}}", "#### Formation", "In 1939, the **Korean Volunteer Army** (KVA), was formed in [Yan'an](/wiki/Yan%27an \"Yan'an\"), China.Scobell \\& Sanford 2007, p. 18\\. The two individuals responsible for the army were [Kim Tu\\-bong](/wiki/Kim_Tu-bong \"Kim Tu-bong\") and [Mu Chong](/wiki/Mu_Chong \"Mu Chong\"). At the same time, a school was established near Yan'an for training military and political leaders for a future independent Korea. By 1945, the KVA had grown to approximately 1,000 men, mostly Korean deserters from the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army \"Imperial Japanese Army\"). During this period, the KVA fought alongside the Chinese communist [Northeast Anti\\-Japanese United Army](/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army \"Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army\") from which it drew its arms and ammunition. After the defeat of the Japanese, the KVA accompanied the [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party \"Chinese Communist Party\") forces into eastern [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\"), intending to gain recruits from ethnic [Koreans in China](/wiki/Koreans_in_China \"Koreans in China\"), particularly from [Yanbian](/wiki/Yanbian \"Yanbian\"), and then enter Korea.Elleman, Bruce. *Beijing's Power and China's Borders: Twenty Neighbors in Asia*. Routledge (2014\\). pp. 116–117", "The commander\\-in\\-chief of the Korean Volunteer Corps was Kim Won\\-bong, but after the retreat from Wuhan, the zones that were scattered in many places were acting independently. The Kuomintang government gave the Chosŏn Volunteer Corps a role such as interrogation of prisoners, but did not directly participate in the battle. Within the Korean Volunteer Corps, dissatisfaction arose about not being able to fight. In 1939, Kim Hak\\-moo, the deputy head of the Korean Volunteer Corps, argued for North Korea through a political speech, saying, \"The rear struggle without gunfire is a fake anti\\-Japanese struggle.\" In accordance with this internal demand, Choi Chang\\-ik led his unit and formed the North China Chosŏn Youth Association with the Yan'an (Chinese region) socialists, the stronghold of the Chinese Communist Party. Meanwhile, the Chosŏn Volunteer Corps, which was under the command of the Chinese Nationalist Party in the Hubei region, moved to Mount Taihang, the base of the Chinese Communist Party's main unit, fearing sacrifices due to anti\\-communism within the Kuomintang . In July 1941, the two powers were reorganized into the Hwabuk region of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army. Sangmu Village in Dongyokjin, Taihang Mountain, where the North China Zone of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was established, is currently managed as a historical site in China. On the other hand, the Heroic Corps Commemorative Society believes that Kim Won\\-bong's failure to join the Hwabuk region is due to Choi Chang\\-ik's check.\n{{cite web\\|url\\= https://m.blog.naver.com/unira/220595523199\\|title\\= 조선의용대와조선의용군\\|website\\=\\[\\[Naver]] \\|language\\=ko \\|trans\\-title\\= Chosŏn Volunteer Corps and Korean Volunteer Army}}", "There were 147 people in the northern part of the Korean Medical Corps in Taihang Mountain, and the main mission was propaganda work, but there were several engagements with the Japanese army. In particular, the Battle of Hojiazhuang on December 12, 1941, was a fierce battle in which 29 Korean volunteers fought against about 500 Japanese troops. The Chinese Communist Party's official newspaper 《Liberation Daily》 reported on the war situation and became widely known.", "In 1942, when the main unit of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army in [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing \"Chongqing\") was incorporated into the [Korean Liberation Army](/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army \"Korean Liberation Army\"), a military unit of the [Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea](/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Korea \"Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea\"), the Chosŏn Youth Association in North China reorganized into the Chosŏn Independence Alliance and elected Kim Du\\-bong as the president. Kim Du\\-bong was a disciple of Ju Si\\-gyeong and also a [Hangul](/wiki/Hangul \"Hangul\") activist. Also, the Chosŏn Volunteer Corp's Hwabuk area was reorganized into their party army, the Chosŏn Volunteer Army. At the beginning of its establishment, the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was a unit with independent command, but after 1943 it was commanded by the Palogun. From the point of view of the Korean Independence Alliance, the establishment of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was the realization of the wish of achieving independence through armed resistance, but from the point of view of the Chinese Communist Party, it was one of the responses to the [Northeast Anti\\-Japanese United Army](/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army \"Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army\"), which was active in Manchuria with support from the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") at the time. Also, the consciousness of competition against the Korean Liberation Army, which was under the influence of the [Kuomintang](/wiki/Kuomintang \"Kuomintang\"), also worked.", "The commander\\-in\\-chief of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was Kim Moo\\-jeong, who was located in Yan'an, and the commander of the North Hwabuk area was Park Hyo\\-sam. After moving to Yeonan at the end of 1943, as the armed struggle with Japan continued, Koreans around them enlisted and the number of troops increased significantly. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army trained officers by successively opening Chosŏn Youth Military and Political Officers School in September 1944, Shandong branch school of Chosŏn Military Political School in October, and Yanan Chosŏn Military Political School in February 1945\\. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army dispatched squads to Shandong and Shaanxi in Hebei from Taihang Mountain as a base, and dispatched members to Huazhong after the formation of the Sinsagun.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://contents.history.go.kr/front/tg/view.do?treeId\\=0202\\&levelId\\=tg\\_004\\_2760\\&ganada\\=\\&pageUnit\\=1 \\|title\\=조선의용군 \\|website\\=\\[\\[National Institute of Korean History]] \\|language\\=ko \\|trans\\-title\\= Chosŏn Volunteer Army}}", "### Activities", "#### Propaganda campaign in Sunmu", "The main mission of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was the operation of Seonmu in the North Hwabuk region. They wrote posters on buildings in areas occupied by the Japanese military and distributed leaflets written in three languages: Korea, China, and Japan. An old man from Hebei Province who remembers what happened at the time reported the activities of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, saying, \"Even though the enemy was tens of minutes away, we did everything we had to do.\"", "#### Battle of Hujiazhuang", "The Battle of Hojiazhuang is a battle with the Japanese army that took place when the Chosŏn Volunteer Army was still maintained as the northern part of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army. In December 1941, the north China region conducted activities such as Wonssi\\-hyeon, Bukyeong, and Wangjiazhuang, and burned Japanese military fortifications. On December 11, at Seonongchae, they encountered Japanese forces and engaged in an engagement, and continued their activities without any casualties.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.okpedia.kr/Contents/ContentsView?localCode\\=krcn\\&contentsId\\=GC05302542 \\|title\\=조선의용군 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Academy of Korean Studies]] \\|language\\=ko \\|trans\\-title\\= Chosŏn Volunteer Army}}", "The next day, December 12, 29 members of the 2nd Corps, who conducted propaganda activities in the area of Hujiazhuang, Wenxi County, Hebei Province, stayed overnight in the village and were surrounded by 500 Japanese soldiers . While member Park Cheol\\-dong broke through the siege and went to the Palo County to request support, Kim Hak\\- cheol was shot in the leg and arrested. Members of the 2nd squad broke through the encirclement with the Eighth Army, who came out to support after resisting fiercely, and returned home while continuing to engage the pursuing Japanese army. On December 28, another battle took place in Xingtai, and Son Il\\-bong, Choi Chul \\-ho, Wang Hyeon \\-soon, and Park Chul\\-dong were killed in the battle, and Captain Kim Se\\-gwang, squad leader Cho Yeol \\- gwang, and member Jang Rye \\-shin were wounded. Meanwhile, the Japanese suffered 18 killed and 32 wounded.", "Arresting Kim Hak\\-cheol was not recognized as a party to the war and was tried for violating the \"Public Safety Law\", sentenced to 10 years in prison, imprisoned in Nagasaki Prison, and released on the occasion of the August 15th . The four soldiers who died in the Battle of Hojiazhuang were buried in Huangpeiping Village, and villagers cared for these graves until the Chosŏn Volunteer Cemetery was recognized as a historic site. After being designated as a historic site in 2002, a monument is erected. In 1993, Son Il\\-bong and Choi Cheol\\-ho were posthumously awarded the Patriotic Medal of the Order of the National Order of the Republic of Korea.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://m.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/A2023081215430002551\\|title\\=\\[르포] '조선의용군 주둔지'에 왜 중국공산당 깃발이... 남북서 외면당한 타이항산의 별들 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Hankook Ilbo]] \\|language\\=ko \\|trans\\-title\\= \\[Repo] Why is the flag of the Communist Party of China in the 'Chosŏn Volunteer Army Garrison'... Stars of Mount Taihang ignored by North and South Korea}}", "#### Battle of Mount Taihang", "In February 1942, Japanese forces launched an attack on Mount Taihang in an attempt to annihilate the anti\\-Japanese militants in the Hebei region. In May, the 41st Division of the Japanese Army completely surrounded Mount Taihang, and the Eighth Route Army and the Chosŏn Volunteer Army had to secure a retreat for retreat. In this battle, the Eighth Army's deputy chief of staff, Zuoquan, was killed (the area is today called Zuoquan County ), and about 10 members of the Chosŏn Uiyong Army, including Yun Se\\-ju and Jin Gwang\\-hwa, were killed. After the battle, the funerals of Zuoquan, Yun Se\\-ju, and Jin Guang\\-hwa were held, and the commander of the Eighth Route Army, Zhu De, read a eulogy.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.tongilnews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=132591\\|title\\= 독립동맹과 조선의용대·조선의용군①\\|website\\= Tongil News\\|language\\=ko \\|trans\\-title\\= The Independence Alliance and the Chosŏn Volunteer Army ①}}", "#### Battle of Jinseobei", "On November 13, 1942, the Chosŏn Uiyong Army set up a squad north of Jinseo, located in the Luryang Mountains, a mountain range west of Shanxi . The head of the squad was Kim Se\\-gwang and the organizer was Myung\\-cheol Mun . The Jinseobuk Squad, which had been engaged with the Japanese army several times since its establishment, was surrounded by hundreds of Japanese soldiers on April 14, 1943, and Myung Myung\\-cheol was killed during the battle. Myung Myeong\\-cheol, a native of Jeollanam\\-do, entered the Huangpu Military Academy for the anti\\-Japanese struggle and continued to work as an officer of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army after joining the Korean Volunteer Corps in the Kuomintang district in 1941\\.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.tongilnews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=132650\\|title\\=화북조선독립동맹과 조선의용대·조선의용군② \\|website\\= Tongil News \\|language\\=ko \\|trans\\-title\\= North Korean Independence Alliance and Chosŏn Volunteer Corps and Chosŏn Volunteer Army②}}", "### After liberation", "In August 1945, Kim Du\\-bong, who predicted the defeat of Japanese imperialism, led four battalions of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army and headed for the Yalu River. However, Japan surrendered unconditionally before crossing the border, and the Soviet military government disarmed the Chosŏn Volunteer Army without recognizing it. On August 11, 1945, the Chinese Communist Party launched the Chosŏn Volunteer Army into Manchuria. The 2,000 Chosŏn Volunteer Army, which marched into Manchuria in November 1945, were divided into zones 1, 3, 5, and 7 and spread throughout the country. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army was expanded and reorganized into the 166th and 164th divisions of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, and the independent 15th division, which recruited local Korean youth . The Chosŏn Volunteer Army, under the command of the Eighth Army of China from 1943, grew from about 140 soldiers at the time of Gyeongseong to more than 1,000 troops in August 1945 when World War II ended.\n{{cite web\\|url\\= http://m.ecumenian.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=22631\\|title\\= 조선의용군의 분열과 해체 \\|website\\= Ecumenian \\|language\\=ko \\|trans\\-title\\=Division and Dissolution of the Korean Volunteer Army}}", "About 100 commanders, including Kim Moo\\-jeong, also entered Korea in December 1945 as individuals. Members of the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, including Kim Moo\\-jung, were called Yeonanpa and formed a major political force in the early days of the establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea \nMeanwhile, the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, which remained in China, was caught up in the Chinese Civil War . The members remaining in Yan'an moved to Manchuria according to the order of the Chinese Communist Party and gathered in Yanbian to protect the Koreans. The Chosŏn Volunteer Army's stationing in Yanbian later became the background for the formation of an autonomous state for ethnic Koreans. On December 17, 1946, seven battalions surrendered to the Kuomintang. The only remaining battalion to the end was the Korean battalion.” The operation to separate the Koreans from the Chinese Communist Party was in vain. It seems to come towards us, but eventually betrays us. It is a truly cunning and distrustful nation. The sacrifices are great, and the results are insignificant.", "In 1949, the 164th (12,000 men led by Vice Commander Kim Chang\\- deok) and the 166th (10,000 men led by Division Commander Bang Ho\\-san), organized by the Chosŏn Volunteer Army within the Chinese People’s Liberation Army, were organized and sent to North Korea. They sent not only their bodies, but also weapons and equipment. (Chinese People's Liberation Army 164th Division Korean People's Army 5th Division Reorganized Division Commander Kim Chang\\- deok Chinese People's Liberation Army 166th Division Korean People's Army 6th Division Reorganized Division Commander Bang Ho\\-san entered North Korea from July to August 1949\\)", "Under the leadership of comrades , the 15th independent division of the People's Liberation Army of China (14,000 men) arrived in Wonsan from Sinuiju by train in early April 1950, and was reorganized into the 12th division of the People's Army (commander Jeon Woo ). In addition, about 55,000 to 60,000 troops led by the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, such as Shenyang Mixed Troops, Korean\\-Chinese troops of the Railway Corps, and Jilin branch students of the Northeast Military Government University, were incorporated into the People's Army, and the North Korean military power was greatly increased. Received encouragement to “go to South Korea and annihilate the reactionary forces of Syngman Rhee,” he crossed the border and arrived in North Korea ( 80% of all officers were Koreans who belonged to the People's Liberation Army of China ) .\nAfter the Korean People's Army was created, many were incorporated into the People's Army after the Korean Civil War . \nThe Yeonan Faction, which was associated with the Chosŏn Volunteer Army, was involved in the August Sect Incident after the Korean War and was purged by Kim Il\\-sung in 1958\\.", "" ]
Career ------ Cruz was signed as an undrafted free agent by the [Los Angeles Dodgers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Dodgers "Los Angeles Dodgers") on January 1, 1971\. He made his major league debut, as a pinch hitter, on April 18, 1975, against the [San Francisco Giants](/wiki/San_Francisco_Giants "San Francisco Giants"). He recorded his first hit on April 20 against the Giants. Cruz played parts of the 1975 and 1976 seasons with the Dodgers. He was claimed off waivers by the Chicago White Sox near the end of the 1977 season while hitting .353 for the AAA [Albuquerque Dukes](/wiki/Albuquerque_Dukes "Albuquerque Dukes")."Twice Around the Bases" book by Kevin Kennedy Cruz was signed off waivers by the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox "Chicago White Sox") in September 1977\. He played 16 games for the Sox in 77 and another 53 games in 1978\. He remained in the Sox minor league system through 1980, when he was picked up off waivers by the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers "Detroit Tigers"). Cruz retired after playing for the [Evansville Triplets](/wiki/Evansville_Triplets "Evansville Triplets") in 1981\. However, he then went on to play in the Mexican League for the following 4 years: 1982 played for Reynosa Broncos; 1983 played for Leon, Guanahuato; and 1984–85 played for the Saltillo Seraperos. He ended his playing career after the 1985 season. He was also one of the most consistent hitters for the [Arecibo Wolves](/wiki/Lobos_de_Arecibo "Lobos de Arecibo") in the [Puerto Rico Winter Baseball League](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Professional_Baseball_League "Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League") during this period. Cruz spent 10 seasons as a scout for the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians "Cleveland Indians") following his playing days. In 2007, the Dodgers hired him to be the hitting instructor for Class\-A [Ogden Raptors](/wiki/Ogden_Raptors "Ogden Raptors"). He was moved to the [Inland Empire 66ers](/wiki/Inland_Empire_66ers "Inland Empire 66ers") in 2008\.
[ "Career\n------", "Cruz was signed as an undrafted free agent by the [Los Angeles Dodgers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Dodgers \"Los Angeles Dodgers\") on January 1, 1971\\. He made his major league debut, as a pinch hitter, on April 18, 1975, against the [San Francisco Giants](/wiki/San_Francisco_Giants \"San Francisco Giants\"). He recorded his first hit on April 20 against the Giants.", "Cruz played parts of the 1975 and 1976 seasons with the Dodgers. He was claimed off waivers by the Chicago White Sox near the end of the 1977 season while hitting .353 for the AAA [Albuquerque Dukes](/wiki/Albuquerque_Dukes \"Albuquerque Dukes\").\"Twice Around the Bases\" book by Kevin Kennedy", "Cruz was signed off waivers by the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox \"Chicago White Sox\") in September 1977\\. He played 16 games for the Sox in 77 and another 53 games in 1978\\. He remained in the Sox minor league system through 1980, when he was picked up off waivers by the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers \"Detroit Tigers\").", "Cruz retired after playing for the [Evansville Triplets](/wiki/Evansville_Triplets \"Evansville Triplets\") in 1981\\. However, he then went on to play in the Mexican League for the following 4 years: 1982 played for Reynosa Broncos; 1983 played for Leon, Guanahuato; and 1984–85 played for the Saltillo Seraperos. He ended his playing career after the 1985 season.", "He was also one of the most consistent hitters for the [Arecibo Wolves](/wiki/Lobos_de_Arecibo \"Lobos de Arecibo\") in the [Puerto Rico Winter Baseball League](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Professional_Baseball_League \"Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League\") during this period.", "Cruz spent 10 seasons as a scout for the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians \"Cleveland Indians\") following his playing days. In 2007, the Dodgers hired him to be the hitting instructor for Class\\-A [Ogden Raptors](/wiki/Ogden_Raptors \"Ogden Raptors\"). He was moved to the [Inland Empire 66ers](/wiki/Inland_Empire_66ers \"Inland Empire 66ers\") in 2008\\.", "" ]
Major works ----------- ### The laws of productivity under competitive conditions {{More sources\|date\=September 2024}} In 1925, Sraffa wrote about [returns to scale](/wiki/Returns_to_scale "Returns to scale") and [perfect competition](/wiki/Perfect_competition "Perfect competition"). In the 1926 article, "The Laws of Returns under Competitive Conditions", published in *The Economic Journal*, Sraffa resumes and develops his work of 1925 to show the inconsistency of the [Marshallian](/wiki/Alfred_Marshall "Alfred Marshall") theory of [partial equilibrium](/wiki/Partial_equilibrium "Partial equilibrium"), according to which, in competition for each good: 1. The equilibrium price is determined by the intersection of the demand curve and that of the supply. The supply curve is symmetrical to that of the demand. 2. As the quantity produced by the firm increases, there are initially increasing returns and, beyond a certain point, decreasing returns.The [marginal cost](/wiki/Marginal_cost "Marginal cost") curve has a "U" shape: first, it decreases, then it grows until it first meets the [average cost](/wiki/Average_cost "Average cost") curve, then the straight line (which is given, in conditions of competition); the different points of intersection between the growing part of the marginal cost curve (beyond the intersection with the average cost curve) and the various possible price lines constitute the supply curve for the individual firm. Sraffa notes that the [law of decreasing returns](/wiki/Diminishing_returns "Diminishing returns") and that of increasing returns have different origins and areas of application (and therefore cannot explain the shape of the same supply curve): the law of diminishing returns was originally applied to the entire economy and resulted from the scarcity of the agricultural land as a mean of production (the rent theory of [David Ricardo](/wiki/David_Ricardo "David Ricardo")); while the law of increasing returns applied to the individual firm and resulted from the benefits of division of labour. The first one allowed for the study of the laws of distribution, and the second those of production. "Nobody, until comparatively recently \- Sraffa writes \- had thought of unifying these two tendencies in one single law of non\-proportional productivity, and considering this as one of the bases of the theory of price"Caloca Osorio, Oscar Rogelio; Cárdenas Almagro, Antonio; Octavio Ortiz Mendoza, Enrique, *La frontera Sraffa\-Ricardo entre salario y cuota de ganancia, un modelo de asimetría/The Sraffa\-Ricardo Boundary Between Salary and Profit Rate, an Asymmetric Model*, Análisis Económico. 2014, Vol. 28 Issue 70, p73\-93\. 21p. Sraffa observes that the idea of considering the law of non\-proportional returns as a basis for the price theory arose, for analogy, only after the study of decreasing utility had drawn attention to the relationship between the price and the quantity consumed. In fact, "if the cost of production of every unit of the commodity under consideration did not vary with variations in quantity produced the symmetry would be broken, the price would be determined exclusively by the expenses of production and demand would be unable to have any influence on it at all".Sraffa (1925 in 1998, p. 324\). The difficulties of the system that could, in short, be defined as the cross of the supply and demand curves firstly depend on the heterogeneity of the assumptions on which these two different tendencies are based. Decreasing returns and increasing costs are caused by the limited availability of some input which prevents all inputs from varying in optimal proportion. In other words, if an input is limited in quantity, a rise in production levels brings about a less efficient proportion among inputs with a fall in productivity. By contrast, the tendency toward decreasing costs stems from variations in the quantity of all inputs, and therefore they may occur only when there are no constant factors.Sraffa (1926, p. 539\); cf. Morroni (1998a, p. 209; 1998b, p. 402\). A second difficulty stems from the fact that, as Sraffa notes, in the neoclassical theory of prices the equilibrium of the individual firm is determined on the basis of cost variations deriving from small increases in its production (marginalist theory) and taking the situation unchanged in other companies of the same industry and the entire economy, following the hypothesis of *ceteris paribus*, i.e. other conditions being equal.Sraffa (1925 in 1998, pp. 358\-359; 1926, pp. 538\-539\); Morroni (1998a, p. 210\). Sraffa highlights that the possibility of applying the hypothesis of increasing costs to the supply curve is limited to the rare cases in which a considerable part of the supply of input is employed for the production of only one commodity. However, in general, each input is employed by a certain number of industries that produce different goods.Sraffa (1926, p. 540\); Morroni (1998a, p. 221\). As for increasing returns and decreasing costs, Marshall himself notes that external economies can hardly be attributed clearly to a specific industry, but they are of considerable interest to groups, often of a large size, in related industries; consequently, it is not possible to hypothesize an increase in returns in just one company.Sraffa (1925 in 1998, pp. 361\-362; 1926, p. 540\); cf. Morroni (1985, p. 109; 1998b, pp. 402\-403\). If in the partial equilibrium system of competitive prices, it is not possible to consider decreasing or increasing costs without contradicting the nature of the system, it follows, from this point of view, that production costs of goods produced in competition must be regarded as constant in respect of small variations in the quantity produced"Sraffa (1926, p. 541\). and that the long\-run supply curve of an industry is horizontal. As a consequence, the price and the quantity of a good do not derive from the simultaneous action of the supply and demand curves: the price is determined by production costs, while the quantity produced is determined by the demand. The neoclassical symmetry between demand and supply is broken. The old theory that, in competition, "makes the value of commodities dependent on the cost of production alone appears to hold its ground as the best available" (1926b:540\-1\).Sraffa (1925 in 1998, p. 363\). Finally, Sraffa remarks that "everyday experience shows that the majority of which produce manufactured consumers' goods operate in conditions of individual diminishing costs. If the limit to the firm's expansion does not arise from increasing costs, then it may arise from the difficulty in expanding the market share without changing any of these three aspects: improving the quality of the output, reducing its price, or increasing marketing expenses. These considerations were developed, in the 1930s, by the theory of [imperfect competition](/wiki/Imperfect_competition "Imperfect competition"). ### Cambridge years {{More sources\|date\=September 2024}} In 1927, Sraffa's yet undiscussed [theory of value](/wiki/Theory_of_value_%28economics%29 "Theory of value (economics)"), but also his friendship with [Antonio Gramsci](/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci "Antonio Gramsci")—a risky and compromising endeavour in the context of the [Italian fascist regime](/wiki/Italy_under_fascism "Italy under fascism")—brought [John Maynard Keynes](/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes "John Maynard Keynes") to invite Sraffa to the [University of Cambridge](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge "University of Cambridge"), where the Italian economist was initially assigned a lectureship. Sraffa arrived in July of [1927](/wiki/1927 "1927") and remained there for life. In the shelter of the English city, he held courses about [advanced value theory](/wiki/Theory_of_value_%28economics%29 "Theory of value (economics)") in his first three years. Then, again with the help of Keynes, he held a librarian position and could devote himself to study, intertwining relationships with a series of intellectuals destined to leave remarkable and lasting tracks. Together with [Frank P. Ramsey](/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey "Frank P. Ramsey") and [Ludwig Wittgenstein](/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein "Ludwig Wittgenstein"), Sraffa joined the so\-called [cafeteria group](/wiki/Cafeteria_group "Cafeteria group"), an informal club that discussed [Keynes's theory of probability](/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Probability "A Treatise on Probability") and [Friedrich Hayek](/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek "Friedrich Hayek")'s theory of business cycles (see [Sraffa–Hayek debate](/wiki/Sraffa%E2%80%93Hayek_debate "Sraffa–Hayek debate")). The economists that should at least be remembered are [Michał Kalecki](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki "Michał Kalecki") (1899–1970\), [Maurice Dobb](/wiki/Maurice_Dobb "Maurice Dobb") (1900–1976\), [Joan Robinson](/wiki/Joan_Robinson "Joan Robinson") (1903–1983\) and [Nicholas Kaldor](/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor "Nicholas Kaldor") (1908–1986\). Among the philosophers, [Frank Plumpton Ramsey](/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey "Frank P. Ramsey") (1903–1930\) was helpful during the initial elaboration of the equations, datable in 1928, of the book *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities*, which was published in 1960\. In the early thirties there was a controversy between Sraffa and Friedrich von Hayek, who published a criticism of Keynes's conclusions contained in *[A Treatise on Money](/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Money "A Treatise on Money")* (1930\).Hayek (1931a; 1931b). After a first reply, Keynes asked Sraffa about writing a more detailed answer to Hayek's theses. Sraffa thoroughly analyzed the inconsistencies in the logic of Hayek's theory on the effect of forced capital savings caused by inflation and above all on the definition of natural interest rate. The debate continued with a reply by Hayek and a rejoinder by Sraffa.Sraffa (1932\) In 1939, Sraffa was elected to a fellowship at [Trinity College](/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Cambridge "Trinity College, Cambridge"). [Luigi Pasinetti](/wiki/Luigi_Pasinetti "Luigi Pasinetti") identifies five stages of his work in Cambridge. 1. 1928–1931: research on the history of economic theories, aimed at recovering the "reasonable" economics of the classics. Sraffa intends to "go straight to the unknown, from Marshall to Marx, from disutility to material cost ". 2. 1931–1940: edition of [David Ricardo](/wiki/David_Ricardo "David Ricardo")'s works; almost ready for printing, they don't get published, both because the "Introduction" (written by Sraffa later) is missing, and because of the discovery of new documents, including all Ricardo's letters to James Mill. 3. 1941–1945: criticism of neoclassical economics, in particular of the theory of production and distribution of the theory of value (of prices), of the theory of [marginal utility](/wiki/Marginal_utility "Marginal utility") and of the theory of interest as a reward for abstinence; processing of his equations with surplus. 4. 1946–1955: publication of the first ten volumes of Ricardo's works (the eleventh, containing the General Index, will be published in 1973\). [John Eatwell](/wiki/John_Eatwell "John Eatwell") wrote of Sraffa's work on [David Ricardo](/wiki/David_Ricardo "David Ricardo"): > \[Sraffa's] reconstruction of Ricardo's surplus theory, presented in but a few pages of the introduction to his edition of Ricardo's *Principles*, penetrated a hundred years of misunderstanding and distortion to create a vivid rationale for the structure and content of the surplus theory, for the analytical role of the labour theory of value, and hence for the foundations of Marx's critical analysis of capitalist production.Eatwell (1984\). "Piero Sraffa: Seminal Economic Theorist." Science and Society, 48(2\), pp. 211–216\. JSTOR 40402578 Reprinted in Piero Sraffa: Critical Assessments, J. Wood J. C. Wood, 1995, v. 1, pp. 74–79\. 5. 1955–1960: preparation of Production of Goods by Means of Goods as mere "premise to a critique of political economy". The original project proved however too vast: of the historical part remains only an appendix of a few pages entitled "Note on the sources". In the Preface, Sraffa expresses his hope that the real criticism will be attempted "later, or by the author or someone younger and better equipped for the company". ### *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities* The critique of neo\-classical price theory based on the relations between cost and quantity produced leads Sraffa to abandon the analysis of partial equilibrium. Since the late 1920s, he began to work on a price theory that takes up the classical concepts of reproducibility, surplus, circularity of production, and freedom of entry.Morroni (1998a, p. 212\) In his book, *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities**,*** published only in 1960, Sraffa focuses on the analysis of relative prices and income distribution, assuming "no changes in output and ... no changes in the proportions in which different means of production are used ..., so that no question arises as to the variation or constancy of returns".Sraffa, 1960, pp. v\-vi; cf. Panico and Salvadori (1994, pp. 324 ff.) As in classics, in Sraffa's 1960 book, relative prices are determined by the conditions of production and not on the basis of the functional connection between returns and quantity produced. Sraffa's *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities* is proposed to perfect classical economics' [theory of value](/wiki/Theory_of_value_%28economics%29 "Theory of value (economics)") as originally developed by Ricardo and others. He aimed to demonstrate flaws in the mainstream [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_economics "Neoclassical economics") [theory of value](/wiki/Theory_of_value_%28economics%29 "Theory of value (economics)") and develop an alternative analysis. In this important work, Sraffa analyzes a linear production model in which it is possible to determine the relative price structure and one of the two distributive variables (rate of profit or wage), exogenously given the other and the technology.Sraffa (1925 in 1986, p. 17\). The value of the capital employed can be known only together with the prices of the goods from which it is made. In essence, Sraffa shows that: 1. It is not possible to identify a law that simultaneously determines the wage and the rate of profit because: i) the rate of profit can only be determined by setting the wage (or vice versa); ii) it is impossible to measure capital without also determining prices (including the profit), so it is not possible to calculate the profit based on the value of capital (as its remuneration). 2. It cannot be assumed that, as wages increase, labour is replaced by capital, as the value of the capital depends on the duration of the initial investment; considering capitals of different duration, it may well happen that we prefer to replace capital with labour even if wages increase (so\-called "return of techniques"); consequently, unemployment cannot be attributed to the increase in wages. Sraffa's technique of aggregating capital as "dated inputs of labour" led to a debate known as the [Cambridge capital controversy](/wiki/Cambridge_capital_controversy "Cambridge capital controversy"). Sraffa's analytical apparatus was used by some followers for the solution to the Marxian problem of transforming values into prices of production and for the criticism of the Marxian theory of value. Moreover, as highlighted by Pasinetti, Sraffa's analysis overcomes the limits of the input\-output system of Wassily Leontief, in particular with regard to the effects of technical change.Pasinetti (1977\) Pasinetti's approach, based on Sraffa's theory, has recently been developed by Kurz and Salvadori.Kurz and Salvadoti (1997\) Economists disagree on whether Sraffa's work refutes [neoclassical economics](/wiki/Neoclassical_economics "Neoclassical economics"). Many [post\-Keynesian economists](/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics "Post-Keynesian economics") use Sraffa's critique as justification for abandoning neoclassical analysis and exploring other models of economic behaviour. Others see his work as compatible with neoclassical economics as developed in modern [general equilibrium](/wiki/General_equilibrium "General equilibrium") models, or as unable to determine a long\-period position, just like the [Walrasian](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras "Léon Walras") approach.Fabio D'Orlando (2005\). "Will the Classical\-type Approach Survive Sraffian Theory?", in *Journal of Post Keynesian Economics*, 27(4\), pp. 633–654 Others still argue that the importance of Sraffa's economics is that it provides a new framing for how we understand capitalist economies that do not fall back on the arguably unrealistic assumptions of neoclassical economics.{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-04\-29 \|title\=The Sraffian Versus the Marginalist Worldview: A Strong Case For Academic Pluralism \|url\=https://fixingtheeconomists.wordpress.com/2014/04/29/the\-sraffian\-versus\-the\-marginalist\-worldview\-a\-strong\-case\-for\-academic\-pluralism/ \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-04 \|website\=Fixing the Economists \|language\=en}} Nonetheless, Sraffa's work, particularly his interpretation of Ricardo and his *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities* (1960\), is seen as the starting point of the [neo\-Ricardian school](/wiki/Neo-Ricardian_school "Neo-Ricardian school") in the 1960s.[Paul A. Samuelson](/wiki/Paul_A._Samuelson "Paul A. Samuelson") ([\[1987](/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:A_Dictionary_of_Economics "A Dictionary of Economics")] 2008\). "Sraffian economics." *[The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics](/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics "The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics")* 2nd Edition. [Abstract.](http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_S000220&q=Sraffian%20economics&topicid=&result_number=2v)\*[John Eatwell](/wiki/John_Eatwell "John Eatwell") and Carlo Panico (1987 \[2008]). "Sraffa, Piero." *The [New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics](/wiki/New_Palgrave:A_Dictionary_of_Economics "A Dictionary of Economics")*, v. 3, pp. 445–52\.
[ "Major works\n-----------", "### The laws of productivity under competitive conditions", "{{More sources\\|date\\=September 2024}}\nIn 1925, Sraffa wrote about [returns to scale](/wiki/Returns_to_scale \"Returns to scale\") and [perfect competition](/wiki/Perfect_competition \"Perfect competition\"). In the 1926 article, \"The Laws of Returns under Competitive Conditions\", published in *The Economic Journal*, Sraffa resumes and develops his work of 1925 to show the inconsistency of the [Marshallian](/wiki/Alfred_Marshall \"Alfred Marshall\") theory of [partial equilibrium](/wiki/Partial_equilibrium \"Partial equilibrium\"), according to which, in competition for each good:", "1. The equilibrium price is determined by the intersection of the demand curve and that of the supply. The supply curve is symmetrical to that of the demand.\n2. As the quantity produced by the firm increases, there are initially increasing returns and, beyond a certain point, decreasing returns.The [marginal cost](/wiki/Marginal_cost \"Marginal cost\") curve has a \"U\" shape: first, it decreases, then it grows until it first meets the [average cost](/wiki/Average_cost \"Average cost\") curve, then the straight line (which is given, in conditions of competition); the different points of intersection between the growing part of the marginal cost curve (beyond the intersection with the average cost curve) and the various possible price lines constitute the supply curve for the individual firm.", "Sraffa notes that the [law of decreasing returns](/wiki/Diminishing_returns \"Diminishing returns\") and that of increasing returns have different origins and areas of application (and therefore cannot explain the shape of the same supply curve): the law of diminishing returns was originally applied to the entire economy and resulted from the scarcity of the agricultural land as a mean of production (the rent theory of [David Ricardo](/wiki/David_Ricardo \"David Ricardo\")); while the law of increasing returns applied to the individual firm and resulted from the benefits of division of labour. The first one allowed for the study of the laws of distribution, and the second those of production.", "\"Nobody, until comparatively recently \\- Sraffa writes \\- had thought of unifying these two tendencies in one single law of non\\-proportional productivity, and considering this as one of the bases of the theory of price\"Caloca Osorio, Oscar Rogelio; Cárdenas Almagro, Antonio; Octavio Ortiz Mendoza, Enrique, *La frontera Sraffa\\-Ricardo entre salario y cuota de ganancia, un modelo de asimetría/The Sraffa\\-Ricardo Boundary Between Salary and Profit Rate, an Asymmetric Model*, Análisis Económico. 2014, Vol. 28 Issue 70, p73\\-93\\. 21p. Sraffa observes that the idea of considering the law of non\\-proportional returns as a basis for the price theory arose, for analogy, only after the study of decreasing utility had drawn attention to the relationship between the price and the quantity consumed. In fact, \"if the cost of production of every unit of the commodity under consideration did not vary with variations in quantity produced the symmetry would be broken, the price would be determined exclusively by the expenses of production and demand would be unable to have any influence on it at all\".Sraffa (1925 in 1998, p. 324\\).", "The difficulties of the system that could, in short, be defined as the cross of the supply and demand curves firstly depend on the heterogeneity of the assumptions on which these two different tendencies are based. Decreasing returns and increasing costs are caused by the limited availability of some input which prevents all inputs from varying in optimal proportion. In other words, if an input is limited in quantity, a rise in production levels brings about a less efficient proportion among inputs with a fall in productivity. By contrast, the tendency toward decreasing costs stems from variations in the quantity of all inputs, and therefore they may occur only when there are no constant factors.Sraffa (1926, p. 539\\); cf. Morroni (1998a, p. 209; 1998b, p. 402\\).", "A second difficulty stems from the fact that, as Sraffa notes, in the neoclassical theory of prices the equilibrium of the individual firm is determined on the basis of cost variations deriving from small increases in its production (marginalist theory) and taking the situation unchanged in other companies of the same industry and the entire economy, following the hypothesis of *ceteris paribus*, i.e. other conditions being equal.Sraffa (1925 in 1998, pp. 358\\-359; 1926, pp. 538\\-539\\); Morroni (1998a, p. 210\\).", "Sraffa highlights that the possibility of applying the hypothesis of increasing costs to the supply curve is limited to the rare cases in which a considerable part of the supply of input is employed for the production of only one commodity. However, in general, each input is employed by a certain number of industries that produce different goods.Sraffa (1926, p. 540\\); Morroni (1998a, p. 221\\).", "As for increasing returns and decreasing costs, Marshall himself notes that external economies can hardly be attributed clearly to a specific industry, but they are of considerable interest to groups, often of a large size, in related industries; consequently, it is not possible to hypothesize an increase in returns in just one company.Sraffa (1925 in 1998, pp. 361\\-362; 1926, p. 540\\); cf. Morroni (1985, p. 109; 1998b, pp. 402\\-403\\).", "If in the partial equilibrium system of competitive prices, it is not possible to consider decreasing or increasing costs without contradicting the nature of the system, it follows, from this point of view, that production costs of goods produced in competition must be regarded as constant in respect of small variations in the quantity produced\"Sraffa (1926, p. 541\\). and that the long\\-run supply curve of an industry is horizontal. As a consequence, the price and the quantity of a good do not derive from the simultaneous action of the supply and demand curves: the price is determined by production costs, while the quantity produced is determined by the demand. The neoclassical symmetry between demand and supply is broken. The old theory that, in competition, \"makes the value of commodities dependent on the cost of production alone appears to hold its ground as the best available\" (1926b:540\\-1\\).Sraffa (1925 in 1998, p. 363\\).", "Finally, Sraffa remarks that \"everyday experience shows that the majority of which produce manufactured consumers' goods operate in conditions of individual diminishing costs. If the limit to the firm's expansion does not arise from increasing costs, then it may arise from the difficulty in expanding the market share without changing any of these three aspects: improving the quality of the output, reducing its price, or increasing marketing expenses. These considerations were developed, in the 1930s, by the theory of [imperfect competition](/wiki/Imperfect_competition \"Imperfect competition\").", "### Cambridge years", "{{More sources\\|date\\=September 2024}}\nIn 1927, Sraffa's yet undiscussed [theory of value](/wiki/Theory_of_value_%28economics%29 \"Theory of value (economics)\"), but also his friendship with [Antonio Gramsci](/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci \"Antonio Gramsci\")—a risky and compromising endeavour in the context of the [Italian fascist regime](/wiki/Italy_under_fascism \"Italy under fascism\")—brought [John Maynard Keynes](/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes \"John Maynard Keynes\") to invite Sraffa to the [University of Cambridge](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge \"University of Cambridge\"), where the Italian economist was initially assigned a lectureship.", "Sraffa arrived in July of [1927](/wiki/1927 \"1927\") and remained there for life. In the shelter of the English city, he held courses about [advanced value theory](/wiki/Theory_of_value_%28economics%29 \"Theory of value (economics)\") in his first three years. Then, again with the help of Keynes, he held a librarian position and could devote himself to study, intertwining relationships with a series of intellectuals destined to leave remarkable and lasting tracks.", "Together with [Frank P. Ramsey](/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey \"Frank P. Ramsey\") and [Ludwig Wittgenstein](/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein \"Ludwig Wittgenstein\"), Sraffa joined the so\\-called [cafeteria group](/wiki/Cafeteria_group \"Cafeteria group\"), an informal club that discussed [Keynes's theory of probability](/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Probability \"A Treatise on Probability\") and [Friedrich Hayek](/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek \"Friedrich Hayek\")'s theory of business cycles (see [Sraffa–Hayek debate](/wiki/Sraffa%E2%80%93Hayek_debate \"Sraffa–Hayek debate\")).", "The economists that should at least be remembered are [Michał Kalecki](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki \"Michał Kalecki\") (1899–1970\\), [Maurice Dobb](/wiki/Maurice_Dobb \"Maurice Dobb\") (1900–1976\\), [Joan Robinson](/wiki/Joan_Robinson \"Joan Robinson\") (1903–1983\\) and [Nicholas Kaldor](/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor \"Nicholas Kaldor\") (1908–1986\\). Among the philosophers, [Frank Plumpton Ramsey](/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey \"Frank P. Ramsey\") (1903–1930\\) was helpful during the initial elaboration of the equations, datable in 1928, of the book *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities*, which was published in 1960\\.", "In the early thirties there was a controversy between Sraffa and Friedrich von Hayek, who published a criticism of Keynes's conclusions contained in *[A Treatise on Money](/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Money \"A Treatise on Money\")* (1930\\).Hayek (1931a; 1931b). After a first reply, Keynes asked Sraffa about writing a more detailed answer to Hayek's theses. Sraffa thoroughly analyzed the inconsistencies in the logic of Hayek's theory on the effect of forced capital savings caused by inflation and above all on the definition of natural interest rate. The debate continued with a reply by Hayek and a rejoinder by Sraffa.Sraffa (1932\\)", "In 1939, Sraffa was elected to a fellowship at [Trinity College](/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Cambridge \"Trinity College, Cambridge\"). [Luigi Pasinetti](/wiki/Luigi_Pasinetti \"Luigi Pasinetti\") identifies five stages of his work in Cambridge.", "1. 1928–1931: research on the history of economic theories, aimed at recovering the \"reasonable\" economics of the classics. Sraffa intends to \"go straight to the unknown, from Marshall to Marx, from disutility to material cost \".\n2. 1931–1940: edition of [David Ricardo](/wiki/David_Ricardo \"David Ricardo\")'s works; almost ready for printing, they don't get published, both because the \"Introduction\" (written by Sraffa later) is missing, and because of the discovery of new documents, including all Ricardo's letters to James Mill.\n3. 1941–1945: criticism of neoclassical economics, in particular of the theory of production and distribution of the theory of value (of prices), of the theory of [marginal utility](/wiki/Marginal_utility \"Marginal utility\") and of the theory of interest as a reward for abstinence; processing of his equations with surplus.\n4. 1946–1955: publication of the first ten volumes of Ricardo's works (the eleventh, containing the General Index, will be published in 1973\\). [John Eatwell](/wiki/John_Eatwell \"John Eatwell\") wrote of Sraffa's work on [David Ricardo](/wiki/David_Ricardo \"David Ricardo\"):\n> \\[Sraffa's] reconstruction of Ricardo's surplus theory, presented in but a few pages of the introduction to his edition of Ricardo's *Principles*, penetrated a hundred years of misunderstanding and distortion to create a vivid rationale for the structure and content of the surplus theory, for the analytical role of the labour theory of value, and hence for the foundations of Marx's critical analysis of capitalist production.Eatwell (1984\\). \"Piero Sraffa: Seminal Economic Theorist.\" Science and Society, 48(2\\), pp. 211–216\\. JSTOR 40402578 Reprinted in Piero Sraffa: Critical Assessments, J. Wood J. C. Wood, 1995, v. 1, pp. 74–79\\.\n5. 1955–1960: preparation of Production of Goods by Means of Goods as mere \"premise to a critique of political economy\". The original project proved however too vast: of the historical part remains only an appendix of a few pages entitled \"Note on the sources\". In the Preface, Sraffa expresses his hope that the real criticism will be attempted \"later, or by the author or someone younger and better equipped for the company\".", "### *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities*", "The critique of neo\\-classical price theory based on the relations between cost and quantity produced leads Sraffa to abandon the analysis of partial equilibrium. Since the late 1920s, he began to work on a price theory that takes up the classical concepts of reproducibility, surplus, circularity of production, and freedom of entry.Morroni (1998a, p. 212\\) In his book, *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities**,*** published only in 1960, Sraffa focuses on the analysis of relative prices and income distribution, assuming \"no changes in output and ... no changes in the proportions in which different means of production are used ..., so that no question arises as to the variation or constancy of returns\".Sraffa, 1960, pp. v\\-vi; cf. Panico and Salvadori (1994, pp. 324 ff.) As in classics, in Sraffa's 1960 book, relative prices are determined by the conditions of production and not on the basis of the functional connection between returns and quantity produced.", "Sraffa's *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities* is proposed to perfect classical economics' [theory of value](/wiki/Theory_of_value_%28economics%29 \"Theory of value (economics)\") as originally developed by Ricardo and others. He aimed to demonstrate flaws in the mainstream [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_economics \"Neoclassical economics\") [theory of value](/wiki/Theory_of_value_%28economics%29 \"Theory of value (economics)\") and develop an alternative analysis.", "In this important work, Sraffa analyzes a linear production model in which it is possible to determine the relative price structure and one of the two distributive variables (rate of profit or wage), exogenously given the other and the technology.Sraffa (1925 in 1986, p. 17\\). The value of the capital employed can be known only together with the prices of the goods from which it is made. In essence, Sraffa shows that:", "1. It is not possible to identify a law that simultaneously determines the wage and the rate of profit because: i) the rate of profit can only be determined by setting the wage (or vice versa); ii) it is impossible to measure capital without also determining prices (including the profit), so it is not possible to calculate the profit based on the value of capital (as its remuneration).\n2. It cannot be assumed that, as wages increase, labour is replaced by capital, as the value of the capital depends on the duration of the initial investment; considering capitals of different duration, it may well happen that we prefer to replace capital with labour even if wages increase (so\\-called \"return of techniques\"); consequently, unemployment cannot be attributed to the increase in wages.", "Sraffa's technique of aggregating capital as \"dated inputs of labour\" led to a debate known as the [Cambridge capital controversy](/wiki/Cambridge_capital_controversy \"Cambridge capital controversy\").", "Sraffa's analytical apparatus was used by some followers for the solution to the Marxian problem of transforming values into prices of production and for the criticism of the Marxian theory of value. Moreover, as highlighted by Pasinetti, Sraffa's analysis overcomes the limits of the input\\-output system of Wassily Leontief, in particular with regard to the effects of technical change.Pasinetti (1977\\) Pasinetti's approach, based on Sraffa's theory, has recently been developed by Kurz and Salvadori.Kurz and Salvadoti (1997\\)", "Economists disagree on whether Sraffa's work refutes [neoclassical economics](/wiki/Neoclassical_economics \"Neoclassical economics\"). Many [post\\-Keynesian economists](/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics \"Post-Keynesian economics\") use Sraffa's critique as justification for abandoning neoclassical analysis and exploring other models of economic behaviour. Others see his work as compatible with neoclassical economics as developed in modern [general equilibrium](/wiki/General_equilibrium \"General equilibrium\") models, or as unable to determine a long\\-period position, just like the [Walrasian](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras \"Léon Walras\") approach.Fabio D'Orlando (2005\\). \"Will the Classical\\-type Approach Survive Sraffian Theory?\", in *Journal of Post Keynesian Economics*, 27(4\\), pp. 633–654 Others still argue that the importance of Sraffa's economics is that it provides a new framing for how we understand capitalist economies that do not fall back on the arguably unrealistic assumptions of neoclassical economics.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-04\\-29 \\|title\\=The Sraffian Versus the Marginalist Worldview: A Strong Case For Academic Pluralism \\|url\\=https://fixingtheeconomists.wordpress.com/2014/04/29/the\\-sraffian\\-versus\\-the\\-marginalist\\-worldview\\-a\\-strong\\-case\\-for\\-academic\\-pluralism/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-04 \\|website\\=Fixing the Economists \\|language\\=en}}", "Nonetheless, Sraffa's work, particularly his interpretation of Ricardo and his *Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities* (1960\\), is seen as the starting point of the [neo\\-Ricardian school](/wiki/Neo-Ricardian_school \"Neo-Ricardian school\") in the 1960s.[Paul A. Samuelson](/wiki/Paul_A._Samuelson \"Paul A. Samuelson\") ([\\[1987](/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:A_Dictionary_of_Economics \"A Dictionary of Economics\")] 2008\\). \"Sraffian economics.\" *[The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics](/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics \"The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics\")* 2nd Edition. [Abstract.](http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_S000220&q=Sraffian%20economics&topicid=&result_number=2v)\\*[John Eatwell](/wiki/John_Eatwell \"John Eatwell\") and Carlo Panico (1987 \\[2008]). \"Sraffa, Piero.\" *The [New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics](/wiki/New_Palgrave:A_Dictionary_of_Economics \"A Dictionary of Economics\")*, v. 3, pp. 445–52\\.", "" ]
### The laws of productivity under competitive conditions {{More sources\|date\=September 2024}} In 1925, Sraffa wrote about [returns to scale](/wiki/Returns_to_scale "Returns to scale") and [perfect competition](/wiki/Perfect_competition "Perfect competition"). In the 1926 article, "The Laws of Returns under Competitive Conditions", published in *The Economic Journal*, Sraffa resumes and develops his work of 1925 to show the inconsistency of the [Marshallian](/wiki/Alfred_Marshall "Alfred Marshall") theory of [partial equilibrium](/wiki/Partial_equilibrium "Partial equilibrium"), according to which, in competition for each good: 1. The equilibrium price is determined by the intersection of the demand curve and that of the supply. The supply curve is symmetrical to that of the demand. 2. As the quantity produced by the firm increases, there are initially increasing returns and, beyond a certain point, decreasing returns.The [marginal cost](/wiki/Marginal_cost "Marginal cost") curve has a "U" shape: first, it decreases, then it grows until it first meets the [average cost](/wiki/Average_cost "Average cost") curve, then the straight line (which is given, in conditions of competition); the different points of intersection between the growing part of the marginal cost curve (beyond the intersection with the average cost curve) and the various possible price lines constitute the supply curve for the individual firm. Sraffa notes that the [law of decreasing returns](/wiki/Diminishing_returns "Diminishing returns") and that of increasing returns have different origins and areas of application (and therefore cannot explain the shape of the same supply curve): the law of diminishing returns was originally applied to the entire economy and resulted from the scarcity of the agricultural land as a mean of production (the rent theory of [David Ricardo](/wiki/David_Ricardo "David Ricardo")); while the law of increasing returns applied to the individual firm and resulted from the benefits of division of labour. The first one allowed for the study of the laws of distribution, and the second those of production. "Nobody, until comparatively recently \- Sraffa writes \- had thought of unifying these two tendencies in one single law of non\-proportional productivity, and considering this as one of the bases of the theory of price"Caloca Osorio, Oscar Rogelio; Cárdenas Almagro, Antonio; Octavio Ortiz Mendoza, Enrique, *La frontera Sraffa\-Ricardo entre salario y cuota de ganancia, un modelo de asimetría/The Sraffa\-Ricardo Boundary Between Salary and Profit Rate, an Asymmetric Model*, Análisis Económico. 2014, Vol. 28 Issue 70, p73\-93\. 21p. Sraffa observes that the idea of considering the law of non\-proportional returns as a basis for the price theory arose, for analogy, only after the study of decreasing utility had drawn attention to the relationship between the price and the quantity consumed. In fact, "if the cost of production of every unit of the commodity under consideration did not vary with variations in quantity produced the symmetry would be broken, the price would be determined exclusively by the expenses of production and demand would be unable to have any influence on it at all".Sraffa (1925 in 1998, p. 324\). The difficulties of the system that could, in short, be defined as the cross of the supply and demand curves firstly depend on the heterogeneity of the assumptions on which these two different tendencies are based. Decreasing returns and increasing costs are caused by the limited availability of some input which prevents all inputs from varying in optimal proportion. In other words, if an input is limited in quantity, a rise in production levels brings about a less efficient proportion among inputs with a fall in productivity. By contrast, the tendency toward decreasing costs stems from variations in the quantity of all inputs, and therefore they may occur only when there are no constant factors.Sraffa (1926, p. 539\); cf. Morroni (1998a, p. 209; 1998b, p. 402\). A second difficulty stems from the fact that, as Sraffa notes, in the neoclassical theory of prices the equilibrium of the individual firm is determined on the basis of cost variations deriving from small increases in its production (marginalist theory) and taking the situation unchanged in other companies of the same industry and the entire economy, following the hypothesis of *ceteris paribus*, i.e. other conditions being equal.Sraffa (1925 in 1998, pp. 358\-359; 1926, pp. 538\-539\); Morroni (1998a, p. 210\). Sraffa highlights that the possibility of applying the hypothesis of increasing costs to the supply curve is limited to the rare cases in which a considerable part of the supply of input is employed for the production of only one commodity. However, in general, each input is employed by a certain number of industries that produce different goods.Sraffa (1926, p. 540\); Morroni (1998a, p. 221\). As for increasing returns and decreasing costs, Marshall himself notes that external economies can hardly be attributed clearly to a specific industry, but they are of considerable interest to groups, often of a large size, in related industries; consequently, it is not possible to hypothesize an increase in returns in just one company.Sraffa (1925 in 1998, pp. 361\-362; 1926, p. 540\); cf. Morroni (1985, p. 109; 1998b, pp. 402\-403\). If in the partial equilibrium system of competitive prices, it is not possible to consider decreasing or increasing costs without contradicting the nature of the system, it follows, from this point of view, that production costs of goods produced in competition must be regarded as constant in respect of small variations in the quantity produced"Sraffa (1926, p. 541\). and that the long\-run supply curve of an industry is horizontal. As a consequence, the price and the quantity of a good do not derive from the simultaneous action of the supply and demand curves: the price is determined by production costs, while the quantity produced is determined by the demand. The neoclassical symmetry between demand and supply is broken. The old theory that, in competition, "makes the value of commodities dependent on the cost of production alone appears to hold its ground as the best available" (1926b:540\-1\).Sraffa (1925 in 1998, p. 363\). Finally, Sraffa remarks that "everyday experience shows that the majority of which produce manufactured consumers' goods operate in conditions of individual diminishing costs. If the limit to the firm's expansion does not arise from increasing costs, then it may arise from the difficulty in expanding the market share without changing any of these three aspects: improving the quality of the output, reducing its price, or increasing marketing expenses. These considerations were developed, in the 1930s, by the theory of [imperfect competition](/wiki/Imperfect_competition "Imperfect competition").
[ "### The laws of productivity under competitive conditions", "{{More sources\\|date\\=September 2024}}\nIn 1925, Sraffa wrote about [returns to scale](/wiki/Returns_to_scale \"Returns to scale\") and [perfect competition](/wiki/Perfect_competition \"Perfect competition\"). In the 1926 article, \"The Laws of Returns under Competitive Conditions\", published in *The Economic Journal*, Sraffa resumes and develops his work of 1925 to show the inconsistency of the [Marshallian](/wiki/Alfred_Marshall \"Alfred Marshall\") theory of [partial equilibrium](/wiki/Partial_equilibrium \"Partial equilibrium\"), according to which, in competition for each good:", "1. The equilibrium price is determined by the intersection of the demand curve and that of the supply. The supply curve is symmetrical to that of the demand.\n2. As the quantity produced by the firm increases, there are initially increasing returns and, beyond a certain point, decreasing returns.The [marginal cost](/wiki/Marginal_cost \"Marginal cost\") curve has a \"U\" shape: first, it decreases, then it grows until it first meets the [average cost](/wiki/Average_cost \"Average cost\") curve, then the straight line (which is given, in conditions of competition); the different points of intersection between the growing part of the marginal cost curve (beyond the intersection with the average cost curve) and the various possible price lines constitute the supply curve for the individual firm.", "Sraffa notes that the [law of decreasing returns](/wiki/Diminishing_returns \"Diminishing returns\") and that of increasing returns have different origins and areas of application (and therefore cannot explain the shape of the same supply curve): the law of diminishing returns was originally applied to the entire economy and resulted from the scarcity of the agricultural land as a mean of production (the rent theory of [David Ricardo](/wiki/David_Ricardo \"David Ricardo\")); while the law of increasing returns applied to the individual firm and resulted from the benefits of division of labour. The first one allowed for the study of the laws of distribution, and the second those of production.", "\"Nobody, until comparatively recently \\- Sraffa writes \\- had thought of unifying these two tendencies in one single law of non\\-proportional productivity, and considering this as one of the bases of the theory of price\"Caloca Osorio, Oscar Rogelio; Cárdenas Almagro, Antonio; Octavio Ortiz Mendoza, Enrique, *La frontera Sraffa\\-Ricardo entre salario y cuota de ganancia, un modelo de asimetría/The Sraffa\\-Ricardo Boundary Between Salary and Profit Rate, an Asymmetric Model*, Análisis Económico. 2014, Vol. 28 Issue 70, p73\\-93\\. 21p. Sraffa observes that the idea of considering the law of non\\-proportional returns as a basis for the price theory arose, for analogy, only after the study of decreasing utility had drawn attention to the relationship between the price and the quantity consumed. In fact, \"if the cost of production of every unit of the commodity under consideration did not vary with variations in quantity produced the symmetry would be broken, the price would be determined exclusively by the expenses of production and demand would be unable to have any influence on it at all\".Sraffa (1925 in 1998, p. 324\\).", "The difficulties of the system that could, in short, be defined as the cross of the supply and demand curves firstly depend on the heterogeneity of the assumptions on which these two different tendencies are based. Decreasing returns and increasing costs are caused by the limited availability of some input which prevents all inputs from varying in optimal proportion. In other words, if an input is limited in quantity, a rise in production levels brings about a less efficient proportion among inputs with a fall in productivity. By contrast, the tendency toward decreasing costs stems from variations in the quantity of all inputs, and therefore they may occur only when there are no constant factors.Sraffa (1926, p. 539\\); cf. Morroni (1998a, p. 209; 1998b, p. 402\\).", "A second difficulty stems from the fact that, as Sraffa notes, in the neoclassical theory of prices the equilibrium of the individual firm is determined on the basis of cost variations deriving from small increases in its production (marginalist theory) and taking the situation unchanged in other companies of the same industry and the entire economy, following the hypothesis of *ceteris paribus*, i.e. other conditions being equal.Sraffa (1925 in 1998, pp. 358\\-359; 1926, pp. 538\\-539\\); Morroni (1998a, p. 210\\).", "Sraffa highlights that the possibility of applying the hypothesis of increasing costs to the supply curve is limited to the rare cases in which a considerable part of the supply of input is employed for the production of only one commodity. However, in general, each input is employed by a certain number of industries that produce different goods.Sraffa (1926, p. 540\\); Morroni (1998a, p. 221\\).", "As for increasing returns and decreasing costs, Marshall himself notes that external economies can hardly be attributed clearly to a specific industry, but they are of considerable interest to groups, often of a large size, in related industries; consequently, it is not possible to hypothesize an increase in returns in just one company.Sraffa (1925 in 1998, pp. 361\\-362; 1926, p. 540\\); cf. Morroni (1985, p. 109; 1998b, pp. 402\\-403\\).", "If in the partial equilibrium system of competitive prices, it is not possible to consider decreasing or increasing costs without contradicting the nature of the system, it follows, from this point of view, that production costs of goods produced in competition must be regarded as constant in respect of small variations in the quantity produced\"Sraffa (1926, p. 541\\). and that the long\\-run supply curve of an industry is horizontal. As a consequence, the price and the quantity of a good do not derive from the simultaneous action of the supply and demand curves: the price is determined by production costs, while the quantity produced is determined by the demand. The neoclassical symmetry between demand and supply is broken. The old theory that, in competition, \"makes the value of commodities dependent on the cost of production alone appears to hold its ground as the best available\" (1926b:540\\-1\\).Sraffa (1925 in 1998, p. 363\\).", "Finally, Sraffa remarks that \"everyday experience shows that the majority of which produce manufactured consumers' goods operate in conditions of individual diminishing costs. If the limit to the firm's expansion does not arise from increasing costs, then it may arise from the difficulty in expanding the market share without changing any of these three aspects: improving the quality of the output, reducing its price, or increasing marketing expenses. These considerations were developed, in the 1930s, by the theory of [imperfect competition](/wiki/Imperfect_competition \"Imperfect competition\").", "" ]
Political career ---------------- Van der Walt was elected to the [Roodepoort](/wiki/Roodepoort "Roodepoort") City Council in 1995 and served until 2000\. She was elected as a [Tzaneen Municipality](/wiki/Tzaneen "Tzaneen") councillor in 2000 and served until her election to the National Assembly in 2004\. She served as the DA's Spokesperson on Arts and Culture. She was elected as the Provincial Leader of the Limpopo Democratic Alliance in 2008\. Van der Walt was re\-elected to a second term as a Member of the National Assembly in 2009, but she resigned as an MP on 10 September 2010, as she was sworn in as a Member of the [Limpopo Provincial Legislature](/wiki/Limpopo_Provincial_Legislature "Limpopo Provincial Legislature").{{Cite web \|title\=DA goes for Desiree \|url\=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2010\-09\-28\-da\-goes\-for\-desiree/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=SowetanLIVE \|language\=en\-ZA}} In 2012, DA MP [Jacques Smalle](/wiki/Jacques_Smalle "Jacques Smalle") unseated her as Provincial Leader of the party.[New DA leader for Limpopo elected](https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/New-DA-leader-for-Limpopo-elected-20120609), News24, 9 June 2012\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\.[Smalle to replace Van der Walt as Limpopo DA leader](https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/limpopo/smalle-to-replace-van-der-walt-as-limpopo-da-leader-1315380), [IOL](/wiki/Independent_Online_%28South_Africa%29 "Independent Online (South Africa)"), 9 June 2012\. Retrieved on 16 March 2019\. She returned to the National Assembly of South Africa in 2014\. She took office on 21 May 2014\. The newly elected DA Parliamentary Leader [Mmusi Maimane](/wiki/Mmusi_Maimane "Mmusi Maimane") selected her to be the Shadow Deputy Minister of Basic Education. Later on, she assumed the role of Shadow Minister of Public Service and Administration. Van der Walt was elected the Deputy Provincial Chairperson of the Democratic Alliance in February 2015\.[DA Limpopo elects new leadership](https://www.dampl.co.za/2015/02/da-limpopo-elects-new-leadership/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411205547/https://www.dampl.co.za/2015/02/da\-limpopo\-elects\-new\-leadership/ \|date\=11 April 2019 }}. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\.[Smalle re\-elected as Lim DA leader](https://capricornreview.co.za/35784/smalle-re-elected-as-lim-da-leader/), CapricornReview, 25 February 2015\. Retrieved on 16 March 2019\. She was elected as one of three Deputy Federal Chairpersons of the Democratic Alliance at the party's Federal Congress in May 2015\. She served alongside [Ivan Meyer](/wiki/Ivan_Meyer "Ivan Meyer") and [Refiloe Nt'sekhe](/wiki/Refiloe_Nt%27sekhe "Refiloe Nt'sekhe") until 2018 when she was defeated for re\-election.[Maimane is the new DA leader](https://www.enca.com/south-africa/maimane-new-da-leader) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729171910/https://www.enca.com/south\-africa/maimane\-new\-da\-leader \|date\=29 July 2019 }}, eNCA, 10 May 2015\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\.[DA’s Desiree makes Limpopo proud](https://reviewonline.co.za/82586/das-desiree-makes-limpopo-proud/), ReviewOnline, 12 May 2015\. Retrieved on 16 March 2019\. She was elected Provincial Chairperson of the Democratic Alliance Women's Network in October 2017, as Lindy Wilson succeeded her as Deputy Provincial Chairperson.[DA announces Limpopo leadership](https://www.enca.com/south-africa/da-announces-limpopo-leadership) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729171908/https://www.enca.com/south\-africa/da\-announces\-limpopo\-leadership \|date\=29 July 2019 }}, eNCA, 21 October 2017\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\.[BREAKING NEWS: Jacques Smalle re\-elected as DA Provincial Leader](https://reviewonline.co.za/234515/breaking-news-jacques-smalle-re-elected-da-provincial-leader/), ReviewOnline, 21 October 2017\. Retrieved on 16 March 2019\. In 2018, she was appointed the head of the Democratic Alliance's Mopani constituency.[Desiree new head of Mopani Constituency](https://letabaherald.co.za/54394/desiree-new-head-mopani-constituency/), Letaba Herald, 11 July 2018\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\. She was previously head of the party's Waterberg South constituency.[New constituency head for Waterberg South](http://diepos.co.za/46577/new-constituency-head-waterberg-south/), Die Pos, 31 May 2018\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\. On 5 June 2019, Van der Walt was named Shadow Deputy Minister of Basic Education.[The DA’s new Shadow Cabinet ready to make Parliament work for the people](https://www.da.org.za/2019/06/the-das-new-shadow-cabinet-ready-to-make-parliament-work-for-the-people). Retrieved on 5 June 2019\. Following her election as Caucus Chairperson, Van der Walt was appointed an Additional Member of the Basic Education portfolio of [John Steenhuisen's Shadow Cabinet](/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_John_Steenhuisen "Shadow Cabinet of John Steenhuisen") on 21 April 2023\.{{Cite web \|title\=Shadow Cabinet: DA announces changes with a focus on Election 2024 \|url\=https://www.da.org.za/2023/04/shadow\-cabinet\-da\-announces\-changes\-with\-a\-focus\-on\-election\-2024 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-21 \|website\=Democratic Alliance \|language\=en}} Van der Walt resigned from the National Assembly on 30 April 2023, in preparation for her return to the Limpopo Provincial Legislature, to replace [Jacques Smalle](/wiki/Jacques_Smalle "Jacques Smalle"), who in turn would be taking up her seat in the National Assembly. She was sworn in as a member of the Limpopo Provincial Legislature on 5 May 2023{{Cite web \|last\=Ngoepe \|first\=Phomelelo \|date\=2023\-05\-08 \|title\=DA Limpopo's newly sworn in MPL ready to serve \|url\=https://www.capricornfm.co.za/da\-limpopos\-newly\-sworn\-in\-mpl\-ready\-to\-serve/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=Capricorn FM \|language\=en\-US}} She was then elected as the DA caucus leader in the legislature on 8 May.{{Cite news \|date\=8 May 2023 \|title\=Desiree van der Walt elected as DA Limpopo Legislative Caucus leader \|work\=Polity \|url\=https://www.polity.org.za/article/desiree\-van\-der\-walt\-elected\-as\-da\-limpopo\-legislative\-caucus\-leader\-2023\-05\-08 \|access\-date\=10 May 2023}} Van der Walt contested the provincial chairperson position at the DA's provincial conference on 27 May 2023\.{{cite web\|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10\|date\=2023\-05\-10\|language\=en\-US\|title\=DA Limpopo leadership nominations completed\|url\=https://www.capricornfm.co.za/da\-limpopo\-leadership\-nominations\-completed/\|website\=Capricorn FM}} She was defeated by Smalle.{{Cite web \|title\=DA Limpopo elects new leadership \|url\=https://limpopo.da.org.za/2023/05/da\-limpopo\-elects\-new\-leadership \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-28 \|website\=Democratic Alliance \- Limpopo}} Van der Walt resigned as a member of the Provincial Legislature in late\-July 2023 to make way for newly elected DA provincial leader [Lindy Wilson](/wiki/Lindy_Wilson "Lindy Wilson") to take up her seat. Van der Walt was, in turn, appointed to take up Wilson's seat in the National Assembly.{{Cite web \|title\=DA Provincial Leader to be sworn in at Limpopo Legislature \|url\=https://limpopo.da.org.za/2023/08/da\-provincial\-leader\-to\-be\-sworn\-in\-at\-limpopo\-legislature \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-29 \|website\=Democratic Alliance \- Limpopo}}
[ "Political career\n----------------", "Van der Walt was elected to the [Roodepoort](/wiki/Roodepoort \"Roodepoort\") City Council in 1995 and served until 2000\\. She was elected as a [Tzaneen Municipality](/wiki/Tzaneen \"Tzaneen\") councillor in 2000 and served until her election to the National Assembly in 2004\\. She served as the DA's Spokesperson on Arts and Culture. She was elected as the Provincial Leader of the Limpopo Democratic Alliance in 2008\\.", "Van der Walt was re\\-elected to a second term as a Member of the National Assembly in 2009, but she resigned as an MP on 10 September 2010, as she was sworn in as a Member of the [Limpopo Provincial Legislature](/wiki/Limpopo_Provincial_Legislature \"Limpopo Provincial Legislature\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=DA goes for Desiree \\|url\\=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2010\\-09\\-28\\-da\\-goes\\-for\\-desiree/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=SowetanLIVE \\|language\\=en\\-ZA}}", "In 2012, DA MP [Jacques Smalle](/wiki/Jacques_Smalle \"Jacques Smalle\") unseated her as Provincial Leader of the party.[New DA leader for Limpopo elected](https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/New-DA-leader-for-Limpopo-elected-20120609), News24, 9 June 2012\\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\\.[Smalle to replace Van der Walt as Limpopo DA leader](https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/limpopo/smalle-to-replace-van-der-walt-as-limpopo-da-leader-1315380), [IOL](/wiki/Independent_Online_%28South_Africa%29 \"Independent Online (South Africa)\"), 9 June 2012\\. Retrieved on 16 March 2019\\.", "She returned to the National Assembly of South Africa in 2014\\. She took office on 21 May 2014\\. The newly elected DA Parliamentary Leader [Mmusi Maimane](/wiki/Mmusi_Maimane \"Mmusi Maimane\") selected her to be the Shadow Deputy Minister of Basic Education. Later on, she assumed the role of Shadow Minister of Public Service and Administration.", "Van der Walt was elected the Deputy Provincial Chairperson of the Democratic Alliance in February 2015\\.[DA Limpopo elects new leadership](https://www.dampl.co.za/2015/02/da-limpopo-elects-new-leadership/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411205547/https://www.dampl.co.za/2015/02/da\\-limpopo\\-elects\\-new\\-leadership/ \\|date\\=11 April 2019 }}. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\\.[Smalle re\\-elected as Lim DA leader](https://capricornreview.co.za/35784/smalle-re-elected-as-lim-da-leader/), CapricornReview, 25 February 2015\\. Retrieved on 16 March 2019\\. She was elected as one of three Deputy Federal Chairpersons of the Democratic Alliance at the party's Federal Congress in May 2015\\. She served alongside [Ivan Meyer](/wiki/Ivan_Meyer \"Ivan Meyer\") and [Refiloe Nt'sekhe](/wiki/Refiloe_Nt%27sekhe \"Refiloe Nt'sekhe\") until 2018 when she was defeated for re\\-election.[Maimane is the new DA leader](https://www.enca.com/south-africa/maimane-new-da-leader) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729171910/https://www.enca.com/south\\-africa/maimane\\-new\\-da\\-leader \\|date\\=29 July 2019 }}, eNCA, 10 May 2015\\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\\.[DA’s Desiree makes Limpopo proud](https://reviewonline.co.za/82586/das-desiree-makes-limpopo-proud/), ReviewOnline, 12 May 2015\\. Retrieved on 16 March 2019\\.", "She was elected Provincial Chairperson of the Democratic Alliance Women's Network in October 2017, as Lindy Wilson succeeded her as Deputy Provincial Chairperson.[DA announces Limpopo leadership](https://www.enca.com/south-africa/da-announces-limpopo-leadership) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729171908/https://www.enca.com/south\\-africa/da\\-announces\\-limpopo\\-leadership \\|date\\=29 July 2019 }}, eNCA, 21 October 2017\\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\\.[BREAKING NEWS: Jacques Smalle re\\-elected as DA Provincial Leader](https://reviewonline.co.za/234515/breaking-news-jacques-smalle-re-elected-da-provincial-leader/), ReviewOnline, 21 October 2017\\. Retrieved on 16 March 2019\\.", "In 2018, she was appointed the head of the Democratic Alliance's Mopani constituency.[Desiree new head of Mopani Constituency](https://letabaherald.co.za/54394/desiree-new-head-mopani-constituency/), Letaba Herald, 11 July 2018\\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\\. She was previously head of the party's Waterberg South constituency.[New constituency head for Waterberg South](http://diepos.co.za/46577/new-constituency-head-waterberg-south/), Die Pos, 31 May 2018\\. Retrieved on 17 March 2019\\.", "On 5 June 2019, Van der Walt was named Shadow Deputy Minister of Basic Education.[The DA’s new Shadow Cabinet ready to make Parliament work for the people](https://www.da.org.za/2019/06/the-das-new-shadow-cabinet-ready-to-make-parliament-work-for-the-people). Retrieved on 5 June 2019\\.", "Following her election as Caucus Chairperson, Van der Walt was appointed an Additional Member of the Basic Education portfolio of [John Steenhuisen's Shadow Cabinet](/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_John_Steenhuisen \"Shadow Cabinet of John Steenhuisen\") on 21 April 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Shadow Cabinet: DA announces changes with a focus on Election 2024 \\|url\\=https://www.da.org.za/2023/04/shadow\\-cabinet\\-da\\-announces\\-changes\\-with\\-a\\-focus\\-on\\-election\\-2024 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-21 \\|website\\=Democratic Alliance \\|language\\=en}}", "Van der Walt resigned from the National Assembly on 30 April 2023, in preparation for her return to the Limpopo Provincial Legislature, to replace [Jacques Smalle](/wiki/Jacques_Smalle \"Jacques Smalle\"), who in turn would be taking up her seat in the National Assembly. She was sworn in as a member of the Limpopo Provincial Legislature on 5 May 2023{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ngoepe \\|first\\=Phomelelo \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-08 \\|title\\=DA Limpopo's newly sworn in MPL ready to serve \\|url\\=https://www.capricornfm.co.za/da\\-limpopos\\-newly\\-sworn\\-in\\-mpl\\-ready\\-to\\-serve/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=Capricorn FM \\|language\\=en\\-US}} She was then elected as the DA caucus leader in the legislature on 8 May.{{Cite news \\|date\\=8 May 2023 \\|title\\=Desiree van der Walt elected as DA Limpopo Legislative Caucus leader \\|work\\=Polity \\|url\\=https://www.polity.org.za/article/desiree\\-van\\-der\\-walt\\-elected\\-as\\-da\\-limpopo\\-legislative\\-caucus\\-leader\\-2023\\-05\\-08 \\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2023}} Van der Walt contested the provincial chairperson position at the DA's provincial conference on 27 May 2023\\.{{cite web\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10\\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-10\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|title\\=DA Limpopo leadership nominations completed\\|url\\=https://www.capricornfm.co.za/da\\-limpopo\\-leadership\\-nominations\\-completed/\\|website\\=Capricorn FM}} She was defeated by Smalle.{{Cite web \\|title\\=DA Limpopo elects new leadership \\|url\\=https://limpopo.da.org.za/2023/05/da\\-limpopo\\-elects\\-new\\-leadership \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-28 \\|website\\=Democratic Alliance \\- Limpopo}}", "Van der Walt resigned as a member of the Provincial Legislature in late\\-July 2023 to make way for newly elected DA provincial leader [Lindy Wilson](/wiki/Lindy_Wilson \"Lindy Wilson\") to take up her seat. Van der Walt was, in turn, appointed to take up Wilson's seat in the National Assembly.{{Cite web \\|title\\=DA Provincial Leader to be sworn in at Limpopo Legislature \\|url\\=https://limpopo.da.org.za/2023/08/da\\-provincial\\-leader\\-to\\-be\\-sworn\\-in\\-at\\-limpopo\\-legislature \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-29 \\|website\\=Democratic Alliance \\- Limpopo}}", "" ]
Activities ---------- ### Research The foundation is engaged in basic and clinical research in Ayurveda, the clinical trial conducted at The Ayurvedic Trust in collaboration with [UCLA Medical School](/wiki/UCLA_Medical_School "UCLA Medical School") on [rheumatoid arthritis](/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis "Rheumatoid arthritis") to see which works better for rheumatoid arthritis, Ayurveda or the Western drug methotrexate{{cite journal\|last\=Furst\|first\=DE \|author2\=Venkatraman, MM \|author3\=McGann, M \|author4\=Manohar, PR \|author5\=Booth\-LaForce, C \|author6\=Sarin, R \|author7\=Sekar, PG \|author8\=Raveendran, KG \|author9\=Mahapatra, A \|author10\=Gopinath, J \|author11\=Kumar, PR\|title\=Double\-blind, randomized, controlled, pilot study comparing classic ayurvedic medicine, methotrexate, and their combination in rheumatoid arthritis.\|journal\=Journal of Clinical Rheumatology\|date\=Jun 2011\|volume\=17\|issue\=4\|pages\=185–92\|pmid\=21617554\|doi\=10\.1097/RHU.0b013e31821c0310\|s2cid\=14949859 }} was pronounced as a blue print on how clinical research can be done in [complementary and alternative medicine](/wiki/Complementary_and_alternative_medicine "Complementary and alternative medicine") by [Edzard Ernst](/wiki/Edzard_Ernst "Edzard Ernst").{{Cite news \| url\=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2236351\.ece \| title\=U.S. Study shows efficacy of Ayurveda medicines in rheumatoid arthritis cure\| journal\=The Hindu\| date\=2011\-07\-17\| last1\=Rajagopal\| first1\=Shyama}} The Foundation is also engaged in research to establish evidence from on going clinical practices to substantiate the practice of Ayurveda by generating evidence on efficacy through [practice\-based evidence](/wiki/Practice-based_evidence "Practice-based evidence"). It is also involved in basic research to elucidate the probably biochemistry behind classical Ayurvedic medicine practised in India for quite long period. In 2020 Arya Vaidya Pharmacy has signed an MoU with Central Council for Research In Ayurveda Systems to conduct phase III Multi centric clinical trial on rheumatoid arthritis in Bengaluru and Mumbai.{{cite news \|title\=AVP signs MoU with CCRAS for multi centric clinical trial on \|url\=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/avp\-signs\-mou\-with\-ccras\-for\-multi\-centric\-clinical\-trial\-on/1750503 \|access\-date\=4 March 2021 \|publisher\=outlookindia \|date\=3 March 2020}} In year 2017 AVP Research Foundation signed an MoU to conduct joint training programmes is USA in tie\-up with South California University and in Korea through Indo\-Korean collaborators.{{cite news \|title\=AVP striving to promote ayurveda research \|url\=https://www.business\-standard.com/article/pti\-stories/avp\-striving\-to\-promote\-ayurveda\-research\-117080401279\_1\.html \|access\-date\=4 March 2021 \|publisher\=Business Standard India \|date\=4 August 2017}} ### Education AVP Research Foundation is engaged in education by providing ancillary courses on Ayurveda for students in Ayurveda from India and abroad.{{cite web \|url\=http://avpresearch.org/Research/Academics.html \|title\=Academics \|website\=avpresearch.org \|access\-date\=26 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130414094947/http://avpresearch.org/Research/Academics.html \|archive\-date\=14 April 2013 \|url\-status\=dead}} ### Informatics The Foundation has an informatics department which has developed unique software and programs that assist researchers and practitioners in Ayurveda to generate and document their routine clinical practise.{{cite journal\|last\=Eranezhath\|first\=S\|title\=Ayurveda poised for change, So is the 'Ancient Science of Life'.\|journal\=Ancient Science of Life\|date\=Jan 2011\|volume\=30\|issue\=3\|pages\=63–4\|pmid\=22557429\|pmc\=3336257}} ### Journals AVP Research Foundation manages largest number of scientific communications in Ayurveda with two research journals, Ancient Science of Life{{cite web \|year\= \|title\=Ancient Science of Life \|url\=http://ancientscienceoflife.org/ \|website\=Ancient Science of Life}} launched in 1981, which is now the largest PubMed indexed journal on Ayurveda and the first speciality research journal in Ayurveda titled ASL\-Musculoskeletal Diseases{{Cite web \|url\=http://msd.ancientscienceoflife.org/ \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2 March 2013 \|archive\-url\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160521222157/http://msd.ancientscienceoflife.org/ \|archive\-date\=21 May 2016 \|url\-status\=dead}} published in alliance with Medknow Publications. ### Conferences AVP Research Foundation organises regular conferences, workshops and Continuing Medical Education programs in the field of Ayurveda. Insight Ayurveda is biennial conference on Ayurveda hosted by AVP Research Foundation. ### Inter\-disciplinary Research Inter\-disciplinary research bridging Ayurveda with modern sciences to elucidate the biochemistry behind the inherent theories in Ayurveda is also attempted at AVP Research Foundation. ### Support for open access The foundation supports open access of research and all the journals published from the institution are open to access free online. The database developed by the foundation attempts to make the data generated out of research in Ayurveda is available to larger circle of stakeholders.{{cite web \|title\=Digital Helpline for Ayurveda Research Articles \|url\=http://dharaonline.org/Forms/Home.aspx \|website\=Dhara Online}} The institutions also involves in pursuing more journals to come forward to be open access. The institution also have made the classical texts of Ayurveda available in digital format which is also free to access.{{Cite web \|title\=ayutexts \|url\=http://ayutexts.dharaonline.org/ \|website\=ayutexts}} ### Public engagement and outreach programs The foundation is engaged in public out reach programs through regular medical camps on ano\-rectal diseases and eye diseases.
[ "Activities\n----------", "### Research", "The foundation is engaged in basic and clinical research in Ayurveda, the clinical trial conducted at The Ayurvedic Trust in collaboration with [UCLA Medical School](/wiki/UCLA_Medical_School \"UCLA Medical School\") on [rheumatoid arthritis](/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis \"Rheumatoid arthritis\") to see which works better for rheumatoid arthritis, Ayurveda or the Western drug methotrexate{{cite journal\\|last\\=Furst\\|first\\=DE \\|author2\\=Venkatraman, MM \\|author3\\=McGann, M \\|author4\\=Manohar, PR \\|author5\\=Booth\\-LaForce, C \\|author6\\=Sarin, R \\|author7\\=Sekar, PG \\|author8\\=Raveendran, KG \\|author9\\=Mahapatra, A \\|author10\\=Gopinath, J \\|author11\\=Kumar, PR\\|title\\=Double\\-blind, randomized, controlled, pilot study comparing classic ayurvedic medicine, methotrexate, and their combination in rheumatoid arthritis.\\|journal\\=Journal of Clinical Rheumatology\\|date\\=Jun 2011\\|volume\\=17\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=185–92\\|pmid\\=21617554\\|doi\\=10\\.1097/RHU.0b013e31821c0310\\|s2cid\\=14949859 }} was pronounced as a blue print on how clinical research can be done in [complementary and alternative medicine](/wiki/Complementary_and_alternative_medicine \"Complementary and alternative medicine\") by [Edzard Ernst](/wiki/Edzard_Ernst \"Edzard Ernst\").{{Cite news \\| url\\=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2236351\\.ece \\| title\\=U.S. Study shows efficacy of Ayurveda medicines in rheumatoid arthritis cure\\| journal\\=The Hindu\\| date\\=2011\\-07\\-17\\| last1\\=Rajagopal\\| first1\\=Shyama}} The Foundation is also engaged in research to establish evidence from on going clinical practices to substantiate the practice of Ayurveda by generating evidence on efficacy through [practice\\-based evidence](/wiki/Practice-based_evidence \"Practice-based evidence\"). It is also involved in basic research to elucidate the probably biochemistry behind classical Ayurvedic medicine practised in India for quite long period.", "In 2020 Arya Vaidya Pharmacy has signed an MoU with Central Council for Research In Ayurveda Systems to conduct phase III Multi centric clinical trial on rheumatoid arthritis in Bengaluru and Mumbai.{{cite news \\|title\\=AVP signs MoU with CCRAS for multi centric clinical trial on \\|url\\=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/avp\\-signs\\-mou\\-with\\-ccras\\-for\\-multi\\-centric\\-clinical\\-trial\\-on/1750503 \\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2021 \\|publisher\\=outlookindia \\|date\\=3 March 2020}}", "In year 2017 AVP Research Foundation signed an MoU to conduct joint training programmes is USA in tie\\-up with South California University and in Korea through Indo\\-Korean collaborators.{{cite news \\|title\\=AVP striving to promote ayurveda research \\|url\\=https://www.business\\-standard.com/article/pti\\-stories/avp\\-striving\\-to\\-promote\\-ayurveda\\-research\\-117080401279\\_1\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2021 \\|publisher\\=Business Standard India \\|date\\=4 August 2017}}", "### Education", "AVP Research Foundation is engaged in education by providing ancillary courses on Ayurveda for students in Ayurveda from India and abroad.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://avpresearch.org/Research/Academics.html \\|title\\=Academics \\|website\\=avpresearch.org \\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130414094947/http://avpresearch.org/Research/Academics.html \\|archive\\-date\\=14 April 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Informatics", "The Foundation has an informatics department which has developed unique software and programs that assist researchers and practitioners in Ayurveda to generate and document their routine clinical practise.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Eranezhath\\|first\\=S\\|title\\=Ayurveda poised for change, So is the 'Ancient Science of Life'.\\|journal\\=Ancient Science of Life\\|date\\=Jan 2011\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=63–4\\|pmid\\=22557429\\|pmc\\=3336257}}", "### Journals", "AVP Research Foundation manages largest number of scientific communications in Ayurveda with two research journals, Ancient Science of Life{{cite web \\|year\\= \\|title\\=Ancient Science of Life \\|url\\=http://ancientscienceoflife.org/ \\|website\\=Ancient Science of Life}} launched in 1981, which is now the largest PubMed indexed journal on Ayurveda and the first speciality research journal in Ayurveda titled ASL\\-Musculoskeletal Diseases{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://msd.ancientscienceoflife.org/ \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160521222157/http://msd.ancientscienceoflife.org/ \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} published in alliance with Medknow Publications.", "### Conferences", "AVP Research Foundation organises regular conferences, workshops and Continuing Medical Education programs in the field of Ayurveda. Insight Ayurveda is biennial conference on Ayurveda hosted by AVP Research Foundation.", "### Inter\\-disciplinary Research", "Inter\\-disciplinary research bridging Ayurveda with modern sciences to elucidate the biochemistry behind the inherent theories in Ayurveda is also attempted at AVP Research Foundation.", "### Support for open access", "The foundation supports open access of research and all the journals published from the institution are open to access free online. The database developed by the foundation attempts to make the data generated out of research in Ayurveda is available to larger circle of stakeholders.{{cite web \\|title\\=Digital Helpline for Ayurveda Research Articles \\|url\\=http://dharaonline.org/Forms/Home.aspx \\|website\\=Dhara Online}} The institutions also involves in pursuing more journals to come forward to be open access. The institution also have made the classical texts of Ayurveda available in digital format which is also free to access.{{Cite web \\|title\\=ayutexts \\|url\\=http://ayutexts.dharaonline.org/ \\|website\\=ayutexts}}", "### Public engagement and outreach programs", "The foundation is engaged in public out reach programs through regular medical camps on ano\\-rectal diseases and eye diseases.", "" ]
Career ------ At age fifteen he was in a touring company, and later became a stage manager and assistant general manager. He became a dance instructor and nightclub proprietor. In the 1920s Blue joined a popular orchestra, Jack White and His Montrealers. The entire band emphasized comedy and would continually interact with the joke\-cracking maestro. Blue, the drummer, would sometimes deliver corny jokes while wearing a ridiculously false beard. The band relocated to the United States, and appeared in two early sound musicals — the [Vitaphone](/wiki/Vitaphone "Vitaphone") short subject *Jack White and His Montrealers* and Universal's feature\-length [2\-strip Technicolor](/wiki/Technicolor "Technicolor") revue *[King of Jazz](/wiki/King_of_Jazz "King of Jazz")* (1930\). In 1930, Blue toured with the "Earl Carroll Vanities". He later left the band to establish himself as a solo comedian, portraying a bald\-headed dumb\-bell with a goofy expression. Around that time he dubbed himself 'Ben Blue', later explaining that it would fit better than 'Bernstein' on theater marquees. Producer [Hal Roach](/wiki/Hal_Roach "Hal Roach") featured him in his "Taxi Boys" comedy shorts, but Blue's dopey character was an acquired taste and he was soon replaced by other comedians. Later in the 1930s he worked at [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures "Paramount Pictures"), notably in *[The Big Broadcast of 1938](/wiki/The_Big_Broadcast_of_1938 "The Big Broadcast of 1938")*, and later at [Metro\-Goldwyn\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer"), in films such as *[Easy to Wed](/wiki/Easy_to_Wed "Easy to Wed")*. In 1950, he had a short\-lived TV series, *The Ben Blue Show*, and was also a regular on *[The Frank Sinatra Show](/wiki/The_Frank_Sinatra_Show_%28CBS_TV_series%29 "The Frank Sinatra Show (CBS TV series)")*. [thumb\|right\|Blue was a guest star on the summer replacement television show *Saturday Night Revue* in 1954\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0944699/\|title\=The Saturday Night Revue\|date\=12 June 1954\|publisher\=IMDB\|accessdate\=15 November 2011}}](/wiki/File:Ben_Blue_1954.JPG "Ben Blue 1954.JPG") In 1951, Blue began concentrating on managing and appearing in nightclubs in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_California "Hollywood, California") and [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), [California](/wiki/California "California"). He once appeared in a [Reno](/wiki/Reno%2C_Nevada "Reno, Nevada"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada") [nightclub](/wiki/Nightclub "Nightclub") called the Dollhouse where he lost $25,000 to its owner, Bill Welch. Blue and [Maxie Rosenbloom](/wiki/Maxie_Rosenbloom "Maxie Rosenbloom") owned and performed at Slapsie Maxie's, Hollywood's top nightclub in the 1940s. Again, in the 1960s he opened a nightclub in [Santa Monica](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California "Santa Monica, California"), California, called Ben Blue's. It quickly became the "in" place and night after night was packed with top celebrities. Blue closed the club three years later because of health problems. Blue made the cover of *[TV Guide](/wiki/TV_Guide "TV Guide")*′s June 11, 1954 Special Issue along with [Alan Young](/wiki/Alan_Young "Alan Young"), headlining an edition that covered that season's summer replacement shows. He also made appearances in TV shows such as *[The Jack Benny Program](/wiki/The_Jack_Benny_Program "The Jack Benny Program")* and *[The Milton Berle Show](/wiki/The_Milton_Berle_Show "The Milton Berle Show")*. In 1958 he had major surgery.{{cite news\|title\=Ben Blue Has Surgery\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1958/04/11/archives/ben\-blue\-has\-surgery.html\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=11 April 1958}} In 1958 he starred in a television [pilot](/wiki/Pilot_episode "Pilot episode") called *Ben Blue's Brothers*, in which he played four different parts. The show did not get picked up by a network, but the pilot was seen in 1965\. [thumb\|right\|With [Lucille Ball](/wiki/Lucille_Ball "Lucille Ball") on a [Jack Benny](/wiki/Jack_Benny "Jack Benny") TV special (1968\)](/wiki/File:Ben_Blue_and_Lucille_Ball_1968.jpg "Ben Blue and Lucille Ball 1968.jpg") In 1964 Blue was indicted by a federal grand jury on six counts of [tax evasion](/wiki/Tax_evasion "Tax evasion") for the non\-payment of more than $39,000 (approximately ${{formatnum:{{Inflation\|US\|39000\|1964\|r\=\-3}}}} today) in income taxes from the nightclub he operated, the Merry\-Go\-Round, in [Santa Monica, California](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California "Santa Monica, California").{{cite news\|agency\=\[\[United Press International\|UPI]]\|title\=Jury Indicts Ben Blue On Income Tax Charges\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/08/07/jury\-indicts\-ben\-blue\-on\-income\-tax\-charges.html?mtrref\=query.nytimes.com\&\_r\=0\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=7 August 1964}} The case was contested for five years, before he pled no contest to a single count of evading corporate tax. He was fined $1,000, with the payment suspended. Blue had a recurring role in [Jerry Van Dyke](/wiki/Jerry_Van_Dyke "Jerry Van Dyke")'s television series *[Accidental Family](/wiki/Accidental_Family "Accidental Family")* in 1967\. His film roles included many cameo appearances. In *[It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World](/wiki/It%27s_a_Mad%2C_Mad%2C_Mad%2C_Mad_World "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World")* (1963\), he portrayed the pilot of the [Standard J\-1](/wiki/Standard_J-1 "Standard J-1") biplane that flew [Sid Caesar](/wiki/Sid_Caesar "Sid Caesar") and [Edie Adams](/wiki/Edie_Adams "Edie Adams"). In *[The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming](/wiki/The_Russians_Are_Coming%2C_the_Russians_Are_Coming "The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming")* (1966\) he played the town drunk. Other film appearances included small roles in *[The Busy Body](/wiki/The_Busy_Body_%28film%29 "The Busy Body (film)")* (1967\), *[A Guide for the Married Man](/wiki/A_Guide_for_the_Married_Man "A Guide for the Married Man")* (1967\) and *[Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?](/wiki/Where_Were_You_When_the_Lights_Went_Out%3F "Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?")* (1968\). He made one of his last television appearances in *[Land of the Giants](/wiki/Land_of_the_Giants "Land of the Giants")* in 1969\. He was also seen the following year in the [Dora Hall](/wiki/Dora_Hall "Dora Hall") vanity syndicated television special, "Once Upon a Tour".
[ "Career\n------", "At age fifteen he was in a touring company, and later became a stage manager and assistant general manager. He became a dance instructor and nightclub proprietor. In the 1920s Blue joined a popular orchestra, Jack White and His Montrealers. The entire band emphasized comedy and would continually interact with the joke\\-cracking maestro. Blue, the drummer, would sometimes deliver corny jokes while wearing a ridiculously false beard. The band relocated to the United States, and appeared in two early sound musicals — the [Vitaphone](/wiki/Vitaphone \"Vitaphone\") short subject *Jack White and His Montrealers* and Universal's feature\\-length [2\\-strip Technicolor](/wiki/Technicolor \"Technicolor\") revue *[King of Jazz](/wiki/King_of_Jazz \"King of Jazz\")* (1930\\).", "In 1930, Blue toured with the \"Earl Carroll Vanities\". He later left the band to establish himself as a solo comedian, portraying a bald\\-headed dumb\\-bell with a goofy expression. Around that time he dubbed himself 'Ben Blue', later explaining that it would fit better than 'Bernstein' on theater marquees. Producer [Hal Roach](/wiki/Hal_Roach \"Hal Roach\") featured him in his \"Taxi Boys\" comedy shorts, but Blue's dopey character was an acquired taste and he was soon replaced by other comedians. Later in the 1930s he worked at [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures \"Paramount Pictures\"), notably in *[The Big Broadcast of 1938](/wiki/The_Big_Broadcast_of_1938 \"The Big Broadcast of 1938\")*, and later at [Metro\\-Goldwyn\\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer \"Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer\"), in films such as *[Easy to Wed](/wiki/Easy_to_Wed \"Easy to Wed\")*.", "In 1950, he had a short\\-lived TV series, *The Ben Blue Show*, and was also a regular on *[The Frank Sinatra Show](/wiki/The_Frank_Sinatra_Show_%28CBS_TV_series%29 \"The Frank Sinatra Show (CBS TV series)\")*.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Blue was a guest star on the summer replacement television show *Saturday Night Revue* in 1954\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0944699/\\|title\\=The Saturday Night Revue\\|date\\=12 June 1954\\|publisher\\=IMDB\\|accessdate\\=15 November 2011}}](/wiki/File:Ben_Blue_1954.JPG \"Ben Blue 1954.JPG\")", "In 1951, Blue began concentrating on managing and appearing in nightclubs in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_California \"Hollywood, California\") and [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). He once appeared in a [Reno](/wiki/Reno%2C_Nevada \"Reno, Nevada\"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\") [nightclub](/wiki/Nightclub \"Nightclub\") called the Dollhouse where he lost $25,000 to its owner, Bill Welch. Blue and [Maxie Rosenbloom](/wiki/Maxie_Rosenbloom \"Maxie Rosenbloom\") owned and performed at Slapsie Maxie's, Hollywood's top nightclub in the 1940s. Again, in the 1960s he opened a nightclub in [Santa Monica](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California \"Santa Monica, California\"), California, called Ben Blue's. It quickly became the \"in\" place and night after night was packed with top celebrities. Blue closed the club three years later because of health problems. Blue made the cover of *[TV Guide](/wiki/TV_Guide \"TV Guide\")*′s June 11, 1954 Special Issue along with [Alan Young](/wiki/Alan_Young \"Alan Young\"), headlining an edition that covered that season's summer replacement shows. He also made appearances in TV shows such as *[The Jack Benny Program](/wiki/The_Jack_Benny_Program \"The Jack Benny Program\")* and *[The Milton Berle Show](/wiki/The_Milton_Berle_Show \"The Milton Berle Show\")*.", "In 1958 he had major surgery.{{cite news\\|title\\=Ben Blue Has Surgery\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1958/04/11/archives/ben\\-blue\\-has\\-surgery.html\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=11 April 1958}} In 1958 he starred in a television [pilot](/wiki/Pilot_episode \"Pilot episode\") called *Ben Blue's Brothers*, in which he played four different parts. The show did not get picked up by a network, but the pilot was seen in 1965\\.", "[thumb\\|right\\|With [Lucille Ball](/wiki/Lucille_Ball \"Lucille Ball\") on a [Jack Benny](/wiki/Jack_Benny \"Jack Benny\") TV special (1968\\)](/wiki/File:Ben_Blue_and_Lucille_Ball_1968.jpg \"Ben Blue and Lucille Ball 1968.jpg\")", "In 1964 Blue was indicted by a federal grand jury on six counts of [tax evasion](/wiki/Tax_evasion \"Tax evasion\") for the non\\-payment of more than $39,000 (approximately ${{formatnum:{{Inflation\\|US\\|39000\\|1964\\|r\\=\\-3}}}} today) in income taxes from the nightclub he operated, the Merry\\-Go\\-Round, in [Santa Monica, California](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California \"Santa Monica, California\").{{cite news\\|agency\\=\\[\\[United Press International\\|UPI]]\\|title\\=Jury Indicts Ben Blue On Income Tax Charges\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/08/07/jury\\-indicts\\-ben\\-blue\\-on\\-income\\-tax\\-charges.html?mtrref\\=query.nytimes.com\\&\\_r\\=0\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=7 August 1964}} The case was contested for five years, before he pled no contest to a single count of evading corporate tax. He was fined $1,000, with the payment suspended.", "Blue had a recurring role in [Jerry Van Dyke](/wiki/Jerry_Van_Dyke \"Jerry Van Dyke\")'s television series *[Accidental Family](/wiki/Accidental_Family \"Accidental Family\")* in 1967\\. His film roles included many cameo appearances. In *[It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World](/wiki/It%27s_a_Mad%2C_Mad%2C_Mad%2C_Mad_World \"It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World\")* (1963\\), he portrayed the pilot of the [Standard J\\-1](/wiki/Standard_J-1 \"Standard J-1\") biplane that flew [Sid Caesar](/wiki/Sid_Caesar \"Sid Caesar\") and [Edie Adams](/wiki/Edie_Adams \"Edie Adams\"). In *[The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming](/wiki/The_Russians_Are_Coming%2C_the_Russians_Are_Coming \"The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming\")* (1966\\) he played the town drunk. Other film appearances included small roles in *[The Busy Body](/wiki/The_Busy_Body_%28film%29 \"The Busy Body (film)\")* (1967\\), *[A Guide for the Married Man](/wiki/A_Guide_for_the_Married_Man \"A Guide for the Married Man\")* (1967\\) and *[Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?](/wiki/Where_Were_You_When_the_Lights_Went_Out%3F \"Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?\")* (1968\\). He made one of his last television appearances in *[Land of the Giants](/wiki/Land_of_the_Giants \"Land of the Giants\")* in 1969\\. He was also seen the following year in the [Dora Hall](/wiki/Dora_Hall \"Dora Hall\") vanity syndicated television special, \"Once Upon a Tour\".", "" ]
Early life and education ------------------------ Tabu Taid was born on 1 August 1942 in a geographically remote and economically challenged village [Ghunasuti Ayengia](/wiki/Ghunasuti_Ayengia "Ghunasuti Ayengia") in [Lakhimpur district](/wiki/Lakhimpur_district "Lakhimpur district") of [Assam](/wiki/Assam "Assam"), [India](/wiki/India "India"). His father was Ubbang Taid, a poor farmer who had to work hard to meet the needs of the family of two daughters, five sons and his wife, a nine\-member family. The village, 'Ghunasuti Ayengia' is a settlement of a small indigenous tribe of Assam, the Misings or Miri. Often visited by floods during the monsoon season, the villagers were poor subsistence level farmers. As of 1942, education or awareness of the need for formal education was not much prevailing in rural Assam. However, Ubbang Taid, being able to read and write in Assamese, the major language of the region, understood the need of formal education and sent his sons (excluding the eldest) to school. Tabu Taid performed well in his academic life. After finishing lower primary in his native village, and upper primary and high school in the nearest town [North Lakhimpur](/wiki/North_Lakhimpur "North Lakhimpur"), Tabu Taid went on to receive intermediate and undergraduate level education under Calcutta University and postgraduate level education at Delhi University. Earlier, when Tabu Taid was in the 7th standard, the infamous 'Bor Bhumikampa', [1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake](/wiki/1950_Assam%E2%80%93Tibet_earthquake "1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake"), devastated the Lakhimpur area in Assam, affecting the already poor, disadvantaged people living there, quite significantly. To top it, the flood situation worsened owing to the change of course of the rivers in the area due to the earthquake. So Tabu Taid's family was suffering acute financial crisis at that time. But, being a brilliant student, he was helped by the [Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Narendrapur](/wiki/Ramakrishna_Mission_Vidyalaya%2C_Narendrapur "Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Narendrapur") in [Kolkata](/wiki/Kolkata "Kolkata"). They agreed to bear the cost for his post\-Matric education. He received his graduation with honors in English from the [Ramakrishna Mission Residential College, Narendrapur](/wiki/Ramakrishna_Mission_Residential_College%2C_Narendrapur "Ramakrishna Mission Residential College, Narendrapur") under Calcutta University in 1963 and moved on to [Delhi](/wiki/Delhi "Delhi") for higher education. Working as a schoolteacher in Delhi for sometime, he enrolled in the [Hindu College, University of Delhi](/wiki/Hindu_College%2C_University_of_Delhi "Hindu College, University of Delhi") in 1964 and obtained his Postgraduate degree in English from the [University of Delhi](/wiki/University_of_Delhi "University of Delhi") in 1966\. Tabu Taid started his professional life as a lecturer of English in [Cotton College, Guwahati](/wiki/Cotton_College%2C_Guwahati "Cotton College, Guwahati"), [Assam](/wiki/Assam "Assam"). He went to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") after being awarded a scholarship under a competitive State Overseas Scholarships Scheme, where he obtained a Postgraduate diploma on Applied Linguistics from [University of Reading](/wiki/University_of_Reading "University of Reading"), UK (1973–1974\). He also completed a certificate course in Distance Education at the University of London Institute of Education, [UCL Institute of Education](/wiki/UCL_Institute_of_Education "UCL Institute of Education"), (1982\) under a British Council fellowship program. He was recommended for the [Indian Foreign Service](/wiki/Indian_Foreign_Service "Indian Foreign Service") by the [Union Public Service Commission](/wiki/Union_Public_Service_Commission "Union Public Service Commission"), [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"), making him the first person in the Mising community to attain such an honorable distinction. However, he could not join the service due to health problems at that time.
[ "Early life and education\n------------------------", "Tabu Taid was born on 1 August 1942 in a geographically remote and economically challenged village [Ghunasuti Ayengia](/wiki/Ghunasuti_Ayengia \"Ghunasuti Ayengia\") in [Lakhimpur district](/wiki/Lakhimpur_district \"Lakhimpur district\") of [Assam](/wiki/Assam \"Assam\"), [India](/wiki/India \"India\"). His father was Ubbang Taid, a poor farmer who had to work hard to meet the needs of the family of two daughters, five sons and his wife, a nine\\-member family.", "The village, 'Ghunasuti Ayengia' is a settlement of a small indigenous tribe of Assam, the Misings or Miri. Often visited by floods during the monsoon season, the villagers were poor subsistence level farmers. As of 1942, education or awareness of the need for formal education was not much prevailing in rural Assam. However, Ubbang Taid, being able to read and write in Assamese, the major language of the region, understood the need of formal education and sent his sons (excluding the eldest) to school.", "Tabu Taid performed well in his academic life. After finishing lower primary in his native village, and upper primary and high school in the nearest town [North Lakhimpur](/wiki/North_Lakhimpur \"North Lakhimpur\"), Tabu Taid went on to receive intermediate and undergraduate level education under Calcutta University and postgraduate level education at Delhi University. Earlier, when Tabu Taid was in the 7th standard, the infamous 'Bor Bhumikampa', [1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake](/wiki/1950_Assam%E2%80%93Tibet_earthquake \"1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake\"), devastated the Lakhimpur area in Assam, affecting the already poor, disadvantaged people living there, quite significantly. To top it, the flood situation worsened owing to the change of course of the rivers in the area due to the earthquake. So Tabu Taid's family was suffering acute financial crisis at that time. But, being a brilliant student, he was helped by the [Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Narendrapur](/wiki/Ramakrishna_Mission_Vidyalaya%2C_Narendrapur \"Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Narendrapur\") in [Kolkata](/wiki/Kolkata \"Kolkata\"). They agreed to bear the cost for his post\\-Matric education. He received his graduation with honors in English from the [Ramakrishna Mission Residential College, Narendrapur](/wiki/Ramakrishna_Mission_Residential_College%2C_Narendrapur \"Ramakrishna Mission Residential College, Narendrapur\") under Calcutta University in 1963 and moved on to [Delhi](/wiki/Delhi \"Delhi\") for higher education. Working as a schoolteacher in Delhi for sometime, he enrolled in the [Hindu College, University of Delhi](/wiki/Hindu_College%2C_University_of_Delhi \"Hindu College, University of Delhi\") in 1964 and obtained his Postgraduate degree in English from the [University of Delhi](/wiki/University_of_Delhi \"University of Delhi\") in 1966\\.", "Tabu Taid started his professional life as a lecturer of English in [Cotton College, Guwahati](/wiki/Cotton_College%2C_Guwahati \"Cotton College, Guwahati\"), [Assam](/wiki/Assam \"Assam\"). He went to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") after being awarded a scholarship under a competitive State Overseas Scholarships Scheme, where he obtained a Postgraduate diploma on Applied Linguistics from [University of Reading](/wiki/University_of_Reading \"University of Reading\"), UK (1973–1974\\). He also completed a certificate course in Distance Education at the University of London Institute of Education, [UCL Institute of Education](/wiki/UCL_Institute_of_Education \"UCL Institute of Education\"), (1982\\) under a British Council fellowship program.", "He was recommended for the [Indian Foreign Service](/wiki/Indian_Foreign_Service \"Indian Foreign Service\") by the [Union Public Service Commission](/wiki/Union_Public_Service_Commission \"Union Public Service Commission\"), [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\"), making him the first person in the Mising community to attain such an honorable distinction. However, he could not join the service due to health problems at that time.", "" ]
Game summaries -------------- [thumb\|200px\|Slugging St. Louis Browns outfielder James "Tip" O'Neill (1858–1915\) hit two home runs in the second game of the series.](/wiki/File:Tip_O%27Neill_baseball.jpg "Tip O'Neill baseball.jpg") ### Game 1 Monday, October 18, 1886, at [Chicago Ball Park](/wiki/West_Side_Park "West Side Park") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") {{Linescore\| \|Road\=St. Louis Browns\|RoadAbr\=STL \|R1\=0\|R2\=0\|R3\=0\|R4\=0\|R5\=0\|R6\=0\|R7\=0\|R8\=0\|R9\=0\|RR\=0\|RH\=5\|RE\=6 \|Home\='''Chicagos'''\|HomeAbr\=CHI \|H1\=2\|H2\=0\|H3\=0\|H4\=0\|H5\=0\|H6\=1\|H7\=0\|H8\=3\|H9\=X\|HR\=6\|HH\=9\|HE\=5 \|RSP\=\|HSP\= \|WP\=\[\[John Clarkson]] (1–0\)\|LP\=\[\[Dave Foutz]] (0–1\)\|SV\= \|RoadHR\=\|HomeHR\= \|Time\= 1:55 \|}} The Browns arrived in Chicago on the morning of game day, October 18, and were immediately incensed at an article appearing in the morning *Chicago Tribune* calling Browns' star third baseman [Arlie Latham](/wiki/Arlie_Latham "Arlie Latham") a "monkey" and advising that White Stockings outfielder [King Kelly](/wiki/King_Kelly "King Kelly") should create a collision with him on the base. The series started in cold, windy conditionsAlbert John Bushong, ["'Doc's' Dictim: Bushong Explains Yesterday's Defeat in Chicago,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7156709/docs_dictim_doc_bushong_explains/) *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch,* vol. 37, no. 93 (Oct. 19, 1886\), pg. 7\. at 3:00 pm, with the grandstands filled with a crowd estimated variously between 3,000 and 5,000["The Browns Massacred: Anson's Men Wipe Up the Earth with the Pets,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7178699/the_browns_massacred_ansons_men_wipe/) *Chicago Tribune,* Oct. 19, 1886, pg. 2\.—somewhat fewer than anticipated. The game began with a coin toss to determine which side would bat first, with Anson and Chicago winning the call and sending the Browns to the plate to open. After retiring the side in order in the top of the first, Chicago quickly jumped out to a two\-run lead powered by a Cap Anson RBI triple to the right\-center gap. Clean\-up hitter [Fred Pfeffer](/wiki/Fred_Pfeffer "Fred Pfeffer") drove Anson home with a single, and the blue\-uniformed home team took a lead, 2–0\. This would prove to be all the scoring that the White Stockings needed for the win as Chicago's ace pitcher [John Clarkson](/wiki/John_Clarkson "John Clarkson") (a future member of the [Baseball Hall of Fame](/wiki/Baseball_Hall_of_Fame "Baseball Hall of Fame")) struck out ten["Home Again: The Browns Arrive from the City by the Lake This Morning,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7163649/home_again_the_browns_arrive_from_the/) *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch,* Oct. 21, 1886, pg. 8\. in throwing a five\-hit shutout as "Anson's Pets" beat [Dave Foutz](/wiki/Dave_Foutz "Dave Foutz") and the Browns, 6–0\. ### Game 2 Tuesday, October 19, 1886, at [Chicago Ball Park](/wiki/West_Side_Park "West Side Park") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") {{Linescore\| \|Road\=Chicagos\|RoadAbr\=CHI \|R1\=0\|R2\=0\|R3\=0\|R4\=0\|R5\=0\|R6\=0\|R7\=0\|R8\=0\|RR\=0\|RH\=2\|RE\=12 \|Home\='''St. Louis Browns'''\|HomeAbr\=STL \|H1\=2\|H2\=0\|H3\=0\|H4\=2\|H5\=3\|H6\=0\|H7\=5\|H8\=0\|HR\=12\|HH\=11\|HE\=6 \|RSP\=\|HSP\= \|WP\=\[\[Bob Caruthers]] (1–0\)\|LP\=\[\[Jim McCormick (pitcher)\|Jim McCormick]] (0–1\)\|SV\= \|RoadHR\=\|HomeHR\=O'Neill (1, 2\) \|Time \= 2:00 \|}} Scottish\-born right\-hander [Jim McCormick](/wiki/Jim_McCormick_%28pitcher%29 "Jim McCormick (pitcher)") got the start and took the loss for Chicago, giving up two home runs to St. Louis outfielder [Tip O'Neill](/wiki/Tip_O%27Neill_%28baseball%29 "Tip O'Neill (baseball)"). St. Louis [curveball](/wiki/Curveball "Curveball") specialist Bob Caruthers made short work of the home team, allowing just two hits and cruising to a 12–0 victory in a game mercifully shortened to 8 innings by darkness.["What Can the Matter Be? The 'World Beaters' Maul the 'Champs' to the Tune of 12 to 0,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7179353/what_can_the_matter_be_the_world/) *Detroit Free Press,* Oct. 20, 1886, pg. 8\. The game was reckoned by one sportswriter to be "one of the worst games...ever played" by the Chicagos, who not only failed to hit Caruthers but who also "fielded like a parcel of schoolboys out on a lark and missed nearly every opportunity given them to do effective work." Chicago committed an astounding 12 errors and made 2 wild pitches in the defeat, with third baseman Tom Burns single\-handedly adding 4 errors to the team total. ### Game 3 [thumb\|right\|200px\|St. Louis was led by player\-manager Charlie Comiskey (1859–1931\), future owner of the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox "Chicago White Sox") franchise.](/wiki/File:Charles_Comiskey_Old_Judge_1888.jpg "Charles Comiskey Old Judge 1888.jpg") Wednesday, October 20, 1886, at [Chicago Ball Park](/wiki/West_Side_Park "West Side Park") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") {{Linescore\| \|Road\='''Chicagos'''\|RoadAbr\=CHI \|R1\=2\|R2\=0\|R3\=0\|R4\=1\|R5\=1\|R6\=2\|R7\=3\|R8\=2\|RR\=11\|RH\=12\|RE\=4 \|Home\=St. Louis Browns\|HomeAbr\=STL \|H1\=0\|H2\=1\|H3\=0\|H4\=0\|H5\=0\|H6\=2\|H7\=0\|H8\=1\|HR\=4\|HH\=9\|HE\=2 \|RSP\=\|HSP\= \|WP\=John Clarkson (2–0\)\|LP\=Bob Caruthers (1–1\)\|SV\= \|RoadHR\=Kelly (1\), Gore (1\)\|HomeHR\= \|Time\= 1:45 \|}} Heavy morning rain in Chicago followed by extensive drizzle threatened the third game of the 1886 World Series on October 20\.["Under Clear Skies: The Browns Meet the Chicago 'Fat Boy' Nine Again,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7158013/under_clear_skies_the_browns_meet_the/) *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch,* vol. 37, no. 94 (Oct. 20, 1886\), pg. 1\. However, around 2:00 pm the skies cleared up and the ground was fit to play when the teams took the field for warmups shortly before 3:00 pm. Attendance was weak, doubtlessly owing to the bad weather. Coming off his complete game 1\-hitter the previous day, Bob Caruthers again took the ball for the Browns, while John Clarkson made his second series start for the White Stockings. A coin toss determined the first team to bat, with St. Louis winning the flip and sending Chicago up to the plate first. With his effectiveness hindered by the necessity of pitching two days in a row, the Browns found themselves on their heels quickly when ace Bob Caruthers walked four of the first five batters, surrendering a second run on a base hit given up to third baseman [Tom Burns](/wiki/Tom_Burns_%28baseball%29 "Tom Burns (baseball)") of the Chicagos. The game was called after completion of eight innings due to darkness. John Clarkson was again on top of his game as the right hander struck out 8 Browns in earning his second win of the series. Caruthers took the loss for the Browns, giving Chicago a lead of two games to one in the series. The Browns and their supporters were despondent over the loss and returned from Chicago to a station devoid of welcoming fans. Browns players were critical of player\-manager Charlie Comiskey's decision to start Caruthers in back\-to\-back games, noting that [Nat Hudson](/wiki/Nat_Hudson "Nat Hudson") had been ready to start for the visitors until the last\-minute decision was made to bring back the team's ace on zero rest. Star outfielder Tip O'Neill expressed the view that the pitching situation had been miserably managed and that the entire team had been put off by the decision not to rest Caruthers. Gambling odds to win the series moved to 5:4 in favor of Chicago following the Browns' game 3 loss. ### Game 4 [thumb\|right\|200px\|Chicago pitcher John Clarkson (1861–1909\) started 4 games of the 6\-game series, going 2–2 with 3 complete games and a 2\.03 earned run average.](/wiki/File:Clarksonj55.jpg "Clarksonj55.jpg") Thursday, October 21, 1886, at [Sportsman's Park](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park%231881_structure "Sportsman's Park#1881 structure") in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri "Missouri") {{Linescore\| \|Home\='''St. Louis Browns'''\|HomeAbr\=STL \|H1\=0\|H2\=1\|H3\=1\|H4\=0\|H5\=3\|H6\=3\|H7\=X\|HR\=8\|HH\=10\|HE\=4 \|Road\=Chicagos\|RoadAbr\=CHI \|R1\=3\|R2\=0\|R3\=0\|R4\=0\|R5\=0\|R6\=2\|R7\=0\|RR\=5\|RH\=9\|RE\=4 \|RSP\=\|HSP\= \|WP\=Dave Foutz (1\-1\)\|LP\= John Clarkson (2\-1\)\|SV\= \|RoadHR\= \|Time\= 1:40 \|}} The series moved to St. Louis on October 21, with Chicago ace John Clarkson pitching for the third time in four days.Bill James, [*The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3uSbqUm8hSAC) New York: Simon \& Schuster, 2010; pg. 47\. Clarkson was nothing if not durable, having won 53 games in 1885 to lead the National League—the second greatest number of wins by an individual pitcher in baseball history.["Single Season Leaders and Records for Wins,"](https://www.baseball-reference.com/leaders/W_season.shtml) Baseball\-Reference.com, www.baseball\-reference.com/ It was necessity rather than design that forced Clarkson into back\-to\-back action during the World Series, however. Chicago's second pitcher, Jim McCormick, failed to make the trip due to a recurrence of "rheumatism" in his feet, an ailment which hampered his mobility and made participation impossible. Moreover, third Chicago pitcher [Jocko Flynn](/wiki/Jocko_Flynn "Jocko Flynn"), a 23\-game winner, was already lost to the team for the year (and for his career) with arm trouble.["A Big Stake: What the Chicago and St. Louis Clubs Are Playing For,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7174717/a_big_stake_what_the_chicago_and_st/) *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch,* Oct. 23, 1886, pg. 8\. In an effort to overcome the pitching deficit the team hurriedly signed a youthful 39\-game winner from a minor league club in [Duluth](/wiki/Duluth%2C_Minnesota "Duluth, Minnesota"), Ward Baldwin, but the new addition to the team did not see action in the series. It was not for the lack of trying that Baldwin was unavailable to fill the void left by McCormick's injury. Chicago manager Cap Anson intended to start the newcomer in game 4, but objection was made by Browns owner [Chris von der Ahe](/wiki/Chris_von_der_Ahe "Chris von der Ahe"), who declared there was an understanding that the World Series was a competition between the two teams which had won the championships of their respective leagues and that no additional players were to be used by either side. Chicago owner [Albert Spalding](/wiki/Albert_Spalding "Albert Spalding") remonstrated on behalf of the new addition to his stable and the two owners stormed off for speedy decision of the dispute by the board of umpires appointed for the series, a process specified by an earlier agreement between the teams. Three of the four umpires (two from each league) were located and it was determined that the matter should be left to the toss of a coin. The National League lost the flip and Baldwin was barred from the series. After the starting bell rang at 3:15 pm, the Chicagos managed to rack up a 3–0 lead in the top of the first inning with one hit, two walks, two errors, and a sacrifice fly.["'That's the Way!' Capt. Anson's Babies Have Nothing to Say About Their Defeat,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7166375/thats_the_way_capt_ansons_babies/) *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch,* Oct. 22, 1886, pg. 5\. The Browns narrowed the margin with a run in the second inning on some astute base running by [Bill Gleason](/wiki/Bill_Gleason "Bill Gleason"), with another run notched in the third inning when Tip O'Neill tripled home a runner. The tide turned decisively in the fifth inning when starting pitcher John Clarkson, pitching a second consecutive game, began to run out of gas, giving up a two\-run single to center by Gleason, followed by an RBI single by Browns first baseman Charlie Comiskey. The White Stockings managed to get two runs back in the top in the sixth, powered by [Abner Dalrymple's](/wiki/Abner_Dalrymple "Abner Dalrymple") RBI triple to right field, followed by a base hit by Clarkson. The Browns put the game away for good with three more runs in the bottom half of the frame, however, with three walks, two singles, and a muffed fly ball doing the damage. The game was called after seven innings due to darkness, the series knotted at two games each. Chicago manager Cap Anson was angered by the decision to call the game after 7 innings, claiming that sufficient light remained to see the ball when the game was ended, but his plea went unheeded as the crowd of about 8,000 scurried for the exits. After the game losing pitcher John Clarkson acknowledged that "They got away with me today, without the shadow of a doubt. I can't say anything, but they beat us all around.... They just hit me and hit me hard." While losing pitcher Clarkson was sanguine about the defeat, team owner Spalding was enraged by the outcome, declaring to a newspaper reporter that his team had "a perfect right" to pitch new signee Ward Baldwin instead of the exhausted Clarkson and that the St. Louis owner "had no business to interfere with me." He continued: > "Baldwin is as much a member of the Chicago Club as any man on it and we signed him for the season of 1886 *(sic.)* and 1887 as well. I am not at all satisfied with the result of today's business, and I think the action of Mr. Von der Ahe in the matter was unsportsmanlike and wrong, and if the loss of this game interferes with our winning the series, I think it would be only right to make some kind of a protest against it." ### Game 5 [thumb\|right\|200px\|Star Chicago catcher Michael "King" Kelly (1857–1894\), one of "Anson's Pets." Kelly hit a team\-leading .388 during the 1886 regular season.](/wiki/File:King-Kelly.jpg "King-Kelly.jpg") Friday, October 22, 1886, at [Sportsman's Park](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park%231881_structure "Sportsman's Park#1881 structure") in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri "Missouri") {{Linescore\| \|Road\=Chicagos\|RoadAbr\=CHI \|R1\=0\|R2\=1\|R3\=1\|R4\=1\|R5\=0\|R6\=0\|R7\=0\|RR\=3\|RH\=3\|RE\=3 \|Home\='''St. Louis Browns'''\|HomeAbr\=STL \|H1\=2\|H2\=1\|H3\=4\|H4\=0\|H5\=0\|H6\=3\|H7\=X\|HR\=10\|HH\=11\|HE\=3 \|RSP\=Jimmy Ryan\|HSP\= \|WP\= \[\[Nat Hudson]] (1\-0\) \|LP\= \[\[Ned Williamson]] (0\-1\)\|SV\= \|RoadHR\= \|Time\= \|}} The action returned to St. Louis on October 22 for game 5\. Chicago manager Cap Anson attempted to start the game with Ned Baldwin in the pitcher's area, but the St. Louis crowd roared its disapproval and the Browns refused to play until Baldwin was removed.["The World's Championship: The St. Louis Browns Defeat the Chicagos and are One Game Ahead,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7180819/the_worlds_championship_the_st_louis/) *Washington Evening Star,* Oct. 23, 1886, pg. 8\. Forced to improvise in light of Chicago's lack of an alternate pitcher to John Clarkson, Anson trotted out shortstop [Ned Williamson](/wiki/Ned_Williamson "Ned Williamson") to make the start, only to see the hapless conscript knocked out of the box after giving up three hits and walk in the first inning, resulting in two runs. Right fielder [Jimmy Ryan](/wiki/Jimmy_Ryan_%28baseball%29 "Jimmy Ryan (baseball)") came in to [relieve](/wiki/Relief_pitcher "Relief pitcher"), showing himself a better pitcher than Williamson but nevertheless taking the loss as his teammates blundered away the game defensively. One observer noted that "the playing on both sides was very loose, the batting heavy, and the errors numerous," with the Chicagos playing a particularly "wretched game both at the bat and in the field."["St. Louis One Ahead: The Browns Win the Fifth World's Championship Game,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7179576/st_louis_one_ahead_the_browns_win_the/) *Philadelphia Times,* Oct. 23, 1886, pg. 2\. Chicago right fielder Tom Burns committed two particularly costly errors, allowing runs to score, with Nat Hudson giving up only three hits en route to an easy 10–3 victory. Catcher [Silver Flint](/wiki/Silver_Flint "Silver Flint") contributed mightily to the carnage, allowing four runs to score on passed balls and making another costly throwing error to third base. The game was called after 7 innings when it became too dark to see the ball. An estimated 16,000 fans were in attendance to witness the hometown Browns go up three games to two in the best\-of\-seven series. ### Game 6 [thumb\|right\|200px\|Browns center fielder Curt Welch (1862–1896\) scored the series\-winning run in what was later called the "$15,000 Slide."](/wiki/File:Curt-Welch.jpg "Curt-Welch.jpg") Saturday, October 23, 1886, at [Sportsman's Park](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park%231881_structure "Sportsman's Park#1881 structure") in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri "Missouri") {{Linescore\| \|Road\=Chicagos\|RoadAbr\=CHI \|R1\=0\|R2\=1\|R3\=0\|R4\=1\|R5\=0\|R6\=1\|R7\=0\|R8\=0\|R9\=0\|R10\=0\|RR\=3\|RH\=6\|RE\=2 \|Home\='''St. Louis Browns'''\|HomeAbr\=STL \|H1\=0\|H2\=0\|H3\=0\|H4\=0\|H5\=0\|H6\=0\|H7\=0\|H8\=3\|H9\=0\|H10\=1\|HR\=4\|HH\=4\|HE\=3 \|RSP\=\|HSP\= \|WP\=Bob Caruthers (2\-1\)\|LP\=John Clarkson (2\-2\)\|SV\= \|RoadHR\= Pfeffer (1\) \|Time\= 2:15 \|}} The final game of the 1886 World Series took place in St. Louis on October 23 and proved to be a legendary affair. Bob Caruthers made his third pitching start for St. Louis, with John Clarkson returning to the mound for a fourth time for Chicago. Under threatening skies the White Stockings took a 2–0 lead into the fourth inning, when a brief rain shower prompted fans to leave the grandstand and run onto the field, demanding that the umpire call the game, thereby nullifying the result, because of inclement weather.["Browns the Champions: Anson's Men Defeated by Von der Ahe's Pets,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7181014/browns_the_champions_ansons_men/) *Chicago Tribune,* Oct. 24, 1886, pg. 10\. Order was restored only with the assistance of a legion of police. A 3–0 Chicago lead held until a dramatic eighth\-inning comeback by the Browns. [Charlie Comiskey](/wiki/Charles_Comiskey "Charles Comiskey") began the St. Louis half of the inning with a single to right field and was sent to third by a bunting [Curt Welch](/wiki/Curt_Welch "Curt Welch"), who managed to beat out the throw to first base, putting runners on the corners.*The Sporting News,* December 31, 1898, reproduced in Dennis Pajot, ["Baseball's First World Series Goat,"](http://seamheads.com/blog/2009/04/06/baseballs-first-world-series-goat-abner-dalrymple-and-game-six-of-the-1886-world-series/) Seamheads.com, April 6, 2009\. Chicago infielder Tom Burns threw wildly to first in an effort to pick off Welch only to see the ball skip away and Comiskey score on the error, with Welch advancing to second. The home crowd erupted. Clarkson managed to collect two outs when Dave Foutz and [Yank Robinson](/wiki/Yank_Robinson "Yank Robinson") flew out, but he kept the inning alive with a walk of the hitter in the 9\-spot, [Doc Bushong](/wiki/Doc_Bushong "Doc Bushong"), bringing the potential go\-ahead run to the plate, leadoff hitting third baseman [Arlie Latham](/wiki/Arlie_Latham "Arlie Latham"). The loud and abrasive Cap Anson had been riding Latham throughout the game when he was on the field from the third base coaching area, taunting him as a "soft spot" in the Browns' defense. Latham delivered his answer with his bat, hammering a long fly ball that was misjudged by outfielder [Abner Dalrymple](/wiki/Abner_Dalrymple "Abner Dalrymple"). Running on contact, both Welch and Bushong scored on the play, knotting the score at 3\. Neither team scored in the 9th inning, sending the game to extra innings. Chicago similarly failed to score in their half of the 10th inning, but in the bottom half of the frame the Browns started a rally, with the Browns' Curt Welch advancing to third base. Clarkson wound up and threw a pitch that got past catcher [King Kelly](/wiki/King_Kelly "King Kelly"), with Welch coming home to win the game and the series for St. Louis. It is disputed whether or not Welch was forced to slide in scoring the winning run, but the event was memorialized as the "$15,000 Slide" nevertheless and became the most famous play in 19th century baseball.["The 1886 World Series: Breaking Down the $15,000 Slide,"](http://www.thisgameofgames.com/home/category/1886-world-series) This Game of Games, www.thisgameofgames.com/ Aug. 17, 2016\. There was contemporary disagreement as to whether the final play of the game was made possible by a [passed ball](/wiki/Passed_ball "Passed ball") or a [wild pitch](/wiki/Wild_pitch "Wild pitch"), with Chicago catcher King Kelly telling the press that he was willing to take the blame: > "I signaled Clarkson for a low ball on one side and when it came it was high up on the other. It struck my hand as I tried to get it, and I would say it was a passed ball. You can give it to me if you want to. Clarkson told me that it slipped from his hands."["The World's Champions: Friends of the Browns Will Banquet Them Next Saturday Night,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7178089/the_worlds_champions_friends_of_the/) *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch,* Oct. 25, 1886, pg. 5\. The reporter of the *Chicago Tribune* differed with the official scoring decision, asserting that the all\-important passed ball was "really a wild pitch by Clarkson." Regardless of the intricacies of official scoring, the winning run excited the packed grandstand mightily, with fans remaining in their seats and cheering for fifteen minutes after the game was over, while hundreds of others stormed the Browns' locker room with congratulations.
[ "Game summaries\n--------------", "[thumb\\|200px\\|Slugging St. Louis Browns outfielder James \"Tip\" O'Neill (1858–1915\\) hit two home runs in the second game of the series.](/wiki/File:Tip_O%27Neill_baseball.jpg \"Tip O'Neill baseball.jpg\")", "### Game 1", "Monday, October 18, 1886, at [Chicago Ball Park](/wiki/West_Side_Park \"West Side Park\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Road\\=St. Louis Browns\\|RoadAbr\\=STL\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=0\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=0\\|R7\\=0\\|R8\\=0\\|R9\\=0\\|RR\\=0\\|RH\\=5\\|RE\\=6\n\\|Home\\='''Chicagos'''\\|HomeAbr\\=CHI\n\\|H1\\=2\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=0\\|H6\\=1\\|H7\\=0\\|H8\\=3\\|H9\\=X\\|HR\\=6\\|HH\\=9\\|HE\\=5\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=\\[\\[John Clarkson]] (1–0\\)\\|LP\\=\\[\\[Dave Foutz]] (0–1\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\=\\|HomeHR\\=\n\\|Time\\= 1:55\n\\|}}", "The Browns arrived in Chicago on the morning of game day, October 18, and were immediately incensed at an article appearing in the morning *Chicago Tribune* calling Browns' star third baseman [Arlie Latham](/wiki/Arlie_Latham \"Arlie Latham\") a \"monkey\" and advising that White Stockings outfielder [King Kelly](/wiki/King_Kelly \"King Kelly\") should create a collision with him on the base. The series started in cold, windy conditionsAlbert John Bushong, [\"'Doc's' Dictim: Bushong Explains Yesterday's Defeat in Chicago,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7156709/docs_dictim_doc_bushong_explains/) *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch,* vol. 37, no. 93 (Oct. 19, 1886\\), pg. 7\\. at 3:00 pm, with the grandstands filled with a crowd estimated variously between 3,000 and 5,000[\"The Browns Massacred: Anson's Men Wipe Up the Earth with the Pets,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7178699/the_browns_massacred_ansons_men_wipe/) *Chicago Tribune,* Oct. 19, 1886, pg. 2\\.—somewhat fewer than anticipated.", "The game began with a coin toss to determine which side would bat first, with Anson and Chicago winning the call and sending the Browns to the plate to open.", "After retiring the side in order in the top of the first, Chicago quickly jumped out to a two\\-run lead powered by a Cap Anson RBI triple to the right\\-center gap. Clean\\-up hitter [Fred Pfeffer](/wiki/Fred_Pfeffer \"Fred Pfeffer\") drove Anson home with a single, and the blue\\-uniformed home team took a lead, 2–0\\. This would prove to be all the scoring that the White Stockings needed for the win as Chicago's ace pitcher [John Clarkson](/wiki/John_Clarkson \"John Clarkson\") (a future member of the [Baseball Hall of Fame](/wiki/Baseball_Hall_of_Fame \"Baseball Hall of Fame\")) struck out ten[\"Home Again: The Browns Arrive from the City by the Lake This Morning,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7163649/home_again_the_browns_arrive_from_the/) *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch,* Oct. 21, 1886, pg. 8\\. in throwing a five\\-hit shutout as \"Anson's Pets\" beat [Dave Foutz](/wiki/Dave_Foutz \"Dave Foutz\") and the Browns, 6–0\\.", "### Game 2", "Tuesday, October 19, 1886, at [Chicago Ball Park](/wiki/West_Side_Park \"West Side Park\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Road\\=Chicagos\\|RoadAbr\\=CHI\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=0\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=0\\|R7\\=0\\|R8\\=0\\|RR\\=0\\|RH\\=2\\|RE\\=12\n\\|Home\\='''St. Louis Browns'''\\|HomeAbr\\=STL\n\\|H1\\=2\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=2\\|H5\\=3\\|H6\\=0\\|H7\\=5\\|H8\\=0\\|HR\\=12\\|HH\\=11\\|HE\\=6\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=\\[\\[Bob Caruthers]] (1–0\\)\\|LP\\=\\[\\[Jim McCormick (pitcher)\\|Jim McCormick]] (0–1\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\=\\|HomeHR\\=O'Neill (1, 2\\)\n\\|Time \\= 2:00\n\\|}}", "Scottish\\-born right\\-hander [Jim McCormick](/wiki/Jim_McCormick_%28pitcher%29 \"Jim McCormick (pitcher)\") got the start and took the loss for Chicago, giving up two home runs to St. Louis outfielder [Tip O'Neill](/wiki/Tip_O%27Neill_%28baseball%29 \"Tip O'Neill (baseball)\"). St. Louis [curveball](/wiki/Curveball \"Curveball\") specialist Bob Caruthers made short work of the home team, allowing just two hits and cruising to a 12–0 victory in a game mercifully shortened to 8 innings by darkness.[\"What Can the Matter Be? The 'World Beaters' Maul the 'Champs' to the Tune of 12 to 0,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7179353/what_can_the_matter_be_the_world/) *Detroit Free Press,* Oct. 20, 1886, pg. 8\\.", "The game was reckoned by one sportswriter to be \"one of the worst games...ever played\" by the Chicagos, who not only failed to hit Caruthers but who also \"fielded like a parcel of schoolboys out on a lark and missed nearly every opportunity given them to do effective work.\" Chicago committed an astounding 12 errors and made 2 wild pitches in the defeat, with third baseman Tom Burns single\\-handedly adding 4 errors to the team total.", "### Game 3", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|St. Louis was led by player\\-manager Charlie Comiskey (1859–1931\\), future owner of the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox \"Chicago White Sox\") franchise.](/wiki/File:Charles_Comiskey_Old_Judge_1888.jpg \"Charles Comiskey Old Judge 1888.jpg\")", "Wednesday, October 20, 1886, at [Chicago Ball Park](/wiki/West_Side_Park \"West Side Park\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Chicagos'''\\|RoadAbr\\=CHI\n\\|R1\\=2\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=1\\|R5\\=1\\|R6\\=2\\|R7\\=3\\|R8\\=2\\|RR\\=11\\|RH\\=12\\|RE\\=4\n\\|Home\\=St. Louis Browns\\|HomeAbr\\=STL\n\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=1\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=0\\|H6\\=2\\|H7\\=0\\|H8\\=1\\|HR\\=4\\|HH\\=9\\|HE\\=2\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=John Clarkson (2–0\\)\\|LP\\=Bob Caruthers (1–1\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\=Kelly (1\\), Gore (1\\)\\|HomeHR\\=\n\\|Time\\= 1:45\n\\|}}", "Heavy morning rain in Chicago followed by extensive drizzle threatened the third game of the 1886 World Series on October 20\\.[\"Under Clear Skies: The Browns Meet the Chicago 'Fat Boy' Nine Again,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7158013/under_clear_skies_the_browns_meet_the/) *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch,* vol. 37, no. 94 (Oct. 20, 1886\\), pg. 1\\. However, around 2:00 pm the skies cleared up and the ground was fit to play when the teams took the field for warmups shortly before 3:00 pm. Attendance was weak, doubtlessly owing to the bad weather. Coming off his complete game 1\\-hitter the previous day, Bob Caruthers again took the ball for the Browns, while John Clarkson made his second series start for the White Stockings. A coin toss determined the first team to bat, with St. Louis winning the flip and sending Chicago up to the plate first.", "With his effectiveness hindered by the necessity of pitching two days in a row, the Browns found themselves on their heels quickly when ace Bob Caruthers walked four of the first five batters, surrendering a second run on a base hit given up to third baseman [Tom Burns](/wiki/Tom_Burns_%28baseball%29 \"Tom Burns (baseball)\") of the Chicagos. The game was called after completion of eight innings due to darkness. John Clarkson was again on top of his game as the right hander struck out 8 Browns in earning his second win of the series. Caruthers took the loss for the Browns, giving Chicago a lead of two games to one in the series.", "The Browns and their supporters were despondent over the loss and returned from Chicago to a station devoid of welcoming fans. Browns players were critical of player\\-manager Charlie Comiskey's decision to start Caruthers in back\\-to\\-back games, noting that [Nat Hudson](/wiki/Nat_Hudson \"Nat Hudson\") had been ready to start for the visitors until the last\\-minute decision was made to bring back the team's ace on zero rest. Star outfielder Tip O'Neill expressed the view that the pitching situation had been miserably managed and that the entire team had been put off by the decision not to rest Caruthers.", "Gambling odds to win the series moved to 5:4 in favor of Chicago following the Browns' game 3 loss.", "### Game 4", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Chicago pitcher John Clarkson (1861–1909\\) started 4 games of the 6\\-game series, going 2–2 with 3 complete games and a 2\\.03 earned run average.](/wiki/File:Clarksonj55.jpg \"Clarksonj55.jpg\")", "Thursday, October 21, 1886, at [Sportsman's Park](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park%231881_structure \"Sportsman's Park#1881 structure\") in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Home\\='''St. Louis Browns'''\\|HomeAbr\\=STL\n\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=1\\|H3\\=1\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=3\\|H6\\=3\\|H7\\=X\\|HR\\=8\\|HH\\=10\\|HE\\=4\n\\|Road\\=Chicagos\\|RoadAbr\\=CHI\n\\|R1\\=3\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=0\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=2\\|R7\\=0\\|RR\\=5\\|RH\\=9\\|RE\\=4\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=Dave Foutz (1\\-1\\)\\|LP\\= John Clarkson (2\\-1\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\=\n\\|Time\\= 1:40\n\\|}}", "The series moved to St. Louis on October 21, with Chicago ace John Clarkson pitching for the third time in four days.Bill James, [*The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3uSbqUm8hSAC) New York: Simon \\& Schuster, 2010; pg. 47\\. Clarkson was nothing if not durable, having won 53 games in 1885 to lead the National League—the second greatest number of wins by an individual pitcher in baseball history.[\"Single Season Leaders and Records for Wins,\"](https://www.baseball-reference.com/leaders/W_season.shtml) Baseball\\-Reference.com, www.baseball\\-reference.com/ It was necessity rather than design that forced Clarkson into back\\-to\\-back action during the World Series, however. Chicago's second pitcher, Jim McCormick, failed to make the trip due to a recurrence of \"rheumatism\" in his feet, an ailment which hampered his mobility and made participation impossible. Moreover, third Chicago pitcher [Jocko Flynn](/wiki/Jocko_Flynn \"Jocko Flynn\"), a 23\\-game winner, was already lost to the team for the year (and for his career) with arm trouble.[\"A Big Stake: What the Chicago and St. Louis Clubs Are Playing For,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7174717/a_big_stake_what_the_chicago_and_st/) *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch,* Oct. 23, 1886, pg. 8\\. In an effort to overcome the pitching deficit the team hurriedly signed a youthful 39\\-game winner from a minor league club in [Duluth](/wiki/Duluth%2C_Minnesota \"Duluth, Minnesota\"), Ward Baldwin, but the new addition to the team did not see action in the series.", "It was not for the lack of trying that Baldwin was unavailable to fill the void left by McCormick's injury. Chicago manager Cap Anson intended to start the newcomer in game 4, but objection was made by Browns owner [Chris von der Ahe](/wiki/Chris_von_der_Ahe \"Chris von der Ahe\"), who declared there was an understanding that the World Series was a competition between the two teams which had won the championships of their respective leagues and that no additional players were to be used by either side. Chicago owner [Albert Spalding](/wiki/Albert_Spalding \"Albert Spalding\") remonstrated on behalf of the new addition to his stable and the two owners stormed off for speedy decision of the dispute by the board of umpires appointed for the series, a process specified by an earlier agreement between the teams. Three of the four umpires (two from each league) were located and it was determined that the matter should be left to the toss of a coin. The National League lost the flip and Baldwin was barred from the series.", "After the starting bell rang at 3:15 pm, the Chicagos managed to rack up a 3–0 lead in the top of the first inning with one hit, two walks, two errors, and a sacrifice fly.[\"'That's the Way!' Capt. Anson's Babies Have Nothing to Say About Their Defeat,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7166375/thats_the_way_capt_ansons_babies/) *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch,* Oct. 22, 1886, pg. 5\\. The Browns narrowed the margin with a run in the second inning on some astute base running by [Bill Gleason](/wiki/Bill_Gleason \"Bill Gleason\"), with another run notched in the third inning when Tip O'Neill tripled home a runner. The tide turned decisively in the fifth inning when starting pitcher John Clarkson, pitching a second consecutive game, began to run out of gas, giving up a two\\-run single to center by Gleason, followed by an RBI single by Browns first baseman Charlie Comiskey.", "The White Stockings managed to get two runs back in the top in the sixth, powered by [Abner Dalrymple's](/wiki/Abner_Dalrymple \"Abner Dalrymple\") RBI triple to right field, followed by a base hit by Clarkson. The Browns put the game away for good with three more runs in the bottom half of the frame, however, with three walks, two singles, and a muffed fly ball doing the damage. The game was called after seven innings due to darkness, the series knotted at two games each. Chicago manager Cap Anson was angered by the decision to call the game after 7 innings, claiming that sufficient light remained to see the ball when the game was ended, but his plea went unheeded as the crowd of about 8,000 scurried for the exits.", "After the game losing pitcher John Clarkson acknowledged that \"They got away with me today, without the shadow of a doubt. I can't say anything, but they beat us all around.... They just hit me and hit me hard.\" While losing pitcher Clarkson was sanguine about the defeat, team owner Spalding was enraged by the outcome, declaring to a newspaper reporter that his team had \"a perfect right\" to pitch new signee Ward Baldwin instead of the exhausted Clarkson and that the St. Louis owner \"had no business to interfere with me.\" He continued:", "", "> \"Baldwin is as much a member of the Chicago Club as any man on it and we signed him for the season of 1886 *(sic.)* and 1887 as well. I am not at all satisfied with the result of today's business, and I think the action of Mr. Von der Ahe in the matter was unsportsmanlike and wrong, and if the loss of this game interferes with our winning the series, I think it would be only right to make some kind of a protest against it.\"", "### Game 5", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Star Chicago catcher Michael \"King\" Kelly (1857–1894\\), one of \"Anson's Pets.\" Kelly hit a team\\-leading .388 during the 1886 regular season.](/wiki/File:King-Kelly.jpg \"King-Kelly.jpg\")", "Friday, October 22, 1886, at [Sportsman's Park](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park%231881_structure \"Sportsman's Park#1881 structure\") in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Road\\=Chicagos\\|RoadAbr\\=CHI\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=1\\|R3\\=1\\|R4\\=1\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=0\\|R7\\=0\\|RR\\=3\\|RH\\=3\\|RE\\=3\n\\|Home\\='''St. Louis Browns'''\\|HomeAbr\\=STL\n\\|H1\\=2\\|H2\\=1\\|H3\\=4\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=0\\|H6\\=3\\|H7\\=X\\|HR\\=10\\|HH\\=11\\|HE\\=3\n\\|RSP\\=Jimmy Ryan\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\= \\[\\[Nat Hudson]] (1\\-0\\) \\|LP\\= \\[\\[Ned Williamson]] (0\\-1\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\=\n\\|Time\\=\n\\|}}", "The action returned to St. Louis on October 22 for game 5\\. Chicago manager Cap Anson attempted to start the game with Ned Baldwin in the pitcher's area, but the St. Louis crowd roared its disapproval and the Browns refused to play until Baldwin was removed.[\"The World's Championship: The St. Louis Browns Defeat the Chicagos and are One Game Ahead,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7180819/the_worlds_championship_the_st_louis/) *Washington Evening Star,* Oct. 23, 1886, pg. 8\\. Forced to improvise in light of Chicago's lack of an alternate pitcher to John Clarkson, Anson trotted out shortstop [Ned Williamson](/wiki/Ned_Williamson \"Ned Williamson\") to make the start, only to see the hapless conscript knocked out of the box after giving up three hits and walk in the first inning, resulting in two runs. Right fielder [Jimmy Ryan](/wiki/Jimmy_Ryan_%28baseball%29 \"Jimmy Ryan (baseball)\") came in to [relieve](/wiki/Relief_pitcher \"Relief pitcher\"), showing himself a better pitcher than Williamson but nevertheless taking the loss as his teammates blundered away the game defensively.", "One observer noted that \"the playing on both sides was very loose, the batting heavy, and the errors numerous,\" with the Chicagos playing a particularly \"wretched game both at the bat and in the field.\"[\"St. Louis One Ahead: The Browns Win the Fifth World's Championship Game,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7179576/st_louis_one_ahead_the_browns_win_the/) *Philadelphia Times,* Oct. 23, 1886, pg. 2\\. Chicago right fielder Tom Burns committed two particularly costly errors, allowing runs to score, with Nat Hudson giving up only three hits en route to an easy 10–3 victory. Catcher [Silver Flint](/wiki/Silver_Flint \"Silver Flint\") contributed mightily to the carnage, allowing four runs to score on passed balls and making another costly throwing error to third base.", "The game was called after 7 innings when it became too dark to see the ball. An estimated 16,000 fans were in attendance to witness the hometown Browns go up three games to two in the best\\-of\\-seven series.", "### Game 6", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Browns center fielder Curt Welch (1862–1896\\) scored the series\\-winning run in what was later called the \"$15,000 Slide.\"](/wiki/File:Curt-Welch.jpg \"Curt-Welch.jpg\")", "Saturday, October 23, 1886, at [Sportsman's Park](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park%231881_structure \"Sportsman's Park#1881 structure\") in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Road\\=Chicagos\\|RoadAbr\\=CHI\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=1\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=1\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=1\\|R7\\=0\\|R8\\=0\\|R9\\=0\\|R10\\=0\\|RR\\=3\\|RH\\=6\\|RE\\=2\n\\|Home\\='''St. Louis Browns'''\\|HomeAbr\\=STL\n\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=0\\|H6\\=0\\|H7\\=0\\|H8\\=3\\|H9\\=0\\|H10\\=1\\|HR\\=4\\|HH\\=4\\|HE\\=3\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=Bob Caruthers (2\\-1\\)\\|LP\\=John Clarkson (2\\-2\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\= Pfeffer (1\\)\n\\|Time\\= 2:15\n\\|}}", "The final game of the 1886 World Series took place in St. Louis on October 23 and proved to be a legendary affair. Bob Caruthers made his third pitching start for St. Louis, with John Clarkson returning to the mound for a fourth time for Chicago. Under threatening skies the White Stockings took a 2–0 lead into the fourth inning, when a brief rain shower prompted fans to leave the grandstand and run onto the field, demanding that the umpire call the game, thereby nullifying the result, because of inclement weather.[\"Browns the Champions: Anson's Men Defeated by Von der Ahe's Pets,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7181014/browns_the_champions_ansons_men/) *Chicago Tribune,* Oct. 24, 1886, pg. 10\\. Order was restored only with the assistance of a legion of police.", "A 3–0 Chicago lead held until a dramatic eighth\\-inning comeback by the Browns. [Charlie Comiskey](/wiki/Charles_Comiskey \"Charles Comiskey\") began the St. Louis half of the inning with a single to right field and was sent to third by a bunting [Curt Welch](/wiki/Curt_Welch \"Curt Welch\"), who managed to beat out the throw to first base, putting runners on the corners.*The Sporting News,* December 31, 1898, reproduced in Dennis Pajot, [\"Baseball's First World Series Goat,\"](http://seamheads.com/blog/2009/04/06/baseballs-first-world-series-goat-abner-dalrymple-and-game-six-of-the-1886-world-series/) Seamheads.com, April 6, 2009\\. Chicago infielder Tom Burns threw wildly to first in an effort to pick off Welch only to see the ball skip away and Comiskey score on the error, with Welch advancing to second. The home crowd erupted. Clarkson managed to collect two outs when Dave Foutz and [Yank Robinson](/wiki/Yank_Robinson \"Yank Robinson\") flew out, but he kept the inning alive with a walk of the hitter in the 9\\-spot, [Doc Bushong](/wiki/Doc_Bushong \"Doc Bushong\"), bringing the potential go\\-ahead run to the plate, leadoff hitting third baseman [Arlie Latham](/wiki/Arlie_Latham \"Arlie Latham\").", "The loud and abrasive Cap Anson had been riding Latham throughout the game when he was on the field from the third base coaching area, taunting him as a \"soft spot\" in the Browns' defense. Latham delivered his answer with his bat, hammering a long fly ball that was misjudged by outfielder [Abner Dalrymple](/wiki/Abner_Dalrymple \"Abner Dalrymple\"). Running on contact, both Welch and Bushong scored on the play, knotting the score at 3\\.", "Neither team scored in the 9th inning, sending the game to extra innings. Chicago similarly failed to score in their half of the 10th inning, but in the bottom half of the frame the Browns started a rally, with the Browns' Curt Welch advancing to third base. Clarkson wound up and threw a pitch that got past catcher [King Kelly](/wiki/King_Kelly \"King Kelly\"), with Welch coming home to win the game and the series for St. Louis. It is disputed whether or not Welch was forced to slide in scoring the winning run, but the event was memorialized as the \"$15,000 Slide\" nevertheless and became the most famous play in 19th century baseball.[\"The 1886 World Series: Breaking Down the $15,000 Slide,\"](http://www.thisgameofgames.com/home/category/1886-world-series) This Game of Games, www.thisgameofgames.com/ Aug. 17, 2016\\.", "There was contemporary disagreement as to whether the final play of the game was made possible by a [passed ball](/wiki/Passed_ball \"Passed ball\") or a [wild pitch](/wiki/Wild_pitch \"Wild pitch\"), with Chicago catcher King Kelly telling the press that he was willing to take the blame:", "", "> \"I signaled Clarkson for a low ball on one side and when it came it was high up on the other. It struck my hand as I tried to get it, and I would say it was a passed ball. You can give it to me if you want to. Clarkson told me that it slipped from his hands.\"[\"The World's Champions: Friends of the Browns Will Banquet Them Next Saturday Night,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7178089/the_worlds_champions_friends_of_the/) *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch,* Oct. 25, 1886, pg. 5\\.", "The reporter of the *Chicago Tribune* differed with the official scoring decision, asserting that the all\\-important passed ball was \"really a wild pitch by Clarkson.\"", "Regardless of the intricacies of official scoring, the winning run excited the packed grandstand mightily, with fans remaining in their seats and cheering for fifteen minutes after the game was over, while hundreds of others stormed the Browns' locker room with congratulations.", "" ]
### Game 6 [thumb\|right\|200px\|Browns center fielder Curt Welch (1862–1896\) scored the series\-winning run in what was later called the "$15,000 Slide."](/wiki/File:Curt-Welch.jpg "Curt-Welch.jpg") Saturday, October 23, 1886, at [Sportsman's Park](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park%231881_structure "Sportsman's Park#1881 structure") in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri "Missouri") {{Linescore\| \|Road\=Chicagos\|RoadAbr\=CHI \|R1\=0\|R2\=1\|R3\=0\|R4\=1\|R5\=0\|R6\=1\|R7\=0\|R8\=0\|R9\=0\|R10\=0\|RR\=3\|RH\=6\|RE\=2 \|Home\='''St. Louis Browns'''\|HomeAbr\=STL \|H1\=0\|H2\=0\|H3\=0\|H4\=0\|H5\=0\|H6\=0\|H7\=0\|H8\=3\|H9\=0\|H10\=1\|HR\=4\|HH\=4\|HE\=3 \|RSP\=\|HSP\= \|WP\=Bob Caruthers (2\-1\)\|LP\=John Clarkson (2\-2\)\|SV\= \|RoadHR\= Pfeffer (1\) \|Time\= 2:15 \|}} The final game of the 1886 World Series took place in St. Louis on October 23 and proved to be a legendary affair. Bob Caruthers made his third pitching start for St. Louis, with John Clarkson returning to the mound for a fourth time for Chicago. Under threatening skies the White Stockings took a 2–0 lead into the fourth inning, when a brief rain shower prompted fans to leave the grandstand and run onto the field, demanding that the umpire call the game, thereby nullifying the result, because of inclement weather.["Browns the Champions: Anson's Men Defeated by Von der Ahe's Pets,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7181014/browns_the_champions_ansons_men/) *Chicago Tribune,* Oct. 24, 1886, pg. 10\. Order was restored only with the assistance of a legion of police. A 3–0 Chicago lead held until a dramatic eighth\-inning comeback by the Browns. [Charlie Comiskey](/wiki/Charles_Comiskey "Charles Comiskey") began the St. Louis half of the inning with a single to right field and was sent to third by a bunting [Curt Welch](/wiki/Curt_Welch "Curt Welch"), who managed to beat out the throw to first base, putting runners on the corners.*The Sporting News,* December 31, 1898, reproduced in Dennis Pajot, ["Baseball's First World Series Goat,"](http://seamheads.com/blog/2009/04/06/baseballs-first-world-series-goat-abner-dalrymple-and-game-six-of-the-1886-world-series/) Seamheads.com, April 6, 2009\. Chicago infielder Tom Burns threw wildly to first in an effort to pick off Welch only to see the ball skip away and Comiskey score on the error, with Welch advancing to second. The home crowd erupted. Clarkson managed to collect two outs when Dave Foutz and [Yank Robinson](/wiki/Yank_Robinson "Yank Robinson") flew out, but he kept the inning alive with a walk of the hitter in the 9\-spot, [Doc Bushong](/wiki/Doc_Bushong "Doc Bushong"), bringing the potential go\-ahead run to the plate, leadoff hitting third baseman [Arlie Latham](/wiki/Arlie_Latham "Arlie Latham"). The loud and abrasive Cap Anson had been riding Latham throughout the game when he was on the field from the third base coaching area, taunting him as a "soft spot" in the Browns' defense. Latham delivered his answer with his bat, hammering a long fly ball that was misjudged by outfielder [Abner Dalrymple](/wiki/Abner_Dalrymple "Abner Dalrymple"). Running on contact, both Welch and Bushong scored on the play, knotting the score at 3\. Neither team scored in the 9th inning, sending the game to extra innings. Chicago similarly failed to score in their half of the 10th inning, but in the bottom half of the frame the Browns started a rally, with the Browns' Curt Welch advancing to third base. Clarkson wound up and threw a pitch that got past catcher [King Kelly](/wiki/King_Kelly "King Kelly"), with Welch coming home to win the game and the series for St. Louis. It is disputed whether or not Welch was forced to slide in scoring the winning run, but the event was memorialized as the "$15,000 Slide" nevertheless and became the most famous play in 19th century baseball.["The 1886 World Series: Breaking Down the $15,000 Slide,"](http://www.thisgameofgames.com/home/category/1886-world-series) This Game of Games, www.thisgameofgames.com/ Aug. 17, 2016\. There was contemporary disagreement as to whether the final play of the game was made possible by a [passed ball](/wiki/Passed_ball "Passed ball") or a [wild pitch](/wiki/Wild_pitch "Wild pitch"), with Chicago catcher King Kelly telling the press that he was willing to take the blame: > "I signaled Clarkson for a low ball on one side and when it came it was high up on the other. It struck my hand as I tried to get it, and I would say it was a passed ball. You can give it to me if you want to. Clarkson told me that it slipped from his hands."["The World's Champions: Friends of the Browns Will Banquet Them Next Saturday Night,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7178089/the_worlds_champions_friends_of_the/) *St. Louis Post\-Dispatch,* Oct. 25, 1886, pg. 5\. The reporter of the *Chicago Tribune* differed with the official scoring decision, asserting that the all\-important passed ball was "really a wild pitch by Clarkson." Regardless of the intricacies of official scoring, the winning run excited the packed grandstand mightily, with fans remaining in their seats and cheering for fifteen minutes after the game was over, while hundreds of others stormed the Browns' locker room with congratulations.
[ "### Game 6", "[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Browns center fielder Curt Welch (1862–1896\\) scored the series\\-winning run in what was later called the \"$15,000 Slide.\"](/wiki/File:Curt-Welch.jpg \"Curt-Welch.jpg\")", "Saturday, October 23, 1886, at [Sportsman's Park](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park%231881_structure \"Sportsman's Park#1881 structure\") in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\")\n{{Linescore\\|\n\\|Road\\=Chicagos\\|RoadAbr\\=CHI\n\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=1\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=1\\|R5\\=0\\|R6\\=1\\|R7\\=0\\|R8\\=0\\|R9\\=0\\|R10\\=0\\|RR\\=3\\|RH\\=6\\|RE\\=2\n\\|Home\\='''St. Louis Browns'''\\|HomeAbr\\=STL\n\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=0\\|H5\\=0\\|H6\\=0\\|H7\\=0\\|H8\\=3\\|H9\\=0\\|H10\\=1\\|HR\\=4\\|HH\\=4\\|HE\\=3\n\\|RSP\\=\\|HSP\\=\n\\|WP\\=Bob Caruthers (2\\-1\\)\\|LP\\=John Clarkson (2\\-2\\)\\|SV\\=\n\\|RoadHR\\= Pfeffer (1\\)\n\\|Time\\= 2:15\n\\|}}", "The final game of the 1886 World Series took place in St. Louis on October 23 and proved to be a legendary affair. Bob Caruthers made his third pitching start for St. Louis, with John Clarkson returning to the mound for a fourth time for Chicago. Under threatening skies the White Stockings took a 2–0 lead into the fourth inning, when a brief rain shower prompted fans to leave the grandstand and run onto the field, demanding that the umpire call the game, thereby nullifying the result, because of inclement weather.[\"Browns the Champions: Anson's Men Defeated by Von der Ahe's Pets,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7181014/browns_the_champions_ansons_men/) *Chicago Tribune,* Oct. 24, 1886, pg. 10\\. Order was restored only with the assistance of a legion of police.", "A 3–0 Chicago lead held until a dramatic eighth\\-inning comeback by the Browns. [Charlie Comiskey](/wiki/Charles_Comiskey \"Charles Comiskey\") began the St. Louis half of the inning with a single to right field and was sent to third by a bunting [Curt Welch](/wiki/Curt_Welch \"Curt Welch\"), who managed to beat out the throw to first base, putting runners on the corners.*The Sporting News,* December 31, 1898, reproduced in Dennis Pajot, [\"Baseball's First World Series Goat,\"](http://seamheads.com/blog/2009/04/06/baseballs-first-world-series-goat-abner-dalrymple-and-game-six-of-the-1886-world-series/) Seamheads.com, April 6, 2009\\. Chicago infielder Tom Burns threw wildly to first in an effort to pick off Welch only to see the ball skip away and Comiskey score on the error, with Welch advancing to second. The home crowd erupted. Clarkson managed to collect two outs when Dave Foutz and [Yank Robinson](/wiki/Yank_Robinson \"Yank Robinson\") flew out, but he kept the inning alive with a walk of the hitter in the 9\\-spot, [Doc Bushong](/wiki/Doc_Bushong \"Doc Bushong\"), bringing the potential go\\-ahead run to the plate, leadoff hitting third baseman [Arlie Latham](/wiki/Arlie_Latham \"Arlie Latham\").", "The loud and abrasive Cap Anson had been riding Latham throughout the game when he was on the field from the third base coaching area, taunting him as a \"soft spot\" in the Browns' defense. Latham delivered his answer with his bat, hammering a long fly ball that was misjudged by outfielder [Abner Dalrymple](/wiki/Abner_Dalrymple \"Abner Dalrymple\"). Running on contact, both Welch and Bushong scored on the play, knotting the score at 3\\.", "Neither team scored in the 9th inning, sending the game to extra innings. Chicago similarly failed to score in their half of the 10th inning, but in the bottom half of the frame the Browns started a rally, with the Browns' Curt Welch advancing to third base. Clarkson wound up and threw a pitch that got past catcher [King Kelly](/wiki/King_Kelly \"King Kelly\"), with Welch coming home to win the game and the series for St. Louis. It is disputed whether or not Welch was forced to slide in scoring the winning run, but the event was memorialized as the \"$15,000 Slide\" nevertheless and became the most famous play in 19th century baseball.[\"The 1886 World Series: Breaking Down the $15,000 Slide,\"](http://www.thisgameofgames.com/home/category/1886-world-series) This Game of Games, www.thisgameofgames.com/ Aug. 17, 2016\\.", "There was contemporary disagreement as to whether the final play of the game was made possible by a [passed ball](/wiki/Passed_ball \"Passed ball\") or a [wild pitch](/wiki/Wild_pitch \"Wild pitch\"), with Chicago catcher King Kelly telling the press that he was willing to take the blame:", "", "> \"I signaled Clarkson for a low ball on one side and when it came it was high up on the other. It struck my hand as I tried to get it, and I would say it was a passed ball. You can give it to me if you want to. Clarkson told me that it slipped from his hands.\"[\"The World's Champions: Friends of the Browns Will Banquet Them Next Saturday Night,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7178089/the_worlds_champions_friends_of_the/) *St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch,* Oct. 25, 1886, pg. 5\\.", "The reporter of the *Chicago Tribune* differed with the official scoring decision, asserting that the all\\-important passed ball was \"really a wild pitch by Clarkson.\"", "Regardless of the intricacies of official scoring, the winning run excited the packed grandstand mightily, with fans remaining in their seats and cheering for fifteen minutes after the game was over, while hundreds of others stormed the Browns' locker room with congratulations.", "" ]
Military career --------------- ### Junior officer After his selection, he chose the [Royal Military Academy Sandhurst](/wiki/Royal_Military_Academy_Sandhurst "Royal Military Academy Sandhurst") to undertake his military training in 1953\.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2020}} He completed his training and was commissioned into the Royal Nepalese Army in the rank of [second lieutenant](/wiki/Second_lieutenant "Second lieutenant") on 22 July 1955\. At the time, the then Lieutenant Rana was the second officer in the Royal Nepalese Army to have received training from Sandhurst.{{Cite book\|title\=महारथी श्री स‌‌‌‍त्चित शम्शेर जङ्गबहादुर राणा\|publisher\=Abhilekhalaya Shakha, Jangi Adda, Nepal Army Headquarters\|year\=2003\|location\=Kathmandu}} In his first posting, he was assigned to the Shree Shreenath Battalion.*महारथी श्री स‌‌‌‍त्चित शम्शेर जङ्गबहादुर राणा*. Kathmandu: Abhilekhalaya Shakha, Jangi Adda, Nepal Army Headquarters. 2003\. During this posting, he was appointed the Joint Team Leader of the [Nepal\-China Border Team](/wiki/China%E2%80%93Nepal_border "China–Nepal border"). The objective of the team was to resolve the border disputes taking place at the time. The work undertaken by the team contributed to the official border agreement between Nepal and China signed in 1961\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS050\.pdf \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503141259/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS050\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2012\-05\-03 \|title\=China{{ndash}}Nepal Boundary \|date\=May 30, 1965 \|language\=en}} After being promoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain "Captain") in 1962, he underwent further training at the Nepalese Military Academy which at that time was based in [Nagarkot](/wiki/Nagarkot "Nagarkot").{{Cite journal\|last\=Singh\|first\=B B\|date\=2003\-01\-01\|journal\= Journal of Nepal Medical Association\|volume\=6\|issue\=2\|doi\=10\.31729/jnma.1800\|issn\=1815\-672X\|title\=Endo\-Tracheal\-Anesthesia at Bir Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal\|doi\-access\=free}} He was then assigned to the No.1 Home Guard of the Barda Bahadur Battalion. During this period, he was promoted to Assistant Battalion Commander and afterwards, Acting Battalion Commander. ### Staff College and Para Rifle Company In 1965, he left for Staff College training to Germany to join the [Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr](/wiki/Bundeswehr_Command_and_Staff_College "Bundeswehr Command and Staff College") in [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg"). After spending a year in Hamburg, Rana returned to Nepal. Upon his return, he was promoted to [major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 "Major (rank)") and was deputed to the Army Headquarters. In 1970, he was transferred to the Para Rifle Company. Immediately after his transfer, he was promoted to [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel "Lieutenant colonel"). A year after this, he took overall command of the [Para unit](/wiki/Paratrooper "Paratrooper") as well as the Para Training Academy. He was associated with the Para unit for eleven years. At the start of his tenure, he completed his parachuting training course which was facilitated by the instructors of the [Israel Defense Force](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces"). ### Khampa Disarmament Operation {{main\|Khampa Disarming Operation}} By the early 1970s about nine thousand Khampa fighters, Tibetan tribesmen resisting Chinese authority, had crossed over the border to the remote Nepalese district of [Mustang](/wiki/Mustang_District "Mustang District").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Thapa\|first1\=Ganga Bahadur\|last2\=Sharma\|first2\=Jan\|date\=2010\|title\=Democracy Building and Changing Role of the Nepal Military\|journal\=The Indian Journal of Political Science\|volume\=71\|issue\=3\|pages\=969–994\|issn\=0019\-5510\|jstor\=42748422}} Here they established military camps from where they would launch attacks into the [Chinese Autonomous Region of Tibet](/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region "Tibet Autonomous Region").Abhilekhalya Shakha, Jangi Adda, Nepal Army Headquarters In addition to carrying out illegal military activity, the Khampa fighters had been pillaging, plundering and killing members of the local communities. Consequently, a joint agreement between the Nepalese and Chinese governments was signed, with the common objective of disarming the Khampa fighters. A [brigade](/wiki/Brigade "Brigade") size task\-force was organised with the objective of disarming the Khampa fighters in 1974\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/67819/\|title\=A forgotten history\|last\=Basnyat\|first\=Prem Singh\|website\=My Republica\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-31}} Before the deployment of the entire taskforce, the then Lieutenant Colonel Rana led a small reconnaissance team to gather military intelligence in order to formulate the procedure of disarmament. After having identified the locations of various military camps, gauged their military capabilities and identified the leaders of the Khampa fighters, Rana devised the plan of operations. The taskforce was deployed towards Mustang on 15 July 1974\. The main battle group of the task force was based around the Shree Shreenath Battalion, which was under the command of Rana.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mikeldunham.com/mikeldunham/2009/09/the\-royal\-nepal\-armys\-defeat\-of\-the\-tibetan\-freedom\-fighters\-in\-mustang\-new\-information.html\|title\=Mustang: Royal Nepal Army's defeat of the Tibetan Freedom Fighters \-\- New Information\|website\=mikeldunham\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-15}} Consequently, Rana was given the leadership of the ground operations. After having received multiple false promises of disarmament from Gey\-Wangdi, the commander of the Khampa forces, military units under the command of Rana moved in to occupy the camps on 1 August. Whilst Rana was able to dismantle all the camps, recover large quantities of weaponry and capture a number of Khampa fighters, Gey\-Wangdi was able to escape. Wangdi was eventually killed in a fire fight in mid\-September. Rana was awarded the Kirtimaya Nepal Shreepad for "his effective planning, efficient execution and distinguished field command during the operation". ### Royal Nepalese Military Academy Kharipati After the completion of the Khampa Operation, Rana was promoted to the rank of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") in May, 1975\. He was then appointed as the [Commandant](/wiki/Commandant "Commandant") of the [Royal Nepalese Military Academy, Kharipati](/wiki/Nepalese_Military_Academy "Nepalese Military Academy"). During his tenure as commandant, he tried to re\-calibrate the syllabi of the academy to focus on [mountain warfare](/wiki/Mountain_warfare "Mountain warfare"). He also took the initiative to undertake research in order to solve the logistical problems related to mountain warfare.{{Citation needed\|date\=January 2020}} ### United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon In 1978, the Royal Nepalese Army deputed Rana to work in the headquarters of the [United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon](/wiki/United_Nations_Interim_Force_in_Lebanon "United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon") as Chief Operations Officer.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/05/16/archives/80\-palestinians\-in\-south\-lebanon\-agree\-to\-withdraw.html\|title\=80 Palestinians in South Lebanon Agree to Withdraw\|date\=1978\-05\-16\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-31}} The UNIFL had been set up by the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") in response to the [South Lebanon conflict](/wiki/1978_South_Lebanon_conflict "1978 South Lebanon conflict") which took place the same year. Rana's tenure as COO saw the [Tyre District](/wiki/Tyre%2C_Lebanon "Tyre, Lebanon"), a designated UN area, being infiltrated and occupied by eighty [Palestine Liberation Organization](/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization "Palestine Liberation Organization") fighters. This destabilised the military and political situation, as [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") had only recently withdrawn troops from [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon") on the condition that the PLO would follow suit. Rana responded by placing various peacekeeping units in positions around the Tyre District and surrounding the infiltrators. Consequently, he made their position strategically untenable and forced them into negotiations. He personally led the negotiations with the PLO fighters and their leaders, including [Yasser Arafat](/wiki/Yasser_Arafat "Yasser Arafat"), who were based in the surrounding regions. After one and a half months, Rana ensured their withdrawal without the need for military confrontation. During his time as COO, he developed a close rapport with the then Secretary General of the UN [Kurt Waldheim](/wiki/Kurt_Waldheim "Kurt Waldheim"). Throughout the Tyre District confrontation, he was in correspondence with Waldheim, discussing and formulating peacekeeping plans with him. When they met in person at the [UN Headquarters](/wiki/UN_Headquarters "UN Headquarters") in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), Waldheim offered Rana a tenure extension in lieu of his effective leadership of the UNIFL. However, Rana declined due to his prior professional commitments to the Royal Nepalese Army.*People of Nepal Who's Who*. Kathmandu: Sahitya Prakashan Pvt Ltd. 2004\. ### 1979 student protests and Director of Military Operations Rana returned to Nepal in 1979\. Whilst he had been in Lebanon, Rana had been promoted to the rank of [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general "Brigadier general"). Upon his return, he was appointed commander of the 1st Infantry Brigade. His tenure as commander witnessed the [1979 Nepalese Student Protests](/wiki/1979_Nepalese_student_protests "1979 Nepalese student protests"). The main objective of the protestors was to gain democratic freedom.{{Cite book\|last\=Brown\|first\=T. Louise\|date\=2002\-11\-01\|title\=The Challenge to Democracy in Nepal\|doi\=10\.4324/9780203419649\|isbn\=9780203419649}} The Brigade was based in [Kathmandu](/wiki/Kathmandu "Kathmandu") when the protests began. Rana was involved in the minimisation of violence and vandalism which was being carried out by certain reactionary groups of the protest. The protests came to an end after [King Birendra](/wiki/King_Birendra "King Birendra") announced a [referendum](/wiki/1980_Nepalese_governmental_system_referendum "1980 Nepalese governmental system referendum"). Following the election, the electorate chose to continue with [monarchical panchayat system](/wiki/Panchayat_%28Nepal%29 "Panchayat (Nepal)").[Shaha, Rishikesh](/wiki/Shaha%2C_Rishikesh "Shaha, Rishikesh"). *Politics in Nepal 1980–1990*. [New Delhi](/wiki/New_Delhi "New Delhi"): Manohar Publications, 1990\.  Afterwards, Rana commanded the 2nd Infantry Brigade in 1980\. Rana was promoted to the rank of [major general](/wiki/Major_general "Major general") in 1982\. Along with this promotion, he was also appointed as the Director General of Military Operations. In this capacity, he supervised the planning and execution of all military operations undertaken by the Army. ### Chief of Army Staff On 15 May 1987, Rana was appointed as the [Chief of Army Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_Staff_%28Nepal%29 "Chief of Army Staff (Nepal)").{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EBQuAQAAIAAJ\&q\=satchit\+shamsher\+rana\|title\=Asian Recorder\|date\=1987\|language\=en}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=UoiqFAiwplUC\&q\=satchit\+rana\&pg\=RA2\-PA70\|title\=The Department of State Bulletin\|date\=1987\|publisher\=Office of Public Communication, Bureau of Public Affairs}} During his tenure as COAS, which lasted four years, he planned and executed multiple military and civil missions. During the [Third SAARC Summit](/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits%23Third_summit_3rd_Nepal "List of SAARC summits#Third summit 3rd Nepal") held in November 1987, as COAS he was in\-charge of the overall security, logistics and administration. In 1988, an [earthquake of magnitude 6\.5](/wiki/1988_Nepal_earthquake "1988 Nepal earthquake") struck eastern Nepal along its border with the Indian state of [Bihar](/wiki/Bihar "Bihar").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/22/world/at\-least\-700\-dead\-in\-a\-major\-quake\-in\-the\-himalayas.html\|title\=At Least 700 Dead in a Major Quake in the Himalayas\|last1\=Hazarika\|first1\=Sanjoy\|date\=1988\-08\-22\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-15\|last2\=Times\|first2\=Special To the New York\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331}} 252 people perished, more than a thousand were injured and thousands of houses collapsed due to the earthquake.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19880915\-earthquake\-tremors\-leave\-trail\-of\-death\-damage\-in\-bihar\-nepal\-797662\-1988\-09\-15\|title\=Earthquake: Tremors leave a trail of death and damage in Bihar and Nepal\|first\=Farzand\|last\=Ahmed\|date\=15 September 1988\|website\=India Today\|language\=en\|access\-date\=24 February 2020}} Rana was responsible for coordinating search and rescue operations. He also carried out the implementation of rehabilitation programmes.   In late ‘89 and early ‘90, [protests broke out in Kathmandu and in other parts of Nepal](/wiki/People%27s_Movement_I_%281990%29 "People's Movement I (1990)") in support of a multi\-party democratic system.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9RsLR6OsEx0C\&q\=People%27s\+Movement\+IN\+%281990%29\+of\+nepal\&pg\=PA22\|title\=The Democratic Transition in Nepal\|last\=Parajulee\|first\=Ramjee P.\|date\=2000\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield\|isbn\=978\-0\-8476\-9577\-5\|language\=en}} Initially, Rana after discussions with King Birendra, did not want to take military action against the protestors. Consequently, the Army was not deployed. However, on 6 April 1990, the protests turned violent.  A number of protestors began to vandalise and carry out acts of arson. Such violence was concentrated around the [Tundikhel](/wiki/Tundikhel "Tundikhel") and New Road area.Coll, Steve (1990\-04\-08\). "Nepalese Army Enforces Curfew, Shootings Reported". *The Washington Post*. Retrieved 2019\-12\-31\. In an effort to deescalate the situation, Rana ordered units of the Army to move into the centre of Kathmandu.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/04/08/nepalese\-army\-enforces\-curfew\-shootings\-reported/57a44796\-3429\-4cf4\-852e\-c0eb1f1634b1/\|title\=Nepalese Army Enforces Curfew, Shootings Reported\|last\=Coll\|first\=Steve\|date\=1990\-04\-08\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-31}} To avoid further such violence, a curfew was put in place in the Kathmandu Valley. On 9 April, King Birendra allowed for the establishment of a multi\-party democratic system and the creation of a new constitution. In the new system of governance, King Birendra became a [constitutional monarch](/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy "Constitutional monarchy") with a large amount of political power transferring to the elected representatives. During the drafting of the new constitution, Rana provided suggestions to the then Prime Minister and Defence Minister [Krishna Prasad Bhattarai](/wiki/Krishna_Prasad_Bhattarai "Krishna Prasad Bhattarai").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Thapa\|first1\=Ganga Bahadur\|last2\=Sharma\|first2\=Jan\|date\=2010\|journal\=The Indian Journal of Political Science\|volume\=71\|issue\=3\|pages\=969–994\|issn\=0019\-5510\|jstor\=42748422\|title\=Democracy Building and Changing Role of the Nepal Military}} Rana advocated that the new constitution should continue to keep the King as the Supreme Commander of the Army. He believed that this would allow the armed forces to maintain its political neutrality and professional proficiency. When the new constitution was implemented in November 1990, the King remained the supreme commander of the Army. However, any military action to be undertaken had to now be discussed in the National Defence Council.{{Cite journal\|last\=Koirala\|first\=Niranjan\|date\=1991\|title\=Nepal in 1990: End of an Era\|journal\=Asian Survey\|volume\=31\|issue\=2\|pages\=134–139\|doi\=10\.2307/2644923\|issn\=0004\-4687\|jstor\=2644923}} This council consisted of the King, the elected Prime Minister and the Chief of Army Staff.{{Cite journal\|last\=Koirala\|first\=Niranjan\|date\=1991\|title\=Nepal in 1990: End of an Era\|journal\=Asian Survey\|volume\=31\|issue\=2\|pages\=134–139\|doi\=10\.2307/2644923\|issn\=0004\-4687\|jstor\=2644923}} During his tenure, he aided in the establishment of the Shree Birendra Army Hospital in the Chauni District of Kathmandu and the [Birendra Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya](/wiki/Birendra_Sainik_Awasiya_Mahavidyalaya "Birendra Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya") in Bhaktapur.{{Cite web\|url\=http://bsamv.edu.np/\|title\=Welcome – Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya !!!\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-13}} Additionally, he undertook official visits in the capacity of COAS to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") and [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"). On 15 May 1991, Rana retired from his position after having commanded the army for four years. His retirement marked the end of a thirty\-six year\-long military career.
[ "Military career\n---------------", "### Junior officer", "After his selection, he chose the [Royal Military Academy Sandhurst](/wiki/Royal_Military_Academy_Sandhurst \"Royal Military Academy Sandhurst\") to undertake his military training in 1953\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2020}} He completed his training and was commissioned into the Royal Nepalese Army in the rank of [second lieutenant](/wiki/Second_lieutenant \"Second lieutenant\") on 22 July 1955\\. At the time, the then Lieutenant Rana was the second officer in the Royal Nepalese Army to have received training from Sandhurst.{{Cite book\\|title\\=महारथी श्री स‌‌‌‍त्चित शम्शेर जङ्गबहादुर राणा\\|publisher\\=Abhilekhalaya Shakha, Jangi Adda, Nepal Army Headquarters\\|year\\=2003\\|location\\=Kathmandu}}", "In his first posting, he was assigned to the Shree Shreenath Battalion.*महारथी श्री स‌‌‌‍त्चित शम्शेर जङ्गबहादुर राणा*. Kathmandu: Abhilekhalaya Shakha, Jangi Adda, Nepal Army Headquarters. 2003\\. During this posting, he was appointed the Joint Team Leader of the [Nepal\\-China Border Team](/wiki/China%E2%80%93Nepal_border \"China–Nepal border\"). The objective of the team was to resolve the border disputes taking place at the time. The work undertaken by the team contributed to the official border agreement between Nepal and China signed in 1961\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS050\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503141259/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS050\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-03 \\|title\\=China{{ndash}}Nepal Boundary \\|date\\=May 30, 1965 \\|language\\=en}} After being promoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain \"Captain\") in 1962, he underwent further training at the Nepalese Military Academy which at that time was based in [Nagarkot](/wiki/Nagarkot \"Nagarkot\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Singh\\|first\\=B B\\|date\\=2003\\-01\\-01\\|journal\\= Journal of Nepal Medical Association\\|volume\\=6\\|issue\\=2\\|doi\\=10\\.31729/jnma.1800\\|issn\\=1815\\-672X\\|title\\=Endo\\-Tracheal\\-Anesthesia at Bir Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} He was then assigned to the No.1 Home Guard of the Barda Bahadur Battalion. During this period, he was promoted to Assistant Battalion Commander and afterwards, Acting Battalion Commander.", "### Staff College and Para Rifle Company", "In 1965, he left for Staff College training to Germany to join the [Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr](/wiki/Bundeswehr_Command_and_Staff_College \"Bundeswehr Command and Staff College\") in [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\"). After spending a year in Hamburg, Rana returned to Nepal. Upon his return, he was promoted to [major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 \"Major (rank)\") and was deputed to the Army Headquarters.", "In 1970, he was transferred to the Para Rifle Company. Immediately after his transfer, he was promoted to [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel \"Lieutenant colonel\"). A year after this, he took overall command of the [Para unit](/wiki/Paratrooper \"Paratrooper\") as well as the Para Training Academy. He was associated with the Para unit for eleven years. At the start of his tenure, he completed his parachuting training course which was facilitated by the instructors of the [Israel Defense Force](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces \"Israel Defense Forces\").", "### Khampa Disarmament Operation", "{{main\\|Khampa Disarming Operation}}\nBy the early 1970s about nine thousand Khampa fighters, Tibetan tribesmen resisting Chinese authority, had crossed over the border to the remote Nepalese district of [Mustang](/wiki/Mustang_District \"Mustang District\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Thapa\\|first1\\=Ganga Bahadur\\|last2\\=Sharma\\|first2\\=Jan\\|date\\=2010\\|title\\=Democracy Building and Changing Role of the Nepal Military\\|journal\\=The Indian Journal of Political Science\\|volume\\=71\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=969–994\\|issn\\=0019\\-5510\\|jstor\\=42748422}} Here they established military camps from where they would launch attacks into the [Chinese Autonomous Region of Tibet](/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region \"Tibet Autonomous Region\").Abhilekhalya Shakha, Jangi Adda, Nepal Army Headquarters In addition to carrying out illegal military activity, the Khampa fighters had been pillaging, plundering and killing members of the local communities. Consequently, a joint agreement between the Nepalese and Chinese governments was signed, with the common objective of disarming the Khampa fighters.", "A [brigade](/wiki/Brigade \"Brigade\") size task\\-force was organised with the objective of disarming the Khampa fighters in 1974\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/67819/\\|title\\=A forgotten history\\|last\\=Basnyat\\|first\\=Prem Singh\\|website\\=My Republica\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-31}} Before the deployment of the entire taskforce, the then Lieutenant Colonel Rana led a small reconnaissance team to gather military intelligence in order to formulate the procedure of disarmament. After having identified the locations of various military camps, gauged their military capabilities and identified the leaders of the Khampa fighters, Rana devised the plan of operations. The taskforce was deployed towards Mustang on 15 July 1974\\. The main battle group of the task force was based around the Shree Shreenath Battalion, which was under the command of Rana.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mikeldunham.com/mikeldunham/2009/09/the\\-royal\\-nepal\\-armys\\-defeat\\-of\\-the\\-tibetan\\-freedom\\-fighters\\-in\\-mustang\\-new\\-information.html\\|title\\=Mustang: Royal Nepal Army's defeat of the Tibetan Freedom Fighters \\-\\- New Information\\|website\\=mikeldunham\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-15}} Consequently, Rana was given the leadership of the ground operations.", "After having received multiple false promises of disarmament from Gey\\-Wangdi, the commander of the Khampa forces, military units under the command of Rana moved in to occupy the camps on 1 August. Whilst Rana was able to dismantle all the camps, recover large quantities of weaponry and capture a number of Khampa fighters, Gey\\-Wangdi was able to escape. Wangdi was eventually killed in a fire fight in mid\\-September. Rana was awarded the Kirtimaya Nepal Shreepad for \"his effective planning, efficient execution and distinguished field command during the operation\".", "### Royal Nepalese Military Academy Kharipati", "After the completion of the Khampa Operation, Rana was promoted to the rank of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") in May, 1975\\. He was then appointed as the [Commandant](/wiki/Commandant \"Commandant\") of the [Royal Nepalese Military Academy, Kharipati](/wiki/Nepalese_Military_Academy \"Nepalese Military Academy\"). During his tenure as commandant, he tried to re\\-calibrate the syllabi of the academy to focus on [mountain warfare](/wiki/Mountain_warfare \"Mountain warfare\"). He also took the initiative to undertake research in order to solve the logistical problems related to mountain warfare.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=January 2020}}", "### United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon", "In 1978, the Royal Nepalese Army deputed Rana to work in the headquarters of the [United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon](/wiki/United_Nations_Interim_Force_in_Lebanon \"United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon\") as Chief Operations Officer.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/05/16/archives/80\\-palestinians\\-in\\-south\\-lebanon\\-agree\\-to\\-withdraw.html\\|title\\=80 Palestinians in South Lebanon Agree to Withdraw\\|date\\=1978\\-05\\-16\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-31}} The UNIFL had been set up by the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") in response to the [South Lebanon conflict](/wiki/1978_South_Lebanon_conflict \"1978 South Lebanon conflict\") which took place the same year. Rana's tenure as COO saw the [Tyre District](/wiki/Tyre%2C_Lebanon \"Tyre, Lebanon\"), a designated UN area, being infiltrated and occupied by eighty [Palestine Liberation Organization](/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization \"Palestine Liberation Organization\") fighters. This destabilised the military and political situation, as [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") had only recently withdrawn troops from [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\") on the condition that the PLO would follow suit.", "Rana responded by placing various peacekeeping units in positions around the Tyre District and surrounding the infiltrators. Consequently, he made their position strategically untenable and forced them into negotiations. He personally led the negotiations with the PLO fighters and their leaders, including [Yasser Arafat](/wiki/Yasser_Arafat \"Yasser Arafat\"), who were based in the surrounding regions. After one and a half months, Rana ensured their withdrawal without the need for military confrontation.", "During his time as COO, he developed a close rapport with the then Secretary General of the UN [Kurt Waldheim](/wiki/Kurt_Waldheim \"Kurt Waldheim\"). Throughout the Tyre District confrontation, he was in correspondence with Waldheim, discussing and formulating peacekeeping plans with him. When they met in person at the [UN Headquarters](/wiki/UN_Headquarters \"UN Headquarters\") in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), Waldheim offered Rana a tenure extension in lieu of his effective leadership of the UNIFL. However, Rana declined due to his prior professional commitments to the Royal Nepalese Army.*People of Nepal Who's Who*. Kathmandu: Sahitya Prakashan Pvt Ltd. 2004\\.", "### 1979 student protests and Director of Military Operations", "Rana returned to Nepal in 1979\\. Whilst he had been in Lebanon, Rana had been promoted to the rank of [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general \"Brigadier general\"). Upon his return, he was appointed commander of the 1st Infantry Brigade. His tenure as commander witnessed the [1979 Nepalese Student Protests](/wiki/1979_Nepalese_student_protests \"1979 Nepalese student protests\"). The main objective of the protestors was to gain democratic freedom.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=T. Louise\\|date\\=2002\\-11\\-01\\|title\\=The Challenge to Democracy in Nepal\\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9780203419649\\|isbn\\=9780203419649}} The Brigade was based in [Kathmandu](/wiki/Kathmandu \"Kathmandu\") when the protests began. Rana was involved in the minimisation of violence and vandalism which was being carried out by certain reactionary groups of the protest. The protests came to an end after [King Birendra](/wiki/King_Birendra \"King Birendra\") announced a [referendum](/wiki/1980_Nepalese_governmental_system_referendum \"1980 Nepalese governmental system referendum\"). Following the election, the electorate chose to continue with [monarchical panchayat system](/wiki/Panchayat_%28Nepal%29 \"Panchayat (Nepal)\").[Shaha, Rishikesh](/wiki/Shaha%2C_Rishikesh \"Shaha, Rishikesh\"). *Politics in Nepal 1980–1990*. [New Delhi](/wiki/New_Delhi \"New Delhi\"): Manohar Publications, 1990\\.  Afterwards, Rana commanded the 2nd Infantry Brigade in 1980\\.", "Rana was promoted to the rank of [major general](/wiki/Major_general \"Major general\") in 1982\\. Along with this promotion, he was also appointed as the Director General of Military Operations. In this capacity, he supervised the planning and execution of all military operations undertaken by the Army.", "### Chief of Army Staff", "On 15 May 1987, Rana was appointed as the [Chief of Army Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_Staff_%28Nepal%29 \"Chief of Army Staff (Nepal)\").{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EBQuAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=satchit\\+shamsher\\+rana\\|title\\=Asian Recorder\\|date\\=1987\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=UoiqFAiwplUC\\&q\\=satchit\\+rana\\&pg\\=RA2\\-PA70\\|title\\=The Department of State Bulletin\\|date\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Office of Public Communication, Bureau of Public Affairs}} During his tenure as COAS, which lasted four years, he planned and executed multiple military and civil missions. During the [Third SAARC Summit](/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits%23Third_summit_3rd_Nepal \"List of SAARC summits#Third summit 3rd Nepal\") held in November 1987, as COAS he was in\\-charge of the overall security, logistics and administration. In 1988, an [earthquake of magnitude 6\\.5](/wiki/1988_Nepal_earthquake \"1988 Nepal earthquake\") struck eastern Nepal along its border with the Indian state of [Bihar](/wiki/Bihar \"Bihar\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/22/world/at\\-least\\-700\\-dead\\-in\\-a\\-major\\-quake\\-in\\-the\\-himalayas.html\\|title\\=At Least 700 Dead in a Major Quake in the Himalayas\\|last1\\=Hazarika\\|first1\\=Sanjoy\\|date\\=1988\\-08\\-22\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-15\\|last2\\=Times\\|first2\\=Special To the New York\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} 252 people perished, more than a thousand were injured and thousands of houses collapsed due to the earthquake.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19880915\\-earthquake\\-tremors\\-leave\\-trail\\-of\\-death\\-damage\\-in\\-bihar\\-nepal\\-797662\\-1988\\-09\\-15\\|title\\=Earthquake: Tremors leave a trail of death and damage in Bihar and Nepal\\|first\\=Farzand\\|last\\=Ahmed\\|date\\=15 September 1988\\|website\\=India Today\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2020}} Rana was responsible for coordinating search and rescue operations. He also carried out the implementation of rehabilitation programmes.", "In late ‘89 and early ‘90, [protests broke out in Kathmandu and in other parts of Nepal](/wiki/People%27s_Movement_I_%281990%29 \"People's Movement I (1990)\") in support of a multi\\-party democratic system.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9RsLR6OsEx0C\\&q\\=People%27s\\+Movement\\+IN\\+%281990%29\\+of\\+nepal\\&pg\\=PA22\\|title\\=The Democratic Transition in Nepal\\|last\\=Parajulee\\|first\\=Ramjee P.\\|date\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8476\\-9577\\-5\\|language\\=en}} Initially, Rana after discussions with King Birendra, did not want to take military action against the protestors. Consequently, the Army was not deployed. However, on 6 April 1990, the protests turned violent.  A number of protestors began to vandalise and carry out acts of arson. Such violence was concentrated around the [Tundikhel](/wiki/Tundikhel \"Tundikhel\") and New Road area.Coll, Steve (1990\\-04\\-08\\). \"Nepalese Army Enforces Curfew, Shootings Reported\". *The Washington Post*. Retrieved 2019\\-12\\-31\\. In an effort to deescalate the situation, Rana ordered units of the Army to move into the centre of Kathmandu.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/04/08/nepalese\\-army\\-enforces\\-curfew\\-shootings\\-reported/57a44796\\-3429\\-4cf4\\-852e\\-c0eb1f1634b1/\\|title\\=Nepalese Army Enforces Curfew, Shootings Reported\\|last\\=Coll\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=1990\\-04\\-08\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-31}} To avoid further such violence, a curfew was put in place in the Kathmandu Valley.", "On 9 April, King Birendra allowed for the establishment of a multi\\-party democratic system and the creation of a new constitution. In the new system of governance, King Birendra became a [constitutional monarch](/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy \"Constitutional monarchy\") with a large amount of political power transferring to the elected representatives. During the drafting of the new constitution, Rana provided suggestions to the then Prime Minister and Defence Minister [Krishna Prasad Bhattarai](/wiki/Krishna_Prasad_Bhattarai \"Krishna Prasad Bhattarai\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Thapa\\|first1\\=Ganga Bahadur\\|last2\\=Sharma\\|first2\\=Jan\\|date\\=2010\\|journal\\=The Indian Journal of Political Science\\|volume\\=71\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=969–994\\|issn\\=0019\\-5510\\|jstor\\=42748422\\|title\\=Democracy Building and Changing Role of the Nepal Military}} Rana advocated that the new constitution should continue to keep the King as the Supreme Commander of the Army. He believed that this would allow the armed forces to maintain its political neutrality and professional proficiency. When the new constitution was implemented in November 1990, the King remained the supreme commander of the Army. However, any military action to be undertaken had to now be discussed in the National Defence Council.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Koirala\\|first\\=Niranjan\\|date\\=1991\\|title\\=Nepal in 1990: End of an Era\\|journal\\=Asian Survey\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=134–139\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2644923\\|issn\\=0004\\-4687\\|jstor\\=2644923}} This council consisted of the King, the elected Prime Minister and the Chief of Army Staff.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Koirala\\|first\\=Niranjan\\|date\\=1991\\|title\\=Nepal in 1990: End of an Era\\|journal\\=Asian Survey\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=134–139\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2644923\\|issn\\=0004\\-4687\\|jstor\\=2644923}}", "During his tenure, he aided in the establishment of the Shree Birendra Army Hospital in the Chauni District of Kathmandu and the [Birendra Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya](/wiki/Birendra_Sainik_Awasiya_Mahavidyalaya \"Birendra Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya\") in Bhaktapur.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://bsamv.edu.np/\\|title\\=Welcome – Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya !!!\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-13}} Additionally, he undertook official visits in the capacity of COAS to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") and [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"). On 15 May 1991, Rana retired from his position after having commanded the army for four years. His retirement marked the end of a thirty\\-six year\\-long military career.", "" ]
The four phases of the controversy ---------------------------------- No other Jewish philosophical writings have produced such controversy as Maimonides’ *The Guide for the Perplexed*. The Maimonidean Controversy is in [historiographic literature](/wiki/Historiography "Historiography"), often divided into four phases, where heated debate was not infrequently joined with reciprocal bans. ### First Stage: 1180\-1204 Already in the last years of Maimonides’ life, a controversy erupted based on theological grounds when he critiqued the institutions of [Jewish diaspora](/wiki/Jewish_diaspora "Jewish diaspora") within which [geonim](/wiki/Geonim "Geonim") (rabbinic scholars) found a comfortable living through stipends or donations. Maimonides’ view was that they – like himself – should work in a second occupation to sustain themselves. This fell into a time when [Samuel ben Ali](/wiki/Samuel_ben_Ali "Samuel ben Ali") tried to minimize the [Exilarch](/wiki/Exilarch "Exilarch")’s power for the benefit of the geonim. In addition to his institutional critique, in the introduction to his *Mishneh Torah*, Maimonides suggested that this work would make the employment of rabbinic scholars redundant. At this stage, even though some philosophical issues were discussed, mainly Maimonides’ revolutionary views were seen to be on [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud "Talmud") scholarship and Jewish leadership. ### First Stage in Europe The main subject of the controversy in Europe had been Maimonides' *Mishneh Torah*, which he wrote in Hebrew. His previous works were inaccessible to European scholars, who did not know Arabic. The controversy heated up when most of Maimonides’ works were translated into Hebrew, most notably *[The Guide for the Perplexed](/wiki/The_Guide_for_the_Perplexed "The Guide for the Perplexed")* in 1204 by [Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon](/wiki/Judah_ben_Saul_ibn_Tibbon "Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon"). Maimonides’ works had been unsurprising for Jewish scholars immersed in the Arabic philosophical tradition, whose critique was mostly limited to his social criticism and his unconventional methodology. European scholarship, whether Jewish or [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), had been largely unexposed to science or philosophy. Maimonides did not provide any citations in his *Mishneh Torah*, for which he was mainly criticized by [Abraham ben David](/wiki/Abraham_ben_David "Abraham ben David") of [Posquières](/wiki/Posqui%C3%A8res "Posquières"), who was part of the [Hachmei Provence](/wiki/Hachmei_Provence "Hachmei Provence"). His [hasagah](/wiki/Hasagah "Hasagah") or critical gloss to his introduction has been included in the editions of the *Mishneh Torah* since the 16th century. He also articulates a theoretical critique of Maimonides’ declaration of corporealist beliefs as heresy. Although it is never really clear whether Maimonides denies the [universal resurrection](/wiki/Universal_resurrection "Universal resurrection"), he is accused as such by ben David. [Meir Abulafia](/wiki/Meir_Abulafia "Meir Abulafia") was initially an admirer of Maimonides. When he found, however, about the charges that Maimonides had denied the resurrection of the dead, he responded furiously and disappointedly. But when he saw Maimonides’ ambiguously apologetic *[Treatise on Resurrection](/wiki/Treatise_on_Resurrection "Treatise on Resurrection")* (1190–91\), published in response to the charges, he was convinced that Maimonides did believe. After Maimonides died in 1204, the controversy simmered down. ### Second Stage: 1230\-1235 {{see also\|Hachmei Provence}} The context for the second stage of the Maimononidean Controversy was in [Provence](/wiki/Provence "Provence"), where Maimonides’ work became a platform on which the general conflict between philosophy and tradition could be contested. Maimonides’ work fell into a time of ideological formation of a Christian Europe with the [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades") and the [Reconquista](/wiki/Reconquista "Reconquista"). Mystical tendencies and [kabbalistic circles](/wiki/Kabbalah "Kabbalah") were on the rise in [al\-Andalus](/wiki/Al-Andalus "Al-Andalus") and philosophy had enjoyed a great flourishing also of Jewish authors under Muslim rule. Maimonides’ projects to combine Jewish tradition with [Aristotelianism](/wiki/Aristotelianism%23Islamic_world "Aristotelianism#Islamic world"), a problem already in the Talmud addressed as “Greek wisdom”. Wolfson generalizes this to be an issue common to [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin"), Arabic and Jewish traditions, which all attempted “[Philonic](/wiki/Philo "Philo")” structures to combine reason with revelation.Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity and Islam (1947\) Maimonides' attempt to synthesize philosophy with revelation followed similar attempts by Philo, [Abraham ibn Daud](/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud "Abraham ibn Daud") and [Saadia Gaon](/wiki/Saadia_Gaon "Saadia Gaon"), but it arrived in Europe as Greek texts became more accessible to Christian scholars following the [Sack of Constantinople](/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople "Sack of Constantinople") and as the spread of universities challenged [monasteries](/wiki/Monasteries "Monasteries") as the monopolies of scholarship. As the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") and the [French crown](/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France "Louis IX of France") conducted the [Albigensian Crusade](/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade "Albigensian Crusade") in [Occitania](/wiki/Occitania "Occitania") and adjacent regions, both anti\-Maimonidean rabbis and the [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order "Dominican Order")\-led [Inquisition](/wiki/Inquisition "Inquisition") were quick to draw connections between [Occitanian "heresy"](/wiki/Catharism "Catharism") and Maimonides' ideas. In 1232, the rabbis of northern France, led by [Yonah Gerondi](/wiki/Yonah_Gerondi "Yonah Gerondi") and [Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier](/wiki/Solomon_ben_Abraham_of_Montpellier "Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier"), issued a ban against the study of philosophy, including *The Guide to the Perplexed* and the *Sefer HaMada*, the introduction to the *Mishneh Torah* that contained philosophical readings. The traditionalists accused philosophers of denying miracles, regarding prophecy as a natural phenomenon, undermining the Torah's authority, rejecting traditional [eschatology](/wiki/Eschatology "Eschatology"), engaging in allegorization, denying the historicity of persons and events, and laxity of observance of the commandments.{{r\|EJ}} When, however, in 1232 Maimonides’ books were confiscated and burnt by Dominicans (although there are stories about this being initiated by anti\-Maimonideans who brought the books to the attention of the authorities, the historical situation is more than unclear), the Jewish communities of Hachmei Provence, northern France, and northern Spain were shocked and many anti\-Maimonideans relented their views. Letters exchanged during the 1230s, between [David Qimhi](/wiki/David_Qimhi "David Qimhi") and [Yuda Alfakhar](/wiki/Yuda_Alfakhar "Yuda Alfakhar"), are preserved in *[Iggeroth Qena’oth](/wiki/Iggeroth_Qena%E2%80%99oth "Iggeroth Qena’oth")*, it was suggested by S. Harvey that this served as the model for [Shem\-Tov ibn Falaquera](/wiki/Shem-Tov_ibn_Falaquera "Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera")’s *Epistle of Debate*. [Abraham Maimonides](/wiki/Abraham_Maimonides "Abraham Maimonides"), Maimonides’ son, was outraged when he heard of the accusations brought against his father in Europe. The desecration of Maimonides’ tomb and the burning of Talmudic literature in the 1240s in Paris set the debates aside for a few decades.D.J. Silver, Maimonidean Criticism and the Maimonidean Controversy, 1180–1240 (1965\). ### Third Stage: 1288\-1290 The third stage is far less significant and involved a far lesser scope. It is, however, indicative of the diverging contexts of Christian Europe and Muslim\-ruled [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa") and the [Levant](/wiki/Levant "Levant"). [Solomon Petit](/wiki/Solomon_Petit "Solomon Petit") had immigrated to Palestine in 1288 and taught Kabbalah in Acre where he continued agitating against Maimonides’ thought. He found himself, however, in an environment long accustomed to science and philosophy and earned not only ridicule playing on his name (peti\-fool) but was also banned 4 times. He also seemed to have forgotten that he fell under the Egyptian [nagid](/wiki/Nagid "Nagid")’s jurisdiction, who happened to be Maimonides’ grandson. In addition, Shem\-Tove ibn Falaquera sent letters of opposition.J. Sarachek, Faith and Reason: the Conflict over the Rationalism of Maimonides (1935\). ### Fourth Stage: 1300\-1306 In this last controversy, the entry of philosophy into tradition was not debated anymore – Maimonidean ideas had found support even amongst the traditionalists who now sought to limit the study of philosophical works at the expense of traditional scholarship. Kabbalistic practices and esoteric exegesis had become commonplace amongst the “philosophers”, on the basis of which (especially astral magic – which, ironically, had been denied reality by Maimonides) they were accused of idolatry. [Abba Mari](/wiki/Abba_Mari "Abba Mari") of Lunel approached [Shlomo ibn Aderet](/wiki/Shlomo_ibn_Aderet "Shlomo ibn Aderet") of [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona") because he saw the philosopher's allegorical interpretations and subsidizing of the Torah's authority with Aristotle. Ibn Aderet himself, however, had engaged in [astral magic](/wiki/Picatrix "Picatrix") earlier in his life and denied that it was in any way offensive to [halakha](/wiki/Halakha "Halakha").{{cite EJ\|last1\=Ben\-Sasson\|first1\=Haim Hillel\|display\-authors\=etal\|title\=Maimonidean Controversy\|volume\=13\|pages\=371\-381}} Nonetheless, in 1305 he issued a local ban against extreme allegory and the study of Greek [physics](/wiki/Physics "Physics") and [metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") by anyone under the age of 25\. Shlomo ibn Aderet and allies in southern France hoped this would lead to similar bans by French rabbis.{{cite podcast \|last\=Adamson\|first\=Peter \|title\=Burnt Offerings: The Maimonides Controversy \|website\=History of Philosophy without any Gaps \|publisher\=Ludwig Maximillian University of Munich and King's College London \|date\=16 February 2014\|url\=https://historyofphilosophy.net/maimonides\-controversy \|access\-date\=10 July 2020}} [Menachem Meiri](/wiki/Menachem_Meiri "Menachem Meiri") and [Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi](/wiki/Jedaiah_ben_Abraham_Bedersi "Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi"), Astruc's main opponents, rejected this ban, as well as accusations for lax observance. [Jacob Anatoli](/wiki/Jacob_Anatoli "Jacob Anatoli") (1194–1296\), however, in his *Malmad HaTalmidim*, did draw heavily on [allegorical interpretation](/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation "Allegorical interpretation"), including cosmological readings of Torah passages, ‘in the manner of the Christians’, as his opponents were quick to accuse him of. Meiri issued a counter\-ban against Astruc, emphasizing that philosophy and “Greek wisdom” was as important as the study of the Torah, as long as they went hand in hand. Bedersi followed suit with a *Letter of Apology* ({{lang\-he\|כתב התנצלות\|Kəṯaḇ hāHiṯnaṣluṯ}}), a sharp attack against the “traditionalists”. After this, the last stage of the controversy faded out and found a shocking end in the [expulsion of the Jews from France in 1306](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France%23The_Great_Exile_of_1306 "History of the Jews in France#The Great Exile of 1306").{{r\|EJ}} ### Aftermath Even now, the Maimonidean project is not concluded, and the question about the possibility or impossibility of combining Jewish tradition and science/philosophy was never resolved. For example, in the 16th century, [Moses Isserles](/wiki/Moses_Isserles "Moses Isserles") defended philosophy against [Solomon Luria](/wiki/Solomon_Luria "Solomon Luria"). While this continues to be debated (as it does in Christian, Muslim or secular cultures), Maimonides is today counted among the greatest of Jewish tradition. Most opponents to philosophy made apologetically sure that they could not be misunderstood in violating the authority of Maimonides.{{Cite web \|last\=Levine \|first\=Rabbi Menachem \|date\=2023\-08\-04 \|title\=Maimonides, Nachmanides, and the Sages of Provence \|url\=https://thinktorah.org/maimonides\-nachmanides\-and\-the\-sages\-of\-provence/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-06 \|website\=Think Torah \|language\=en\-US}}
[ "The four phases of the controversy\n----------------------------------", "No other Jewish philosophical writings have produced such controversy as Maimonides’ *The Guide for the Perplexed*. The Maimonidean Controversy is in [historiographic literature](/wiki/Historiography \"Historiography\"), often divided into four phases, where heated debate was not infrequently joined with reciprocal bans.", "### First Stage: 1180\\-1204", "Already in the last years of Maimonides’ life, a controversy erupted based on theological grounds when he critiqued the institutions of [Jewish diaspora](/wiki/Jewish_diaspora \"Jewish diaspora\") within which [geonim](/wiki/Geonim \"Geonim\") (rabbinic scholars) found a comfortable living through stipends or donations. Maimonides’ view was that they – like himself – should work in a second occupation to sustain themselves. This fell into a time when [Samuel ben Ali](/wiki/Samuel_ben_Ali \"Samuel ben Ali\") tried to minimize the [Exilarch](/wiki/Exilarch \"Exilarch\")’s power for the benefit of the geonim.", "In addition to his institutional critique, in the introduction to his *Mishneh Torah*, Maimonides suggested that this work would make the employment of rabbinic scholars redundant. At this stage, even though some philosophical issues were discussed, mainly Maimonides’ revolutionary views were seen to be on [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud \"Talmud\") scholarship and Jewish leadership.", "### First Stage in Europe", "The main subject of the controversy in Europe had been Maimonides' *Mishneh Torah*, which he wrote in Hebrew. His previous works were inaccessible to European scholars, who did not know Arabic. The controversy heated up when most of Maimonides’ works were translated into Hebrew, most notably *[The Guide for the Perplexed](/wiki/The_Guide_for_the_Perplexed \"The Guide for the Perplexed\")* in 1204 by [Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon](/wiki/Judah_ben_Saul_ibn_Tibbon \"Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon\"). Maimonides’ works had been unsurprising for Jewish scholars immersed in the Arabic philosophical tradition, whose critique was mostly limited to his social criticism and his unconventional methodology. European scholarship, whether Jewish or [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"), had been largely unexposed to science or philosophy.", "Maimonides did not provide any citations in his *Mishneh Torah*, for which he was mainly criticized by [Abraham ben David](/wiki/Abraham_ben_David \"Abraham ben David\") of [Posquières](/wiki/Posqui%C3%A8res \"Posquières\"), who was part of the [Hachmei Provence](/wiki/Hachmei_Provence \"Hachmei Provence\"). His [hasagah](/wiki/Hasagah \"Hasagah\") or critical gloss to his introduction has been included in the editions of the *Mishneh Torah* since the 16th century. He also articulates a theoretical critique of Maimonides’ declaration of corporealist beliefs as heresy. Although it is never really clear whether Maimonides denies the [universal resurrection](/wiki/Universal_resurrection \"Universal resurrection\"), he is accused as such by ben David.", "[Meir Abulafia](/wiki/Meir_Abulafia \"Meir Abulafia\") was initially an admirer of Maimonides. When he found, however, about the charges that Maimonides had denied the resurrection of the dead, he responded furiously and disappointedly. But when he saw Maimonides’ ambiguously apologetic *[Treatise on Resurrection](/wiki/Treatise_on_Resurrection \"Treatise on Resurrection\")* (1190–91\\), published in response to the charges, he was convinced that Maimonides did believe. After Maimonides died in 1204, the controversy simmered down.", "### Second Stage: 1230\\-1235", "{{see also\\|Hachmei Provence}}\nThe context for the second stage of the Maimononidean Controversy was in [Provence](/wiki/Provence \"Provence\"), where Maimonides’ work became a platform on which the general conflict between philosophy and tradition could be contested. Maimonides’ work fell into a time of ideological formation of a Christian Europe with the [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\") and the [Reconquista](/wiki/Reconquista \"Reconquista\"). Mystical tendencies and [kabbalistic circles](/wiki/Kabbalah \"Kabbalah\") were on the rise in [al\\-Andalus](/wiki/Al-Andalus \"Al-Andalus\") and philosophy had enjoyed a great flourishing also of Jewish authors under Muslim rule.", "Maimonides’ projects to combine Jewish tradition with [Aristotelianism](/wiki/Aristotelianism%23Islamic_world \"Aristotelianism#Islamic world\"), a problem already in the Talmud addressed as “Greek wisdom”. Wolfson generalizes this to be an issue common to [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\"), Arabic and Jewish traditions, which all attempted “[Philonic](/wiki/Philo \"Philo\")” structures to combine reason with revelation.Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity and Islam (1947\\) Maimonides' attempt to synthesize philosophy with revelation followed similar attempts by Philo, [Abraham ibn Daud](/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud \"Abraham ibn Daud\") and [Saadia Gaon](/wiki/Saadia_Gaon \"Saadia Gaon\"), but it arrived in Europe as Greek texts became more accessible to Christian scholars following the [Sack of Constantinople](/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople \"Sack of Constantinople\") and as the spread of universities challenged [monasteries](/wiki/Monasteries \"Monasteries\") as the monopolies of scholarship. As the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") and the [French crown](/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France \"Louis IX of France\") conducted the [Albigensian Crusade](/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade \"Albigensian Crusade\") in [Occitania](/wiki/Occitania \"Occitania\") and adjacent regions, both anti\\-Maimonidean rabbis and the [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order \"Dominican Order\")\\-led [Inquisition](/wiki/Inquisition \"Inquisition\") were quick to draw connections between [Occitanian \"heresy\"](/wiki/Catharism \"Catharism\") and Maimonides' ideas.", "In 1232, the rabbis of northern France, led by [Yonah Gerondi](/wiki/Yonah_Gerondi \"Yonah Gerondi\") and [Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier](/wiki/Solomon_ben_Abraham_of_Montpellier \"Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier\"), issued a ban against the study of philosophy, including *The Guide to the Perplexed* and the *Sefer HaMada*, the introduction to the *Mishneh Torah* that contained philosophical readings. The traditionalists accused philosophers of denying miracles, regarding prophecy as a natural phenomenon, undermining the Torah's authority, rejecting traditional [eschatology](/wiki/Eschatology \"Eschatology\"), engaging in allegorization, denying the historicity of persons and events, and laxity of observance of the commandments.{{r\\|EJ}} When, however, in 1232 Maimonides’ books were confiscated and burnt by Dominicans (although there are stories about this being initiated by anti\\-Maimonideans who brought the books to the attention of the authorities, the historical situation is more than unclear), the Jewish communities of Hachmei Provence, northern France, and northern Spain were shocked and many anti\\-Maimonideans relented their views.", "Letters exchanged during the 1230s, between [David Qimhi](/wiki/David_Qimhi \"David Qimhi\") and [Yuda Alfakhar](/wiki/Yuda_Alfakhar \"Yuda Alfakhar\"), are preserved in *[Iggeroth Qena’oth](/wiki/Iggeroth_Qena%E2%80%99oth \"Iggeroth Qena’oth\")*, it was suggested by S. Harvey that this served as the model for [Shem\\-Tov ibn Falaquera](/wiki/Shem-Tov_ibn_Falaquera \"Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera\")’s *Epistle of Debate*.", "[Abraham Maimonides](/wiki/Abraham_Maimonides \"Abraham Maimonides\"), Maimonides’ son, was outraged when he heard of the accusations brought against his father in Europe. The desecration of Maimonides’ tomb and the burning of Talmudic literature in the 1240s in Paris set the debates aside for a few decades.D.J. Silver, Maimonidean Criticism and the Maimonidean Controversy, 1180–1240 (1965\\).", "### Third Stage: 1288\\-1290", "The third stage is far less significant and involved a far lesser scope. It is, however, indicative of the diverging contexts of Christian Europe and Muslim\\-ruled [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\") and the [Levant](/wiki/Levant \"Levant\"). [Solomon Petit](/wiki/Solomon_Petit \"Solomon Petit\") had immigrated to Palestine in 1288 and taught Kabbalah in Acre where he continued agitating against Maimonides’ thought. He found himself, however, in an environment long accustomed to science and philosophy and earned not only ridicule playing on his name (peti\\-fool) but was also banned 4 times. He also seemed to have forgotten that he fell under the Egyptian [nagid](/wiki/Nagid \"Nagid\")’s jurisdiction, who happened to be Maimonides’ grandson. In addition, Shem\\-Tove ibn Falaquera sent letters of opposition.J. Sarachek, Faith and Reason: the Conflict over the Rationalism of Maimonides (1935\\).", "### Fourth Stage: 1300\\-1306", "In this last controversy, the entry of philosophy into tradition was not debated anymore – Maimonidean ideas had found support even amongst the traditionalists who now sought to limit the study of philosophical works at the expense of traditional scholarship. Kabbalistic practices and esoteric exegesis had become commonplace amongst the “philosophers”, on the basis of which (especially astral magic – which, ironically, had been denied reality by Maimonides) they were accused of idolatry.", "[Abba Mari](/wiki/Abba_Mari \"Abba Mari\") of Lunel approached [Shlomo ibn Aderet](/wiki/Shlomo_ibn_Aderet \"Shlomo ibn Aderet\") of [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\") because he saw the philosopher's allegorical interpretations and subsidizing of the Torah's authority with Aristotle. Ibn Aderet himself, however, had engaged in [astral magic](/wiki/Picatrix \"Picatrix\") earlier in his life and denied that it was in any way offensive to [halakha](/wiki/Halakha \"Halakha\").{{cite EJ\\|last1\\=Ben\\-Sasson\\|first1\\=Haim Hillel\\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|title\\=Maimonidean Controversy\\|volume\\=13\\|pages\\=371\\-381}} Nonetheless, in 1305 he issued a local ban against extreme allegory and the study of Greek [physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\") and [metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") by anyone under the age of 25\\. Shlomo ibn Aderet and allies in southern France hoped this would lead to similar bans by French rabbis.{{cite podcast \\|last\\=Adamson\\|first\\=Peter \\|title\\=Burnt Offerings: The Maimonides Controversy \\|website\\=History of Philosophy without any Gaps \\|publisher\\=Ludwig Maximillian University of Munich and King's College London \\|date\\=16 February 2014\\|url\\=https://historyofphilosophy.net/maimonides\\-controversy \\|access\\-date\\=10 July 2020}}", "[Menachem Meiri](/wiki/Menachem_Meiri \"Menachem Meiri\") and [Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi](/wiki/Jedaiah_ben_Abraham_Bedersi \"Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi\"), Astruc's main opponents, rejected this ban, as well as accusations for lax observance. [Jacob Anatoli](/wiki/Jacob_Anatoli \"Jacob Anatoli\") (1194–1296\\), however, in his *Malmad HaTalmidim*, did draw heavily on [allegorical interpretation](/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation \"Allegorical interpretation\"), including cosmological readings of Torah passages, ‘in the manner of the Christians’, as his opponents were quick to accuse him of.", "Meiri issued a counter\\-ban against Astruc, emphasizing that philosophy and “Greek wisdom” was as important as the study of the Torah, as long as they went hand in hand. Bedersi followed suit with a *Letter of Apology* ({{lang\\-he\\|כתב התנצלות\\|Kəṯaḇ hāHiṯnaṣluṯ}}), a sharp attack against the “traditionalists”. After this, the last stage of the controversy faded out and found a shocking end in the [expulsion of the Jews from France in 1306](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France%23The_Great_Exile_of_1306 \"History of the Jews in France#The Great Exile of 1306\").{{r\\|EJ}}", "### Aftermath", "Even now, the Maimonidean project is not concluded, and the question about the possibility or impossibility of combining Jewish tradition and science/philosophy was never resolved. For example, in the 16th century, [Moses Isserles](/wiki/Moses_Isserles \"Moses Isserles\") defended philosophy against [Solomon Luria](/wiki/Solomon_Luria \"Solomon Luria\"). While this continues to be debated (as it does in Christian, Muslim or secular cultures), Maimonides is today counted among the greatest of Jewish tradition. Most opponents to philosophy made apologetically sure that they could not be misunderstood in violating the authority of Maimonides.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Levine \\|first\\=Rabbi Menachem \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-04 \\|title\\=Maimonides, Nachmanides, and the Sages of Provence \\|url\\=https://thinktorah.org/maimonides\\-nachmanides\\-and\\-the\\-sages\\-of\\-provence/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-06 \\|website\\=Think Torah \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "" ]
Chu–Han Contention ------------------ {{main\|Chu–Han Contention}} ### Feast at Hong Gate {{Main\|Feast at Swan Goose Gate}} Upon entering the [Epang Palace](/wiki/Epang_Palace "Epang Palace") in [Xianyang](/wiki/Xianyang "Xianyang") (the Qin capital), Liu Bang was strongly tempted by the riches it housed and wanted to stay there forever. Zhang Liang reminded Liu Bang about overindulgence in sensual pleasures and Liu ordered his men to seal the treasures and move to Bashang to wait for Xiang Yu and the other rebel forces to arrive. During this period of time, Liu Bang heeded Zhang Liang's advice and governed Guanzhong with benevolence, restoring peace and stability, and forbidding his men from pillaging the cities and harming the common people. In 206 BC, Xiang Yu's army arrived at [Hangu Pass](/wiki/Hangu_Pass "Hangu Pass") (eastern gateway to Guanzhong) and Liu ordered his men to prevent Xiang's forces from entering Guanzhong. Xiang Yu was furious when he learnt that Liu Bang had beat him in the race to Guanzhong, and he wanted to kill Liu after being instigated by [Fan Zeng](/wiki/Fan_Zeng "Fan Zeng") and a defector from Liu's side, Cao Wushang. Xiang Yu's uncle, [Xiang Bo](/wiki/Xiang_Bo "Xiang Bo"), was an old friend of Zhang Liang and he secretly warned Zhang that Xiang Yu was planning to attack Liu Bang. Liu Bang was shocked and fearful when he heard that, as his forces were too weak to counter Xiang Yu. Zhang Liang advised Liu Bang to attend the [Feast at Hong Gate](/wiki/Feast_at_Hong_Gate "Feast at Hong Gate") hosted by Xiang Yu, to put Xiang off guard and dismiss Xiang's suspicions that Liu was intending to oppose him. With help from Xiang Bo, Liu Bang managed to survive the dangerous banquet and Xiang Yu dismissed the idea of killing Liu. However, Fan Zeng was dissatisfied and he asked Xiang Yu's cousin [Xiang Zhuang](/wiki/Xiang_Zhuang "Xiang Zhuang") to pretend to perform a sword dance and use the opportunity to kill Liu Bang. Xiang Bo intervened again and saved Liu Bang's life. Meanwhile, Zhang Liang left the tent to find [Fan Kuai](/wiki/Fan_Kuai "Fan Kuai") to save Liu Bang. Following Zhang Liang's instructions, Fan Kuai burst in and openly chided Xiang Yu, making a speech about Liu Bang's accomplishments and affirming that Liu had no intention of opposing Xiang Yu. Liu Bang left the banquet later on the pretext of going to the latrine and was received by [Xiahou Ying](/wiki/Xiahou_Ying "Xiahou Ying"), who had been waiting nearby on Zhang Liang's instruction. Zhang Liang remained behind to hold Xiang Yu's attention while Liu Bang escaped. Before leaving, Zhang Liang presented Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng with a pair of jade pieces. ### Eighteen Kingdoms {{Main\|Eighteen Kingdoms}} Xiang Yu split the former Qin Empire into the [Eighteen Kingdoms](/wiki/Eighteen_Kingdoms "Eighteen Kingdoms") later, granting the land of [Guanzhong](/wiki/Guanzhong "Guanzhong") to [three surrendered Qin generals](/wiki/Three_Qins "Three Qins"), even though Guanzhong was rightfully Liu Bang's, according to [King Huai II](/wiki/Emperor_Yi_of_Chu "Emperor Yi of Chu")'s earlier promise. Liu Bang was relocated to the remote Bashu region (in present\-day [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")) instead and granted the title of "King of [Han](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty")". [Han Cheng](/wiki/Han_Cheng "Han Cheng") retained his rulership as King of [Hán](/wiki/Han_%28Warring_States%29 "Han (Warring States)") and Zhang Liang was moved from Liu Bang's side back to Hán to continue serving as chancellor. Before parting ways, Liu Bang presented Zhang Liang with some gold and pearls, all of which Zhang gave to [Xiang Bo](/wiki/Xiang_Bo "Xiang Bo"). Zhang Liang also urged Liu Bang to destroy the [gallery roads](/wiki/Gallery_road "Gallery road") leading to Bashu during the journey to Hanzhong, in order to reduce Xiang Yu's suspicions that Liu was planning to return and challenge him. Although Han Cheng was the king of Hán, Xiang Yu did not permit him to govern his kingdom and forced him to accompany him back to his [Western Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28state%29 "Chu (state)")'s capital of Pengcheng (present\-day [Xuzhou](/wiki/Xuzhou "Xuzhou"), [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu "Jiangsu")). Han Cheng was demoted to "Marquis of Rang" later and killed on Xiang Yu's orders. Xiang Yu seized Han Cheng's kingdom and made his subordinate [Zheng Chang](/wiki/Zheng_Chang "Zheng Chang") the new King of Hán. Zhang Liang was still the chancellor of Hán under the new arrangement but he was aware of his precarious position, and cognisant of how Xiang Yu had destroyed his hope of restoring the Hán state. Zhang Liang fled from Hán later and returned to join Liu Bang in the winter of 206 BC. Liu Bang conferred on Zhang Liang the title of "Marquis of Chengxin" and Zhang became a permanent advisor to Liu from that time. ### Conquest of the Three Qin and Battle of Pengcheng Starting in 206 BC, after Liu Bang's forces conquered the [Three Qins](/wiki/Three_Qins "Three Qins"), Liu Bang and Xiang Yu engaged in a four\-year\-long power struggle for supremacy over China, historically known as the Chu–Han Contention. In 205 BC, Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the [Battle of Pengcheng](/wiki/Battle_of_Pengcheng "Battle of Pengcheng") and he retreated to Xiayi. Zhang Liang proposed a strategy to Liu Bang to counter Xiang Yu, known as the "Xiayi Plan" ({{lang\|zh\|下邑之謀}}). Liu Bang followed Zhang Liang's advice: he sent [Xiao He](/wiki/Xiao_He "Xiao He") to persuade Ying Bu to join him; contacted Peng Yue and allied with him; and allowed Han Xin to lead part of his army to attack other territories on the northern front. In 204 BC, Liu Bang was trapped by Xiang Yu in [Xingyang](/wiki/Xingyang "Xingyang") and both sides reached a stalemate. [Li Yiji](/wiki/Li_Yiji "Li Yiji") suggested to Liu Bang to recreate the former states of the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period "Warring States period") and install the descendants of their royal families on their respective thrones. This plan was intended to help Liu Bang gain the support of the vassal states' rulers, who would help him in the war against Xiang Yu. However, Zhang Liang disapproved of the plan as he felt that the states were more likely to support [Western Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28state%29 "Chu (state)") instead as Chu was superior to Han in terms of military might. Liu Bang realised the problem and immediately dismissed Li Yiji's plan. In 203 BC, after his victory at the [Battle of Wei River](/wiki/Battle_of_Wei_River "Battle of Wei River"), Han Xin conquered the [Qi kingdom](/wiki/Qi_%28state%29 "Qi (state)") and sent a messenger to Liu Bang, requesting that Liu appoint him as the acting King of Qi. Liu was still trapped at Xingyang then and he was furious after hearing the request because he was expecting Han Xin to come to his aid. Zhang Liang reminded Liu Bang that if he refused to approve Han Xin's request, Han might be discontented and declare independence from Liu, putting them in a dangerous situation. Liu Bang reluctantly agreed and sent Zhang Liang to pass the king's seal to Han Xin. Zhang Liang met Han Xin and succeeded in reaffirming Han's loyalty to Liu Bang. ### Battle of Gaixia By late 203 BC, Zhang Liang saw that the tide had turned in favour of Liu Bang, as Xiang Yu had been surrounded on three sides. Together with [Chen Ping](/wiki/Chen_Ping_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Chen Ping (Han dynasty)"), Zhang Liang suggested to Liu Bang to renounce the Treaty of Hong Canal and use the opportunity to eliminate Western Chu. However, at the Battle of Guling, Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu because the expected reinforcements from Han Xin and Peng Yue did not arrive. Zhang Liang explained to Liu Bang that Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their troops because they did not have their fiefs yet, even though they had received their titles of vassal kings. Liu Bang followed Zhang Liang's advice and granted lands to Han Xin and Peng Yue. Two months later, as Zhang Liang predicted, Han Xin and Peng Yue arrived with their armies and formed a coordinated attack on Western Chu together with Liu Bang's force, defeating Xiang Yu at the [Battle of Gaixia](/wiki/Battle_of_Gaixia "Battle of Gaixia") in 202 BC.
[ "Chu–Han Contention\n------------------", "{{main\\|Chu–Han Contention}}", "### Feast at Hong Gate", "{{Main\\|Feast at Swan Goose Gate}}", "Upon entering the [Epang Palace](/wiki/Epang_Palace \"Epang Palace\") in [Xianyang](/wiki/Xianyang \"Xianyang\") (the Qin capital), Liu Bang was strongly tempted by the riches it housed and wanted to stay there forever. Zhang Liang reminded Liu Bang about overindulgence in sensual pleasures and Liu ordered his men to seal the treasures and move to Bashang to wait for Xiang Yu and the other rebel forces to arrive. During this period of time, Liu Bang heeded Zhang Liang's advice and governed Guanzhong with benevolence, restoring peace and stability, and forbidding his men from pillaging the cities and harming the common people.", "In 206 BC, Xiang Yu's army arrived at [Hangu Pass](/wiki/Hangu_Pass \"Hangu Pass\") (eastern gateway to Guanzhong) and Liu ordered his men to prevent Xiang's forces from entering Guanzhong. Xiang Yu was furious when he learnt that Liu Bang had beat him in the race to Guanzhong, and he wanted to kill Liu after being instigated by [Fan Zeng](/wiki/Fan_Zeng \"Fan Zeng\") and a defector from Liu's side, Cao Wushang. Xiang Yu's uncle, [Xiang Bo](/wiki/Xiang_Bo \"Xiang Bo\"), was an old friend of Zhang Liang and he secretly warned Zhang that Xiang Yu was planning to attack Liu Bang. Liu Bang was shocked and fearful when he heard that, as his forces were too weak to counter Xiang Yu. Zhang Liang advised Liu Bang to attend the [Feast at Hong Gate](/wiki/Feast_at_Hong_Gate \"Feast at Hong Gate\") hosted by Xiang Yu, to put Xiang off guard and dismiss Xiang's suspicions that Liu was intending to oppose him. With help from Xiang Bo, Liu Bang managed to survive the dangerous banquet and Xiang Yu dismissed the idea of killing Liu. However, Fan Zeng was dissatisfied and he asked Xiang Yu's cousin [Xiang Zhuang](/wiki/Xiang_Zhuang \"Xiang Zhuang\") to pretend to perform a sword dance and use the opportunity to kill Liu Bang. Xiang Bo intervened again and saved Liu Bang's life.", "Meanwhile, Zhang Liang left the tent to find [Fan Kuai](/wiki/Fan_Kuai \"Fan Kuai\") to save Liu Bang. Following Zhang Liang's instructions, Fan Kuai burst in and openly chided Xiang Yu, making a speech about Liu Bang's accomplishments and affirming that Liu had no intention of opposing Xiang Yu. Liu Bang left the banquet later on the pretext of going to the latrine and was received by [Xiahou Ying](/wiki/Xiahou_Ying \"Xiahou Ying\"), who had been waiting nearby on Zhang Liang's instruction. Zhang Liang remained behind to hold Xiang Yu's attention while Liu Bang escaped. Before leaving, Zhang Liang presented Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng with a pair of jade pieces.", "### Eighteen Kingdoms", "{{Main\\|Eighteen Kingdoms}}", "Xiang Yu split the former Qin Empire into the [Eighteen Kingdoms](/wiki/Eighteen_Kingdoms \"Eighteen Kingdoms\") later, granting the land of [Guanzhong](/wiki/Guanzhong \"Guanzhong\") to [three surrendered Qin generals](/wiki/Three_Qins \"Three Qins\"), even though Guanzhong was rightfully Liu Bang's, according to [King Huai II](/wiki/Emperor_Yi_of_Chu \"Emperor Yi of Chu\")'s earlier promise. Liu Bang was relocated to the remote Bashu region (in present\\-day [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")) instead and granted the title of \"King of [Han](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\")\". [Han Cheng](/wiki/Han_Cheng \"Han Cheng\") retained his rulership as King of [Hán](/wiki/Han_%28Warring_States%29 \"Han (Warring States)\") and Zhang Liang was moved from Liu Bang's side back to Hán to continue serving as chancellor. Before parting ways, Liu Bang presented Zhang Liang with some gold and pearls, all of which Zhang gave to [Xiang Bo](/wiki/Xiang_Bo \"Xiang Bo\"). Zhang Liang also urged Liu Bang to destroy the [gallery roads](/wiki/Gallery_road \"Gallery road\") leading to Bashu during the journey to Hanzhong, in order to reduce Xiang Yu's suspicions that Liu was planning to return and challenge him.", "Although Han Cheng was the king of Hán, Xiang Yu did not permit him to govern his kingdom and forced him to accompany him back to his [Western Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28state%29 \"Chu (state)\")'s capital of Pengcheng (present\\-day [Xuzhou](/wiki/Xuzhou \"Xuzhou\"), [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu \"Jiangsu\")). Han Cheng was demoted to \"Marquis of Rang\" later and killed on Xiang Yu's orders. Xiang Yu seized Han Cheng's kingdom and made his subordinate [Zheng Chang](/wiki/Zheng_Chang \"Zheng Chang\") the new King of Hán. Zhang Liang was still the chancellor of Hán under the new arrangement but he was aware of his precarious position, and cognisant of how Xiang Yu had destroyed his hope of restoring the Hán state. Zhang Liang fled from Hán later and returned to join Liu Bang in the winter of 206 BC. Liu Bang conferred on Zhang Liang the title of \"Marquis of Chengxin\" and Zhang became a permanent advisor to Liu from that time.", "### Conquest of the Three Qin and Battle of Pengcheng", "Starting in 206 BC, after Liu Bang's forces conquered the [Three Qins](/wiki/Three_Qins \"Three Qins\"), Liu Bang and Xiang Yu engaged in a four\\-year\\-long power struggle for supremacy over China, historically known as the Chu–Han Contention. In 205 BC, Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the [Battle of Pengcheng](/wiki/Battle_of_Pengcheng \"Battle of Pengcheng\") and he retreated to Xiayi. Zhang Liang proposed a strategy to Liu Bang to counter Xiang Yu, known as the \"Xiayi Plan\" ({{lang\\|zh\\|下邑之謀}}). Liu Bang followed Zhang Liang's advice: he sent [Xiao He](/wiki/Xiao_He \"Xiao He\") to persuade Ying Bu to join him; contacted Peng Yue and allied with him; and allowed Han Xin to lead part of his army to attack other territories on the northern front.", "In 204 BC, Liu Bang was trapped by Xiang Yu in [Xingyang](/wiki/Xingyang \"Xingyang\") and both sides reached a stalemate. [Li Yiji](/wiki/Li_Yiji \"Li Yiji\") suggested to Liu Bang to recreate the former states of the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period \"Warring States period\") and install the descendants of their royal families on their respective thrones. This plan was intended to help Liu Bang gain the support of the vassal states' rulers, who would help him in the war against Xiang Yu. However, Zhang Liang disapproved of the plan as he felt that the states were more likely to support [Western Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28state%29 \"Chu (state)\") instead as Chu was superior to Han in terms of military might. Liu Bang realised the problem and immediately dismissed Li Yiji's plan.", "In 203 BC, after his victory at the [Battle of Wei River](/wiki/Battle_of_Wei_River \"Battle of Wei River\"), Han Xin conquered the [Qi kingdom](/wiki/Qi_%28state%29 \"Qi (state)\") and sent a messenger to Liu Bang, requesting that Liu appoint him as the acting King of Qi. Liu was still trapped at Xingyang then and he was furious after hearing the request because he was expecting Han Xin to come to his aid. Zhang Liang reminded Liu Bang that if he refused to approve Han Xin's request, Han might be discontented and declare independence from Liu, putting them in a dangerous situation. Liu Bang reluctantly agreed and sent Zhang Liang to pass the king's seal to Han Xin. Zhang Liang met Han Xin and succeeded in reaffirming Han's loyalty to Liu Bang.", "### Battle of Gaixia", "By late 203 BC, Zhang Liang saw that the tide had turned in favour of Liu Bang, as Xiang Yu had been surrounded on three sides. Together with [Chen Ping](/wiki/Chen_Ping_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Chen Ping (Han dynasty)\"), Zhang Liang suggested to Liu Bang to renounce the Treaty of Hong Canal and use the opportunity to eliminate Western Chu. However, at the Battle of Guling, Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu because the expected reinforcements from Han Xin and Peng Yue did not arrive. Zhang Liang explained to Liu Bang that Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their troops because they did not have their fiefs yet, even though they had received their titles of vassal kings. Liu Bang followed Zhang Liang's advice and granted lands to Han Xin and Peng Yue. Two months later, as Zhang Liang predicted, Han Xin and Peng Yue arrived with their armies and formed a coordinated attack on Western Chu together with Liu Bang's force, defeating Xiang Yu at the [Battle of Gaixia](/wiki/Battle_of_Gaixia \"Battle of Gaixia\") in 202 BC.", "" ]
Death and burial place ---------------------- [thumb\|right\|The Zhang Liang Tomb in [Zhangjiajie](/wiki/Zhangjiajie "Zhangjiajie"), [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan "Hunan").](/wiki/File:%E5%BC%A0%E5%AE%B6%E7%95%8C%E5%BC%A0%E8%89%AF%E5%A2%93.JPG "张家界张良墓.JPG") Little is known about Zhang Liang's later life; hence, his final resting place has been a mystery throughout history. A Zhang Liang Tomb stands at 6 km southwest of present\-day [Lankao County](/wiki/Lankao_County "Lankao County"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan"). According to legend, during the [Lü Clan Disturbance](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Clan_Disturbance "Lü Clan Disturbance"), Zhang Liang moved to Mount Baiyun at the southwest of Donghun County (present\-day [Lankao County](/wiki/Lankao_County "Lankao County"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")), and was buried there after his death. A Zhang Liang Temple used to stand beside the tomb, but it was destroyed during the [Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution "Cultural Revolution"). Another Zhang Liang Tomb stands south of [Weishan County](/wiki/Weishan_County%2C_Shandong "Weishan County, Shandong"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong"). The stone tablet in front of the grave bearing Zhang Liang's name was erected in 1737 during the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty"). A Zhang Liang Shrine also used to stand east of the tomb, but it was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. However, some believed that Zhang Liang's tomb was in present\-day [Pei County](/wiki/Pei_County "Pei County"), [Xuzhou](/wiki/Xuzhou "Xuzhou"). According to the 7th\-century gazetteer *[Kuodi Zhi](/wiki/Kuodi_Zhi "Kuodi Zhi")*, Zhang Liang's tomb was 65 *[li](/wiki/Li_%28unit%29 "Li (unit)")* east of Pei County, near Liucheng, where a Zhang Liang Temple was also located. According to *Xianshizhi* ({{lang\|zh\|仙釋志}}) and *Lingmuzhi* ({{lang\|zh\|陵墓志}}), Zhang Liang's tomb was at Mount Qingyan in [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan "Hunan").
[ "Death and burial place\n----------------------", "[thumb\\|right\\|The Zhang Liang Tomb in [Zhangjiajie](/wiki/Zhangjiajie \"Zhangjiajie\"), [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan \"Hunan\").](/wiki/File:%E5%BC%A0%E5%AE%B6%E7%95%8C%E5%BC%A0%E8%89%AF%E5%A2%93.JPG \"张家界张良墓.JPG\")", "Little is known about Zhang Liang's later life; hence, his final resting place has been a mystery throughout history.", "A Zhang Liang Tomb stands at 6 km southwest of present\\-day [Lankao County](/wiki/Lankao_County \"Lankao County\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\"). According to legend, during the [Lü Clan Disturbance](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Clan_Disturbance \"Lü Clan Disturbance\"), Zhang Liang moved to Mount Baiyun at the southwest of Donghun County (present\\-day [Lankao County](/wiki/Lankao_County \"Lankao County\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")), and was buried there after his death. A Zhang Liang Temple used to stand beside the tomb, but it was destroyed during the [Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution \"Cultural Revolution\").", "Another Zhang Liang Tomb stands south of [Weishan County](/wiki/Weishan_County%2C_Shandong \"Weishan County, Shandong\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\"). The stone tablet in front of the grave bearing Zhang Liang's name was erected in 1737 during the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\"). A Zhang Liang Shrine also used to stand east of the tomb, but it was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution.", "However, some believed that Zhang Liang's tomb was in present\\-day [Pei County](/wiki/Pei_County \"Pei County\"), [Xuzhou](/wiki/Xuzhou \"Xuzhou\"). According to the 7th\\-century gazetteer *[Kuodi Zhi](/wiki/Kuodi_Zhi \"Kuodi Zhi\")*, Zhang Liang's tomb was 65 *[li](/wiki/Li_%28unit%29 \"Li (unit)\")* east of Pei County, near Liucheng, where a Zhang Liang Temple was also located.", "According to *Xianshizhi* ({{lang\\|zh\\|仙釋志}}) and *Lingmuzhi* ({{lang\\|zh\\|陵墓志}}), Zhang Liang's tomb was at Mount Qingyan in [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan \"Hunan\").", "" ]
October ------- October 6: [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") won its fourth game, but its 27–6 win over Bates took the Crimson out of the ranks of the unscored upon. Meanwhile, other teams recorded their third consecutive shutouts. Swarthmore beat visiting Villanova 4–0, and Penn State won at Carlisle by the same 4–0 score. Dartmouth bested Holy Cross, 16–0 and [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University") beat Stevens 22–0\. Army over Trinity (24–0\), Yale had opened its season midweek (October 3, 21–0 over Wesleyan) and then beat Syracuse (51–0\) (Wesleyan itself lost 17–0 to Brown). In the west, Iowa State's team beat Coe College 36–0 on Friday, then Des Moines 45–0 the next day. Maryville, at that time a regular southern opponent powerhouse, lost at Alabama, 6–0; two days earlier, it had lost to Ole Miss 16–6\. Michigan opened its season with a 28–0 win over visiting Case. October 13: Princeton, Yale, Dartmouth, and Brown remained unscored upon, as did Lafayette, Pittsburgh and Swarthmore. Playing on 3 Saturdays and 2 Wednesdays, the [Princeton Tigers](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University") played five games in fifteen days (Sep 29 to Oct 13\), beating Villanova, Stevens, Washington \& Jefferson, Lehigh (52–0\), and in Annapolis on this date, a 5–0 win over Navy. Brown had beaten Massachusetts 17–0 on a Wednesday afternoon. Yale defeated Holy Cross 17–0 and Maine 4–0\. Swarthmore eked out a win at Penn, 4–0\. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), 5–0–0 but not scorefree, defeated Massachusetts 21–0\. Army and Colgate played to a 0–0 tie. In the West, Kansas defeated Arkansas 37–5 and Nebraska beat Drake 5–0\. In the South, Vanderbilt defeated Ole Miss at home, 29–0 and Texas beat TCU 22–0\. Georgia Tech beat Tennessee\-Chattanooga 18–0 to reach 2–0–1\. Clemson opened its season with a 0–0 tie with visiting Virginia Tech. Other colleges stayed unscored upon, but against smaller opponents (Iowa State 32–0 over Morningside, Mississippi State 62–0 over Marion). October 20: Yale stayed unscored on with a 10–0 win over Penn State, and Dartmouth beat Massachusetts 26–0\. [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University"), however, gave up points in a 32–4 win over Bucknell. Swarthmore beat GWU 17–0\. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") had a 44–0 win over Springfield. Lafayette defeated North Carolina in Norfolk, VA, 28–6\. Brown was handed its first defeat, a 14–0 loss at Pennsylvania, while Pitt lost to Carlisle, 22–0\. After warming up with small colleges, Iowa State won at Nebraska, 14–2, while Kansas beat visiting Oklahoma 20–4\. Michigan won at Ohio State, 6–0\. In the South, Vanderbilt handed Alabama a 78–0 loss. After tuneup wins against Mooney and Rhodes, [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South "The University of the South") won at Georgia Tech, 16–0\. Clemson beat Georgia 6–0, and played a Thursday afternoon 0–0 tie against NC State. October 27: Yale stayed unscored on, with a 12–0 win over Amherst. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") won at Army, 5–0\. Swarthmore yielded a score in a 19–4 win over Gettysburg. Lafayette beat Colgate 17–6\. Dartmouth and Williams College played to a 0–0 tie. Kansas beat Colorado, 16–0 but Iowa State lost at Minnesota, 22–4, and Missouri lost its first outing against a large school, falling 26–4 at Iowa. Michigan beat visiting Illinois, 28–9\. Vanderbilt beat Texas, 45–0\. Mississippi State and LSU played to a 0–0 tie. [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South "The University of the South") had beaten Auburn 10–5 in a Friday afternoon game at Birmingham. Georgia Tech beat Davidson 4–0\.
[ "October\n-------", "October 6: [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") won its fourth game, but its 27–6 win over Bates took the Crimson out of the ranks of the unscored upon. Meanwhile, other teams recorded their third consecutive shutouts. Swarthmore beat visiting Villanova 4–0, and Penn State won at Carlisle by the same 4–0 score. Dartmouth bested Holy Cross, 16–0 and [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\") beat Stevens 22–0\\. Army over Trinity (24–0\\), Yale had opened its season midweek (October 3, 21–0 over Wesleyan) and then beat Syracuse (51–0\\) (Wesleyan itself lost 17–0 to Brown). In the west, Iowa State's team beat Coe College 36–0 on Friday, then Des Moines 45–0 the next day. Maryville, at that time a regular southern opponent \npowerhouse, lost at Alabama, 6–0; two days earlier, it had lost to Ole Miss 16–6\\. Michigan opened its season with a 28–0 win over visiting Case.", "October 13: Princeton, Yale, Dartmouth, and Brown remained unscored upon, as did Lafayette, Pittsburgh and Swarthmore. Playing on 3 Saturdays and 2 Wednesdays, the [Princeton Tigers](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\") played five games in fifteen days (Sep 29 to Oct 13\\), beating Villanova, Stevens, Washington \\& Jefferson, Lehigh (52–0\\), and in Annapolis on this date, a 5–0 win over Navy. Brown had beaten Massachusetts 17–0 on a Wednesday afternoon. Yale defeated Holy Cross 17–0 and Maine 4–0\\. Swarthmore eked out a win at Penn, 4–0\\. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), 5–0–0 but not scorefree, defeated Massachusetts 21–0\\. Army and Colgate played to a 0–0 tie.", "In the West, Kansas defeated Arkansas 37–5 and Nebraska beat Drake 5–0\\. In the South, Vanderbilt defeated Ole Miss at home, 29–0 and Texas beat TCU 22–0\\. Georgia Tech beat Tennessee\\-Chattanooga 18–0 to reach 2–0–1\\. Clemson opened its season with a 0–0 tie with visiting Virginia Tech. Other colleges stayed unscored upon, but against smaller opponents (Iowa State 32–0 over Morningside, Mississippi State 62–0 over Marion).", "October 20: Yale stayed unscored on with a 10–0 win over Penn State, and Dartmouth beat Massachusetts 26–0\\. [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\"), however, gave up points in a 32–4 win over Bucknell. Swarthmore beat GWU 17–0\\. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") had a 44–0 win over Springfield. Lafayette defeated North Carolina in Norfolk, VA, 28–6\\. Brown was handed its first defeat, a 14–0 loss at Pennsylvania, while Pitt lost to Carlisle, 22–0\\.", "After warming up with small colleges, Iowa State won at Nebraska, 14–2, while Kansas beat visiting Oklahoma 20–4\\. Michigan won at Ohio State, 6–0\\.\nIn the South, Vanderbilt handed Alabama a 78–0 loss. After tuneup wins against Mooney and Rhodes, [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South \"The University of the South\") won at Georgia Tech, 16–0\\. Clemson beat Georgia 6–0, and played a Thursday afternoon 0–0 tie against NC State.", "October 27: Yale stayed unscored on, with a 12–0 win over Amherst. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") won at Army, 5–0\\. Swarthmore yielded a score in a 19–4 win over Gettysburg. Lafayette beat Colgate 17–6\\. Dartmouth and Williams College played to a 0–0 tie.", "Kansas beat Colorado, 16–0 but Iowa State lost at Minnesota, 22–4, and Missouri lost its first outing against a large school, falling 26–4 at Iowa. Michigan beat visiting Illinois, 28–9\\. Vanderbilt beat Texas, 45–0\\. Mississippi State and LSU played to a 0–0 tie. [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South \"The University of the South\") had beaten Auburn 10–5 in a Friday afternoon game at Birmingham. Georgia Tech beat Davidson 4–0\\.", "" ]
November -------- November 3 The Yale Bulldogs traveled to West Point, and finally yielded some points, with the Army Cadets taking a 6–0 lead at halftime. Yale made no first downs, but won the game anyway. Clarence Alcott blocked a punt and returned it for a touchdown to tie the game 6–6 on the point after. With two minutes left, Bigelow of Yale kicked a 35\-yard field goal (for 4 points) from a steep angle, and a 10–6 win."Yale Field Goal Wins Luckiest of Victories," *The New York Times*, November 4, 1906, p11 Unbeaten [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University") (7–0–0\) and Dartmouth (5–0–1\) met in New Jersey, and it was no contest. The Princeton Tigers shut down the Big Green, 42–0 with seven touchdowns. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") beat Brown 9–5 (on a field goal with three minutes left) to reach 8–0–0 as well."Field Saves Harvard," *The New York Times*, November 4, 1906, p11 Swarthmore defeated Amherst, 21–0, and Lafayette beat Washington \& Jefferson 14–6, to stay unbeaten. Carlisle defeated Syracuse, 9–4 in a game in Buffalo. Out West, previously unbeaten Kansas traveled to meet St. Louis to match their rushing game against Eddie Cochem's pass attack. St. Louis made all the points, including the safety, for a 34–2 win. Vanderbilt (4–0\) traveled to Ann Arbor to take on Michigan (3–0\), and lost, 10–4\. [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South "The University of the South") visited Tennessee at won, 17–0, while Georgia Tech pasted Auburn 11–0\. Clemson had its 3rd 0–0 tie, this one with Davidson, for a 1–0–3 record. November 10 In the East, the number of unbeaten and untied teams went from five to just three: Harvard, Princeton and Yale. Lafayette and Penn played to a 0–0 tie in Philadelphia; the Quakers drove 59 yards to the one, but were held by Lafayette's goal line defense."Close Games mark Day in College Football," *The New York Times*, November 11, 1906, p.31 At Annapolis, Swarthmore lost at Navy, 5–4, the result of a touchdown against a field goal. Before a crowd of 25,000 [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") beat visiting Carlisle, 5–0, and Yale beat Brown by the same score [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University") won at West Point, 8–0\. In the South, [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South "The University of the South") stayed unbeaten with a 35–0 win in New Orleans over Tulane (followed two days later by a 24–0 in over Ole Miss in Memphis). Vanderbilt beat Rose\-Hulman College, 33–0 to reach 5–1–0 and Georgia Tech won at Georgia, 17–0\. Clemson beat Tennessee 16–0\. Texas A\&M played TCU a second time; the first time around, TCU lost 42–0, and the second contest was a 22–0 loss. November 17 The big game of the season (making the front pages the next day) was at Princeton, New Jersey, where 26,000 watched Yale and Princeton (both 8–0–0\) faced off at Osborns Field. Both teams tried out the forward pass, described in *The New York Times* as "these spectacular new–fangled plays"."Yale Plays Princeton, Neither Side Scores," *The New York Times*, Nov. 18, 1906, p1 Yale crashed the Princeton line in the final minutes, gaining at least 4 yards on each carry, but time ran out just as the Bulldogs reached the ten yard line, and the game ended in a 0–0 tie. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") became the last unbeaten and untied team, as its 22–9 win over Dartmouth gave it a record of 10–0–0\. Princeton's season was over, but the annual Harvard–Yale game was still to be played. Cornell (7–1–1\) hosted Swarthmore (7–1–0\) and came away with a 28–0 victory. Previously unbeaten Lafayette (6–0–1\) hosted 4–3–0 Syracuse and was upset, 12–4\. Penn State beat Dickinson in Williamsport, PA, 6–0\. In Philadelphia, 15,000 watched the visiting Michigan Wolverines lose 17–0 to the Pennsylvania Quakers. In the West, Kansas played at Nebraska, winning 8–6 to extend its record to 7–1–1\. Iowa State beat Grinnell 25–6 to reach 7–1–0\. Carlisle visited Minnesota and won 17–0 In the South, [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South "The University of the South") beat Maryville to reach an 8–0–0 record, and Vanderbilt beat Georgia Tech 37–6 to reach 6–1–0\. Their annual game was set for Thanksgiving Day, which in 1907 fell on November 29\. Texas A\&M won at Tulane, 18–0, and two days later won at LSU, 22–12, to reach 5–0–0\. The Alabama–Auburn game ended with Bama winning 10–0\. November 24 The big game of the season was [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") (10–0–0\) at Yale (8–0–1\). A crowd of 32,000 in New Haven saw the Crimson–Blue meeting, described as "a game as has seldom been seen on any field," with both sides relying heavily on the forward pass. ."Yale Strategy Wins From Harvard," *The New York Times*, Nov. 25, 1906, p1 [Paul Veeder](/wiki/Paul_Veeder "Paul Veeder") threw a pass and Clarence Alcott jumped high to catch it at the 3 yard line for a first down. Two plays later, Tom Roome forced his way through the line for Yale's touchdown. A Harvard fumble in the closing minutes was recovered by the Bulldogs, who were 12 yards from goal when the whistle blew. Final score: Yale 6, Harvard 0\. With that final game, both Yale and Princeton closed their seasons with identical 9–0–1 records, nine wins each and their own 0–0 tie. Other games played that day were Lafayette's 33–0 win over Lehigh, and Penn State 10–0 over West Virginia. [Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/Thanksgiving_Day "Thanksgiving Day"), November 29, 1907, was the next best thing to post\-season play, as rivals met on the holiday. Cornell and Penn played to a 0–0 tie and Lafayette beat Dickinson 26–6 and Penn State won at Pittsburgh, 6–0, giving both teams an 8–1–1 finish. In the West, Iowa State won at Drake, 7–0, and Texas beat Texas A\&M 24–0\. Both teams finished at 9–1–0\. Further West, college football wasn't yet played on the Pacific Coast; the big game there had been Stanford's 6–3 win at Berkeley over California—in a rugby game attended by 10,000 fans "Cardinal Waves Triumphant Above Blue and Gold on California Field," *Oakland Tribune*, Nov. 11, 1906, p 11 In Nashville, [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South "The University of the South") (8–0–0\) and Vanderbilt (7–1–0\) met on Thanksgiving for the South's biggest game. Vandy, whose only loss was its visit to Michigan, handed the Sewanee Tigers a 20–0 defeat. Alabama crushed Tennessee, 51–0, to finish 5–1–0, while the Vols' record was 1–6–2; the win, and one of the ties, was against American College. Clemson won at Georgia Tech, 10–0, closing its season unbeaten, though not untied (4–0–3\).
[ "November\n--------", "November 3 The Yale Bulldogs traveled to West Point, and finally yielded some points, with the Army Cadets taking a 6–0 lead at halftime. Yale made no first downs, but won the game anyway. Clarence Alcott blocked a punt and returned it for a touchdown to tie the game 6–6 on the point after. With two minutes left, Bigelow of Yale kicked a 35\\-yard field goal (for 4 points) from a steep angle, and a 10–6 win.\"Yale Field Goal Wins Luckiest of Victories,\" *The New York Times*, November 4, 1906, p11", "Unbeaten [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\") (7–0–0\\) and Dartmouth (5–0–1\\) met in New Jersey, and it was no contest. The Princeton Tigers shut down the Big Green, 42–0 with seven touchdowns. [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") beat Brown 9–5 (on a field goal with three minutes left) to reach 8–0–0 as well.\"Field Saves Harvard,\" *The New York Times*, November 4, 1906, p11 Swarthmore defeated Amherst, 21–0, and Lafayette beat Washington \\& Jefferson 14–6, to stay unbeaten. Carlisle defeated Syracuse, 9–4 in a game in Buffalo.", "Out West, previously unbeaten Kansas traveled to meet St. Louis to match their rushing game against Eddie Cochem's pass attack. St. Louis made all the points, including the safety, for a 34–2 win. Vanderbilt (4–0\\) traveled to Ann Arbor to take on Michigan (3–0\\), and lost, 10–4\\. [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South \"The University of the South\") visited Tennessee at won, 17–0, while Georgia Tech pasted Auburn 11–0\\. Clemson had its 3rd 0–0 tie, this one with Davidson, for a 1–0–3 record.", "November 10 In the East, the number of unbeaten and untied teams went from five to just three: Harvard, Princeton and Yale. Lafayette and Penn played to a 0–0 tie in Philadelphia; the Quakers drove 59 yards to the one, but were held by Lafayette's goal line defense.\"Close Games mark Day in College Football,\" *The New York Times*, November 11, 1906, p.31 At Annapolis, Swarthmore lost at Navy, 5–4, the result of a touchdown against a field goal. Before a crowd of 25,000 [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") beat visiting Carlisle, 5–0, and Yale beat Brown by the same score [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\") won at West Point, 8–0\\.", "In the South, [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South \"The University of the South\") stayed unbeaten with a 35–0 win in New Orleans over Tulane (followed two days later by a 24–0 in over Ole Miss in Memphis). Vanderbilt beat Rose\\-Hulman College, 33–0 to reach 5–1–0 and Georgia Tech won at Georgia, 17–0\\. Clemson beat Tennessee 16–0\\. Texas A\\&M played TCU a second time; the first time around, TCU lost 42–0, and the second contest was a 22–0 loss.", "November 17 \nThe big game of the season (making the front pages the next day) was at Princeton, New Jersey, where 26,000 watched Yale and Princeton (both 8–0–0\\) faced off at Osborns Field. Both teams tried out the forward pass, described in *The New York Times* as \"these spectacular new–fangled plays\".\"Yale Plays Princeton, Neither Side Scores,\" *The New York Times*, Nov. 18, 1906, p1 Yale crashed the Princeton line in the final minutes, gaining at least 4 yards on each carry, but time ran out just as the Bulldogs reached the ten yard line, and the game ended in a 0–0 tie.", "[Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") became the last unbeaten and untied team, as its 22–9 win over Dartmouth gave it a record of 10–0–0\\. Princeton's season was over, but the annual Harvard–Yale game was still to be played. Cornell (7–1–1\\) hosted Swarthmore (7–1–0\\) and came away with a 28–0 victory. Previously unbeaten Lafayette (6–0–1\\) hosted 4–3–0 Syracuse and was upset, 12–4\\. Penn State beat Dickinson in Williamsport, PA, 6–0\\. In Philadelphia, 15,000 watched the visiting Michigan Wolverines lose 17–0 to the Pennsylvania Quakers.", "In the West, Kansas played at Nebraska, winning 8–6 to extend its record to 7–1–1\\. Iowa State beat Grinnell 25–6 to reach 7–1–0\\. Carlisle visited Minnesota and won 17–0", "In the South, [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South \"The University of the South\") beat Maryville to reach an 8–0–0 record, and Vanderbilt beat Georgia Tech 37–6 to reach 6–1–0\\. Their annual game was set for Thanksgiving Day, which in 1907 fell on November 29\\. Texas A\\&M won at Tulane, 18–0, and two days later won at LSU, 22–12, to reach 5–0–0\\. The Alabama–Auburn game ended with Bama winning 10–0\\.", "November 24 The big game of the season was [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") (10–0–0\\) at Yale (8–0–1\\). A crowd of 32,000 in New Haven saw the Crimson–Blue meeting, described as \"a game as has seldom been seen on any field,\" with both sides relying heavily on the forward pass.\n.\"Yale Strategy Wins From Harvard,\" *The New York Times*, Nov. 25, 1906, p1\n[Paul Veeder](/wiki/Paul_Veeder \"Paul Veeder\") threw a pass and Clarence Alcott jumped high to catch it at the 3 yard line for a first down. Two plays later, Tom Roome forced his way through the line for Yale's touchdown. A Harvard fumble in the closing minutes was recovered by the Bulldogs, who were 12 yards from goal when the whistle blew. Final score: Yale 6, Harvard 0\\.", "With that final game, both Yale and Princeton closed their seasons with identical 9–0–1 records, nine wins each and their own 0–0 tie. Other games played that day were Lafayette's 33–0 win over Lehigh, and Penn State 10–0 over West Virginia.", "[Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/Thanksgiving_Day \"Thanksgiving Day\"), November 29, 1907, was the next best thing to post\\-season play, as rivals met on the holiday. Cornell and Penn played to a 0–0 tie and Lafayette beat Dickinson 26–6 and Penn State won at Pittsburgh, 6–0, giving both teams an 8–1–1 finish. \nIn the West, Iowa State won at Drake, 7–0, and Texas beat Texas A\\&M 24–0\\. Both teams finished at 9–1–0\\. Further West, college football wasn't yet played on the Pacific Coast; the big game there had been Stanford's 6–3 win at Berkeley over California—in a rugby game attended by 10,000 fans \"Cardinal Waves Triumphant Above Blue and Gold on California Field,\" *Oakland Tribune*, Nov. 11, 1906, p 11", "In Nashville, [Sewanee](/wiki/Sewanee:The_University_of_the_South \"The University of the South\") (8–0–0\\) and Vanderbilt (7–1–0\\) met on Thanksgiving for the South's biggest game. Vandy, whose only loss was its visit to Michigan, handed the Sewanee Tigers a 20–0 defeat. Alabama crushed Tennessee, 51–0, to finish 5–1–0, while the Vols' record was 1–6–2; the win, and one of the ties, was against American College. Clemson won at Georgia Tech, 10–0, closing its season unbeaten, though not untied (4–0–3\\).", "" ]
In fiction and media -------------------- ### Literature Lady Rochford has appeared in numerous novels, especially those on Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. *Vengeance Is Mine* by Brandy Purdy is written from Lady Rochford's viewpoint. She also features in [Robin Maxwell](/wiki/Robin_Maxwell_%28author%29 "Robin Maxwell (author)")'s *The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn*, [Suzannah Dunn](/wiki/Suzannah_Dunn "Suzannah Dunn")'s *The Queen of Subtleties* and briefly in [Margaret George](/wiki/Margaret_George "Margaret George")'s *The Autobiography of Henry VIII*. Jane's character is also mentioned in Wendy J. Dunn's *Dear Heart, How Like You This?* which is based on the life of the poet [Thomas Wyatt](/wiki/Thomas_Wyatt_%28poet%29 "Thomas Wyatt (poet)"). Rochford is a minor character in *[Sovereign](/wiki/Sovereign_%28Sansom_novel%29 "Sovereign (Sansom novel)")*, the third instalment of [C. J. Sansom](/wiki/C._J._Sansom "C. J. Sansom")'s Shardlake series of murder mystery novels. A larger role is given to Lady Rochford in [Jean Plaidy](/wiki/Jean_Plaidy "Jean Plaidy")'s novel *The Rose Without a Thorn.* Jane Rochford also appears in the Thomas Cromwell trilogy by [Hilary Mantel](/wiki/Hilary_Mantel "Hilary Mantel"). Jane appears in the historical novel *[The Other Boleyn Girl](/wiki/The_Other_Boleyn_Girl "The Other Boleyn Girl")* by [Philippa Gregory](/wiki/Philippa_Gregory "Philippa Gregory"), which tells the story of her other sister\-in\-law, [Mary Boleyn](/wiki/Mary_Boleyn "Mary Boleyn"). One of its sequels is *[The Boleyn Inheritance](/wiki/The_Boleyn_Inheritance "The Boleyn Inheritance")*, which casts Lady Rochford as one of its lead characters and its central villain. It details the final three years of her life and her involvement with Anne of Cleves and Catherine Howard. *The Raven's Widow* by Adrienne Dillard takes a much different tack to previous portrayals. Lady Rochford is shown as a beloved wife and close friend to the Boleyns, her later role in the relationship between Catherine Howard and Thomas Culpeper coming about because of the trauma of her husband's death and the knowledge that disobedience comes at a price. ### Film and TV In the 1970 BBC series *[The Six Wives of Henry VIII](/wiki/The_Six_Wives_of_Henry_VIII_%28BBC_TV_series%29 "The Six Wives of Henry VIII (BBC TV series)")* starring [Keith Michell](/wiki/Keith_Michell "Keith Michell") as Henry, [Sheila Burrell](/wiki/Sheila_Burrell "Sheila Burrell") portrayed Lady Rochford. In the *[2003 TV drama Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_%28TV_serial%29 "Henry VIII (TV serial)")*, Lady Rochford was played by [Kelly Hunter](/wiki/Kelly_Hunter "Kelly Hunter"). In the film [adaptation](/wiki/The_Other_Boleyn_Girl_%282008_film%29 "The Other Boleyn Girl (2008 film)") of Philippa Gregory's novel *The Other Boleyn Girl*, Jane Boleyn (played by [Juno Temple](/wiki/Juno_Temple "Juno Temple")) was a minor character. In both these representations, Jane was shown as being a political tool in the hands of her husband's uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, although the presentation of her in *The Other Boleyn Girl* was more sympathetic. In the 2003 [TV adaptation of Gregory's novel](/wiki/The_Other_Boleyn_Girl_%282003_film%29 "The Other Boleyn Girl (2003 film)"), Jane was played by Zoe Waites. Jane is also represented in seasons two to four of the [Showtime](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 "Showtime (TV network)") series *[The Tudors](/wiki/The_Tudors "The Tudors"),* by [Joanne King](/wiki/Joanne_King "Joanne King") with [Padraic Delaney](/wiki/Padraic_Delaney "Padraic Delaney") playing her husband George. In this version, their marriage is miserable, with both pressured into it by their parents and Jane finding it increasingly humiliating to put up with her husband's affair with Mark Smeaton. They are shown frequently arguing and there is one incident of marital rape. However, Jane is not shown as hating Anne and so her betrayal of the Boleyns is motivated by her hatred of George. She befriends Jane Seymour when she becomes Queen, is made her lady\-in\-waiting and remains a close friend until Queen Jane's death. She remains chief lady\-in\-waiting, first to Anne of Cleves and then Catherine Howard. She eventually enters into a sexual relationship with [Thomas Culpeper](/wiki/Thomas_Culpeper "Thomas Culpeper"), for which there is no known historical basis. She facilitates the affair between Culpeper and Catherine, motivated both by a desire to keep Culpeper (who has a pathological obsession with the young queen) and out of contempt for Catherine. In *[Wolf Hall](/wiki/Wolf_Hall_%28TV_series%29 "Wolf Hall (TV series)")*, a TV mini\-series adaptation of [the historical novel](/wiki/Wolf_Hall "Wolf Hall") by Hilary Mantel, she was played by [Jessica Raine](/wiki/Jessica_Raine "Jessica Raine"). Her portrayal, while consistent with negative depictions of her, also stems from the disrespect and neglect she is shown experiencing from both Anne and George Boleyn, which makes her a ready accomplice to the intrigues of Thomas Cromwell.
[ "In fiction and media\n--------------------", "### Literature", "Lady Rochford has appeared in numerous novels, especially those on Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. *Vengeance Is Mine* by Brandy Purdy is written from Lady Rochford's viewpoint. She also features in [Robin Maxwell](/wiki/Robin_Maxwell_%28author%29 \"Robin Maxwell (author)\")'s *The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn*, [Suzannah Dunn](/wiki/Suzannah_Dunn \"Suzannah Dunn\")'s *The Queen of Subtleties* and briefly in [Margaret George](/wiki/Margaret_George \"Margaret George\")'s *The Autobiography of Henry VIII*. Jane's character is also mentioned in Wendy J. Dunn's *Dear Heart, How Like You This?* which is based on the life of the poet [Thomas Wyatt](/wiki/Thomas_Wyatt_%28poet%29 \"Thomas Wyatt (poet)\"). Rochford is a minor character in *[Sovereign](/wiki/Sovereign_%28Sansom_novel%29 \"Sovereign (Sansom novel)\")*, the third instalment of [C. J. Sansom](/wiki/C._J._Sansom \"C. J. Sansom\")'s Shardlake series of murder mystery novels. A larger role is given to Lady Rochford in [Jean Plaidy](/wiki/Jean_Plaidy \"Jean Plaidy\")'s novel *The Rose Without a Thorn.* Jane Rochford also appears in the Thomas Cromwell trilogy by [Hilary Mantel](/wiki/Hilary_Mantel \"Hilary Mantel\").", "Jane appears in the historical novel *[The Other Boleyn Girl](/wiki/The_Other_Boleyn_Girl \"The Other Boleyn Girl\")* by [Philippa Gregory](/wiki/Philippa_Gregory \"Philippa Gregory\"), which tells the story of her other sister\\-in\\-law, [Mary Boleyn](/wiki/Mary_Boleyn \"Mary Boleyn\"). One of its sequels is *[The Boleyn Inheritance](/wiki/The_Boleyn_Inheritance \"The Boleyn Inheritance\")*, which casts Lady Rochford as one of its lead characters and its central villain. It details the final three years of her life and her involvement with Anne of Cleves and Catherine Howard. *The Raven's Widow* by Adrienne Dillard takes a much different tack to previous portrayals. Lady Rochford is shown as a beloved wife and close friend to the Boleyns, her later role in the relationship between Catherine Howard and Thomas Culpeper coming about because of the trauma of her husband's death and the knowledge that disobedience comes at a price.", "### Film and TV", "In the 1970 BBC series *[The Six Wives of Henry VIII](/wiki/The_Six_Wives_of_Henry_VIII_%28BBC_TV_series%29 \"The Six Wives of Henry VIII (BBC TV series)\")* starring [Keith Michell](/wiki/Keith_Michell \"Keith Michell\") as Henry, [Sheila Burrell](/wiki/Sheila_Burrell \"Sheila Burrell\") portrayed Lady Rochford.", "In the *[2003 TV drama Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_%28TV_serial%29 \"Henry VIII (TV serial)\")*, Lady Rochford was played by [Kelly Hunter](/wiki/Kelly_Hunter \"Kelly Hunter\"). In the film [adaptation](/wiki/The_Other_Boleyn_Girl_%282008_film%29 \"The Other Boleyn Girl (2008 film)\") of Philippa Gregory's novel *The Other Boleyn Girl*, Jane Boleyn (played by [Juno Temple](/wiki/Juno_Temple \"Juno Temple\")) was a minor character. In both these representations, Jane was shown as being a political tool in the hands of her husband's uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, although the presentation of her in *The Other Boleyn Girl* was more sympathetic. In the 2003 [TV adaptation of Gregory's novel](/wiki/The_Other_Boleyn_Girl_%282003_film%29 \"The Other Boleyn Girl (2003 film)\"), Jane was played by Zoe Waites.", "Jane is also represented in seasons two to four of the [Showtime](/wiki/Showtime_%28TV_network%29 \"Showtime (TV network)\") series *[The Tudors](/wiki/The_Tudors \"The Tudors\"),* by [Joanne King](/wiki/Joanne_King \"Joanne King\") with [Padraic Delaney](/wiki/Padraic_Delaney \"Padraic Delaney\") playing her husband George. In this version, their marriage is miserable, with both pressured into it by their parents and Jane finding it increasingly humiliating to put up with her husband's affair with Mark Smeaton. They are shown frequently arguing and there is one incident of marital rape. However, Jane is not shown as hating Anne and so her betrayal of the Boleyns is motivated by her hatred of George. She befriends Jane Seymour when she becomes Queen, is made her lady\\-in\\-waiting and remains a close friend until Queen Jane's death. She remains chief lady\\-in\\-waiting, first to Anne of Cleves and then Catherine Howard. She eventually enters into a sexual relationship with [Thomas Culpeper](/wiki/Thomas_Culpeper \"Thomas Culpeper\"), for which there is no known historical basis. She facilitates the affair between Culpeper and Catherine, motivated both by a desire to keep Culpeper (who has a pathological obsession with the young queen) and out of contempt for Catherine.", "In *[Wolf Hall](/wiki/Wolf_Hall_%28TV_series%29 \"Wolf Hall (TV series)\")*, a TV mini\\-series adaptation of [the historical novel](/wiki/Wolf_Hall \"Wolf Hall\") by Hilary Mantel, she was played by [Jessica Raine](/wiki/Jessica_Raine \"Jessica Raine\"). Her portrayal, while consistent with negative depictions of her, also stems from the disrespect and neglect she is shown experiencing from both Anne and George Boleyn, which makes her a ready accomplice to the intrigues of Thomas Cromwell.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|left\|A 1962 Eagle Model 01 coach of Continental Trailways in 1968](/wiki/File:Continental_Trailways_bus_in_Chicago_1968.jpg "Continental Trailways bus in Chicago 1968.jpg") In 1954, [Greyhound](/wiki/Greyhound_Lines "Greyhound Lines") introduced the 40\-foot\-long, two\-level [General Motors PD 4501 Scenicruiser](/wiki/PD-4501_Scenicruiser "PD-4501 Scenicruiser"). This sent its main rival, [Continental Trailways](/wiki/Continental_Trailways "Continental Trailways"), on a hunt for a unique design of its own. It first contacted [Flxible](/wiki/Flxible "Flxible") of [Loudonville, Ohio](/wiki/Loudonville%2C_Ohio "Loudonville, Ohio"). Flxible agreed to produce Continental's dream coach on condition that Continental paid all design and tooling costs up front. As Continental had bought the Santa Fe Trail Transportation Company (the large bus operations of the [Santa Fe Railway](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Railway "Santa Fe Railway")) in 1948 and transcontinental carrier American Buslines in 1953, they were not flush with cash at the time and started looking elsewhere. [Mack](/wiki/Mack_Trucks "Mack Trucks"), [Beck](/wiki/Beck_%28bus_maker%29 "Beck (bus maker)") and [Fitzjohn](/wiki/Fitzjohn "Fitzjohn") either couldn't or wouldn't build this new bus (Beck and Fitzjohn were out of business by 1958 and Mack left the bus and coach business in 1960\) unless the upfront costs were paid in advance. ### 1955\-1958: Kassbohrer Eagles (West Germany) That sent Maurice E. Moore, Continental's CEO, to Europe looking for a supplier. Eventually he made an agreement with the German manufacturer [Kässbohrer](/wiki/Karl_K%C3%A4ssbohrer_Fahrzeugwerke "Karl Kässbohrer Fahrzeugwerke") for the production of a prototype, which was completed in 1956 and shipped to [Houston](/wiki/Houston "Houston"). In the meantime Moore ordered 113 Vista\-Liner 100 coaches from Flxible for delivery in 1955 and 1956\. The Vista\-Liner (commonly called the VL100\) was an advanced two level design but it was only 35 feet long with eight fewer seats than the Scenicruiser. The difference in height between decks was about of half that of the Scenicruiser so it had much less space underneath for baggage and package express shipments. The VL100 had some design input from Continental. It was also noticeably underpowered (it had a 175 HP Cummins JT\-600 diesel engine) which caused certain timetables to be adjusted on longer journeys. On the other hand, the VL100 had BF Goodrich Torsilastic suspension (independent on the front wheels) for an excellent ride and a very fresh exterior design. The suspension and certain visual design aspects of the VL100 were integrated into the design of the future Eagle coaches that Kässbohrer built as [Setras](/wiki/Setra "Setra"). The first 55 Golden Eagles were built by Kässbohrer. The first Golden Eagle was a prototype that differed in a number of ways from the production versions. After about a year in service Continental placed an order for 50 more modified versions based on lessons learned from the prototype. The largest external difference was a new design for the six\-piece windshield because drivers complained that the original design had them baking in the Texas sun even with air conditioning. They were part of an order for 185 highway coaches manufactured under a contract with Continental Trailways. Of this original group, four were [articulated](/wiki/Articulated_bus "Articulated bus") **Super Golden Eagles**. All of these coaches were of the 'Setra Design' which meant that they were 'integral' coaches without a separate body and chassis. Kässbohrer took the German words *selbst tragend* (self\-carrying) for a trademark in the form of Setra, a name formed from the first letters of those two words. [thumb\|upright\=1\.25\|left\|1958 Kässbohrer\-Setra Super Golden Eagle, an [articulated](/wiki/Articulated_bus "Articulated bus") design](/wiki/File:1958_Super_Golden_Eagle_articulated_bus.jpg "1958 Super Golden Eagle articulated bus.jpg") Golden Eagles originally contained an aircraft\-style galley plus a rear lounge that had two tables with pairs of facing seats, observation windows and other luxury features such as piped in music, newspapers and magazines. An on\-board hostess served snacks and drinks en route and other amenities such as pillows and blankets were available. The exterior aluminum siding was anodized in gold, hence the Golden Eagle name. The standard version without the galley and lounge was called the *Silver Eagle* because the aluminum siding was in silver. 41 Silver Eagles followed their Golden Eagle sisters down Kässbohrer's production line in 1958 and became the standard fleet bus for Continental Trailways. The first Eagle buses were powered by [MAN](/wiki/MAN_Truck_%26_Bus "MAN Truck & Bus") D1566 diesel engines and [ZF](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen "ZF Friedrichshafen") Media preselector six speed transmissions from Germany. The four Super Golden Eagles had more powerful [Rolls\-Royce](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Limited "Rolls-Royce Limited") diesel engines. ### 1960\-1974 Bus \& Car Eagles (Belgium) No Eagles were produced in 1959 while Continental gained experience with its new fleet. Continental suggested a number of design changes to Kässbohrer that included a new front end and a standard American powertrain. The result was the **NEW Silver Eagle** model that was to be produced in 1960 and 1961\. Most NEW Silver Eagles had [Cummins](/wiki/Cummins "Cummins") 300 HP NRTO engines but the last ones made arrived in the US without engines as [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors") released the [Detroit Diesel](/wiki/Detroit_Diesel "Detroit Diesel") 8V\-71 engine and these were installed when the buses arrived. All older Eagles, except the four Super Golden Eagles, received 8V\-71 engines and Spicer four\-speed manual transmissions to replace their original power packages. Continental also bought two other Setra articulated buses in 1957 for service from [Denver](/wiki/Denver "Denver") to the [Air Force Academy](/wiki/Peterson_Air_Force_Base "Peterson Air Force Base") at [Colorado Springs](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado "Colorado Springs, Colorado"). They were not high level buses and lacked underfloor luggage space. They were standard Setra buses with separate Setra bodies and Henschel chassis for their European customers rather than something designed for the US market. They had nothing in common with the Eagle coaches that Setra built for Continental and were powered with Cummins underfloor engines. Around the same time in 1959 that Continental and Kässbohrer were agreeing on the details of the second generation of the Eagle (the NEW Silver Eagle, mentioned above), Kässbohrer decided to concentrate exclusively on building coaches for the rapidly growing European market. At this point, Continental Trailways was forced to find a European partner. They found one in the form of the Belgian transportation equipment manufacturer La Brugeoise et Nivelles ([Bruges](/wiki/Bruges "Bruges") and [Nivelles](/wiki/Nivelles "Nivelles"), the two cities where they had factories). La Brugeoise, as they were commonly known, helped Continental to form its own bus manufacturing company, Bus \& Car Co, NV. La Brugeoise et Nivelles (later known as BN and today part of [Bombardier Transportation](/wiki/Bombardier_Transportation "Bombardier Transportation")) worked with Bus \& Car to set up a new factory in Sint Michels bij Brugge. La Brugeoise had a long history of building railway and tramway equipment including [PCC streetcars](/wiki/PCC_streetcar "PCC streetcar") built under license from the Transit Research Corporation in the US. Kässbohrer sold the tooling and spare parts to Continental Trailways and agreed to furnish most of the parts needed for the 85 NEW Silver Eagles previously contracted for. La Brugeoise started producing the NEW Silver Eagles (the ones that Kässbohrer would have built) in its Brugge plant late in 1960 with certain parts and materials that Kässbohrer had already built, including steering wheels with the Kässbohrer emblem on the horn button. In the meantime, La Brugeoise helped Bus \& Car design its new plant and supervised its construction. La Brugeoise started Eagle production with the **Model 01** as soon as the last NEW Silver Eagle rolled off the line. Late in 1961 the Bus \& Car factory opened and all Eagle tooling, parts, equipment and production was moved out of the La Brugeoise factory and into the new Bus \& Car factory, which was near to the main offices of La Brugeoise. The Model 01 continued in production by Bus \& Car but they continued buying the Torsilastic suspension units from La Brugeoise until the end of Eagle production in Europe. In 1968 Continental Trailways spun off the Bus and Car Company to its stockholders. Most of its stockholders were the companies that Continental bought out by means of stock swaps during its large expansion of the 1950s and 1960s. The former Bus \& Car building still stands and is presently a shopping center. Parts of it had earlier been used as a Rover car dealership, various shops and an indoor downhill ski track with artificial snow. BN went on to build 204 diesel locomotives for the Belgian and Luxembourg Railways with GM 567 engines and many more PCC cars for [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"), [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp") and [Ghent](/wiki/Ghent "Ghent") in Belgium plus [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague "The Hague") in Holland. Bus \& Car built a number of other models (listed below) in Belgium for different markets through 1980, and that included right\-hand\-drive models for Australia and Ireland. They were quite flexible concerning lengths and widths and other details like the number of axles. They also sold new coaches in Canada, Morocco, South Africa, Thailand and across Europe less the United Kingdom. The **Model 05** was introduced as two prototypes in 1967 and production started partway through the 1968 model year and was produced in Belgium and later in the US. The first 05s had the 05 chassis changes built into the 01 body and the 05 styling changes arrived in 1969\. Bus \& Car also built three 05 Silver Eagle coaches with Ford Gas turbine engines of 450 HP and 600 HP during 1969\. They were used on transcontinental service until the program was terminated about a year later. High fuel consumption, only 4 MPG, and severe reliability problems caused these coaches to be repowered with the standard Detroit Diesel 8V\-71 engines. Another 1969 product of Bus \& Car was the **Model 07**. This was an 05 that was 102 inches wide (rather than 96\); 45 were produced. The 'Bus \& Car' name may sound odd as they never made automobiles but the word 'Car' in this case came from the European term 'Touring Car/Touringcar' or highway coach as opposed to a local or regional bus. Continental Trailways also had a parts division in the US called Bus \& Truck Supply Company. It seems the only truck parts they distributed were those that were common to Eagle coaches such as Detroit Diesel engine parts, Lockheed brakes, Carrier compressors, Spicer transmissions and Ross steering. In the early 1970s, Trailways drivers and maintainers referred to 'Round' (01 and 05 Old Look) Eagles and 'Square' (05 New Look and 07\) Eagles based on the body design. The 01 Eagles had the drive axle ahead of the tag axle. The 05 and 07 Eagles had the tag axle ahead of the drive axle, which made them 'interesting' to drive. The front suspension was very soft with a lot of travel, and since the tag axle torsion bar (mounted crosswise) was also pushing the front end up, some drivers said it was like driving a diving board when driving on certain road surfaces. The front end went up and down at every expansion joint in the road and sometimes the driver had to grip the steering wheel hard to remain seated. On the other hand, Eagles had almost no body roll in curves or corners, unlike buses with air suspension which gave the feeling they were about to tip over when turning. All older Eagles had suspension seats for their drivers, and some drivers would take the hydraulic jack from the tool kit and set it up under their seat to stop its vertical motions. Trailways Eagles provided a more comfortable ride than Greyhound's GM and [Motor Coach Industries](/wiki/Motor_Coach_Industries "Motor Coach Industries") coaches. From the 1960s to the 1980s, Trailways and Greyhound ran competitive services on the [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston")\-to\-[New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") and New York\-to\-[Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") routes with hourly departures for most of the day. This led many frequent travelers to make comparisons between the two companies and their equipment. The Eagles were warmer in the winter, had a more comfortable ride, much more comfortable seats and a quieter cabin appointed in better\-quality materials than any of their competitors. Increasing wage rates in Belgium and a decline in the value of the dollar overseas started to cause problems for Eagle and Continental; the solution was to set up a plant in the US. ### 1974\-1996: Eagle International/Eagle Bus Manufacturing (USA) Very late in 1974, Eagle International Inc started building coaches in [Brownsville, Texas](/wiki/Brownsville%2C_Texas "Brownsville, Texas"), and for two years the Model 05 was built both in Belgium and Texas. From 1977, all coaches for the US market were built in Texas. MOL N.V. bought the remains of Bus \& Car after it went bankrupt in 1978 and continued selling buses and parts up to at least 1987 under the 'MOL Eaglebus' name. In the US, the early buses made in Brownsville had some notable quality issues compared to their Belgian sisters, and this got worked out by 1977, but it was a bitter pill for the Trailways operating companies to swallow in the short term. The **Model 10** replaced the Model 05 with many design and technical changes in 1980\. A small number of Model 05s with Model 10 styling features preceded the real Model 10 down the production line and caused confusion because they did not have any of the Model 10 improvements other than the new styling. The spotting feature that gives them away is the Model 05 dashboard and instrument panel. The Model 10 introduced the Detroit Diesel 6V\-92 engine and an [Allison](/wiki/Allison_transmissions "Allison transmissions") four\-speed automatic transmission to Eagle coaches. In 1985 the **Model 15** was introduced making the standard bus 102 inches wide and from 1989 coaches could be ordered in 35\-, 40\- and 45\-foot lengths. The 96\-inch\-wide **Model 20** arrived in 1986 to replace the 96\-inch\-wide Model 10\. The 20 had the same styling as the Model 15\. In 1987, Greyhound purchased Trailways Inc and Eagle International Inc and the name was then changed to Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc. In the 1990s, Greyhound declared bankruptcy, which also included all of its subsidiaries to include Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc. Some Eagles continued to be made but they were mostly entertainer coaches for celebrities and motorhomes rather than seated coaches for charters, tours and scheduled service. In the late 1990s, the company was split and moved to two locations in Mexico which had a high demand for seated coaches at the time, and Eagles were built only for the Mexican market. All had the trademark Eagle styling and Torsilastic suspension. In time Eagle ceased to be a major player in the Mexican market, and its activities were wound down. ### 2000s: Silver Eagle Bus Manufacturing (USA) In the mid\-2000s, Silver Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc (SEBM) was established in Brownsville, Texas, to revive the Eagle coach. Using tooling and parts stocks from Mexico, SEBM offered the older Models 15 and 20 in 37\-, 40\- and 45\-foot versions. There was also a new design, the 102\-inch\-wide **Model 25** available in 40\- and 45\-foot versions. The Model 25 abandoned most Eagle styling traditions in favor of a boxy look intended to maximize interior volume for motorhome conversions. Only one Model 25, a 45\-foot version, was ever made and sold. The Model 25 was never tested and certified as a passenger coach in accordance with the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards in effect at the time. SEBM also produced one 37\-foot Model 20, but it has never been learned if it was actually completed and sold. The company was undercapitalized from the start and went out of business after relocating to [Gallatin, Tennessee](/wiki/Gallatin%2C_Tennessee "Gallatin, Tennessee"), as it was unable to pay off its many creditors.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|left\\|A 1962 Eagle Model 01 coach of Continental Trailways in 1968](/wiki/File:Continental_Trailways_bus_in_Chicago_1968.jpg \"Continental Trailways bus in Chicago 1968.jpg\")\nIn 1954, [Greyhound](/wiki/Greyhound_Lines \"Greyhound Lines\") introduced the 40\\-foot\\-long, two\\-level [General Motors PD 4501 Scenicruiser](/wiki/PD-4501_Scenicruiser \"PD-4501 Scenicruiser\"). This sent its main rival, [Continental Trailways](/wiki/Continental_Trailways \"Continental Trailways\"), on a hunt for a unique design of its own. It first contacted [Flxible](/wiki/Flxible \"Flxible\") of [Loudonville, Ohio](/wiki/Loudonville%2C_Ohio \"Loudonville, Ohio\"). Flxible agreed to produce Continental's dream coach on condition that Continental paid all design and tooling costs up front. As Continental had bought the Santa Fe Trail Transportation Company (the large bus operations of the [Santa Fe Railway](/wiki/Santa_Fe_Railway \"Santa Fe Railway\")) in 1948 and transcontinental carrier American Buslines in 1953, they were not flush with cash at the time and started looking elsewhere. [Mack](/wiki/Mack_Trucks \"Mack Trucks\"), [Beck](/wiki/Beck_%28bus_maker%29 \"Beck (bus maker)\") and [Fitzjohn](/wiki/Fitzjohn \"Fitzjohn\") either couldn't or wouldn't build this new bus (Beck and Fitzjohn were out of business by 1958 and Mack left the bus and coach business in 1960\\) unless the upfront costs were paid in advance.", "### 1955\\-1958: Kassbohrer Eagles (West Germany)", "That sent Maurice E. Moore, Continental's CEO, to Europe looking for a supplier. Eventually he made an agreement with the German manufacturer [Kässbohrer](/wiki/Karl_K%C3%A4ssbohrer_Fahrzeugwerke \"Karl Kässbohrer Fahrzeugwerke\") for the production of a prototype, which was completed in 1956 and shipped to [Houston](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\"). In the meantime Moore ordered 113 Vista\\-Liner 100 coaches from Flxible for delivery in 1955 and 1956\\. The Vista\\-Liner (commonly called the VL100\\) was an advanced two level design but it was only 35 feet long with eight fewer seats than the Scenicruiser. The difference in height between decks was about of half that of the Scenicruiser so it had much less space underneath for baggage and package express shipments. The VL100 had some design input from Continental. It was also noticeably underpowered (it had a 175 HP Cummins JT\\-600 diesel engine) which caused certain timetables to be adjusted on longer journeys. On the other hand, the VL100 had BF Goodrich Torsilastic suspension (independent on the front wheels) for an excellent ride and a very fresh exterior design. The suspension and certain visual design aspects of the VL100 were integrated into the design of the future Eagle coaches that Kässbohrer built as [Setras](/wiki/Setra \"Setra\").", "The first 55 Golden Eagles were built by Kässbohrer. The first Golden Eagle was a prototype that differed in a number of ways from the production versions. After about a year in service Continental placed an order for 50 more modified versions based on lessons learned from the prototype. The largest external difference was a new design for the six\\-piece windshield because drivers complained that the original design had them baking in the Texas sun even with air conditioning. They were part of an order for 185 highway coaches manufactured under a contract with Continental Trailways. Of this original group, four were [articulated](/wiki/Articulated_bus \"Articulated bus\") **Super Golden Eagles**. All of these coaches were of the 'Setra Design' which meant that they were 'integral' coaches without a separate body and chassis. Kässbohrer took the German words *selbst tragend* (self\\-carrying) for a trademark in the form of Setra, a name formed from the first letters of those two words.", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|left\\|1958 Kässbohrer\\-Setra Super Golden Eagle, an [articulated](/wiki/Articulated_bus \"Articulated bus\") design](/wiki/File:1958_Super_Golden_Eagle_articulated_bus.jpg \"1958 Super Golden Eagle articulated bus.jpg\")\nGolden Eagles originally contained an aircraft\\-style galley plus a rear lounge that had two tables with pairs of facing seats, observation windows and other luxury features such as piped in music, newspapers and magazines. An on\\-board hostess served snacks and drinks en route and other amenities such as pillows and blankets were available. The exterior aluminum siding was anodized in gold, hence the Golden Eagle name. The standard version without the galley and lounge was called the *Silver Eagle* because the aluminum siding was in silver. 41 Silver Eagles followed their Golden Eagle sisters down Kässbohrer's production line in 1958 and became the standard fleet bus for Continental Trailways. The first Eagle buses were powered by [MAN](/wiki/MAN_Truck_%26_Bus \"MAN Truck & Bus\") D1566 diesel engines and [ZF](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen \"ZF Friedrichshafen\") Media preselector six speed transmissions from Germany. The four Super Golden Eagles had more powerful [Rolls\\-Royce](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Limited \"Rolls-Royce Limited\") diesel engines.", "### 1960\\-1974 Bus \\& Car Eagles (Belgium)", "No Eagles were produced in 1959 while Continental gained experience with its new fleet. Continental suggested a number of design changes to Kässbohrer that included a new front end and a standard American powertrain. The result was the **NEW Silver Eagle** model that was to be produced in 1960 and 1961\\. Most NEW Silver Eagles had [Cummins](/wiki/Cummins \"Cummins\") 300 HP NRTO engines but the last ones made arrived in the US without engines as [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\") released the [Detroit Diesel](/wiki/Detroit_Diesel \"Detroit Diesel\") 8V\\-71 engine and these were installed when the buses arrived.", "All older Eagles, except the four Super Golden Eagles, received 8V\\-71 engines and Spicer four\\-speed manual transmissions to replace their original power packages. Continental also bought two other Setra articulated buses in 1957 for service from [Denver](/wiki/Denver \"Denver\") to the [Air Force Academy](/wiki/Peterson_Air_Force_Base \"Peterson Air Force Base\") at [Colorado Springs](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado \"Colorado Springs, Colorado\"). They were not high level buses and lacked underfloor luggage space. They were standard Setra buses with separate Setra bodies and Henschel chassis for their European customers rather than something designed for the US market. They had nothing in common with the Eagle coaches that Setra built for Continental and were powered with Cummins underfloor engines.", "Around the same time in 1959 that Continental and Kässbohrer were agreeing on the details of the second generation of the Eagle (the NEW Silver Eagle, mentioned above), Kässbohrer decided to concentrate exclusively on building coaches for the rapidly growing European market. At this point, Continental Trailways was forced to find a European partner. They found one in the form of the Belgian transportation equipment manufacturer La Brugeoise et Nivelles ([Bruges](/wiki/Bruges \"Bruges\") and [Nivelles](/wiki/Nivelles \"Nivelles\"), the two cities where they had factories). La Brugeoise, as they were commonly known, helped Continental to form its own bus manufacturing company, Bus \\& Car Co, NV. La Brugeoise et Nivelles (later known as BN and today part of [Bombardier Transportation](/wiki/Bombardier_Transportation \"Bombardier Transportation\")) worked with Bus \\& Car to set up a new factory in Sint Michels bij Brugge. La Brugeoise had a long history of building railway and tramway equipment including [PCC streetcars](/wiki/PCC_streetcar \"PCC streetcar\") built under license from the Transit Research Corporation in the US.", "Kässbohrer sold the tooling and spare parts to Continental Trailways and agreed to furnish most of the parts needed for the 85 NEW Silver Eagles previously contracted for. La Brugeoise started producing the NEW Silver Eagles (the ones that Kässbohrer would have built) in its Brugge plant late in 1960 with certain parts and materials that Kässbohrer had already built, including steering wheels with the Kässbohrer emblem on the horn button. In the meantime, La Brugeoise helped Bus \\& Car design its new plant and supervised its construction.", "La Brugeoise started Eagle production with the **Model 01** as soon as the last NEW Silver Eagle rolled off the line. Late in 1961 the Bus \\& Car factory opened and all Eagle tooling, parts, equipment and production was moved out of the La Brugeoise factory and into the new Bus \\& Car factory, which was near to the main offices of La Brugeoise. The Model 01 continued in production by Bus \\& Car but they continued buying the Torsilastic suspension units from La Brugeoise until the end of Eagle production in Europe.", "In 1968 Continental Trailways spun off the Bus and Car Company to its stockholders. Most of its stockholders were the companies that Continental bought out by means of stock swaps during its large expansion of the 1950s and 1960s. The former Bus \\& Car building still stands and is presently a shopping center. Parts of it had earlier been used as a Rover car dealership, various shops and an indoor downhill ski track with artificial snow. BN went on to build 204 diesel locomotives for the Belgian and Luxembourg Railways with GM 567 engines and many more PCC cars for [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"), [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") and [Ghent](/wiki/Ghent \"Ghent\") in Belgium plus [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague \"The Hague\") in Holland.", "Bus \\& Car built a number of other models (listed below) in Belgium for different markets through 1980, and that included right\\-hand\\-drive models for Australia and Ireland. They were quite flexible concerning lengths and widths and other details like the number of axles. They also sold new coaches in Canada, Morocco, South Africa, Thailand and across Europe less the United Kingdom.", "The **Model 05** was introduced as two prototypes in 1967 and production started partway through the 1968 model year and was produced in Belgium and later in the US. The first 05s had the 05 chassis changes built into the 01 body and the 05 styling changes arrived in 1969\\. Bus \\& Car also built three 05 Silver Eagle coaches with Ford Gas turbine engines of 450 HP and 600 HP during 1969\\. They were used on transcontinental service until the program was terminated about a year later. High fuel consumption, only 4 MPG, and severe reliability problems caused these coaches to be repowered with the standard Detroit Diesel 8V\\-71 engines.", "Another 1969 product of Bus \\& Car was the **Model 07**. This was an 05 that was 102 inches wide (rather than 96\\); 45 were produced. The 'Bus \\& Car' name may sound odd as they never made automobiles but the word 'Car' in this case came from the European term 'Touring Car/Touringcar' or highway coach as opposed to a local or regional bus. Continental Trailways also had a parts division in the US called Bus \\& Truck Supply Company. It seems the only truck parts they distributed were those that were common to Eagle coaches such as Detroit Diesel engine parts, Lockheed brakes, Carrier compressors, Spicer transmissions and Ross steering.", "In the early 1970s, Trailways drivers and maintainers referred to 'Round' (01 and 05 Old Look) Eagles and 'Square' (05 New Look and 07\\) Eagles based on the body design. The 01 Eagles had the drive axle ahead of the tag axle. The 05 and 07 Eagles had the tag axle ahead of the drive axle, which made them 'interesting' to drive. The front suspension was very soft with a lot of travel, and since the tag axle torsion bar (mounted crosswise) was also pushing the front end up, some drivers said it was like driving a diving board when driving on certain road surfaces. The front end went up and down at every expansion joint in the road and sometimes the driver had to grip the steering wheel hard to remain seated. On the other hand, Eagles had almost no body roll in curves or corners, unlike buses with air suspension which gave the feeling they were about to tip over when turning. All older Eagles had suspension seats for their drivers, and some drivers would take the hydraulic jack from the tool kit and set it up under their seat to stop its vertical motions.", "Trailways Eagles provided a more comfortable ride than Greyhound's GM and [Motor Coach Industries](/wiki/Motor_Coach_Industries \"Motor Coach Industries\") coaches. From the 1960s to the 1980s, Trailways and Greyhound ran competitive services on the [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\")\\-to\\-[New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") and New York\\-to\\-[Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") routes with hourly departures for most of the day. This led many frequent travelers to make comparisons between the two companies and their equipment. The Eagles were warmer in the winter, had a more comfortable ride, much more comfortable seats and a quieter cabin appointed in better\\-quality materials than any of their competitors.", "Increasing wage rates in Belgium and a decline in the value of the dollar overseas started to cause problems for Eagle and Continental; the solution was to set up a plant in the US.", "### 1974\\-1996: Eagle International/Eagle Bus Manufacturing (USA)", "Very late in 1974, Eagle International Inc started building coaches in [Brownsville, Texas](/wiki/Brownsville%2C_Texas \"Brownsville, Texas\"), and for two years the Model 05 was built both in Belgium and Texas. From 1977, all coaches for the US market were built in Texas. MOL N.V. bought the remains of Bus \\& Car after it went bankrupt in 1978 and continued selling buses and parts up to at least 1987 under the 'MOL Eaglebus' name. In the US, the early buses made in Brownsville had some notable quality issues compared to their Belgian sisters, and this got worked out by 1977, but it was a bitter pill for the Trailways operating companies to swallow in the short term.", "The **Model 10** replaced the Model 05 with many design and technical changes in 1980\\. A small number of Model 05s with Model 10 styling features preceded the real Model 10 down the production line and caused confusion because they did not have any of the Model 10 improvements other than the new styling. The spotting feature that gives them away is the Model 05 dashboard and instrument panel. The Model 10 introduced the Detroit Diesel 6V\\-92 engine and an [Allison](/wiki/Allison_transmissions \"Allison transmissions\") four\\-speed automatic transmission to Eagle coaches.", "In 1985 the **Model 15** was introduced making the standard bus 102 inches wide and from 1989 coaches could be ordered in 35\\-, 40\\- and 45\\-foot lengths. The 96\\-inch\\-wide **Model 20** arrived in 1986 to replace the 96\\-inch\\-wide Model 10\\. The 20 had the same styling as the Model 15\\.", "In 1987, Greyhound purchased Trailways Inc and Eagle International Inc and the name was then changed to Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc. In the 1990s, Greyhound declared bankruptcy, which also included all of its subsidiaries to include Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc. Some Eagles continued to be made but they were mostly entertainer coaches for celebrities and motorhomes rather than seated coaches for charters, tours and scheduled service.", "In the late 1990s, the company was split and moved to two locations in Mexico which had a high demand for seated coaches at the time, and Eagles were built only for the Mexican market. All had the trademark Eagle styling and Torsilastic suspension. In time Eagle ceased to be a major player in the Mexican market, and its activities were wound down.", "### 2000s: Silver Eagle Bus Manufacturing (USA)", "In the mid\\-2000s, Silver Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc (SEBM) was established in Brownsville, Texas, to revive the Eagle coach. Using tooling and parts stocks from Mexico, SEBM offered the older Models 15 and 20 in 37\\-, 40\\- and 45\\-foot versions.", "There was also a new design, the 102\\-inch\\-wide **Model 25** available in 40\\- and 45\\-foot versions. The Model 25 abandoned most Eagle styling traditions in favor of a boxy look intended to maximize interior volume for motorhome conversions. Only one Model 25, a 45\\-foot version, was ever made and sold. The Model 25 was never tested and certified as a passenger coach in accordance with the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards in effect at the time.", "SEBM also produced one 37\\-foot Model 20, but it has never been learned if it was actually completed and sold. The company was undercapitalized from the start and went out of business after relocating to [Gallatin, Tennessee](/wiki/Gallatin%2C_Tennessee \"Gallatin, Tennessee\"), as it was unable to pay off its many creditors.", "" ]
### 1960\-1974 Bus \& Car Eagles (Belgium) No Eagles were produced in 1959 while Continental gained experience with its new fleet. Continental suggested a number of design changes to Kässbohrer that included a new front end and a standard American powertrain. The result was the **NEW Silver Eagle** model that was to be produced in 1960 and 1961\. Most NEW Silver Eagles had [Cummins](/wiki/Cummins "Cummins") 300 HP NRTO engines but the last ones made arrived in the US without engines as [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors") released the [Detroit Diesel](/wiki/Detroit_Diesel "Detroit Diesel") 8V\-71 engine and these were installed when the buses arrived. All older Eagles, except the four Super Golden Eagles, received 8V\-71 engines and Spicer four\-speed manual transmissions to replace their original power packages. Continental also bought two other Setra articulated buses in 1957 for service from [Denver](/wiki/Denver "Denver") to the [Air Force Academy](/wiki/Peterson_Air_Force_Base "Peterson Air Force Base") at [Colorado Springs](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado "Colorado Springs, Colorado"). They were not high level buses and lacked underfloor luggage space. They were standard Setra buses with separate Setra bodies and Henschel chassis for their European customers rather than something designed for the US market. They had nothing in common with the Eagle coaches that Setra built for Continental and were powered with Cummins underfloor engines. Around the same time in 1959 that Continental and Kässbohrer were agreeing on the details of the second generation of the Eagle (the NEW Silver Eagle, mentioned above), Kässbohrer decided to concentrate exclusively on building coaches for the rapidly growing European market. At this point, Continental Trailways was forced to find a European partner. They found one in the form of the Belgian transportation equipment manufacturer La Brugeoise et Nivelles ([Bruges](/wiki/Bruges "Bruges") and [Nivelles](/wiki/Nivelles "Nivelles"), the two cities where they had factories). La Brugeoise, as they were commonly known, helped Continental to form its own bus manufacturing company, Bus \& Car Co, NV. La Brugeoise et Nivelles (later known as BN and today part of [Bombardier Transportation](/wiki/Bombardier_Transportation "Bombardier Transportation")) worked with Bus \& Car to set up a new factory in Sint Michels bij Brugge. La Brugeoise had a long history of building railway and tramway equipment including [PCC streetcars](/wiki/PCC_streetcar "PCC streetcar") built under license from the Transit Research Corporation in the US. Kässbohrer sold the tooling and spare parts to Continental Trailways and agreed to furnish most of the parts needed for the 85 NEW Silver Eagles previously contracted for. La Brugeoise started producing the NEW Silver Eagles (the ones that Kässbohrer would have built) in its Brugge plant late in 1960 with certain parts and materials that Kässbohrer had already built, including steering wheels with the Kässbohrer emblem on the horn button. In the meantime, La Brugeoise helped Bus \& Car design its new plant and supervised its construction. La Brugeoise started Eagle production with the **Model 01** as soon as the last NEW Silver Eagle rolled off the line. Late in 1961 the Bus \& Car factory opened and all Eagle tooling, parts, equipment and production was moved out of the La Brugeoise factory and into the new Bus \& Car factory, which was near to the main offices of La Brugeoise. The Model 01 continued in production by Bus \& Car but they continued buying the Torsilastic suspension units from La Brugeoise until the end of Eagle production in Europe. In 1968 Continental Trailways spun off the Bus and Car Company to its stockholders. Most of its stockholders were the companies that Continental bought out by means of stock swaps during its large expansion of the 1950s and 1960s. The former Bus \& Car building still stands and is presently a shopping center. Parts of it had earlier been used as a Rover car dealership, various shops and an indoor downhill ski track with artificial snow. BN went on to build 204 diesel locomotives for the Belgian and Luxembourg Railways with GM 567 engines and many more PCC cars for [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"), [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp") and [Ghent](/wiki/Ghent "Ghent") in Belgium plus [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague "The Hague") in Holland. Bus \& Car built a number of other models (listed below) in Belgium for different markets through 1980, and that included right\-hand\-drive models for Australia and Ireland. They were quite flexible concerning lengths and widths and other details like the number of axles. They also sold new coaches in Canada, Morocco, South Africa, Thailand and across Europe less the United Kingdom. The **Model 05** was introduced as two prototypes in 1967 and production started partway through the 1968 model year and was produced in Belgium and later in the US. The first 05s had the 05 chassis changes built into the 01 body and the 05 styling changes arrived in 1969\. Bus \& Car also built three 05 Silver Eagle coaches with Ford Gas turbine engines of 450 HP and 600 HP during 1969\. They were used on transcontinental service until the program was terminated about a year later. High fuel consumption, only 4 MPG, and severe reliability problems caused these coaches to be repowered with the standard Detroit Diesel 8V\-71 engines. Another 1969 product of Bus \& Car was the **Model 07**. This was an 05 that was 102 inches wide (rather than 96\); 45 were produced. The 'Bus \& Car' name may sound odd as they never made automobiles but the word 'Car' in this case came from the European term 'Touring Car/Touringcar' or highway coach as opposed to a local or regional bus. Continental Trailways also had a parts division in the US called Bus \& Truck Supply Company. It seems the only truck parts they distributed were those that were common to Eagle coaches such as Detroit Diesel engine parts, Lockheed brakes, Carrier compressors, Spicer transmissions and Ross steering. In the early 1970s, Trailways drivers and maintainers referred to 'Round' (01 and 05 Old Look) Eagles and 'Square' (05 New Look and 07\) Eagles based on the body design. The 01 Eagles had the drive axle ahead of the tag axle. The 05 and 07 Eagles had the tag axle ahead of the drive axle, which made them 'interesting' to drive. The front suspension was very soft with a lot of travel, and since the tag axle torsion bar (mounted crosswise) was also pushing the front end up, some drivers said it was like driving a diving board when driving on certain road surfaces. The front end went up and down at every expansion joint in the road and sometimes the driver had to grip the steering wheel hard to remain seated. On the other hand, Eagles had almost no body roll in curves or corners, unlike buses with air suspension which gave the feeling they were about to tip over when turning. All older Eagles had suspension seats for their drivers, and some drivers would take the hydraulic jack from the tool kit and set it up under their seat to stop its vertical motions. Trailways Eagles provided a more comfortable ride than Greyhound's GM and [Motor Coach Industries](/wiki/Motor_Coach_Industries "Motor Coach Industries") coaches. From the 1960s to the 1980s, Trailways and Greyhound ran competitive services on the [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston")\-to\-[New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") and New York\-to\-[Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") routes with hourly departures for most of the day. This led many frequent travelers to make comparisons between the two companies and their equipment. The Eagles were warmer in the winter, had a more comfortable ride, much more comfortable seats and a quieter cabin appointed in better\-quality materials than any of their competitors. Increasing wage rates in Belgium and a decline in the value of the dollar overseas started to cause problems for Eagle and Continental; the solution was to set up a plant in the US.
[ "### 1960\\-1974 Bus \\& Car Eagles (Belgium)", "No Eagles were produced in 1959 while Continental gained experience with its new fleet. Continental suggested a number of design changes to Kässbohrer that included a new front end and a standard American powertrain. The result was the **NEW Silver Eagle** model that was to be produced in 1960 and 1961\\. Most NEW Silver Eagles had [Cummins](/wiki/Cummins \"Cummins\") 300 HP NRTO engines but the last ones made arrived in the US without engines as [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\") released the [Detroit Diesel](/wiki/Detroit_Diesel \"Detroit Diesel\") 8V\\-71 engine and these were installed when the buses arrived.", "All older Eagles, except the four Super Golden Eagles, received 8V\\-71 engines and Spicer four\\-speed manual transmissions to replace their original power packages. Continental also bought two other Setra articulated buses in 1957 for service from [Denver](/wiki/Denver \"Denver\") to the [Air Force Academy](/wiki/Peterson_Air_Force_Base \"Peterson Air Force Base\") at [Colorado Springs](/wiki/Colorado_Springs%2C_Colorado \"Colorado Springs, Colorado\"). They were not high level buses and lacked underfloor luggage space. They were standard Setra buses with separate Setra bodies and Henschel chassis for their European customers rather than something designed for the US market. They had nothing in common with the Eagle coaches that Setra built for Continental and were powered with Cummins underfloor engines.", "Around the same time in 1959 that Continental and Kässbohrer were agreeing on the details of the second generation of the Eagle (the NEW Silver Eagle, mentioned above), Kässbohrer decided to concentrate exclusively on building coaches for the rapidly growing European market. At this point, Continental Trailways was forced to find a European partner. They found one in the form of the Belgian transportation equipment manufacturer La Brugeoise et Nivelles ([Bruges](/wiki/Bruges \"Bruges\") and [Nivelles](/wiki/Nivelles \"Nivelles\"), the two cities where they had factories). La Brugeoise, as they were commonly known, helped Continental to form its own bus manufacturing company, Bus \\& Car Co, NV. La Brugeoise et Nivelles (later known as BN and today part of [Bombardier Transportation](/wiki/Bombardier_Transportation \"Bombardier Transportation\")) worked with Bus \\& Car to set up a new factory in Sint Michels bij Brugge. La Brugeoise had a long history of building railway and tramway equipment including [PCC streetcars](/wiki/PCC_streetcar \"PCC streetcar\") built under license from the Transit Research Corporation in the US.", "Kässbohrer sold the tooling and spare parts to Continental Trailways and agreed to furnish most of the parts needed for the 85 NEW Silver Eagles previously contracted for. La Brugeoise started producing the NEW Silver Eagles (the ones that Kässbohrer would have built) in its Brugge plant late in 1960 with certain parts and materials that Kässbohrer had already built, including steering wheels with the Kässbohrer emblem on the horn button. In the meantime, La Brugeoise helped Bus \\& Car design its new plant and supervised its construction.", "La Brugeoise started Eagle production with the **Model 01** as soon as the last NEW Silver Eagle rolled off the line. Late in 1961 the Bus \\& Car factory opened and all Eagle tooling, parts, equipment and production was moved out of the La Brugeoise factory and into the new Bus \\& Car factory, which was near to the main offices of La Brugeoise. The Model 01 continued in production by Bus \\& Car but they continued buying the Torsilastic suspension units from La Brugeoise until the end of Eagle production in Europe.", "In 1968 Continental Trailways spun off the Bus and Car Company to its stockholders. Most of its stockholders were the companies that Continental bought out by means of stock swaps during its large expansion of the 1950s and 1960s. The former Bus \\& Car building still stands and is presently a shopping center. Parts of it had earlier been used as a Rover car dealership, various shops and an indoor downhill ski track with artificial snow. BN went on to build 204 diesel locomotives for the Belgian and Luxembourg Railways with GM 567 engines and many more PCC cars for [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"), [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") and [Ghent](/wiki/Ghent \"Ghent\") in Belgium plus [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague \"The Hague\") in Holland.", "Bus \\& Car built a number of other models (listed below) in Belgium for different markets through 1980, and that included right\\-hand\\-drive models for Australia and Ireland. They were quite flexible concerning lengths and widths and other details like the number of axles. They also sold new coaches in Canada, Morocco, South Africa, Thailand and across Europe less the United Kingdom.", "The **Model 05** was introduced as two prototypes in 1967 and production started partway through the 1968 model year and was produced in Belgium and later in the US. The first 05s had the 05 chassis changes built into the 01 body and the 05 styling changes arrived in 1969\\. Bus \\& Car also built three 05 Silver Eagle coaches with Ford Gas turbine engines of 450 HP and 600 HP during 1969\\. They were used on transcontinental service until the program was terminated about a year later. High fuel consumption, only 4 MPG, and severe reliability problems caused these coaches to be repowered with the standard Detroit Diesel 8V\\-71 engines.", "Another 1969 product of Bus \\& Car was the **Model 07**. This was an 05 that was 102 inches wide (rather than 96\\); 45 were produced. The 'Bus \\& Car' name may sound odd as they never made automobiles but the word 'Car' in this case came from the European term 'Touring Car/Touringcar' or highway coach as opposed to a local or regional bus. Continental Trailways also had a parts division in the US called Bus \\& Truck Supply Company. It seems the only truck parts they distributed were those that were common to Eagle coaches such as Detroit Diesel engine parts, Lockheed brakes, Carrier compressors, Spicer transmissions and Ross steering.", "In the early 1970s, Trailways drivers and maintainers referred to 'Round' (01 and 05 Old Look) Eagles and 'Square' (05 New Look and 07\\) Eagles based on the body design. The 01 Eagles had the drive axle ahead of the tag axle. The 05 and 07 Eagles had the tag axle ahead of the drive axle, which made them 'interesting' to drive. The front suspension was very soft with a lot of travel, and since the tag axle torsion bar (mounted crosswise) was also pushing the front end up, some drivers said it was like driving a diving board when driving on certain road surfaces. The front end went up and down at every expansion joint in the road and sometimes the driver had to grip the steering wheel hard to remain seated. On the other hand, Eagles had almost no body roll in curves or corners, unlike buses with air suspension which gave the feeling they were about to tip over when turning. All older Eagles had suspension seats for their drivers, and some drivers would take the hydraulic jack from the tool kit and set it up under their seat to stop its vertical motions.", "Trailways Eagles provided a more comfortable ride than Greyhound's GM and [Motor Coach Industries](/wiki/Motor_Coach_Industries \"Motor Coach Industries\") coaches. From the 1960s to the 1980s, Trailways and Greyhound ran competitive services on the [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\")\\-to\\-[New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") and New York\\-to\\-[Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") routes with hourly departures for most of the day. This led many frequent travelers to make comparisons between the two companies and their equipment. The Eagles were warmer in the winter, had a more comfortable ride, much more comfortable seats and a quieter cabin appointed in better\\-quality materials than any of their competitors.", "Increasing wage rates in Belgium and a decline in the value of the dollar overseas started to cause problems for Eagle and Continental; the solution was to set up a plant in the US.", "" ]
### 1974\-1996: Eagle International/Eagle Bus Manufacturing (USA) Very late in 1974, Eagle International Inc started building coaches in [Brownsville, Texas](/wiki/Brownsville%2C_Texas "Brownsville, Texas"), and for two years the Model 05 was built both in Belgium and Texas. From 1977, all coaches for the US market were built in Texas. MOL N.V. bought the remains of Bus \& Car after it went bankrupt in 1978 and continued selling buses and parts up to at least 1987 under the 'MOL Eaglebus' name. In the US, the early buses made in Brownsville had some notable quality issues compared to their Belgian sisters, and this got worked out by 1977, but it was a bitter pill for the Trailways operating companies to swallow in the short term. The **Model 10** replaced the Model 05 with many design and technical changes in 1980\. A small number of Model 05s with Model 10 styling features preceded the real Model 10 down the production line and caused confusion because they did not have any of the Model 10 improvements other than the new styling. The spotting feature that gives them away is the Model 05 dashboard and instrument panel. The Model 10 introduced the Detroit Diesel 6V\-92 engine and an [Allison](/wiki/Allison_transmissions "Allison transmissions") four\-speed automatic transmission to Eagle coaches. In 1985 the **Model 15** was introduced making the standard bus 102 inches wide and from 1989 coaches could be ordered in 35\-, 40\- and 45\-foot lengths. The 96\-inch\-wide **Model 20** arrived in 1986 to replace the 96\-inch\-wide Model 10\. The 20 had the same styling as the Model 15\. In 1987, Greyhound purchased Trailways Inc and Eagle International Inc and the name was then changed to Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc. In the 1990s, Greyhound declared bankruptcy, which also included all of its subsidiaries to include Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc. Some Eagles continued to be made but they were mostly entertainer coaches for celebrities and motorhomes rather than seated coaches for charters, tours and scheduled service. In the late 1990s, the company was split and moved to two locations in Mexico which had a high demand for seated coaches at the time, and Eagles were built only for the Mexican market. All had the trademark Eagle styling and Torsilastic suspension. In time Eagle ceased to be a major player in the Mexican market, and its activities were wound down.
[ "### 1974\\-1996: Eagle International/Eagle Bus Manufacturing (USA)", "Very late in 1974, Eagle International Inc started building coaches in [Brownsville, Texas](/wiki/Brownsville%2C_Texas \"Brownsville, Texas\"), and for two years the Model 05 was built both in Belgium and Texas. From 1977, all coaches for the US market were built in Texas. MOL N.V. bought the remains of Bus \\& Car after it went bankrupt in 1978 and continued selling buses and parts up to at least 1987 under the 'MOL Eaglebus' name. In the US, the early buses made in Brownsville had some notable quality issues compared to their Belgian sisters, and this got worked out by 1977, but it was a bitter pill for the Trailways operating companies to swallow in the short term.", "The **Model 10** replaced the Model 05 with many design and technical changes in 1980\\. A small number of Model 05s with Model 10 styling features preceded the real Model 10 down the production line and caused confusion because they did not have any of the Model 10 improvements other than the new styling. The spotting feature that gives them away is the Model 05 dashboard and instrument panel. The Model 10 introduced the Detroit Diesel 6V\\-92 engine and an [Allison](/wiki/Allison_transmissions \"Allison transmissions\") four\\-speed automatic transmission to Eagle coaches.", "In 1985 the **Model 15** was introduced making the standard bus 102 inches wide and from 1989 coaches could be ordered in 35\\-, 40\\- and 45\\-foot lengths. The 96\\-inch\\-wide **Model 20** arrived in 1986 to replace the 96\\-inch\\-wide Model 10\\. The 20 had the same styling as the Model 15\\.", "In 1987, Greyhound purchased Trailways Inc and Eagle International Inc and the name was then changed to Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc. In the 1990s, Greyhound declared bankruptcy, which also included all of its subsidiaries to include Eagle Bus Manufacturing Inc. Some Eagles continued to be made but they were mostly entertainer coaches for celebrities and motorhomes rather than seated coaches for charters, tours and scheduled service.", "In the late 1990s, the company was split and moved to two locations in Mexico which had a high demand for seated coaches at the time, and Eagles were built only for the Mexican market. All had the trademark Eagle styling and Torsilastic suspension. In time Eagle ceased to be a major player in the Mexican market, and its activities were wound down.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- In 1942, consumers on the North American [home front](/wiki/Home_front "Home front") have to contend with sacrifices made in order to support the war effort. One of the restrictions is on the use of petroleum and lubricants, which results in commuters being rigidly constricted in their use of privately\-owned vehicles. These wartime rations of oil will allow the [Aliies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") to preserve one of the most important strategic materials. From the great [oilfields](/wiki/Oil_field "Oil field") of Texas, Mexico, Venezuela and the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") basin, comes the oil that feeds the Allied war effort. Military forces are deployed to protect this vital resource. The [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") warships range far out to sea protect the convoys that are lifelines to the Allied cause, but are highly reliant on the oil reserves located throughout the world.{{\#tag:ref\|During the years leading up to the \[\[World War I\|First World War]], British warships converted from coal to oil.\|group\=Note}} The mechanized [Nazi](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") war machine also relies on oil, and with limited natural supplies, Germany must manufacture costly synthetic fuels produced in 25 plants on a nonstop schedule that are constantly subjected to [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") aerial attacks. In distant battlefields, oil is the prize with Nazi armies threatening the rich oilfields of [Baku](/wiki/Baku "Baku"), with the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") desperately fighting to retain the region. The German High Command knows that the *[Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht")* can stall if oil reserves are not secured. In the Middle East, where the world's largest oil deposits are found, other oil wells and refineries are also under threat by the advancing [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers"). The pipelines to [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa "Haifa") and [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya "Tripoli, Libya") and the storage tanks in Palestine where British and Soviet forces are standing guard, are under constant bombardment. In the Far East, Japan, also dependent on foreign oil, is advancing relentlessly on the oil reserves in the [Dutch East Indies](/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies "Dutch East Indies") and India. [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") has become the fortress which the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") relies on to face the imminent onslaught of Japanese forces. As the Allies turn to offence, oil is the lifeblood of the war effort. When the [German battleship Bismarck](/wiki/German_battleship_Bismarck "German battleship Bismarck") makes a break for open sea, the oil\-fuelled British [battleships](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship") and [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer") run down and destroy the German battleship. Nightly RAF air raids also begin to take effect, but for every bombing raid to [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), 3,800 tons of high\-test fuel is needed for each [heavy bomber](/wiki/Heavy_bomber "Heavy bomber"). Global oil production continues with a new discovery in the [Turner Valley oilfields](/wiki/Petroleum_production_in_Canada "Petroleum production in Canada") in [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta") becoming significant with 1/6 of the oil in Canada coming from the new oilfield. The construction of the [Portland–Montreal Pipeline](/wiki/Portland%E2%80%93Montreal_Pipe_Line "Portland–Montreal Pipe Line") from [Portland, Maine](/wiki/Portland%2C_Maine "Portland, Maine") to [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal") refineries brings oil to Eastern Canada where ocean\-going [oil tankers](/wiki/Oil_tanker "Oil tanker") will then set off in [escorted convoys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic "Battle of the Atlantic") dodging the formidable German [U\-boats](/wiki/U-boat "U-boat") to deliver the precious oil to the European battlefront.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "In 1942, consumers on the North American [home front](/wiki/Home_front \"Home front\") have to contend with sacrifices made in order to support the war effort. One of the restrictions is on the use of petroleum and lubricants, which results in commuters being rigidly constricted in their use of privately\\-owned vehicles.", "These wartime rations of oil will allow the [Aliies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") to preserve one of the most important strategic materials. From the great [oilfields](/wiki/Oil_field \"Oil field\") of Texas, Mexico, Venezuela and the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") basin, comes the oil that feeds the Allied war effort. Military forces are deployed to protect this vital resource. The [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") warships range far out to sea protect the convoys that are lifelines to the Allied cause, but are highly reliant on the oil reserves located throughout the world.{{\\#tag:ref\\|During the years leading up to the \\[\\[World War I\\|First World War]], British warships converted from coal to oil.\\|group\\=Note}}", "The mechanized [Nazi](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") war machine also relies on oil, and with limited natural supplies, Germany must manufacture costly synthetic fuels produced in 25 plants on a nonstop schedule that are constantly subjected to [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") aerial attacks. In distant battlefields, oil is the prize with Nazi armies threatening the rich oilfields of [Baku](/wiki/Baku \"Baku\"), with the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") desperately fighting to retain the region. The German High Command knows that the *[Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\")* can stall if oil reserves are not secured.", "In the Middle East, where the world's largest oil deposits are found, other oil wells and refineries are also under threat by the advancing [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\"). The pipelines to [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa \"Haifa\") and [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya \"Tripoli, Libya\") and the storage tanks in Palestine where British and Soviet forces are standing guard, are under constant bombardment.", "In the Far East, Japan, also dependent on foreign oil, is advancing relentlessly on the oil reserves in the [Dutch East Indies](/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies \"Dutch East Indies\") and India. [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") has become the fortress which the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\") relies on to face the imminent onslaught of Japanese forces.", "As the Allies turn to offence, oil is the lifeblood of the war effort. When the [German battleship Bismarck](/wiki/German_battleship_Bismarck \"German battleship Bismarck\") makes a break for open sea, the oil\\-fuelled British [battleships](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\") and [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\") run down and destroy the German battleship. Nightly RAF air raids also begin to take effect, but for every bombing raid to [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), 3,800 tons of high\\-test fuel is needed for each [heavy bomber](/wiki/Heavy_bomber \"Heavy bomber\").", "Global oil production continues with a new discovery in the [Turner Valley oilfields](/wiki/Petroleum_production_in_Canada \"Petroleum production in Canada\") in [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\") becoming significant with 1/6 of the oil in Canada coming from the new oilfield. The construction of the [Portland–Montreal Pipeline](/wiki/Portland%E2%80%93Montreal_Pipe_Line \"Portland–Montreal Pipe Line\") from [Portland, Maine](/wiki/Portland%2C_Maine \"Portland, Maine\") to [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\") refineries brings oil to Eastern Canada where ocean\\-going [oil tankers](/wiki/Oil_tanker \"Oil tanker\") will then set off in [escorted convoys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic \"Battle of the Atlantic\") dodging the formidable German [U\\-boats](/wiki/U-boat \"U-boat\") to deliver the precious oil to the European battlefront.", "" ]
Biography --------- Jones' birthplace was on a farm about one mile northwest of the town of [Smyrna](/wiki/Smyrna%2C_Delaware "Smyrna, Delaware"), [Delaware Colony](/wiki/Delaware_Colony "Delaware Colony"). His father was a farmer of exemplary moral and religious character and his mother was of a family greatly respected. She died when he was an infant. His father soon followed her to the grave and at four years of age he was an orphan. It is not clear how he became a doctor. Educated in medicine and practicing as a doctor, he was later appointed as Clerk of the [Delaware Supreme Court](/wiki/Delaware_Supreme_Court "Delaware Supreme Court"). He was married to Anna Matilda Sykes, daughter of [James Sykes](/wiki/James_Sykes_%28governor%29 "James Sykes (governor)") the 15th [Governor of Delaware](/wiki/Governor_of_Delaware "Governor of Delaware"); she died before he joined the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy").{{cite book\|title\=The Life, Character, and Public Service of Commodore Jacob Jones\|first\=Mark M. \|last\=Cleaver\|year\=1906\|publisher\=The Historical Society Of Delaware\|location\=Wilmington, Delaware\|ol\=7087183M }} ### Midshipman Jones joined the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") in 1799 at the age of 31, very old for the times, when a midshipman could be as young as 10\. Some think he joined the Navy because of grief after the death of his wife. He spent 22 months as an acting midshipman. ### Lieutenant During the [Quasi\-War](/wiki/Quasi-War "Quasi-War") with France, he served under Commodore [John Barry](/wiki/John_Barry_%28naval_officer%29 "John Barry (naval officer)") in the [frigate](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate") {{USS\|United States\|1797\|2}} and was commissioned a lieutenant February 27, 1801\. Jones joined the crew of {{USS\|Philadelphia\|1799\|2}} on May 24, 1803, as second lieutenant (2nd mate). On October 31, 1803, he was taken prisoner with the rest of *Philadelphia*{{'}}s crew by the [Bey](/wiki/Bey "Bey") of [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya "Tripoli, Libya") and held until liberated in June 1805\. ### Master Commandant On April 20, 1810, Jones received promotion to [master commandant](/wiki/Master_commandant "Master commandant"), and on June 4, he took command of {{USS\|Wasp\|1807\|6}}. In October 1812, Jones and *Wasp* sailed on an [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic "Atlantic") cruise. On October 13 he captured the British 12\-gun [brig](/wiki/Brig "Brig") HMS *Dolphin*. Despite storm damage to his ship, he attacked a British convoy on October 18 and, following an intense battle, captured the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") sloop of war {{HMS\|Frolic\|1806\|6}}, in a [fierce engagement](/wiki/Capture_of_HMS_Frolic "Capture of HMS Frolic"). Both ships were seriously damaged and were captured by the 74\-gun ship of the line {{HMS\|Poictiers\|1809\|6}}. Still, Jones was widely admired among Americans and when he returned to the United States after an exchange of prisoners, he received a gold medal from the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress"). ### Captain Jones was promoted to the rank of captain in March 1813 and given command of the frigate {{USS\|Macedonian\|1810\|6}}. He spent time in Decatur's squadron, which was bottled up at [New London](/wiki/New_London%2C_Connecticut "New London, Connecticut") during 1814\. Later, Captain Jones was sent to the [Lake Ontario](/wiki/Lake_Ontario "Lake Ontario") theater, where he commanded the frigate {{USS\|Mohawk\|1814\|6}} during the last year of the war. During the [second and final Barbary War](/wiki/Second_Barbary_War "Second Barbary War"), in 1815, Jones again commanded *Macedonian*. Service as captain of the frigate {{USS\|Guerriere\|1814\|6}} followed in 1816–1818\. ### Commodore Jones was Commodore of the United States' squadrons in the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") in 1821–1823 and in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific "Pacific") in 1826–1829\. He was a [Navy Commissioner](/wiki/Board_of_Navy_Commissioners%23Other_commissioners "Board of Navy Commissioners#Other commissioners") in Washington, DC, between those tours at sea and held important commands ashore at [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore") and New York during the 1830s and 1840s. He received his final assignment, as commandant of the [Philadelphia Naval Asylum](/wiki/Philadelphia_Naval_Asylum "Philadelphia Naval Asylum") in 1847\. Commodore Jacob Jones held that position until his death.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Jones' birthplace was on a farm about one mile northwest of the town of [Smyrna](/wiki/Smyrna%2C_Delaware \"Smyrna, Delaware\"), [Delaware Colony](/wiki/Delaware_Colony \"Delaware Colony\"). His father was a farmer of exemplary moral and religious character and his mother was of a family greatly respected. She died when he was an infant. His father soon followed her to the grave and at four years of age he was an orphan. It is not clear how he became a doctor. Educated in medicine and practicing as a doctor, he was later appointed as Clerk of the [Delaware Supreme Court](/wiki/Delaware_Supreme_Court \"Delaware Supreme Court\"). He was married to Anna Matilda Sykes, daughter of [James Sykes](/wiki/James_Sykes_%28governor%29 \"James Sykes (governor)\") the 15th [Governor of Delaware](/wiki/Governor_of_Delaware \"Governor of Delaware\"); she died before he joined the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\").{{cite book\\|title\\=The Life, Character, and Public Service of Commodore Jacob Jones\\|first\\=Mark M. \\|last\\=Cleaver\\|year\\=1906\\|publisher\\=The Historical Society Of Delaware\\|location\\=Wilmington, Delaware\\|ol\\=7087183M }}", "### Midshipman", "Jones joined the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") in 1799 at the age of 31, very old for the times, when a midshipman could be as young as 10\\. Some think he joined the Navy because of grief after the death of his wife. He spent 22 months as an acting midshipman.", "### Lieutenant", "During the [Quasi\\-War](/wiki/Quasi-War \"Quasi-War\") with France, he served under Commodore [John Barry](/wiki/John_Barry_%28naval_officer%29 \"John Barry (naval officer)\") in the [frigate](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\") {{USS\\|United States\\|1797\\|2}} and was commissioned a lieutenant February 27, 1801\\. Jones joined the crew of {{USS\\|Philadelphia\\|1799\\|2}} on May 24, 1803, as second lieutenant (2nd mate). On October 31, 1803, he was taken prisoner with the rest of *Philadelphia*{{'}}s crew by the [Bey](/wiki/Bey \"Bey\") of [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Libya \"Tripoli, Libya\") and held until liberated in June 1805\\.", "### Master Commandant", "On April 20, 1810, Jones received promotion to [master commandant](/wiki/Master_commandant \"Master commandant\"), and on June 4, he took command of {{USS\\|Wasp\\|1807\\|6}}. In October 1812, Jones and *Wasp* sailed on an [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic \"Atlantic\") cruise. On October 13 he captured the British 12\\-gun [brig](/wiki/Brig \"Brig\") HMS *Dolphin*.", "Despite storm damage to his ship, he attacked a British convoy on October 18 and, following an intense battle, captured the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") sloop of war {{HMS\\|Frolic\\|1806\\|6}}, in a [fierce engagement](/wiki/Capture_of_HMS_Frolic \"Capture of HMS Frolic\"). Both ships were seriously damaged and were captured by the 74\\-gun ship of the line {{HMS\\|Poictiers\\|1809\\|6}}. Still, Jones was widely admired among Americans and when he returned to the United States after an exchange of prisoners, he received a gold medal from the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\").", "### Captain", "Jones was promoted to the rank of captain in March 1813 and given command of the frigate {{USS\\|Macedonian\\|1810\\|6}}. He spent time in Decatur's squadron, which was bottled up at [New London](/wiki/New_London%2C_Connecticut \"New London, Connecticut\") during 1814\\. Later, Captain Jones was sent to the [Lake Ontario](/wiki/Lake_Ontario \"Lake Ontario\") theater, where he commanded the frigate {{USS\\|Mohawk\\|1814\\|6}} during the last year of the war.", "During the [second and final Barbary War](/wiki/Second_Barbary_War \"Second Barbary War\"), in 1815, Jones again commanded *Macedonian*. Service as captain of the frigate {{USS\\|Guerriere\\|1814\\|6}} followed in 1816–1818\\.", "### Commodore", "Jones was Commodore of the United States' squadrons in the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") in 1821–1823 and in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific \"Pacific\") in 1826–1829\\. He was a [Navy Commissioner](/wiki/Board_of_Navy_Commissioners%23Other_commissioners \"Board of Navy Commissioners#Other commissioners\") in Washington, DC, between those tours at sea and held important commands ashore at [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\") and New York during the 1830s and 1840s. He received his final assignment, as commandant of the [Philadelphia Naval Asylum](/wiki/Philadelphia_Naval_Asylum \"Philadelphia Naval Asylum\") in 1847\\. Commodore Jacob Jones held that position until his death.", "" ]
Career ------ Chase started in Hollywood as a [story editor](/wiki/Story_editor "Story editor") for *[Kolchak: The Night Stalker](/wiki/Kolchak:The_Night_Stalker "The Night Stalker")* and then produced episodes of *[The Rockford Files](/wiki/The_Rockford_Files "The Rockford Files")* and *[Northern Exposure](/wiki/Northern_Exposure "Northern Exposure")*, among other series. He also worked as a writer of 19 [episodes](/wiki/List_of_The_Rockford_Files_writers%23David_Chase "List of The Rockford Files writers#David Chase") while on *The Rockford Files*—a show which he worked on in various capacities for more than four years. He won several Emmy awards, including one for a television movie, *Off the Minnesota Strip*, the story of a [runaway](/wiki/Runaway_youth "Runaway youth") he scripted in 1980\. His first original created series was *[Almost Grown](/wiki/Almost_Grown_%28television_show%29 "Almost Grown (television show)")* in 1988, with [Eve Gordon](/wiki/Eve_Gordon "Eve Gordon") and [Timothy Daly](/wiki/Timothy_Daly "Timothy Daly").Baker, Kathryn. (November 23, 1988\) [Wichita Eagle](/wiki/Wichita_Eagle "Wichita Eagle"). *"Almost Grown: tells story of growing up.* Section:Lifestyle; Page 9A. Although the one\-hour series was well received by critics,Bark, Ed. (October 2, 1988\) [Dallas Morning News](/wiki/Dallas_Morning_News "Dallas Morning News") *A critic picks the season's top ten.* Section: Arts \& Entertainment; page 1C. only 10 episodes aired from November 1988 to February 1989\.[Vero Beach Press Journal](/wiki/Scripps_Treasure_Coast_Newspapers "Scripps Treasure Coast Newspapers") (November 12, 2000\) *Pipline.* Section: TV Journal; Page 32\. ### *The Sopranos* Chase worked in relative anonymity before *[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos "The Sopranos")* debuted. The story of *The Sopranos* was initially conceived as a feature film about "a mobster in therapy having problems with his mother".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.wga.org/writtenby/writtenbysub.aspx?id\=2354 \|title\=Wiseguys: A conversation between David Chase and Tom Fontana. \|last\=Lee \|first\=Mark \|date\=May 2007 \|access\-date\=November 14, 2007 \|publisher\=Writers Guild of America, west \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116222056/http://www.wga.org/writtenby/writtenbysub.aspx?id\=2354 \|archive\-date\=November 16, 2007}} Chase got some input from his manager [Lloyd Braun](/wiki/Lloyd_Braun_%28media_executive%29 "Lloyd Braun (media executive)") and decided to adapt it into a television series. He signed a development deal in 1995 with production company Brillstein\-Grey and wrote the original pilot script.{{cite magazine \|url\=http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article\_id\=37319 \|title\=Family Man \|last\=Oxfeld \|first\=Jesse \|date\=September 2002 \|access\-date\=September 22, 2007 \|magazine\=Stanford Magazine \|archive\-date\=January 27, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127093946/http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article\_id\=37319 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite video \|people\=Chase, David; \[\[Peter Bogdanovich\|Bogdanovich, Peter]] \|title\=The Sopranos – The Complete First Season: David Chase interview \|medium\=DVD \|publisher\=HBO \|date\=1999}} He drew heavily from his personal life and his experiences growing up in New Jersey, and has stated that he tried to apply his own "family dynamic to mobsters".{{cite news \|url\=http://www.salon.com/ent/int/1999/01/20int.html/ \|title\=Chasing TV \|date\=January 20, 1999 \|last\=Dougherty \|first\=Robin \|work\=\[\[Salon.com]] \|access\-date\=December 6, 2013 \|archive\-date\=September 22, 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922181315/http://www.salon.com/ent/int/1999/01/20int.html \|url\-status\=live }} For instance, the tumultuous relationship between series protagonist [Tony Soprano](/wiki/Tony_Soprano "Tony Soprano") and his mother [Livia](/wiki/Livia_Soprano "Livia Soprano") is partially based on Chase's relationship with his own mother. He was also in psychotherapy at the time and modeled the character of [Jennifer Melfi](/wiki/Jennifer_Melfi "Jennifer Melfi") after his own psychiatrist.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/9448169/sopranos\_creator\_shoots\_straight \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108023127/http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/9448169/sopranos\_creator\_shoots\_straight \|archive\-date\=November 8, 2008 \|title\="Sopranos" Creator Shoots Straight \|last\=Dana \|first\=Will \|date\=March 10, 2006 \|magazine\=Rolling Stone \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=December 6, 2013}} Chase had been fascinated by organized crime and the [mafia](/wiki/American_Mafia "American Mafia") from an early age, witnessing such people growing up. He also was raised on classic gangster films such as *[The Public Enemy](/wiki/The_Public_Enemy "The Public Enemy")* and the crime series *[The Untouchables](/wiki/The_Untouchables_%281959_TV_series%29 "The Untouchables (1959 TV series)")*. The series is partly inspired by the [Richard Boiardo](/wiki/Richard_Boiardo "Richard Boiardo") family, a prominent New Jersey organized crime family when Chase was growing up, and partly on New Jersey's [DeCavalcante family](/wiki/DeCavalcante_crime_family "DeCavalcante crime family").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.suntimes.com/news/otherviews/383832,CST\-CONT\-sopranos13\.article \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516045310/http://www.suntimes.com/news/otherviews/383832%2CCST\-CONT\-sopranos13\.article \|archive\-date\=May 16, 2007 \|title\=Da Jersey boys who inspired The Sopranos \|date\=May 13, 2007 \|first\=Steven \|last\=Malanga \|work\=Chicago Sun\-Times \|url\-status\=dead}} He has mentioned American playwrights [Arthur Miller](/wiki/Arthur_Miller "Arthur Miller") and [Tennessee Williams](/wiki/Tennessee_Williams "Tennessee Williams") as influences on the show's writing, and Italian director [Federico Fellini](/wiki/Federico_Fellini "Federico Fellini") as an important influence on the show's cinematic style.{{cite video \|title\=The Sopranos – The Complete Series: Alec Baldwin interviews David Chase \|medium\=DVD \|publisher\=HBO \|date\=2008}}{{cite news \|url\=https://variety.com/2008/tv/news/the\-sopranos\-da\-20855/ \|title\="The Sopranos": David Chase fesses up \|last\=Levine \|first\=Stuart \|work\=Variety \|date\=April 23, 2008 \|access\-date\=November 23, 2008 \|archive\-date\=December 16, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216131851/http://variety.com/2008/tv/news/the\-sopranos\-da\-20855/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{sfn\|Martin\|2007\|p\=160}} The series was named after high school friends of his.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hbo.com/sopranos/cast/crew/david\_chase.shtml \|title\=David Chase profile at HBO.com \|access\-date\=November 14, 2007 \|publisher\=\[\[HBO]] \|archive\-date\=February 19, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219201622/http://www.hbo.com/the\-sopranos/cast\-and\-crew \|url\-status\=live }} Chase and producer [Brad Grey](/wiki/Brad_Grey "Brad Grey") pitched *The Sopranos* to several networks; [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company "Fox Broadcasting Company") showed interest but passed on it after Chase presented them the pilot script. They eventually pitched the show to [Chris Albrecht](/wiki/Chris_Albrecht "Chris Albrecht"), president of HBO Original Programming, who decided to finance a pilot episode which was shot in 1997\.It was originally referred to as "Pilot" but was renamed "[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos_%28episode%29 "The Sopranos (episode)")" on the DVD release. {{cite news \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content\_display/television/features/e3i5caaebc3b67867e5395b97e39aa8026d \|title\=Sopranos signoff marks end of era \|last\=Flaherty \|first\=Michael \|work\=The Hollywood Reporter \|date\=June 8, 2007 \|access\-date\=November 11, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921183451/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content\_display/television/features/e3i5caaebc3b67867e5395b97e39aa8026d \|archive\-date\=September 21, 2007}} Chase directed it himself. They finished the pilot and showed it to HBO executives, but the show was put on hold for several months. During this time, Chase, who had long experienced frustration at being unable to break out of TV and into film, considered asking HBO for additional funding to shoot 45 more minutes of footage and release *The Sopranos* as a feature film. In December 1997, HBO decided to produce the series and ordered 12 more episodes for a 13\-episode season.{{sfn\|Martin\|2007\|p\=16}} The show premiered on HBO on January 10, 1999, with the pilot "[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos_%28The_Sopranos_episode%29 "The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)")". Thirty episodes of *The Sopranos* are [explicitly credited](/wiki/WGA_screenwriting_credit_system "WGA screenwriting credit system") to Chase; however, as the show's creator, [showrunner](/wiki/Showrunner "Showrunner"), and [head writer](/wiki/Head_writer "Head writer"), he had a major role in all the scripts, including producing and touching up each script's final draft.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://ew.com/article/2007/04/06/set\-sopranos\-finale/ \|title\=Burying the Sopranos \|access\-date\=July 19, 2007 \|first\=Josh \|last\=Wolk \|date\=April 6, 2007 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] \|quote\=\[Chase] oversees everything, from writing the final polish on all scripts to supervising the editing of each episode. \|archive\-date\=October 9, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009041307/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20033896,00\.html \|url\-status\=live }} He also directed the pilot episode and the [series finale](/wiki/Made_in_America_%28The_Sopranos%29 "Made in America (The Sopranos)") (both of which he also wrote). Of the intentionally ambiguous final scene of the series finale that aired on June 10, 2007, Chase said, "I have no interest in explaining, defending, reinterpreting, or adding to what is there."{{cite news \|url\=http://blog.nj.com/alltv/2007/06/david\_chase\_speaks.html \|title\=David Chase speaks \|author\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=June 11, 2007 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Star\-Ledger]] \|access\-date\=May 14, 2009 \|archive\-date\=August 10, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810220656/http://blog.nj.com/alltv/2007/06/david\_chase\_speaks.html \|url\-status\=live }} In 2022, Chase and [Phil Abraham](/wiki/Phil_Abraham "Phil Abraham") created a 2022 Super Bowl spot for Commonwealth / McCann with two characters from the show who appear in a 2021 New York City/New Jersey setting.{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-features/sopranos\-super\-bowl\-ad\-commercial\-1299610/\|title\=A 'Sopranos' Expert Analyzes Chevy's Meadow and AJ Super Bowl Commercial\|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]\|date \= February 13, 2022}} In September 2024, HBO released a two\-part documentary called *[Wise Guy: David Chase and the Sopranos](/wiki/Wise_Guy:David_Chase_and_the_Sopranos "David Chase and the Sopranos")*.{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/2024/film/reviews/wise\-guy\-david\-chase\-and\-the\-sopranos\-review\-alex\-gibney\-1236037610/amp/\|title\='Wise Guy: David Chase and the Sopranos' Review: Alex Gibney's Sensationally Artful Documentary Explores Every Angle of TV's Greatest Show\|publisher\=Variety\|date\=June 14, 2024}} * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + {{hidden\|''The Sopranos'' credits\| ;Writer \*"\[\[The Sopranos (pilot episode)\|The Sopranos]]" ''(episode 1\.01\)'' \*"\[\[46 Long]]" ''(episode 1\.02\)'' \*"\[\[College (The Sopranos episode)\|College]]" ''(episode 1\.05\)'' (with \[\[Jim Manos, Jr.]]) \*"\[\[The Legend of Tennessee Moltisanti]]" ''(episode 1\.08\)'' (with \[\[Frank Renzulli]]) \*"\[\[I Dream of Jeannie Cusamano]]" ''(episode 1\.13\)'' \*"\[\[Commendatori]]" ''(episode 2\.04\)'' \*"\[\[Funhouse (The Sopranos episode)\|Funhouse]]" ''(episode 2\.13\)'' (with \[\[Todd A. Kessler]]) \*"\[\[Mr. Ruggerio's Neighborhood]]" ''(episode 3\.01\)'' \*"\[\[Proshai, Livushka]]" ''(episode 3\.02\)'' \*"\[\[University (The Sopranos)\|University]]" '' (episode 3\.06\) '' (story credit) \*"\[\[Amour Fou]]" '' (episode 3\.12\) '' (story credit) \*"\[\[Army of One (The Sopranos episode)\|Army of One]]" ''(episode 3\.13\)'' (with \[\[Lawrence Konner]]) \*"\[\[For All Debts Public and Private]]" ''(episode 4\.01\)'' \*"\[\[No Show]]" ''(episode 4\.02\)'' (with \[\[Terence Winter]]) \*"\[\[Watching Too Much Television]]" '' (episode 4\.07\) '' (story credit) \*"\[\[Mergers and Acquisitions (The Sopranos)\|Mergers and Acquisitions]]" '' (episode 4\.08\) '' (story credit) \*"\[\[The Strong, Silent Type]]" '' (episode 4\.10\) '' (story credit) \*"\[\[Calling All Cars (The Sopranos episode)\|Calling All Cars]]" ''(episode 4\.11\)'' (with \[\[Robin Green]] \& \[\[Mitchell Burgess]] and David Flebotte) \*"\[\[Whitecaps (The Sopranos episode)\|Whitecaps]]" ''(episode 4\.13\)'' (with Robin Green \& Mitchell Burgess) \*"\[\[Two Tonys]]" ''(episode 5\.01\)'' (with Terence Winter) \*"\[\[The Test Dream]]" ''(episode 5\.11\)'' (with \[\[Matthew Weiner]]) \*"\[\[All Due Respect (The Sopranos)\|All Due Respect]]" ''(episode 5\.13\)'' (with Robin Green \& Mitchell Burgess) \*"\[\[Join the Club]]" ''(episode 6\.02\)'' \*"\[\[Live Free or Die (The Sopranos episode)\|Live Free or Die]]" ''(episode 6\.06\)'' (with Robin Green \& Mitchell Burgess and Terence Winter) \*"\[\[Cold Stones]]" ''(episode 6\.11\)'' (with \[\[Diane Frolov]] \& \[\[Andrew Schneider]]) \*"\[\[Kaisha (The Sopranos)\|Kaisha]]" ''(episode 6\.12\)'' (with Matthew Weiner and Terence Winter) \*"\[\[Soprano Home Movies]]" ''(episode 6\.13\)'' (with Diane Frolov \& Andrew Schneider and Matthew Weiner) \*"\[\[Kennedy and Heidi]]" ''(episode 6\.18\)'' (with Matthew Weiner) \*"\[\[The Blue Comet]]" ''(episode 6\.20\)'' (with Matthew Weiner) \*"\[\[Made in America (The Sopranos)\|Made in America]]" ''(episode 6\.21\)'' ;Director \*"\[\[The Sopranos (pilot episode)\|The Sopranos]]" ''(episode 1\.01\)'' \*"\[\[Made in America (The Sopranos)\|Made in America]]" ''(episode 6\.21\)'' ;Actor Chase appeared as a man sitting at an outdoor cafe in \[\[Naples]], Italy smoking a cigarette in the season two episode "\[\[Commendatori]]". He also appeared as an airline passenger en route to Italy in season six's "\[\[Luxury Lounge]]". His voice was also used over the phone in the episode "The Test Dream".}} ### *Not Fade Away* *[Not Fade Away](/wiki/Not_Fade_Away_%28film%29 "Not Fade Away (film)")* (2012\), Chase's feature film debut, was released on December 21, 2012\. It centers on the lead singer of a teenage [rock 'n' roll](/wiki/Rock_and_roll "Rock and roll") band (played by [John Magaro](/wiki/John_Magaro "John Magaro")) in 1960s New Jersey.{{cite web\|author\=McNary, Dave\|date\=January 24, 2011\|title\=Gandolfini, Chase reconnect at 'Twylight'\|url\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118030784?refCatId\=13\|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|access\-date\=February 1, 2011\|quote\=\[\[James Gandolfini\|Gandolfini]]'s on board to portray the father of a teen in a rock band, set in 1960s suburbia. John Magaro will play his son. ... Chase, creator of 'The Sopranos,' signed on in 2008 to write, direct and produce the feature.\|archive\-date\=January 31, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131073401/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118030784?refCatId\=13\|url\-status\=live}} {{cite web\|author\=Andreeva, Nellie\|date\=January 24, 2011\|title\='Sopranos' Big\-Screen Reunion: James Gandolfini Joins David Chase's New Movie\|url\=https://www.deadline.com/2011/01/its\-a\-sopranos\-big\-screen\-reunion\-james\-gandolfini\-joins\-david\-chases\-new\-movie/\|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]\|publisher\=\[\[Mail.com Media\|Mail.com Media Corporation]]\|access\-date\=February 1, 2011\|quote\=The Paramount\-produced ''Twylight Zones'' is described as a drama about a New Jersey Rock'n'Roll band and the musical renaissance of the 1960s. It centers on Douglas (John Magaro), a socially awkward teen who begins to shine as lead singer in his band, The Twylight Zones. Gandolfini will play his father...\|archive\-date\=January 5, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105192413/https://deadline.com/2011/01/its\-a\-sopranos\-big\-screen\-reunion\-james\-gandolfini\-joins\-david\-chases\-new\-movie\-99778/\|url\-status\=live}}* {{cite web \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content\_display/news/e3ib047da6a5b38efff82fce8ce8a24d26b \|title\='Sopranos' creator to direct coming\-of\-age film \|author\=Jay A. Fernandez \|date\=March 8, 2010 \|work\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \|access\-date\=April 13, 2010 \|archive\-date\=March 12, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312140440/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content\_display/news/e3ib047da6a5b38efff82fce8ce8a24d26b \|url\-status\=live }} Described as "a music\-driven coming\-of\-age story," the film reunites Chase with James Gandolfini (former star of *Sopranos*), who co\-stars as Magaro's father. Other cast members include [Bella Heathcote](/wiki/Bella_Heathcote "Bella Heathcote"), [Christopher McDonald](/wiki/Christopher_McDonald "Christopher McDonald"), [Molly Price](/wiki/Molly_Price "Molly Price"), [Lisa Lampanelli](/wiki/Lisa_Lampanelli "Lisa Lampanelli"), [Jack Huston](/wiki/Jack_Huston "Jack Huston") and [Brad Garrett](/wiki/Brad_Garrett "Brad Garrett"). Chase himself has described the film as about "a post\-war, post\-Depression\-era parent who has given his kid every advantage that he didn't have growing up, but now can't help feeling jealous of the liberated, more adventurous destiny his son is able to enjoy." Another former *Sopranos* cast member, [Steven Van Zandt](/wiki/Steven_Van_Zandt "Steven Van Zandt"), served as music supervisor and executive producer.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nextmovie.com/blog/brad\-garrett\-david\-chase\-musical\-movie/ \|title\=Brad Garrett Moves To David Chase's Musical Movie \|publisher\=NextMovie \|date\=February 3, 2011 \|access\-date\=February 13, 2012 \|archive\-date\=March 15, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315235427/http://www.nextmovie.com/blog/brad\-garrett\-david\-chase\-musical\-movie/ \|url\-status\=live }} ### *The Many Saints of Newark* Although Chase was "against \[the movie] for a long time",{{Cite web \|url\=https://deadline.com/2019/01/the\-sopranos\-david\-chase\-20th\-anniversary\-prequel\-film\-tony\-soprano\-the\-many\-saints\-of\-newark\-1202530544/ \|title\='The Sopranos' Creator David Chase Offers Glimpses Of Prequel Movie As Groundbreaking HBO Series Turns 20 \|last\=Fleming \|first\=Mike Jr. \|date\=January 7, 2019 \|website\=Deadline \|language\=en \|access\-date\=January 23, 2019 \|archive\-date\=January 22, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122135017/https://deadline.com/2019/01/the\-sopranos\-david\-chase\-20th\-anniversary\-prequel\-film\-tony\-soprano\-the\-many\-saints\-of\-newark\-1202530544/ \|url\-status\=live }} *[Deadline Hollywood](/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood "Deadline Hollywood")* reported in March 2018 that [New Line Cinema](/wiki/New_Line_Cinema "New Line Cinema") had purchased the script for *[The Many Saints of Newark](/wiki/The_Many_Saints_of_Newark "The Many Saints of Newark")*, a prequel to *The Sopranos* written by Chase and fellow screenwriter [Lawrence Konner](/wiki/Lawrence_Konner "Lawrence Konner"). Chase said of the storyline, which centers on the [1967 Newark riots](/wiki/1967_Newark_riots "1967 Newark riots") and racial tensions between the Italian\-American and African\-American communities, "I was interested in Newark and life in Newark at that time... I used to go down there every Saturday night for dinner with my grandparents. But the thing that interested me most was Tony's boyhood. I was interested in exploring that." Chase served as producer, and in July 2018, [Alan Taylor](/wiki/Alan_Taylor_%28director%29 "Alan Taylor (director)"), who previously directed episodes of the series, was hired to direct the film.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sopranos\-prequel\-movie\-taps\-director\-alan\-taylor\-1124896 \|title\='Sopranos' Prequel Movie Taps Former Series Director Alan Taylor \|work\=The Hollywood Reporter \|first\=Mia \|last\=Galuppo \|date\=July 3, 2018 \|access\-date\=April 3, 2019 \|archive\-date\=April 3, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133734/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sopranos\-prequel\-movie\-taps\-director\-alan\-taylor\-1124896 \|url\-status\=live }} The film was initially scheduled to be released on September 25, 2020,{{Cite web \|url\=https://deadline.com/2019/03/sopranos\-prequel\-movie\-opens\-september\-2020\-1202575803/ \|title\=Warner Bros Dates 'Sopranos' Prequel 'The Many Saints Of Newark' For Fall 2020 – Update \|last\=D'Alessandro \|first\=Anthony \|date\=March 15, 2019 \|website\=Deadline \|language\=en \|access\-date\=March 25, 2019 \|archive\-date\=March 15, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315091053/https://deadline.com/2019/03/sopranos\-prequel\-movie\-opens\-september\-2020\-1202575803/ \|url\-status\=live }} however, due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic in the United States](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States"), its release date was rescheduled to March 12, 2021{{cite web \|url\=https://deadline.com/2020/04/the\-batman\-sopranos\-prequel\-tom\-elvis\-presley\-movie\-warner\-bros\-release\-dates\-changes\-coronavirus\-1202912605/ \|title\='The Batman' Flies To Fall 2021, 'Sopranos' Prequel Moves To March \& More As Warner Bros. Makes Release Date Changes Due To COVID\-19 Climate \|website\=Deadline Hollywood \|first\=Anthony \|last\=D'Alessandro \|date\=April 20, 2020 \|access\-date\=April 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420202338/https://deadline.com/2020/04/the\-batman\-sopranos\-prequel\-tom\-elvis\-presley\-movie\-warner\-bros\-release\-dates\-changes\-coronavirus\-1202912605/ \|archive\-date\=April 20, 2020 \|url\-status\=live}} and later September 24, 2021{{cite web\|url\=https://variety.com/2021/film/news/sopranos\-many\-saints\-of\-newark\-release\-date\-delay\-1234878777/\|title\='Many Saints of Newark' Delayed to Fall 2021 (EXCLUSIVE)\|website\=Variety\|first\=Rebecca\|last\=Rubin\|date\=January 13, 2021\|access\-date\=January 13, 2021\|archive\-date\=January 14, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114000151/https://variety.com/2021/film/news/sopranos\-many\-saints\-of\-newark\-release\-date\-delay\-1234878777/\|url\-status\=live}} before ultimately being released on October 1, 2021\. In October 2021, he and his Chase Films production company struck a deal with WarnerMedia.{{Cite web\|last\=White\|first\=Peter\|date\=October 1, 2021\|title\=David Chase Strikes Five\-Year First\-Look TV \& Film Deal With WarnerMedia\|url\=https://deadline.com/2021/10/david\-chase\-five\-year\-first\-look\-deal\-warnermedia\-sopranos\-1234847954/\|access\-date\=October 2, 2021\|website\=Deadline\|language\=en\-US}} In March 2024, it was revealed that he will be directing an untitled horror movie for New Line Cinema.{{Cite web \|last\=Jr \|first\=Mike Fleming \|date\=2024\-03\-19 \|title\='The Sopranos' Creator David Chase \& EP Terence Winter Set Up Untitled Horror Film At New Line; Chase To Direct \|url\=https://deadline.com/2024/03/the\-sopranos\-david\-chase\-terence\-winter\-set\-untitled\-horror\-film\-new\-line\-chase\-to\-direct\-1235862423/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-20 \|website\=Deadline \|language\=en\-US}} The screenplay will be written with Terrence Winter.
[ "Career\n------", "Chase started in Hollywood as a [story editor](/wiki/Story_editor \"Story editor\") for *[Kolchak: The Night Stalker](/wiki/Kolchak:The_Night_Stalker \"The Night Stalker\")* and then produced episodes of *[The Rockford Files](/wiki/The_Rockford_Files \"The Rockford Files\")* and *[Northern Exposure](/wiki/Northern_Exposure \"Northern Exposure\")*, among other series. He also worked as a writer of 19 [episodes](/wiki/List_of_The_Rockford_Files_writers%23David_Chase \"List of The Rockford Files writers#David Chase\") while on *The Rockford Files*—a show which he worked on in various capacities for more than four years. He won several Emmy awards, including one for a television movie, *Off the Minnesota Strip*, the story of a [runaway](/wiki/Runaway_youth \"Runaway youth\") he scripted in 1980\\. His first original created series was *[Almost Grown](/wiki/Almost_Grown_%28television_show%29 \"Almost Grown (television show)\")* in 1988, with [Eve Gordon](/wiki/Eve_Gordon \"Eve Gordon\") and [Timothy Daly](/wiki/Timothy_Daly \"Timothy Daly\").Baker, Kathryn. (November 23, 1988\\) [Wichita Eagle](/wiki/Wichita_Eagle \"Wichita Eagle\"). *\"Almost Grown: tells story of growing up.* Section:Lifestyle; Page 9A. Although the one\\-hour series was well received by critics,Bark, Ed. (October 2, 1988\\) [Dallas Morning News](/wiki/Dallas_Morning_News \"Dallas Morning News\") *A critic picks the season's top ten.* Section: Arts \\& Entertainment; page 1C. only 10 episodes aired from November 1988 to February 1989\\.[Vero Beach Press Journal](/wiki/Scripps_Treasure_Coast_Newspapers \"Scripps Treasure Coast Newspapers\") (November 12, 2000\\) *Pipline.* Section: TV Journal; Page 32\\.", "### *The Sopranos*", "Chase worked in relative anonymity before *[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos \"The Sopranos\")* debuted. The story of *The Sopranos* was initially conceived as a feature film about \"a mobster in therapy having problems with his mother\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wga.org/writtenby/writtenbysub.aspx?id\\=2354 \\|title\\=Wiseguys: A conversation between David Chase and Tom Fontana. \\|last\\=Lee \\|first\\=Mark \\|date\\=May 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2007 \\|publisher\\=Writers Guild of America, west \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116222056/http://www.wga.org/writtenby/writtenbysub.aspx?id\\=2354 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 16, 2007}} Chase got some input from his manager [Lloyd Braun](/wiki/Lloyd_Braun_%28media_executive%29 \"Lloyd Braun (media executive)\") and decided to adapt it into a television series. He signed a development deal in 1995 with production company Brillstein\\-Grey and wrote the original pilot script.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article\\_id\\=37319 \\|title\\=Family Man \\|last\\=Oxfeld \\|first\\=Jesse \\|date\\=September 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=September 22, 2007 \\|magazine\\=Stanford Magazine \\|archive\\-date\\=January 27, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127093946/http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article\\_id\\=37319 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite video \\|people\\=Chase, David; \\[\\[Peter Bogdanovich\\|Bogdanovich, Peter]] \\|title\\=The Sopranos – The Complete First Season: David Chase interview \\|medium\\=DVD \\|publisher\\=HBO \\|date\\=1999}} He drew heavily from his personal life and his experiences growing up in New Jersey, and has stated that he tried to apply his own \"family dynamic to mobsters\".{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.salon.com/ent/int/1999/01/20int.html/ \\|title\\=Chasing TV \\|date\\=January 20, 1999 \\|last\\=Dougherty \\|first\\=Robin \\|work\\=\\[\\[Salon.com]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 22, 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922181315/http://www.salon.com/ent/int/1999/01/20int.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} For instance, the tumultuous relationship between series protagonist [Tony Soprano](/wiki/Tony_Soprano \"Tony Soprano\") and his mother [Livia](/wiki/Livia_Soprano \"Livia Soprano\") is partially based on Chase's relationship with his own mother. He was also in psychotherapy at the time and modeled the character of [Jennifer Melfi](/wiki/Jennifer_Melfi \"Jennifer Melfi\") after his own psychiatrist.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/9448169/sopranos\\_creator\\_shoots\\_straight \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108023127/http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/9448169/sopranos\\_creator\\_shoots\\_straight \\|archive\\-date\\=November 8, 2008 \\|title\\=\"Sopranos\" Creator Shoots Straight \\|last\\=Dana \\|first\\=Will \\|date\\=March 10, 2006 \\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2013}}", "Chase had been fascinated by organized crime and the [mafia](/wiki/American_Mafia \"American Mafia\") from an early age, witnessing such people growing up. He also was raised on classic gangster films such as *[The Public Enemy](/wiki/The_Public_Enemy \"The Public Enemy\")* and the crime series *[The Untouchables](/wiki/The_Untouchables_%281959_TV_series%29 \"The Untouchables (1959 TV series)\")*. The series is partly inspired by the [Richard Boiardo](/wiki/Richard_Boiardo \"Richard Boiardo\") family, a prominent New Jersey organized crime family when Chase was growing up, and partly on New Jersey's [DeCavalcante family](/wiki/DeCavalcante_crime_family \"DeCavalcante crime family\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.suntimes.com/news/otherviews/383832,CST\\-CONT\\-sopranos13\\.article \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516045310/http://www.suntimes.com/news/otherviews/383832%2CCST\\-CONT\\-sopranos13\\.article \\|archive\\-date\\=May 16, 2007 \\|title\\=Da Jersey boys who inspired The Sopranos \\|date\\=May 13, 2007 \\|first\\=Steven \\|last\\=Malanga \\|work\\=Chicago Sun\\-Times \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He has mentioned American playwrights [Arthur Miller](/wiki/Arthur_Miller \"Arthur Miller\") and [Tennessee Williams](/wiki/Tennessee_Williams \"Tennessee Williams\") as influences on the show's writing, and Italian director [Federico Fellini](/wiki/Federico_Fellini \"Federico Fellini\") as an important influence on the show's cinematic style.{{cite video \\|title\\=The Sopranos – The Complete Series: Alec Baldwin interviews David Chase \\|medium\\=DVD \\|publisher\\=HBO \\|date\\=2008}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2008/tv/news/the\\-sopranos\\-da\\-20855/ \\|title\\=\"The Sopranos\": David Chase fesses up \\|last\\=Levine \\|first\\=Stuart \\|work\\=Variety \\|date\\=April 23, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2008 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 16, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216131851/http://variety.com/2008/tv/news/the\\-sopranos\\-da\\-20855/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{sfn\\|Martin\\|2007\\|p\\=160}} The series was named after high school friends of his.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hbo.com/sopranos/cast/crew/david\\_chase.shtml \\|title\\=David Chase profile at HBO.com \\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2007 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[HBO]] \\|archive\\-date\\=February 19, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219201622/http://www.hbo.com/the\\-sopranos/cast\\-and\\-crew \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Chase and producer [Brad Grey](/wiki/Brad_Grey \"Brad Grey\") pitched *The Sopranos* to several networks; [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company \"Fox Broadcasting Company\") showed interest but passed on it after Chase presented them the pilot script. They eventually pitched the show to [Chris Albrecht](/wiki/Chris_Albrecht \"Chris Albrecht\"), president of HBO Original Programming, who decided to finance a pilot episode which was shot in 1997\\.It was originally referred to as \"Pilot\" but was renamed \"[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos_%28episode%29 \"The Sopranos (episode)\")\" on the DVD release.\n{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content\\_display/television/features/e3i5caaebc3b67867e5395b97e39aa8026d \\|title\\=Sopranos signoff marks end of era \\|last\\=Flaherty \\|first\\=Michael \\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|date\\=June 8, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921183451/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content\\_display/television/features/e3i5caaebc3b67867e5395b97e39aa8026d \\|archive\\-date\\=September 21, 2007}} Chase directed it himself. They finished the pilot and showed it to HBO executives, but the show was put on hold for several months. During this time, Chase, who had long experienced frustration at being unable to break out of TV and into film, considered asking HBO for additional funding to shoot 45 more minutes of footage and release *The Sopranos* as a feature film. In December 1997, HBO decided to produce the series and ordered 12 more episodes for a 13\\-episode season.{{sfn\\|Martin\\|2007\\|p\\=16}} The show premiered on HBO on January 10, 1999, with the pilot \"[The Sopranos](/wiki/The_Sopranos_%28The_Sopranos_episode%29 \"The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)\")\".", "Thirty episodes of *The Sopranos* are [explicitly credited](/wiki/WGA_screenwriting_credit_system \"WGA screenwriting credit system\") to Chase; however, as the show's creator, [showrunner](/wiki/Showrunner \"Showrunner\"), and [head writer](/wiki/Head_writer \"Head writer\"), he had a major role in all the scripts, including producing and touching up each script's final draft.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://ew.com/article/2007/04/06/set\\-sopranos\\-finale/ \\|title\\=Burying the Sopranos \\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2007 \\|first\\=Josh \\|last\\=Wolk \\|date\\=April 6, 2007 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] \\|quote\\=\\[Chase] oversees everything, from writing the final polish on all scripts to supervising the editing of each episode. \\|archive\\-date\\=October 9, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009041307/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20033896,00\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He also directed the pilot episode and the [series finale](/wiki/Made_in_America_%28The_Sopranos%29 \"Made in America (The Sopranos)\") (both of which he also wrote).", "Of the intentionally ambiguous final scene of the series finale that aired on June 10, 2007, Chase said, \"I have no interest in explaining, defending, reinterpreting, or adding to what is there.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://blog.nj.com/alltv/2007/06/david\\_chase\\_speaks.html \\|title\\=David Chase speaks \\|author\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=June 11, 2007 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Star\\-Ledger]] \\|access\\-date\\=May 14, 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810220656/http://blog.nj.com/alltv/2007/06/david\\_chase\\_speaks.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In 2022, Chase and [Phil Abraham](/wiki/Phil_Abraham \"Phil Abraham\") created a 2022 Super Bowl spot for Commonwealth / McCann with two characters from the show who appear in a 2021 New York City/New Jersey setting.{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-features/sopranos\\-super\\-bowl\\-ad\\-commercial\\-1299610/\\|title\\=A 'Sopranos' Expert Analyzes Chevy's Meadow and AJ Super Bowl Commercial\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]\\|date \\= February 13, 2022}}", "In September 2024, HBO released a two\\-part documentary called *[Wise Guy: David Chase and the Sopranos](/wiki/Wise_Guy:David_Chase_and_the_Sopranos \"David Chase and the Sopranos\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2024/film/reviews/wise\\-guy\\-david\\-chase\\-and\\-the\\-sopranos\\-review\\-alex\\-gibney\\-1236037610/amp/\\|title\\='Wise Guy: David Chase and the Sopranos' Review: Alex Gibney's Sensationally Artful Documentary Explores Every Angle of TV's Greatest Show\\|publisher\\=Variety\\|date\\=June 14, 2024}}", "* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + {{hidden\\|''The Sopranos'' credits\\|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Writer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[The Sopranos (pilot episode)\\|The Sopranos]]\" ''(episode 1\\.01\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[46 Long]]\" ''(episode 1\\.02\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[College (The Sopranos episode)\\|College]]\" ''(episode 1\\.05\\)'' (with \\[\\[Jim Manos, Jr.]])\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[The Legend of Tennessee Moltisanti]]\" ''(episode 1\\.08\\)'' (with \\[\\[Frank Renzulli]])\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[I Dream of Jeannie Cusamano]]\" ''(episode 1\\.13\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Commendatori]]\" ''(episode 2\\.04\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Funhouse (The Sopranos episode)\\|Funhouse]]\" ''(episode 2\\.13\\)'' (with \\[\\[Todd A. Kessler]])\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Mr. Ruggerio's Neighborhood]]\" ''(episode 3\\.01\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Proshai, Livushka]]\" ''(episode 3\\.02\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[University (The Sopranos)\\|University]]\" '' (episode 3\\.06\\) '' (story credit)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Amour Fou]]\" '' (episode 3\\.12\\) '' (story credit)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Army of One (The Sopranos episode)\\|Army of One]]\" ''(episode 3\\.13\\)'' (with \\[\\[Lawrence Konner]])\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[For All Debts Public and Private]]\" ''(episode 4\\.01\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[No Show]]\" ''(episode 4\\.02\\)'' (with \\[\\[Terence Winter]])\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Watching Too Much Television]]\" '' (episode 4\\.07\\) '' (story credit)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Mergers and Acquisitions (The Sopranos)\\|Mergers and Acquisitions]]\" '' (episode 4\\.08\\) '' (story credit)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[The Strong, Silent Type]]\" '' (episode 4\\.10\\) '' (story credit)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Calling All Cars (The Sopranos episode)\\|Calling All Cars]]\" ''(episode 4\\.11\\)'' (with \\[\\[Robin Green]] \\& \\[\\[Mitchell Burgess]] and David Flebotte)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Whitecaps (The Sopranos episode)\\|Whitecaps]]\" ''(episode 4\\.13\\)'' (with Robin Green \\& Mitchell Burgess)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Two Tonys]]\" ''(episode 5\\.01\\)'' (with Terence Winter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[The Test Dream]]\" ''(episode 5\\.11\\)'' (with \\[\\[Matthew Weiner]])\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[All Due Respect (The Sopranos)\\|All Due Respect]]\" ''(episode 5\\.13\\)'' (with Robin Green \\& Mitchell Burgess)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Join the Club]]\" ''(episode 6\\.02\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Live Free or Die (The Sopranos episode)\\|Live Free or Die]]\" ''(episode 6\\.06\\)'' (with Robin Green \\& Mitchell Burgess and Terence Winter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Cold Stones]]\" ''(episode 6\\.11\\)'' (with \\[\\[Diane Frolov]] \\& \\[\\[Andrew Schneider]])\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Kaisha (The Sopranos)\\|Kaisha]]\" ''(episode 6\\.12\\)'' (with Matthew Weiner and Terence Winter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Soprano Home Movies]]\" ''(episode 6\\.13\\)'' (with Diane Frolov \\& Andrew Schneider and Matthew Weiner)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Kennedy and Heidi]]\" ''(episode 6\\.18\\)'' (with Matthew Weiner)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[The Blue Comet]]\" ''(episode 6\\.20\\)'' (with Matthew Weiner)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Made in America (The Sopranos)\\|Made in America]]\" ''(episode 6\\.21\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Director\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[The Sopranos (pilot episode)\\|The Sopranos]]\" ''(episode 1\\.01\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*\"\\[\\[Made in America (The Sopranos)\\|Made in America]]\" ''(episode 6\\.21\\)''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Actor\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChase appeared as a man sitting at an outdoor cafe in \\[\\[Naples]], Italy smoking a cigarette in the season two episode \"\\[\\[Commendatori]]\". He also appeared as an airline passenger en route to Italy in season six's \"\\[\\[Luxury Lounge]]\". His voice was also used over the phone in the episode \"The Test Dream\".}}\n### *Not Fade Away*", "*[Not Fade Away](/wiki/Not_Fade_Away_%28film%29 \"Not Fade Away (film)\")* (2012\\), Chase's feature film debut, was released on December 21, 2012\\. It centers on the lead singer of a teenage [rock 'n' roll](/wiki/Rock_and_roll \"Rock and roll\") band (played by [John Magaro](/wiki/John_Magaro \"John Magaro\")) in 1960s New Jersey.{{cite web\\|author\\=McNary, Dave\\|date\\=January 24, 2011\\|title\\=Gandolfini, Chase reconnect at 'Twylight'\\|url\\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118030784?refCatId\\=13\\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|access\\-date\\=February 1, 2011\\|quote\\=\\[\\[James Gandolfini\\|Gandolfini]]'s on board to portray the father of a teen in a rock band, set in 1960s suburbia. John Magaro will play his son. ... Chase, creator of 'The Sopranos,' signed on in 2008 to write, direct and produce the feature.\\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131073401/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118030784?refCatId\\=13\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n{{cite web\\|author\\=Andreeva, Nellie\\|date\\=January 24, 2011\\|title\\='Sopranos' Big\\-Screen Reunion: James Gandolfini Joins David Chase's New Movie\\|url\\=https://www.deadline.com/2011/01/its\\-a\\-sopranos\\-big\\-screen\\-reunion\\-james\\-gandolfini\\-joins\\-david\\-chases\\-new\\-movie/\\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Mail.com Media\\|Mail.com Media Corporation]]\\|access\\-date\\=February 1, 2011\\|quote\\=The Paramount\\-produced ''Twylight Zones'' is described as a drama about a New Jersey Rock'n'Roll band and the musical renaissance of the 1960s. It centers on Douglas (John Magaro), a socially awkward teen who begins to shine as lead singer in his band, The Twylight Zones. Gandolfini will play his father...\\|archive\\-date\\=January 5, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105192413/https://deadline.com/2011/01/its\\-a\\-sopranos\\-big\\-screen\\-reunion\\-james\\-gandolfini\\-joins\\-david\\-chases\\-new\\-movie\\-99778/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}* {{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content\\_display/news/e3ib047da6a5b38efff82fce8ce8a24d26b \\|title\\='Sopranos' creator to direct coming\\-of\\-age film \\|author\\=Jay A. Fernandez \\|date\\=March 8, 2010 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 12, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312140440/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content\\_display/news/e3ib047da6a5b38efff82fce8ce8a24d26b \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Described as \"a music\\-driven coming\\-of\\-age story,\" the film reunites Chase with James Gandolfini (former star of *Sopranos*), who co\\-stars as Magaro's father. Other cast members include [Bella Heathcote](/wiki/Bella_Heathcote \"Bella Heathcote\"), [Christopher McDonald](/wiki/Christopher_McDonald \"Christopher McDonald\"), [Molly Price](/wiki/Molly_Price \"Molly Price\"), [Lisa Lampanelli](/wiki/Lisa_Lampanelli \"Lisa Lampanelli\"), [Jack Huston](/wiki/Jack_Huston \"Jack Huston\") and [Brad Garrett](/wiki/Brad_Garrett \"Brad Garrett\"). Chase himself has described the film as about \"a post\\-war, post\\-Depression\\-era parent who has given his kid every advantage that he didn't have growing up, but now can't help feeling jealous of the liberated, more adventurous destiny his son is able to enjoy.\" Another former *Sopranos* cast member, [Steven Van Zandt](/wiki/Steven_Van_Zandt \"Steven Van Zandt\"), served as music supervisor and executive producer.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nextmovie.com/blog/brad\\-garrett\\-david\\-chase\\-musical\\-movie/ \\|title\\=Brad Garrett Moves To David Chase's Musical Movie \\|publisher\\=NextMovie \\|date\\=February 3, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=February 13, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 15, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315235427/http://www.nextmovie.com/blog/brad\\-garrett\\-david\\-chase\\-musical\\-movie/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### *The Many Saints of Newark*", "Although Chase was \"against \\[the movie] for a long time\",{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2019/01/the\\-sopranos\\-david\\-chase\\-20th\\-anniversary\\-prequel\\-film\\-tony\\-soprano\\-the\\-many\\-saints\\-of\\-newark\\-1202530544/ \\|title\\='The Sopranos' Creator David Chase Offers Glimpses Of Prequel Movie As Groundbreaking HBO Series Turns 20 \\|last\\=Fleming \\|first\\=Mike Jr. \\|date\\=January 7, 2019 \\|website\\=Deadline \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=January 23, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 22, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122135017/https://deadline.com/2019/01/the\\-sopranos\\-david\\-chase\\-20th\\-anniversary\\-prequel\\-film\\-tony\\-soprano\\-the\\-many\\-saints\\-of\\-newark\\-1202530544/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} *[Deadline Hollywood](/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood \"Deadline Hollywood\")* reported in March 2018 that [New Line Cinema](/wiki/New_Line_Cinema \"New Line Cinema\") had purchased the script for *[The Many Saints of Newark](/wiki/The_Many_Saints_of_Newark \"The Many Saints of Newark\")*, a prequel to *The Sopranos* written by Chase and fellow screenwriter [Lawrence Konner](/wiki/Lawrence_Konner \"Lawrence Konner\"). Chase said of the storyline, which centers on the [1967 Newark riots](/wiki/1967_Newark_riots \"1967 Newark riots\") and racial tensions between the Italian\\-American and African\\-American communities, \"I was interested in Newark and life in Newark at that time... I used to go down there every Saturday night for dinner with my grandparents. But the thing that interested me most was Tony's boyhood. I was interested in exploring that.\" Chase served as producer, and in July 2018, [Alan Taylor](/wiki/Alan_Taylor_%28director%29 \"Alan Taylor (director)\"), who previously directed episodes of the series, was hired to direct the film.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sopranos\\-prequel\\-movie\\-taps\\-director\\-alan\\-taylor\\-1124896 \\|title\\='Sopranos' Prequel Movie Taps Former Series Director Alan Taylor \\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|first\\=Mia \\|last\\=Galuppo \\|date\\=July 3, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=April 3, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 3, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133734/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sopranos\\-prequel\\-movie\\-taps\\-director\\-alan\\-taylor\\-1124896 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The film was initially scheduled to be released on September 25, 2020,{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2019/03/sopranos\\-prequel\\-movie\\-opens\\-september\\-2020\\-1202575803/ \\|title\\=Warner Bros Dates 'Sopranos' Prequel 'The Many Saints Of Newark' For Fall 2020 – Update \\|last\\=D'Alessandro \\|first\\=Anthony \\|date\\=March 15, 2019 \\|website\\=Deadline \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=March 25, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 15, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315091053/https://deadline.com/2019/03/sopranos\\-prequel\\-movie\\-opens\\-september\\-2020\\-1202575803/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} however, due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic in the United States](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States \"COVID-19 pandemic in the United States\"), its release date was rescheduled to March 12, 2021{{cite web \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2020/04/the\\-batman\\-sopranos\\-prequel\\-tom\\-elvis\\-presley\\-movie\\-warner\\-bros\\-release\\-dates\\-changes\\-coronavirus\\-1202912605/ \\|title\\='The Batman' Flies To Fall 2021, 'Sopranos' Prequel Moves To March \\& More As Warner Bros. Makes Release Date Changes Due To COVID\\-19 Climate \\|website\\=Deadline Hollywood \\|first\\=Anthony \\|last\\=D'Alessandro \\|date\\=April 20, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=April 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420202338/https://deadline.com/2020/04/the\\-batman\\-sopranos\\-prequel\\-tom\\-elvis\\-presley\\-movie\\-warner\\-bros\\-release\\-dates\\-changes\\-coronavirus\\-1202912605/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 20, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} and later September 24, 2021{{cite web\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2021/film/news/sopranos\\-many\\-saints\\-of\\-newark\\-release\\-date\\-delay\\-1234878777/\\|title\\='Many Saints of Newark' Delayed to Fall 2021 (EXCLUSIVE)\\|website\\=Variety\\|first\\=Rebecca\\|last\\=Rubin\\|date\\=January 13, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=January 14, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114000151/https://variety.com/2021/film/news/sopranos\\-many\\-saints\\-of\\-newark\\-release\\-date\\-delay\\-1234878777/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} before ultimately being released on October 1, 2021\\.", "In October 2021, he and his Chase Films production company struck a deal with WarnerMedia.{{Cite web\\|last\\=White\\|first\\=Peter\\|date\\=October 1, 2021\\|title\\=David Chase Strikes Five\\-Year First\\-Look TV \\& Film Deal With WarnerMedia\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2021/10/david\\-chase\\-five\\-year\\-first\\-look\\-deal\\-warnermedia\\-sopranos\\-1234847954/\\|access\\-date\\=October 2, 2021\\|website\\=Deadline\\|language\\=en\\-US}} In March 2024, it was revealed that he will be directing an untitled horror movie for New Line Cinema.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Jr \\|first\\=Mike Fleming \\|date\\=2024\\-03\\-19 \\|title\\='The Sopranos' Creator David Chase \\& EP Terence Winter Set Up Untitled Horror Film At New Line; Chase To Direct \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2024/03/the\\-sopranos\\-david\\-chase\\-terence\\-winter\\-set\\-untitled\\-horror\\-film\\-new\\-line\\-chase\\-to\\-direct\\-1235862423/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-20 \\|website\\=Deadline \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The screenplay will be written with Terrence Winter.", "" ]
First generation (1998–2002\) ----------------------------- {{Infobox automobile \| name \= First generation \| model\_code \= UN173 \| model\_years \= 1998–2002 \| image \= 2001–02 Lincoln Navigator in College Park, Maryland (December 15, 2007\).jpg \| assembly \= \[\[Wayne, Michigan]], U.S. (\[\[Michigan Assembly Plant]]) \| length \= {{convert\|204\.8\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| width \= 1998–99: {{convert\|79\.8\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} 2000–02: {{convert\|79\.9\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| wheelbase \= {{convert\|119\.0\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| height \= 2000–02 2WD: {{convert\|75\.2\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} 1998–99 2WD: {{convert\|72\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} 2000–02 4WD: {{convert\|76\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} 1998–99 4WD: {{convert\|76\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| related \= \[\[Lincoln Blackwood]] \| platform \= \| transmission \= 4\-speed \[\[Ford C6 transmission\#4R100\|4R100]] automatic \| engine \= 5\.4 L ''\[\[Ford Triton engine\#2\-valve Triton\|Triton]]'' \[\[SOHC]] \[\[V8 engine\|V8]] 5\.4 L ''\[\[Ford Triton engine\#Intech\|InTech]]'' \[\[DOHC]] V8 \| production \= May 1997 – March 2002 \| designer \= Fritz Mayhew (1994\) }} The Lincoln Navigator was launched on July 1, 1997, for the 1998 model year, with the first vehicle rolling off the assembly line on May 14, 1997\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/press/date/19970514/press002443\.html\|title\=Lincoln Navigator Rolls Out With Large Order Bank\|date\=May 14, 1997\|access\-date\=February 28, 2009\|work\=theautochannel.com}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/date/19970610/news003273\.html\|title\=Lincoln Navigator (1998\) Debuts Sans Jackie Stewart.\|date\=June 10, 1997\|work\=The Auto Channel\|author\=Maloney, Bill}} Based directly on the [Ford Expedition](/wiki/Ford_Expedition "Ford Expedition"), introduced the year before, the Navigator gave the Lincoln\-Mercury division its first full\-size SUV (slotted above the Ford Explorer\-based [Mercury Mountaineer](/wiki/Mercury_Mountaineer "Mercury Mountaineer")). In its first calendar year of sales (i.e. 1998\), Navigator contributed to an unprecedented event of recent decades – with Lincoln overtaking perennial rival [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac%23Competition_with_Lincoln_-_Escalade "Cadillac#Competition with Lincoln - Escalade") in annual sales volume. Initially, published figures indicated that Cadillac had outsold Lincoln by a scant 222 vehicles sold, thanks to an enormous surge in Cadillac Escalade sales in December 1998, from hundreds in previous months to almost 5,000\. A subsequent audit resulted in a retraction/apology in May 1999, attributing the "error" to "overzealous" "low\-level" employees.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1999\-may\-06\-fi\-34467\-story.html\|title\=Cadillac Apologizes to Lincoln for Inflating Sales Numbers – Los Angeles Times\|last\=O'Dell\|first\=John\|date\=May 6, 1999\|publisher\=Articles.latimes.com\|access\-date\=May 7, 2010}} ### Chassis The Lincoln Navigator was also developed under the Ford program code name UN173, with the Expedition developed under the UN93 program code name.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.linkedin.com/in/frankquenneville\|title\=Frank Quenneville\|publisher\=LinkedIn\|access\-date\=October 15, 2010}} A full\-size body\-on\-frame vehicle, the Navigator was mechanically related to the Ford Expedition; both vehicles were related to the [1997 Ford F\-Series](/wiki/Ford_F-Series_tenth_generation "Ford F-Series tenth generation"). The Navigator featured independent front suspension (short\-long arm/SLA); the rear suspension was of a live rear axle design. Using an optional feature from its Ford counterpart, the Navigator was designed with load\-leveling [air suspension](/wiki/Air_suspension "Air suspension"); tuned primarily for ride comfort, the air suspension lowered itself when the vehicle was parked. Although technically available with rear\-wheel drive, the primary drivetrain on the Lincoln Navigator was [ControlTrac](/wiki/ControlTrac "ControlTrac"), a computer\-controlled automatic four\-wheel drive system. As with the Expedition, the Navigator was fitted with four\-wheel anti\-lock disc brakes. Using the same 230 hp 5\.4L Triton V8 as the Expedition/F\-150 paired with the 4\-speed 4R100 automatic transmission, the 1998 Lincoln Navigator came with a towing capacity of {{convert\|7700\|lb\|\|0\|abbr\=on}}.Bartlett, Jeff. "One\-Year Test Verdict: 1998 Lincoln Navigator." *Motor Trend*. 1999\. During 1999, Lincoln would fit two different engines in the Navigator in an effort to better match full\-size SUVs from General Motors. At the beginning of the model year, the Triton V8 was upgraded to 260 hp; as a running change during the model year, Lincoln would replace the SOHC Triton with a 300 hp DOHC 5\.4L V8, named InTech (borrowing a name from the Mark VIII). Due to the increase in power, towing capacity would increase to over {{convert\|8500\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. ### Body Although the Lincoln Navigator shares the same bodyshell as the Ford Expedition, giving it a similar exterior appearance, Lincoln stylists would make many design changes to differentiate the two vehicles. Forward of the windshield, the Lincoln Navigator shares no body panels with its Ford counterpart, with its own front fascia (a grille design shared with the 1998 Lincoln Town Car and the 2000 Lincoln LS), wheels, roof rack, lower body trim, and taillights. The interior of the two vehicles shared more commonality, with the dashboard common to both vehicles (with greater use of wood trim); the Navigator was given its own seat design. To make for a quieter interior over the Expedition and Ford F\-Series, the Navigator made greater use of sound deadening materials and higher\-quality carpeting. The Lincoln Navigator included standard features available or optional on the Expedition, including power driver and passenger bucket seats, 2nd\-row bucket seats (with a 2nd\-row bench seat as a delete option), floor consoles, and keyless entry. The few options available included a power moonroof, a universal garage door opener, 7 seven to 8 eight passenger seating an electrochromic rearview mirror (filtering out headlight glare from vehicles seen in the mirror), and a premium audio system (a seven speaker, 290\-Watt audio system with a 6\-disc front console\-mounted CD\-changer, and rear seat audio controls), and 17\-inch alloy wheels."1998 Lincoln Navigator Review." The Car Connection. 2008\. <http://www.thecarconnection.com/fullreview/lincoln_navigator_1998> Some of the unique features on the first\-generation Navigator were power\-adjustable pedals (a first\-of\-its\-kind feature on a luxury SUV), a feature on the factory radio that only illuminated the controls necessary for the selected function, full controls for the audio system, climate controls, and cruise controls on the front of the steering wheel, and rear seat radio and climate controls. During its production run, Lincoln made few changes to the first\-generation Navigator. In 1999, alongside the addition of the InTech V8, power\-adjustable brake and accelerator pedals were added; the previously optional 17\-inch wheels became standard. For 2000, the fender\-mounted radio antenna was integrated into the right\-rear window, while the interior received *Nudo* leather seating surfaces.{{cite web\|url\=http://media.ford.com/products/model.cfm?vehicle\_id\=19 \|title\=2000 Navigator Overview \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=Ford Motor Company \|work\=Ford Media \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20051104143838/http://media.ford.com/products/model.cfm?vehicle\_id\=19 \|archive\-date\=November 4, 2005 }} The carpeting and netting on the rear of the two front seats were replaced with leather and buttoned map pockets respectively, and the recessed tray on the rear center console's lid for those Navigators that had rear captain's chairs instead of bench seats was replaced with a flat leather lid. The options list expanded to include a satellite navigation system, heated and cooled front seats, a reverse\-sensing system, and side\-impact [airbags](/wiki/Airbag "Airbag"). For 2001, several minor cosmetic changes were made.<https://web.archive.org/web/20000815094837/http://www.lincolnvehicles.com/navi/> {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}} On the hood's grille and tailgate, the Lincoln emblem was given a black background (replacing the previous red); on the tailgate, the Lincoln and Navigator badging switched sides.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=E9kAk7ye\-SY \| title\=2001 Lincoln Navigator \| website\=\[\[YouTube]] \| date\=October 12, 2017 }} A [VHS\-based](/wiki/VHS "VHS") video entertainment system became an option. For 2002, heated and cooled front seats were available, and the outlined Lincoln emblem embossed on the center of the steering wheel was replaced with a molded Lincoln badge. {{Clear}}
[ "First generation (1998–2002\\)\n-----------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= First generation\n\\| model\\_code \\= UN173\n\\| model\\_years \\= 1998–2002\n\\| image \\= 2001–02 Lincoln Navigator in College Park, Maryland (December 15, 2007\\).jpg\n\\| assembly \\= \\[\\[Wayne, Michigan]], U.S. (\\[\\[Michigan Assembly Plant]])\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|204\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= 1998–99: {{convert\\|79\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2000–02: {{convert\\|79\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|119\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= 2000–02 2WD: {{convert\\|75\\.2\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1998–99 2WD: {{convert\\|72\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2000–02 4WD: {{convert\\|76\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1998–99 4WD: {{convert\\|76\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| related \\= \\[\\[Lincoln Blackwood]]\n\\| platform \\=\n\\| transmission \\= 4\\-speed \\[\\[Ford C6 transmission\\#4R100\\|4R100]] automatic\n\\| engine \\= 5\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Ford Triton engine\\#2\\-valve Triton\\|Triton]]'' \\[\\[SOHC]] \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]] \n5\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Ford Triton engine\\#Intech\\|InTech]]'' \\[\\[DOHC]] V8\n\\| production \\= May 1997 – March 2002\n\\| designer \\= Fritz Mayhew (1994\\)\n}}", "The Lincoln Navigator was launched on July 1, 1997, for the 1998 model year, with the first vehicle rolling off the assembly line on May 14, 1997\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/press/date/19970514/press002443\\.html\\|title\\=Lincoln Navigator Rolls Out With Large Order Bank\\|date\\=May 14, 1997\\|access\\-date\\=February 28, 2009\\|work\\=theautochannel.com}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/date/19970610/news003273\\.html\\|title\\=Lincoln Navigator (1998\\) Debuts Sans Jackie Stewart.\\|date\\=June 10, 1997\\|work\\=The Auto Channel\\|author\\=Maloney, Bill}} Based directly on the [Ford Expedition](/wiki/Ford_Expedition \"Ford Expedition\"), introduced the year before, the Navigator gave the Lincoln\\-Mercury division its first full\\-size SUV (slotted above the Ford Explorer\\-based [Mercury Mountaineer](/wiki/Mercury_Mountaineer \"Mercury Mountaineer\")).", "In its first calendar year of sales (i.e. 1998\\), Navigator contributed to an unprecedented event of recent decades – with Lincoln overtaking perennial rival [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac%23Competition_with_Lincoln_-_Escalade \"Cadillac#Competition with Lincoln - Escalade\") in annual sales volume. Initially, published figures indicated that Cadillac had outsold Lincoln by a scant 222 vehicles sold, thanks to an enormous surge in Cadillac Escalade sales in December 1998, from hundreds in previous months to almost 5,000\\. A subsequent audit resulted in a retraction/apology in May 1999, attributing the \"error\" to \"overzealous\" \"low\\-level\" employees.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1999\\-may\\-06\\-fi\\-34467\\-story.html\\|title\\=Cadillac Apologizes to Lincoln for Inflating Sales Numbers – Los Angeles Times\\|last\\=O'Dell\\|first\\=John\\|date\\=May 6, 1999\\|publisher\\=Articles.latimes.com\\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2010}}", "### Chassis", "The Lincoln Navigator was also developed under the Ford program code name UN173, with the Expedition developed under the UN93 program code name.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.linkedin.com/in/frankquenneville\\|title\\=Frank Quenneville\\|publisher\\=LinkedIn\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2010}} A full\\-size body\\-on\\-frame vehicle, the Navigator was mechanically related to the Ford Expedition; both vehicles were related to the [1997 Ford F\\-Series](/wiki/Ford_F-Series_tenth_generation \"Ford F-Series tenth generation\"). The Navigator featured independent front suspension (short\\-long arm/SLA); the rear suspension was of a live rear axle design. Using an optional feature from its Ford counterpart, the Navigator was designed with load\\-leveling [air suspension](/wiki/Air_suspension \"Air suspension\"); tuned primarily for ride comfort, the air suspension lowered itself when the vehicle was parked.", "Although technically available with rear\\-wheel drive, the primary drivetrain on the Lincoln Navigator was [ControlTrac](/wiki/ControlTrac \"ControlTrac\"), a computer\\-controlled automatic four\\-wheel drive system. As with the Expedition, the Navigator was fitted with four\\-wheel anti\\-lock disc brakes.", "Using the same 230 hp 5\\.4L Triton V8 as the Expedition/F\\-150 paired with the 4\\-speed 4R100 automatic transmission, the 1998 Lincoln Navigator came with a towing capacity of {{convert\\|7700\\|lb\\|\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.Bartlett, Jeff. \"One\\-Year Test Verdict: 1998 Lincoln Navigator.\" *Motor Trend*. 1999\\. During 1999, Lincoln would fit two different engines in the Navigator in an effort to better match full\\-size SUVs from General Motors. At the beginning of the model year, the Triton V8 was upgraded to 260 hp; as a running change during the model year, Lincoln would replace the SOHC Triton with a 300 hp DOHC 5\\.4L V8, named InTech (borrowing a name from the Mark VIII). Due to the increase in power, towing capacity would increase to over {{convert\\|8500\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "### Body", "Although the Lincoln Navigator shares the same bodyshell as the Ford Expedition, giving it a similar exterior appearance, Lincoln stylists would make many design changes to differentiate the two vehicles. Forward of the windshield, the Lincoln Navigator shares no body panels with its Ford counterpart, with its own front fascia (a grille design shared with the 1998 Lincoln Town Car and the 2000 Lincoln LS), wheels, roof rack, lower body trim, and taillights. The interior of the two vehicles shared more commonality, with the dashboard common to both vehicles (with greater use of wood trim); the Navigator was given its own seat design. To make for a quieter interior over the Expedition and Ford F\\-Series, the Navigator made greater use of sound deadening materials and higher\\-quality carpeting.", "The Lincoln Navigator included standard features available or optional on the Expedition, including power driver and passenger bucket seats, 2nd\\-row bucket seats (with a 2nd\\-row bench seat as a delete option), floor consoles, and keyless entry. The few options available included a power moonroof, a universal garage door opener, 7 seven to 8 eight passenger seating an electrochromic rearview mirror (filtering out headlight glare from vehicles seen in the mirror), and a premium audio system (a seven speaker, 290\\-Watt audio system with a 6\\-disc front console\\-mounted CD\\-changer, and rear seat audio controls), and 17\\-inch alloy wheels.\"1998 Lincoln Navigator Review.\" The Car Connection. 2008\\. <http://www.thecarconnection.com/fullreview/lincoln_navigator_1998>", "Some of the unique features on the first\\-generation Navigator were power\\-adjustable pedals (a first\\-of\\-its\\-kind feature on a luxury SUV), a feature on the factory radio that only illuminated the controls necessary for the selected function, full controls for the audio system, climate controls, and cruise controls on the front of the steering wheel, and rear seat radio and climate controls.", "During its production run, Lincoln made few changes to the first\\-generation Navigator. In 1999, alongside the addition of the InTech V8, power\\-adjustable brake and accelerator pedals were added; the previously optional 17\\-inch wheels became standard.", "For 2000, the fender\\-mounted radio antenna was integrated into the right\\-rear window, while the interior received *Nudo* leather seating surfaces.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://media.ford.com/products/model.cfm?vehicle\\_id\\=19 \\|title\\=2000 Navigator Overview \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Ford Motor Company \\|work\\=Ford Media \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20051104143838/http://media.ford.com/products/model.cfm?vehicle\\_id\\=19 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 4, 2005 }} The carpeting and netting on the rear of the two front seats were replaced with leather and buttoned map pockets respectively, and the recessed tray on the rear center console's lid for those Navigators that had rear captain's chairs instead of bench seats was replaced with a flat leather lid. The options list expanded to include a satellite navigation system, heated and cooled front seats, a reverse\\-sensing system, and side\\-impact [airbags](/wiki/Airbag \"Airbag\").", "For 2001, several minor cosmetic changes were made.<https://web.archive.org/web/20000815094837/http://www.lincolnvehicles.com/navi/> {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}} On the hood's grille and tailgate, the Lincoln emblem was given a black background (replacing the previous red); on the tailgate, the Lincoln and Navigator badging switched sides.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=E9kAk7ye\\-SY \\| title\\=2001 Lincoln Navigator \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\| date\\=October 12, 2017 }} A [VHS\\-based](/wiki/VHS \"VHS\") video entertainment system became an option.", "For 2002, heated and cooled front seats were available, and the outlined Lincoln emblem embossed on the center of the steering wheel was replaced with a molded Lincoln badge.", "{{Clear}}", "" ]
### Body Although the Lincoln Navigator shares the same bodyshell as the Ford Expedition, giving it a similar exterior appearance, Lincoln stylists would make many design changes to differentiate the two vehicles. Forward of the windshield, the Lincoln Navigator shares no body panels with its Ford counterpart, with its own front fascia (a grille design shared with the 1998 Lincoln Town Car and the 2000 Lincoln LS), wheels, roof rack, lower body trim, and taillights. The interior of the two vehicles shared more commonality, with the dashboard common to both vehicles (with greater use of wood trim); the Navigator was given its own seat design. To make for a quieter interior over the Expedition and Ford F\-Series, the Navigator made greater use of sound deadening materials and higher\-quality carpeting. The Lincoln Navigator included standard features available or optional on the Expedition, including power driver and passenger bucket seats, 2nd\-row bucket seats (with a 2nd\-row bench seat as a delete option), floor consoles, and keyless entry. The few options available included a power moonroof, a universal garage door opener, 7 seven to 8 eight passenger seating an electrochromic rearview mirror (filtering out headlight glare from vehicles seen in the mirror), and a premium audio system (a seven speaker, 290\-Watt audio system with a 6\-disc front console\-mounted CD\-changer, and rear seat audio controls), and 17\-inch alloy wheels."1998 Lincoln Navigator Review." The Car Connection. 2008\. <http://www.thecarconnection.com/fullreview/lincoln_navigator_1998> Some of the unique features on the first\-generation Navigator were power\-adjustable pedals (a first\-of\-its\-kind feature on a luxury SUV), a feature on the factory radio that only illuminated the controls necessary for the selected function, full controls for the audio system, climate controls, and cruise controls on the front of the steering wheel, and rear seat radio and climate controls. During its production run, Lincoln made few changes to the first\-generation Navigator. In 1999, alongside the addition of the InTech V8, power\-adjustable brake and accelerator pedals were added; the previously optional 17\-inch wheels became standard. For 2000, the fender\-mounted radio antenna was integrated into the right\-rear window, while the interior received *Nudo* leather seating surfaces.{{cite web\|url\=http://media.ford.com/products/model.cfm?vehicle\_id\=19 \|title\=2000 Navigator Overview \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=Ford Motor Company \|work\=Ford Media \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20051104143838/http://media.ford.com/products/model.cfm?vehicle\_id\=19 \|archive\-date\=November 4, 2005 }} The carpeting and netting on the rear of the two front seats were replaced with leather and buttoned map pockets respectively, and the recessed tray on the rear center console's lid for those Navigators that had rear captain's chairs instead of bench seats was replaced with a flat leather lid. The options list expanded to include a satellite navigation system, heated and cooled front seats, a reverse\-sensing system, and side\-impact [airbags](/wiki/Airbag "Airbag"). For 2001, several minor cosmetic changes were made.<https://web.archive.org/web/20000815094837/http://www.lincolnvehicles.com/navi/> {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}} On the hood's grille and tailgate, the Lincoln emblem was given a black background (replacing the previous red); on the tailgate, the Lincoln and Navigator badging switched sides.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=E9kAk7ye\-SY \| title\=2001 Lincoln Navigator \| website\=\[\[YouTube]] \| date\=October 12, 2017 }} A [VHS\-based](/wiki/VHS "VHS") video entertainment system became an option. For 2002, heated and cooled front seats were available, and the outlined Lincoln emblem embossed on the center of the steering wheel was replaced with a molded Lincoln badge. {{Clear}}
[ "### Body", "Although the Lincoln Navigator shares the same bodyshell as the Ford Expedition, giving it a similar exterior appearance, Lincoln stylists would make many design changes to differentiate the two vehicles. Forward of the windshield, the Lincoln Navigator shares no body panels with its Ford counterpart, with its own front fascia (a grille design shared with the 1998 Lincoln Town Car and the 2000 Lincoln LS), wheels, roof rack, lower body trim, and taillights. The interior of the two vehicles shared more commonality, with the dashboard common to both vehicles (with greater use of wood trim); the Navigator was given its own seat design. To make for a quieter interior over the Expedition and Ford F\\-Series, the Navigator made greater use of sound deadening materials and higher\\-quality carpeting.", "The Lincoln Navigator included standard features available or optional on the Expedition, including power driver and passenger bucket seats, 2nd\\-row bucket seats (with a 2nd\\-row bench seat as a delete option), floor consoles, and keyless entry. The few options available included a power moonroof, a universal garage door opener, 7 seven to 8 eight passenger seating an electrochromic rearview mirror (filtering out headlight glare from vehicles seen in the mirror), and a premium audio system (a seven speaker, 290\\-Watt audio system with a 6\\-disc front console\\-mounted CD\\-changer, and rear seat audio controls), and 17\\-inch alloy wheels.\"1998 Lincoln Navigator Review.\" The Car Connection. 2008\\. <http://www.thecarconnection.com/fullreview/lincoln_navigator_1998>", "Some of the unique features on the first\\-generation Navigator were power\\-adjustable pedals (a first\\-of\\-its\\-kind feature on a luxury SUV), a feature on the factory radio that only illuminated the controls necessary for the selected function, full controls for the audio system, climate controls, and cruise controls on the front of the steering wheel, and rear seat radio and climate controls.", "During its production run, Lincoln made few changes to the first\\-generation Navigator. In 1999, alongside the addition of the InTech V8, power\\-adjustable brake and accelerator pedals were added; the previously optional 17\\-inch wheels became standard.", "For 2000, the fender\\-mounted radio antenna was integrated into the right\\-rear window, while the interior received *Nudo* leather seating surfaces.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://media.ford.com/products/model.cfm?vehicle\\_id\\=19 \\|title\\=2000 Navigator Overview \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Ford Motor Company \\|work\\=Ford Media \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20051104143838/http://media.ford.com/products/model.cfm?vehicle\\_id\\=19 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 4, 2005 }} The carpeting and netting on the rear of the two front seats were replaced with leather and buttoned map pockets respectively, and the recessed tray on the rear center console's lid for those Navigators that had rear captain's chairs instead of bench seats was replaced with a flat leather lid. The options list expanded to include a satellite navigation system, heated and cooled front seats, a reverse\\-sensing system, and side\\-impact [airbags](/wiki/Airbag \"Airbag\").", "For 2001, several minor cosmetic changes were made.<https://web.archive.org/web/20000815094837/http://www.lincolnvehicles.com/navi/> {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}} On the hood's grille and tailgate, the Lincoln emblem was given a black background (replacing the previous red); on the tailgate, the Lincoln and Navigator badging switched sides.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=E9kAk7ye\\-SY \\| title\\=2001 Lincoln Navigator \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\| date\\=October 12, 2017 }} A [VHS\\-based](/wiki/VHS \"VHS\") video entertainment system became an option.", "For 2002, heated and cooled front seats were available, and the outlined Lincoln emblem embossed on the center of the steering wheel was replaced with a molded Lincoln badge.", "{{Clear}}", "" ]
Third generation (2007–2017\) ----------------------------- {{Infobox automobile \| name \= Third generation \| model\_code \= U326 \| image \= 3rd Lincoln Navigator \-\- 08\-01\-2011\.jpg \| aka \= Lincoln Navigator L Lincoln Navigator L Limousine (with conversion) \| model\_years \= Initial version: 2007–2014 Refresh version: 2015–2017 \| assembly \= \[\[Wayne, Michigan]], U.S. (\[\[Michigan Assembly Plant]]: 2007–2009\) \[\[Louisville, Kentucky]], U.S. (\[\[Kentucky Truck Assembly]]: 2009–2017\) \| platform \= \[\[Ford T1 platform]] \| engine \= 2007–2014 version: ''\[\[Ford Triton engine\#3\-valve\|Triton]]'' \[\[SOHC]] \[\[V8 engine\|5\.4 L V8]] 2015 refresh: ''\[\[Ford EcoBoost engine\|EcoBoost]]'' 3\.5 L \[\[V6 engine\|V6]] \| transmission \= \[\[ZF 6HP transmission\|6\-speed ZF 6HP26 automatic]] (2007–2008\) 6\-speed Ford 6R80 automatic (2009–2017\) \| wheelbase \= SWB: {{convert\|119\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} L: {{convert\|131\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| length \= SWB: {{convert\|208\.4\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} L: {{convert\|223\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| width \= SWB: {{convert\|78\.8\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} L 2WD: {{convert\|78\.1\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} L 4WD: {{convert\|79\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| height \= {{convert\|78\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| weight \= SWB: {{convert\|5780\|–\|5986\|lb\|abbr\=on}} L: {{convert\|6031\|–\|6239\|lb\|abbr\=on}} \| production \= August 2, 2006 – July 2, 2017{{cite web\|url\= https://www.wheels.com/fleet/reference/ordering2007/2007StartupDates\_USA.asp \|title\=Untitled Document\|website\=www.wheels.com}}\[http://www.fleet.ford.ca/resources/ford\-ca/general/NEWS/FoCFleetBalanceOutMar06(EN).pdf Fleet Balance] ford.ca }} [alt\=\|left\|thumb\|2007–2014 Lincoln Navigator (SWB model)](/wiki/File:2013_Lincoln_Navigator%2C_rear_right%2C_08-25-2024.jpg "2013 Lincoln Navigator, rear right, 08-25-2024.jpg") [thumb\|left\|2007–2014 Lincoln Navigator L (LWB model)](/wiki/File:Lincoln_Navigator_rear.JPG "Lincoln Navigator rear.JPG") The Navigator was redesigned under the U326 program code name, with new styling and mechanical features for 2007\. Unveiled at the [Chicago Auto Show](/wiki/Chicago_Auto_Show "Chicago Auto Show") in February 2006, the Navigator featured its most distinctive styling update since its introduction, with new front and rear fascias and side cladding. In front was a split upper and lower chrome grille with integrated fog lights resembling those of classic Lincolns like the 1946–1948 [Continental](/wiki/Lincoln_Continental "Lincoln Continental"), along with a more complex headlight design and a more prominent "power dome" hood. Elsewhere, an updated rear fascia featured taillights inspired by the [Lincoln MKZ](/wiki/Lincoln_Zephyr/MKZ "Lincoln Zephyr/MKZ") and chrome trim was more prominently used along the sides, including chrome lower body molding on the doors. The interior featured an updated dashboard and instrument panel with an extensive use of rectangular shapes, such as in the gauges, as well as greater use of real wood and satin nickel accents. Accompanying the Navigator's redesign for 2007 was a new model, the **Navigator L** developed under the U418 program code name. Comparable to the [Cadillac Escalade ESV](/wiki/Cadillac_Escalade "Cadillac Escalade"), the Navigator L is {{convert\|14\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} longer than the standard Navigator on a {{convert\|12\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on\|adj\=on}} longer wheelbase, increasing its cargo capacity. The Navigator L was introduced parallel to the Expedition EL, an extended version of the [Ford Expedition](/wiki/Ford_Expedition "Ford Expedition"). Both the Navigator and Expedition were redesigned for 2007 and based on Ford's [T1 platform](/wiki/Ford_T_platform "Ford T platform"), which is related to the platform of the 2004\+ [F\-150](/wiki/Ford_F-Series "Ford F-Series"). Compared to the Navigator's previous platform, this platform provided greater rigidity for better driving dynamics. The [independent rear suspension](/wiki/Independent_suspension "Independent suspension") was replaced with a five\-link IRS design to improve handling and ride quality. The Navigator continued to come with standard 18\-inch alloy wheels, but both 20\- and 22\-inch wheels became available. The [5\.4 L 3\-valve SOHC V8](/wiki/Ford_Modular_engine "Ford Modular engine") introduced in the 2005 Navigator remained unchanged for 2007\. The [ZF Friedrichshafen](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen "ZF Friedrichshafen") 6\-speed automatic transmission was replaced by Ford's own 6\-speed design, the [6R80](/wiki/Ford_6R_transmission "Ford 6R transmission") for the 2009 model year. Due to the Navigator's redesign, its base curb weight increased to {{convert\|5872\|lb\|abbr\=on}} in two\-wheel drive models and {{convert\|6070\|lb\|\|0\|abbr\=on}} in four\-wheel drive models. Navigator L models were even heavier, at {{convert\|5963\|lb\|abbr\=on}} in two\-wheel drive models and {{convert\|6221\|lb\|abbr\=on}} in four\-wheel drive models. In spite of this, thanks to an improved frame, the Navigator's towing capacity increased for 2007, approaching {{convert\|9000\|lb\|abbr\=on}} in two\-wheel drive models.{{cite web\|publisher\=Ford Motor Company \|work\=Ford Media \|title\=2007 Navigator Overview \|year\=2007 \|url\=http://media.ford.com/products/presskit\_display.cfm?vehicle\_id\=1379\&press\_subsection\_id\=421\&make\_id\=93 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810120358/http://media.ford.com/products/presskit\_display.cfm?vehicle\_id\=1379\&press\_subsection\_id\=421\&make\_id\=93 \|archive\-date\=August 10, 2007 }} After the 2007 model redesign, the Navigator no longer used the same [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case "Transfer case") as the Expedition. Expedition four\-wheel drives continued to use a two\-speed dual range transfer case with off\-road low range [reduction gearing](/wiki/Reduction_gearing "Reduction gearing") and default off\-road program that [remaps](/wiki/Engine_control_unit "Engine control unit") (reprograms) the [electronic throttle control](/wiki/Electronic_throttle_control "Electronic throttle control") and [traction control system](/wiki/Traction_control_system "Traction control system") response for off\-road conditions. Navigator four\-wheel drives were demoted to a light\-duty one\-speed single range transfer case which lacks low\-range gearing. For 2008, packaging for the Navigator's luxury and convenience features was simplified, resulting in the elimination of the *Luxury* and *Ultimate* trim levels and the standardization of a number of features that were previously optional. Some of these newly standard features included heated and cooled front seats, power\-folding third row seats, a power liftgate, and a 600\-watt 14\-speaker [THX](/wiki/THX "THX") II\-Certified audio system. Also newly standard was a 3\.31:1 rear axle ratio, though a 3\.73:1 ratio was still available as option for the Navigator and remained standard in the Navigator L. Newly available was a rearview camera to aid in backing up. For 2009, the Navigator's 5\.4 L V8 gained {{convert\|10\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}} as well as [flex\-fuel](/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle "Flexible-fuel vehicle") capability. The rearview camera that was new for 2008 was now standard, as were heated second row seats, *Front Park Assist*, a capless fuel filler, rain\-sensing windshield wipers, and [Lincoln SYNC](/wiki/Ford_Sync "Ford Sync").{{cite web \|publisher\=Ford Motor Company \|work\=Ford Media \|title\=2008 Navigator Overview \|year\=2008 \|url\=http://media.ford.com/products/presskit\_display.cfm?vehicle\_id\=1947\&press\_subsection\_id\=421\&make\_id\=93 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930003610/http://media.ford.com/products/presskit\_display.cfm?vehicle\_id\=1947\&press\_subsection\_id\=421\&make\_id\=93 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=September 30, 2008 }} The third generation Navigator and Navigator L continued to be offered for the 2010 model year, with only slight changes.{{cite news \|author\=Mehta, Sajeev \|title\=Review: 2010 Lincoln Navigator L \|url\=http://www.ibtimes.com/contents/20090508/review\-lincoln\-navigator\-l.htm \|work\=ibautos.com \|publisher\=International Business Times \|date\=May 8, 2009 \|access\-date\=June 18, 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621075420/http://www.ibtimes.com/contents/20090508/review\-lincoln\-navigator\-l.htm \|archive\-date\=June 21, 2009 }} For 2011, both the Navigator and the Navigator L featured [HD Radio](/wiki/HD_Radio "HD Radio"), Sirius TravelLink, and Lincoln SYNC as standard on all trims. The optional 20\-inch chrome aluminum wheels offered from 2007 to 2010 were replaced with 20\-inch polished aluminum wheels. For the 2013 model year, the only changes made to the Navigator were the addition of new color trims: Kodiak Brown Metallic Tri\-Coat, Midnight Sapphire Metallic, and Ruby Red Metallic Tinted Clearcoat.[2013 Lincoln Navigator](http://media.lincoln.com/images/10031/2013_Navigator.pdf) {{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} from media.lincoln.com The 2014 model year was a carryover from 2013 with the same features and no cosmetic changes. This would be the last model year that it would feature the front grille fascias. ### 2015 refresh [alt\=\|thumb\|Refreshed 2015 Lincoln Navigator\|230x230px](/wiki/File:2014_Canadian_International_AutoShow_0122_%2812645566113%29.jpg "2014 Canadian International AutoShow 0122 (12645566113).jpg") In March 2013, Ford had confirmed reports that the next generation Lincoln Navigator would not be a repackaged Ford Expedition as the previous generations were, despite trailing the MKX in terms of sales but ahead of the MKT, but hopes to make it more competitive in the luxury SUV segment as they prepared to take on the [Cadillac Escalade](/wiki/Cadillac_Escalade "Cadillac Escalade"), [Infiniti QX80](/wiki/Infiniti_QX80 "Infiniti QX80"), and the [Mercedes\-Benz GL\-Class](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_GL-Class "Mercedes-Benz GL-Class"), each of which had already or would launch new generations in 2013 or 2014,["Lincoln Navigator to Drop V\-8 for EcoBoost V\-6, Expedition May Get V\-6 and V\-8"](http://wot.motortrend.com/lincoln-navigator-to-drop-v8-for-ecoboost-v6-expedition-may-get-v6-and-v8-340245.html#axzz2Z2rAGoU4) from Motor Trend (March 11, 2013\) and would be designed by the new Lincoln design team that also designed the new 2013 MKZ. It would be completely new and would feature the 3\.5 [Ecoboost](/wiki/Ecoboost "Ecoboost"), interior and exterior and performance upgrades.["Next Lincoln Navigator to drop V8 in favor of V6, but Ford Expedition might get both"](http://www.autoblog.com/2013/03/12/next-lincoln-navigator-to-drop-v8-in-favor-of-v6-but-ford-exped/) from Autoblog (March 12, 2013\) But in May 2013 a prototype Navigator with a different front grille was tested featuring the EcoBoost in preparation for the updated Navigator,["Caught: Lincoln Navigator Prototype Spied"](http://wot.motortrend.com/caught-lincoln-navigator-prototype-spied-343857.html#axzz2Z2rAGoU4) from Motor Trend (May 20, 2013\) which was followed by more spy shots taken in September 2013 that was sporting Lincoln's updated signature front grille.[2015 Lincoln Navigator Spied Testing On Public Roads](http://www.trucktrend.com/future/spied/163_news130918_2015_lincoln_navigator_spied_testing/) From Truck Trend (September 18, 2013\) On January 22, 2014, three photos of the 2015 Navigator were released on [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter")[from Twitter](https://twitter.com/CliffordAtiyeh/statuses/426072162370609153) posted January 22, 2014 and [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram "Instagram"),[From Lincoln Motor Co.](http://instagram.com/p/jdSIKSomIn/) posted January 22, 2014 along with an announcement that the refreshed SUV would be revealed at the [Washington Auto Show](/wiki/Washington_Auto_Show "Washington Auto Show") the following day (January 23, 2014\).["2015 Lincoln Navigator: First Look"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/kicking-tires/post/2015-lincoln-navigator-first-look/2014/01/23/828bff9c-83ec-11e3-a273-6ffd9cf9f4ba_blog.html) from *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* (January 23, 2014\) However, hours after the leaks were made public, Lincoln held a press event in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan "Detroit, Michigan") for the vehicle["2015 Lincoln Navigator gets new look"](http://www.freep.com/article/20140123/BUSINESS0102/301230027/Ford-2015-Lincoln-Navigator-Expedition-auto) from *[Detroit Free Press](/wiki/Detroit_Free_Press "Detroit Free Press")* (January 23, 2014\) and revealed the updated Navigator earlier than expected.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=t6licT8RkQY\|title\=2015 Lincoln Navigator SUV\|last\=Carscoops\|date\=January 22, 2014\|via\=YouTube}} The 2015 Navigator and Navigator L kept the same exterior styling design as the Expedition instead of the reported repackaging that was announced earlier by Ford. However, it now featured an updated front grille with the rear tailgate lights bearing a resemblance to the [Dodge Durango](/wiki/Dodge_Durango "Dodge Durango"). The EcoBoost V6 was the only engine offered for the 2015 model year, making {{Convert\|380\|hp\|kW PS\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{Convert\|460\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} of torque. The exterior included HID headlamps with LED running lights and full LED taillights. Twenty\-inch wheels came standard, replacing the 18\-inch wheels, while a reserve package featured 22\-inch wheels. The dashboard panels features MyLincoln Touch with Sync as standard, controlled through an eight\-inch touchscreen display in the dash, and home to twin 4\.2\-inch displays that flank a central speedometer, falling in line with the rest of the Lincoln models. The push\-button start became standard, likewise a passive entry and a rear\-view camera. Blind\-spot monitoring was added as an optional feature. Both the updated Navigator and Navigator L went into production in the summer of 2014, and arrived to dealers that fall as a 2015 model.["2015 Lincoln Navigator puts on a brave face, offers EcoBoost V6 only"](http://www.autoblog.com/2014/01/23/2015-lincoln-navigator-redesign-ecoboost-v6/) from Autoblog (January 23, 2014\)["2015 Lincoln Navigator Teased, Debuts on Thursday, Gets 3\.5L V6 EcoBoost"](http://www.carscoops.com/2014/01/2015-lincoln-navigator-teased-debuts-on.html) from Carscoops (January 22, 2014\) ### Safety | \+2016 Lincoln Navigator SUV 4x4 [NHTSA](/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration "National Highway Traffic Safety Administration"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.safercar.gov/Vehicle\+Shoppers/5\-Star\+Safety\+Ratings/2011\-Newer\+Vehicles/Vehicle\-Detail?vehicleId\=10254 \|title\=2016 Lincoln Navigator SUV 4x4 \|publisher\=\[\[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] \|access\-date\=September 30, 2015}} | | --- | | Overall: | {{rating\|5\|5}} | | Frontal Driver: | {{rating\|5\|5}} | | Frontal Passenger: | {{rating\|5\|5}} | | Side Driver: | {{rating\|5\|5}} | | Side Passenger: | {{rating\|5\|5}} | | Side Pole Driver: | {{rating\|5\|5}} | | [Rollover](/wiki/Vehicle_rollover "Vehicle rollover") AWD: | {{rating\|4\|5}} 19\.8% | | [Rollover](/wiki/Vehicle_rollover "Vehicle rollover") RWD: | {{rating\|3\|5}} 21\.2%{{cite web\|url\=http://www.safercar.gov/Vehicle\+Shoppers/5\-Star\+Safety\+Ratings/2011\-Newer\+Vehicles/Vehicle\-Detail?vehicleId\=10255 \|title\=2016 Lincoln Navigator SUV 4x2 \|publisher\=\[\[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] \|access\-date\=September 30, 2015}} |
[ "Third generation (2007–2017\\)\n-----------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Third generation\n\\| model\\_code \\= U326\n\\| image \\= 3rd Lincoln Navigator \\-\\- 08\\-01\\-2011\\.jpg\n\\| aka \\= Lincoln Navigator L \nLincoln Navigator L Limousine (with conversion)\n\\| model\\_years \\= Initial version: 2007–2014 \nRefresh version: 2015–2017\n\\| assembly \\= \\[\\[Wayne, Michigan]], U.S. (\\[\\[Michigan Assembly Plant]]: 2007–2009\\) \n\\[\\[Louisville, Kentucky]], U.S. (\\[\\[Kentucky Truck Assembly]]: 2009–2017\\)\n\\| platform \\= \\[\\[Ford T1 platform]]\n\\| engine \\= 2007–2014 version: ''\\[\\[Ford Triton engine\\#3\\-valve\\|Triton]]'' \\[\\[SOHC]] \\[\\[V8 engine\\|5\\.4 L V8]] \n2015 refresh: ''\\[\\[Ford EcoBoost engine\\|EcoBoost]]'' 3\\.5 L \\[\\[V6 engine\\|V6]]\n\\| transmission \\= \\[\\[ZF 6HP transmission\\|6\\-speed ZF 6HP26 automatic]] (2007–2008\\) \n6\\-speed Ford 6R80 automatic (2009–2017\\)\n\\| wheelbase \\= SWB: {{convert\\|119\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \nL: {{convert\\|131\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= SWB: {{convert\\|208\\.4\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \nL: {{convert\\|223\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= SWB: {{convert\\|78\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \nL 2WD: {{convert\\|78\\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \nL 4WD: {{convert\\|79\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|78\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= SWB: {{convert\\|5780\\|–\\|5986\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} \nL: {{convert\\|6031\\|–\\|6239\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| production \\= August 2, 2006 – July 2, 2017{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.wheels.com/fleet/reference/ordering2007/2007StartupDates\\_USA.asp \\|title\\=Untitled Document\\|website\\=www.wheels.com}}\\[http://www.fleet.ford.ca/resources/ford\\-ca/general/NEWS/FoCFleetBalanceOutMar06(EN).pdf Fleet Balance] ford.ca\n}}\n[alt\\=\\|left\\|thumb\\|2007–2014 Lincoln Navigator (SWB model)](/wiki/File:2013_Lincoln_Navigator%2C_rear_right%2C_08-25-2024.jpg \"2013 Lincoln Navigator, rear right, 08-25-2024.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|2007–2014 Lincoln Navigator L (LWB model)](/wiki/File:Lincoln_Navigator_rear.JPG \"Lincoln Navigator rear.JPG\")", "The Navigator was redesigned under the U326 program code name, with new styling and mechanical features for 2007\\. Unveiled at the [Chicago Auto Show](/wiki/Chicago_Auto_Show \"Chicago Auto Show\") in February 2006, the Navigator featured its most distinctive styling update since its introduction, with new front and rear fascias and side cladding. In front was a split upper and lower chrome grille with integrated fog lights resembling those of classic Lincolns like the 1946–1948 [Continental](/wiki/Lincoln_Continental \"Lincoln Continental\"), along with a more complex headlight design and a more prominent \"power dome\" hood. Elsewhere, an updated rear fascia featured taillights inspired by the [Lincoln MKZ](/wiki/Lincoln_Zephyr/MKZ \"Lincoln Zephyr/MKZ\") and chrome trim was more prominently used along the sides, including chrome lower body molding on the doors. The interior featured an updated dashboard and instrument panel with an extensive use of rectangular shapes, such as in the gauges, as well as greater use of real wood and satin nickel accents.", "Accompanying the Navigator's redesign for 2007 was a new model, the **Navigator L** developed under the U418 program code name. Comparable to the [Cadillac Escalade ESV](/wiki/Cadillac_Escalade \"Cadillac Escalade\"), the Navigator L is {{convert\\|14\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} longer than the standard Navigator on a {{convert\\|12\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on\\|adj\\=on}} longer wheelbase, increasing its cargo capacity. The Navigator L was introduced parallel to the Expedition EL, an extended version of the [Ford Expedition](/wiki/Ford_Expedition \"Ford Expedition\"). Both the Navigator and Expedition were redesigned for 2007 and based on Ford's [T1 platform](/wiki/Ford_T_platform \"Ford T platform\"), which is related to the platform of the 2004\\+ [F\\-150](/wiki/Ford_F-Series \"Ford F-Series\"). Compared to the Navigator's previous platform, this platform provided greater rigidity for better driving dynamics. The [independent rear suspension](/wiki/Independent_suspension \"Independent suspension\") was replaced with a five\\-link IRS design to improve handling and ride quality. The Navigator continued to come with standard 18\\-inch alloy wheels, but both 20\\- and 22\\-inch wheels became available. The [5\\.4 L 3\\-valve SOHC V8](/wiki/Ford_Modular_engine \"Ford Modular engine\") introduced in the 2005 Navigator remained unchanged for 2007\\. The [ZF Friedrichshafen](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen \"ZF Friedrichshafen\") 6\\-speed automatic transmission was replaced by Ford's own 6\\-speed design, the [6R80](/wiki/Ford_6R_transmission \"Ford 6R transmission\") for the 2009 model year. Due to the Navigator's redesign, its base curb weight increased to {{convert\\|5872\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} in two\\-wheel drive models and {{convert\\|6070\\|lb\\|\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} in four\\-wheel drive models. Navigator L models were even heavier, at {{convert\\|5963\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} in two\\-wheel drive models and {{convert\\|6221\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} in four\\-wheel drive models. In spite of this, thanks to an improved frame, the Navigator's towing capacity increased for 2007, approaching {{convert\\|9000\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} in two\\-wheel drive models.{{cite web\\|publisher\\=Ford Motor Company \\|work\\=Ford Media \\|title\\=2007 Navigator Overview \\|year\\=2007 \\|url\\=http://media.ford.com/products/presskit\\_display.cfm?vehicle\\_id\\=1379\\&press\\_subsection\\_id\\=421\\&make\\_id\\=93 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810120358/http://media.ford.com/products/presskit\\_display.cfm?vehicle\\_id\\=1379\\&press\\_subsection\\_id\\=421\\&make\\_id\\=93 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2007 }}", "After the 2007 model redesign, the Navigator no longer used the same [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case \"Transfer case\") as the Expedition. Expedition four\\-wheel drives continued to use a two\\-speed dual range transfer case with off\\-road low range [reduction gearing](/wiki/Reduction_gearing \"Reduction gearing\") and default off\\-road program that [remaps](/wiki/Engine_control_unit \"Engine control unit\") (reprograms) the [electronic throttle control](/wiki/Electronic_throttle_control \"Electronic throttle control\") and [traction control system](/wiki/Traction_control_system \"Traction control system\") response for off\\-road conditions. Navigator four\\-wheel drives were demoted to a light\\-duty one\\-speed single range transfer case which lacks low\\-range gearing.", "For 2008, packaging for the Navigator's luxury and convenience features was simplified, resulting in the elimination of the *Luxury* and *Ultimate* trim levels and the standardization of a number of features that were previously optional. Some of these newly standard features included heated and cooled front seats, power\\-folding third row seats, a power liftgate, and a 600\\-watt 14\\-speaker [THX](/wiki/THX \"THX\") II\\-Certified audio system. Also newly standard was a 3\\.31:1 rear axle ratio, though a 3\\.73:1 ratio was still available as option for the Navigator and remained standard in the Navigator L. Newly available was a rearview camera to aid in backing up.", "For 2009, the Navigator's 5\\.4 L V8 gained {{convert\\|10\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}} as well as [flex\\-fuel](/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle \"Flexible-fuel vehicle\") capability. The rearview camera that was new for 2008 was now standard, as were heated second row seats, *Front Park Assist*, a capless fuel filler, rain\\-sensing windshield wipers, and [Lincoln SYNC](/wiki/Ford_Sync \"Ford Sync\").{{cite web \\|publisher\\=Ford Motor Company \\|work\\=Ford Media \\|title\\=2008 Navigator Overview \\|year\\=2008 \\|url\\=http://media.ford.com/products/presskit\\_display.cfm?vehicle\\_id\\=1947\\&press\\_subsection\\_id\\=421\\&make\\_id\\=93 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930003610/http://media.ford.com/products/presskit\\_display.cfm?vehicle\\_id\\=1947\\&press\\_subsection\\_id\\=421\\&make\\_id\\=93 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=September 30, 2008 }}", "The third generation Navigator and Navigator L continued to be offered for the 2010 model year, with only slight changes.{{cite news \\|author\\=Mehta, Sajeev \\|title\\=Review: 2010 Lincoln Navigator L \\|url\\=http://www.ibtimes.com/contents/20090508/review\\-lincoln\\-navigator\\-l.htm \\|work\\=ibautos.com \\|publisher\\=International Business Times \\|date\\=May 8, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621075420/http://www.ibtimes.com/contents/20090508/review\\-lincoln\\-navigator\\-l.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=June 21, 2009 }}", "For 2011, both the Navigator and the Navigator L featured [HD Radio](/wiki/HD_Radio \"HD Radio\"), Sirius TravelLink, and Lincoln SYNC as standard on all trims. The optional 20\\-inch chrome aluminum wheels offered from 2007 to 2010 were replaced with 20\\-inch polished aluminum wheels.", "For the 2013 model year, the only changes made to the Navigator were the addition of new color trims: Kodiak Brown Metallic Tri\\-Coat, Midnight Sapphire Metallic, and Ruby Red Metallic Tinted Clearcoat.[2013 Lincoln Navigator](http://media.lincoln.com/images/10031/2013_Navigator.pdf) {{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} from media.lincoln.com", "The 2014 model year was a carryover from 2013 with the same features and no cosmetic changes. This would be the last model year that it would feature the front grille fascias.", "### 2015 refresh", "[alt\\=\\|thumb\\|Refreshed 2015 Lincoln Navigator\\|230x230px](/wiki/File:2014_Canadian_International_AutoShow_0122_%2812645566113%29.jpg \"2014 Canadian International AutoShow 0122 (12645566113).jpg\")\nIn March 2013, Ford had confirmed reports that the next generation Lincoln Navigator would not be a repackaged Ford Expedition as the previous generations were, despite trailing the MKX in terms of sales but ahead of the MKT, but hopes to make it more competitive in the luxury SUV segment as they prepared to take on the [Cadillac Escalade](/wiki/Cadillac_Escalade \"Cadillac Escalade\"), [Infiniti QX80](/wiki/Infiniti_QX80 \"Infiniti QX80\"), and the [Mercedes\\-Benz GL\\-Class](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_GL-Class \"Mercedes-Benz GL-Class\"), each of which had already or would launch new generations in 2013 or 2014,[\"Lincoln Navigator to Drop V\\-8 for EcoBoost V\\-6, Expedition May Get V\\-6 and V\\-8\"](http://wot.motortrend.com/lincoln-navigator-to-drop-v8-for-ecoboost-v6-expedition-may-get-v6-and-v8-340245.html#axzz2Z2rAGoU4) from Motor Trend (March 11, 2013\\) and would be designed by the new Lincoln design team that also designed the new 2013 MKZ. It would be completely new and would feature the 3\\.5 [Ecoboost](/wiki/Ecoboost \"Ecoboost\"), interior and exterior and performance upgrades.[\"Next Lincoln Navigator to drop V8 in favor of V6, but Ford Expedition might get both\"](http://www.autoblog.com/2013/03/12/next-lincoln-navigator-to-drop-v8-in-favor-of-v6-but-ford-exped/) from Autoblog (March 12, 2013\\) But in May 2013 a prototype Navigator with a different front grille was tested featuring the EcoBoost in preparation for the updated Navigator,[\"Caught: Lincoln Navigator Prototype Spied\"](http://wot.motortrend.com/caught-lincoln-navigator-prototype-spied-343857.html#axzz2Z2rAGoU4) from Motor Trend (May 20, 2013\\) which was followed by more spy shots taken in September 2013 that was sporting Lincoln's updated signature front grille.[2015 Lincoln Navigator Spied Testing On Public Roads](http://www.trucktrend.com/future/spied/163_news130918_2015_lincoln_navigator_spied_testing/) From Truck Trend (September 18, 2013\\)", "On January 22, 2014, three photos of the 2015 Navigator were released on [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\")[from Twitter](https://twitter.com/CliffordAtiyeh/statuses/426072162370609153) posted January 22, 2014 and [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram \"Instagram\"),[From Lincoln Motor Co.](http://instagram.com/p/jdSIKSomIn/) posted January 22, 2014 along with an announcement that the refreshed SUV would be revealed at the [Washington Auto Show](/wiki/Washington_Auto_Show \"Washington Auto Show\") the following day (January 23, 2014\\).[\"2015 Lincoln Navigator: First Look\"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/kicking-tires/post/2015-lincoln-navigator-first-look/2014/01/23/828bff9c-83ec-11e3-a273-6ffd9cf9f4ba_blog.html) from *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* (January 23, 2014\\) However, hours after the leaks were made public, Lincoln held a press event in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan \"Detroit, Michigan\") for the vehicle[\"2015 Lincoln Navigator gets new look\"](http://www.freep.com/article/20140123/BUSINESS0102/301230027/Ford-2015-Lincoln-Navigator-Expedition-auto) from *[Detroit Free Press](/wiki/Detroit_Free_Press \"Detroit Free Press\")* (January 23, 2014\\) and revealed the updated Navigator earlier than expected.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=t6licT8RkQY\\|title\\=2015 Lincoln Navigator SUV\\|last\\=Carscoops\\|date\\=January 22, 2014\\|via\\=YouTube}}", "The 2015 Navigator and Navigator L kept the same exterior styling design as the Expedition instead of the reported repackaging that was announced earlier by Ford. However, it now featured an updated front grille with the rear tailgate lights bearing a resemblance to the [Dodge Durango](/wiki/Dodge_Durango \"Dodge Durango\"). The EcoBoost V6 was the only engine offered for the 2015 model year, making {{Convert\\|380\\|hp\\|kW PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{Convert\\|460\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque. The exterior included HID headlamps with LED running lights and full LED taillights. Twenty\\-inch wheels came standard, replacing the 18\\-inch wheels, while a reserve package featured 22\\-inch wheels. The dashboard panels features MyLincoln Touch with Sync as standard, controlled through an eight\\-inch touchscreen display in the dash, and home to twin 4\\.2\\-inch displays that flank a central speedometer, falling in line with the rest of the Lincoln models. The push\\-button start became standard, likewise a passive entry and a rear\\-view camera. Blind\\-spot monitoring was added as an optional feature.", "Both the updated Navigator and Navigator L went into production in the summer of 2014, and arrived to dealers that fall as a 2015 model.[\"2015 Lincoln Navigator puts on a brave face, offers EcoBoost V6 only\"](http://www.autoblog.com/2014/01/23/2015-lincoln-navigator-redesign-ecoboost-v6/) from Autoblog (January 23, 2014\\)[\"2015 Lincoln Navigator Teased, Debuts on Thursday, Gets 3\\.5L V6 EcoBoost\"](http://www.carscoops.com/2014/01/2015-lincoln-navigator-teased-debuts-on.html) from Carscoops (January 22, 2014\\)", "### Safety", "", "| \\+2016 Lincoln Navigator SUV 4x4 [NHTSA](/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration \"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.safercar.gov/Vehicle\\+Shoppers/5\\-Star\\+Safety\\+Ratings/2011\\-Newer\\+Vehicles/Vehicle\\-Detail?vehicleId\\=10254 \\|title\\=2016 Lincoln Navigator SUV 4x4 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] \\|access\\-date\\=September 30, 2015}} |\n| --- |\n| Overall: | {{rating\\|5\\|5}} |\n| Frontal Driver: | {{rating\\|5\\|5}} |\n| Frontal Passenger: | {{rating\\|5\\|5}} |\n| Side Driver: | {{rating\\|5\\|5}} |\n| Side Passenger: | {{rating\\|5\\|5}} |\n| Side Pole Driver: | {{rating\\|5\\|5}} |\n| [Rollover](/wiki/Vehicle_rollover \"Vehicle rollover\") AWD: | {{rating\\|4\\|5}} 19\\.8% |\n| [Rollover](/wiki/Vehicle_rollover \"Vehicle rollover\") RWD: | {{rating\\|3\\|5}} 21\\.2%{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.safercar.gov/Vehicle\\+Shoppers/5\\-Star\\+Safety\\+Ratings/2011\\-Newer\\+Vehicles/Vehicle\\-Detail?vehicleId\\=10255 \\|title\\=2016 Lincoln Navigator SUV 4x2 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] \\|access\\-date\\=September 30, 2015}} |", "" ]
Fourth generation (2018–2024\) ------------------------------ {{Infobox automobile \| name \= Fourth generation \| model\_code \= U554 \| image \= 2019 Lincoln Navigator L 3\.5, front 8\.23\.19\.jpg \| aka \= Lincoln Navigator L Lincoln Navigator L Limousine (with conversion) \| model\_years \= 2018–2024 \| assembly \= \[\[Louisville, Kentucky]], U.S. (\[\[Kentucky Truck Assembly]]) \| platform \= \[\[Ford T platform\#T3\|Ford T3 platform]] \| engine \= ''Ford \[\[Ford EcoBoost engine\|EcoBoost D35]]'' 3\.5 L Twin\-Turbo \[\[V6 engine\|V6]] \| transmission \= Ford 10\-speed 10R80 ''\[\[Manumatic\|SelectShift]]'' automatic '''\[\[Transfer case]]''' (4x4 models) 2\-speed BorgWarner 4417 High range \[\[ratio]]: 1\.00:1 Low range ratio: 2\.64:1 \| wheelbase \= SWB: {{convert\|122\.5\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} L: {{convert\|131\.6\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| length \= SWB: {{convert\|210\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} L: {{convert\|221\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| width \= {{convert\|79\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| height \= {{convert\|78\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} \| weight \= SWB: {{convert\|5685\|–\|5855\|lb\|abbr\=on}} L: {{convert\|5926\|–\|6056\|lb\|abbr\=on}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.lincoln.com/luxury\-suvs/navigator/models/reservel/ \|title\=2018 Lincoln Navigator L Reserve Specifications \- Lincoln.com \|access\-date\=March 26, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326202735/https://www.lincoln.com/luxury\-suvs/navigator/models/reservel/ \|archive\-date\=March 26, 2018 \|url\-status\=dead }} \| production \= September 25, 2017 – present \| designer \= Earl Lucas,{{cite web\|url\=https://media.lincoln.com/content/lincolnmedia/lna/us/en/people/earl\-lucas.html\|title\=Earl Lucas\|publisher\=Lincoln Media Center}} Jaewoo Chang }} [left\|Lincoln Navigator Concept at the [2016 LA Auto Show](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_Auto_Show "Greater Los Angeles Auto Show").\|thumb](/wiki/File:Bsda.jpg "Bsda.jpg") [left\|thumb\|Rear view](/wiki/File:2019_Lincoln_Navigator_L_3.5%2C_rear_8.23.19.jpg "2019 Lincoln Navigator L 3.5, rear 8.23.19.jpg") On April 12, 2017, the fourth\-generation 2018 Lincoln Navigator was introduced at the [2017 New York Auto Show](/wiki/New_York_International_Auto_Show%232017 "New York International Auto Show#2017").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.carscoops.com/2017/04/watch\-out\-escalade\-lincoln\-teases\-all.html\|title\=Watch Out Escalade: Lincoln Teases All\-New 2018 Navigator Ahead Of NY Show\|date\=April 10, 2017}} As with previous generations, the fourth\-generation remains the Lincoln counterpart of the Ford Expedition, offered in both a standard and long\-wheelbase configuration (Lincoln Navigator L).["Lincoln's 2018 Navigator lighter, faster and more spacious"](http://www.autonews.com/article/20170412/OEM04/304129982/lincolns-2018-navigator-lighter-faster-and-more-spacious) from Automotive News (April 12, 2017\) As before, both two and four\-wheel drive versions are offered. The fourth\-generation marked a significant shift in the exterior styling of the Navigator, as it adopted styling features of the 2017 Lincoln Continental. In another major shift, the model line adopted aluminum body construction. Lincoln refreshed the Navigator for 2022 which was unveiled in August 2021\. ### Chassis The fourth\-generation Lincoln Navigator uses the [Ford T3 platform](/wiki/Ford_T_platform%23T3 "Ford T platform#T3"), developed under the U554 code name. Retaining body\-on\-frame construction, the Lincoln Navigator (and Ford Expedition) were engineered alongside the [2015 Ford F\-150](/wiki/Ford_F-Series_%28thirteenth_generation%29 "Ford F-Series (thirteenth generation)"). The four\-wheel independent suspension configuration was retained, with a redesigned rear suspension layout. Shared with the Ford F\-150 Raptor, the Lincoln Navigator is equipped with a 450 hp twin\-turbocharged [3\.5L EcoBoost V6](/wiki/Ford_EcoBoost_engine%233.5_L_%28D35%3B_second_generation%29 "Ford EcoBoost engine#3.5 L (D35; second generation)") (although Lincoln has ended its use of the EcoBoost nomenclature). The highest\-output engine ever sold by Lincoln, the 3\.5L V6 is paired with a 10\-speed automatic transmission (replacing the previous 6\-speed automatic). ### Body Entering production with only minor differences from the Lincoln Navigator concept vehicle shown at the [2016 New York Auto Show](/wiki/New_York_International_Auto_Show%232016 "New York International Auto Show#2016") (no inclusion of the [gullwing doors](/wiki/Gull-wing_door "Gull-wing door") and stair\-style running boards, used largely for display purposes["Lincoln Navigator SUV concept opens wide in New York"](http://www.gizmag.com/lincoln-navigator-concept/42460/) from Gizmag (March 23, 2016\)). The 2018 Lincoln Navigator adopted several design features from the 2017 Lincoln Continental, including the style of its headlights, taillights, side vents, and its front fascia, with a large rectangular grille and a centered Lincoln star emblem. While sharing its roofline and side doors with the Ford Expedition, in the style of [Range Rovers](/wiki/Range_Rover "Range Rover"), the B, C, and D\-pillars are blacked out for a "floating roof" effect. As with the 2015 Ford F\-150, the body of fourth\-generation Lincoln Navigator (and Ford Expedition) was designed as a part of a shift to aluminum body construction, with the use of steel largely reserved for the chassis frame rails. Nearly {{convert\|200\|lb\|kg}} lighter than the previous generation, the fourth\-generation Navigator is physically larger than its predecessor, with the standard\-wheelbase configuration gaining three inches in wheelbase, while the long\-wheelbase L gaining nearly an inch (becoming the longest\-wheelbase Lincoln ever produced excluding the Mark LT pickup). In terms of body length, both versions were shortened approximately half an inch. Shared with the Lincoln Continental, the dashboard of the 2018 Lincoln Navigator replaced a conventional console (or column)\-mounted shifter with dashboard\-mounted buttons and paddle shifters. In the late 1950s, the Ford Motor company offered mechanical transmission gear selection featured on all 1957 and 1958 Mercury sedans called [Multi\-Drive](/wiki/Cruise-O-Matic%23Merc-O-Matic_%22Keyboard_Control/Multi-Drive%22 "Cruise-O-Matic#Merc-O-Matic ") which offered a similar approach. For the first time in the model line, the fourth\-generation Navigator offers a head\-up display along with a 12\-inch reconfigurable instrument cluster. ### Trim The fourth\-generation Lincoln Navigator continues the same trim line introduced in the 2015 model update, with Premiere (new to the Navigator for 2018\) as the standard trim, Select as the mid\-level trim, and Reserve as the highest trim level. Each is powered by a turbocharged 3\.5\-liter V6 with an output of {{convert\|450\|hp\|kW PS\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|510\|lbft\|Nm\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=3}} of torque and comes with a 10\-speed automatic transmission.{{Cite web\|last\=Niebuhr\|first\=Kurt\|date\=2021\-01\-06\|title\=Lincoln Navigator Prices, Reviews, and Pictures {{!}} Edmunds\|url\=https://www.edmunds.com/lincoln/navigator/\|website\=\[\[Edmunds.com]]}} In addition to other trim changes for the fourth generation, the Black Label series became available for the first time on the Navigator. A series of vehicles with interiors and exteriors coordinated around a theme (similar to the [Designer Series](/wiki/Lincoln_Continental_Mark_IV%23Designer_Series "Lincoln Continental Mark IV#Designer Series") Lincolns and Continentals of the 1970s and 1980s), the Navigator is sold with three Black Label themes: Chalet, Destination, and Yacht Club. At a base price of approximately $95,000, the Black Label edition of the Lincoln Navigator is the most expensive vehicle ever sold by Ford Motor Company (with the exception of the [Ford GT](/wiki/Ford_GT "Ford GT")).["2018 Lincoln Navigator Destination still all about the journey"](http://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1111150_2018-lincoln-navigator-destination-still-all-about-the-journey) from The Car Connection (June 21, 2017\) ### Safety **[NHTSA](/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration "National Highway Traffic Safety Administration") crash test ratings (2020\):**{{Cite web \|title\=2018 LINCOLN NAVIGATOR SUV 4x2 {{!}} NHTSA \|url\=https://www.nhtsa.gov/vehicle/2018/LINCOLN/NAVIGATOR/SUV/4x2 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-24 \|website\=www.nhtsa.gov \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=2018 LINCOLN NAVIGATOR SUV 4x4 {{!}} NHTSA \|url\=https://www.nhtsa.gov/vehicle/2018/LINCOLN/NAVIGATOR/SUV/4x4 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-24 \|website\=www.nhtsa.gov \|language\=en}} * Front Impact Rating: {{Rating\|5\|5}} * Side Impact Rating: {{Rating\|5\|5}} * Rollover Rating (AWD): {{Rating\|4\|5}} * Rollover Rating (RWD): {{Rating\|3\|5}} {{Clear}}
[ "Fourth generation (2018–2024\\)\n------------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Fourth generation \n\\| model\\_code \\= U554\n\\| image \\= 2019 Lincoln Navigator L 3\\.5, front 8\\.23\\.19\\.jpg\n\\| aka \\= Lincoln Navigator L \nLincoln Navigator L Limousine (with conversion)\n\\| model\\_years \\= 2018–2024\n\\| assembly \\= \\[\\[Louisville, Kentucky]], U.S. (\\[\\[Kentucky Truck Assembly]])\n\\| platform \\= \\[\\[Ford T platform\\#T3\\|Ford T3 platform]]\n\\| engine \\= ''Ford \\[\\[Ford EcoBoost engine\\|EcoBoost D35]]'' 3\\.5 L Twin\\-Turbo \\[\\[V6 engine\\|V6]]\n\\| transmission \\= Ford 10\\-speed 10R80 ''\\[\\[Manumatic\\|SelectShift]]'' automatic \n \n'''\\[\\[Transfer case]]''' (4x4 models) \n2\\-speed BorgWarner 4417 \nHigh range \\[\\[ratio]]: 1\\.00:1 \nLow range ratio: 2\\.64:1\n\\| wheelbase \\= SWB: {{convert\\|122\\.5\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \nL: {{convert\\|131\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= SWB: {{convert\\|210\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \nL: {{convert\\|221\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|79\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|78\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= SWB: {{convert\\|5685\\|–\\|5855\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} \nL: {{convert\\|5926\\|–\\|6056\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.lincoln.com/luxury\\-suvs/navigator/models/reservel/ \\|title\\=2018 Lincoln Navigator L Reserve Specifications \\- Lincoln.com \\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326202735/https://www.lincoln.com/luxury\\-suvs/navigator/models/reservel/ \\|archive\\-date\\=March 26, 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n\\| production \\= September 25, 2017 – present\n\\| designer \\= Earl Lucas,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://media.lincoln.com/content/lincolnmedia/lna/us/en/people/earl\\-lucas.html\\|title\\=Earl Lucas\\|publisher\\=Lincoln Media Center}} Jaewoo Chang\n}}", "[left\\|Lincoln Navigator Concept at the [2016 LA Auto Show](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_Auto_Show \"Greater Los Angeles Auto Show\").\\|thumb](/wiki/File:Bsda.jpg \"Bsda.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|Rear view](/wiki/File:2019_Lincoln_Navigator_L_3.5%2C_rear_8.23.19.jpg \"2019 Lincoln Navigator L 3.5, rear 8.23.19.jpg\")", "On April 12, 2017, the fourth\\-generation 2018 Lincoln Navigator was introduced at the [2017 New York Auto Show](/wiki/New_York_International_Auto_Show%232017 \"New York International Auto Show#2017\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.carscoops.com/2017/04/watch\\-out\\-escalade\\-lincoln\\-teases\\-all.html\\|title\\=Watch Out Escalade: Lincoln Teases All\\-New 2018 Navigator Ahead Of NY Show\\|date\\=April 10, 2017}} As with previous generations, the fourth\\-generation remains the Lincoln counterpart of the Ford Expedition, offered in both a standard and long\\-wheelbase configuration (Lincoln Navigator L).[\"Lincoln's 2018 Navigator lighter, faster and more spacious\"](http://www.autonews.com/article/20170412/OEM04/304129982/lincolns-2018-navigator-lighter-faster-and-more-spacious) from Automotive News (April 12, 2017\\) As before, both two and four\\-wheel drive versions are offered.", "The fourth\\-generation marked a significant shift in the exterior styling of the Navigator, as it adopted styling features of the 2017 Lincoln Continental. In another major shift, the model line adopted aluminum body construction.", "Lincoln refreshed the Navigator for 2022 which was unveiled in August 2021\\.", "### Chassis", "The fourth\\-generation Lincoln Navigator uses the [Ford T3 platform](/wiki/Ford_T_platform%23T3 \"Ford T platform#T3\"), developed under the U554 code name. Retaining body\\-on\\-frame construction, the Lincoln Navigator (and Ford Expedition) were engineered alongside the [2015 Ford F\\-150](/wiki/Ford_F-Series_%28thirteenth_generation%29 \"Ford F-Series (thirteenth generation)\"). The four\\-wheel independent suspension configuration was retained, with a redesigned rear suspension layout.", "Shared with the Ford F\\-150 Raptor, the Lincoln Navigator is equipped with a 450 hp twin\\-turbocharged [3\\.5L EcoBoost V6](/wiki/Ford_EcoBoost_engine%233.5_L_%28D35%3B_second_generation%29 \"Ford EcoBoost engine#3.5 L (D35; second generation)\") (although Lincoln has ended its use of the EcoBoost nomenclature). The highest\\-output engine ever sold by Lincoln, the 3\\.5L V6 is paired with a 10\\-speed automatic transmission (replacing the previous 6\\-speed automatic).", "### Body", "Entering production with only minor differences from the Lincoln Navigator concept vehicle shown at the [2016 New York Auto Show](/wiki/New_York_International_Auto_Show%232016 \"New York International Auto Show#2016\") (no inclusion of the [gullwing doors](/wiki/Gull-wing_door \"Gull-wing door\") and stair\\-style running boards, used largely for display purposes[\"Lincoln Navigator SUV concept opens wide in New York\"](http://www.gizmag.com/lincoln-navigator-concept/42460/) from Gizmag (March 23, 2016\\)). The 2018 Lincoln Navigator adopted several design features from the 2017 Lincoln Continental, including the style of its headlights, taillights, side vents, and its front fascia, with a large rectangular grille and a centered Lincoln star emblem. While sharing its roofline and side doors with the Ford Expedition, in the style of [Range Rovers](/wiki/Range_Rover \"Range Rover\"), the B, C, and D\\-pillars are blacked out for a \"floating roof\" effect.", "As with the 2015 Ford F\\-150, the body of fourth\\-generation Lincoln Navigator (and Ford Expedition) was designed as a part of a shift to aluminum body construction, with the use of steel largely reserved for the chassis frame rails. Nearly {{convert\\|200\\|lb\\|kg}} lighter than the previous generation, the fourth\\-generation Navigator is physically larger than its predecessor, with the standard\\-wheelbase configuration gaining three inches in wheelbase, while the long\\-wheelbase L gaining nearly an inch (becoming the longest\\-wheelbase Lincoln ever produced excluding the Mark LT pickup). In terms of body length, both versions were shortened approximately half an inch.", "Shared with the Lincoln Continental, the dashboard of the 2018 Lincoln Navigator replaced a conventional console (or column)\\-mounted shifter with dashboard\\-mounted buttons and paddle shifters. In the late 1950s, the Ford Motor company offered mechanical transmission gear selection featured on all 1957 and 1958 Mercury sedans called [Multi\\-Drive](/wiki/Cruise-O-Matic%23Merc-O-Matic_%22Keyboard_Control/Multi-Drive%22 \"Cruise-O-Matic#Merc-O-Matic \") which offered a similar approach. For the first time in the model line, the fourth\\-generation Navigator offers a head\\-up display along with a 12\\-inch reconfigurable instrument cluster.", "### Trim", "The fourth\\-generation Lincoln Navigator continues the same trim line introduced in the 2015 model update, with Premiere (new to the Navigator for 2018\\) as the standard trim, Select as the mid\\-level trim, and Reserve as the highest trim level. Each is powered by a turbocharged 3\\.5\\-liter V6 with an output of {{convert\\|450\\|hp\\|kW PS\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|510\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=3}} of torque and comes with a 10\\-speed automatic transmission.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Niebuhr\\|first\\=Kurt\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-06\\|title\\=Lincoln Navigator Prices, Reviews, and Pictures {{!}} Edmunds\\|url\\=https://www.edmunds.com/lincoln/navigator/\\|website\\=\\[\\[Edmunds.com]]}}", "In addition to other trim changes for the fourth generation, the Black Label series became available for the first time on the Navigator. A series of vehicles with interiors and exteriors coordinated around a theme (similar to the [Designer Series](/wiki/Lincoln_Continental_Mark_IV%23Designer_Series \"Lincoln Continental Mark IV#Designer Series\") Lincolns and Continentals of the 1970s and 1980s), the Navigator is sold with three Black Label themes: Chalet, Destination, and Yacht Club.", "At a base price of approximately $95,000, the Black Label edition of the Lincoln Navigator is the most expensive vehicle ever sold by Ford Motor Company (with the exception of the [Ford GT](/wiki/Ford_GT \"Ford GT\")).[\"2018 Lincoln Navigator Destination still all about the journey\"](http://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1111150_2018-lincoln-navigator-destination-still-all-about-the-journey) from The Car Connection (June 21, 2017\\)", "### Safety", "**[NHTSA](/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration \"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration\") crash test ratings (2020\\):**{{Cite web \\|title\\=2018 LINCOLN NAVIGATOR SUV 4x2 {{!}} NHTSA \\|url\\=https://www.nhtsa.gov/vehicle/2018/LINCOLN/NAVIGATOR/SUV/4x2 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=www.nhtsa.gov \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=2018 LINCOLN NAVIGATOR SUV 4x4 {{!}} NHTSA \\|url\\=https://www.nhtsa.gov/vehicle/2018/LINCOLN/NAVIGATOR/SUV/4x4 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=www.nhtsa.gov \\|language\\=en}}", "* Front Impact Rating: {{Rating\\|5\\|5}}\n* Side Impact Rating: {{Rating\\|5\\|5}}\n* Rollover Rating (AWD): {{Rating\\|4\\|5}}\n* Rollover Rating (RWD): {{Rating\\|3\\|5}}\n{{Clear}}" ]
Details ------- More formally, a **Lie supergroup** is a [supermanifold](/wiki/Supermanifold "Supermanifold") *G* together with a multiplication morphism \\mu :G \\times G\\rightarrow G, an inversion morphism i : G \\rightarrow G and a unit morphism e: 1 \\rightarrow G which makes *G* a [group object](/wiki/Group_object "Group object") in the [category](/wiki/Category_theory "Category theory") of supermanifolds. This means that, formulated as commutative diagrams, the usual associativity and inversion axioms of a group continue to hold. Since every manifold is a supermanifold, a Lie supergroup generalises the notion of a [Lie group](/wiki/Lie_group "Lie group"). There are many possible supergroups. The ones of most interest in theoretical physics are the ones which extend the [Poincaré group](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group "Poincaré group") or the [conformal group](/wiki/Conformal_group "Conformal group"). Of particular interest are the **orthosymplectic groups** Osp(*M*\|*N*)(*M*\|*N*) is pronounced "*M* [vertical bar](/wiki/Vertical_bar "Vertical bar") *N*." Bosonic part of Osp(*M*\|*N*) consists of the direct sum of Sp(*N*) and SO(*M*) Lie groups. See [superspace](/wiki/Superspace "Superspace") for a general definition. (cf. Larus Thorlacius, Thordur Jonsson (eds.), *M\-Theory and Quantum Geometry*, Springer, 2012, p. 263\). and the **superunitary groups** SU(*M*\|*N*). An equivalent algebraic approach starts from the observation that a supermanifold is determined by its ring of [supercommutative](/wiki/Supercommutative "Supercommutative") smooth functions, and that a morphism of supermanifolds corresponds one to one with an algebra homomorphism between their functions in the opposite direction, i.e. that the category of supermanifolds is opposite to the category of algebras of smooth graded commutative functions. Reversing all the arrows in the commutative diagrams that define a Lie supergroup then shows that functions over the supergroup have the structure of a **Z**2\-graded [Hopf algebra](/wiki/Hopf_algebra "Hopf algebra"). Likewise the representations of this Hopf algebra turn out to be **Z**2\-graded [comodules](/wiki/Comodule "Comodule"). This Hopf algebra gives the global properties of the supergroup. There is another related Hopf algebra which is the dual of the previous Hopf algebra. It can be identified with the Hopf algebra of graded differential operators at the origin. It only gives the local properties of the symmetries i.e., it only gives information about infinitesimal supersymmetry transformations. The representations of this Hopf algebra are [modules](/wiki/Module_%28mathematics%29 "Module (mathematics)"). Like in the non\-graded case, this Hopf algebra can be described purely algebraically as the [universal enveloping algebra](/wiki/Universal_enveloping_algebra "Universal enveloping algebra") of the [Lie superalgebra](/wiki/Lie_superalgebra "Lie superalgebra"). In a similar way one can define an affine algebraic supergroup as a group object in the category of superalgebraic [affine varieties](/wiki/Affine_varieties "Affine varieties"). An affine algebraic supergroup has a similar one to one relation to its [Hopf algebra](/wiki/Hopf_algebra "Hopf algebra") of superpolynomials. Using the language of [schemes](/wiki/Scheme_%28mathematics%29 "Scheme (mathematics)"), which combines the geometric and algebraic point of view, algebraic supergroup schemes can be defined including super [Abelian varieties](/wiki/Abelian_varieties "Abelian varieties").
[ "Details\n-------", "More formally, a **Lie supergroup** is a [supermanifold](/wiki/Supermanifold \"Supermanifold\") *G* together with a multiplication morphism \\\\mu :G \\\\times G\\\\rightarrow G, an inversion morphism i : G \\\\rightarrow G and a unit morphism e: 1 \\\\rightarrow G which makes *G* a [group object](/wiki/Group_object \"Group object\") in the [category](/wiki/Category_theory \"Category theory\") of supermanifolds. This means that, formulated as commutative diagrams, the usual associativity and inversion axioms of a group continue to hold. Since every manifold is a supermanifold, a Lie supergroup generalises the notion of a [Lie group](/wiki/Lie_group \"Lie group\").", "There are many possible supergroups. The ones of most interest in theoretical physics are the ones which extend the [Poincaré group](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group \"Poincaré group\") or the [conformal group](/wiki/Conformal_group \"Conformal group\"). Of particular interest are the **orthosymplectic groups** Osp(*M*\\|*N*)(*M*\\|*N*) is pronounced \"*M* [vertical bar](/wiki/Vertical_bar \"Vertical bar\") *N*.\" Bosonic part of Osp(*M*\\|*N*) consists of the direct sum of Sp(*N*) and SO(*M*) Lie groups. See [superspace](/wiki/Superspace \"Superspace\") for a general definition. (cf. Larus Thorlacius, Thordur Jonsson (eds.), *M\\-Theory and Quantum Geometry*, Springer, 2012, p. 263\\). and the **superunitary groups** SU(*M*\\|*N*).", "An equivalent algebraic approach starts from the observation that a supermanifold is determined by its ring of [supercommutative](/wiki/Supercommutative \"Supercommutative\") smooth functions, and that a morphism of supermanifolds corresponds one to one with an algebra homomorphism between their functions in the opposite direction, i.e. that the category of supermanifolds is opposite to the category of algebras of smooth graded commutative functions. Reversing all the arrows in the commutative diagrams that define a Lie supergroup then shows that functions over the supergroup have the structure of a **Z**2\\-graded [Hopf algebra](/wiki/Hopf_algebra \"Hopf algebra\"). Likewise the representations of this Hopf algebra turn out to be **Z**2\\-graded [comodules](/wiki/Comodule \"Comodule\"). This Hopf algebra gives the global properties of the supergroup.", "There is another related Hopf algebra which is the dual of the previous Hopf algebra. It can be identified with the Hopf algebra of graded differential operators at the origin. It only gives the local properties of the symmetries i.e., it only gives information about infinitesimal supersymmetry transformations. The representations of this Hopf algebra are [modules](/wiki/Module_%28mathematics%29 \"Module (mathematics)\"). Like in the non\\-graded case, this Hopf algebra can be described purely algebraically as the [universal enveloping algebra](/wiki/Universal_enveloping_algebra \"Universal enveloping algebra\") of the [Lie superalgebra](/wiki/Lie_superalgebra \"Lie superalgebra\").", "In a similar way one can define an affine algebraic supergroup as a group object in the category of superalgebraic [affine varieties](/wiki/Affine_varieties \"Affine varieties\"). An affine algebraic supergroup has a similar one to one relation to its [Hopf algebra](/wiki/Hopf_algebra \"Hopf algebra\") of superpolynomials. Using the language of [schemes](/wiki/Scheme_%28mathematics%29 \"Scheme (mathematics)\"), which combines the geometric and algebraic point of view, algebraic supergroup schemes can be defined including super [Abelian varieties](/wiki/Abelian_varieties \"Abelian varieties\").", "" ]
TV series --------- ### Characterization In contrast to the novels, Eric's character is more complex in the show, showing a mature understanding of family and relationships but faces the same troubles as most teenagers have. [Alessandra Stanley](/wiki/Alessandra_Stanley "Alessandra Stanley") of *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* mentions his character's deviation from the novels from "an object of female lust" to one of "...psychotherapy", but notes his strong bond with Serena, stating how he "is misunderstood by all but his caring, if troubled, sister."{{cite web \| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/19/arts/television/19goss.html \| title \= Reading, Writing and Raunch: Mean Girls Rule Prep School \| work \= \[\[The New York Times]] \| first \= Alessandra \| last \= Stanley\| author\-link \= Alessandra Stanley \| date \= 11 March 2011}} Despite his mature persona, Eric is no stranger to the problems that most teens face as his stay at the Ostroff Center, a rehabilitation facility, is a result of his constant loneliness and his mother's many unstable marriages. Connor Paolo notes that Eric's lack of a father figure contributed to his suicide attempt.{{cite web \| url \= http://nymag.com/daily/intel/2010/02/connor\_paolo\_wants\_eric\_van\_de.html \| title \= Connor Paolo Wants Eric Van Der Woodsen to Go Postal \| work \= The New York Times \| first \= Alexandra \| last \= Martell \| date \= 16 February 2010}} ### Season 1 At the beginning of the season, Eric has been living at the Ostroff Center, a high\-class mental facility. Serena frequently visits him after coming back. As well as trying to convince the doctors and her mother Lilly to let him out. They let Eric out temporarily, during the Ivy League Mixer, where he develops a friendship with [Jenny Humphrey](/wiki/Jenny_Humphrey "Jenny Humphrey"). After [Blair Waldorf](/wiki/Blair_Waldorf "Blair Waldorf") humiliates his sister, telling the whole school she was attending the Ostroff Center during her absence having mistakenly seeing photos of Serena entering the center, Eric tells Blair he was the one attending the mental center and shows her the scars on his wrists from his [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") attempt. At Blair's annual sleepover, Blair dares Jenny to break into the Ostroff Center and take Eric out for the night. Jenny and Blair succeed and they take him to a bar downtown. Lily is made aware of his disappearance and begins to panic. She quickly informs [Rufus](/wiki/Rufus_Humphrey "Rufus Humphrey"), whose son, [Dan](/wiki/Dan_Humphrey "Dan Humphrey"), is on a date with Serena, after she cannot get hold of her. They contact the couple to make sure Eric is alright and to bring him home. Later, Lily realizes that Eric is ready to come out of the medical center. He is present during Thanksgiving dinner at the Humphrey's apartment when Lily and Rufus reveal they had a previous relationship years ago. Due to his mother's engagement to billionaire [Bart Bass](/wiki/Bart_Bass "Bart Bass"), he develops a close friendship with [Chuck Bass](/wiki/Chuck_Bass "Chuck Bass"), whom he soon sees as a brother. He tries to warn Jenny about her new boyfriend Asher Hornsby (Jesse Swenson) but she mistakes this for Eric being in love with her. In the same episode, Dan and [Georgina Sparks](/wiki/Georgina_Sparks "Georgina Sparks") see Asher making out with someone outside of school. The news becomes public on Gossip Girl, and Jenny denies the rumor by saying she lost her [virginity](/wiki/Virginity "Virginity") to Asher, which Eric knows is untrue. During a dinner with his family, Georgina [outs](/wiki/Coming_out "Coming out") him to get back at Serena. Eric's [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") upsets Lily, who blames herself for Eric getting institutionalized. Serena comforts him, and learns that Eric already came out to Chuck before her because he knew Chuck wouldn't judge him. He also explains that he had a relationship with someone while at the Ostroff Center, but now believed that it was over. At Asher and Jenny's party, Eric helps Blair dethrone Jenny by revealing that Asher was indeed [gay](/wiki/Gay "Gay"), and that they were involved. Asher denies this, but Blair sends a Gossip Girl blast with Eric and Asher's emails. He and Lilly later reconcile. ### Season 2 During summer 2008, Eric is staying with his sister and grandmother in The Hamptons. He receives a call from Jenny who tells him that she needs help to get in the Vitamin White Party. She apologizes to him about the incident with Asher and they become friends again. Eric introduces [Tinsley Mortimer](/wiki/Tinsley_Mortimer "Tinsley Mortimer") to Jenny to extend her contacts in the fashion industry. After the school year starts, although Serena complains about Lily's new marriage and their new house rules, Eric thinks they should give the marriage a chance. Later, Eric introduces Jonathan Whitney ([Matt Doyle](/wiki/Matt_Doyle_%28actor%29 "Matt Doyle (actor)")) as his new boyfriend. They break up after Bart tells Eric that Jonathan has been cheating on him. Eric lodges Jenny secretly in the Bass\-van der Woodsen penthouse and goes with her to make the paperwork to divorce her parents. Eric then discovers that Bart hired his private detective, Andrew Tyler, to do research about his, Lily's, and Serena's past. He discovers that Lily was also institutionalized at a French sanatorium and that she didn't tell him so that she could be strong for him. Bart's actions convince Lily to celebrate Thanksgiving with the Humphreys. After Bart's death, Eric comes back with Jonathan and tries to convince Chuck to go back to their penthouse. Chuck and Eric officially go from close friends to brothers after Lily adopts her late husband's son. ### Season 3 During summer 2009, Eric is in his grandmother's house with Jenny, Dan, and Rufus while Lily is in Montecito taking care of his and Serena's grandmother, CeCe. He observes Jenny's speech to the rest of Constance that ends the school hierarchy. During Jenny's gradual transformation as an Upper East Side Queen, he falls victim to Jenny and her cronies when a battle over the steps that Jonathan inadvertently started and ends with Eric being splattered with yogurt. The Halloween party that followed after had Jonathan being egged at the club opening, enraging Eric, who tells Jenny he wants nothing to do with her. Eric sabotages Jenny's Cotillion by falsely sending a text to Graham Collins, the date Jenny wants using her phone which claims that Jonathan will be taking her to Cotillion. He joins forces with Blair, whom Jenny also offends publicly, in making Kira Abernathy, a Constance student whom Jenny regularly ignores, a threat to Jenny's reign as Queen. Blair gives Kira a makeover and Eric blackmails Graham into becoming Kira's escort instead of Jenny. Jenny soon endures public humiliation but manages to gain their respect by taking Nate as her escort for Cotillion. These events cause Jonathan to break up with Eric as he claims Eric has changed now that he's resorted to scheming with Blair. After Cotillion, Jenny leaves with the other Upper East Side Queen Bees and leaves unaware that Eric has been responsible for her public embarrassment. At Thanksgiving, Jenny discovers that Eric was the one behind her public embarrassment at Cotillion which sets her getting her revenge on him. Eric teams up with Kira and attempts to ruin Jenny by buying one of his accomplices the same bag as her and have the girls turn against her. This fails as Jenny reveals two identical bags handing them over to his accomplices, falsely apologizing for her actions but claiming that one of the girls whom Erica bought a bag for spoiled her surprise. Eric and Jenny then to a truce after Serena's car accident. It is revealed in "Inglourious Bassterds" that Eric was in Japan and ends up meeting a potential love\-interest named Elliot (Luke Kleintank) during a game of [assassin](/wiki/Assassin_%28game%29 "Assassin (game)") on Nate's birthday.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\-girl\-317\-eric\-gets\-a\-love\-interest \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100512170145/http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\-girl\-317\-eric\-gets\-a\-love\-interest \| archive\-date \= 12 May 2010 \| title \= Eric's New and Surprisingly Hot "Gossip Girl" Love Interest \| publisher \= \[\[afterElton.com]] \| first \= Dennis \| last \= Ayers \| date \= 6 April 2010 \| url\-status\=dead }} On the day of Blair's maid's, Dorota, wedding, Eric wonders if Elliot is gay and discovers that he has a girlfriend during the wedding reception. Elliot then confides in Eric that he is [bisexual](/wiki/Bisexual "Bisexual"), indicating that Eric still has a chance with him when Elliot tells him that his girlfriend left out of jealousy.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\-girl\-318\-bisexual\-mating\-dance \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100519114342/http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\-girl\-318\-bisexual\-mating\-dance \| archive\-date \= 19 May 2010 \| title \= Last Night's ''Gossip Girl'': The Bisexual Mating Dance \| publisher \= afterElton.com \| first \= Dennis \| last \= Ayers \| date \= 13 April 2010 \| url\-status\=dead }} Eric's relationship with his father, William, is also observed when he coldly rejects him for not being there for him. He informs him that he is gay and had been institutionalized. His friendship with Jenny is once again tested when she reveals that she aided his father's escape from the police. He coldly states that no one is forcing Jenny to stay and that she can leave if she wants to. Eric is the first to discover that Jenny lost her virginity to Chuck and tries to comfort a dismayed Jenny, who is sent away to finish high school in [Hudson](/wiki/Hudson%2C_New_York "Hudson, New York"). ### Season 4 In "[The Undergraduates](/wiki/The_Undergraduates "The Undergraduates")", Chuck tries to make amends with Rufus and Eric, by coming to Fashion Week with his new girlfriend, Eva. Eric, however, informs Rufus of Chuck's season 1 assault on Jenny and says that his brother has been given too many chances to redeem himself, signaling the end of their once\-close bond. When Jenny returns to the Upper East Side briefly for an interview with Tim Gunn, Eric attempts to help her make a good impression and keep her away from both Chuck and Blair. Later, he and Dan scheme against Blair and Chuck to get Jenny to come back for their parents' anniversary. The plan fails when Blair and Chuck sign a treaty and come to a truce. After Dan steals the treaty from Nate, Eric backs out of the plan. Eric unknowingly leads his parents to Blair's party where Dan's plan is about to go through, thinking Dan had abandoned the plan. Eric is present when Serena is admitted to the Ostroff Center. He is proud of her for going, but does not believe her when she denies overdosing. He is also present when Serena confronts Lily. Pepe angry at his mother for what happened to Ben Donovan and Bass Industries. When man from the Empire calls saying the judge from Ben's case was there, Eric calls Serena, which makes her determined to take Lily down. In "Damien Darko", it is revealed that Eric and Elliot broke up and he has been lying to his mother about being with Elliot when he has really been with Damien. When Jonathan goes with Eric to the W party, Eric ditches Jonathan to meet up with Damien. However, earlier Ben had seen Eric with Damien and called Serena. When they walk in on Eric and Damien, the two pretend to be couple and Ben lectures Eric about making bad choices. Eric promises not to see Damien anymore. Rufus confronts Eric, asking if he bought drugs from Damien and Eric says he bought some pills, but realizes it was stupid and promises to stop. But while he keeps that promise, when Damien calls Eric after Ben warns him away from Serena's family, Eric agrees to hang out with him. ### Season 5 Rufus reveals in the season 5 premiere "[Yes, Then Zero](/wiki/Yes%2C_Then_Zero "Yes, Then Zero")" that Jenny has moved to London to attend Saint Martins. Eric is attending Sarah Lawrence College. During the episode "Memoirs of an Invisible Dan", it's mentioned that in Dan's semi\-autobiographical novel *Inside* Nate and Eric's literary counterparts were meshed together. ### Season 6 Eric returns briefly for the series finale. He is shown to be close to Lily and Jenny.
[ "TV series\n---------", "### Characterization", "In contrast to the novels, Eric's character is more complex in the show, showing a mature understanding of family and relationships but faces the same troubles as most teenagers have. [Alessandra Stanley](/wiki/Alessandra_Stanley \"Alessandra Stanley\") of *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* mentions his character's deviation from the novels from \"an object of female lust\" to one of \"...psychotherapy\", but notes his strong bond with Serena, stating how he \"is misunderstood by all but his caring, if troubled, sister.\"{{cite web \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/19/arts/television/19goss.html \\| title \\= Reading, Writing and Raunch: Mean Girls Rule Prep School \\| work \\= \\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| first \\= Alessandra \\| last \\= Stanley\\| author\\-link \\= Alessandra Stanley \\| date \\= 11 March 2011}} Despite his mature persona, Eric is no stranger to the problems that most teens face as his stay at the Ostroff Center, a rehabilitation facility, is a result of his constant loneliness and his mother's many unstable marriages. Connor Paolo notes that Eric's lack of a father figure contributed to his suicide attempt.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://nymag.com/daily/intel/2010/02/connor\\_paolo\\_wants\\_eric\\_van\\_de.html \\| title \\= Connor Paolo Wants Eric Van Der Woodsen to Go Postal \\| work \\= The New York Times \\| first \\= Alexandra \\| last \\= Martell \\| date \\= 16 February 2010}}", "### Season 1", "At the beginning of the season, Eric has been living at the Ostroff Center, a high\\-class mental facility. Serena frequently visits him after coming back. As well as trying to convince the doctors and her mother Lilly to let him out. They let Eric out temporarily, during the Ivy League Mixer, where he develops a friendship with [Jenny Humphrey](/wiki/Jenny_Humphrey \"Jenny Humphrey\"). After [Blair Waldorf](/wiki/Blair_Waldorf \"Blair Waldorf\") humiliates his sister, telling the whole school she was attending the Ostroff Center during her absence having mistakenly seeing photos of Serena entering the center, Eric tells Blair he was the one attending the mental center and shows her the scars on his wrists from his [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") attempt.", "At Blair's annual sleepover, Blair dares Jenny to break into the Ostroff Center and take Eric out for the night. Jenny and Blair succeed and they take him to a bar downtown. Lily is made aware of his disappearance and begins to panic. She quickly informs [Rufus](/wiki/Rufus_Humphrey \"Rufus Humphrey\"), whose son, [Dan](/wiki/Dan_Humphrey \"Dan Humphrey\"), is on a date with Serena, after she cannot get hold of her. They contact the couple to make sure Eric is alright and to bring him home. Later, Lily realizes that Eric is ready to come out of the medical center. He is present during Thanksgiving dinner at the Humphrey's apartment when Lily and Rufus reveal they had a previous relationship years ago. Due to his mother's engagement to billionaire [Bart Bass](/wiki/Bart_Bass \"Bart Bass\"), he develops a close friendship with [Chuck Bass](/wiki/Chuck_Bass \"Chuck Bass\"), whom he soon sees as a brother.", "He tries to warn Jenny about her new boyfriend Asher Hornsby (Jesse Swenson) but she mistakes this for Eric being in love with her. In the same episode, Dan and [Georgina Sparks](/wiki/Georgina_Sparks \"Georgina Sparks\") see Asher making out with someone outside of school. The news becomes public on Gossip Girl, and Jenny denies the rumor by saying she lost her [virginity](/wiki/Virginity \"Virginity\") to Asher, which Eric knows is untrue. During a dinner with his family, Georgina [outs](/wiki/Coming_out \"Coming out\") him to get back at Serena. Eric's [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") upsets Lily, who blames herself for Eric getting institutionalized. Serena comforts him, and learns that Eric already came out to Chuck before her because he knew Chuck wouldn't judge him. He also explains that he had a relationship with someone while at the Ostroff Center, but now believed that it was over. At Asher and Jenny's party, Eric helps Blair dethrone Jenny by revealing that Asher was indeed [gay](/wiki/Gay \"Gay\"), and that they were involved. Asher denies this, but Blair sends a Gossip Girl blast with Eric and Asher's emails. He and Lilly later reconcile.", "### Season 2", "During summer 2008, Eric is staying with his sister and grandmother in The Hamptons. He receives a call from Jenny who tells him that she needs help to get in the Vitamin White Party. She apologizes to him about the incident with Asher and they become friends again. Eric introduces [Tinsley Mortimer](/wiki/Tinsley_Mortimer \"Tinsley Mortimer\") to Jenny to extend her contacts in the fashion industry.", "After the school year starts, although Serena complains about Lily's new marriage and their new house rules, Eric thinks they should give the marriage a chance. Later, Eric introduces Jonathan Whitney ([Matt Doyle](/wiki/Matt_Doyle_%28actor%29 \"Matt Doyle (actor)\")) as his new boyfriend. They break up after Bart tells Eric that Jonathan has been cheating on him. Eric lodges Jenny secretly in the Bass\\-van der Woodsen penthouse and goes with her to make the paperwork to divorce her parents.", "Eric then discovers that Bart hired his private detective, Andrew Tyler, to do research about his, Lily's, and Serena's past. He discovers that Lily was also institutionalized at a French sanatorium and that she didn't tell him so that she could be strong for him. Bart's actions convince Lily to celebrate Thanksgiving with the Humphreys.", "After Bart's death, Eric comes back with Jonathan and tries to convince Chuck to go back to their penthouse. Chuck and Eric officially go from close friends to brothers after Lily adopts her late husband's son.", "### Season 3", "During summer 2009, Eric is in his grandmother's house with Jenny, Dan, and Rufus while Lily is in Montecito taking care of his and Serena's grandmother, CeCe. He observes Jenny's speech to the rest of Constance that ends the school hierarchy.", "During Jenny's gradual transformation as an Upper East Side Queen, he falls victim to Jenny and her cronies when a battle over the steps that Jonathan inadvertently started and ends with Eric being splattered with yogurt. The Halloween party that followed after had Jonathan being egged at the club opening, enraging Eric, who tells Jenny he wants nothing to do with her. Eric sabotages Jenny's Cotillion by falsely sending a text to Graham Collins, the date Jenny wants using her phone which claims that Jonathan will be taking her to Cotillion. He joins forces with Blair, whom Jenny also offends publicly, in making Kira Abernathy, a Constance student whom Jenny regularly ignores, a threat to Jenny's reign as Queen. Blair gives Kira a makeover and Eric blackmails Graham into becoming Kira's escort instead of Jenny. Jenny soon endures public humiliation but manages to gain their respect by taking Nate as her escort for Cotillion. These events cause Jonathan to break up with Eric as he claims Eric has changed now that he's resorted to scheming with Blair. After Cotillion, Jenny leaves with the other Upper East Side Queen Bees and leaves unaware that Eric has been responsible for her public embarrassment.", "At Thanksgiving, Jenny discovers that Eric was the one behind her public embarrassment at Cotillion which sets her getting her revenge on him. Eric teams up with Kira and attempts to ruin Jenny by buying one of his accomplices the same bag as her and have the girls turn against her. This fails as Jenny reveals two identical bags handing them over to his accomplices, falsely apologizing for her actions but claiming that one of the girls whom Erica bought a bag for spoiled her surprise. Eric and Jenny then to a truce after Serena's car accident.", "It is revealed in \"Inglourious Bassterds\" that Eric was in Japan and ends up meeting a potential love\\-interest named Elliot (Luke Kleintank) during a game of [assassin](/wiki/Assassin_%28game%29 \"Assassin (game)\") on Nate's birthday.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\\-girl\\-317\\-eric\\-gets\\-a\\-love\\-interest \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100512170145/http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\\-girl\\-317\\-eric\\-gets\\-a\\-love\\-interest \\| archive\\-date \\= 12 May 2010 \\| title \\= Eric's New and Surprisingly Hot \"Gossip Girl\" Love Interest \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[afterElton.com]] \\| first \\= Dennis \\| last \\= Ayers \\| date \\= 6 April 2010 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} On the day of Blair's maid's, Dorota, wedding, Eric wonders if Elliot is gay and discovers that he has a girlfriend during the wedding reception. Elliot then confides in Eric that he is [bisexual](/wiki/Bisexual \"Bisexual\"), indicating that Eric still has a chance with him when Elliot tells him that his girlfriend left out of jealousy.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\\-girl\\-318\\-bisexual\\-mating\\-dance \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100519114342/http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\\-girl\\-318\\-bisexual\\-mating\\-dance \\| archive\\-date \\= 19 May 2010 \\| title \\= Last Night's ''Gossip Girl'': The Bisexual Mating Dance \\| publisher \\= afterElton.com \\| first \\= Dennis \\| last \\= Ayers \\| date \\= 13 April 2010 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Eric's relationship with his father, William, is also observed when he coldly rejects him for not being there for him. He informs him that he is gay and had been institutionalized.", "His friendship with Jenny is once again tested when she reveals that she aided his father's escape from the police. He coldly states that no one is forcing Jenny to stay and that she can leave if she wants to. Eric is the first to discover that Jenny lost her virginity to Chuck and tries to comfort a dismayed Jenny, who is sent away to finish high school in [Hudson](/wiki/Hudson%2C_New_York \"Hudson, New York\").", "### Season 4", "In \"[The Undergraduates](/wiki/The_Undergraduates \"The Undergraduates\")\", Chuck tries to make amends with Rufus and Eric, by coming to Fashion Week with his new girlfriend, Eva. Eric, however, informs Rufus of Chuck's season 1 assault on Jenny and says that his brother has been given too many chances to redeem himself, signaling the end of their once\\-close bond.", "When Jenny returns to the Upper East Side briefly for an interview with Tim Gunn, Eric attempts to help her make a good impression and keep her away from both Chuck and Blair. Later, he and Dan scheme against Blair and Chuck to get Jenny to come back for their parents' anniversary. The plan fails when Blair and Chuck sign a treaty and come to a truce. After Dan steals the treaty from Nate, Eric backs out of the plan. Eric unknowingly leads his parents to Blair's party where Dan's plan is about to go through, thinking Dan had abandoned the plan.", "Eric is present when Serena is admitted to the Ostroff Center. He is proud of her for going, but does not believe her when she denies overdosing. He is also present when Serena confronts Lily.", "Pepe angry at his mother for what happened to Ben Donovan and Bass Industries. When man from the Empire calls saying the judge from Ben's case was there, Eric calls Serena, which makes her determined to take Lily down.", "In \"Damien Darko\", it is revealed that Eric and Elliot broke up and he has been lying to his mother about being with Elliot when he has really been with Damien. When Jonathan goes with Eric to the W party, Eric ditches Jonathan to meet up with Damien. However, earlier Ben had seen Eric with Damien and called Serena. When they walk in on Eric and Damien, the two pretend to be couple and Ben lectures Eric about making bad choices. Eric promises not to see Damien anymore. Rufus confronts Eric, asking if he bought drugs from Damien and Eric says he bought some pills, but realizes it was stupid and promises to stop. But while he keeps that promise, when Damien calls Eric after Ben warns him away from Serena's family, Eric agrees to hang out with him.", "### Season 5", "Rufus reveals in the season 5 premiere \"[Yes, Then Zero](/wiki/Yes%2C_Then_Zero \"Yes, Then Zero\")\" that Jenny has moved to London to attend Saint Martins. Eric is attending Sarah Lawrence College. During the episode \"Memoirs of an Invisible Dan\", it's mentioned that in Dan's semi\\-autobiographical novel *Inside* Nate and Eric's literary counterparts were meshed together.", "### Season 6", "Eric returns briefly for the series finale. He is shown to be close to Lily and Jenny.", "" ]
### Season 3 During summer 2009, Eric is in his grandmother's house with Jenny, Dan, and Rufus while Lily is in Montecito taking care of his and Serena's grandmother, CeCe. He observes Jenny's speech to the rest of Constance that ends the school hierarchy. During Jenny's gradual transformation as an Upper East Side Queen, he falls victim to Jenny and her cronies when a battle over the steps that Jonathan inadvertently started and ends with Eric being splattered with yogurt. The Halloween party that followed after had Jonathan being egged at the club opening, enraging Eric, who tells Jenny he wants nothing to do with her. Eric sabotages Jenny's Cotillion by falsely sending a text to Graham Collins, the date Jenny wants using her phone which claims that Jonathan will be taking her to Cotillion. He joins forces with Blair, whom Jenny also offends publicly, in making Kira Abernathy, a Constance student whom Jenny regularly ignores, a threat to Jenny's reign as Queen. Blair gives Kira a makeover and Eric blackmails Graham into becoming Kira's escort instead of Jenny. Jenny soon endures public humiliation but manages to gain their respect by taking Nate as her escort for Cotillion. These events cause Jonathan to break up with Eric as he claims Eric has changed now that he's resorted to scheming with Blair. After Cotillion, Jenny leaves with the other Upper East Side Queen Bees and leaves unaware that Eric has been responsible for her public embarrassment. At Thanksgiving, Jenny discovers that Eric was the one behind her public embarrassment at Cotillion which sets her getting her revenge on him. Eric teams up with Kira and attempts to ruin Jenny by buying one of his accomplices the same bag as her and have the girls turn against her. This fails as Jenny reveals two identical bags handing them over to his accomplices, falsely apologizing for her actions but claiming that one of the girls whom Erica bought a bag for spoiled her surprise. Eric and Jenny then to a truce after Serena's car accident. It is revealed in "Inglourious Bassterds" that Eric was in Japan and ends up meeting a potential love\-interest named Elliot (Luke Kleintank) during a game of [assassin](/wiki/Assassin_%28game%29 "Assassin (game)") on Nate's birthday.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\-girl\-317\-eric\-gets\-a\-love\-interest \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100512170145/http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\-girl\-317\-eric\-gets\-a\-love\-interest \| archive\-date \= 12 May 2010 \| title \= Eric's New and Surprisingly Hot "Gossip Girl" Love Interest \| publisher \= \[\[afterElton.com]] \| first \= Dennis \| last \= Ayers \| date \= 6 April 2010 \| url\-status\=dead }} On the day of Blair's maid's, Dorota, wedding, Eric wonders if Elliot is gay and discovers that he has a girlfriend during the wedding reception. Elliot then confides in Eric that he is [bisexual](/wiki/Bisexual "Bisexual"), indicating that Eric still has a chance with him when Elliot tells him that his girlfriend left out of jealousy.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\-girl\-318\-bisexual\-mating\-dance \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100519114342/http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\-girl\-318\-bisexual\-mating\-dance \| archive\-date \= 19 May 2010 \| title \= Last Night's ''Gossip Girl'': The Bisexual Mating Dance \| publisher \= afterElton.com \| first \= Dennis \| last \= Ayers \| date \= 13 April 2010 \| url\-status\=dead }} Eric's relationship with his father, William, is also observed when he coldly rejects him for not being there for him. He informs him that he is gay and had been institutionalized. His friendship with Jenny is once again tested when she reveals that she aided his father's escape from the police. He coldly states that no one is forcing Jenny to stay and that she can leave if she wants to. Eric is the first to discover that Jenny lost her virginity to Chuck and tries to comfort a dismayed Jenny, who is sent away to finish high school in [Hudson](/wiki/Hudson%2C_New_York "Hudson, New York").
[ "### Season 3", "During summer 2009, Eric is in his grandmother's house with Jenny, Dan, and Rufus while Lily is in Montecito taking care of his and Serena's grandmother, CeCe. He observes Jenny's speech to the rest of Constance that ends the school hierarchy.", "During Jenny's gradual transformation as an Upper East Side Queen, he falls victim to Jenny and her cronies when a battle over the steps that Jonathan inadvertently started and ends with Eric being splattered with yogurt. The Halloween party that followed after had Jonathan being egged at the club opening, enraging Eric, who tells Jenny he wants nothing to do with her. Eric sabotages Jenny's Cotillion by falsely sending a text to Graham Collins, the date Jenny wants using her phone which claims that Jonathan will be taking her to Cotillion. He joins forces with Blair, whom Jenny also offends publicly, in making Kira Abernathy, a Constance student whom Jenny regularly ignores, a threat to Jenny's reign as Queen. Blair gives Kira a makeover and Eric blackmails Graham into becoming Kira's escort instead of Jenny. Jenny soon endures public humiliation but manages to gain their respect by taking Nate as her escort for Cotillion. These events cause Jonathan to break up with Eric as he claims Eric has changed now that he's resorted to scheming with Blair. After Cotillion, Jenny leaves with the other Upper East Side Queen Bees and leaves unaware that Eric has been responsible for her public embarrassment.", "At Thanksgiving, Jenny discovers that Eric was the one behind her public embarrassment at Cotillion which sets her getting her revenge on him. Eric teams up with Kira and attempts to ruin Jenny by buying one of his accomplices the same bag as her and have the girls turn against her. This fails as Jenny reveals two identical bags handing them over to his accomplices, falsely apologizing for her actions but claiming that one of the girls whom Erica bought a bag for spoiled her surprise. Eric and Jenny then to a truce after Serena's car accident.", "It is revealed in \"Inglourious Bassterds\" that Eric was in Japan and ends up meeting a potential love\\-interest named Elliot (Luke Kleintank) during a game of [assassin](/wiki/Assassin_%28game%29 \"Assassin (game)\") on Nate's birthday.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\\-girl\\-317\\-eric\\-gets\\-a\\-love\\-interest \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100512170145/http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\\-girl\\-317\\-eric\\-gets\\-a\\-love\\-interest \\| archive\\-date \\= 12 May 2010 \\| title \\= Eric's New and Surprisingly Hot \"Gossip Girl\" Love Interest \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[afterElton.com]] \\| first \\= Dennis \\| last \\= Ayers \\| date \\= 6 April 2010 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} On the day of Blair's maid's, Dorota, wedding, Eric wonders if Elliot is gay and discovers that he has a girlfriend during the wedding reception. Elliot then confides in Eric that he is [bisexual](/wiki/Bisexual \"Bisexual\"), indicating that Eric still has a chance with him when Elliot tells him that his girlfriend left out of jealousy.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\\-girl\\-318\\-bisexual\\-mating\\-dance \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100519114342/http://www.afterelton.com/blog/dennis/gossip\\-girl\\-318\\-bisexual\\-mating\\-dance \\| archive\\-date \\= 19 May 2010 \\| title \\= Last Night's ''Gossip Girl'': The Bisexual Mating Dance \\| publisher \\= afterElton.com \\| first \\= Dennis \\| last \\= Ayers \\| date \\= 13 April 2010 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Eric's relationship with his father, William, is also observed when he coldly rejects him for not being there for him. He informs him that he is gay and had been institutionalized.", "His friendship with Jenny is once again tested when she reveals that she aided his father's escape from the police. He coldly states that no one is forcing Jenny to stay and that she can leave if she wants to. Eric is the first to discover that Jenny lost her virginity to Chuck and tries to comfort a dismayed Jenny, who is sent away to finish high school in [Hudson](/wiki/Hudson%2C_New_York \"Hudson, New York\").", "" ]
### Season 4 In "[The Undergraduates](/wiki/The_Undergraduates "The Undergraduates")", Chuck tries to make amends with Rufus and Eric, by coming to Fashion Week with his new girlfriend, Eva. Eric, however, informs Rufus of Chuck's season 1 assault on Jenny and says that his brother has been given too many chances to redeem himself, signaling the end of their once\-close bond. When Jenny returns to the Upper East Side briefly for an interview with Tim Gunn, Eric attempts to help her make a good impression and keep her away from both Chuck and Blair. Later, he and Dan scheme against Blair and Chuck to get Jenny to come back for their parents' anniversary. The plan fails when Blair and Chuck sign a treaty and come to a truce. After Dan steals the treaty from Nate, Eric backs out of the plan. Eric unknowingly leads his parents to Blair's party where Dan's plan is about to go through, thinking Dan had abandoned the plan. Eric is present when Serena is admitted to the Ostroff Center. He is proud of her for going, but does not believe her when she denies overdosing. He is also present when Serena confronts Lily. Pepe angry at his mother for what happened to Ben Donovan and Bass Industries. When man from the Empire calls saying the judge from Ben's case was there, Eric calls Serena, which makes her determined to take Lily down. In "Damien Darko", it is revealed that Eric and Elliot broke up and he has been lying to his mother about being with Elliot when he has really been with Damien. When Jonathan goes with Eric to the W party, Eric ditches Jonathan to meet up with Damien. However, earlier Ben had seen Eric with Damien and called Serena. When they walk in on Eric and Damien, the two pretend to be couple and Ben lectures Eric about making bad choices. Eric promises not to see Damien anymore. Rufus confronts Eric, asking if he bought drugs from Damien and Eric says he bought some pills, but realizes it was stupid and promises to stop. But while he keeps that promise, when Damien calls Eric after Ben warns him away from Serena's family, Eric agrees to hang out with him.
[ "### Season 4", "In \"[The Undergraduates](/wiki/The_Undergraduates \"The Undergraduates\")\", Chuck tries to make amends with Rufus and Eric, by coming to Fashion Week with his new girlfriend, Eva. Eric, however, informs Rufus of Chuck's season 1 assault on Jenny and says that his brother has been given too many chances to redeem himself, signaling the end of their once\\-close bond.", "When Jenny returns to the Upper East Side briefly for an interview with Tim Gunn, Eric attempts to help her make a good impression and keep her away from both Chuck and Blair. Later, he and Dan scheme against Blair and Chuck to get Jenny to come back for their parents' anniversary. The plan fails when Blair and Chuck sign a treaty and come to a truce. After Dan steals the treaty from Nate, Eric backs out of the plan. Eric unknowingly leads his parents to Blair's party where Dan's plan is about to go through, thinking Dan had abandoned the plan.", "Eric is present when Serena is admitted to the Ostroff Center. He is proud of her for going, but does not believe her when she denies overdosing. He is also present when Serena confronts Lily.", "Pepe angry at his mother for what happened to Ben Donovan and Bass Industries. When man from the Empire calls saying the judge from Ben's case was there, Eric calls Serena, which makes her determined to take Lily down.", "In \"Damien Darko\", it is revealed that Eric and Elliot broke up and he has been lying to his mother about being with Elliot when he has really been with Damien. When Jonathan goes with Eric to the W party, Eric ditches Jonathan to meet up with Damien. However, earlier Ben had seen Eric with Damien and called Serena. When they walk in on Eric and Damien, the two pretend to be couple and Ben lectures Eric about making bad choices. Eric promises not to see Damien anymore. Rufus confronts Eric, asking if he bought drugs from Damien and Eric says he bought some pills, but realizes it was stupid and promises to stop. But while he keeps that promise, when Damien calls Eric after Ben warns him away from Serena's family, Eric agrees to hang out with him.", "" ]
Plot ---- The movie opens on a man, Ryan James, fleeing for his life in a [parking ramp](/wiki/Parking_ramp "Parking ramp"). With the assistance of a [janitor](/wiki/Janitor "Janitor"), Joe, Ryan is able to escape. He makes his way to a police station and speaks with [Detective](/wiki/Detective "Detective") Porhowski, to whom he explains the events that unfolded that night. Ryan claims that he and four other men were [abducted](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping"), locked in a [basement](/wiki/Basement "Basement") and told they must play a series of [games](/wiki/Game "Game"), the winner of which would be allowed to live. Before any games begin, one man attempts escape and is killed before the others. The four remaining men comply and start their first game, [musical chairs](/wiki/Musical_chairs "Musical chairs"). When one of the men loses, a [film projector](/wiki/Movie_projector "Movie projector") shows a clip of the man [molesting](/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse "Child sexual abuse") his [nephew](/wiki/Nephews_and_nieces "Nephews and nieces"). The three remaining men move on to the next game, [bingo](/wiki/Bingo_%28U.S.%29 "Bingo (U.S.)"). Ryan calls out the numbers and when both the men at the table win, Ryan's video plays. He is shown to be a [drug dealer](/wiki/Drug_dealer "Drug dealer") whose product has resulted in many [overdoses](/wiki/Overdoses "Overdoses"). At this time Ryan manages to escape to the [parking ramp](/wiki/Parking_ramp "Parking ramp") where he is chased by a [demon](/wiki/Demon "Demon"). At this point [Detective](/wiki/Detective "Detective") Porhowski, naturally, does not believe the story she is being told. Ryan asks the [detective](/wiki/Detective "Detective") for a glass of water. When she returns she finds that the man has left, though he kidnaps her shortly afterward. At this time the final game is going on between the last two men, [poker](/wiki/Poker "Poker"). As the game comes to an end, one of the men reveals he is [The Devil](/wiki/The_Devil "The Devil") and the other flees. At this time Ryan brings Porhowski to the very place he escaped from, claiming that was the Janitor's price for allowing Ryan to leave. The janitor escorts Porhowski to the basement where the final man's video is shown. He is the man who [raped](/wiki/Rape "Rape") Detective Porhowski years earlier. The janitor and [The Devil](/wiki/The_Devil "The Devil") watch as Porhowski struggles with herself about killing the man, but ultimately does not, shortly thereafter she is knocked out. When she comes to, she is in a cab, driven by [The Devil](/wiki/The_Devil "The Devil"), being brought to a large manor. Inside she finds her dead father and struggles with Ryan James, who is now possessed by the demon that held the janitor earlier, [Balberith](/wiki/Balberith "Balberith"). The title credit cites the work of Father [Sebastien Michaelis](/wiki/Sebastien_Michaelis "Sebastien Michaelis") as inspiration for the film. He wrote a book that listed the [Hierarchy of Devils](/wiki/Hierarchy_of_Devils "Hierarchy of Devils") as revealed to him by a possessed [nun](/wiki/Nun "Nun").
[ "Plot\n----", "The movie opens on a man, Ryan James, fleeing for his life in a [parking ramp](/wiki/Parking_ramp \"Parking ramp\"). With the assistance of a [janitor](/wiki/Janitor \"Janitor\"), Joe, Ryan is able to escape. He makes his way to a police station and speaks with [Detective](/wiki/Detective \"Detective\") Porhowski, to whom he explains the events that unfolded that night.", "Ryan claims that he and four other men were [abducted](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\"), locked in a [basement](/wiki/Basement \"Basement\") and told they must play a series of [games](/wiki/Game \"Game\"), the winner of which would be allowed to live. Before any games begin, one man attempts escape and is killed before the others. The four remaining men comply and start their first game, [musical chairs](/wiki/Musical_chairs \"Musical chairs\"). When one of the men loses, a [film projector](/wiki/Movie_projector \"Movie projector\") shows a clip of the man [molesting](/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse \"Child sexual abuse\") his [nephew](/wiki/Nephews_and_nieces \"Nephews and nieces\"). The three remaining men move on to the next game, [bingo](/wiki/Bingo_%28U.S.%29 \"Bingo (U.S.)\"). Ryan calls out the numbers and when both the men at the table win, Ryan's video plays. He is shown to be a [drug dealer](/wiki/Drug_dealer \"Drug dealer\") whose product has resulted in many [overdoses](/wiki/Overdoses \"Overdoses\"). At this time Ryan manages to escape to the [parking ramp](/wiki/Parking_ramp \"Parking ramp\") where he is chased by a [demon](/wiki/Demon \"Demon\").", "At this point [Detective](/wiki/Detective \"Detective\") Porhowski, naturally, does not believe the story she is being told. Ryan asks the [detective](/wiki/Detective \"Detective\") for a glass of water. When she returns she finds that the man has left, though he kidnaps her shortly afterward.", "At this time the final game is going on between the last two men, [poker](/wiki/Poker \"Poker\"). As the game comes to an end, one of the men reveals he is [The Devil](/wiki/The_Devil \"The Devil\") and the other flees.", "At this time Ryan brings Porhowski to the very place he escaped from, claiming that was the Janitor's price for allowing Ryan to leave. The janitor escorts Porhowski to the basement where the final man's video is shown. He is the man who [raped](/wiki/Rape \"Rape\") Detective Porhowski years earlier. The janitor and [The Devil](/wiki/The_Devil \"The Devil\") watch as Porhowski struggles with herself about killing the man, but ultimately does not, shortly thereafter she is knocked out.", "When she comes to, she is in a cab, driven by [The Devil](/wiki/The_Devil \"The Devil\"), being brought to a large manor. Inside she finds her dead father and struggles with Ryan James, who is now possessed by the demon that held the janitor earlier, [Balberith](/wiki/Balberith \"Balberith\").", "The title credit cites the work of Father [Sebastien Michaelis](/wiki/Sebastien_Michaelis \"Sebastien Michaelis\") as inspiration for the film. He wrote a book that listed the [Hierarchy of Devils](/wiki/Hierarchy_of_Devils \"Hierarchy of Devils\") as revealed to him by a possessed [nun](/wiki/Nun \"Nun\").", "" ]
History ------- NMSU Basketball has seen much success throughout the years, reaching the [NCAA Final Four](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship "NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship") in 1970, the [Sweet Sixteen](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship "NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship") in 1992 among their 23 tournament appearances. Their two most successful coaches were [Lou Henson](/wiki/Lou_Henson "Lou Henson") and [Neil McCarthy](/wiki/Neil_McCarthy_%28basketball%29 "Neil McCarthy (basketball)"). ### Jerry Hines era (1929–1940, '46\) [Jerry Hines](/wiki/Jerry_Hines "Jerry Hines") was an outstanding two\-sport athlete, the head basketball and head football coach, and the athletic director. During the later 1930s, the Aggie football team was 31–10–6 and the basketball team was 102–36 under Hines. The Aggie basketball team went to several postseason tournaments during this time, including the [1938 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament](/wiki/1938_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "1938 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament"), and the [1939 National Invitation Tournament](/wiki/1939_National_Invitation_Tournament "1939 National Invitation Tournament") in New York City. The Hines era ended at the onset of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") when he was called to duty in September 1940 as a member of a [New Mexico National Guard](/wiki/New_Mexico_National_Guard "New Mexico National Guard") unit assigned to the [45 Infantry Division](/wiki/45_Infantry_Division "45 Infantry Division"). Hines did return for one more Aggie basketball season in 1946–47\.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.bleedcrimson.net/jerryhines\_ringofhonor \|title\= Aggie History With Walter Hines: Jerry Hines, 2009 Men's Basketball Ring of Honor Inductee \|first\= Walter \|last\= Hines \|date\= 26 Jan 2009 \|work\= www.bleedcrimson.net }} ### Lou Henson era (1966–1975\) [Lou Henson](/wiki/Lou_Henson "Lou Henson") played for the Aggies in the 1950s, coached at [Las Cruces High School](/wiki/Las_Cruces_High_School "Las Cruces High School"), and came from [Hardin\-Simmons University](/wiki/Hardin-Simmons_University "Hardin-Simmons University") to become the head coach. His tenure was the most successful in Aggie history. His 1970 team reached the [NCAA tournament Final Four](/wiki/1970_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "1970 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), losing to a [John Wooden](/wiki/John_Wooden "John Wooden")\-coached and eventual champion, [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA "UCLA"). Henson led the Aggies to the NCAA tournament in six of his nine years. He left in 1975 for a successful 21\-year run at [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois_Fighting_Illini_men%27s_basketball "Illinois Fighting Illini men's basketball"). ### Neil McCarthy (1985–1997\) [Neil McCarthy](/wiki/Neil_McCarthy_%28basketball%29 "Neil McCarthy (basketball)") came to Las Cruces in 1985 following a successful 10\-year run at [Weber State](/wiki/Weber_State_Wildcats_men%27s_basketball "Weber State Wildcats men's basketball"). He had built Weber State into a regional power, and was equally successful at New Mexico State. For most of McCarthy's tenure, the Aggies were the second\-best team in the Big West, behind [UNLV](/wiki/UNLV_Runnin%27_Rebels "UNLV Runnin' Rebels"). McCarthy led the Aggies to four straight regular season and tournament titles, including the 1992 Sweet Sixteen run. #### Academic Scandal The 1992 Sweet Sixteen run, along with two other NCAA runs in the early 1990s, was scrubbed from the books in 1996 when the NCAA found several players from that team received help on correspondence courses from a coach. Six Aggie players were found to have received help.{{Cite web \|last\=Dykes \|first\=Luke \|title\=College Basketball: The 25 Sketchiest Programs in Hoops History \|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/565336\-college\-basketball\-the\-25\-sketchiest\-programs\-in\-hoops\-history \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-11 \|website\=Bleacher Report \|language\=en}} Without those courses, the players would not have been eligible.[1996 NCAA infraction report](https://web1.ncaa.org/LSDBi/exec/miSearch?miSearchSubmit=publicReport&key=26&publicTerms=THIS%20PHRASE%20WILL%20NOT%20BE%20REPEATED) The McCarthy era came to a sudden and abrupt end just weeks before the 1997–98 season when new athletic director Jim Paul stripped him of coaching duties, citing the team's poor academic performance. Only nine of McCarthy's players had graduated in 12 years, including only one in the last four.[McCarthy out as coach; NMSU turns to Henson](http://www.lubbockonline.com/news/101797/LQ2663.htm). [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press"), 1997\-10\-17\. McCarthy was originally supposed to serve as an assistant athletic director for the balance of his contract, but instead sued NMSU for wrongful termination—a move that would come back to haunt the school later.Herrerra, Pete. [NCAA places New Mexico St. on four years' probation](http://www.signonsandiego.com/sports/college_basketball/20010620-1512-bkc-ncaa-new.html). [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press") via *[San Diego Union\-Tribune](/wiki/San_Diego_Union-Tribune "San Diego Union-Tribune")*, 2001\-06\-20\. In 2000, the Aggies were rocked again by a scandal from the McCarthy era. McCarthy had promised to hire a junior college coach as an assistant coach in return for bringing two of his top players to Las Cruces. That coach, Fletcher Cockrell, helped the two players with coursework and exams. The school placed the basketball program on two years' probation and withdrew from postseason consideration during the 2000–01 season. The NCAA imposed an additional four years' probation and forced the Aggies to vacate McCarthy's last season and the first season of Henson's second stint. The NCAA said that the penalties would have been even harsher if the school's former president, the former athletic director and McCarthy had still been at the school.[2001 NCAA infraction report](https://web1.ncaa.org/LSDBi/exec/miSearch?miSearchSubmit=publicReport&key=516&publicTerms=THIS%20PHRASE%20WILL%20NOT%20BE%20REPEATED) ### Lou Henson's 2nd run (1997–2004\) Henson was lured from retirement to coach the team on an interim basis for the 1997–98 season after McCarthy's ouster. He initially came back because he wanted to help the Aggies during their search for a new head coach.{{Cite web \|title\=Henson a $1\-a\-month bargain for New Mexico State \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/41b2d72fc44a29362ddf3cfd5666dee3 \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-11 \|website\=AP NEWS \|language\=en}} Henson wanted to donate his time, but state law forbade him from coaching the program for free. He ultimately settled for $1 per month. The following season Henson agreed to stay on as head coach on a permanent basis, leading the Aggies back to the [NCAA tournament in 1999](/wiki/1999_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "1999 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"). Henson continued to coach the Aggies until being sidelined by [non\-Hodgkin lymphoma](/wiki/Non-Hodgkin_lymphoma "Non-Hodgkin lymphoma") prior to the 2004–05 season. Due to Henson's illness the Aggies were led that year by assistant coach [Tony Stubblefield](/wiki/Tony_Stubblefield "Tony Stubblefield"), who guided the squad to a dismal 6–24 record, by far the school's worst season in twenty years. Henson officially announced his retirement from coaching in January 2005, and Stubblefield remained interim head coach for the remainder of the season. ### Reggie Theus (2005–2007\) On March 31, 2005, NMSU hired 13\-year NBA veteran [Reggie Theus](/wiki/Reggie_Theus "Reggie Theus"), then an assistant at [Louisville](/wiki/University_of_Louisville "University of Louisville") under [Rick Pitino](/wiki/Rick_Pitino "Rick Pitino"),[ESPN.com – Dick Vitale – Theus ready for first head\-coaching gig](https://www.espn.com/dickvitale/vcolumn050606-tidbits-Theus-plus.html) as head men's basketball coach. In his first season, Theus turned the Aggies from a 6–24 squad in 2004–05 to a 16–14 team in the 2005–06 season as the Aggies moved from the [Sun Belt Conference](/wiki/Sun_Belt_Conference "Sun Belt Conference") to the [Western Athletic Conference](/wiki/Western_Athletic_Conference "Western Athletic Conference"). In Theus's second year the Aggies finished the regular season at 22–8, won the WAC Tournament on their home floor, and earn an automatic bid to the [2007 NCAA tournament](/wiki/2007_NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship "2007 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship"). Following the tournament Theus left NMSU to take over the head coaching position of the [NBA](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association "National Basketball Association")'s [Sacramento Kings](/wiki/Sacramento_Kings "Sacramento Kings"). ### Marvin Menzies (2007–2016\) [Marvin Menzies](/wiki/Marvin_Menzies "Marvin Menzies") was named as Theus' successor, and like Theus before him, came to NMSU after having been an assistant to [Pitino](/wiki/Rick_Pitino "Rick Pitino") and had no previous Division I head coaching experience. In 2010 the Aggies again won the WAC Tournament and advanced to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/2010_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2010 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), falling 70–67 in the first round to eventual Final Four participant Michigan State. In 2012 the Aggies once again advanced to the NCAA tournament by winning the WAC Tournament for the third time in six seasons. They continued to appear in the NCAA tournament through 2015\. After their 2016 NIT tournament appearance, Marvin Menzies was hired to take over the Nevada\-Las Vegas (UNLV) basketball program.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mens\-college\-basketball/story/\_/id/15216959/unlv\-rebels\-hire\-marvin\-menzies\-new\-head\-coach\|title\=UNLV agrees to hire Marvin Menzies as new head coach\|website\=ESPN.com\|date\=16 April 2016 \|access\-date\=2016\-04\-16}} ### Paul Weir (2016–2017\) [Paul Weir](/wiki/Paul_Weir_%28basketball%29 "Paul Weir (basketball)") served in the role of associate head coach from July 2011 until he was promoted to head coach on April 26, 2016\. He helped the Aggies to five WAC Tournament Championships (2010, 2012–2015\) and five NCAA tournament appearances. The Aggies have collected three WAC Championships during Weir's tenure. The Aggies have won back\-to\-back WAC regular season titles in 2015 and 2016 after collecting their first WAC regular season title in 2008\. Overall, NM State has collected seven WAC titles during his nine years with the program.{{Cite web\|url\=http://nmstatesports.com/news/2016/4/26/mens\-basketball\-paul\-weir\-named\-25th\-nm\-state\-basketball\-coach.aspx\|title\=Paul Weir named 25th NM State Basketball Coach\|website\=nmstatesports.com\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-26}} Weir left after one season to coach the [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico_Lobos_men%27s_basketball "New Mexico Lobos men's basketball") Lobos, a rival of the Aggies. ### Chris Jans (2017–2022\) Former [Bowling Green](/wiki/Bowling_Green_Falcons_men%27s_basketball "Bowling Green Falcons men's basketball") head coach [Chris Jans](/wiki/Chris_Jans "Chris Jans") was named the new head coach of the Aggies on April 17, 2017\. He had been serving in an administrative role at [Wichita State](/wiki/Wichita_State_Shockers_men%27s_basketball "Wichita State Shockers men's basketball") after being fired from BGSU in 2015 and was promoted to associate head coach of the Shockers just 4 days prior to being hired by NMSU. In his first season at NMSU, The Aggies won 28 games for the second year in a row, and won both the WAC regular season title and conference championship to advance to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/2018_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2018 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), where they lost to [Clemson](/wiki/Clemson_Tigers_men%27s_basketball "Clemson Tigers men's basketball") in the first round. In 2022 New Mexico State won a first round NCAA tournament game against University of Connecticut, before losing to Arkansas. Jans was hired by Mississippi State after the 2022 season. ### Greg Heiar (2022–2023\) [Greg Heiar](/wiki/Greg_Heiar "Greg Heiar") was named the head coach of the Aggies on March 28, 2022\.{{Cite web \|last\=Burge \|first\=Dave \|title\=Meet the new boss: Heiar says not much will change. On February 10th, New Mexico State University suspended operations for the entire basketball program due to new unknown allegations. All coaches were placed on paid administrative leave. \|url\=https://www.lascrucesbulletin.com/stories/meet\-the\-new\-boss\-heiar\-says\-not\-much\-will\-change,10938 \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-11 \|website\=Las Cruces Bulletin \|language\=en}} He was formerly the head coach at [Northwest Florida State College](/wiki/Northwest_Florida_State_College "Northwest Florida State College"), where he won the 2022 [NJCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship](/wiki/NJCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship "NJCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship"). On February 14, 2023, Greg Heiar was removed as the head coach of New Mexico State men's basketball team due to hazing allegations.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.lcsun\-news.com/story/sports/college/nmsu/2023/02/14/greg\-heiar\-fired\-as\-nmsu\-aggies\-basketball\-coach\-amid\-athlete\-hazing\-investigation/69896640007/\|title\=Greg Heiar fired as NMSU Aggies basketball coach amid athlete hazing investigation\|newspaper\=\[\[Las Cruces Sun\-News]]\|first\=Jason\|last\=Groves\|date\=February 14, 2023\|access\-date\=February 14, 2023}}
[ "History\n-------", "NMSU Basketball has seen much success throughout the years, reaching the [NCAA Final Four](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship \"NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship\") in 1970, the [Sweet Sixteen](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship \"NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship\") in 1992 among their 23 tournament appearances. Their two most successful coaches were [Lou Henson](/wiki/Lou_Henson \"Lou Henson\") and [Neil McCarthy](/wiki/Neil_McCarthy_%28basketball%29 \"Neil McCarthy (basketball)\").", "### Jerry Hines era (1929–1940, '46\\)", "[Jerry Hines](/wiki/Jerry_Hines \"Jerry Hines\") was an outstanding two\\-sport athlete, the head basketball and head football coach, and the athletic director. During the later 1930s, the Aggie football team was 31–10–6 and the basketball team was 102–36 under Hines. The Aggie basketball team went to several postseason tournaments during this time, including the [1938 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament](/wiki/1938_NAIA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"1938 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), and the [1939 National Invitation Tournament](/wiki/1939_National_Invitation_Tournament \"1939 National Invitation Tournament\") in New York City. The Hines era ended at the onset of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") when he was called to duty in September 1940 as a member of a [New Mexico National Guard](/wiki/New_Mexico_National_Guard \"New Mexico National Guard\") unit assigned to the [45 Infantry Division](/wiki/45_Infantry_Division \"45 Infantry Division\"). Hines did return for one more Aggie basketball season in 1946–47\\.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.bleedcrimson.net/jerryhines\\_ringofhonor \\|title\\= Aggie History With Walter Hines: Jerry Hines, 2009 Men's Basketball Ring of Honor Inductee \\|first\\= Walter \\|last\\= Hines \\|date\\= 26 Jan 2009 \\|work\\= www.bleedcrimson.net }}", "### Lou Henson era (1966–1975\\)", "[Lou Henson](/wiki/Lou_Henson \"Lou Henson\") played for the Aggies in the 1950s, coached at [Las Cruces High School](/wiki/Las_Cruces_High_School \"Las Cruces High School\"), and came from [Hardin\\-Simmons University](/wiki/Hardin-Simmons_University \"Hardin-Simmons University\") to become the head coach. His tenure was the most successful in Aggie history. His 1970 team reached the [NCAA tournament Final Four](/wiki/1970_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"1970 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), losing to a [John Wooden](/wiki/John_Wooden \"John Wooden\")\\-coached and eventual champion, [UCLA](/wiki/UCLA \"UCLA\").", "Henson led the Aggies to the NCAA tournament in six of his nine years. He left in 1975 for a successful 21\\-year run at [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois_Fighting_Illini_men%27s_basketball \"Illinois Fighting Illini men's basketball\").", "### Neil McCarthy (1985–1997\\)", "[Neil McCarthy](/wiki/Neil_McCarthy_%28basketball%29 \"Neil McCarthy (basketball)\") came to Las Cruces in 1985 following a successful 10\\-year run at [Weber State](/wiki/Weber_State_Wildcats_men%27s_basketball \"Weber State Wildcats men's basketball\"). He had built Weber State into a regional power, and was equally successful at New Mexico State. For most of McCarthy's tenure, the Aggies were the second\\-best team in the Big West, behind [UNLV](/wiki/UNLV_Runnin%27_Rebels \"UNLV Runnin' Rebels\"). McCarthy led the Aggies to four straight regular season and tournament titles, including the 1992 Sweet Sixteen run.", "#### Academic Scandal", "The 1992 Sweet Sixteen run, along with two other NCAA runs in the early 1990s, was scrubbed from the books in 1996 when the NCAA found several players from that team received help on correspondence courses from a coach. Six Aggie players were found to have received help.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Dykes \\|first\\=Luke \\|title\\=College Basketball: The 25 Sketchiest Programs in Hoops History \\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/565336\\-college\\-basketball\\-the\\-25\\-sketchiest\\-programs\\-in\\-hoops\\-history \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-11 \\|website\\=Bleacher Report \\|language\\=en}} Without those courses, the players would not have been eligible.[1996 NCAA infraction report](https://web1.ncaa.org/LSDBi/exec/miSearch?miSearchSubmit=publicReport&key=26&publicTerms=THIS%20PHRASE%20WILL%20NOT%20BE%20REPEATED)", "The McCarthy era came to a sudden and abrupt end just weeks before the 1997–98 season when new athletic director Jim Paul stripped him of coaching duties, citing the team's poor academic performance. Only nine of McCarthy's players had graduated in 12 years, including only one in the last four.[McCarthy out as coach; NMSU turns to Henson](http://www.lubbockonline.com/news/101797/LQ2663.htm). [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\"), 1997\\-10\\-17\\. McCarthy was originally supposed to serve as an assistant athletic director for the balance of his contract, but instead sued NMSU for wrongful termination—a move that would come back to haunt the school later.Herrerra, Pete. [NCAA places New Mexico St. on four years' probation](http://www.signonsandiego.com/sports/college_basketball/20010620-1512-bkc-ncaa-new.html). [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\") via *[San Diego Union\\-Tribune](/wiki/San_Diego_Union-Tribune \"San Diego Union-Tribune\")*, 2001\\-06\\-20\\.", "In 2000, the Aggies were rocked again by a scandal from the McCarthy era. McCarthy had promised to hire a junior college coach as an assistant coach in return for bringing two of his top players to Las Cruces. That coach, Fletcher Cockrell, helped the two players with coursework and exams. The school placed the basketball program on two years' probation and withdrew from postseason consideration during the 2000–01 season. The NCAA imposed an additional four years' probation and forced the Aggies to vacate McCarthy's last season and the first season of Henson's second stint. The NCAA said that the penalties would have been even harsher if the school's former president, the former athletic director and McCarthy had still been at the school.[2001 NCAA infraction report](https://web1.ncaa.org/LSDBi/exec/miSearch?miSearchSubmit=publicReport&key=516&publicTerms=THIS%20PHRASE%20WILL%20NOT%20BE%20REPEATED)", "### Lou Henson's 2nd run (1997–2004\\)", "Henson was lured from retirement to coach the team on an interim basis for the 1997–98 season after McCarthy's ouster. He initially came back because he wanted to help the Aggies during their search for a new head coach.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Henson a $1\\-a\\-month bargain for New Mexico State \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/41b2d72fc44a29362ddf3cfd5666dee3 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-11 \\|website\\=AP NEWS \\|language\\=en}} Henson wanted to donate his time, but state law forbade him from coaching the program for free. He ultimately settled for $1 per month. The following season Henson agreed to stay on as head coach on a permanent basis, leading the Aggies back to the [NCAA tournament in 1999](/wiki/1999_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"1999 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\").", "Henson continued to coach the Aggies until being sidelined by [non\\-Hodgkin lymphoma](/wiki/Non-Hodgkin_lymphoma \"Non-Hodgkin lymphoma\") prior to the 2004–05 season. Due to Henson's illness the Aggies were led that year by assistant coach [Tony Stubblefield](/wiki/Tony_Stubblefield \"Tony Stubblefield\"), who guided the squad to a dismal 6–24 record, by far the school's worst season in twenty years. Henson officially announced his retirement from coaching in January 2005, and Stubblefield remained interim head coach for the remainder of the season.", "### Reggie Theus (2005–2007\\)", "On March 31, 2005, NMSU hired 13\\-year NBA veteran [Reggie Theus](/wiki/Reggie_Theus \"Reggie Theus\"), then an assistant at [Louisville](/wiki/University_of_Louisville \"University of Louisville\") under [Rick Pitino](/wiki/Rick_Pitino \"Rick Pitino\"),[ESPN.com – Dick Vitale – Theus ready for first head\\-coaching gig](https://www.espn.com/dickvitale/vcolumn050606-tidbits-Theus-plus.html) as head men's basketball coach. In his first season, Theus turned the Aggies from a 6–24 squad in 2004–05 to a 16–14 team in the 2005–06 season as the Aggies moved from the [Sun Belt Conference](/wiki/Sun_Belt_Conference \"Sun Belt Conference\") to the [Western Athletic Conference](/wiki/Western_Athletic_Conference \"Western Athletic Conference\"). In Theus's second year the Aggies finished the regular season at 22–8, won the WAC Tournament on their home floor, and earn an automatic bid to the [2007 NCAA tournament](/wiki/2007_NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship \"2007 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship\"). Following the tournament Theus left NMSU to take over the head coaching position of the [NBA](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association \"National Basketball Association\")'s [Sacramento Kings](/wiki/Sacramento_Kings \"Sacramento Kings\").", "### Marvin Menzies (2007–2016\\)", "[Marvin Menzies](/wiki/Marvin_Menzies \"Marvin Menzies\") was named as Theus' successor, and like Theus before him, came to NMSU after having been an assistant to [Pitino](/wiki/Rick_Pitino \"Rick Pitino\") and had no previous Division I head coaching experience. In 2010 the Aggies again won the WAC Tournament and advanced to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/2010_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2010 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), falling 70–67 in the first round to eventual Final Four participant Michigan State. In 2012 the Aggies once again advanced to the NCAA tournament by winning the WAC Tournament for the third time in six seasons. They continued to appear in the NCAA tournament through 2015\\. After their 2016 NIT tournament appearance, Marvin Menzies was hired to take over the Nevada\\-Las Vegas (UNLV) basketball program.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mens\\-college\\-basketball/story/\\_/id/15216959/unlv\\-rebels\\-hire\\-marvin\\-menzies\\-new\\-head\\-coach\\|title\\=UNLV agrees to hire Marvin Menzies as new head coach\\|website\\=ESPN.com\\|date\\=16 April 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-16}}", "### Paul Weir (2016–2017\\)", "[Paul Weir](/wiki/Paul_Weir_%28basketball%29 \"Paul Weir (basketball)\") served in the role of associate head coach from July 2011 until he was promoted to head coach on April 26, 2016\\. He helped the Aggies to five WAC Tournament Championships (2010, 2012–2015\\) and five NCAA tournament appearances. The Aggies have collected three WAC Championships during Weir's tenure. The Aggies have won back\\-to\\-back WAC regular season titles in 2015 and 2016 after collecting their first WAC regular season title in 2008\\. Overall, NM State has collected seven WAC titles during his nine years with the program.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://nmstatesports.com/news/2016/4/26/mens\\-basketball\\-paul\\-weir\\-named\\-25th\\-nm\\-state\\-basketball\\-coach.aspx\\|title\\=Paul Weir named 25th NM State Basketball Coach\\|website\\=nmstatesports.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-26}} Weir left after one season to coach the [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico_Lobos_men%27s_basketball \"New Mexico Lobos men's basketball\") Lobos, a rival of the Aggies.", "### Chris Jans (2017–2022\\)", "Former [Bowling Green](/wiki/Bowling_Green_Falcons_men%27s_basketball \"Bowling Green Falcons men's basketball\") head coach [Chris Jans](/wiki/Chris_Jans \"Chris Jans\") was named the new head coach of the Aggies on April 17, 2017\\. He had been serving in an administrative role at [Wichita State](/wiki/Wichita_State_Shockers_men%27s_basketball \"Wichita State Shockers men's basketball\") after being fired from BGSU in 2015 and was promoted to associate head coach of the Shockers just 4 days prior to being hired by NMSU. In his first season at NMSU, The Aggies won 28 games for the second year in a row, and won both the WAC regular season title and conference championship to advance to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/2018_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2018 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), where they lost to [Clemson](/wiki/Clemson_Tigers_men%27s_basketball \"Clemson Tigers men's basketball\") in the first round. In 2022 New Mexico State won a first round NCAA tournament game against University of Connecticut, before losing to Arkansas. Jans was hired by Mississippi State after the 2022 season.", "### Greg Heiar (2022–2023\\)", "[Greg Heiar](/wiki/Greg_Heiar \"Greg Heiar\") was named the head coach of the Aggies on March 28, 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Burge \\|first\\=Dave \\|title\\=Meet the new boss: Heiar says not much will change. On February 10th, New Mexico State University suspended operations for the entire basketball program due to new unknown allegations. All coaches were placed on paid administrative leave. \\|url\\=https://www.lascrucesbulletin.com/stories/meet\\-the\\-new\\-boss\\-heiar\\-says\\-not\\-much\\-will\\-change,10938 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-11 \\|website\\=Las Cruces Bulletin \\|language\\=en}} He was formerly the head coach at [Northwest Florida State College](/wiki/Northwest_Florida_State_College \"Northwest Florida State College\"), where he won the 2022 [NJCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship](/wiki/NJCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship \"NJCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship\"). On February 14, 2023, Greg Heiar was removed as the head coach of New Mexico State men's basketball team due to hazing allegations.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.lcsun\\-news.com/story/sports/college/nmsu/2023/02/14/greg\\-heiar\\-fired\\-as\\-nmsu\\-aggies\\-basketball\\-coach\\-amid\\-athlete\\-hazing\\-investigation/69896640007/\\|title\\=Greg Heiar fired as NMSU Aggies basketball coach amid athlete hazing investigation\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Las Cruces Sun\\-News]]\\|first\\=Jason\\|last\\=Groves\\|date\\=February 14, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023}}", "" ]
Taxonomy -------- {{cladogram\|title\=Canine phylogeny with ages of divergence \|caption\=Cladogram and divergence of the gray wolf (including the domestic dog) among its closest extant relatives \|cladogram\={{clade\| style\=font\-size:85%;line\-height:75%;width:475px; \|sublabel1\=''3\.50 \[\[Million years ago\|mya]]'' \|1\={{clade \|sublabel1\=''3\.06 mya'' \|1\={{clade \|sublabel1\=''2\.74 mya'' \|1\={{clade \|sublabel1\=''1\.92 mya'' \|1\={{clade \|sublabel1\=''1\.62 mya'' \|1\={{clade \|sublabel1\=''1\.32 mya'' \|1\={{clade \|sublabel1\=''1\.10 mya'' \|1\={{clade \|1\='''Gray wolf''' \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate I).png\|50 px]] \|2\=\[\[Coyote]] \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate IX).png\|50 px]] }} \|2\=\[\[African wolf]] \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XI).jpg\|50 px]] }} \|2\=\[\[Ethiopian wolf]] \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate VI).png\|50 px]] }} \|2\=\[\[Golden jackal]] \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate X).png\|50 px]] }} \|2\=\[\[Dhole]] \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XLI).png\|50 px]] }} \|2\=\[\[African wild dog]] \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XLIV).png\|50 px]] }} \|sublabel2\=''2\.62 mya'' \|2\={{clade \|1\=\[\[Side\-striped jackal]] \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XIII).png\|50 px]] \|2\=\[\[Black\-backed jackal]] \[\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XII).png\|50 px]] }} }} }} }} In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist [Carl Linnaeus](/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus "Carl Linnaeus") published in his *[Systema Naturae](/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae "10th edition of Systema Naturae")* the [binomial nomenclature](/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature "Binomial nomenclature"). *[Canis](/wiki/Canis "Canis")* is the Latin word meaning "[dog](/wiki/Dog "Dog")",{{OEtymD\|canine}} and under this [genus](/wiki/Genus "Genus") he listed the doglike carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and [jackals](/wiki/Jackal "Jackal"). He classified the domestic dog as *Canis familiaris*, and the wolf as *Canis lupus*. Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its "cauda recurvata" (upturning tail) which is not found in any other [canid](/wiki/Canid "Canid"). ### Subspecies {{Main\|Subspecies of Canis lupus}} {{Further\|Pleistocene wolf}} In the third edition of *[Mammal Species of the World](/wiki/Mammal_Species_of_the_World "Mammal Species of the World")* published in 2005, the [mammalogist](/wiki/Mammalogist "Mammalogist") [W. Christopher Wozencraft](/wiki/W._Chris_Wozencraft "W. Chris Wozencraft") listed under *C. lupus* 36 wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: *familiaris* (Linnaeus, 1758\) and *[dingo](/wiki/Canis_lupus_dingo "Canis lupus dingo")* (Meyer, 1793\). Wozencraft included *hallstromi*—the [New Guinea singing dog](/wiki/New_Guinea_singing_dog "New Guinea singing dog")—as a [taxonomic synonym](/wiki/Taxonomic_synonym "Taxonomic synonym") for the [dingo](/wiki/Dingo "Dingo"). Wozencraft referred to a 1999 [mitochondrial DNA](/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA "Mitochondrial DNA") (mtDNA) study as one of the guides in forming his decision, and listed the 38 [subspecies of *C. lupus*](/wiki/Subspecies_of_Canis_lupus "Subspecies of Canis lupus") under the biological [common name](/wiki/Common_name "Common name") of "wolf", the [nominate subspecies](/wiki/Nominate_subspecies "Nominate subspecies") being the [Eurasian wolf](/wiki/Eurasian_wolf "Eurasian wolf") (*C. l. lupus*) based on the [type specimen](/wiki/Type_specimen "Type specimen") that Linnaeus studied in Sweden. Studies using [paleogenomic](/wiki/Paleogenomics "Paleogenomics") techniques reveal that the modern wolf and the dog are [sister taxa](/wiki/Sister_taxa "Sister taxa"), as modern wolves are not closely related to the population of wolves that was first [domesticated](/wiki/Domestication "Domestication"). In 2019, a workshop hosted by the [IUCN](/wiki/IUCN "IUCN")/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the New Guinea singing dog and the dingo to be [feral](/wiki/Feral_dog "Feral dog") *Canis familiaris*, and therefore should not be assessed for the [IUCN Red List](/wiki/IUCN_Red_List "IUCN Red List"). ### Evolution {{Main\|Evolution of the wolf}} {{Further\|Origin of the domestic dog}} [thumb\|right\|Life restoration of *[Canis mosbachensis](/wiki/Canis_mosbachensis "Canis mosbachensis")*, the wolf's immediate ancestor](/wiki/File:Canis_mosbachensis_Wikipedia_Juandertal.jpg "Canis mosbachensis Wikipedia Juandertal.jpg") The [phylogenetic](/wiki/Phylogenetic "Phylogenetic") descent of the extant wolf *C. lupus* from the earlier *[C. mosbachensis](/wiki/Canis_mosbachensis "Canis mosbachensis")* (which in turn descended from *[C. etruscus](/wiki/Canis_etruscus "Canis etruscus")*) is widely accepted.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|pp\=239–245}} Among the oldest fossils of the modern grey wolf is from Ponte Galeria in Italy, dating to 406,500 ± 2,400 years ago.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Iurino \|first1\=Dawid A. \|last2\=Mecozzi \|first2\=Beniamino \|last3\=Iannucci \|first3\=Alessio \|last4\=Moscarella \|first4\=Alfio \|last5\=Strani \|first5\=Flavia \|last6\=Bona \|first6\=Fabio \|last7\=Gaeta \|first7\=Mario \|last8\=Sardella \|first8\=Raffaele \|date\=2022\-02\-25 \|title\=A Middle Pleistocene wolf from central Italy provides insights on the first occurrence of Canis lupus in Europe \|journal\=Scientific Reports \|language\=en \|volume\=12 \|issue\=1 \|page\=2882 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41598\-022\-06812\-5 \|issn\=2045\-2322 \|pmc\=8881584 \|pmid\=35217686\|bibcode\=2022NatSR..12\.2882I }} Remains from Cripple Creek Sump in Alaska may be considerably older, around 1 million years old, though differentiating between the remains of modern wolves and *C. mosbachensis* is difficult and ambiguous, with some authors choosing to include C. *mosbachensis* (which first appeared around 1\.4 million years ago) as an early subspecies of *C. lupus.* Considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves by the [Late Pleistocene](/wiki/Late_Pleistocene "Late Pleistocene"). Many Late Pleistocene wolf populations had more robust skulls and teeth than modern wolves, often with a shortened [snout](/wiki/Rostrum_%28anatomy%29%23Vertebrates "Rostrum (anatomy)#Vertebrates"), a pronounced development of the [temporalis](/wiki/Temporalis "Temporalis") muscle, and robust [premolars](/wiki/Premolar "Premolar"). It is proposed that these features were specialized adaptations for the processing of carcass and bone associated with the hunting and scavenging of [Pleistocene megafauna](/wiki/Pleistocene_megafauna "Pleistocene megafauna"). Compared with modern wolves, some Pleistocene wolves showed an increase in tooth breakage similar to that seen in the extinct [dire wolf](/wiki/Dire_wolf "Dire wolf"). This suggests they either often processed carcasses, or that they competed with other carnivores and needed to consume their prey quickly. The frequency and location of tooth fractures in these wolves indicates they were habitual bone crackers like the modern [spotted hyena](/wiki/Spotted_hyena "Spotted hyena"). [Genomic](/wiki/Genome "Genome") studies suggest modern wolves and dogs descend from a common ancestral wolf population. A 2021 study found that the [Himalayan wolf](/wiki/Himalayan_wolf "Himalayan wolf") and the [Indian plains wolf](/wiki/Indian_wolf "Indian wolf") are part of a [lineage](/wiki/Lineage_%28evolution%29 "Lineage (evolution)") that is [basal](/wiki/Basal_%28phylogenetics%29 "Basal (phylogenetics)") to other wolves and [split](/wiki/Cladogenesis "Cladogenesis") from them 200,000 years ago. Other wolves appear to share most of their common ancestry much more recently, within the last 23,000 years (around the peak and the end of the [Last Glacial Maximum](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum "Last Glacial Maximum")), originating from [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia"){{Cite journal \|last1\=Bergström \|first1\=Anders \|last2\=Stanton \|first2\=David W. G. \|last3\=Taron \|first3\=Ulrike H. \|last4\=Frantz \|first4\=Laurent \|last5\=Sinding \|first5\=Mikkel\-Holger S. \|last6\=Ersmark \|first6\=Erik \|last7\=Pfrengle \|first7\=Saskia \|last8\=Cassatt\-Johnstone \|first8\=Molly \|last9\=Lebrasseur \|first9\=Ophélie \|last10\=Girdland\-Flink \|first10\=Linus \|last11\=Fernandes \|first11\=Daniel M. \|last12\=Ollivier \|first12\=Morgane \|last13\=Speidel \|first13\=Leo \|last14\=Gopalakrishnan \|first14\=Shyam \|last15\=Westbury \|first15\=Michael V. \|date\=2022\-07\-14 \|title\=Grey wolf genomic history reveals a dual ancestry of dogs \|journal\=Nature \|language\=en \|volume\=607 \|issue\=7918 \|pages\=313–320 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41586\-022\-04824\-9 \|issn\=0028\-0836 \|pmc\=9279150 \|pmid\=35768506\|bibcode\=2022Natur.607\..313B }} or [Beringia](/wiki/Beringia "Beringia").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Loog \|first1\=Liisa \|last2\=Thalmann \|first2\=Olaf \|last3\=Sinding \|first3\=Mikkel\-Holger S. \|last4\=Schuenemann \|first4\=Verena J. \|last5\=Perri \|first5\=Angela \|last6\=Germonpré \|first6\=Mietje \|last7\=Bocherens \|first7\=Herve \|last8\=Witt \|first8\=Kelsey E. \|last9\=Samaniego Castruita \|first9\=Jose A. \|last10\=Velasco \|first10\=Marcela S. \|last11\=Lundstrøm \|first11\=Inge K. C. \|last12\=Wales \|first12\=Nathan \|last13\=Sonet \|first13\=Gontran \|last14\=Frantz \|first14\=Laurent \|last15\=Schroeder \|first15\=Hannes \|date\=May 2020 \|title\=Ancient DNA suggests modern wolves trace their origin to a Late Pleistocene expansion from Beringia \|journal\=Molecular Ecology \|language\=en \|volume\=29 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=1596–1610 \|doi\=10\.1111/mec.15329 \|issn\=0962\-1083 \|pmc\=7317801 \|pmid\=31840921\|bibcode\=2020MolEc..29\.1596L }} While some sources have suggested that this was a consequence of a [population bottleneck](/wiki/Population_bottleneck "Population bottleneck"), other studies have suggested that this a result of [gene flow](/wiki/Gene_flow "Gene flow") homogenising ancestry. A 2016 genomic study suggests that Old World and New World wolves split around 12,500 years ago followed by the [divergence](/wiki/Genetic_divergence "Genetic divergence") of the lineage that led to dogs from other Old World wolves around 11,100–12,300 years ago. An extinct [Late Pleistocene wolf](/wiki/Megafaunal_wolf "Megafaunal wolf") may have been the ancestor of the dog, with the dog's similarity to the extant wolf being the result of [genetic admixture](/wiki/Genetic_admixture "Genetic admixture") between the two. The dingo, [Basenji](/wiki/Basenji "Basenji"), [Tibetan Mastiff](/wiki/Tibetan_Mastiff "Tibetan Mastiff") and Chinese indigenous breeds are basal members of the domestic dog clade. The divergence time for wolves in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia is estimated to be fairly recent at around 1,600 years ago. Among New World wolves, the [Mexican wolf](/wiki/Mexican_wolf "Mexican wolf") diverged around 5,400 years ago. ### Admixture with other canids {{Main\|Canid hybrid}} [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|alt\=Photographs of two wolf–dog hybrids standing outdoors on snowy ground\|[Wolf–dog hybrids](/wiki/Wolfdog "Wolfdog") in the wild animal park at [Kadzidłowo](/wiki/Kadzid%C5%82owo "Kadzidłowo"), Poland. Left: product of a male wolf and a female [spaniel](/wiki/Spaniel "Spaniel"); right: from a female wolf and a male [West Siberian Laika](/wiki/West_Siberian_Laika "West Siberian Laika")](/wiki/File:F1_wolf-dog_hybrids_from_Wildlife_Park_Kadzidlowo%2C_Poland.png "F1 wolf-dog hybrids from Wildlife Park Kadzidlowo, Poland.png") In the distant past, there was [gene flow](/wiki/Gene_flow "Gene flow") between [African wolves](/wiki/African_wolf "African wolf"), [golden jackals](/wiki/Golden_jackal "Golden jackal"), and gray wolves. The African wolf is a descendant of a genetically admixed canid of 72% wolf and 28% Ethiopian wolf ancestry. One African wolf from the Egyptian [Sinai Peninsula](/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula "Sinai Peninsula") showed admixture with Middle Eastern gray wolves and dogs. There is evidence of gene flow between golden jackals and Middle Eastern wolves, less so with European and Asian wolves, and least with North American wolves. This indicates the golden jackal ancestry found in North American wolves may have occurred before the divergence of the Eurasian and North American wolves. The common ancestor of the coyote and the wolf admixed with a [ghost population](/wiki/Ghost_population "Ghost population") of an extinct unidentified canid. This canid was genetically close to the [dhole](/wiki/Dhole "Dhole") and evolved after the divergence of the [African hunting dog](/wiki/African_hunting_dog "African hunting dog") from the other canid species. The basal position of the [coyote](/wiki/Coyote "Coyote") compared to the wolf is proposed to be due to the coyote retaining more of the mitochondrial genome of this unidentified canid. Similarly, a museum specimen of a wolf from southern China collected in 1963 showed a genome that was 12–14% admixed from this unknown canid. In North America, some coyotes and wolves show varying degrees of past [genetic admixture](/wiki/Coywolf "Coywolf"). In more recent times, some male [Italian wolves](/wiki/Italian_wolf "Italian wolf") originated from dog ancestry, which indicates female wolves will breed with male dogs in the wild. In the [Caucasus Mountains](/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains "Caucasus Mountains"), ten percent of dogs including [livestock guardian dogs](/wiki/Livestock_guardian_dog "Livestock guardian dog"), are first generation hybrids. Although mating between golden jackals and wolves has never been observed, evidence of [jackal\-wolf hybridization](/wiki/Jackal-wolf_hybrid "Jackal-wolf hybrid") was discovered through mitochondrial DNA analysis of jackals living in the Caucasus Mountains and in Bulgaria. In 2021, a genetic study found that the dog's similarity to the extant gray wolf was the result of substantial dog\-into\-wolf [gene flow](/wiki/Gene_flow "Gene flow"), with little evidence of the reverse.
[ "Taxonomy\n--------", "{{cladogram\\|title\\=Canine phylogeny with ages of divergence\n\\|caption\\=Cladogram and divergence of the gray wolf (including the domestic dog) among its closest extant relatives\n\\|cladogram\\={{clade\\| style\\=font\\-size:85%;line\\-height:75%;width:475px;\n\\|sublabel1\\=''3\\.50 \\[\\[Million years ago\\|mya]]''\n\\|1\\={{clade\n \\|sublabel1\\=''3\\.06 mya''\n \\|1\\={{clade\n \\|sublabel1\\=''2\\.74 mya''\n \\|1\\={{clade\n \\|sublabel1\\=''1\\.92 mya''\n \\|1\\={{clade\n \\|sublabel1\\=''1\\.62 mya''\n \\|1\\={{clade\n \\|sublabel1\\=''1\\.32 mya''\n \\|1\\={{clade\n \\|sublabel1\\=''1\\.10 mya''\n \\|1\\={{clade\n \\|1\\='''Gray wolf''' \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate I).png\\|50 px]]\n \\|2\\=\\[\\[Coyote]] \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate IX).png\\|50 px]]\n }}\n \\|2\\=\\[\\[African wolf]] \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XI).jpg\\|50 px]]\n }}\n \\|2\\=\\[\\[Ethiopian wolf]] \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate VI).png\\|50 px]]\n }}\n \\|2\\=\\[\\[Golden jackal]] \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate X).png\\|50 px]]\n }}\n \\|2\\=\\[\\[Dhole]] \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XLI).png\\|50 px]]\n }}\n \\|2\\=\\[\\[African wild dog]] \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XLIV).png\\|50 px]]\n }}\n \\|sublabel2\\=''2\\.62 mya''\n \\|2\\={{clade\n \\|1\\=\\[\\[Side\\-striped jackal]] \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XIII).png\\|50 px]]\n \\|2\\=\\[\\[Black\\-backed jackal]] \\[\\[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XII).png\\|50 px]]\n }}\n }}\n}}\n}}\nIn 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist [Carl Linnaeus](/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus \"Carl Linnaeus\") published in his *[Systema Naturae](/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae \"10th edition of Systema Naturae\")* the [binomial nomenclature](/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature \"Binomial nomenclature\"). *[Canis](/wiki/Canis \"Canis\")* is the Latin word meaning \"[dog](/wiki/Dog \"Dog\")\",{{OEtymD\\|canine}} and under this [genus](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") he listed the doglike carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and [jackals](/wiki/Jackal \"Jackal\"). He classified the domestic dog as *Canis familiaris*, and the wolf as *Canis lupus*. Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its \"cauda recurvata\" (upturning tail) which is not found in any other [canid](/wiki/Canid \"Canid\").", "### Subspecies", "{{Main\\|Subspecies of Canis lupus}}\n{{Further\\|Pleistocene wolf}}\nIn the third edition of *[Mammal Species of the World](/wiki/Mammal_Species_of_the_World \"Mammal Species of the World\")* published in 2005, the [mammalogist](/wiki/Mammalogist \"Mammalogist\") [W. Christopher Wozencraft](/wiki/W._Chris_Wozencraft \"W. Chris Wozencraft\") listed under *C. lupus* 36 wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: *familiaris* (Linnaeus, 1758\\) and *[dingo](/wiki/Canis_lupus_dingo \"Canis lupus dingo\")* (Meyer, 1793\\). Wozencraft included *hallstromi*—the [New Guinea singing dog](/wiki/New_Guinea_singing_dog \"New Guinea singing dog\")—as a [taxonomic synonym](/wiki/Taxonomic_synonym \"Taxonomic synonym\") for the [dingo](/wiki/Dingo \"Dingo\"). Wozencraft referred to a 1999 [mitochondrial DNA](/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA \"Mitochondrial DNA\") (mtDNA) study as one of the guides in forming his decision, and listed the 38 [subspecies of *C. lupus*](/wiki/Subspecies_of_Canis_lupus \"Subspecies of Canis lupus\") under the biological [common name](/wiki/Common_name \"Common name\") of \"wolf\", the [nominate subspecies](/wiki/Nominate_subspecies \"Nominate subspecies\") being the [Eurasian wolf](/wiki/Eurasian_wolf \"Eurasian wolf\") (*C. l. lupus*) based on the [type specimen](/wiki/Type_specimen \"Type specimen\") that Linnaeus studied in Sweden. Studies using [paleogenomic](/wiki/Paleogenomics \"Paleogenomics\") techniques reveal that the modern wolf and the dog are [sister taxa](/wiki/Sister_taxa \"Sister taxa\"), as modern wolves are not closely related to the population of wolves that was first [domesticated](/wiki/Domestication \"Domestication\"). In 2019, a workshop hosted by the [IUCN](/wiki/IUCN \"IUCN\")/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the New Guinea singing dog and the dingo to be [feral](/wiki/Feral_dog \"Feral dog\") *Canis familiaris*, and therefore should not be assessed for the [IUCN Red List](/wiki/IUCN_Red_List \"IUCN Red List\").", "### Evolution", "{{Main\\|Evolution of the wolf}}\n{{Further\\|Origin of the domestic dog}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Life restoration of *[Canis mosbachensis](/wiki/Canis_mosbachensis \"Canis mosbachensis\")*, the wolf's immediate ancestor](/wiki/File:Canis_mosbachensis_Wikipedia_Juandertal.jpg \"Canis mosbachensis Wikipedia Juandertal.jpg\")\nThe [phylogenetic](/wiki/Phylogenetic \"Phylogenetic\") descent of the extant wolf *C. lupus* from the earlier *[C. mosbachensis](/wiki/Canis_mosbachensis \"Canis mosbachensis\")* (which in turn descended from *[C. etruscus](/wiki/Canis_etruscus \"Canis etruscus\")*) is widely accepted.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|pp\\=239–245}} Among the oldest fossils of the modern grey wolf is from Ponte Galeria in Italy, dating to 406,500 ± 2,400 years ago.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Iurino \\|first1\\=Dawid A. \\|last2\\=Mecozzi \\|first2\\=Beniamino \\|last3\\=Iannucci \\|first3\\=Alessio \\|last4\\=Moscarella \\|first4\\=Alfio \\|last5\\=Strani \\|first5\\=Flavia \\|last6\\=Bona \\|first6\\=Fabio \\|last7\\=Gaeta \\|first7\\=Mario \\|last8\\=Sardella \\|first8\\=Raffaele \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-25 \\|title\\=A Middle Pleistocene wolf from central Italy provides insights on the first occurrence of Canis lupus in Europe \\|journal\\=Scientific Reports \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=12 \\|issue\\=1 \\|page\\=2882 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41598\\-022\\-06812\\-5 \\|issn\\=2045\\-2322 \\|pmc\\=8881584 \\|pmid\\=35217686\\|bibcode\\=2022NatSR..12\\.2882I }} Remains from Cripple Creek Sump in Alaska may be considerably older, around 1 million years old, though differentiating between the remains of modern wolves and *C. mosbachensis* is difficult and ambiguous, with some authors choosing to include C. *mosbachensis* (which first appeared around 1\\.4 million years ago) as an early subspecies of *C. lupus.*", "Considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves by the [Late Pleistocene](/wiki/Late_Pleistocene \"Late Pleistocene\"). Many Late Pleistocene wolf populations had more robust skulls and teeth than modern wolves, often with a shortened [snout](/wiki/Rostrum_%28anatomy%29%23Vertebrates \"Rostrum (anatomy)#Vertebrates\"), a pronounced development of the [temporalis](/wiki/Temporalis \"Temporalis\") muscle, and robust [premolars](/wiki/Premolar \"Premolar\"). It is proposed that these features were specialized adaptations for the processing of carcass and bone associated with the hunting and scavenging of [Pleistocene megafauna](/wiki/Pleistocene_megafauna \"Pleistocene megafauna\"). Compared with modern wolves, some Pleistocene wolves showed an increase in tooth breakage similar to that seen in the extinct [dire wolf](/wiki/Dire_wolf \"Dire wolf\"). This suggests they either often processed carcasses, or that they competed with other carnivores and needed to consume their prey quickly. The frequency and location of tooth fractures in these wolves indicates they were habitual bone crackers like the modern [spotted hyena](/wiki/Spotted_hyena \"Spotted hyena\").", "[Genomic](/wiki/Genome \"Genome\") studies suggest modern wolves and dogs descend from a common ancestral wolf population. A 2021 study found that the [Himalayan wolf](/wiki/Himalayan_wolf \"Himalayan wolf\") and the [Indian plains wolf](/wiki/Indian_wolf \"Indian wolf\") are part of a [lineage](/wiki/Lineage_%28evolution%29 \"Lineage (evolution)\") that is [basal](/wiki/Basal_%28phylogenetics%29 \"Basal (phylogenetics)\") to other wolves and [split](/wiki/Cladogenesis \"Cladogenesis\") from them 200,000 years ago. Other wolves appear to share most of their common ancestry much more recently, within the last 23,000 years (around the peak and the end of the [Last Glacial Maximum](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum \"Last Glacial Maximum\")), originating from [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\"){{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Bergström \\|first1\\=Anders \\|last2\\=Stanton \\|first2\\=David W. G. \\|last3\\=Taron \\|first3\\=Ulrike H. \\|last4\\=Frantz \\|first4\\=Laurent \\|last5\\=Sinding \\|first5\\=Mikkel\\-Holger S. \\|last6\\=Ersmark \\|first6\\=Erik \\|last7\\=Pfrengle \\|first7\\=Saskia \\|last8\\=Cassatt\\-Johnstone \\|first8\\=Molly \\|last9\\=Lebrasseur \\|first9\\=Ophélie \\|last10\\=Girdland\\-Flink \\|first10\\=Linus \\|last11\\=Fernandes \\|first11\\=Daniel M. \\|last12\\=Ollivier \\|first12\\=Morgane \\|last13\\=Speidel \\|first13\\=Leo \\|last14\\=Gopalakrishnan \\|first14\\=Shyam \\|last15\\=Westbury \\|first15\\=Michael V. \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-14 \\|title\\=Grey wolf genomic history reveals a dual ancestry of dogs \\|journal\\=Nature \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=607 \\|issue\\=7918 \\|pages\\=313–320 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41586\\-022\\-04824\\-9 \\|issn\\=0028\\-0836 \\|pmc\\=9279150 \\|pmid\\=35768506\\|bibcode\\=2022Natur.607\\..313B }} or [Beringia](/wiki/Beringia \"Beringia\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Loog \\|first1\\=Liisa \\|last2\\=Thalmann \\|first2\\=Olaf \\|last3\\=Sinding \\|first3\\=Mikkel\\-Holger S. \\|last4\\=Schuenemann \\|first4\\=Verena J. \\|last5\\=Perri \\|first5\\=Angela \\|last6\\=Germonpré \\|first6\\=Mietje \\|last7\\=Bocherens \\|first7\\=Herve \\|last8\\=Witt \\|first8\\=Kelsey E. \\|last9\\=Samaniego Castruita \\|first9\\=Jose A. \\|last10\\=Velasco \\|first10\\=Marcela S. \\|last11\\=Lundstrøm \\|first11\\=Inge K. C. \\|last12\\=Wales \\|first12\\=Nathan \\|last13\\=Sonet \\|first13\\=Gontran \\|last14\\=Frantz \\|first14\\=Laurent \\|last15\\=Schroeder \\|first15\\=Hannes \\|date\\=May 2020 \\|title\\=Ancient DNA suggests modern wolves trace their origin to a Late Pleistocene expansion from Beringia \\|journal\\=Molecular Ecology \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=29 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=1596–1610 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/mec.15329 \\|issn\\=0962\\-1083 \\|pmc\\=7317801 \\|pmid\\=31840921\\|bibcode\\=2020MolEc..29\\.1596L }} While some sources have suggested that this was a consequence of a [population bottleneck](/wiki/Population_bottleneck \"Population bottleneck\"), other studies have suggested that this a result of [gene flow](/wiki/Gene_flow \"Gene flow\") homogenising ancestry.", "A 2016 genomic study suggests that Old World and New World wolves split around 12,500 years ago followed by the [divergence](/wiki/Genetic_divergence \"Genetic divergence\") of the lineage that led to dogs from other Old World wolves around 11,100–12,300 years ago. An extinct [Late Pleistocene wolf](/wiki/Megafaunal_wolf \"Megafaunal wolf\") may have been the ancestor of the dog, with the dog's similarity to the extant wolf being the result of [genetic admixture](/wiki/Genetic_admixture \"Genetic admixture\") between the two. The dingo, [Basenji](/wiki/Basenji \"Basenji\"), [Tibetan Mastiff](/wiki/Tibetan_Mastiff \"Tibetan Mastiff\") and Chinese indigenous breeds are basal members of the domestic dog clade. The divergence time for wolves in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia is estimated to be fairly recent at around 1,600 years ago. Among New World wolves, the [Mexican wolf](/wiki/Mexican_wolf \"Mexican wolf\") diverged around 5,400 years ago.", "### Admixture with other canids", "{{Main\\|Canid hybrid}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|alt\\=Photographs of two wolf–dog hybrids standing outdoors on snowy ground\\|[Wolf–dog hybrids](/wiki/Wolfdog \"Wolfdog\") in the wild animal park at [Kadzidłowo](/wiki/Kadzid%C5%82owo \"Kadzidłowo\"), Poland. Left: product of a male wolf and a female [spaniel](/wiki/Spaniel \"Spaniel\"); right: from a female wolf and a male [West Siberian Laika](/wiki/West_Siberian_Laika \"West Siberian Laika\")](/wiki/File:F1_wolf-dog_hybrids_from_Wildlife_Park_Kadzidlowo%2C_Poland.png \"F1 wolf-dog hybrids from Wildlife Park Kadzidlowo, Poland.png\")", "In the distant past, there was [gene flow](/wiki/Gene_flow \"Gene flow\") between [African wolves](/wiki/African_wolf \"African wolf\"), [golden jackals](/wiki/Golden_jackal \"Golden jackal\"), and gray wolves. The African wolf is a descendant of a genetically admixed canid of 72% wolf and 28% Ethiopian wolf ancestry. One African wolf from the Egyptian [Sinai Peninsula](/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula \"Sinai Peninsula\") showed admixture with Middle Eastern gray wolves and dogs. There is evidence of gene flow between golden jackals and Middle Eastern wolves, less so with European and Asian wolves, and least with North American wolves. This indicates the golden jackal ancestry found in North American wolves may have occurred before the divergence of the Eurasian and North American wolves.", "The common ancestor of the coyote and the wolf admixed with a [ghost population](/wiki/Ghost_population \"Ghost population\") of an extinct unidentified canid. This canid was genetically close to the [dhole](/wiki/Dhole \"Dhole\") and evolved after the divergence of the [African hunting dog](/wiki/African_hunting_dog \"African hunting dog\") from the other canid species. The basal position of the [coyote](/wiki/Coyote \"Coyote\") compared to the wolf is proposed to be due to the coyote retaining more of the mitochondrial genome of this unidentified canid. Similarly, a museum specimen of a wolf from southern China collected in 1963 showed a genome that was 12–14% admixed from this unknown canid. In North America, some coyotes and wolves show varying degrees of past [genetic admixture](/wiki/Coywolf \"Coywolf\").", "In more recent times, some male [Italian wolves](/wiki/Italian_wolf \"Italian wolf\") originated from dog ancestry, which indicates female wolves will breed with male dogs in the wild. In the [Caucasus Mountains](/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains \"Caucasus Mountains\"), ten percent of dogs including [livestock guardian dogs](/wiki/Livestock_guardian_dog \"Livestock guardian dog\"), are first generation hybrids. Although mating between golden jackals and wolves has never been observed, evidence of [jackal\\-wolf hybridization](/wiki/Jackal-wolf_hybrid \"Jackal-wolf hybrid\") was discovered through mitochondrial DNA analysis of jackals living in the Caucasus Mountains and in Bulgaria. In 2021, a genetic study found that the dog's similarity to the extant gray wolf was the result of substantial dog\\-into\\-wolf [gene flow](/wiki/Gene_flow \"Gene flow\"), with little evidence of the reverse.", "" ]
Status and conservation ----------------------- {{Further\|List of gray wolf populations by country}} The global wild wolf population in 2003 was estimated at 300,000\.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=230}} Wolf population declines have been arrested since the 1970s. This has fostered recolonization and reintroduction in parts of its former range as a result of legal protection, changes in land use, and rural human population shifts to cities. Competition with humans for livestock and game species, concerns over the danger posed by wolves to people, and habitat fragmentation pose a continued threat to the wolf. Despite these threats, the [IUCN](/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature "International Union for Conservation of Nature") classifies the wolf as [Least Concern](/wiki/Least_Concern "Least Concern") on its [Red List](/wiki/IUCN_Red_List "IUCN Red List") due to its relatively widespread range and stable population. The species is listed under [Appendix{{spaces}}II](/wiki/CITES%23Appendix_II "CITES#Appendix II") of the [Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora](/wiki/Convention_on_International_Trade_in_Endangered_Species_of_Wild_Fauna_and_Flora "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora") (CITES), meaning international trade in the species (including parts and derivatives) is regulated. However, populations of [Bhutan](/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan"), [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") and [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") are listed in [Appendix{{spaces}}I](/wiki/CITES%23Appendix_I "CITES#Appendix I") which prohibits commercial international trade in wild\-sourced specimens. ### North America [thumb\|right\|alt\=Photograph of a wolf running on a grassy plain with enclosing fence in background\|Captive Mexican wolf at [Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Sevilleta_National_Wildlife_Refuge "Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge") in New Mexico, as part of [reintroduction](/wiki/Wolf_reintroduction "Wolf reintroduction")](/wiki/File:Mexican_Wolf_2_yfb-edit_1.jpg "Mexican Wolf 2 yfb-edit 1.jpg") In Canada, 50,000–60,000 wolves live in 80% of their historical range, making Canada an important stronghold for the species. Under Canadian law, [First Nations](/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada "First Nations in Canada") people can hunt wolves without restrictions, but others must acquire licenses for the hunting and trapping seasons. As many as 4,000 wolves may be harvested in Canada each year.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|pp\=321–324}} The wolf is a protected species in national parks under the [Canada National Parks Act](/wiki/Canada_National_Parks_Act "Canada National Parks Act"). In Alaska, 7,000–11,000 wolves are found on 85% of the state's {{convert\|1,517,733\|km2\|mi2\|0\|abbr\=on}} area. Wolves may be hunted or trapped with a license; around 1,200 wolves are harvested annually. In the [contiguous United States](/wiki/Contiguous_United_States "Contiguous United States"), wolf declines were caused by the expansion of agriculture, the decimation of the wolf's main prey species like the American bison, and extermination campaigns. Wolves were given protection under the [Endangered Species Act](/wiki/Endangered_Species_Act "Endangered Species Act") (ESA) of 1973, and have since returned to parts of their former range thanks to both natural recolonizations and [reintroductions in Yellowstone and Idaho](/wiki/History_of_wolves_in_Yellowstone%23Re-introduction_%281995%E2%80%93present%29 "History of wolves in Yellowstone#Re-introduction (1995–present)"). The [repopulation of wolves in Midwestern United States](/wiki/Repopulation_of_wolves_in_Midwestern_United_States "Repopulation of wolves in Midwestern United States") has been concentrated in the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Western_Great_Lakes_forests "Western Great Lakes forests") states of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan where wolves number over 4,000 as of 2018\. Wolves also occupy much of the northern Rocky Mountains region and the northwest, with a total population over 3,000 as of the 2020s. In Mexico and parts of the southwestern United States, the Mexican and U.S. governments collaborated from 1977 to 1980 in capturing all Mexican wolves remaining in the wild to prevent their extinction and established captive breeding programs for reintroduction. As of 2024, the reintroduced [Mexican wolf](/wiki/Mexican_wolf "Mexican wolf") population numbers over 250 individuals. ### Eurasia [thumb\|right\|alt\=Map showing the wolf's range in Europe and surrounding areas](/wiki/File:Wolf_-_populations_in_Europe.png "Wolf - populations in Europe.png") Europe, excluding Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, has 17,000 wolves in more than 28 countries. In many countries of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"), the wolf is strictly protected under the 1979 [Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats](/wiki/Berne_Convention_on_the_Conservation_of_European_Wildlife_and_Natural_Habitats "Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats") (Appendix{{spaces}}II) and the 1992 [Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora](/wiki/Habitats_Directive "Habitats Directive") (Annex{{spaces}}II and{{spaces}}IV). There is extensive legal protection in many European countries, although there are national exceptions.[European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission"): [*Status, management and distribution of large carnivores—bear, lynx, wolf \& wolverine—in Europe December 2012\.*](http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/carnivores/pdf/task_1_part1_statusoflcineurope.pdf) page 50\. Wolves have been persecuted in Europe for centuries, having been exterminated in [Great Britain](/wiki/Wolves_in_Great_Britain "Wolves in Great Britain") by 1684, in [Ireland](/wiki/Wolves_in_Ireland "Wolves in Ireland") by 1770, in Central Europe by 1899, in France by the 1930s, and in much of Scandinavia by the early 1970s. They continued to survive in parts of Finland, Eastern Europe and Southern Europe.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|pp\=318–320}} Since 1980, European wolves have rebounded and expanded into parts of their former range. The decline of the traditional pastoral and rural economies seems to have ended the need to exterminate the wolf in parts of Europe.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|pp\=321–324}} As of 2016, estimates of wolf numbers include: 4,000 in the Balkans, 3,460–3,849 in the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains "Carpathian Mountains"), 1,700–2,240 in the [Baltic states](/wiki/Baltic_states "Baltic states"), 1,100–2,400 in the [Italian Peninsula](/wiki/Italian_Peninsula "Italian Peninsula"), and around 2,500 in the northwest [Iberian peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_peninsula "Iberian peninsula") as of 2007\. In a study of wolf conservation in Sweden, it was found that there was little opposition between the policies of the European Union and those of the Swedish officials implementing domestic policy.*The Wolf Dilemma: Following the Practices of Several Actors in Swedish Large Carnivore Management.* Ramsey, Morag (2015\) [https://www.diva\-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:821120/FULLTEXT01\.pdf](https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:821120/FULLTEXT01.pdf) Retrieved 30 September 2023 In the [former Soviet Union](/wiki/Former_Soviet_Union "Former Soviet Union"), wolf populations have retained much of their historical range despite Soviet\-era large scale extermination campaigns. Their numbers range from 1,500 in Georgia, to 20,000 in Kazakhstan and up to 45,000 in Russia. In Russia, the wolf is regarded as a pest because of its attacks on livestock, and wolf management means controlling their numbers by destroying them throughout the year. Russian history over the past century shows that reduced hunting leads to an abundance of wolves. The Russian government has continued to pay bounties for wolves and annual harvests of 20–30% do not appear to significantly affect their numbers. [thumb\|left\|upright\|alt\=Image of a wolf at night with glowing eyes\|A wolf in southern [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel")](/wiki/File:Desert_wolf_1.jpg "Desert wolf 1.jpg") In the Middle East, only Israel and Oman give wolves explicit legal protection. Israel has protected its wolves since 1954 and has maintained a moderately sized population of 150 through effective enforcement of conservation policies. These wolves have moved into neighboring countries. Approximately 300–600 wolves inhabit the [Arabian Peninsula](/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula "Arabian Peninsula").{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|pp\=323, 327}} The wolf also appears to be widespread in Iran.{{sfn\|Busch\|2007\|p\=231}} Turkey has an estimated population of about 7,000 wolves. Outside of Turkey, wolf populations in the Middle East may total 1,000–2,000\. In southern Asia, the northern regions of Afghanistan and [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") are important strongholds for wolves. The wolf has been protected in [India](/wiki/India "India") since 1972\.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=327}} The Indian wolf is distributed across the states of [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat "Gujarat"), [Rajasthan](/wiki/Rajasthan "Rajasthan"), [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana "Haryana"), [Uttar Pradesh](/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh "Uttar Pradesh"), [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh "Madhya Pradesh"), [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra"), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") and [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh"). As of 2019, it is estimated that there are around 2,000–3,000 Indian wolves in the country. In East Asia, Mongolia's population numbers 10,000–20,000\. In China, [Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang "Heilongjiang") has roughly 650 wolves, [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang "Xinjiang") has 10,000 and [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region "Tibet Autonomous Region") has 2,000\.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=328}} 2017 evidence suggests that wolves range across all of mainland China. Wolves have been historically persecuted in China{{sfn\|Busch\|2007\|p\=232}} but have been legally protected since 1998\. The last [Japanese wolf](/wiki/Japanese_wolf "Japanese wolf") was captured and killed in 1905\.
[ "Status and conservation\n-----------------------", "{{Further\\|List of gray wolf populations by country}}\nThe global wild wolf population in 2003 was estimated at 300,000\\.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=230}} Wolf population declines have been arrested since the 1970s. This has fostered recolonization and reintroduction in parts of its former range as a result of legal protection, changes in land use, and rural human population shifts to cities. Competition with humans for livestock and game species, concerns over the danger posed by wolves to people, and habitat fragmentation pose a continued threat to the wolf. Despite these threats, the [IUCN](/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature \"International Union for Conservation of Nature\") classifies the wolf as [Least Concern](/wiki/Least_Concern \"Least Concern\") on its [Red List](/wiki/IUCN_Red_List \"IUCN Red List\") due to its relatively widespread range and stable population. The species is listed under [Appendix{{spaces}}II](/wiki/CITES%23Appendix_II \"CITES#Appendix II\") of the [Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora](/wiki/Convention_on_International_Trade_in_Endangered_Species_of_Wild_Fauna_and_Flora \"Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora\") (CITES), meaning international trade in the species (including parts and derivatives) is regulated. However, populations of [Bhutan](/wiki/Bhutan \"Bhutan\"), [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\") and [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") are listed in [Appendix{{spaces}}I](/wiki/CITES%23Appendix_I \"CITES#Appendix I\") which prohibits commercial international trade in wild\\-sourced specimens.", "### North America", "[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=Photograph of a wolf running on a grassy plain with enclosing fence in background\\|Captive Mexican wolf at [Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Sevilleta_National_Wildlife_Refuge \"Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge\") in New Mexico, as part of [reintroduction](/wiki/Wolf_reintroduction \"Wolf reintroduction\")](/wiki/File:Mexican_Wolf_2_yfb-edit_1.jpg \"Mexican Wolf 2 yfb-edit 1.jpg\")", "In Canada, 50,000–60,000 wolves live in 80% of their historical range, making Canada an important stronghold for the species. Under Canadian law, [First Nations](/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada \"First Nations in Canada\") people can hunt wolves without restrictions, but others must acquire licenses for the hunting and trapping seasons. As many as 4,000 wolves may be harvested in Canada each year.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|pp\\=321–324}} The wolf is a protected species in national parks under the [Canada National Parks Act](/wiki/Canada_National_Parks_Act \"Canada National Parks Act\"). In Alaska, 7,000–11,000 wolves are found on 85% of the state's {{convert\\|1,517,733\\|km2\\|mi2\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} area. Wolves may be hunted or trapped with a license; around 1,200 wolves are harvested annually.", "In the [contiguous United States](/wiki/Contiguous_United_States \"Contiguous United States\"), wolf declines were caused by the expansion of agriculture, the decimation of the wolf's main prey species like the American bison, and extermination campaigns. Wolves were given protection under the [Endangered Species Act](/wiki/Endangered_Species_Act \"Endangered Species Act\") (ESA) of 1973, and have since returned to parts of their former range thanks to both natural recolonizations and [reintroductions in Yellowstone and Idaho](/wiki/History_of_wolves_in_Yellowstone%23Re-introduction_%281995%E2%80%93present%29 \"History of wolves in Yellowstone#Re-introduction (1995–present)\"). The [repopulation of wolves in Midwestern United States](/wiki/Repopulation_of_wolves_in_Midwestern_United_States \"Repopulation of wolves in Midwestern United States\") has been concentrated in the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Western_Great_Lakes_forests \"Western Great Lakes forests\") states of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan where wolves number over 4,000 as of 2018\\. Wolves also occupy much of the northern Rocky Mountains region and the northwest, with a total population over 3,000 as of the 2020s. In Mexico and parts of the southwestern United States, the Mexican and U.S. governments collaborated from 1977 to 1980 in capturing all Mexican wolves remaining in the wild to prevent their extinction and established captive breeding programs for reintroduction. As of 2024, the reintroduced [Mexican wolf](/wiki/Mexican_wolf \"Mexican wolf\") population numbers over 250 individuals.", "### Eurasia", "[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=Map showing the wolf's range in Europe and surrounding areas](/wiki/File:Wolf_-_populations_in_Europe.png \"Wolf - populations in Europe.png\")", "Europe, excluding Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, has 17,000 wolves in more than 28 countries. In many countries of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"), the wolf is strictly protected under the 1979 [Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats](/wiki/Berne_Convention_on_the_Conservation_of_European_Wildlife_and_Natural_Habitats \"Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats\") (Appendix{{spaces}}II) and the 1992 [Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora](/wiki/Habitats_Directive \"Habitats Directive\") (Annex{{spaces}}II and{{spaces}}IV). There is extensive legal protection in many European countries, although there are national exceptions.[European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission \"European Commission\"): [*Status, management and distribution of large carnivores—bear, lynx, wolf \\& wolverine—in Europe December 2012\\.*](http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/carnivores/pdf/task_1_part1_statusoflcineurope.pdf) page 50\\.", "Wolves have been persecuted in Europe for centuries, having been exterminated in [Great Britain](/wiki/Wolves_in_Great_Britain \"Wolves in Great Britain\") by 1684, in [Ireland](/wiki/Wolves_in_Ireland \"Wolves in Ireland\") by 1770, in Central Europe by 1899, in France by the 1930s, and in much of Scandinavia by the early 1970s. They continued to survive in parts of Finland, Eastern Europe and Southern Europe.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|pp\\=318–320}} Since 1980, European wolves have rebounded and expanded into parts of their former range. The decline of the traditional pastoral and rural economies seems to have ended the need to exterminate the wolf in parts of Europe.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|pp\\=321–324}} As of 2016, estimates of wolf numbers include: 4,000 in the Balkans, 3,460–3,849 in the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains \"Carpathian Mountains\"), 1,700–2,240 in the [Baltic states](/wiki/Baltic_states \"Baltic states\"), 1,100–2,400 in the [Italian Peninsula](/wiki/Italian_Peninsula \"Italian Peninsula\"), and around 2,500 in the northwest [Iberian peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_peninsula \"Iberian peninsula\") as of 2007\\. In a study of wolf conservation in Sweden, it was found that there was little opposition between the policies of the European Union and those of the Swedish officials implementing domestic policy.*The Wolf Dilemma: Following the Practices of Several Actors in Swedish Large Carnivore Management.* Ramsey, Morag (2015\\) [https://www.diva\\-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:821120/FULLTEXT01\\.pdf](https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:821120/FULLTEXT01.pdf) Retrieved 30 September 2023", "In the [former Soviet Union](/wiki/Former_Soviet_Union \"Former Soviet Union\"), wolf populations have retained much of their historical range despite Soviet\\-era large scale extermination campaigns. Their numbers range from 1,500 in Georgia, to 20,000 in Kazakhstan and up to 45,000 in Russia. In Russia, the wolf is regarded as a pest because of its attacks on livestock, and wolf management means controlling their numbers by destroying them throughout the year. Russian history over the past century shows that reduced hunting leads to an abundance of wolves. The Russian government has continued to pay bounties for wolves and annual harvests of 20–30% do not appear to significantly affect their numbers.\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|alt\\=Image of a wolf at night with glowing eyes\\|A wolf in southern [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\")](/wiki/File:Desert_wolf_1.jpg \"Desert wolf 1.jpg\")", "In the Middle East, only Israel and Oman give wolves explicit legal protection. Israel has protected its wolves since 1954 and has maintained a moderately sized population of 150 through effective enforcement of conservation policies. These wolves have moved into neighboring countries. Approximately 300–600 wolves inhabit the [Arabian Peninsula](/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula \"Arabian Peninsula\").{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|pp\\=323, 327}} The wolf also appears to be widespread in Iran.{{sfn\\|Busch\\|2007\\|p\\=231}} Turkey has an estimated population of about 7,000 wolves. Outside of Turkey, wolf populations in the Middle East may total 1,000–2,000\\.", "In southern Asia, the northern regions of Afghanistan and [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") are important strongholds for wolves. The wolf has been protected in [India](/wiki/India \"India\") since 1972\\.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=327}} The Indian wolf is distributed across the states of [Gujarat](/wiki/Gujarat \"Gujarat\"), [Rajasthan](/wiki/Rajasthan \"Rajasthan\"), [Haryana](/wiki/Haryana \"Haryana\"), [Uttar Pradesh](/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh \"Uttar Pradesh\"), [Madhya Pradesh](/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh \"Madhya Pradesh\"), [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\"), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\") and [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh \"Andhra Pradesh\"). As of 2019, it is estimated that there are around 2,000–3,000 Indian wolves in the country. In East Asia, Mongolia's population numbers 10,000–20,000\\. In China, [Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang \"Heilongjiang\") has roughly 650 wolves, [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang \"Xinjiang\") has 10,000 and [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region \"Tibet Autonomous Region\") has 2,000\\.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=328}} 2017 evidence suggests that wolves range across all of mainland China. Wolves have been historically persecuted in China{{sfn\\|Busch\\|2007\\|p\\=232}} but have been legally protected since 1998\\. The last [Japanese wolf](/wiki/Japanese_wolf \"Japanese wolf\") was captured and killed in 1905\\.", "" ]
Relationships with humans ------------------------- ### In culture #### In folklore, religion and mythology {{Main\|Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology}} {{See also\|Wolves in heraldry}} [thumb\|left\|alt\=Photograph of the sculpture *Capitoline Wolf* showing of the mythical she\-wolf feeding the twins Romulus and Remus\|The *[Capitoline Wolf](/wiki/Capitoline_Wolf "Capitoline Wolf")*, sculpture of the mythical [she\-wolf](/wiki/She-wolf_%28Roman_mythology%29 "She-wolf (Roman mythology)") feeding the twins [Romulus and Remus](/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus "Romulus and Remus"), from the legend of the [founding of Rome](/wiki/Founding_of_Rome "Founding of Rome"), Italy, 13th century AD. (The twins are a 15th\-century addition.)](/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg "Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg") The wolf is a common motif in the mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout its historical range. The [Ancient Greeks](/wiki/Ancient_Greeks "Ancient Greeks") associated wolves with [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo "Apollo"), the god of light and order.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=292}} The [Ancient Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Romans "Ancient Romans") connected the wolf with their god of war and agriculture [Mars](/wiki/Mars_%28mythology%29 "Mars (mythology)"),{{sfn\|Lopez\|1978\|p\=210}} and believed their city's founders, [Romulus and Remus](/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus "Romulus and Remus"), were suckled by a [she\-wolf](/wiki/She-wolf_%28Roman_mythology%29 "She-wolf (Roman mythology)").{{sfn\|Marvin\|2012\|p\=128}} [Norse mythology](/wiki/Norse_mythology "Norse mythology") includes the feared giant wolf [Fenrir](/wiki/Fenrir "Fenrir"), and [Geri and Freki](/wiki/Geri_and_Freki "Geri and Freki"), [Odin](/wiki/Odin "Odin")'s faithful pets.{{sfn\|Marvin\|2012\|p\=78}} In [Chinese astronomy](/wiki/Chinese_astronomy "Chinese astronomy"), the wolf represents [Sirius](/wiki/Sirius "Sirius") and guards the heavenly gate. In China, the wolf was traditionally associated with greed and cruelty and wolf epithets were used to describe negative behaviours such as cruelty ("wolf's heart"), mistrust ("wolf's look") and lechery ("wolf\-sex"). In both [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") and [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"), the wolf is ridden by gods of protection. In [Vedic](/wiki/Vedic "Vedic") Hinduism, the wolf is a symbol of the night and the daytime [quail](/wiki/Quail "Quail") must escape from its jaws. In [Tantric Buddhism](/wiki/Tantric_Buddhism "Tantric Buddhism"), wolves are depicted as inhabitants of graveyards and destroyers of corpses. In the [Pawnee](/wiki/Pawnee_people "Pawnee people") creation myth, the wolf was the first animal brought to Earth. When humans killed it, they were punished with death, destruction and the loss of immortality.{{sfn\|Lopez\|1978\|p\=133}} For the Pawnee, Sirius is the "wolf star" and its disappearance and reappearance signified the wolf moving to and from the spirit world. Both Pawnee and [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot "Blackfoot") call the [Milky Way](/wiki/Milky_Way "Milky Way") the "wolf trail".{{sfn\|Busch\|2007\|p\=110}} The wolf is also an important [crest](/wiki/Crest_%28heraldry%29 "Crest (heraldry)") symbol for clans of the Pacific Northwest like the [Kwakwakaʼwakw](/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw "Kwakwakaʼwakw"). The concept of people turning into wolves, and the inverse, has been present in many cultures. One [Greek myth](/wiki/Greek_myth "Greek myth") tells of [Lycaon](/wiki/Lycaon_%28king_of_Arcadia%29 "Lycaon (king of Arcadia)") being transformed into a wolf by [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus "Zeus") as punishment for his evil deeds.{{sfn\|Marvin\|2012\|p\=47}} The legend of the [werewolf](/wiki/Werewolf "Werewolf") has been widespread in [European folklore](/wiki/European_folklore "European folklore") and involves people willingly turning into wolves to attack and kill others.{{sfn\|Marvin\|2012\|p\=50}} The [Navajo](/wiki/Navajo "Navajo") have traditionally believed that [witches](/wiki/Skin-walker "Skin-walker") would turn into wolves by donning wolf skins and would kill people and raid graveyards.{{sfn\|Lopez\|1978\|p\=123}} The [Dena'ina](/wiki/Dena%27ina "Dena'ina") believed wolves were once men and viewed them as brothers.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=292}} #### In fable and literature {{See also\|List of fictional wolves}} [Aesop](/wiki/Aesop "Aesop") featured wolves in several of his [fables](/wiki/Aesop%27s_Fables "Aesop's Fables"), playing on the concerns of Ancient Greece's settled, sheep\-herding world. His most famous is the fable of "[The Boy Who Cried Wolf](/wiki/The_Boy_Who_Cried_Wolf "The Boy Who Cried Wolf")", which is directed at those who knowingly raise false alarms, and from which the idiomatic phrase "to [cry wolf](/wiki/wikt:Cry_wolf "Cry wolf")" is derived. Some of his other fables concentrate on maintaining the trust between shepherds and guard dogs in their vigilance against wolves, as well as anxieties over the close relationship between wolves and dogs. Although Aesop used wolves to warn, criticize and moralize about human behaviour, his portrayals added to the wolf's image as a deceitful and dangerous animal. The [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible") uses an image of a wolf lying with a lamb in a utopian vision of the future. In the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament"), [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus "Jesus") is said to have used wolves as illustrations of the dangers his followers, whom he represents as sheep, would face should they follow him.{{sfn\|Marvin\|2012\|pp\=38–45}} [thumb\|upright\|right\|alt\=An illustration of Red Riding Hood meeting the wolf\|*[Little Red Riding Hood](/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood "Little Red Riding Hood")* (1883\), [Gustave Doré](/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9 "Gustave Doré")](/wiki/File:Dore_ridinghood.jpg "Dore ridinghood.jpg") Isengrim the wolf, a character first appearing in the 12th\-century Latin poem *[Ysengrimus](/wiki/Ysengrimus "Ysengrimus")*, is a major character in the [Reynard](/wiki/Reynard "Reynard") Cycle, where he stands for the low nobility, whilst his adversary, Reynard the fox, represents the peasant hero. Isengrim is forever the victim of Reynard's wit and cruelty, often dying at the end of each story.{{sfn\|Lopez\|1978\|p\=259}} The tale of "[Little Red Riding Hood](/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood "Little Red Riding Hood")", first written in 1697 by [Charles Perrault](/wiki/Charles_Perrault "Charles Perrault"), is considered to have further contributed to the wolf's negative reputation in the Western world. The [Big Bad Wolf](/wiki/Big_Bad_Wolf "Big Bad Wolf") is portrayed as a villain capable of imitating human speech and disguising itself with human clothing. The character has been interpreted as an allegorical [sexual predator](/wiki/Sexual_predator "Sexual predator").{{sfn\|Marvin\|2012\|pp\=64–70}} Villainous wolf characters also appear in *[The Three Little Pigs](/wiki/The_Three_Little_Pigs "The Three Little Pigs")* and "[The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats](/wiki/The_Wolf_and_the_Seven_Young_Goats "The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats")".{{sfn\|Lopez\|1978\|p\=263}} The hunting of wolves, and their attacks on humans and livestock, feature prominently in [Russian literature](/wiki/Russian_literature "Russian literature"), and are included in the works of [Leo Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy "Leo Tolstoy"), [Anton Chekhov](/wiki/Anton_Chekhov "Anton Chekhov"), [Nikolay Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolay_Nekrasov "Nikolay Nekrasov"), [Ivan Bunin](/wiki/Ivan_Bunin "Ivan Bunin"), [Leonid Pavlovich Sabaneyev](/wiki/Leonid_Pavlovich_Sabaneyev "Leonid Pavlovich Sabaneyev"), and others. Tolstoy's *[War and Peace](/wiki/War_and_Peace "War and Peace")* and Chekhov's *Peasants* both feature scenes in which wolves are hunted with hounds and [Borzois](/wiki/Borzoi "Borzoi").{{sfn\|Graves\|2007\|pp\=21, 123}} The musical *[Peter and the Wolf](/wiki/Peter_and_the_Wolf "Peter and the Wolf")* involves a wolf being captured for eating a duck, but is spared and sent to a zoo.{{sfn\|Marvin\|2012\|p\=162}} Wolves are among the central characters of [Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling "Rudyard Kipling")'s *[The Jungle Book](/wiki/The_Jungle_Book "The Jungle Book")*. His portrayal of wolves has been praised posthumously by wolf biologists for his depiction of them: rather than being villainous or gluttonous, as was common in wolf portrayals at the time of the book's publication, they are shown as living in amiable family groups and drawing on the experience of infirm but experienced elder pack members. [Farley Mowat](/wiki/Farley_Mowat "Farley Mowat")'s largely fictional 1963 memoir *[Never Cry Wolf](/wiki/Never_Cry_Wolf "Never Cry Wolf")* is widely considered to be the most popular book on wolves, having been adapted into a [Hollywood film](/wiki/Never_Cry_Wolf_%28film%29 "Never Cry Wolf (film)") and taught in several schools decades after its publication. Although credited with having changed popular perceptions on wolves by portraying them as loving, cooperative and noble, it has been criticized for its idealization of wolves and its factual inaccuracies.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=294}} ### Conflicts Human presence appears to stress wolves, as seen by increased [cortisol](/wiki/Cortisol "Cortisol") levels in instances such as snowmobiling near their territory. #### Predation on livestock [thumb\|left\|alt\=Black and white photograph of a dead wolf with "The Allendale Wolf" written on the bottom\|A 1905 postcard of the [Hexham wolf](/wiki/Hexham_wolf "Hexham wolf"), an escaped wolf shot for killing livestock in England](/wiki/File:The_Allendale_Wolf.jpg "The Allendale Wolf.jpg") Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation. As well as causing economic losses, the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers, and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=305}} Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programs or state insurance.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=309}} Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves, as they have been bred under constant human protection, and are thus unable to defend themselves very well.{{sfn\|Mech\|1981\|p\=173}} Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted.{{Cite web\|last\=Levy\|first\=Max G.\|date\=December 11, 2020\|title\=These Non\-Lethal Methods Encouraged by Science Can Keep Wolves From Killing Livestock\|url\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science\-nature/these\-non\-lethal\-methods\-encouraged\-science\-can\-keep\-wolves\-killing\-livestock\-180976505/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16\|website\=Smithsonian Magazine\|language\=en}} In Eurasia, a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock, while such incidents are rare in North America, where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=305}} The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period, untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=307}} The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep (Europe), [domestic reindeer](/wiki/Reindeer_herding "Reindeer herding") (northern Scandinavia), [goats](/wiki/Goat "Goat") (India), [horses](/wiki/Horse "Horse") (Mongolia), [cattle](/wiki/Cattle "Cattle") and [turkeys](/wiki/Domestic_turkey "Domestic turkey") (North America).{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=305}} The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species: most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death, while turkeys, sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=306}} Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing, though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures.{{sfn\|Graves\|2007\|p\=45}} #### Competition with dogs A review of the studies on the competitive effects of dogs on [sympatric](/wiki/Sympatry "Sympatry") carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Competition would favour the wolf, which is known to kill dogs; however, wolves usually live in pairs or in small packs in areas with high human persecution, giving them a disadvantage when facing large groups of dogs. Wolves kill dogs on occasion, and some wolf populations rely on dogs as an important food source. In Croatia, wolves kill more dogs than sheep, and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations. Wolves may display unusually bold behaviour when attacking dogs accompanied by people, sometimes ignoring nearby humans. Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests. Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=305}} Although the number of dogs killed each year by wolves is relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to prey on them. In many cultures, dogs are seen as family members, or at least working team members, and losing one can lead to strong emotional responses such as demanding more liberal hunting regulations. Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human–wolf conflicts, and are often proposed as one of the non\-lethal tools in the conservation of wolves. Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive, but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviours, such as barking, social greeting, invitation to play or aggression. The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation, especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock guardian dogs. Shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves. #### Attacks on humans {{Main\|Wolf attack\|List of wolf attacks}} [thumb\|alt\=Painting of a wolf snarling at three children\|*Country children surprised by a wolf* (1833\) by François Grenier de Saint\-Martin](/wiki/File:Petits_Paysans_surpris_par_un_loup.jpg "Petits Paysans surpris par un loup.jpg") The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies, though humans are not part of the wolf's natural prey. How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people: wolves lacking any negative experience of humans, or which are food\-conditioned, may show little fear of people.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|pp\=300–304}} Although wolves may react aggressively when provoked, such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities, and the attacks are not pressed. Predatory attacks may be preceded by a long period of [habituation](/wiki/Habituation "Habituation"), in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face, and are then dragged off and consumed unless the wolves are driven off. Such attacks typically occur only locally and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated. Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year, with a peak in the June–August period, when the chances of people entering forested areas (for livestock [grazing](/wiki/Grazing "Grazing") or berry and mushroom picking) increase. Cases of non\-rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"), [Kirov](/wiki/Kirov_Oblast "Kirov Oblast") and [Irkutsk](/wiki/Irkutsk_Oblast "Irkutsk Oblast") oblasts, [Karelia](/wiki/Karelia "Karelia") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine"). Also, wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period.{{sfn\|Heptner\|Naumov\|1998\|pp\=164–270}} The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and, in the rare cases where adults are killed, the victims are almost always women. Indian wolves have a history of preying on children, a phenomenon called "child\-lifting". They may be taken primarily in the spring and summer periods during the evening hours, and often within human settlements. Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species, as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease, but can be infected by animals such as dogs, jackals and foxes. Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America, though numerous in the eastern [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") and [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"). Wolves apparently develop the "furious" phase of rabies to a very high degree. This, coupled with their size and strength, makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals. Bites from rabid wolves are 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs.{{sfn\|Heptner\|Naumov\|1998\|p\=267}} Rabid wolves usually act alone, travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals. Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods. Unlike with predatory attacks, the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten, and the attacks generally occur only on a single day. The victims are chosen at random, though most cases involve adult men. During the fifty years up to 2002, there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia, and more than two hundred in southern Asia. #### Human hunting of wolves {{Main\|Wolf hunting\|Wolf hunting with dogs}} {{See also\|Wolf hunting\#Quarry\|l1\=Human uses of hunted wolves}} [thumb\|alt\=Two men with guns behind nine carcasses of hunted wolves\|Carcasses of hunted wolves in [Volgograd Oblast](/wiki/Volgograd_Oblast "Volgograd Oblast"), Russia](/wiki/File:Provedenie_meropriyatii_po_otstrelu_vrednyh_givotnyh_na_territorii_Kamyshinskogo_raiona_Volgogradskoi_oblasti.jpg "Provedenie meropriyatii po otstrelu vrednyh givotnyh na territorii Kamyshinskogo raiona Volgogradskoi oblasti.jpg") [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt "Theodore Roosevelt") said wolves are difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness, sharp senses, high endurance, and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs. Historic methods included killing of spring\-born litters in their dens, [coursing](/wiki/Coursing "Coursing") with dogs (usually combinations of [sighthounds](/wiki/Sighthound "Sighthound"), [Bloodhounds](/wiki/Bloodhound "Bloodhound") and [Fox Terriers](/wiki/Fox_Terrier "Fox Terrier")), poisoning with [strychnine](/wiki/Strychnine "Strychnine"), and [trapping](/wiki/Trapping "Trapping").{{sfn\|Lopez\|1978\|p\=108}}{{sfn\|Graves\|2007\|pp\=121–140}} A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with [fladry](/wiki/Fladry "Fladry") poles carrying a human scent. This method relies heavily on the wolf's fear of human scents, though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the odor. Some hunters can lure wolves by imitating their calls. In [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") and [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia"), wolves are traditionally [hunted using](/wiki/Falconry "Falconry") [eagles](/wiki/Golden_eagles_in_human_culture%23Falconry "Golden eagles in human culture#Falconry") and large falcons, though this practice is declining, as experienced falconers are becoming few in number. Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective, due to increased visibility and direct lines of fire.{{sfn\|Graves\|2007\|pp\=121–140}} Several types of dog, including the [Borzoi](/wiki/Borzoi "Borzoi") and [Kyrgyz Tajgan](/wiki/Taigan "Taigan"), have been specifically bred for wolf hunting. ### As pets and working animals {{Main\|Wolves as pets and working animals}} Wolves and [wolf\-dog hybrids](/wiki/Wolf-dog_hybrid "Wolf-dog hybrid") are sometimes kept as [exotic pets](/wiki/Exotic_pet "Exotic pet"). Although closely related to domestic dogs, wolves do not show the same tractability as dogs in living alongside humans, being generally less responsive to human commands and more likely to act aggressively. A person is more likely to be fatally mauled by a pet wolf or wolf\-dog hybrid than by a dog.
[ "Relationships with humans\n-------------------------", "### In culture", "#### In folklore, religion and mythology", "{{Main\\|Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology}}\n{{See also\\|Wolves in heraldry}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Photograph of the sculpture *Capitoline Wolf* showing of the mythical she\\-wolf feeding the twins Romulus and Remus\\|The *[Capitoline Wolf](/wiki/Capitoline_Wolf \"Capitoline Wolf\")*, sculpture of the mythical [she\\-wolf](/wiki/She-wolf_%28Roman_mythology%29 \"She-wolf (Roman mythology)\") feeding the twins [Romulus and Remus](/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus \"Romulus and Remus\"), from the legend of the [founding of Rome](/wiki/Founding_of_Rome \"Founding of Rome\"), Italy, 13th century AD. (The twins are a 15th\\-century addition.)](/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg \"Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg\")", "The wolf is a common motif in the mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout its historical range. The [Ancient Greeks](/wiki/Ancient_Greeks \"Ancient Greeks\") associated wolves with [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo \"Apollo\"), the god of light and order.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=292}} The [Ancient Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Romans \"Ancient Romans\") connected the wolf with their god of war and agriculture [Mars](/wiki/Mars_%28mythology%29 \"Mars (mythology)\"),{{sfn\\|Lopez\\|1978\\|p\\=210}} and believed their city's founders, [Romulus and Remus](/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus \"Romulus and Remus\"), were suckled by a [she\\-wolf](/wiki/She-wolf_%28Roman_mythology%29 \"She-wolf (Roman mythology)\").{{sfn\\|Marvin\\|2012\\|p\\=128}} [Norse mythology](/wiki/Norse_mythology \"Norse mythology\") includes the feared giant wolf [Fenrir](/wiki/Fenrir \"Fenrir\"), and [Geri and Freki](/wiki/Geri_and_Freki \"Geri and Freki\"), [Odin](/wiki/Odin \"Odin\")'s faithful pets.{{sfn\\|Marvin\\|2012\\|p\\=78}}", "In [Chinese astronomy](/wiki/Chinese_astronomy \"Chinese astronomy\"), the wolf represents [Sirius](/wiki/Sirius \"Sirius\") and guards the heavenly gate. In China, the wolf was traditionally associated with greed and cruelty and wolf epithets were used to describe negative behaviours such as cruelty (\"wolf's heart\"), mistrust (\"wolf's look\") and lechery (\"wolf\\-sex\"). In both [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") and [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\"), the wolf is ridden by gods of protection. In [Vedic](/wiki/Vedic \"Vedic\") Hinduism, the wolf is a symbol of the night and the daytime [quail](/wiki/Quail \"Quail\") must escape from its jaws. In [Tantric Buddhism](/wiki/Tantric_Buddhism \"Tantric Buddhism\"), wolves are depicted as inhabitants of graveyards and destroyers of corpses.", "In the [Pawnee](/wiki/Pawnee_people \"Pawnee people\") creation myth, the wolf was the first animal brought to Earth. When humans killed it, they were punished with death, destruction and the loss of immortality.{{sfn\\|Lopez\\|1978\\|p\\=133}} For the Pawnee, Sirius is the \"wolf star\" and its disappearance and reappearance signified the wolf moving to and from the spirit world. Both Pawnee and [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot \"Blackfoot\") call the [Milky Way](/wiki/Milky_Way \"Milky Way\") the \"wolf trail\".{{sfn\\|Busch\\|2007\\|p\\=110}} The wolf is also an important [crest](/wiki/Crest_%28heraldry%29 \"Crest (heraldry)\") symbol for clans of the Pacific Northwest like the [Kwakwakaʼwakw](/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw \"Kwakwakaʼwakw\").", "The concept of people turning into wolves, and the inverse, has been present in many cultures. One [Greek myth](/wiki/Greek_myth \"Greek myth\") tells of [Lycaon](/wiki/Lycaon_%28king_of_Arcadia%29 \"Lycaon (king of Arcadia)\") being transformed into a wolf by [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus \"Zeus\") as punishment for his evil deeds.{{sfn\\|Marvin\\|2012\\|p\\=47}} The legend of the [werewolf](/wiki/Werewolf \"Werewolf\") has been widespread in [European folklore](/wiki/European_folklore \"European folklore\") and involves people willingly turning into wolves to attack and kill others.{{sfn\\|Marvin\\|2012\\|p\\=50}} The [Navajo](/wiki/Navajo \"Navajo\") have traditionally believed that [witches](/wiki/Skin-walker \"Skin-walker\") would turn into wolves by donning wolf skins and would kill people and raid graveyards.{{sfn\\|Lopez\\|1978\\|p\\=123}} The [Dena'ina](/wiki/Dena%27ina \"Dena'ina\") believed wolves were once men and viewed them as brothers.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=292}}", "#### In fable and literature", "{{See also\\|List of fictional wolves}}\n[Aesop](/wiki/Aesop \"Aesop\") featured wolves in several of his [fables](/wiki/Aesop%27s_Fables \"Aesop's Fables\"), playing on the concerns of Ancient Greece's settled, sheep\\-herding world. His most famous is the fable of \"[The Boy Who Cried Wolf](/wiki/The_Boy_Who_Cried_Wolf \"The Boy Who Cried Wolf\")\", which is directed at those who knowingly raise false alarms, and from which the idiomatic phrase \"to [cry wolf](/wiki/wikt:Cry_wolf \"Cry wolf\")\" is derived. Some of his other fables concentrate on maintaining the trust between shepherds and guard dogs in their vigilance against wolves, as well as anxieties over the close relationship between wolves and dogs. Although Aesop used wolves to warn, criticize and moralize about human behaviour, his portrayals added to the wolf's image as a deceitful and dangerous animal. The [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\") uses an image of a wolf lying with a lamb in a utopian vision of the future. In the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\"), [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\") is said to have used wolves as illustrations of the dangers his followers, whom he represents as sheep, would face should they follow him.{{sfn\\|Marvin\\|2012\\|pp\\=38–45}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|alt\\=An illustration of Red Riding Hood meeting the wolf\\|*[Little Red Riding Hood](/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood \"Little Red Riding Hood\")* (1883\\), [Gustave Doré](/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9 \"Gustave Doré\")](/wiki/File:Dore_ridinghood.jpg \"Dore ridinghood.jpg\") \nIsengrim the wolf, a character first appearing in the 12th\\-century Latin poem *[Ysengrimus](/wiki/Ysengrimus \"Ysengrimus\")*, is a major character in the [Reynard](/wiki/Reynard \"Reynard\") Cycle, where he stands for the low nobility, whilst his adversary, Reynard the fox, represents the peasant hero. Isengrim is forever the victim of Reynard's wit and cruelty, often dying at the end of each story.{{sfn\\|Lopez\\|1978\\|p\\=259}} The tale of \"[Little Red Riding Hood](/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood \"Little Red Riding Hood\")\", first written in 1697 by [Charles Perrault](/wiki/Charles_Perrault \"Charles Perrault\"), is considered to have further contributed to the wolf's negative reputation in the Western world. The [Big Bad Wolf](/wiki/Big_Bad_Wolf \"Big Bad Wolf\") is portrayed as a villain capable of imitating human speech and disguising itself with human clothing. The character has been interpreted as an allegorical [sexual predator](/wiki/Sexual_predator \"Sexual predator\").{{sfn\\|Marvin\\|2012\\|pp\\=64–70}} Villainous wolf characters also appear in *[The Three Little Pigs](/wiki/The_Three_Little_Pigs \"The Three Little Pigs\")* and \"[The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats](/wiki/The_Wolf_and_the_Seven_Young_Goats \"The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats\")\".{{sfn\\|Lopez\\|1978\\|p\\=263}} The hunting of wolves, and their attacks on humans and livestock, feature prominently in [Russian literature](/wiki/Russian_literature \"Russian literature\"), and are included in the works of [Leo Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy \"Leo Tolstoy\"), [Anton Chekhov](/wiki/Anton_Chekhov \"Anton Chekhov\"), [Nikolay Nekrasov](/wiki/Nikolay_Nekrasov \"Nikolay Nekrasov\"), [Ivan Bunin](/wiki/Ivan_Bunin \"Ivan Bunin\"), [Leonid Pavlovich Sabaneyev](/wiki/Leonid_Pavlovich_Sabaneyev \"Leonid Pavlovich Sabaneyev\"), and others. Tolstoy's *[War and Peace](/wiki/War_and_Peace \"War and Peace\")* and Chekhov's *Peasants* both feature scenes in which wolves are hunted with hounds and [Borzois](/wiki/Borzoi \"Borzoi\").{{sfn\\|Graves\\|2007\\|pp\\=21, 123}} The musical *[Peter and the Wolf](/wiki/Peter_and_the_Wolf \"Peter and the Wolf\")* involves a wolf being captured for eating a duck, but is spared and sent to a zoo.{{sfn\\|Marvin\\|2012\\|p\\=162}}", "Wolves are among the central characters of [Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling \"Rudyard Kipling\")'s *[The Jungle Book](/wiki/The_Jungle_Book \"The Jungle Book\")*. His portrayal of wolves has been praised posthumously by wolf biologists for his depiction of them: rather than being villainous or gluttonous, as was common in wolf portrayals at the time of the book's publication, they are shown as living in amiable family groups and drawing on the experience of infirm but experienced elder pack members. [Farley Mowat](/wiki/Farley_Mowat \"Farley Mowat\")'s largely fictional 1963 memoir *[Never Cry Wolf](/wiki/Never_Cry_Wolf \"Never Cry Wolf\")* is widely considered to be the most popular book on wolves, having been adapted into a [Hollywood film](/wiki/Never_Cry_Wolf_%28film%29 \"Never Cry Wolf (film)\") and taught in several schools decades after its publication. Although credited with having changed popular perceptions on wolves by portraying them as loving, cooperative and noble, it has been criticized for its idealization of wolves and its factual inaccuracies.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=294}}", "### Conflicts", "Human presence appears to stress wolves, as seen by increased [cortisol](/wiki/Cortisol \"Cortisol\") levels in instances such as snowmobiling near their territory.", "#### Predation on livestock", "[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Black and white photograph of a dead wolf with \"The Allendale Wolf\" written on the bottom\\|A 1905 postcard of the [Hexham wolf](/wiki/Hexham_wolf \"Hexham wolf\"), an escaped wolf shot for killing livestock in England](/wiki/File:The_Allendale_Wolf.jpg \"The Allendale Wolf.jpg\")", "Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation. As well as causing economic losses, the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers, and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=305}} Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programs or state insurance.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=309}} Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves, as they have been bred under constant human protection, and are thus unable to defend themselves very well.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|1981\\|p\\=173}} Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Levy\\|first\\=Max G.\\|date\\=December 11, 2020\\|title\\=These Non\\-Lethal Methods Encouraged by Science Can Keep Wolves From Killing Livestock\\|url\\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science\\-nature/these\\-non\\-lethal\\-methods\\-encouraged\\-science\\-can\\-keep\\-wolves\\-killing\\-livestock\\-180976505/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16\\|website\\=Smithsonian Magazine\\|language\\=en}} In Eurasia, a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock, while such incidents are rare in North America, where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=305}}", "The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period, untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=307}} The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep (Europe), [domestic reindeer](/wiki/Reindeer_herding \"Reindeer herding\") (northern Scandinavia), [goats](/wiki/Goat \"Goat\") (India), [horses](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\") (Mongolia), [cattle](/wiki/Cattle \"Cattle\") and [turkeys](/wiki/Domestic_turkey \"Domestic turkey\") (North America).{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=305}} The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species: most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death, while turkeys, sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=306}} Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing, though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures.{{sfn\\|Graves\\|2007\\|p\\=45}}", "#### Competition with dogs", "A review of the studies on the competitive effects of dogs on [sympatric](/wiki/Sympatry \"Sympatry\") carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Competition would favour the wolf, which is known to kill dogs; however, wolves usually live in pairs or in small packs in areas with high human persecution, giving them a disadvantage when facing large groups of dogs.", "Wolves kill dogs on occasion, and some wolf populations rely on dogs as an important food source. In Croatia, wolves kill more dogs than sheep, and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations. Wolves may display unusually bold behaviour when attacking dogs accompanied by people, sometimes ignoring nearby humans. Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests. Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=305}} Although the number of dogs killed each year by wolves is relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to prey on them. In many cultures, dogs are seen as family members, or at least working team members, and losing one can lead to strong emotional responses such as demanding more liberal hunting regulations.", "Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human–wolf conflicts, and are often proposed as one of the non\\-lethal tools in the conservation of wolves. Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive, but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviours, such as barking, social greeting, invitation to play or aggression. The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation, especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock guardian dogs. Shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves.", "#### Attacks on humans", "{{Main\\|Wolf attack\\|List of wolf attacks}}\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Painting of a wolf snarling at three children\\|*Country children surprised by a wolf* (1833\\) by François Grenier de Saint\\-Martin](/wiki/File:Petits_Paysans_surpris_par_un_loup.jpg \"Petits Paysans surpris par un loup.jpg\")", "The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies, though humans are not part of the wolf's natural prey. How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people: wolves lacking any negative experience of humans, or which are food\\-conditioned, may show little fear of people.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|pp\\=300–304}} Although wolves may react aggressively when provoked, such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities, and the attacks are not pressed.", "Predatory attacks may be preceded by a long period of [habituation](/wiki/Habituation \"Habituation\"), in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face, and are then dragged off and consumed unless the wolves are driven off. Such attacks typically occur only locally and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated. Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year, with a peak in the June–August period, when the chances of people entering forested areas (for livestock [grazing](/wiki/Grazing \"Grazing\") or berry and mushroom picking) increase. Cases of non\\-rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"), [Kirov](/wiki/Kirov_Oblast \"Kirov Oblast\") and [Irkutsk](/wiki/Irkutsk_Oblast \"Irkutsk Oblast\") oblasts, [Karelia](/wiki/Karelia \"Karelia\") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\"). Also, wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period.{{sfn\\|Heptner\\|Naumov\\|1998\\|pp\\=164–270}} The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and, in the rare cases where adults are killed, the victims are almost always women. Indian wolves have a history of preying on children, a phenomenon called \"child\\-lifting\". They may be taken primarily in the spring and summer periods during the evening hours, and often within human settlements.", "Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species, as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease, but can be infected by animals such as dogs, jackals and foxes. Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America, though numerous in the eastern [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\") and [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"). Wolves apparently develop the \"furious\" phase of rabies to a very high degree. This, coupled with their size and strength, makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals. Bites from rabid wolves are 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs.{{sfn\\|Heptner\\|Naumov\\|1998\\|p\\=267}} Rabid wolves usually act alone, travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals. Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods. Unlike with predatory attacks, the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten, and the attacks generally occur only on a single day. The victims are chosen at random, though most cases involve adult men. During the fifty years up to 2002, there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia, and more than two hundred in southern Asia.", "#### Human hunting of wolves", "{{Main\\|Wolf hunting\\|Wolf hunting with dogs}}\n{{See also\\|Wolf hunting\\#Quarry\\|l1\\=Human uses of hunted wolves}}\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Two men with guns behind nine carcasses of hunted wolves\\|Carcasses of hunted wolves in [Volgograd Oblast](/wiki/Volgograd_Oblast \"Volgograd Oblast\"), Russia](/wiki/File:Provedenie_meropriyatii_po_otstrelu_vrednyh_givotnyh_na_territorii_Kamyshinskogo_raiona_Volgogradskoi_oblasti.jpg \"Provedenie meropriyatii po otstrelu vrednyh givotnyh na territorii Kamyshinskogo raiona Volgogradskoi oblasti.jpg\")", "[Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt \"Theodore Roosevelt\") said wolves are difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness, sharp senses, high endurance, and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs. Historic methods included killing of spring\\-born litters in their dens, [coursing](/wiki/Coursing \"Coursing\") with dogs (usually combinations of [sighthounds](/wiki/Sighthound \"Sighthound\"), [Bloodhounds](/wiki/Bloodhound \"Bloodhound\") and [Fox Terriers](/wiki/Fox_Terrier \"Fox Terrier\")), poisoning with [strychnine](/wiki/Strychnine \"Strychnine\"), and [trapping](/wiki/Trapping \"Trapping\").{{sfn\\|Lopez\\|1978\\|p\\=108}}{{sfn\\|Graves\\|2007\\|pp\\=121–140}}", "A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with [fladry](/wiki/Fladry \"Fladry\") poles carrying a human scent. This method relies heavily on the wolf's fear of human scents, though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the odor. Some hunters can lure wolves by imitating their calls. In [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") and [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), wolves are traditionally [hunted using](/wiki/Falconry \"Falconry\") [eagles](/wiki/Golden_eagles_in_human_culture%23Falconry \"Golden eagles in human culture#Falconry\") and large falcons, though this practice is declining, as experienced falconers are becoming few in number. Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective, due to increased visibility and direct lines of fire.{{sfn\\|Graves\\|2007\\|pp\\=121–140}} Several types of dog, including the [Borzoi](/wiki/Borzoi \"Borzoi\") and [Kyrgyz Tajgan](/wiki/Taigan \"Taigan\"), have been specifically bred for wolf hunting.", "### As pets and working animals", "{{Main\\|Wolves as pets and working animals}}", "Wolves and [wolf\\-dog hybrids](/wiki/Wolf-dog_hybrid \"Wolf-dog hybrid\") are sometimes kept as [exotic pets](/wiki/Exotic_pet \"Exotic pet\"). Although closely related to domestic dogs, wolves do not show the same tractability as dogs in living alongside humans, being generally less responsive to human commands and more likely to act aggressively. A person is more likely to be fatally mauled by a pet wolf or wolf\\-dog hybrid than by a dog.", "" ]
### Conflicts Human presence appears to stress wolves, as seen by increased [cortisol](/wiki/Cortisol "Cortisol") levels in instances such as snowmobiling near their territory. #### Predation on livestock [thumb\|left\|alt\=Black and white photograph of a dead wolf with "The Allendale Wolf" written on the bottom\|A 1905 postcard of the [Hexham wolf](/wiki/Hexham_wolf "Hexham wolf"), an escaped wolf shot for killing livestock in England](/wiki/File:The_Allendale_Wolf.jpg "The Allendale Wolf.jpg") Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation. As well as causing economic losses, the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers, and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=305}} Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programs or state insurance.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=309}} Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves, as they have been bred under constant human protection, and are thus unable to defend themselves very well.{{sfn\|Mech\|1981\|p\=173}} Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted.{{Cite web\|last\=Levy\|first\=Max G.\|date\=December 11, 2020\|title\=These Non\-Lethal Methods Encouraged by Science Can Keep Wolves From Killing Livestock\|url\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science\-nature/these\-non\-lethal\-methods\-encouraged\-science\-can\-keep\-wolves\-killing\-livestock\-180976505/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16\|website\=Smithsonian Magazine\|language\=en}} In Eurasia, a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock, while such incidents are rare in North America, where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=305}} The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period, untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=307}} The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep (Europe), [domestic reindeer](/wiki/Reindeer_herding "Reindeer herding") (northern Scandinavia), [goats](/wiki/Goat "Goat") (India), [horses](/wiki/Horse "Horse") (Mongolia), [cattle](/wiki/Cattle "Cattle") and [turkeys](/wiki/Domestic_turkey "Domestic turkey") (North America).{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=305}} The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species: most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death, while turkeys, sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=306}} Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing, though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures.{{sfn\|Graves\|2007\|p\=45}} #### Competition with dogs A review of the studies on the competitive effects of dogs on [sympatric](/wiki/Sympatry "Sympatry") carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Competition would favour the wolf, which is known to kill dogs; however, wolves usually live in pairs or in small packs in areas with high human persecution, giving them a disadvantage when facing large groups of dogs. Wolves kill dogs on occasion, and some wolf populations rely on dogs as an important food source. In Croatia, wolves kill more dogs than sheep, and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations. Wolves may display unusually bold behaviour when attacking dogs accompanied by people, sometimes ignoring nearby humans. Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests. Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|p\=305}} Although the number of dogs killed each year by wolves is relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to prey on them. In many cultures, dogs are seen as family members, or at least working team members, and losing one can lead to strong emotional responses such as demanding more liberal hunting regulations. Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human–wolf conflicts, and are often proposed as one of the non\-lethal tools in the conservation of wolves. Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive, but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviours, such as barking, social greeting, invitation to play or aggression. The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation, especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock guardian dogs. Shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves. #### Attacks on humans {{Main\|Wolf attack\|List of wolf attacks}} [thumb\|alt\=Painting of a wolf snarling at three children\|*Country children surprised by a wolf* (1833\) by François Grenier de Saint\-Martin](/wiki/File:Petits_Paysans_surpris_par_un_loup.jpg "Petits Paysans surpris par un loup.jpg") The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies, though humans are not part of the wolf's natural prey. How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people: wolves lacking any negative experience of humans, or which are food\-conditioned, may show little fear of people.{{sfn\|Mech\|Boitani\|2003\|pp\=300–304}} Although wolves may react aggressively when provoked, such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities, and the attacks are not pressed. Predatory attacks may be preceded by a long period of [habituation](/wiki/Habituation "Habituation"), in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face, and are then dragged off and consumed unless the wolves are driven off. Such attacks typically occur only locally and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated. Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year, with a peak in the June–August period, when the chances of people entering forested areas (for livestock [grazing](/wiki/Grazing "Grazing") or berry and mushroom picking) increase. Cases of non\-rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"), [Kirov](/wiki/Kirov_Oblast "Kirov Oblast") and [Irkutsk](/wiki/Irkutsk_Oblast "Irkutsk Oblast") oblasts, [Karelia](/wiki/Karelia "Karelia") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine"). Also, wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period.{{sfn\|Heptner\|Naumov\|1998\|pp\=164–270}} The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and, in the rare cases where adults are killed, the victims are almost always women. Indian wolves have a history of preying on children, a phenomenon called "child\-lifting". They may be taken primarily in the spring and summer periods during the evening hours, and often within human settlements. Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species, as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease, but can be infected by animals such as dogs, jackals and foxes. Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America, though numerous in the eastern [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") and [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"). Wolves apparently develop the "furious" phase of rabies to a very high degree. This, coupled with their size and strength, makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals. Bites from rabid wolves are 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs.{{sfn\|Heptner\|Naumov\|1998\|p\=267}} Rabid wolves usually act alone, travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals. Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods. Unlike with predatory attacks, the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten, and the attacks generally occur only on a single day. The victims are chosen at random, though most cases involve adult men. During the fifty years up to 2002, there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia, and more than two hundred in southern Asia. #### Human hunting of wolves {{Main\|Wolf hunting\|Wolf hunting with dogs}} {{See also\|Wolf hunting\#Quarry\|l1\=Human uses of hunted wolves}} [thumb\|alt\=Two men with guns behind nine carcasses of hunted wolves\|Carcasses of hunted wolves in [Volgograd Oblast](/wiki/Volgograd_Oblast "Volgograd Oblast"), Russia](/wiki/File:Provedenie_meropriyatii_po_otstrelu_vrednyh_givotnyh_na_territorii_Kamyshinskogo_raiona_Volgogradskoi_oblasti.jpg "Provedenie meropriyatii po otstrelu vrednyh givotnyh na territorii Kamyshinskogo raiona Volgogradskoi oblasti.jpg") [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt "Theodore Roosevelt") said wolves are difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness, sharp senses, high endurance, and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs. Historic methods included killing of spring\-born litters in their dens, [coursing](/wiki/Coursing "Coursing") with dogs (usually combinations of [sighthounds](/wiki/Sighthound "Sighthound"), [Bloodhounds](/wiki/Bloodhound "Bloodhound") and [Fox Terriers](/wiki/Fox_Terrier "Fox Terrier")), poisoning with [strychnine](/wiki/Strychnine "Strychnine"), and [trapping](/wiki/Trapping "Trapping").{{sfn\|Lopez\|1978\|p\=108}}{{sfn\|Graves\|2007\|pp\=121–140}} A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with [fladry](/wiki/Fladry "Fladry") poles carrying a human scent. This method relies heavily on the wolf's fear of human scents, though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the odor. Some hunters can lure wolves by imitating their calls. In [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") and [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia"), wolves are traditionally [hunted using](/wiki/Falconry "Falconry") [eagles](/wiki/Golden_eagles_in_human_culture%23Falconry "Golden eagles in human culture#Falconry") and large falcons, though this practice is declining, as experienced falconers are becoming few in number. Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective, due to increased visibility and direct lines of fire.{{sfn\|Graves\|2007\|pp\=121–140}} Several types of dog, including the [Borzoi](/wiki/Borzoi "Borzoi") and [Kyrgyz Tajgan](/wiki/Taigan "Taigan"), have been specifically bred for wolf hunting.
[ "### Conflicts", "Human presence appears to stress wolves, as seen by increased [cortisol](/wiki/Cortisol \"Cortisol\") levels in instances such as snowmobiling near their territory.", "#### Predation on livestock", "[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Black and white photograph of a dead wolf with \"The Allendale Wolf\" written on the bottom\\|A 1905 postcard of the [Hexham wolf](/wiki/Hexham_wolf \"Hexham wolf\"), an escaped wolf shot for killing livestock in England](/wiki/File:The_Allendale_Wolf.jpg \"The Allendale Wolf.jpg\")", "Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation. As well as causing economic losses, the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers, and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=305}} Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programs or state insurance.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=309}} Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves, as they have been bred under constant human protection, and are thus unable to defend themselves very well.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|1981\\|p\\=173}} Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Levy\\|first\\=Max G.\\|date\\=December 11, 2020\\|title\\=These Non\\-Lethal Methods Encouraged by Science Can Keep Wolves From Killing Livestock\\|url\\=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science\\-nature/these\\-non\\-lethal\\-methods\\-encouraged\\-science\\-can\\-keep\\-wolves\\-killing\\-livestock\\-180976505/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16\\|website\\=Smithsonian Magazine\\|language\\=en}} In Eurasia, a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock, while such incidents are rare in North America, where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=305}}", "The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period, untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=307}} The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep (Europe), [domestic reindeer](/wiki/Reindeer_herding \"Reindeer herding\") (northern Scandinavia), [goats](/wiki/Goat \"Goat\") (India), [horses](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\") (Mongolia), [cattle](/wiki/Cattle \"Cattle\") and [turkeys](/wiki/Domestic_turkey \"Domestic turkey\") (North America).{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=305}} The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species: most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death, while turkeys, sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=306}} Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing, though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures.{{sfn\\|Graves\\|2007\\|p\\=45}}", "#### Competition with dogs", "A review of the studies on the competitive effects of dogs on [sympatric](/wiki/Sympatry \"Sympatry\") carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Competition would favour the wolf, which is known to kill dogs; however, wolves usually live in pairs or in small packs in areas with high human persecution, giving them a disadvantage when facing large groups of dogs.", "Wolves kill dogs on occasion, and some wolf populations rely on dogs as an important food source. In Croatia, wolves kill more dogs than sheep, and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations. Wolves may display unusually bold behaviour when attacking dogs accompanied by people, sometimes ignoring nearby humans. Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests. Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|p\\=305}} Although the number of dogs killed each year by wolves is relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to prey on them. In many cultures, dogs are seen as family members, or at least working team members, and losing one can lead to strong emotional responses such as demanding more liberal hunting regulations.", "Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human–wolf conflicts, and are often proposed as one of the non\\-lethal tools in the conservation of wolves. Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive, but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviours, such as barking, social greeting, invitation to play or aggression. The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation, especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock guardian dogs. Shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves.", "#### Attacks on humans", "{{Main\\|Wolf attack\\|List of wolf attacks}}\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Painting of a wolf snarling at three children\\|*Country children surprised by a wolf* (1833\\) by François Grenier de Saint\\-Martin](/wiki/File:Petits_Paysans_surpris_par_un_loup.jpg \"Petits Paysans surpris par un loup.jpg\")", "The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies, though humans are not part of the wolf's natural prey. How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people: wolves lacking any negative experience of humans, or which are food\\-conditioned, may show little fear of people.{{sfn\\|Mech\\|Boitani\\|2003\\|pp\\=300–304}} Although wolves may react aggressively when provoked, such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities, and the attacks are not pressed.", "Predatory attacks may be preceded by a long period of [habituation](/wiki/Habituation \"Habituation\"), in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face, and are then dragged off and consumed unless the wolves are driven off. Such attacks typically occur only locally and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated. Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year, with a peak in the June–August period, when the chances of people entering forested areas (for livestock [grazing](/wiki/Grazing \"Grazing\") or berry and mushroom picking) increase. Cases of non\\-rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"), [Kirov](/wiki/Kirov_Oblast \"Kirov Oblast\") and [Irkutsk](/wiki/Irkutsk_Oblast \"Irkutsk Oblast\") oblasts, [Karelia](/wiki/Karelia \"Karelia\") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\"). Also, wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period.{{sfn\\|Heptner\\|Naumov\\|1998\\|pp\\=164–270}} The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and, in the rare cases where adults are killed, the victims are almost always women. Indian wolves have a history of preying on children, a phenomenon called \"child\\-lifting\". They may be taken primarily in the spring and summer periods during the evening hours, and often within human settlements.", "Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species, as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease, but can be infected by animals such as dogs, jackals and foxes. Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America, though numerous in the eastern [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\") and [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"). Wolves apparently develop the \"furious\" phase of rabies to a very high degree. This, coupled with their size and strength, makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals. Bites from rabid wolves are 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs.{{sfn\\|Heptner\\|Naumov\\|1998\\|p\\=267}} Rabid wolves usually act alone, travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals. Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods. Unlike with predatory attacks, the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten, and the attacks generally occur only on a single day. The victims are chosen at random, though most cases involve adult men. During the fifty years up to 2002, there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia, and more than two hundred in southern Asia.", "#### Human hunting of wolves", "{{Main\\|Wolf hunting\\|Wolf hunting with dogs}}\n{{See also\\|Wolf hunting\\#Quarry\\|l1\\=Human uses of hunted wolves}}\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Two men with guns behind nine carcasses of hunted wolves\\|Carcasses of hunted wolves in [Volgograd Oblast](/wiki/Volgograd_Oblast \"Volgograd Oblast\"), Russia](/wiki/File:Provedenie_meropriyatii_po_otstrelu_vrednyh_givotnyh_na_territorii_Kamyshinskogo_raiona_Volgogradskoi_oblasti.jpg \"Provedenie meropriyatii po otstrelu vrednyh givotnyh na territorii Kamyshinskogo raiona Volgogradskoi oblasti.jpg\")", "[Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt \"Theodore Roosevelt\") said wolves are difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness, sharp senses, high endurance, and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs. Historic methods included killing of spring\\-born litters in their dens, [coursing](/wiki/Coursing \"Coursing\") with dogs (usually combinations of [sighthounds](/wiki/Sighthound \"Sighthound\"), [Bloodhounds](/wiki/Bloodhound \"Bloodhound\") and [Fox Terriers](/wiki/Fox_Terrier \"Fox Terrier\")), poisoning with [strychnine](/wiki/Strychnine \"Strychnine\"), and [trapping](/wiki/Trapping \"Trapping\").{{sfn\\|Lopez\\|1978\\|p\\=108}}{{sfn\\|Graves\\|2007\\|pp\\=121–140}}", "A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with [fladry](/wiki/Fladry \"Fladry\") poles carrying a human scent. This method relies heavily on the wolf's fear of human scents, though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the odor. Some hunters can lure wolves by imitating their calls. In [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") and [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), wolves are traditionally [hunted using](/wiki/Falconry \"Falconry\") [eagles](/wiki/Golden_eagles_in_human_culture%23Falconry \"Golden eagles in human culture#Falconry\") and large falcons, though this practice is declining, as experienced falconers are becoming few in number. Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective, due to increased visibility and direct lines of fire.{{sfn\\|Graves\\|2007\\|pp\\=121–140}} Several types of dog, including the [Borzoi](/wiki/Borzoi \"Borzoi\") and [Kyrgyz Tajgan](/wiki/Taigan \"Taigan\"), have been specifically bred for wolf hunting.", "" ]
History ------- ### 1911: Inaugural clash The very first Galway\-Limerick clash took place on 3 December 1911 in the All\-Ireland semi\-final. Galway were completely underprepared for the game, which Limerick won by 8\-1 to 2\-0\. ### 1921\-1923: Honours even On 25 June 1922 Galway and Limerick clashed for the first time in over a decade in what was the 1921 All\-Ireland semi\-final. Limerick's ability to score goals was they key as they ran out 6\-0 to 2\-2 winners. In 1923 the political realities of the era affected the championship. Galway and Limerick qualified for the All\-Ireland final, however, Limerick refused to play the game until all [Civil War](/wiki/Irish_Civil_War "Irish Civil War") prisoners were released. They were initially disqualified and the title awarded to Galway, however, the game eventually took place on 14 September 1924\. [Mick Gill](/wiki/Mick_Gill "Mick Gill")’s new tactic of lobbing the sliotar into the square paid dividends as Galway scored seven goals over the hour. A 7\-3 to 4\-5 victory gave Galway an historic first All\-Ireland title while it marked the end of the road for the great Limerick team of the era. ### 1934\-1940: Limerick's greatest era [St. Cronan's Park](/wiki/St._Cronan%27s_Park "St. Cronan's Park") in [Roscrea](/wiki/Roscrea "Roscrea") was the venue for Galway's All\-Ireland semi\-final clash with Limerick on 5 August 1934\. Limerick, the defeated All\-Ireland finalists of the previous year, easily accounted for the opposition on a score line of 4\-4 to 2\-4\. Galway faced Limerick in an All\-Ireland semi\-final once again on 11 August 1940\. By this stage Limerick were regarded as one of the teams of the decade having won two All\-Ireland titles from four consecutive appearances between 1933 and 1936\. Limerick made no mistake and recorded a 3\-6 to 0\-5 victory. The Galway players walked off the pitch with fifteen minutes left as they were not impressed with the rough tactics of their opponents. ### 1962\-1963: Unique provincial clashes Galway and Limerick's next championship clash was on 27 May 1962 in a Munster quarter\-final. Galway, who had faced no opposition in their own province for many years, were admitted to [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Senior_Hurling_Championship "Munster Senior Hurling Championship") in 1959\. Having only won one game in the previous three seasons, the odds were stacked against the Westerners. Limerick made no mistake and recorded a 2\-13 to 2\-7 victory. A year later on 9 June 1963, Galway faced Limerick in a Munster semi\-final at [Cusack Park](/wiki/Cusack_Park_%28Ennis%29 "Cusack Park (Ennis)"). Limerick's top scorer, [Tom McGarry](/wiki/Tom_McGarry "Tom McGarry"), bagged 1\-1 to help the Treaty men to a 3\-9 to 2\-7 victory. ### 1980\-1981: Galway supremacy {{Quote box \| quote \= A mhuintir na Gaillimhe, tar éis seacht bliain agus caoga, tá Craobh na hÉireann ar ais i nGaillimh. Is iontach an lá innui a bheith mar Gaillimhach. Ta daoine anois i nGaillimh agus tá gliondar ina gcroi. Ach freisin caithimíd caoimhniú ar daoine i Sasana, i Meiriceá, ar fud na tíre agus tá siad ag caoineadh anois láthair...People of Galway, we love you! \| source \= Joe Connolly's acceptance speech following the 1980 All\-Ireland final.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.joe.ie/uncategorized/puc\-fado\-joe\-connollys\-memorable\-speech\-in\-the\-1980\-all\-ireland\-final/334645\|title\=Joe Connolly's memorable speech in the 1980 All\-Ireland Final\|publisher\=Joe.ie\|date\=\|accessdate\=13 June 2015\|first\=Conor\|last\=Heneghan}} }} On 7 September 1980, Galway and Limerick clashed for the first in seventeen years. It was also their first All\-Ireland final meeting since 1923\. Early goals by [Bernie Forde](/wiki/Bernie_Forde "Bernie Forde") and [P.J. Molloy](/wiki/P.J._Molloy "P.J. Molloy") gave Galway a 2\-1 to no score lead after just ten minutes and helped them to a 2\-7 to 1\-5 lead at the interval. [Éamonn Cregan](/wiki/%C3%89amonn_Cregan "Éamonn Cregan") single\-handedly launched the Limerick counter\-attack in the second\-half. Over the course of the game he scored 2\-7, including an overhead goal and a point in which he showed the sliotar to full\-back [Conor Hayes](/wiki/Conor_Hayes "Conor Hayes") and nonchalantly drove the ball over the bar. It was not enough to stem the tide and Galway went on to win the game by 2\-15 to 3\-9\. It was the county’s first All\-Ireland title since 1923 and the celebrations surpassed anything ever seen in [Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park "Croke Park"). It took captain [Joe Connolly](/wiki/Joe_Connolly_%28hurler%29 "Joe Connolly (hurler)") ten minutes to reach the rostrum in the Hogan Stand to collect the [Liam MacCarthy Cup](/wiki/Liam_MacCarthy_Cup "Liam MacCarthy Cup"), however, once there he delivered one of the most famous acceptance speeches of all\-time.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.irishexaminer.com/archives/2015/0522/ireland/championship\-2015\-the\-10\-most\-important\-hurling\-matches\-ever\-332296\.html\|title\=The 10 most important hurling matches. Ever\|publisher\=Irish Examiner\|date\=22 May 2015\|accessdate\=13 June 2015\|first\=\|last\=}} Just under a year later on 2 August 1981, Galway and Limerick renewed their rivalry in an All\-Ireland semi\-final clash. In a low\-scoring game Éamonn Cregan top scored for Limerick with 0\-5\. In a game described in the *[Irish Times](/wiki/Irish_Times "Irish Times")* as "turbulent", a draw was seen as a fair result as Galway finished with 0\-11 t0 Limerick's 1\-8\. The replay two weeks later on 16 August 1981 was a much more free\-flowing game. The Connolly brothers, Joe and [John](/wiki/John_Connolly_%28hurler%29 "John Connolly (hurler)"), combined to a score 3\-9 between for Galway. Éamonn Cregan was once again Limerick's scorer\-in\-chief as he bagged 1\-5\. [Brian Carroll](/wiki/Brian_Carroll_%28Limerick_hurler%29 "Brian Carroll (Limerick hurler)") scored a second goal for Limerick, however, it couldn't halt Galway's momentum. A 4\-16 to 2\-17 victory sent the Westerners into a third successive All\-Ireland final. ### 2005: Most recent meeting The first championship meeting in almost a quarter of a century took place at the Gaelic Grounds on 9 July 2005 in a third ground qualifier group game. The opening fifteen minutes proved a nightmare for Limerick debutante [Michael Clifford](/wiki/Michael_Clifford_%28hurler%29 "Michael Clifford (hurler)") who was given a roasting by [Damien Hayes](/wiki/Damien_Hayes "Damien Hayes"). Galway, thanks to [Ger Farragher](/wiki/Ger_Farragher "Ger Farragher") and Hayes, led 0\-6 to 0\-2 before Hayes capitalised on a weak clearance by goalkeeper [Timmy Houlihan](/wiki/Timmy_Houlihan "Timmy Houlihan") to return the ball to the net. Galway built up a lead of 1\-7 to 0\-3 but then slackened off to allow [Ollie](/wiki/Ollie_Moran "Ollie Moran") and [Niall Moran](/wiki/Niall_Moran "Niall Moran") and [Pat Kirby](/wiki/Pat_Kirby "Pat Kirby") to give Limerick some hope at the break when they trailed 1\-9 to 0\-6\. It was a different Limerick at the start of the second half and inside three minutes they had Galway reeling as they stole ahead 2\-7 to 1\-9\. As the game drew to a close Limerick made championship history, not because of what they did, but because of what they were trying to do. They found themselves in the never\-before\-seen championship situation whereby not even a draw would save their day. With excitement at fever pitch, both teams exchanged points and were still level 1\-17 to 2\-14 before Farragher sent over the crucial point for a Galway win.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/farragher\-sets\-up\-less\-daunting\-task\-for\-galway\-1\.466853\|title\=Farragher sets up less daunting task for Galway\|publisher\=Irish Times\|date\=11 July 2005\|accessdate\=13 June 2015\|first\=\|last\=}} ### 2018: Limerick's First All\-Ireland Final Victory Against Galway Limerick won their first match against Galway in an All Ireland final at the 2018 final, ending their 45\-year wait for the Liam MacCarthy trophy.{{cite web \|title\=As it happened: Galway v Limerick, All\-Ireland senior hurling final \|url\=https://www.the42\.ie/galway\-limerick\-all\-ireland\-final\-4189637\-Aug2018/ \|website\=the42 \|access\-date\=12 July 2023}}
[ "History\n-------", "### 1911: Inaugural clash", "The very first Galway\\-Limerick clash took place on 3 December 1911 in the All\\-Ireland semi\\-final. Galway were completely underprepared for the game, which Limerick won by 8\\-1 to 2\\-0\\.", "### 1921\\-1923: Honours even", "On 25 June 1922 Galway and Limerick clashed for the first time in over a decade in what was the 1921 All\\-Ireland semi\\-final. Limerick's ability to score goals was they key as they ran out 6\\-0 to 2\\-2 winners.", "In 1923 the political realities of the era affected the championship. Galway and Limerick qualified for the All\\-Ireland final, however, Limerick refused to play the game until all [Civil War](/wiki/Irish_Civil_War \"Irish Civil War\") prisoners were released. They were initially disqualified and the title awarded to Galway, however, the game eventually took place on 14 September 1924\\. [Mick Gill](/wiki/Mick_Gill \"Mick Gill\")’s new tactic of lobbing the sliotar into the square paid dividends as Galway scored seven goals over the hour. A 7\\-3 to 4\\-5 victory gave Galway an historic first All\\-Ireland title while it marked the end of the road for the great Limerick team of the era.", "### 1934\\-1940: Limerick's greatest era", "[St. Cronan's Park](/wiki/St._Cronan%27s_Park \"St. Cronan's Park\") in [Roscrea](/wiki/Roscrea \"Roscrea\") was the venue for Galway's All\\-Ireland semi\\-final clash with Limerick on 5 August 1934\\. Limerick, the defeated All\\-Ireland finalists of the previous year, easily accounted for the opposition on a score line of 4\\-4 to 2\\-4\\.", "Galway faced Limerick in an All\\-Ireland semi\\-final once again on 11 August 1940\\. By this stage Limerick were regarded as one of the teams of the decade having won two All\\-Ireland titles from four consecutive appearances between 1933 and 1936\\. Limerick made no mistake and recorded a 3\\-6 to 0\\-5 victory. The Galway players walked off the pitch with fifteen minutes left as they were not impressed with the rough tactics of their opponents.", "### 1962\\-1963: Unique provincial clashes", "Galway and Limerick's next championship clash was on 27 May 1962 in a Munster quarter\\-final. Galway, who had faced no opposition in their own province for many years, were admitted to [Munster](/wiki/Munster_Senior_Hurling_Championship \"Munster Senior Hurling Championship\") in 1959\\. Having only won one game in the previous three seasons, the odds were stacked against the Westerners. Limerick made no mistake and recorded a 2\\-13 to 2\\-7 victory.", "A year later on 9 June 1963, Galway faced Limerick in a Munster semi\\-final at [Cusack Park](/wiki/Cusack_Park_%28Ennis%29 \"Cusack Park (Ennis)\"). Limerick's top scorer, [Tom McGarry](/wiki/Tom_McGarry \"Tom McGarry\"), bagged 1\\-1 to help the Treaty men to a 3\\-9 to 2\\-7 victory.", "### 1980\\-1981: Galway supremacy", "{{Quote box\n\\| quote \\= A mhuintir na Gaillimhe, tar éis seacht bliain \nagus caoga, tá Craobh na hÉireann ar ais i \nnGaillimh. Is iontach an lá innui a bheith mar \nGaillimhach. Ta daoine anois i nGaillimh agus \ntá gliondar ina gcroi. Ach freisin caithimíd \ncaoimhniú ar daoine i Sasana, i Meiriceá, ar \nfud na tíre agus tá siad ag caoineadh anois \nláthair...People of Galway, we love you!\n\\| source \\= Joe Connolly's acceptance speech \nfollowing the 1980 All\\-Ireland final.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.joe.ie/uncategorized/puc\\-fado\\-joe\\-connollys\\-memorable\\-speech\\-in\\-the\\-1980\\-all\\-ireland\\-final/334645\\|title\\=Joe Connolly's memorable speech in the 1980 All\\-Ireland Final\\|publisher\\=Joe.ie\\|date\\=\\|accessdate\\=13 June 2015\\|first\\=Conor\\|last\\=Heneghan}}\n}}\nOn 7 September 1980, Galway and Limerick clashed for the first in seventeen years. It was also their first All\\-Ireland final meeting since 1923\\. Early goals by [Bernie Forde](/wiki/Bernie_Forde \"Bernie Forde\") and [P.J. Molloy](/wiki/P.J._Molloy \"P.J. Molloy\") gave Galway a 2\\-1 to no score lead after just ten minutes and helped them to a 2\\-7 to 1\\-5 lead at the interval. [Éamonn Cregan](/wiki/%C3%89amonn_Cregan \"Éamonn Cregan\") single\\-handedly launched the Limerick counter\\-attack in the second\\-half. Over the course of the game he scored 2\\-7, including an overhead goal and a point in which he showed the sliotar to full\\-back [Conor Hayes](/wiki/Conor_Hayes \"Conor Hayes\") and nonchalantly drove the ball over the bar. It was not enough to stem the tide and Galway went on to win the game by 2\\-15 to 3\\-9\\. It was the county’s first All\\-Ireland title since 1923 and the celebrations surpassed anything ever seen in [Croke Park](/wiki/Croke_Park \"Croke Park\"). It took captain [Joe Connolly](/wiki/Joe_Connolly_%28hurler%29 \"Joe Connolly (hurler)\") ten minutes to reach the rostrum in the Hogan Stand to collect the [Liam MacCarthy Cup](/wiki/Liam_MacCarthy_Cup \"Liam MacCarthy Cup\"), however, once there he delivered one of the most famous acceptance speeches of all\\-time.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.irishexaminer.com/archives/2015/0522/ireland/championship\\-2015\\-the\\-10\\-most\\-important\\-hurling\\-matches\\-ever\\-332296\\.html\\|title\\=The 10 most important hurling matches. Ever\\|publisher\\=Irish Examiner\\|date\\=22 May 2015\\|accessdate\\=13 June 2015\\|first\\=\\|last\\=}}", "Just under a year later on 2 August 1981, Galway and Limerick renewed their rivalry in an All\\-Ireland semi\\-final clash. In a low\\-scoring game Éamonn Cregan top scored for Limerick with 0\\-5\\. In a game described in the *[Irish Times](/wiki/Irish_Times \"Irish Times\")* as \"turbulent\", a draw was seen as a fair result as Galway finished with 0\\-11 t0 Limerick's 1\\-8\\.", "The replay two weeks later on 16 August 1981 was a much more free\\-flowing game. The Connolly brothers, Joe and [John](/wiki/John_Connolly_%28hurler%29 \"John Connolly (hurler)\"), combined to a score 3\\-9 between for Galway. Éamonn Cregan was once again Limerick's scorer\\-in\\-chief as he bagged 1\\-5\\. [Brian Carroll](/wiki/Brian_Carroll_%28Limerick_hurler%29 \"Brian Carroll (Limerick hurler)\") scored a second goal for Limerick, however, it couldn't halt Galway's momentum. A 4\\-16 to 2\\-17 victory sent the Westerners into a third successive All\\-Ireland final.", "### 2005: Most recent meeting", "The first championship meeting in almost a quarter of a century took place at the Gaelic Grounds on 9 July 2005 in a third ground qualifier group game. The opening fifteen minutes proved a nightmare for Limerick debutante [Michael Clifford](/wiki/Michael_Clifford_%28hurler%29 \"Michael Clifford (hurler)\") who was given a roasting by [Damien Hayes](/wiki/Damien_Hayes \"Damien Hayes\"). Galway, thanks to [Ger Farragher](/wiki/Ger_Farragher \"Ger Farragher\") and Hayes, led 0\\-6 to 0\\-2 before Hayes capitalised on a weak clearance by goalkeeper [Timmy Houlihan](/wiki/Timmy_Houlihan \"Timmy Houlihan\") to return the ball to the net. Galway built up a lead of 1\\-7 to 0\\-3 but then slackened off to allow [Ollie](/wiki/Ollie_Moran \"Ollie Moran\") and [Niall Moran](/wiki/Niall_Moran \"Niall Moran\") and [Pat Kirby](/wiki/Pat_Kirby \"Pat Kirby\") to give Limerick some hope at the break when they trailed 1\\-9 to 0\\-6\\. It was a different Limerick at the start of the second half and inside three minutes they had Galway reeling as they stole ahead 2\\-7 to 1\\-9\\. As the game drew to a close Limerick made championship history, not because of what they did, but because of what they were trying to do. They found themselves in the never\\-before\\-seen championship situation whereby not even a draw would save their day. With excitement at fever pitch, both teams exchanged points and were still level 1\\-17 to 2\\-14 before Farragher sent over the crucial point for a Galway win.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/farragher\\-sets\\-up\\-less\\-daunting\\-task\\-for\\-galway\\-1\\.466853\\|title\\=Farragher sets up less daunting task for Galway\\|publisher\\=Irish Times\\|date\\=11 July 2005\\|accessdate\\=13 June 2015\\|first\\=\\|last\\=}}", "### 2018: Limerick's First All\\-Ireland Final Victory Against Galway", "Limerick won their first match against Galway in an All Ireland final at the 2018 final, ending their 45\\-year wait for the Liam MacCarthy trophy.{{cite web \\|title\\=As it happened: Galway v Limerick, All\\-Ireland senior hurling final \\|url\\=https://www.the42\\.ie/galway\\-limerick\\-all\\-ireland\\-final\\-4189637\\-Aug2018/ \\|website\\=the42 \\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2023}}", "" ]
Around the world ---------------- ### Argentina In Argentina, seventh grade is the final grade of primary school. In some parts of the country, the grade is the first of secondary school. ### Australia In [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), [Year 7](/wiki/Year_Seven "Year Seven") is the first year of [secondary school](/wiki/High_school "High school"). It is actually the eighth year of schooling (Prep/Foundation, 1 to 6, then Year 7\). In Australia, Year 7 students are aged between twelve and thirteen years old. ### Belgium In [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium"), 7th grade is the first year of high school. When reaching the age of 12 or 13, the children go from primary school (“basisschool”) to secondary school (“middelbare school”). 7th grade is preparation for the rest of the high school period. It is also used to reference students' capability, to make sure they belong to the right level of education. Students here learn the languages Dutch and French in the northern part of Belgium (Flanders), and learn French or German and can choose between Dutch, English, German or French in the southern and German part of Belgium, just as their own language (Dutch, French or German) skills. Other classes in the 7th grade are: Biology, Mathematics, Chemistry, Art \& Music, Geography, Physics, Physical Education (gym), Social Studies, Religion (depends on the school itself), and Computer Science (Computer science in 7th grade means learning to work with computers properly) Belgium uses a system where specific education is accommodated in the high school period, which also is chosen by the student ({{ill\|Technisch secundair onderwijs\|nl\|lt\=TSO}}, {{ill\|Beroepssecundair onderwijs\|nl\|lt\=BSO}}, {{ill\|Kunstsecundair onderwijs\|nl\|lt\=KSO}}) before they choose to go to work or continuing at a university. ### Brazil In [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), the period of elementary school was recently raised from 8 to 9 years, and the minimum age required to enter the seventh grade was not changed. The students are usually between 11 and 13\. In the seventh grade, all students must be 12 years old before March 31 or May 31 depending on school. ### Bulgaria In [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria"), it would correspond to *седми клас* or *7\-ми клас*. Students are usually 13–14 years old. ### Canada Grade 7 in Canada is the first year of junior high school, middle school, or the second last grade of junior/elementary school. Intermediate schools (grades 6, 7 and 8\) provide education in Literature and Mathematics, as well as History, Geography, Music, Drama, Dance, Science (Biology, Chemistry and Physics in particular), Art, French (English if in French Immersion), and Physical Education (phys ed. or gym). French and ‘foreign’ languages, which used to be taught only at high schools, are now introduced during the last 2 years of elementary school and all years of middle school. ### Egypt In [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), this is the first year of the [Middle School](/wiki/Middle_School "Middle School"). Usually, students who are in 7th grade are 11–13 years old. ### Finland In [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") and [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland"), this is the seventh year of compulsory school and either the second or first year of "junior high", depending on the size of the schools in the district. ### France In [France](/wiki/France "France"), seventh grade is called cinquième (5ème), meaning 5th, as in 5 years before the class of Terminale, the last year of lycée (the French equivalent to high school). ### Germany In [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), the equivalent grade is 7\. Klasse. ### Greece In [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece"), seventh grade is called the first year of [gymnasium school](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 "Gymnasium (school)") or [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school "Middle school"), or lower secondary school (Proti Gymnasiou \- Πρώτη Γυμνασίου) ### Hong Kong In [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), pupils aged 12 to 13 are in *[Secondary 1](/wiki/Education_in_Hong_Kong "Education in Hong Kong")* or *Form 1*, the first year of secondary education. ### India In [India](/wiki/India "India"), seventh grade is known as Class 7\. Class 7 is the second year in middle school. Pupils aged 12 to 13 attend class 7\. Students are introduced to more complex mathematics and science among other subjects. In most schools, social studies is divided into history, civics and geography at this stage. Seventh class is the second last class in the secondary education system of India. Eleven\-year\-olds can also be enrolled in this grade if they are born between January and March 31 as the year ends here. This results in them being earlier off their batch. ### Indonesia {{Empty section\|date\=August 2024}} ### Iran In [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran"), Grade 7 is the first year of highschool A. There are 2 stages of highschool in Iran: A and B. A ranges from grade 7 to 9 and B ranges from 9 to 12\. Most Iranian seventh graders are 13 years old. ### Ireland The [Irish](/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Education in the Republic of Ireland") equivalent to seventh grade is the First Year, which is the first year of secondary education. Students are usually 12–13 years old. This is usually the time when students begin having different teachers for different subjects, and move classrooms after each period. ### Israel In [Israel](/wiki/Education_in_Israel "Education in Israel"), in most formal places, the seventh grade is the first year of [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school "Middle school"). ### Japan In [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), 7th grade (or more commonly called 中１) is the first year of [Japanese Junior High school](/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1 "中学校"). All students are 12 years old by April 1 of the school year. This is the seventh of nine years of compulsory school in Japan, as High School (10th to 12th grade) is not compulsory. ### Malaysia In [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"), the seventh grade can be referred as Form 1\. It is the beginning of student's secondary school after completing primary school at the age of 12\. ### Netherlands In the Netherlands the 7th grade is the first class of high school, also named "brugklas" (bridge classes). When reaching the age of 12 or 13, students graduate from primary school (“basisschool”) to high school (“middelbare school”). Besides Dutch, students learn foreign languages such as German, French and English. Higher levels of the 7th grade curriculum include Latin, Greek, Chinese and/or Spanish. Other classes in the 7th grade are: Biology, Mathematics, Chemistry, Art, Music, Geography, History, Physics, Physical education (“gym”), Social studies, Theatre Religion (depends on the school itself) and Computer science. After 4, 5 or 6 years (depending on the level of education) one can get their diploma, which grants access to specific education, like the university or [HBO](/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands "Education in the Netherlands") and [MBO](/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands "Education in the Netherlands") education. These are educations that focuses on specific talents, chosen by the student to prepare them for a job environment. ### New Zealand In New Zealand, Year 8 (formerly Form 2\) is the equivalent of seventh grade, with students aged 12 or 13 during the year. Seventh Grade is the last grade/year in Intermediate School. ### Norway In [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway"), students enter the seventh grade the year they turn twelve years old. This is the final year of *Barneskole* (literally Kids School), equivalent to Elementary School. ### Pakistan In [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), grade seven is called Class Seven and forms middle school. They are usually 13 years old. ### Palestine In [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine "Palestine"), Seventh Grade ({{lang\-ar\|الصف السابع}}), (*Al\-Saff Al\-Sabea*) begins in September when a student is around twelve years old. In this grade, students continue with core subjects such as Arabic (اللغة العربية), English (اللغة الإنجليزية), Mathematics (الرياضيات), Science (العلوم), and Social Studies (الدراسات الاجتماعية). ### Philippines In the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), Grade 7 or Freshman Year ({{lang\-fil\|Ikapitong Baitang}}) is the first year of Junior High School and High School curriculum. Students are usually 12–13 years old, but some students can also start at ages 11–12\. It was formerly named *1st Year* or *Year I* ({{lang\-fil\|Unang Taon\|links\=no}}) until it changed to *Grade 7* upon the effectivity of the [K\-12](/wiki/K-12 "K-12") curriculum which started the process of phasing out the 1945 or K\-10 system that was first used on May 28, 1945 on April 24, 2012, both are part of the curriculum's 9\-year implementation process. ### Romania In [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania"), seventh grade is called Seventh Class, being the third year of secondary education, when students start preparing for the national exam, which takes place at the end of 8th grade as a form of high school admission test. ### Russia In [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), students in seventh grade are usually 12–14 years old. It is third grade of the middle school. Children study such subjects as: [Algebra](/wiki/Algebra "Algebra"), [Geometry](/wiki/Geometry "Geometry"), [Russian language](/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language"), foreign language (often [English](/wiki/English_language "English language")), [Physics](/wiki/Physics "Physics"), [Biology](/wiki/Biology "Biology"), [History](/wiki/History "History"), [Social studies](/wiki/Social_studies "Social studies"), [Geography](/wiki/Geography "Geography"), [Arts](/wiki/Arts "Arts"), [Literature](/wiki/Literature "Literature"), [Music](/wiki/Music "Music"), [Physical Education](/wiki/Physical_Education "Physical Education"), [Information Technologies](/wiki/Information_technology "Information technology"), labor training (wood processing, sewing, cooking), in some regions native languages. ### Saudi Arabia In [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia"), seventh grade is the first year of [Middle School](/wiki/Middle_School "Middle School"). ### Singapore In [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), seventh grade is called Secondary One, and it is the start of one's secondary education after one completes primary education. Pupils are typically at the age of 13 in seventh grade. ### South Africa In [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa"), Grade 7 is the final year of [Primary school](/wiki/Primary_school "Primary school") and is also the final year before [High School](/wiki/High_School "High School") as there is no such thing as [Middle School](/wiki/Middle_School "Middle School") in South Africa. Pupils (called Learners by the [Department of Basic Education](/wiki/Department_of_Basic_Education "Department of Basic Education")) are usually between the ages of 11,12 and 13\. Grade 7 is usually the last grade of [Primary School](/wiki/Primary_school "Primary school") within [South African schools](/wiki/Education_in_South_Africa "Education in South Africa"), grade 7 in South Africa adds 3 additional subjects, Economic management sciences, Creative Arts (which learners can choose between Drama and Music) and Life Orientation. This is also the year that Subjects go more in depth, Math gets more complex with [Algebra](/wiki/Algebra "Algebra") as well as [integers](/wiki/Integer "Integer") introduced and English begins to explore more complex topics such as [literature](/wiki/Literature "Literature") and [language study.](/wiki/Linguistics "Linguistics") Grade 7 with the switch of standards to grades because of the [SACA (South Africans Schools Act 1996\)](/wiki/South_African_Schools_Act%2C_1996 "South African Schools Act, 1996") Grade 7 (or Standard 5\) was the beginning of Secondary School but due to the fact [High/Secondary Schools](/wiki/Secondary_school "Secondary school") couldn't fit Standard 5 as more [black](/wiki/Black_people "Black people"), [coloured](/wiki/Coloureds "Coloureds") and Indian students were now allowed in [White](/wiki/White_South_Africans "White South Africans") and [Afrikaans](/wiki/Afrikaners "Afrikaners") schools it was merged into [Primary school](/wiki/Primary_school "Primary school"). ### Sweden In [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") and [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland"), this is the seventh year of compulsory school and either the second or first year of "junior high", depending on the size of the schools in the district. ### Taiwan In [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), seventh grade refers to two things: students in the first year of [junior\-high](/wiki/Junior_high_school "Junior high school") but also to people born between the years 70\-79 (the seventh decade) of the [Minguo calendar](/wiki/Minguo_calendar "Minguo calendar"), which equates to between 1981 and 1990\. ### United Kingdom In [England](/wiki/England "England") and [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"), pupils aged between 12 and 13 are in [Year 8](/wiki/Year_Eight "Year Eight"), which is the second year of [Secondary School](/wiki/Secondary_School "Secondary School"). The [Scottish](/wiki/Education_in_Scotland "Education in Scotland") equivalent is Secondary 2 or S2 \- the second year of Secondary education. The [Northern Irish](/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Ireland "Education in Northern Ireland") equivalent is Year 9 or Second Form, the second year of secondary education. It is rare for pupils younger than 12–13 to enter Year 8\. ### United States In the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), in [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics"), 7th grade students begin to go more into [pre\-algebra](/wiki/Pre-algebra "Pre-algebra") or the beginnings of [algebra](/wiki/Algebra "Algebra") including [ratios](/wiki/Ratio "Ratio"), [proportions](/wiki/Proportionality_%28mathematics%29 "Proportionality (mathematics)"), and [percentages](/wiki/Percentage "Percentage"). New topics sometimes include [scientific notation](/wiki/Scientific_notation "Scientific notation"), concepts with [negative numbers](/wiki/Negative_number "Negative number") or [integers](/wiki/Integers "Integers"), and more advanced [geometry](/wiki/Geometry "Geometry").{{cite web\|title\=7th Grade Math Worksheets – Topics To Study\|url\=http://7thgrademath.net/\|publisher\=7th Grade Math\|access\-date\=3 March 2013}} Some schools allow advanced students to take an [Algebra I](/wiki/Algebra "Algebra") course instead of following the standard 7th grade math curriculum. In [social studies](/wiki/Social_studies "Social studies"), advanced pre\-[Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") [History](/wiki/History "History") is taught. Though American history is usually the most common, other cultures and time periods may be taught, including state and capital history (in, for example, Texas and South Carolina), European history (in Connecticut and New Jersey), and Civics (in Florida).{{cite web\|title\=SEVENTH GRADE AFRICA, ASIA, AND AUSTRALIA\|url\=http://www.ncpublicschools.org/curriculum/socialstudies/scos/2003\-04/045seventhgrade\|work\=Standard Course of Study\|publisher\=Public Schools of North Carolina\|access\-date\=3 March 2013}} In [science](/wiki/Science "Science"), 7th graders usually learn [biology](/wiki/Biology "Biology"), although they may learn physical science or earth science topics too.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2024}} [Foreign language](/wiki/Foreign_language "Foreign language") is often introduced in 7th grade, with the most common language taught being [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language "Spanish language"). At many schools 7th graders can choose from several different languages depending on their school's language abilities and cultural/regional demographics.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2024}} In some parts of the United States, 7th grade students have a different class and teacher for each of their [subjects](/wiki/Course_%28education%29 "Course (education)"), and the students move between [classrooms](/wiki/Classrooms "Classrooms") at the end of each class [period](/wiki/Period_%28school%29 "Period (school)"). Students in some schools may begin to have the option for electives for exploration and enrichment. Common electives include music ensembles such as band, orchestra, or choir, or electives such as art, industrial arts, and computer technology.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2024}}
[ "Around the world\n----------------", "### Argentina", "In Argentina, seventh grade is the final grade of primary school. In some parts of the country, the grade is the first of secondary school.", "### Australia", "In [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), [Year 7](/wiki/Year_Seven \"Year Seven\") is the first year of [secondary school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\"). It is actually the eighth year of schooling (Prep/Foundation, 1 to 6, then Year 7\\). In Australia, Year 7 students are aged between twelve and thirteen years old.", "### Belgium", "In [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\"), 7th grade is the first year of high school. When reaching the age of 12 or 13, the children go from primary school (“basisschool”) to secondary school (“middelbare school”).", "7th grade is preparation for the rest of the high school period. It is also used to reference students' capability, to make sure they belong to the right level of education. Students here learn the languages Dutch and French in the northern part of Belgium (Flanders), and learn French or German and can choose between Dutch, English, German or French in the southern and German part of Belgium, just as their own language (Dutch, French or German) skills. Other classes in the 7th grade are: Biology, Mathematics, Chemistry, Art \\& Music, Geography, Physics, Physical Education (gym), Social Studies, Religion (depends on the school itself), and Computer Science (Computer science in 7th grade means learning to work with computers properly)", "Belgium uses a system where specific education is accommodated in the high school period, which also is chosen by the student ({{ill\\|Technisch secundair onderwijs\\|nl\\|lt\\=TSO}}, {{ill\\|Beroepssecundair onderwijs\\|nl\\|lt\\=BSO}}, {{ill\\|Kunstsecundair onderwijs\\|nl\\|lt\\=KSO}}) before they choose to go to work or continuing at a university.", "### Brazil", "In [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), the period of elementary school was recently raised from 8 to 9 years, and the minimum age required to enter the seventh grade was not changed. The students are usually between 11 and 13\\. In the seventh grade, all students must be 12 years old before March 31 or May 31 depending on school.", "### Bulgaria", "In [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\"), it would correspond to *седми клас* or *7\\-ми клас*. Students are usually 13–14 years old.", "### Canada", "Grade 7 in Canada is the first year of junior high school, middle school, or the second last grade of junior/elementary school. Intermediate schools (grades 6, 7 and 8\\) provide education in Literature and Mathematics, as well as History, Geography, Music, Drama, Dance, Science (Biology, Chemistry and Physics in particular), Art, French (English if in French Immersion), and Physical Education (phys ed. or gym). French and ‘foreign’ languages, which used to be taught only at high schools, are now introduced during the last 2 years of elementary school and all years of middle school.", "### Egypt", "In [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"), this is the first year of the [Middle School](/wiki/Middle_School \"Middle School\"). Usually, students who are in 7th grade are 11–13 years old.", "### Finland", "In [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") and [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\"), this is the seventh year of compulsory school and either the second or first year of \"junior high\", depending on the size of the schools in the district.", "### France", "In [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), seventh grade is called cinquième (5ème), meaning 5th, as in 5 years before the class of Terminale, the last year of lycée (the French equivalent to high school).", "### Germany", "In [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), the equivalent grade is 7\\. Klasse.", "### Greece", "In [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\"), seventh grade is called the first year of [gymnasium school](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 \"Gymnasium (school)\") or [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school \"Middle school\"), or lower secondary school (Proti Gymnasiou \\- Πρώτη Γυμνασίου)", "### Hong Kong", "In [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), pupils aged 12 to 13 are in *[Secondary 1](/wiki/Education_in_Hong_Kong \"Education in Hong Kong\")* or *Form 1*, the first year of secondary education.", "### India", "In [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), seventh grade is known as Class 7\\. Class 7 is the second year in middle school. Pupils aged 12 to 13 attend class 7\\. Students are introduced to more complex mathematics and science among other subjects. In most schools, social studies is divided into history, civics and geography at this stage. Seventh class is the second last class in the secondary education system of India. Eleven\\-year\\-olds can also be enrolled in this grade if they are born between January and March 31 as the year ends here. This results in them being earlier off their batch.", "### Indonesia", "{{Empty section\\|date\\=August 2024}}", "### Iran", "In [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"), Grade 7 is the first year of highschool A. There are 2 stages of highschool in Iran: A and B. A ranges from grade 7 to 9 and B ranges from 9 to 12\\. Most Iranian seventh graders are 13 years old.", "### Ireland", "The [Irish](/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland \"Education in the Republic of Ireland\") equivalent to seventh grade is the First Year, which is the first year of secondary education. Students are usually 12–13 years old. This is usually the time when students begin having different teachers for different subjects, and move classrooms after each period.", "### Israel", "In [Israel](/wiki/Education_in_Israel \"Education in Israel\"), in most formal places, the seventh grade is the first year of [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school \"Middle school\").", "### Japan", "In [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), 7th grade (or more commonly called 中１) is the first year of [Japanese Junior High school](/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1 \"中学校\"). All students are 12 years old by April 1 of the school year. This is the seventh of nine years of compulsory school in Japan, as High School (10th to 12th grade) is not compulsory.", "### Malaysia", "In [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\"), the seventh grade can be referred as Form 1\\. It is the beginning of student's secondary school after completing primary school at the age of 12\\.", "### Netherlands", "In the Netherlands the 7th grade is the first class of high school, also named \"brugklas\" (bridge classes). When reaching the age of 12 or 13, students graduate from primary school (“basisschool”) to high school (“middelbare school”).", "Besides Dutch, students learn foreign languages such as German, French and English. Higher levels of the 7th grade curriculum include Latin, Greek, Chinese and/or Spanish.", "Other classes in the 7th grade are: Biology, Mathematics, Chemistry, Art, Music, Geography, History, Physics, Physical education (“gym”), Social studies, Theatre Religion (depends on the school itself) and Computer science.", "After 4, 5 or 6 years (depending on the level of education) one can get their diploma, which grants access to specific education, like the university or [HBO](/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands \"Education in the Netherlands\") and [MBO](/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands \"Education in the Netherlands\") education. These are educations that focuses on specific talents, chosen by the student to prepare them for a job environment.", "### New Zealand", "In New Zealand, Year 8 (formerly Form 2\\) is the equivalent of seventh grade, with students aged 12 or 13 during the year. Seventh Grade is the last grade/year in Intermediate School.", "### Norway", "In [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\"), students enter the seventh grade the year they turn twelve years old. This is the final year of *Barneskole* (literally Kids School), equivalent to Elementary School.", "### Pakistan", "In [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), grade seven is called Class Seven and forms middle school. They are usually 13 years old.", "### Palestine", "In [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine \"Palestine\"), Seventh Grade ({{lang\\-ar\\|الصف السابع}}), (*Al\\-Saff Al\\-Sabea*) begins in September when a student is around twelve years old. In this grade, students continue with core subjects such as Arabic (اللغة العربية), English (اللغة الإنجليزية), Mathematics (الرياضيات), Science (العلوم), and Social Studies (الدراسات الاجتماعية).", "### Philippines", "In the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), Grade 7 or Freshman Year ({{lang\\-fil\\|Ikapitong Baitang}}) is the first year of Junior High School and High School curriculum. Students are usually 12–13 years old, but some students can also start at ages 11–12\\.", "It was formerly named *1st Year* or *Year I* ({{lang\\-fil\\|Unang Taon\\|links\\=no}}) until it changed to *Grade 7* upon the effectivity of the [K\\-12](/wiki/K-12 \"K-12\") curriculum which started the process of phasing out the 1945 or K\\-10 system that was first used on May 28, 1945 on April 24, 2012, both are part of the curriculum's 9\\-year implementation process.", "### Romania", "In [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\"), seventh grade is called Seventh Class, being the third year of secondary education, when students start preparing for the national exam, which takes place at the end of 8th grade as a form of high school admission test.", "### Russia", "In [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), students in seventh grade are usually 12–14 years old. It is third grade of the middle school. Children study such subjects as: [Algebra](/wiki/Algebra \"Algebra\"), [Geometry](/wiki/Geometry \"Geometry\"), [Russian language](/wiki/Russian_language \"Russian language\"), foreign language (often [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\")), [Physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\"), [Biology](/wiki/Biology \"Biology\"), [History](/wiki/History \"History\"), [Social studies](/wiki/Social_studies \"Social studies\"), [Geography](/wiki/Geography \"Geography\"), [Arts](/wiki/Arts \"Arts\"), [Literature](/wiki/Literature \"Literature\"), [Music](/wiki/Music \"Music\"), [Physical Education](/wiki/Physical_Education \"Physical Education\"), [Information Technologies](/wiki/Information_technology \"Information technology\"), labor training (wood processing, sewing, cooking), in some regions native languages.", "### Saudi Arabia", "In [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\"), seventh grade is the first year of [Middle School](/wiki/Middle_School \"Middle School\").", "### Singapore", "In [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), seventh grade is called Secondary One, and it is the start of one's secondary education after one completes primary education. Pupils are typically at the age of 13 in seventh grade.", "### South Africa", "In [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\"), Grade 7 is the final year of [Primary school](/wiki/Primary_school \"Primary school\") and is also the final year before [High School](/wiki/High_School \"High School\") as there is no such thing as [Middle School](/wiki/Middle_School \"Middle School\") in South Africa. Pupils (called Learners by the [Department of Basic Education](/wiki/Department_of_Basic_Education \"Department of Basic Education\")) are usually between the ages of 11,12 and 13\\.", "Grade 7 is usually the last grade of [Primary School](/wiki/Primary_school \"Primary school\") within [South African schools](/wiki/Education_in_South_Africa \"Education in South Africa\"), grade 7 in South Africa adds 3 additional subjects, Economic management sciences, Creative Arts (which learners can choose between Drama and Music) and Life Orientation. This is also the year that Subjects go more in depth, Math gets more complex with [Algebra](/wiki/Algebra \"Algebra\") as well as [integers](/wiki/Integer \"Integer\") introduced and English begins to explore more complex topics such as [literature](/wiki/Literature \"Literature\") and [language study.](/wiki/Linguistics \"Linguistics\")", "Grade 7 with the switch of standards to grades because of the [SACA (South Africans Schools Act 1996\\)](/wiki/South_African_Schools_Act%2C_1996 \"South African Schools Act, 1996\") Grade 7 (or Standard 5\\) was the beginning of Secondary School but due to the fact [High/Secondary Schools](/wiki/Secondary_school \"Secondary school\") couldn't fit Standard 5 as more [black](/wiki/Black_people \"Black people\"), [coloured](/wiki/Coloureds \"Coloureds\") and Indian students were now allowed in [White](/wiki/White_South_Africans \"White South Africans\") and [Afrikaans](/wiki/Afrikaners \"Afrikaners\") schools it was merged into [Primary school](/wiki/Primary_school \"Primary school\").", "### Sweden", "In [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") and [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\"), this is the seventh year of compulsory school and either the second or first year of \"junior high\", depending on the size of the schools in the district.", "### Taiwan", "In [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), seventh grade refers to two things: students in the first year of [junior\\-high](/wiki/Junior_high_school \"Junior high school\") but also to people born between the years 70\\-79 (the seventh decade) of the [Minguo calendar](/wiki/Minguo_calendar \"Minguo calendar\"), which equates to between 1981 and 1990\\.", "### United Kingdom", "In [England](/wiki/England \"England\") and [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"), pupils aged between 12 and 13 are in [Year 8](/wiki/Year_Eight \"Year Eight\"), which is the second year of [Secondary School](/wiki/Secondary_School \"Secondary School\"). The [Scottish](/wiki/Education_in_Scotland \"Education in Scotland\") equivalent is Secondary 2 or S2 \\- the second year of Secondary education. The [Northern Irish](/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Ireland \"Education in Northern Ireland\") equivalent is Year 9 or Second Form, the second year of secondary education.\nIt is rare for pupils younger than 12–13 to enter Year 8\\.", "### United States", "In the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), in [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"), 7th grade students begin to go more into [pre\\-algebra](/wiki/Pre-algebra \"Pre-algebra\") or the beginnings of [algebra](/wiki/Algebra \"Algebra\") including [ratios](/wiki/Ratio \"Ratio\"), [proportions](/wiki/Proportionality_%28mathematics%29 \"Proportionality (mathematics)\"), and [percentages](/wiki/Percentage \"Percentage\"). New topics sometimes include [scientific notation](/wiki/Scientific_notation \"Scientific notation\"), concepts with [negative numbers](/wiki/Negative_number \"Negative number\") or [integers](/wiki/Integers \"Integers\"), and more advanced [geometry](/wiki/Geometry \"Geometry\").{{cite web\\|title\\=7th Grade Math Worksheets – Topics To Study\\|url\\=http://7thgrademath.net/\\|publisher\\=7th Grade Math\\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2013}} Some schools allow advanced students to take an [Algebra I](/wiki/Algebra \"Algebra\") course instead of following the standard 7th grade math curriculum.", "In [social studies](/wiki/Social_studies \"Social studies\"), advanced pre\\-[Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") [History](/wiki/History \"History\") is taught. Though American history is usually the most common, other cultures and time periods may be taught, including state and capital history (in, for example, Texas and South Carolina), European history (in Connecticut and New Jersey), and Civics (in Florida).{{cite web\\|title\\=SEVENTH GRADE AFRICA, ASIA, AND AUSTRALIA\\|url\\=http://www.ncpublicschools.org/curriculum/socialstudies/scos/2003\\-04/045seventhgrade\\|work\\=Standard Course of Study\\|publisher\\=Public Schools of North Carolina\\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2013}}", "In [science](/wiki/Science \"Science\"), 7th graders usually learn [biology](/wiki/Biology \"Biology\"), although they may learn physical science or earth science topics too.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2024}}", "[Foreign language](/wiki/Foreign_language \"Foreign language\") is often introduced in 7th grade, with the most common language taught being [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\"). At many schools 7th graders can choose from several different languages depending on their school's language abilities and cultural/regional demographics.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2024}}", "In some parts of the United States, 7th grade students have a different class and teacher for each of their [subjects](/wiki/Course_%28education%29 \"Course (education)\"), and the students move between [classrooms](/wiki/Classrooms \"Classrooms\") at the end of each class [period](/wiki/Period_%28school%29 \"Period (school)\"). Students in some schools may begin to have the option for electives for exploration and enrichment. Common electives include music ensembles such as band, orchestra, or choir, or electives such as art, industrial arts, and computer technology.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2024}}", "" ]
Career ------ [thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|Jessica Fox in 2019](/wiki/File:2019_ICF_Canoe_slalom_World_Championships_138_-_Jessica_Fox_%28cropped%29.jpg "2019 ICF Canoe slalom World Championships 138 - Jessica Fox (cropped).jpg") Fox races in K1, C1 and Kayak Cross events and is coached by her mother, Myriam. She started in the sport in 2005 by canoeing on the [Nepean River](/wiki/Nepean_River "Nepean River"). She has a scholarship and is affiliated with the [Australian Institute of Sport](/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Sport "Australian Institute of Sport") and the [New South Wales Institute of Sport](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Institute_of_Sport "New South Wales Institute of Sport"). In club competitions, she represents the Penrith Valley Canoe Club. ### 2009–2012: Rise through the ranks In September 2009, Fox made her Australian senior national team bid. She competed at the 2009 ICF World Ranking in Merano, Italy, finishing third in the K1 event. At the 2009 AYOF event in Penrith, New South Wales, she finished first in the women's K1 event. Fox placed 5th in the K1 event and won a bronze medal in the C1 event at the [2010 World Championships](/wiki/2010_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships "2010 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships") in [Tacen](/wiki/Tacen "Tacen").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.timing\-mojstrana.com/download.php?id\=1081 \|access\-date\=20 June 2012 \|title\=2010 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships SLOKA 2010 \|publisher\=International Canoeing Federation \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312022828/http://www.timing\-mojstrana.com/download.php?id\=1081 \|archive\-date\=12 March 2012 }} At the [2010 Summer Youth Olympics](/wiki/2010_Summer_Youth_Olympics "2010 Summer Youth Olympics") in Singapore, she won the gold in the [girls' K1 slalom event](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2010_Summer_Youth_Olympics%C2%A0%E2%80%93_Girls%27_K1_slalom "Canoeing at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics – Girls' K1 slalom"). At the [2010 Junior World Championships](/wiki/2010_World_Junior_Canoe_Slalom_Championships "2010 World Junior Canoe Slalom Championships") in [Foix](/wiki/Foix "Foix"), she won gold in K1, and won the inaugural C1 event at that level. She won her first World Cup by taking out the C1 event at the third round in [La Seu d'Urgell](/wiki/La_Seu_d%27Urgell "La Seu d'Urgell"). Domestically, Fox won the C1 event and placed 9th in the K1 event at the Oceania Continental Championships in Penrith (counting to World Cup points), and placed 1st and 3rd at the National Championships in [Eildon](/wiki/Eildon "Eildon"), Victoria, in the C1 and K1 events, respectively. In 2011, Fox won gold medals in the C1 event at World Cups 2 and 3\. At the [2011 World Championships](/wiki/2011_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships "2011 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships") in [Bratislava](/wiki/%C4%8Cunovo_Water_Sports_Centre "Čunovo Water Sports Centre"), Slovakia, she finished 19th, which gave Australia an automatic spot in the event at the 2012 Summer Olympics. She won silver medals at Australian Open and the Oceania Championships in the women's K1 event in 2011\. In 2012, Fox was selected to represent Australia for the first time at the [Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics "2012 Summer Olympics") in the [women's K\-1 event](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 "Canoeing at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1"), where she won the silver medal at the age of 18\. Her pre\-Olympic schedule included training on the Olympic course in London in April,{{cite web \|last\=Herman \|first\=Martyn \|date\=2 August 2012 \|title\=Fearless Fox rises from depths to win silver \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-oly\-cano\-cswk1\-day6\-fox\-idUSBRE8711O920120802?feedType\=RSS\&feedName\=everything\&virtualBrandChannel\=11563 \|access\-date\=2 August 2012 \|work\=Reuters}} and World Cup competitions in Wales, France and Spain, plus the Junior World Championship in the United States. Her result has been described as competitive revenge against the 44\-year\-old Czech paddler [Štěpánka Hilgertová](/wiki/%C5%A0t%C4%9Bp%C3%A1nka_Hilgertov%C3%A1 "Štěpánka Hilgertová"), who had beaten Fox's mother Myriam to the [K\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_1996_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 "Canoeing at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1") gold medal sixteen years earlier in the [1996 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_1996_Summer_Olympics "Canoeing at the 1996 Summer Olympics"). Her silver medal improved on her mother's bronze from Atlanta 1996 and her father's fourth place in Barcelona 1992, and earned her the nickname "the Silver Fox" from teammates and the press. ### 2013–2016: Ascendancy to the top Fox won her first World Championship titles in the C1 event and the C1 team event at the [2013 World Championships](/wiki/2013_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships "2013 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships") in Prague. At the [2014 World Championships](/wiki/2014_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships "2014 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships") at [Deep Creek Lake](/wiki/Deep_Creek_Lake "Deep Creek Lake"), in the United States, Fox became the first athlete to win the C1 and K1 events at the same World Championships, besting [Jana Dukátová](/wiki/Jana_Duk%C3%A1tov%C3%A1 "Jana Dukátová"), who became the first to do it at separate events winning a world championship title in K1 in 2006 and C1 in 2010\. At the [2016 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2016_Summer_Olympics "2016 Summer Olympics"), Fox won her second Olympic medal, with a bronze in the [K\-1 event](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 "Canoeing at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), Brazil. After winning multiple World Cup races, she won the overall World Cup title in the Kayak Single Slalom (K1\) and was second overall in Canoe Single Slalom (C1\). She also won the U23 World Championships in K1 and C1 in Kraków, Poland. Additionally, she also won the Oceania Championships Slalom C1 in Penrith, Australia.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.redbull.com/int\-en/athlete/jessica\-fox\|title\=Jessica Fox\|website\=Red Bull\|language\=en\|access\-date\=7 May 2019}} ### 2017–2020: Record breaking dominance In 2017, Fox won the K1 event at the [2017 World Championships](/wiki/2017_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships "2017 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships"). Fox won the C1 and finished second in the K1 for the [2017 World Cup](/wiki/2017_Canoe_Slalom_World_Cup "2017 Canoe Slalom World Cup"), and was awarded the Canoeist of the Year award, and the NSW Athlete of the Year award.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/paddler\-jessica\-fox\-sydney\-fc\-cyclist\-amanda\-reid\-win\-big\-at\-nsw\-awards/news\-story/2d40560c6c62648339484a4a5a6158f3\|title \= Jessica Fox snares top award\|date \= 27 November 2017}} In 2018, Fox was a double ICF Canoe World Champion in both the C1 and K1 at the [2018 World Championships](/wiki/2018_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships "2018 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships"), and again won a number of World Cups in both disciplines, finishing first in both the C1 and K1 [2018 World Cup](/wiki/2018_Canoe_Slalom_World_Cup "2018 Canoe Slalom World Cup") standings. Her 2018 season featured an undefeated run in C1, sweeping all five World Cups and the World Championships, including three consecutive 'Golden Doubles' at the first three World Cups.{{Cite web\|url\=https://paddle.org.au/2018/09/01/fox\-begins\-pursuit\-of\-fourth\-straight\-golden\-double/ \|title\=Fox Begins Pursuit Of Fourth Straight Golden Double\|date\=31 August 2018 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=14 September 2021}} In 2019, Fox repeated her World Cup dominance, again finishing first in both the K1 and C1 [World Cup](/wiki/2019_Canoe_Slalom_World_Cup "2019 Canoe Slalom World Cup") standings. Fox won the Oceania Championships in Canoe Slalom again, and won silver in both K1 and C1 events at the [2019 World Championships](/wiki/2019_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships "2019 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships") . ### 2021–2023: Olympic heartbreak to glory At the [2020 Tokyo Olympics](/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics "2020 Summer Olympics"), held in 2021 due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), Fox finished third to win the bronze medal in the [Women's K\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 "Canoeing at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021\-07\-27/tokyo\-olympics\-jess\-fox\-claims\-bronze\-canoe\-slalom\-k1/100327464 \|title\=Jess Fox claims Tokyo Olympics bronze medal in women's canoe slalom K1 \|publisher\=\[\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation\|ABC]] \|date\=27 July 2021}} Fox's final run included a penalty time of 4 seconds, ultimately putting her final time 1\.23 seconds behind the winner [Ricarda Funk](/wiki/Ricarda_Funk "Ricarda Funk"). During the event, Fox also gained media attention for using a condom to repair her kayak.{{Cite web\|url\=https://7news.com.au/sport/olympics/how\-a\-condom\-helped\-olympic\-canoeist\-jess\-fox\-repair\-her\-kayak\-c\-3535641\|title \= How a condom helped Olympic canoeist Jess Fox repair her kayak\|website\=7 News\|date \= 29 July 2021}} Fox was also the fastest qualifier for the final of the inaugural [Women's Canoe Slalom C\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_C-1 "Canoeing at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom C-1") event at the Olympics, where she went on to win her first Olympic gold medal, beating silver medalist Mallory Franklin of Great Britain by more than three seconds with a penalty\-free run.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021\-07\-29/jess\-fox\-wins\-gold\-canoe\-slalom\-c1/100335120\|title \= Jess Fox wins Tokyo Olympics gold in C1 canoe slalom\|website\=ABC\|date \= 29 July 2021}} At the [2021 World Championships](/wiki/2021_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships "2021 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships") in [Bratislava](/wiki/%C4%8Cunovo_Water_Sports_Centre "Čunovo Water Sports Centre"), Fox did not progress to the final of either the [K1](/wiki/2021_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_K1 "2021 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships – Women's K1") or [C1](/wiki/2021_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_C1 "2021 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships – Women's C1") for the first time in her entire career, after incurring 50\-second penalties in the semi\-finals of both. On the final day of competition she became World Champion in the [kayak cross](/wiki/2021_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_extreme_slalom "2021 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships – Women's extreme slalom"), an 8th individual world title in a 3rd unique event, in just her third international appearance in the event.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.canoeicf.com/news/olympic\-champions\-bounce\-back\-best \|title\=Olympic Champions bounce back to best \|website\=ICF Media \|date\=26 September 2021 \|access\-date\=29 September 2021}} ### 2024: Paris Olympics Fox was selected as the opening ceremony [flag bearer](/wiki/Flag_bearer "Flag bearer") to represent [Australia at the 2024 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Australia_at_the_2024_Summer_Olympics "Australia at the 2024 Summer Olympics") in Paris, France.Pentony, Luke. (24 July 2024\). ["Jess Fox, Eddie Ockenden named Australia's flag\-bearers for Paris Olympics opening ceremony,"](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-07-24/australia-flag-bearers-paris-olympics-jess-fox-eddie-ockenden/104133802) *ABC*. In her fourth Olympic Games, Fox was able to claim her first Olympic gold medal for the [K\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2024_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 "Canoeing at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1") event, having previously won silver and bronze medals in her last three Olympics. Fox also managed to defend her [C\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2024_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_C-1 "Canoeing at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom C-1") title. In doing so, Fox became the first paddler, male or female, to win and hold both K\-1 and C\-1 Olympic titles, and also became the most decorated athlete in [canoe slalom](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_Summer_Olympics "Canoeing at the Summer Olympics") at the Olympics. In the inaugural [kayak cross](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2024_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_kayak_cross "Canoeing at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom kayak cross") event at the Olympics, Fox was eliminated in the heats in a race that featured her sister, [Noemie Fox](/wiki/Noemie_Fox "Noemie Fox"), who went on to win the gold medal.
[ "Career\n------", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|Jessica Fox in 2019](/wiki/File:2019_ICF_Canoe_slalom_World_Championships_138_-_Jessica_Fox_%28cropped%29.jpg \"2019 ICF Canoe slalom World Championships 138 - Jessica Fox (cropped).jpg\")\nFox races in K1, C1 and Kayak Cross events and is coached by her mother, Myriam. She started in the sport in 2005 by canoeing on the [Nepean River](/wiki/Nepean_River \"Nepean River\"). She has a scholarship and is affiliated with the [Australian Institute of Sport](/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Sport \"Australian Institute of Sport\") and the [New South Wales Institute of Sport](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Institute_of_Sport \"New South Wales Institute of Sport\"). In club competitions, she represents the Penrith Valley Canoe Club.", "### 2009–2012: Rise through the ranks", "In September 2009, Fox made her Australian senior national team bid. She competed at the 2009 ICF World Ranking in Merano, Italy, finishing third in the K1 event. At the 2009 AYOF event in Penrith, New South Wales, she finished first in the women's K1 event.", "Fox placed 5th in the K1 event and won a bronze medal in the C1 event at the [2010 World Championships](/wiki/2010_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships \"2010 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships\") in [Tacen](/wiki/Tacen \"Tacen\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.timing\\-mojstrana.com/download.php?id\\=1081 \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2012 \\|title\\=2010 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships SLOKA 2010 \\|publisher\\=International Canoeing Federation \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312022828/http://www.timing\\-mojstrana.com/download.php?id\\=1081 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 March 2012 }} At the [2010 Summer Youth Olympics](/wiki/2010_Summer_Youth_Olympics \"2010 Summer Youth Olympics\") in Singapore, she won the gold in the [girls' K1 slalom event](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2010_Summer_Youth_Olympics%C2%A0%E2%80%93_Girls%27_K1_slalom \"Canoeing at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics – Girls' K1 slalom\"). At the [2010 Junior World Championships](/wiki/2010_World_Junior_Canoe_Slalom_Championships \"2010 World Junior Canoe Slalom Championships\") in [Foix](/wiki/Foix \"Foix\"), she won gold in K1, and won the inaugural C1 event at that level. She won her first World Cup by taking out the C1 event at the third round in [La Seu d'Urgell](/wiki/La_Seu_d%27Urgell \"La Seu d'Urgell\"). Domestically, Fox won the C1 event and placed 9th in the K1 event at the Oceania Continental Championships in Penrith (counting to World Cup points), and placed 1st and 3rd at the National Championships in [Eildon](/wiki/Eildon \"Eildon\"), Victoria, in the C1 and K1 events, respectively.", "In 2011, Fox won gold medals in the C1 event at World Cups 2 and 3\\. At the [2011 World Championships](/wiki/2011_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships \"2011 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships\") in [Bratislava](/wiki/%C4%8Cunovo_Water_Sports_Centre \"Čunovo Water Sports Centre\"), Slovakia, she finished 19th, which gave Australia an automatic spot in the event at the 2012 Summer Olympics. She won silver medals at Australian Open and the Oceania Championships in the women's K1 event in 2011\\.", "In 2012, Fox was selected to represent Australia for the first time at the [Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics \"2012 Summer Olympics\") in the [women's K\\-1 event](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 \"Canoeing at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1\"), where she won the silver medal at the age of 18\\. Her pre\\-Olympic schedule included training on the Olympic course in London in April,{{cite web \\|last\\=Herman \\|first\\=Martyn \\|date\\=2 August 2012 \\|title\\=Fearless Fox rises from depths to win silver \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-oly\\-cano\\-cswk1\\-day6\\-fox\\-idUSBRE8711O920120802?feedType\\=RSS\\&feedName\\=everything\\&virtualBrandChannel\\=11563 \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2012 \\|work\\=Reuters}} and World Cup competitions in Wales, France and Spain, plus the Junior World Championship in the United States. Her result has been described as competitive revenge against the 44\\-year\\-old Czech paddler [Štěpánka Hilgertová](/wiki/%C5%A0t%C4%9Bp%C3%A1nka_Hilgertov%C3%A1 \"Štěpánka Hilgertová\"), who had beaten Fox's mother Myriam to the [K\\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_1996_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 \"Canoeing at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1\") gold medal sixteen years earlier in the [1996 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_1996_Summer_Olympics \"Canoeing at the 1996 Summer Olympics\"). Her silver medal improved on her mother's bronze from Atlanta 1996 and her father's fourth place in Barcelona 1992, and earned her the nickname \"the Silver Fox\" from teammates and the press.", "### 2013–2016: Ascendancy to the top", "Fox won her first World Championship titles in the C1 event and the C1 team event at the [2013 World Championships](/wiki/2013_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships \"2013 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships\") in Prague.", "At the [2014 World Championships](/wiki/2014_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships \"2014 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships\") at [Deep Creek Lake](/wiki/Deep_Creek_Lake \"Deep Creek Lake\"), in the United States, Fox became the first athlete to win the C1 and K1 events at the same World Championships, besting [Jana Dukátová](/wiki/Jana_Duk%C3%A1tov%C3%A1 \"Jana Dukátová\"), who became the first to do it at separate events winning a world championship title in K1 in 2006 and C1 in 2010\\.", "At the [2016 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2016_Summer_Olympics \"2016 Summer Olympics\"), Fox won her second Olympic medal, with a bronze in the [K\\-1 event](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 \"Canoeing at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1\") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), Brazil. After winning multiple World Cup races, she won the overall World Cup title in the Kayak Single Slalom (K1\\) and was second overall in Canoe Single Slalom (C1\\). She also won the U23 World Championships in K1 and C1 in Kraków, Poland. Additionally, she also won the Oceania Championships Slalom C1 in Penrith, Australia.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.redbull.com/int\\-en/athlete/jessica\\-fox\\|title\\=Jessica Fox\\|website\\=Red Bull\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2019}}", "### 2017–2020: Record breaking dominance", "In 2017, Fox won the K1 event at the [2017 World Championships](/wiki/2017_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships \"2017 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships\"). Fox won the C1 and finished second in the K1 for the [2017 World Cup](/wiki/2017_Canoe_Slalom_World_Cup \"2017 Canoe Slalom World Cup\"), and was awarded the Canoeist of the Year award, and the NSW Athlete of the Year award.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/paddler\\-jessica\\-fox\\-sydney\\-fc\\-cyclist\\-amanda\\-reid\\-win\\-big\\-at\\-nsw\\-awards/news\\-story/2d40560c6c62648339484a4a5a6158f3\\|title \\= Jessica Fox snares top award\\|date \\= 27 November 2017}}", "In 2018, Fox was a double ICF Canoe World Champion in both the C1 and K1 at the [2018 World Championships](/wiki/2018_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships \"2018 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships\"), and again won a number of World Cups in both disciplines, finishing first in both the C1 and K1 [2018 World Cup](/wiki/2018_Canoe_Slalom_World_Cup \"2018 Canoe Slalom World Cup\") standings. Her 2018 season featured an undefeated run in C1, sweeping all five World Cups and the World Championships, including three consecutive 'Golden Doubles' at the first three World Cups.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://paddle.org.au/2018/09/01/fox\\-begins\\-pursuit\\-of\\-fourth\\-straight\\-golden\\-double/ \\|title\\=Fox Begins Pursuit Of Fourth Straight Golden Double\\|date\\=31 August 2018 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2021}} In 2019, Fox repeated her World Cup dominance, again finishing first in both the K1 and C1 [World Cup](/wiki/2019_Canoe_Slalom_World_Cup \"2019 Canoe Slalom World Cup\") standings. Fox won the Oceania Championships in Canoe Slalom again, and won silver in both K1 and C1 events at the [2019 World Championships](/wiki/2019_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships \"2019 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships\") .", "### 2021–2023: Olympic heartbreak to glory", "At the [2020 Tokyo Olympics](/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics \"2020 Summer Olympics\"), held in 2021 due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), Fox finished third to win the bronze medal in the [Women's K\\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 \"Canoeing at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021\\-07\\-27/tokyo\\-olympics\\-jess\\-fox\\-claims\\-bronze\\-canoe\\-slalom\\-k1/100327464 \\|title\\=Jess Fox claims Tokyo Olympics bronze medal in women's canoe slalom K1 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation\\|ABC]] \\|date\\=27 July 2021}} Fox's final run included a penalty time of 4 seconds, ultimately putting her final time 1\\.23 seconds behind the winner [Ricarda Funk](/wiki/Ricarda_Funk \"Ricarda Funk\"). During the event, Fox also gained media attention for using a condom to repair her kayak.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://7news.com.au/sport/olympics/how\\-a\\-condom\\-helped\\-olympic\\-canoeist\\-jess\\-fox\\-repair\\-her\\-kayak\\-c\\-3535641\\|title \\= How a condom helped Olympic canoeist Jess Fox repair her kayak\\|website\\=7 News\\|date \\= 29 July 2021}} Fox was also the fastest qualifier for the final of the inaugural [Women's Canoe Slalom C\\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_C-1 \"Canoeing at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom C-1\") event at the Olympics, where she went on to win her first Olympic gold medal, beating silver medalist Mallory Franklin of Great Britain by more than three seconds with a penalty\\-free run.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021\\-07\\-29/jess\\-fox\\-wins\\-gold\\-canoe\\-slalom\\-c1/100335120\\|title \\= Jess Fox wins Tokyo Olympics gold in C1 canoe slalom\\|website\\=ABC\\|date \\= 29 July 2021}}", "At the [2021 World Championships](/wiki/2021_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships \"2021 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships\") in [Bratislava](/wiki/%C4%8Cunovo_Water_Sports_Centre \"Čunovo Water Sports Centre\"), Fox did not progress to the final of either the [K1](/wiki/2021_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_K1 \"2021 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships – Women's K1\") or [C1](/wiki/2021_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_C1 \"2021 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships – Women's C1\") for the first time in her entire career, after incurring 50\\-second penalties in the semi\\-finals of both. On the final day of competition she became World Champion in the [kayak cross](/wiki/2021_ICF_Canoe_Slalom_World_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_extreme_slalom \"2021 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships – Women's extreme slalom\"), an 8th individual world title in a 3rd unique event, in just her third international appearance in the event.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.canoeicf.com/news/olympic\\-champions\\-bounce\\-back\\-best \\|title\\=Olympic Champions bounce back to best \\|website\\=ICF Media \\|date\\=26 September 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=29 September 2021}}", "### 2024: Paris Olympics", "Fox was selected as the opening ceremony [flag bearer](/wiki/Flag_bearer \"Flag bearer\") to represent [Australia at the 2024 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Australia_at_the_2024_Summer_Olympics \"Australia at the 2024 Summer Olympics\") in Paris, France.Pentony, Luke. (24 July 2024\\). [\"Jess Fox, Eddie Ockenden named Australia's flag\\-bearers for Paris Olympics opening ceremony,\"](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-07-24/australia-flag-bearers-paris-olympics-jess-fox-eddie-ockenden/104133802) *ABC*. In her fourth Olympic Games, Fox was able to claim her first Olympic gold medal for the [K\\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2024_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_K-1 \"Canoeing at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom K-1\") event, having previously won silver and bronze medals in her last three Olympics. Fox also managed to defend her [C\\-1](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2024_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_C-1 \"Canoeing at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom C-1\") title. In doing so, Fox became the first paddler, male or female, to win and hold both K\\-1 and C\\-1 Olympic titles, and also became the most decorated athlete in [canoe slalom](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_Summer_Olympics \"Canoeing at the Summer Olympics\") at the Olympics. In the inaugural [kayak cross](/wiki/Canoeing_at_the_2024_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_slalom_kayak_cross \"Canoeing at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's slalom kayak cross\") event at the Olympics, Fox was eliminated in the heats in a race that featured her sister, [Noemie Fox](/wiki/Noemie_Fox \"Noemie Fox\"), who went on to win the gold medal.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- Born in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), Austria in 1897, Herbert was educated at the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London "University of London").[F. Hugh Herbert at AllMovie.com](http://www.allmovie.com/artist/frederick-hugh-herbert-94100) He emigrated to the United States from England on the S/S *Kroonland*, which docked at the port of New York on September 11, 1920\. He joined [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures "Paramount Pictures") as a film writer,{{cite magazine\|title\=Obituaries\|magazine\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|date\=May 21, 1958\|page\=79\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/variety210\-1958\-05\#page/n224/mode/1up\|access\-date\=January 23, 2021\|via\=\[\[Archive.org]]}} beginning his career in 1926 with two projects starring [Conrad Nagel](/wiki/Conrad_Nagel "Conrad Nagel"), *The Waning Sex* and *There You Are!*, the latter adapted from his play of the same title. His screenwriting credits included *[Vanity Fair](/wiki/Vanity_Fair_%281932_film%29 "Vanity Fair (1932 film)")*, *[Fashions of 1934](/wiki/Fashions_of_1934 "Fashions of 1934")*; *[Smarty](/wiki/Smarty_%28film%29 "Smarty (film)")* in 1934, adapted from his own play; *[Sitting Pretty](/wiki/Sitting_Pretty_%281948_film%29 "Sitting Pretty (1948 film)")*; *[Dark Command](/wiki/Dark_Command "Dark Command")*; *[Our Very Own](/wiki/Our_Very_Own_%281950_film%29 "Our Very Own (1950 film)")*; *[The Little Hut](/wiki/The_Little_Hut "The Little Hut")*; *[Scudda Hoo! Scudda Hay!](/wiki/Scudda_Hoo%21_Scudda_Hay%21 "Scudda Hoo! Scudda Hay!")* and *[The Girls of Pleasure Island](/wiki/The_Girls_of_Pleasure_Island "The Girls of Pleasure Island")*, the last two of which he also directed. He co\-wrote a few films in which the similarly named, but unrelated actor [Hugh Herbert](/wiki/Hugh_Herbert "Hugh Herbert") appeared: *[Fashions of 1934](/wiki/Fashions_of_1934 "Fashions of 1934")* (1934\), *[We're in the Money](/wiki/We%27re_in_the_Money_%28film%29 "We're in the Money (film)")* (1935\) and *[Colleen](/wiki/Colleen_%281936_film%29 "Colleen (1936 film)")* (1936\). One of Herbert's most enduring creations was the character of American teenager Corliss Archer, who was introduced in 1943 in a series of *Good Housekeeping* short stories. The story cycle was quickly adapted to radio, as *Meet Corliss Archer,* and to theatre, as *[Kiss and Tell](/wiki/Kiss_and_Tell_%28play%29 "Kiss and Tell (play)")*.[*Kiss and Tell* at the Internet Broadway Database](http://www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=1278) [Shirley Temple](/wiki/Shirley_Temple "Shirley Temple") performed Corliss on screen in the 1945 film version of *[Kiss and Tell](/wiki/Kiss_and_Tell_%281945_film%29 "Kiss and Tell (1945 film)")* and in the 1949 sequel, *[A Kiss for Corliss](/wiki/A_Kiss_for_Corliss "A Kiss for Corliss")*. Herbert's property was later adapted as a comic book series also titled *[Meet Corliss Archer](/wiki/Meet_Corliss_Archer "Meet Corliss Archer")*, as well as a television series. Herbert's play *[The Moon Is Blue](/wiki/The_Moon_Is_Blue "The Moon Is Blue")* (1951\) had a run of 924 performances on [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre").[*The Moon is Blue* at the Internet Broadway Database](http://www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=1929) It was adapted for [the screen version](/wiki/The_Moon_is_Blue "The Moon is Blue") produced and directed by [Otto Preminger](/wiki/Otto_Preminger "Otto Preminger"), who had been responsible for the stage production. The film adaptation, released in 1953, was controversial at the time owing to its frank language and sexual themes. When the [Breen office](/wiki/Joseph_Breen "Joseph Breen") refused to give it a [Motion Picture Production Code](/wiki/Motion_Picture_Production_Code "Motion Picture Production Code") seal of approval, [United Artists](/wiki/United_Artists "United Artists") opted to release the film without one, and the success of the film was instrumental in weakening the long\-standing influence of the Code.Fujiwara, Chris, *The World and Its Double: The Life and Work of Otto Preminger*. New York: Macmillan Publishers 2009\. {{ISBN\|0\-86547\-995\-X}}, pp. 140–147 Herbert's 1947 play *For Love or Money* was filmed in 1959 as *[This Happy Feeling](/wiki/This_Happy_Feeling "This Happy Feeling")*. He adapted the Italian play *[The Best House in Naples](/wiki/The_Best_House_in_Naples "The Best House in Naples")* for Broadway in 1956\. Herbert wrote several novels including *I'd Rather Be Kissed* (1954\). He also wrote a book of poems. He won the [Writers Guild of America Award](/wiki/Writers_Guild_of_America_Award "Writers Guild of America Award") for *Sitting Pretty* and was nominated for *The Moon is Blue*. He was president of the [Screen Writers Guild](/wiki/Screen_Writers_Guild "Screen Writers Guild") from 1953 to 1954 and was chairman until 1957\. Herbert died in [Beverly Hills](/wiki/Beverly_Hills "Beverly Hills") in 1958\. He was the uncle of actress [Kathleen Hughes](/wiki/Kathleen_Hughes "Kathleen Hughes").
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "Born in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), Austria in 1897, Herbert was educated at the [University of London](/wiki/University_of_London \"University of London\").[F. Hugh Herbert at AllMovie.com](http://www.allmovie.com/artist/frederick-hugh-herbert-94100) He emigrated to the United States from England on the S/S *Kroonland*, which docked at the port of New York on September 11, 1920\\. He joined [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures \"Paramount Pictures\") as a film writer,{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Obituaries\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|date\\=May 21, 1958\\|page\\=79\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/variety210\\-1958\\-05\\#page/n224/mode/1up\\|access\\-date\\=January 23, 2021\\|via\\=\\[\\[Archive.org]]}} beginning his career in 1926 with two projects starring [Conrad Nagel](/wiki/Conrad_Nagel \"Conrad Nagel\"), *The Waning Sex* and *There You Are!*, the latter adapted from his play of the same title. His screenwriting credits included *[Vanity Fair](/wiki/Vanity_Fair_%281932_film%29 \"Vanity Fair (1932 film)\")*, *[Fashions of 1934](/wiki/Fashions_of_1934 \"Fashions of 1934\")*; *[Smarty](/wiki/Smarty_%28film%29 \"Smarty (film)\")* in 1934, adapted from his own play; *[Sitting Pretty](/wiki/Sitting_Pretty_%281948_film%29 \"Sitting Pretty (1948 film)\")*; *[Dark Command](/wiki/Dark_Command \"Dark Command\")*; *[Our Very Own](/wiki/Our_Very_Own_%281950_film%29 \"Our Very Own (1950 film)\")*; *[The Little Hut](/wiki/The_Little_Hut \"The Little Hut\")*; *[Scudda Hoo! Scudda Hay!](/wiki/Scudda_Hoo%21_Scudda_Hay%21 \"Scudda Hoo! Scudda Hay!\")* and *[The Girls of Pleasure Island](/wiki/The_Girls_of_Pleasure_Island \"The Girls of Pleasure Island\")*, the last two of which he also directed. He co\\-wrote a few films in which the similarly named, but unrelated actor [Hugh Herbert](/wiki/Hugh_Herbert \"Hugh Herbert\") appeared: *[Fashions of 1934](/wiki/Fashions_of_1934 \"Fashions of 1934\")* (1934\\), *[We're in the Money](/wiki/We%27re_in_the_Money_%28film%29 \"We're in the Money (film)\")* (1935\\) and *[Colleen](/wiki/Colleen_%281936_film%29 \"Colleen (1936 film)\")* (1936\\).", "One of Herbert's most enduring creations was the character of American teenager Corliss Archer, who was introduced in 1943 in a series of *Good Housekeeping* short stories. The story cycle was quickly adapted to radio, as *Meet Corliss Archer,* and to theatre, as *[Kiss and Tell](/wiki/Kiss_and_Tell_%28play%29 \"Kiss and Tell (play)\")*.[*Kiss and Tell* at the Internet Broadway Database](http://www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=1278) [Shirley Temple](/wiki/Shirley_Temple \"Shirley Temple\") performed Corliss on screen in the 1945 film version of *[Kiss and Tell](/wiki/Kiss_and_Tell_%281945_film%29 \"Kiss and Tell (1945 film)\")* and in the 1949 sequel, *[A Kiss for Corliss](/wiki/A_Kiss_for_Corliss \"A Kiss for Corliss\")*. Herbert's property was later adapted as a comic book series also titled *[Meet Corliss Archer](/wiki/Meet_Corliss_Archer \"Meet Corliss Archer\")*, as well as a television series.", "Herbert's play *[The Moon Is Blue](/wiki/The_Moon_Is_Blue \"The Moon Is Blue\")* (1951\\) had a run of 924 performances on [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\").[*The Moon is Blue* at the Internet Broadway Database](http://www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=1929) It was adapted for [the screen version](/wiki/The_Moon_is_Blue \"The Moon is Blue\") produced and directed by [Otto Preminger](/wiki/Otto_Preminger \"Otto Preminger\"), who had been responsible for the stage production. The film adaptation, released in 1953, was controversial at the time owing to its frank language and sexual themes. When the [Breen office](/wiki/Joseph_Breen \"Joseph Breen\") refused to give it a [Motion Picture Production Code](/wiki/Motion_Picture_Production_Code \"Motion Picture Production Code\") seal of approval, [United Artists](/wiki/United_Artists \"United Artists\") opted to release the film without one, and the success of the film was instrumental in weakening the long\\-standing influence of the Code.Fujiwara, Chris, *The World and Its Double: The Life and Work of Otto Preminger*. New York: Macmillan Publishers 2009\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-86547\\-995\\-X}}, pp. 140–147 Herbert's 1947 play *For Love or Money* was filmed in 1959 as *[This Happy Feeling](/wiki/This_Happy_Feeling \"This Happy Feeling\")*. He adapted the Italian play *[The Best House in Naples](/wiki/The_Best_House_in_Naples \"The Best House in Naples\")* for Broadway in 1956\\.", "Herbert wrote several novels including *I'd Rather Be Kissed* (1954\\). He also wrote a book of poems.", "He won the [Writers Guild of America Award](/wiki/Writers_Guild_of_America_Award \"Writers Guild of America Award\") for *Sitting Pretty* and was nominated for *The Moon is Blue*. He was president of the [Screen Writers Guild](/wiki/Screen_Writers_Guild \"Screen Writers Guild\") from 1953 to 1954 and was chairman until 1957\\.", "Herbert died in [Beverly Hills](/wiki/Beverly_Hills \"Beverly Hills\") in 1958\\. He was the uncle of actress [Kathleen Hughes](/wiki/Kathleen_Hughes \"Kathleen Hughes\").", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|[Historical marker](/wiki/Commemorative_plaque "Commemorative plaque") of Rehoboth Beach's history, located in Rehoboth Beach](/wiki/File:Rehoboth_Beach_historical_marker.jpg "Rehoboth Beach historical marker.jpg") [thumb\|left\|[Historical marker](/wiki/Commemorative_plaque "Commemorative plaque"), located in Rehoboth Beach, about early 20th century Rehoboth Beach history. Photographed in 2024\.](/wiki/File:RehobothVillageImprovementAssociationSign.jpg "RehobothVillageImprovementAssociationSign.jpg") [thumb\|Rehoboth Beach in the 1930s](/wiki/File:Air_view_of_Rehoboth_Beach_and_boardwalk_from_the_south%2C_Rehoboth_Beach%2C_Del_%2863081%29.jpg "Air view of Rehoboth Beach and boardwalk from the south, Rehoboth Beach, Del (63081).jpg") ### Colonial era {{Further\|Delaware Colony}} By the time the first Europeans arrived in the area in the 17th century, the coastline was at its present location and several Native American Indian tribes lived in the area, including the [Lenape](/wiki/Lenape "Lenape"), the Sikkonese, the [Assateagues](/wiki/Assateague_people "Assateague people"), and the [Nanticoke](/wiki/Nanticoke_people "Nanticoke people"). The site was the location of what may have been the most important Native American fishing village on the [Middle Atlantic coast](/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_%28United_States%29 "Mid-Atlantic (United States)"), including at [Wilgus Site](/wiki/Wilgus_Site "Wilgus Site"), a prehistoric shell midden archeological location, which is now inundated.Jordan, Francis, Jr. 1906\. *Aboriginal Fishing Stations on the Coast of the Middle Atlantic States*. Lancaster, Penn. Press of the New Era Printing Company, p. 25 Pressure from [English](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England "Kingdom of England") and [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic") settlers radiating outward from [Cape Henlopen](/wiki/Cape_Henlopen "Cape Henlopen") near [Lewes, Delaware](/wiki/Lewes%2C_Delaware "Lewes, Delaware") at the entrance to [Delaware Bay](/wiki/Delaware_Bay "Delaware Bay") forced the Lenape to migrate to upper [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)") state, eastern [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), and eventually to the west in [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory "Indian Territory") (later formed [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas"), parts of [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas "Arkansas")) while the Sikkonese and Assateagues were [extirpated](/wiki/Local_extinction "Local extinction"); the Nanticoke, however, still exist in the general area today. The land later came under the control of the [Duke of York](/wiki/Duke_of_York "Duke of York"), younger brother of King [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England") who also seized and occupied in 1664 the Dutch colony further north at the mouth of the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River") on [Manhattan Island](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan") and adjacent [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island") as [New Netherland](/wiki/New_Netherland "New Netherland") with [Fort Amsterdam](/wiki/Fort_Amsterdam "Fort Amsterdam") and the village of [New Amsterdam](/wiki/New_Amsterdam "New Amsterdam") followed by the previous [Swedish](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") colony on the upper [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River "Delaware River") at [Fort Christina](/wiki/Fort_Christina "Fort Christina") and [New Sweden](/wiki/New_Sweden "New Sweden"), which the Dutch attacked and occupied several years earlier. These later became part of the English and later [British America](/wiki/British_America "British America") colonies/provinces of [New York state](/wiki/Province_of_New_York "Province of New York") and [New York town](/wiki/History_of_New_York_City "History of New York City") along with renamed [Wilmington](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Delaware "Wilmington, Delaware") and [New Castle](/wiki/New_Castle%2C_Delaware "New Castle, Delaware") along the Delaware River as part of the colonial [Province of Pennsylvania](/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania "Province of Pennsylvania") and later in the future state of [Delaware](/wiki/History_of_Delaware "History of Delaware"). Later, the Duke granted holdings to various landholders who endured into the 18th century, and ultimately ascended to the English throne as King [James II of England](/wiki/James_II_of_England "James II of England") and also James VII of Scotland. *[Rehoboth](/wiki/Rehoboth_%28Bible%29 "Rehoboth (Bible)")* ({{lang\-he\|רְחוֹבוֹת}}) means "broad spaces." It appears three times in the [Old Testament](/wiki/Old_Testament "Old Testament") as a place name — a well dug by [Isaac](/wiki/Isaac "Isaac") (at modern Wadi er\-Ruheibeh) (Genesis 26:22\), a city on the [Euphrates River](/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates") (Genesis 36:37; I Chronicles 1:48\), and one of the cities of [Asshur](/wiki/Assur "Assur") (Genesis 10:11\) in [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia") (modern [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq")). Hence the name may have had a special appeal for the religious founders of the city, although the [adjacent bay](/wiki/Rehoboth_Bay "Rehoboth Bay") had already borne the name Rehoboth for at least a century before the town was founded.Leiste, Christian (1778\). *Beschreibung des Brittischen Amerika zur Ersparung der englischen Karten*, p. 312; retrieved through Google Books ### 19th century By the mid\-19th century, the descendants of these landholders were farmers attempting to make a living off the relatively poor sandy infertile land.Meehan, p. 19 The town was founded in 1873 as the **Rehoboth Beach Camp Meeting Association** by the Rev. Robert W. Todd, of St. Paul's [Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church "Methodist Episcopal Church") of [Wilmington, Delaware](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Delaware "Wilmington, Delaware"), as a site for [Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church "Methodist Episcopal Church") [camp meetings](/wiki/Camp_meeting "Camp meeting") in the spirit of similar resorts further north on the [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey") shore, such as [Ocean Grove](/wiki/Ocean_Grove%2C_New_Jersey "Ocean Grove, New Jersey"). The Camp Meeting Association disbanded in 1881, and in 1891, the location was incorporated by the [General Assembly of Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_General_Assembly "Delaware General Assembly") ([state legislature](/wiki/State_legislature_%28United_States%29 "State legislature (United States)")) as "Cape Henlopen City". In 1893, it was renamed to Rehoboth Beach.{{cite web\|url\=http://archives.delaware.gov/markers/sc/SC\-90\.shtml\|title\=State of Delaware – Delaware Public Archives – Sussex County Markers\|website\=archives.delaware.gov}} The first boardwalk in Rehoboth Beach was constructed in 1873 and has seen changes in configuration from weather and storms over the years. The Junction and Breakwater Railroad constructed a line from [Lewes](/wiki/Lewes%2C_Delaware "Lewes, Delaware") south to Rehoboth Beach in 1878, running down the center of today's Rehoboth Avenue. The arrival of the railroad allowed visitors to come in from northern Delaware and [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania") and its cities and towns, leading to the beginning of Rehoboth Beach as a tourist destination.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.capegazette.com/affiliate\-post/rehoboth\-beach\-history\-riding\-iron\-horse\-nations\-summer\-capital/122164\|title\=Rehoboth Beach History – Riding an "Iron Horse" to the Nation's Summer Capital\|author\=The Oldfather Group\|date\=December 14, 2016\|newspaper\=Cape Gazette\|access\-date\=February 7, 2018}} After the railroad came to Rehoboth Beach, the center of camp meetings and city life moved to nearby Baltimore Avenue. The original Henlopen Hotel opened in 1879, being replaced with another hotel of the same name on the current site. ### 20th century [thumb\|The beach house of U.S. President [Joe Biden](/wiki/Joe_Biden "Joe Biden") and First Lady [Jill Biden](/wiki/Jill_Biden "Jill Biden") in the [North Shores](/wiki/North_Shores%2C_Delaware "North Shores, Delaware") neighborhood outside the corporate limits of Rehoboth Beach, which serves as their [Summer White House](/wiki/List_of_residences_of_presidents_of_the_United_States%23Summer_White_House "List of residences of presidents of the United States#Summer White House").](/wiki/File:BidenRehobothHome.jpg "BidenRehobothHome.jpg") [thumb\|A [rainbow crossing](/wiki/Rainbow_crossing "Rainbow crossing") in Rehoboth Beach, meant to celebrate the [LGBT](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") community.](/wiki/File:RainbowcrossingRehoboth.png "RainbowcrossingRehoboth.png") [thumb\|Rehoboth Beach boardwalk looking north at Delaware Avenue](/wiki/File:Rehoboth_Beach_boardwalk_at_Delaware_Avenue_looking_north.jpeg "Rehoboth Beach boardwalk at Delaware Avenue looking north.jpeg") [thumb\|Rehoboth Beach looking north at Delaware Avenue](/wiki/File:Rehoboth_Beach_looking_north_at_Delaware_Avenue_August_2021.jpeg "Rehoboth Beach looking north at Delaware Avenue August 2021.jpeg") A paved highway was built by the state between [Georgetown](/wiki/Georgetown%2C_Delaware "Georgetown, Delaware") and Rehoboth Beach in 1925, which helped bring in travelers from the west in the metropolitan areas of [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."); [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"); other parts of [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland"); and [Northern Virginia](/wiki/Northern_Virginia "Northern Virginia").{{cite web\|title\=About Rehoboth Beach\|publisher\=City of Rehoboth Beach\|url\=https://www.cityofrehoboth.com/visitors/about\-rehoboth\-beach\|access\-date\=February 6, 2018}} From 1942 to 1943, Rehoboth Beach Airport served as a base, designated as Coastal Patrol Base 2, for volunteers with the [Civil Air Patrol](/wiki/Civil_Air_Patrol "Civil Air Patrol"), who flew aerial patrols using civilian aircraft in support of Army and Navy anti\-submarine operations during the [Battle of the Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic "Battle of the Atlantic"). Two CAP airmen, Captain Hugh R. Sharp of [Greenville, Delaware](/wiki/Greenville%2C_Delaware "Greenville, Delaware") and First Lieutenant Edmond Edwards of [Newark, Delaware](/wiki/Newark%2C_Delaware "Newark, Delaware"), would go on to be the first civilians to receive the [Air Medal](/wiki/Air_Medal "Air Medal") after a search and rescue mission on July 21, 1942, where they rescued one crewmember of another CAP aircraft which crashed at sea.{{Cite book\| last\=Blazich \| first\=Frank A. Jr. \| year\=2020 \| title\="An honorable place in American air power": Civil Air Patrol coastal patrol operations, 1942\-1943 \| publisher\=\[\[Air University Press]] \| pages\=109–112 \| isbn\= 9781585663057 \| url\=https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/AUPress/Books/B\_0168\_BLAZICH\_AN\_HONORABLE\_PLACE\_IN\_AMERICAN\_AIR\_POWER\_CIVIL\_AIR\_PATROL\_COSTAL\_PATROL\_OPERATIONS\_1942\_1943\.PDF \| access\-date\=September 21, 2021 }} Rehoboth Beach Airport shut down in 1987 and Rehoboth Shores Estates Community now stands on the former grounds.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.capegazette.com/article/air\-war\-waged\-rehoboth\-beach\-airport/127167 \|title\=Air war waged from Rehoboth Beach airport \|last\=MacArthur \|first\=Ron \|date\=3 March 2017 \|website\=Cape Gazette \|access\-date\=23 September 2021}} The Delaware Public Archives placed a historical marker on the site of the former airport commemorating Coastal Patrol Base 2 in 2006\.{{cite web \|url\=https://archives.delaware.gov/historical\-markers\-map/civil\-air\-patrol/ \|title\=Civil Air Patrol – Coastal Patrol Base Two \|author\= \|publisher\=Delaware Public Archives \|access\-date\=23 September 2021}} ### 21st century [Avery's Rest Site](/wiki/Avery%27s_Rest_Site "Avery's Rest Site"), [Dodd Homestead](/wiki/Dodd_Homestead "Dodd Homestead"), [Peter Marsh House](/wiki/Peter_Marsh_House "Peter Marsh House"), [Thompson's Loss and Gain Site](/wiki/Thompson%27s_Loss_and_Gain_Site "Thompson's Loss and Gain Site"), [Thompsons Island Site](/wiki/Thompsons_Island_Site "Thompsons Island Site"), [Warrington Site](/wiki/Warrington_Site "Warrington Site"), and [Woman's Christian Temperance Union Fountain](/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union_Fountain "Woman's Christian Temperance Union Fountain") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places"), maintained by the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service") of the [United States Department of the Interior](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior "United States Department of the Interior").{{NRISref\|version\=2010a}} The town often bills itself as "The Nation's Summer Capital" because it is a frequent summer vacation destination for Washington, D.C., residents as well as visitors from [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), and [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"). Vacationers are drawn for many reasons, including the town's charm and the absence of a [sales tax](/wiki/Sales_tax "Sales tax") in [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware "Delaware"). The Rehoboth Beach Boardwalk is a {{convert\|1\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} long wooden [boardwalk](/wiki/Boardwalk_%28entertainment_district%29 "Boardwalk (entertainment district)") adjacent to the beach with restaurants, shops, amusements, and attractions.{{cite web\|title\=Rehoboth Beach Boardwalk\|publisher\=Visit DE Beaches\|url\=https://www.visitdebeaches.com/rehoboth\-beach\-boardwalk/\|access\-date\=February 6, 2018}} The Funland amusement park, which opened in 1962, is located along the boardwalk between Delaware and Brooklyn avenues.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.capegazette.com/affiliate\-post/funland\-rehoboth\-beach\-57\-years\-old\-and\-still\-creating\-treasured\-memories\-gene/180343\|title\=Funland in Rehoboth Beach is 57 Years Old and Still Creating Treasured Memories for Generations of Families\|author\=The Oldfather Group\|date\=May 9, 2019\|newspaper\=Cape Gazette\|access\-date\=July 10, 2020}} Several restaurants and shops are located along the town's [main street](/wiki/Main_street "Main street"), Rehoboth Avenue. Outside of Rehoboth Beach along [Delaware Route 1](/wiki/Delaware_Route_1 "Delaware Route 1"), are the [Tanger Outlets](/wiki/Tanger_Outlets "Tanger Outlets"), which operate three locations along the highway with over 130 outlet stores.{{cite web\|title\=Rehoboth Beach, Delaware Directory \& Map\|publisher\=Tanger Outlets\|url\=https://www.tangeroutlet.com/rehoboth/directory\|access\-date\=May 26, 2016}} Due to its proximity to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), Rehoboth Beach is a popular summer destination among members of the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress"). [Joe Biden](/wiki/Joe_Biden "Joe Biden"), the current [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States"), and current [First Lady of the United States](/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States "First Lady of the United States"), [Jill Biden](/wiki/Jill_Biden "Jill Biden"), have a beach house outside the corporate limits of Rehoboth Beach in the [North Shores](/wiki/North_Shores%2C_Delaware "North Shores, Delaware") neighborhood.{{cite news\|last1\=Heim\|first1\=Joe\|last2\=Leonnig\|first2\=Carol D.\|title\=After Biden win, Rehoboth Beach celebrates local boy who made good: 'He's our Joe'\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|date\=November 27, 2020\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/biden\-rehoboth\-beach/2020/11/27/904d0fee\-2ea9\-11eb\-860d\-f7999599cbc2\_story.html\|access\-date\=November 27, 2020}} This beach house serves as their "[Summer White House](/wiki/Summer_White_House "Summer White House")".{{cite news\|last\=Heller\|first\=Karen\|title\=Lovely, little Delaware – long famous for corporations, chickens and credit cards – is ready for its big moment\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|date\=January 12, 2021\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/delaware\-joe\-biden\-president/2021/01/11/18cceb4c\-4ac4\-11eb\-a9f4\-0e668b9772ba\_story.html\|access\-date\=January 20, 2021}} Rehoboth Beach has a seasonal beach patrol who are in charge of lifeguarding the one and a half miles that make up the town's beachfront. They operate from Memorial Day weekend into the following fall season. The beach patrol is on duty every day between Memorial Day until Labor Day from 10 am until 5 pm on weekdays, and 10 am until 5:30 pm on weekends.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rehobothbeachpatrol.com \|title\=Rehoboth Beach\- Lifeguard Beach Patrol \|publisher\=Rehobothbeachpatrol.com \|access\-date\=April 29, 2013}} Rehoboth Beach is also known as one of the mid\-Atlantic coast's popular [LGBT](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT")\-friendly getaways. LGBT tourists have been visiting and residing in the town for generations.{{Cite web \|last\=Jacobs \|first\=Faye \|date\=2020 \|title\=A Wild Part of Our Gay History Is Gone \|url\=https://www.camprehoboth.com/letters/2020/august\-14\-2020\-camp\-out\-fay\-jacobs \|website\=Letters From CAMP Rehoboth}}{{Cite book \|last\=Barnett \|first\=Rich \|title\=978\-0984999408 \|publisher\=GoGap \|year\=2012 \|isbn\=978\-0984999408}} However, the movement toward becoming gay\-friendly began with the town's culinary Renaissance in the 1980s.{{Cite news \|last\=Thomas Jr. \|first\=Robert \|date\=May 31, 1987 \|title\=A Delaware Beach with a Double Allure \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/05/31/travel/a\-delaware\-beach\-with\-a\-double\-allure.html \|work\=The New York Times \|pages\=Sec.10, 9}}{{Cite web \|last\=Sears \|first\=James \|date\=2020 \|title\=A Line Drawn in the Sand \|url\=https://www.camprehoboth.com/letters/1997/september\-25th\-2020\-camp\-rehoboth\-history\-project\-james\-t\-sears\-phd \|archive\-date\= \|website\=Letters From CAMP Rehoboth}} The visible presence of more LGBT people during this era and the resulting community backlash coincided with the national AIDS crisis and the Moral Majority.{{Cite book \|last\=Sears \|first\=James \|title\=Queering Rehoboth Beach: Beyond the Boardwalk \|publisher\=Temple University Press \|year\=2024 \|isbn\=978\-1439923801 \|location\=Philadelphia \|pages\=127–177}} During the 1990s, a coterie of gay and lesbian activists challenged the town's anti\-gay policies and sentiments to **C**reate **A** **M**ore **P**ositive Rehoboth ([CAMP](https://www.camprehoboth.com)).{{Cite book \|last\=Sears \|first\=James \|title\=Queering Rehoboth Beach: Beyond the Boardwalk \|date\=2024 \|publisher\=Temple University Press \|isbn\=978\-1439923801 \|pages\=178–184}} Through this organization's efforts as well as that other groups, two openly gay town commissioners the following decade and the town's position on LBGT issues changed.{{Cite web \|last\=Aguirre \|first\=Mark \|date\=2003 \|title\=Rehoboth Beach Commissioners Go On Record Against Discrimination \|url\=https://www.camprehoboth.com/letters/2003/june\-13\-2003\-rb\-commissioners \|website\=Letters from CAMP Rehoboth}} Today, there are a large number of LGBT\-owned and operated businesses; LGBT people are well\-represented in town governance. Summer activities include going to the LGBT\-frequented stretch of beach near Queen Street at the south end of the boardwalk, known as Poodle Beach.{{Cite web \|title\=Rehoboth Beach: What to See and Do – Queer Lesbian Gay Travel – Gay.com \|url\=http://www.gay.com/travel/premium/?sernum\=291 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050206152614/http://www.gay.com/travel/premium/?sernum\=291 \|archivedate\=February 6, 2005}}Katy Rice, 'Across the Pond', in *Sussex Society*, September 2011, p. 29 Poodle Beach tends to attract [gay men](/wiki/Gay_men "Gay men") while [North Shore Beach](/wiki/North_Shores%2C_Delaware "North Shores, Delaware") within [Cape Henlopen State Park](/wiki/Cape_Henlopen_State_Park "Cape Henlopen State Park") tends to attract [lesbians](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian").{{Cite book\| last\=Wurman \| first\=Richard Saul \| year\=2007 \| title\=Access Washington, D.C., Tenth Edition \| publisher\=\[\[HarperCollins]] \| page\=223 \| isbn\= 9780061230806 \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LcmsomW9B6EC \| access\-date\=September 2, 2013}} The Rehoboth Beach Bandstand is located on Rehoboth Avenue near the boardwalk and serves as a free open\-air music and entertainment venue in the summer months, with performances from over 50 bands during the season. Performances have been held at the Rehoboth Beach Bandstand since 1963\.{{cite web\|title\=Bandstand\|publisher\=City of Rehoboth Beach\|url\=https://www.cityofrehoboth.com/visitors/bandstand\|access\-date\=May 16, 2017}} *[Reader's Digest](/wiki/Reader%27s_Digest "Reader's Digest")* named the Rehoboth Beach Boardwalk as "Best of America" and featured it in the May 2006 issue. Additionally, [AARP](/wiki/AARP "AARP") has named Rehoboth Beach as one of five dream towns as "Best Places to Retire".Sarah Mahoney. [Dream Towns](http://www.retirementindelaware.com/pdf/AARPDreamTowns.pdf). August 8, 2006\. AARP. The town has several festivals including the Sea Witch Festival, the Rehoboth Beach Independent Film Festival,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rehobothfilm.com\|title\=Rehoboth Beach Film Society » Welcome\|website\=www.rehobothfilm.com}} and the Rehoboth Beach Autumn Jazz Festival{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rehobothjazz.com\|title\=Welcome – Rehoboth Jazz Festival\|website\=www.rehobothjazz.com}} every year. The Clear Space Theatre Company, a professional theater company, offers a year\-round schedule of musical and dramatic productions in the Rehoboth Theatre of the Arts. [Dogfish Head Brewery](/wiki/Dogfish_Head_Brewery "Dogfish Head Brewery")'s original brewpub is located on the town's main strip Rehoboth Avenue. The location has grown in years as a popular destination for American [craft beer](/wiki/Craft_beer "Craft beer") enthusiasts.{{cite web\|url\=http://beeradvocate.com/beer/profile/1188 \|title\=Dogfish Head Brewings \& Eats – Rehoboth Beach, DE – Beers \|publisher\=BeerAdvocate \|access\-date\=April 29, 2013}} [Grotto Pizza](/wiki/Grotto_Pizza "Grotto Pizza") was founded in Rehoboth Beach in 1960 and has grown to 23 locations throughout the state of Delaware along with parts of [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland") and [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania").{{cite web\|title\=History\|publisher\=Grotto Pizza\|url\=http://www.grottopizza.com/history/\|access\-date\=June 14, 2015}} Grotto Pizza has three locations in Rehoboth Beach, of which two are along the boardwalk while the other is along Rehoboth Avenue.{{cite web\|title\=Locations \& Specials\|publisher\=Grotto Pizza\|url\=http://www.grottopizza.com/locations/\#map\_top\|access\-date\=June 14, 2015}} Nicola Pizza is a well\-known business in Rehoboth Beach that opened in 1971, with two locations in the town.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.capegazette.com/article/nicola\-pizza\-celebrates\-45\-years/106648\|title\=Nicola Pizza celebrates 45 years\|last\=Flood\|first\=Chris\|date\=June 17, 2016\|newspaper\=Cape Gazette\|access\-date\=July 10, 2020}} In 2022, Nicola Pizza has relocated to [Lewes](/wiki/Lewes%2C_Delaware "Lewes, Delaware").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.capegazette.com/article/nicola\-pizza\-leaving\-downtown\-rehoboth\-beach/206891\|title\=Nicola Pizza leaving downtown Rehoboth Beach\|last\=Roth\|first\=Nick\|date\=August 16, 2020\|newspaper\=Cape Gazette\|access\-date\=August 16, 2020}} The restaurant scene in Rehoboth Beach was traditionally centered in the downtown area, which remains competitive. In the 21st century, a restaurant scene has begun to develop along the Delaware Route 1 corridor, where parking is more available and accessible.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.capegazette.com/article/jakes\-closes\-downtown\-rehoboth/147055\|title\=Jakes closes in downtown Rehoboth \|last\=Mavity\|first\=Ryan\|date\=December 1, 2017\|newspaper\=Cape Gazette\|access\-date\=December 14, 2017}} In 2011, the city passed a [smoking ban](/wiki/Smoking_ban "Smoking ban") covering parks and playgrounds, but sparing the beach and boardwalk.{{cite news \|title\=Delaware cities: Smoking still legal on Rehoboth Beach \|author\=Molly Murray \|url\=http://www.delawareonline.com/article/20110416/NEWS02/104160354/\-1/NLETTER01/Smoking\-still\-legal\-on\-Rehoboth\-Beach \|newspaper\=The News Journal \|publisher\=Gannett \|date\=April 16, 2011 \|at\=DelawareOnline \|access\-date\=April 16, 2011 }} The smoking ban was extended to the beach, boardwalk, and adjacent public areas in 2014\. In 2017, the city implemented a ban on tents, canopies, and large umbrellas on the beach, the first such ban in Delaware.{{cite news\|last1\=Hughes\|first1\=Gray\|last2\=Ferrar\|first2\=Doug\|last3\=Neiburg\|first3\=Jeff\|title\=With tourists incoming, some throw shade at Rehoboth over beach tent rule\|work\=The Daily Times\|location\=Salisbury, MD\|date\=May 25, 2017\|url\=http://www.delmarvanow.com/story/news/local/delaware/2017/05/25/summer\-comes/328281001/\|access\-date\=February 6, 2018}}
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|[Historical marker](/wiki/Commemorative_plaque \"Commemorative plaque\") of Rehoboth Beach's history, located in Rehoboth Beach](/wiki/File:Rehoboth_Beach_historical_marker.jpg \"Rehoboth Beach historical marker.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|[Historical marker](/wiki/Commemorative_plaque \"Commemorative plaque\"), located in Rehoboth Beach, about early 20th century Rehoboth Beach history. Photographed in 2024\\.](/wiki/File:RehobothVillageImprovementAssociationSign.jpg \"RehobothVillageImprovementAssociationSign.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Rehoboth Beach in the 1930s](/wiki/File:Air_view_of_Rehoboth_Beach_and_boardwalk_from_the_south%2C_Rehoboth_Beach%2C_Del_%2863081%29.jpg \"Air view of Rehoboth Beach and boardwalk from the south, Rehoboth Beach, Del (63081).jpg\")", "### Colonial era", "{{Further\\|Delaware Colony}}\nBy the time the first Europeans arrived in the area in the 17th century, the coastline was at its present location and several Native American Indian tribes lived in the area, including the [Lenape](/wiki/Lenape \"Lenape\"), the Sikkonese, the [Assateagues](/wiki/Assateague_people \"Assateague people\"), and the [Nanticoke](/wiki/Nanticoke_people \"Nanticoke people\"). The site was the location of what may have been the most important Native American fishing village on the [Middle Atlantic coast](/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_%28United_States%29 \"Mid-Atlantic (United States)\"), including at [Wilgus Site](/wiki/Wilgus_Site \"Wilgus Site\"), a prehistoric shell midden archeological location, which is now inundated.Jordan, Francis, Jr. 1906\\. *Aboriginal Fishing Stations on the Coast of the Middle Atlantic States*. Lancaster, Penn. Press of the New Era Printing Company, p. 25", "Pressure from [English](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England \"Kingdom of England\") and [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\") settlers radiating outward from [Cape Henlopen](/wiki/Cape_Henlopen \"Cape Henlopen\") near [Lewes, Delaware](/wiki/Lewes%2C_Delaware \"Lewes, Delaware\") at the entrance to [Delaware Bay](/wiki/Delaware_Bay \"Delaware Bay\") forced the Lenape to migrate to upper [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\") state, eastern [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), and eventually to the west in [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory \"Indian Territory\") (later formed [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\"), [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\"), parts of [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas \"Arkansas\")) while the Sikkonese and Assateagues were [extirpated](/wiki/Local_extinction \"Local extinction\"); the Nanticoke, however, still exist in the general area today.", "The land later came under the control of the [Duke of York](/wiki/Duke_of_York \"Duke of York\"), younger brother of King [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\") who also seized and occupied in 1664 the Dutch colony further north at the mouth of the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\") on [Manhattan Island](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\") and adjacent [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\") as [New Netherland](/wiki/New_Netherland \"New Netherland\") with [Fort Amsterdam](/wiki/Fort_Amsterdam \"Fort Amsterdam\") and the village of [New Amsterdam](/wiki/New_Amsterdam \"New Amsterdam\") followed by the previous [Swedish](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") colony on the upper [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\") at [Fort Christina](/wiki/Fort_Christina \"Fort Christina\") and [New Sweden](/wiki/New_Sweden \"New Sweden\"), which the Dutch attacked and occupied several years earlier. These later became part of the English and later [British America](/wiki/British_America \"British America\") colonies/provinces of [New York state](/wiki/Province_of_New_York \"Province of New York\") and [New York town](/wiki/History_of_New_York_City \"History of New York City\") along with renamed [Wilmington](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Delaware \"Wilmington, Delaware\") and [New Castle](/wiki/New_Castle%2C_Delaware \"New Castle, Delaware\") along the Delaware River as part of the colonial [Province of Pennsylvania](/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania \"Province of Pennsylvania\") and later in the future state of [Delaware](/wiki/History_of_Delaware \"History of Delaware\"). Later, the Duke granted holdings to various landholders who endured into the 18th century, and ultimately ascended to the English throne as King [James II of England](/wiki/James_II_of_England \"James II of England\") and also James VII of Scotland.", "*[Rehoboth](/wiki/Rehoboth_%28Bible%29 \"Rehoboth (Bible)\")* ({{lang\\-he\\|רְחוֹבוֹת}}) means \"broad spaces.\" It appears three times in the [Old Testament](/wiki/Old_Testament \"Old Testament\") as a place name — a well dug by [Isaac](/wiki/Isaac \"Isaac\") (at modern Wadi er\\-Ruheibeh) (Genesis 26:22\\), a city on the [Euphrates River](/wiki/Euphrates \"Euphrates\") (Genesis 36:37; I Chronicles 1:48\\), and one of the cities of [Asshur](/wiki/Assur \"Assur\") (Genesis 10:11\\) in [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\") (modern [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\")). Hence the name may have had a special appeal for the religious founders of the city, although the [adjacent bay](/wiki/Rehoboth_Bay \"Rehoboth Bay\") had already borne the name Rehoboth for at least a century before the town was founded.Leiste, Christian (1778\\). *Beschreibung des Brittischen Amerika zur Ersparung der englischen Karten*, p. 312; retrieved through Google Books", "### 19th century", "By the mid\\-19th century, the descendants of these landholders were farmers attempting to make a living off the relatively poor sandy infertile land.Meehan, p. 19 The town was founded in 1873 as the **Rehoboth Beach Camp Meeting Association** by the Rev. Robert W. Todd, of St. Paul's [Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"Methodist Episcopal Church\") of [Wilmington, Delaware](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Delaware \"Wilmington, Delaware\"), as a site for [Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"Methodist Episcopal Church\") [camp meetings](/wiki/Camp_meeting \"Camp meeting\") in the spirit of similar resorts further north on the [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\") shore, such as [Ocean Grove](/wiki/Ocean_Grove%2C_New_Jersey \"Ocean Grove, New Jersey\"). The Camp Meeting Association disbanded in 1881, and in 1891, the location was incorporated by the [General Assembly of Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_General_Assembly \"Delaware General Assembly\") ([state legislature](/wiki/State_legislature_%28United_States%29 \"State legislature (United States)\")) as \"Cape Henlopen City\". In 1893, it was renamed to Rehoboth Beach.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://archives.delaware.gov/markers/sc/SC\\-90\\.shtml\\|title\\=State of Delaware – Delaware Public Archives – Sussex County Markers\\|website\\=archives.delaware.gov}}", "The first boardwalk in Rehoboth Beach was constructed in 1873 and has seen changes in configuration from weather and storms over the years. The Junction and Breakwater Railroad constructed a line from [Lewes](/wiki/Lewes%2C_Delaware \"Lewes, Delaware\") south to Rehoboth Beach in 1878, running down the center of today's Rehoboth Avenue. The arrival of the railroad allowed visitors to come in from northern Delaware and [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\") and its cities and towns, leading to the beginning of Rehoboth Beach as a tourist destination.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.capegazette.com/affiliate\\-post/rehoboth\\-beach\\-history\\-riding\\-iron\\-horse\\-nations\\-summer\\-capital/122164\\|title\\=Rehoboth Beach History – Riding an \"Iron Horse\" to the Nation's Summer Capital\\|author\\=The Oldfather Group\\|date\\=December 14, 2016\\|newspaper\\=Cape Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=February 7, 2018}} After the railroad came to Rehoboth Beach, the center of camp meetings and city life moved to nearby Baltimore Avenue. The original Henlopen Hotel opened in 1879, being replaced with another hotel of the same name on the current site.", "### 20th century", "[thumb\\|The beach house of U.S. President [Joe Biden](/wiki/Joe_Biden \"Joe Biden\") and First Lady [Jill Biden](/wiki/Jill_Biden \"Jill Biden\") in the [North Shores](/wiki/North_Shores%2C_Delaware \"North Shores, Delaware\") neighborhood outside the corporate limits of Rehoboth Beach, which serves as their [Summer White House](/wiki/List_of_residences_of_presidents_of_the_United_States%23Summer_White_House \"List of residences of presidents of the United States#Summer White House\").](/wiki/File:BidenRehobothHome.jpg \"BidenRehobothHome.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A [rainbow crossing](/wiki/Rainbow_crossing \"Rainbow crossing\") in Rehoboth Beach, meant to celebrate the [LGBT](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") community.](/wiki/File:RainbowcrossingRehoboth.png \"RainbowcrossingRehoboth.png\")\n[thumb\\|Rehoboth Beach boardwalk looking north at Delaware Avenue](/wiki/File:Rehoboth_Beach_boardwalk_at_Delaware_Avenue_looking_north.jpeg \"Rehoboth Beach boardwalk at Delaware Avenue looking north.jpeg\")\n[thumb\\|Rehoboth Beach looking north at Delaware Avenue](/wiki/File:Rehoboth_Beach_looking_north_at_Delaware_Avenue_August_2021.jpeg \"Rehoboth Beach looking north at Delaware Avenue August 2021.jpeg\")", "A paved highway was built by the state between [Georgetown](/wiki/Georgetown%2C_Delaware \"Georgetown, Delaware\") and Rehoboth Beach in 1925, which helped bring in travelers from the west in the metropolitan areas of [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"); [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"); other parts of [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\"); and [Northern Virginia](/wiki/Northern_Virginia \"Northern Virginia\").{{cite web\\|title\\=About Rehoboth Beach\\|publisher\\=City of Rehoboth Beach\\|url\\=https://www.cityofrehoboth.com/visitors/about\\-rehoboth\\-beach\\|access\\-date\\=February 6, 2018}}", "From 1942 to 1943, Rehoboth Beach Airport served as a base, designated as Coastal Patrol Base 2, for volunteers with the [Civil Air Patrol](/wiki/Civil_Air_Patrol \"Civil Air Patrol\"), who flew aerial patrols using civilian aircraft in support of Army and Navy anti\\-submarine operations during the [Battle of the Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic \"Battle of the Atlantic\"). Two CAP airmen, Captain Hugh R. Sharp of [Greenville, Delaware](/wiki/Greenville%2C_Delaware \"Greenville, Delaware\") and First Lieutenant Edmond Edwards of [Newark, Delaware](/wiki/Newark%2C_Delaware \"Newark, Delaware\"), would go on to be the first civilians to receive the [Air Medal](/wiki/Air_Medal \"Air Medal\") after a search and rescue mission on July 21, 1942, where they rescued one crewmember of another CAP aircraft which crashed at sea.{{Cite book\\| last\\=Blazich \\| first\\=Frank A. Jr. \\| year\\=2020 \\| title\\=\"An honorable place in American air power\": Civil Air Patrol coastal patrol operations, 1942\\-1943 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Air University Press]] \\| pages\\=109–112 \\| isbn\\= 9781585663057 \\| url\\=https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/AUPress/Books/B\\_0168\\_BLAZICH\\_AN\\_HONORABLE\\_PLACE\\_IN\\_AMERICAN\\_AIR\\_POWER\\_CIVIL\\_AIR\\_PATROL\\_COSTAL\\_PATROL\\_OPERATIONS\\_1942\\_1943\\.PDF \\| access\\-date\\=September 21, 2021 }}", "Rehoboth Beach Airport shut down in 1987 and Rehoboth Shores Estates Community now stands on the former grounds.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.capegazette.com/article/air\\-war\\-waged\\-rehoboth\\-beach\\-airport/127167 \\|title\\=Air war waged from Rehoboth Beach airport \\|last\\=MacArthur \\|first\\=Ron \\|date\\=3 March 2017 \\|website\\=Cape Gazette \\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2021}} The Delaware Public Archives placed a historical marker on the site of the former airport commemorating Coastal Patrol Base 2 in 2006\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://archives.delaware.gov/historical\\-markers\\-map/civil\\-air\\-patrol/ \\|title\\=Civil Air Patrol – Coastal Patrol Base Two \\|author\\= \\|publisher\\=Delaware Public Archives \\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2021}}", "### 21st century", "[Avery's Rest Site](/wiki/Avery%27s_Rest_Site \"Avery's Rest Site\"), [Dodd Homestead](/wiki/Dodd_Homestead \"Dodd Homestead\"), [Peter Marsh House](/wiki/Peter_Marsh_House \"Peter Marsh House\"), [Thompson's Loss and Gain Site](/wiki/Thompson%27s_Loss_and_Gain_Site \"Thompson's Loss and Gain Site\"), [Thompsons Island Site](/wiki/Thompsons_Island_Site \"Thompsons Island Site\"), [Warrington Site](/wiki/Warrington_Site \"Warrington Site\"), and [Woman's Christian Temperance Union Fountain](/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union_Fountain \"Woman's Christian Temperance Union Fountain\") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\"), maintained by the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\") of the [United States Department of the Interior](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior \"United States Department of the Interior\").{{NRISref\\|version\\=2010a}}", "The town often bills itself as \"The Nation's Summer Capital\" because it is a frequent summer vacation destination for Washington, D.C., residents as well as visitors from [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), and [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"). Vacationers are drawn for many reasons, including the town's charm and the absence of a [sales tax](/wiki/Sales_tax \"Sales tax\") in [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware \"Delaware\"). The Rehoboth Beach Boardwalk is a {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} long wooden [boardwalk](/wiki/Boardwalk_%28entertainment_district%29 \"Boardwalk (entertainment district)\") adjacent to the beach with restaurants, shops, amusements, and attractions.{{cite web\\|title\\=Rehoboth Beach Boardwalk\\|publisher\\=Visit DE Beaches\\|url\\=https://www.visitdebeaches.com/rehoboth\\-beach\\-boardwalk/\\|access\\-date\\=February 6, 2018}} The Funland amusement park, which opened in 1962, is located along the boardwalk between Delaware and Brooklyn avenues.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.capegazette.com/affiliate\\-post/funland\\-rehoboth\\-beach\\-57\\-years\\-old\\-and\\-still\\-creating\\-treasured\\-memories\\-gene/180343\\|title\\=Funland in Rehoboth Beach is 57 Years Old and Still Creating Treasured Memories for Generations of Families\\|author\\=The Oldfather Group\\|date\\=May 9, 2019\\|newspaper\\=Cape Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=July 10, 2020}} Several restaurants and shops are located along the town's [main street](/wiki/Main_street \"Main street\"), Rehoboth Avenue. Outside of Rehoboth Beach along [Delaware Route 1](/wiki/Delaware_Route_1 \"Delaware Route 1\"), are the [Tanger Outlets](/wiki/Tanger_Outlets \"Tanger Outlets\"), which operate three locations along the highway with over 130 outlet stores.{{cite web\\|title\\=Rehoboth Beach, Delaware Directory \\& Map\\|publisher\\=Tanger Outlets\\|url\\=https://www.tangeroutlet.com/rehoboth/directory\\|access\\-date\\=May 26, 2016}}", "Due to its proximity to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), Rehoboth Beach is a popular summer destination among members of the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\"). [Joe Biden](/wiki/Joe_Biden \"Joe Biden\"), the current [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\"), and current [First Lady of the United States](/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States \"First Lady of the United States\"), [Jill Biden](/wiki/Jill_Biden \"Jill Biden\"), have a beach house outside the corporate limits of Rehoboth Beach in the [North Shores](/wiki/North_Shores%2C_Delaware \"North Shores, Delaware\") neighborhood.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Heim\\|first1\\=Joe\\|last2\\=Leonnig\\|first2\\=Carol D.\\|title\\=After Biden win, Rehoboth Beach celebrates local boy who made good: 'He's our Joe'\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|date\\=November 27, 2020\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/biden\\-rehoboth\\-beach/2020/11/27/904d0fee\\-2ea9\\-11eb\\-860d\\-f7999599cbc2\\_story.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 27, 2020}} This beach house serves as their \"[Summer White House](/wiki/Summer_White_House \"Summer White House\")\".{{cite news\\|last\\=Heller\\|first\\=Karen\\|title\\=Lovely, little Delaware – long famous for corporations, chickens and credit cards – is ready for its big moment\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|date\\=January 12, 2021\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/delaware\\-joe\\-biden\\-president/2021/01/11/18cceb4c\\-4ac4\\-11eb\\-a9f4\\-0e668b9772ba\\_story.html\\|access\\-date\\=January 20, 2021}}", "Rehoboth Beach has a seasonal beach patrol who are in charge of lifeguarding the one and a half miles that make up the town's beachfront. They operate from Memorial Day weekend into the following fall season. The beach patrol is on duty every day between Memorial Day until Labor Day from 10 am until 5 pm on weekdays, and 10 am until 5:30 pm on weekends.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rehobothbeachpatrol.com \\|title\\=Rehoboth Beach\\- Lifeguard Beach Patrol \\|publisher\\=Rehobothbeachpatrol.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2013}}", "Rehoboth Beach is also known as one of the mid\\-Atlantic coast's popular [LGBT](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\")\\-friendly getaways. LGBT tourists have been visiting and residing in the town for generations.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Jacobs \\|first\\=Faye \\|date\\=2020 \\|title\\=A Wild Part of Our Gay History Is Gone \\|url\\=https://www.camprehoboth.com/letters/2020/august\\-14\\-2020\\-camp\\-out\\-fay\\-jacobs \\|website\\=Letters From CAMP Rehoboth}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Barnett \\|first\\=Rich \\|title\\=978\\-0984999408 \\|publisher\\=GoGap \\|year\\=2012 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0984999408}} However, the movement toward becoming gay\\-friendly began with the town's culinary Renaissance in the 1980s.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Thomas Jr. \\|first\\=Robert \\|date\\=May 31, 1987 \\|title\\=A Delaware Beach with a Double Allure \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/05/31/travel/a\\-delaware\\-beach\\-with\\-a\\-double\\-allure.html \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|pages\\=Sec.10, 9}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sears \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=2020 \\|title\\=A Line Drawn in the Sand \\|url\\=https://www.camprehoboth.com/letters/1997/september\\-25th\\-2020\\-camp\\-rehoboth\\-history\\-project\\-james\\-t\\-sears\\-phd \\|archive\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Letters From CAMP Rehoboth}} The visible presence of more LGBT people during this era and the resulting community backlash coincided with the national AIDS crisis and the Moral Majority.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sears \\|first\\=James \\|title\\=Queering Rehoboth Beach: Beyond the Boardwalk \\|publisher\\=Temple University Press \\|year\\=2024 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1439923801 \\|location\\=Philadelphia \\|pages\\=127–177}} During the 1990s, a coterie of gay and lesbian activists challenged the town's anti\\-gay policies and sentiments to **C**reate **A** **M**ore **P**ositive Rehoboth ([CAMP](https://www.camprehoboth.com)).{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sears \\|first\\=James \\|title\\=Queering Rehoboth Beach: Beyond the Boardwalk \\|date\\=2024 \\|publisher\\=Temple University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1439923801 \\|pages\\=178–184}} Through this organization's efforts as well as that other groups, two openly gay town commissioners the following decade and the town's position on LBGT issues changed.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Aguirre \\|first\\=Mark \\|date\\=2003 \\|title\\=Rehoboth Beach Commissioners Go On Record Against Discrimination \\|url\\=https://www.camprehoboth.com/letters/2003/june\\-13\\-2003\\-rb\\-commissioners \\|website\\=Letters from CAMP Rehoboth}} Today, there are a large number of LGBT\\-owned and operated businesses; LGBT people are well\\-represented in town governance. Summer activities include going to the LGBT\\-frequented stretch of beach near Queen Street at the south end of the boardwalk, known as Poodle Beach.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Rehoboth Beach: What to See and Do – Queer Lesbian Gay Travel – Gay.com \\|url\\=http://www.gay.com/travel/premium/?sernum\\=291 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050206152614/http://www.gay.com/travel/premium/?sernum\\=291 \\|archivedate\\=February 6, 2005}}Katy Rice, 'Across the Pond', in *Sussex Society*, September 2011, p. 29 Poodle Beach tends to attract [gay men](/wiki/Gay_men \"Gay men\") while [North Shore Beach](/wiki/North_Shores%2C_Delaware \"North Shores, Delaware\") within [Cape Henlopen State Park](/wiki/Cape_Henlopen_State_Park \"Cape Henlopen State Park\") tends to attract [lesbians](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\").{{Cite book\\| last\\=Wurman \\| first\\=Richard Saul \\| year\\=2007 \\| title\\=Access Washington, D.C., Tenth Edition \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[HarperCollins]] \\| page\\=223 \\| isbn\\= 9780061230806 \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LcmsomW9B6EC \\| access\\-date\\=September 2, 2013}}", "The Rehoboth Beach Bandstand is located on Rehoboth Avenue near the boardwalk and serves as a free open\\-air music and entertainment venue in the summer months, with performances from over 50 bands during the season. Performances have been held at the Rehoboth Beach Bandstand since 1963\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Bandstand\\|publisher\\=City of Rehoboth Beach\\|url\\=https://www.cityofrehoboth.com/visitors/bandstand\\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2017}}", "*[Reader's Digest](/wiki/Reader%27s_Digest \"Reader's Digest\")* named the Rehoboth Beach Boardwalk as \"Best of America\" and featured it in the May 2006 issue. Additionally, [AARP](/wiki/AARP \"AARP\") has named Rehoboth Beach as one of five dream towns as \"Best Places to Retire\".Sarah Mahoney. [Dream Towns](http://www.retirementindelaware.com/pdf/AARPDreamTowns.pdf). August 8, 2006\\. AARP.", "The town has several festivals including the Sea Witch Festival, the Rehoboth Beach Independent Film Festival,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rehobothfilm.com\\|title\\=Rehoboth Beach Film Society » Welcome\\|website\\=www.rehobothfilm.com}} and the Rehoboth Beach Autumn Jazz Festival{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rehobothjazz.com\\|title\\=Welcome – Rehoboth Jazz Festival\\|website\\=www.rehobothjazz.com}} every year.", "The Clear Space Theatre Company, a professional theater company, offers a year\\-round schedule of musical and dramatic productions in the Rehoboth Theatre of the Arts.", "[Dogfish Head Brewery](/wiki/Dogfish_Head_Brewery \"Dogfish Head Brewery\")'s original brewpub is located on the town's main strip Rehoboth Avenue. The location has grown in years as a popular destination for American [craft beer](/wiki/Craft_beer \"Craft beer\") enthusiasts.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://beeradvocate.com/beer/profile/1188 \\|title\\=Dogfish Head Brewings \\& Eats – Rehoboth Beach, DE – Beers \\|publisher\\=BeerAdvocate \\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2013}} [Grotto Pizza](/wiki/Grotto_Pizza \"Grotto Pizza\") was founded in Rehoboth Beach in 1960 and has grown to 23 locations throughout the state of Delaware along with parts of [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\") and [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\").{{cite web\\|title\\=History\\|publisher\\=Grotto Pizza\\|url\\=http://www.grottopizza.com/history/\\|access\\-date\\=June 14, 2015}} Grotto Pizza has three locations in Rehoboth Beach, of which two are along the boardwalk while the other is along Rehoboth Avenue.{{cite web\\|title\\=Locations \\& Specials\\|publisher\\=Grotto Pizza\\|url\\=http://www.grottopizza.com/locations/\\#map\\_top\\|access\\-date\\=June 14, 2015}} Nicola Pizza is a well\\-known business in Rehoboth Beach that opened in 1971, with two locations in the town.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.capegazette.com/article/nicola\\-pizza\\-celebrates\\-45\\-years/106648\\|title\\=Nicola Pizza celebrates 45 years\\|last\\=Flood\\|first\\=Chris\\|date\\=June 17, 2016\\|newspaper\\=Cape Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=July 10, 2020}} In 2022, Nicola Pizza has relocated to [Lewes](/wiki/Lewes%2C_Delaware \"Lewes, Delaware\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.capegazette.com/article/nicola\\-pizza\\-leaving\\-downtown\\-rehoboth\\-beach/206891\\|title\\=Nicola Pizza leaving downtown Rehoboth Beach\\|last\\=Roth\\|first\\=Nick\\|date\\=August 16, 2020\\|newspaper\\=Cape Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2020}}", "The restaurant scene in Rehoboth Beach was traditionally centered in the downtown area, which remains competitive. In the 21st century, a restaurant scene has begun to develop along the Delaware Route 1 corridor, where parking is more available and accessible.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.capegazette.com/article/jakes\\-closes\\-downtown\\-rehoboth/147055\\|title\\=Jakes closes in downtown Rehoboth \\|last\\=Mavity\\|first\\=Ryan\\|date\\=December 1, 2017\\|newspaper\\=Cape Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=December 14, 2017}}", "In 2011, the city passed a [smoking ban](/wiki/Smoking_ban \"Smoking ban\") covering parks and playgrounds, but sparing the beach and boardwalk.{{cite news\n \\|title\\=Delaware cities: Smoking still legal on Rehoboth Beach \\|author\\=Molly Murray\n \\|url\\=http://www.delawareonline.com/article/20110416/NEWS02/104160354/\\-1/NLETTER01/Smoking\\-still\\-legal\\-on\\-Rehoboth\\-Beach\n \\|newspaper\\=The News Journal \\|publisher\\=Gannett \\|date\\=April 16, 2011 \\|at\\=DelawareOnline \\|access\\-date\\=April 16, 2011 }} The smoking ban was extended to the beach, boardwalk, and adjacent public areas in 2014\\. In 2017, the city implemented a ban on tents, canopies, and large umbrellas on the beach, the first such ban in Delaware.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Hughes\\|first1\\=Gray\\|last2\\=Ferrar\\|first2\\=Doug\\|last3\\=Neiburg\\|first3\\=Jeff\\|title\\=With tourists incoming, some throw shade at Rehoboth over beach tent rule\\|work\\=The Daily Times\\|location\\=Salisbury, MD\\|date\\=May 25, 2017\\|url\\=http://www.delmarvanow.com/story/news/local/delaware/2017/05/25/summer\\-comes/328281001/\\|access\\-date\\=February 6, 2018}}", "" ]
Sniper teams in South Armagh ---------------------------- ### Rifles During the 1980s, the IRA relied mostly on [weaponry smuggled](/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army_arms_importation "Provisional Irish Republican Army arms importation") from [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya").Bowyer Bell 1997, pp. 556–571\.*The Guardian* ["IRA arms decommissioned"](https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/sep/26/northernireland.northernireland1) 26 September 2005\. Retrieved: 22 March 2008\.*The New York Times* ["I.R.A. Disarmament Is Complete, Commission Reports"](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/26/international/europe/26cnd-ulster.html?_r=1&oref=slogin) 26 September 2005\. Retrieved: 22 March 2008\. The regular shipments from the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), once the main source of arms for the republicans through the gunrunning operations of Irish immigrant and IRA veteran [George Harrison](/wiki/George_Harrison_%28Irish_republican%29 "George Harrison (Irish republican)"), were disrupted after he was arrested by the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") in 1981\.Holland 1999, pp. 93–99\. The smuggling scheme suffered a further blow when the [Fenit](/wiki/Fenit_Harbour "Fenit Harbour")\-based trawler *Marita Ann*, with a huge arms cache from [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), was captured by the [Irish Naval Service](/wiki/Irish_Naval_Service "Irish Naval Service") in 1984\.Holland 1999, p. 110\. Between the mid\-1980s and the 1990s, there was some small\-scale activity,Harnden 2000, Chapter 10, *Made in USA*, pp. 353–386\. leading to the purchase of US\-made Barrett M82 and M90 rifles,O'Brien 1999, pp. 354–355\. which became common weapons for the South Armagh snipers. According to letters seized by US federal authorities from a [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk "Dundalk") IRA member, Martin Quigley, who had travelled to the US to study computing at [Lehigh University](/wiki/Lehigh_University "Lehigh University") in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"),Harnden 2000, p. 366\. the organisation managed to smuggle an M82 to the [Republic of Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") just before his arrest in 1989\. He was part of a larger plot to import electronic devices to defeat British Army countermeasures against IRA remote\-controlled bombs."One of the items the FBI was unable to seize was a Barrett Light Fifty which letters found in Quigley's apartment indicated had been successfully shipped to the Irish Republic" (Harnden 2000, p. 372\). In August 1986, another M82 had been sent in pieces from Chicago to [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"), where the rifle was reassembled."Another Light Fifty had been pieced together in Dublin's Central Sorting Office in August 1986 after its component parts had been sent in parcels from Chicago to addresses in the Irish capital" (Harnden 2000, p. 372\). At least two of the M90 rifles were bought as recently as six months after the first IRA ceasefire.Harnden 1999\. It was part of a batch of two sold to Michael Suárez, a Cuban resident of [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), on 27 January 1995 by a firearms dealer. Suárez later passed the weapons to an Irishman, who finally shipped the rifles, their ammunition and two telescopic sights to the Republic of Ireland.Harnden pp. 354–355\. An unidentified leading figure inside the IRA sniper campaign, quoted by [Toby Harnden](/wiki/Toby_Harnden "Toby Harnden"), said: {{quote\|What's special about the Barrett is the huge kinetic energy.... The bullet can just walk through a flak jacket. South Armagh was the prime place to use such weapon because of the availability of Brits. They came to dread it and that was part of its effectiveness.Harnden 2000, pp. 406–407\.}} Three of the security forces members killed in the campaign were the victims of [7\.62×51mm](/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm "7.62×51mm") rounds instead. Five missed shots belonged to the same kind of weapon.Harnden 200, pp. 400, 502–504 (*Appendix A*). Harnden recalls a Belgian [FN FAL](/wiki/FN_FAL "FN FAL") rifle recovered by the [Gardaí](/wiki/Garda%C3%AD "Gardaí") near [Inniskeen](/wiki/Inniskeen "Inniskeen") in 1998 as the possible source of these bullets.Harnden 2000, p. 400\. Security sources suspected a [Heckler \& Koch PSG1](/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_PSG1 "Heckler & Koch PSG1") sniper rifle might have been used in some attacks.*Sunday Life*, 8 August 1993\. ### Shootings | Name and rankHarnden 2000, pp. 502–505\. | Date | Place | Rifle calibre | | Paul Turner, private | 28 August 1992 | Crossmaglen | .50 | | Jonathan Reid, constable | 25 February 1993 | Crossmaglen | 7\.62 mm | | Lawrence Dickson, lance corporal | 17 March 1993 | Forkhill | 7\.62 mm | | John Randall, private | 26 June 1993 | [Newtownhamilton](/wiki/Newtownhamilton "Newtownhamilton") | 7\.62 mm | | Kevin Pullin, lance corporal | 17 July 1993 | Crossmaglen | .50 | | Brian Woods, constable | 2 November 1993 | [Newry](/wiki/Newry "Newry") | .50 | | Paul Garret, lance bombardier | 2 December 1993 | [Keady](/wiki/Keady "Keady") | .50 | | Daniel Blinco, guardsman | 30 December 1993 | Crossmaglen | .50 | | Stephen Restorick, lance bombardier | 12 February 1997 | Bessbrook | .50 | Contrary to the first British Army assessment and the speculation of the press,Stubblefield 1994, p. 232\. there was not just a single sniper involved. According to Harnden, there were two different teams,"Two PIRA ASUs were involved and, although there were some long distance shoots using the Barrett, the majority of engagements were at a range of 200 – 300 m using a 7\.62 mm rifle" (*Operation Banner* report. Paragraph 529\). one responsible for the east part of South Armagh, around [Dromintee](/wiki/Dromintee "Dromintee"), the other for the west, in the area surrounding [Cullyhanna](/wiki/Cullyhanna "Cullyhanna").Harnden 2000, pp. 400 \& 404\. The volunteer in charge of the Cullyhanna unit was Frank "One Shot" McCabe, a senior IRA member from Crossmaglen.Harnden 2000, p. 407\. Each team comprised at least four members, not counting those in charge of support activities, such as scouting for targets and driving vehicles. Military officials claim that the Dromintee\-based squad deployed up to 20 volunteers in some of the sniping missions.Harnden 2000, p. 404\. The teams made good use of [dead ground](/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade%23Defilade "Enfilade and defilade#Defilade") to conceal themselves from British observation posts."The attacks, which were carefully mounted to use dead ground away from the Army's matrix of observation posts targeted security forces on their likely movement routes near bases and vehicle checkpoints" (*Operation Banner* report. Paragraph 529\). The sniper attack on a checkpoint at Newry killed Constable Brian Woods and was officially reported in an IRA South Down Brigade statement,{{Cite web\|date\=13 November 1993\|title\=War News\|url\=https://indianamemory.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/IP/id/17312/rec/44\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-12\|website\=indianamemory.contentdm.oclc.org\|publisher\=The Irish People\|language\=en}} but a high\-profile IRA member from Dromintee, identified by Toby Harnden as a South Armagh Brigade volunteer known as "The Surgeon", was identified by the author as the mastermind behind the shooting.{{Cite web\|last\=Fergus\|first\=Lindsay\|date\=2001\|title\=HE PLEADS GUILTY TO FRAUD RAP; Ulster farmer tells judge that best\-selling book identifies him as IRA killer, THEN.... \- Free Online Library\|url\=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/HE\+PLEADS\+GUILTY\+TO\+FRAUD\+RAP;\+Ulster\+farmer\+tells\+judge\+that...\-a071482956\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-12\|website\=www.thefreelibrary.com}} Between 1990 and 1997, 24 shots were fired at British forces. The first eight operations (1990–1992\), ended in misses. On 16 March 1990, the Barrett M82 was used for the first time by the IRA. The target was a checkpoint manned by soldiers of [The Light Infantry](/wiki/The_Light_Infantry "The Light Infantry") regiment on Castleblaney Road. A single .50 round pierced the helmet and skimmed the skull of Lance Corporal Hartsthorne, who survived with minor head injuries.Jackson, Mike (2006\).*[Operation Banner: An Analysis of Military Operations in Northern Ireland](http://www.vilaweb.cat/media/attach/vwedts/docs/op_banner_analysis_released.pdf)*. [MoD](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)"), Army Code 71842\. Chapter 2, p. 16, item 247Harnden 2000, p. 392\. In August 1992, one team mortally wounded a Light Infantry soldier. By April 1997 seven soldiers and two policemen had been killed. An RUC [constable](/wiki/Constable "Constable") almost lost one of his legs in the last sniper attack during [the Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles"). Another six rounds achieved nothing, but two of them narrowly missed the patrol boat HMS *Cygnet*, in [Carlingford Lough](/wiki/Carlingford_Lough "Carlingford Lough") and another holed Borucki sangar, a British Army outpost in Crossmaglen square. On 31 July 1993 at 10:00 pm a British Army patrol which had set up a mobile checkpoint on Newry Road, near [Newtownhamilton](/wiki/Newtownhamilton "Newtownhamilton"), was fired at by an IRA sniper team. The British soldiers returned fire, but there were no casualties on either side.[Sniper attack leads to security search: Police fear armed IRA team at work on border](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/sniper-attack-leads-to-security-search-police-fear-armed-ira-team-at-work-on-border-1458676.html), [The Irish Independent](/wiki/The_Irish_Independent "The Irish Independent"), 2 August 1993 The marksman usually fired from a distance of less than 300 m, despite the 1 km effective range of the rifles. Sixteen operations were carried out from the rear of a vehicle, with the sniper protected by an armour plate in case the patrols returned fire.Harnden 2000, p. 403\. At least in one incident, after the killing of a soldier in [Forkhill](/wiki/Forkhill "Forkhill") on 17 March 1993, had the British Army fire back at the sniper's vehicle without effect.McKittrick, Kelters, Feeney \& Thornton 2000, p. 1314\. The IRA vehicles were escorted by scout cars, to alert about the presence of security checkpoints ahead. Two different sources include in the campaign two incidents that happened outside South Armagh; one in [Belcoo](/wiki/Belcoo "Belcoo"), [County Fermanagh](/wiki/County_Fermanagh "County Fermanagh"), where a constable was killed,"Over the 15\-month period from August 1992 to December 1993, six soldiers and three RUC constables were killed by single shot attacks in South Armagh (often described by the media as 'Bandit Country') and Fermanagh" (*Operation Banner* report, paragraph 529\). the other in West [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), which resulted in the death of a British soldier.Harnden 2000, p. 392\. The IRA Belfast Brigade claimed that the latter incident actually involved two shooters, who fired 28 rounds from assault rifles on a British Army vehicle.{{Cite web\|date\=15 August 1992\|title\=British soldier killed as IRA attacks escalate\|url\=https://ulib.iupuidigital.org/digital/collection/IP/id/21559\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-21\|website\=ulib.iupuidigital.org\|publisher\=The Irish People\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=21 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421110409/https://ulib.iupuidigital.org/digital/collection/IP/id/21559\|url\-status\=dead}} An RUC investigation after the Belfast ambush led to the discovery of one Barrett M82, hidden in a derelict house. It was later determined that this rifle was the weapon responsible for the first killing in South Armagh in 1992\."The rifle used in the (August 1992\) attack was thought to have been one of those made and sold legitimate in Texas by Ron Freshour, a former Barrett employee, and later bought by the IRA. Stamped with the word 'Tejas' –Spanish for Texas\- on the butt, it was fired in west Belfast in June 1993 and seized a month later during an RUC search of a vacant house" (Harnden 2000, p. 392\). Another Barrett is reported to have been in possession of the IRA team in the [Occupation of Cullaville](/wiki/Occupation_of_Cullaville "Occupation of Cullaville") in South Armagh in April 1993\.{{cite web\|url\=http://historical\-debates.oireachtas.ie/S/0135/S.0135\.199304290006\.html\|title\=Senead Éireann – 29 April 1993\|access\-date\=3 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016233843/http://historical\-debates.oireachtas.ie/S/0135/S.0135\.199304290006\.html\|archive\-date\=16 October 2013\|df\=dmy\-all}} A third unrelated sniper attack, which resulted in the death of a British soldier, was carried out by the IRA in the [New Lodge](/wiki/New_Lodge%2C_Belfast "New Lodge, Belfast"), [North Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), on 3 August 1992\.{{cite web\|url\=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/chron/1992\.html\|title\=CAIN database of deaths, 1992\|access\-date\=3 October 2014}} Two other soldiers were wounded by snipers in the New Lodge, which was suitable for sniper attacks because of the number of high\-rise flats in the area, in November 1993Fortnight, Issues 324–334, Fortnight Publications, 1994\. and January 1994\. Two people were arrested and a loaded rifle recovered in the aftermath of the latter incident.[Peter Heathwood Collection of television programs: 1994](http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/1994.html). [Conflict Archive on the Internet](/wiki/Conflict_Archive_on_the_Internet "Conflict Archive on the Internet") (CAIN) On 30 December 1993 Guardsman Daniel Blinco became the last soldier killed by snipers in South Armagh before the first IRA ceasefire in 1994\.Harnden 2000, pp. 409–410\. His killing, along with the reaction of the [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") of his [constituency](/wiki/Constituency "Constituency"), was covered by the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC")'s *Inside Ulster*,{{cite web\|url\=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/1993\.html\|title\=BBC NI news, Friday 31 December 1993 – From CAIN website\|access\-date\=3 October 2014}} which also showed Blinco's abandoned helmet and the hole that was made by the sniper's bullet on the wall of a pub.{{cn\|date\=July 2021}} The [tabloid press](/wiki/Tabloid_press "Tabloid press") of the time started calling the sniper 'Goldfinger' or 'Terminator', the nicknames current in Crossmaglen's bars. The last serviceman killed by snipers at South Armagh, [Lance Bombardier](/wiki/Lance_Bombardier "Lance Bombardier") Stephen Restorick, was also the last British soldier to die by hostile fire during the Troubles, on 12 February 1997\. Restorick's killing resulted in a public outcry. [Gerry Adams](/wiki/Gerry_Adams "Gerry Adams") called his death "tragic" and wrote a letter of condolence to his mother.English 2005, p. 293\.Moloney 2003, p. 473\. ### Caraher team captured The IRA ceasefire from 31 August 1994 gave an opportunity to the British to collect intelligence to be used against the snipers.Harnden 2000, pp. 411, 416\. The truce was strongly resented by South Armagh IRA members."The ceasefires have been humiliating.... Here in Crossmaglen we had the Army and the police on the run. All you needed to do was shoot one every six months..." (Harnden 2000, p. 410, quoting a terrorist). During the ceasefire, an alleged member of the Drumintee squad, Kevin Donegan, was arrested by an RUC patrol in relation to the 1994 murder of a postal worker in the course of an armed robbery.See [Sutton Index of Deaths (1994\), 10 November entry](http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/chron/1994.html#prof)Harnden 2000, pp. 410–11\. When the IRA ended the ceasefire with the [bombing of the London Docklands](/wiki/1996_South_Quay_bombing "1996 South Quay bombing") in February 1996, some republicans had already abandoned the organisation, and others had turned to criminal activities."Some terrorists drifted away from the IRA while even the most experienced became rusty. The Special Branch Officer said: 'Micksey Martin is a case point. He is an absolute rascal who has been stealing and smoking cigarettes since he was eight years old. But he has tremendous organisational ability and was superb in a war situation. Once the ceasefire came, his criminality, his "homers" \-raking off money for himself\- drinking and womanising meant that he lost a lot of respect from people.' " Harnden 2000, p. 411\."During the previous 21 months (before June 1996\), there had been seven Post Office robberies in South Armagh and the security forces believed they had identified the IRA team responsible" (Harnden 2000, p. 412\). The period after the ceasefire saw little IRA activity in South Armagh."After the Docklands bomb brought the ceasefire to an end, there were remarkably few IRA attacks in South Armagh" (Harnden 2000, p. 411\). After two attacks in 1997, a [Special Air Service](/wiki/Special_Air_Service "Special Air Service") unit captured four men from the [sniper team](/wiki/Sniper_team "Sniper team") based in the west of the region on April 10, who were responsible for several deaths. After a brief scuffle, James McArdle, Michael Caraher, [Bernard McGinn](/wiki/Bernard_Henry_McGinn "Bernard Henry McGinn") and Martin Mines were seized at a farm near Freeduff and handed over to the RUC. The British troops were under strict orders to avoid IRA casualties. A Barrett M90 rifle was seized,Harnden 2000, pp. 420–22\. which [forensic](/wiki/Forensic "Forensic") and intelligence reports linked only to the 1997 shootings."16\.9 Based on the findings of the investigation concluding that the Barrett .50 calibre rifle used on 12 February 1997 was not the same weapon used in sniper shootings in South Armagh between 1990 and 1994\..." ([Police Ombudsman report](https://web.archive.org/web/20061214225407/http://www.policeombudsman.org/publicationsuploads/Final%20redacted%20version.pdf#prof), 13 December 2006\). It was hinted that there was an informer, a suggestion dismissed by the [Police Ombudsman](/wiki/Police_Ombudsman "Police Ombudsman") report.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/last\-british\-soldier\-murdered\-by\-ira\-sacrificed\-for\-spy\-6262hjc7w3q\|title\=Last British soldier murdered by IRA 'sacrificed' for spy\|work\=The Times\|date\=20 June 2004\|access\-date\=13 July 2021}} McGinn provided the RUC with a lot of information about IRA activities and even betrayed Frank McCabe, the IRA commander behind the sniper campaign,Harnden 2000, 283 but he eventually withdrew his statement. One of the key players in the British campaign against the South Armagh sniper was [Welsh Guards](/wiki/Welsh_Guards "Welsh Guards")' Captain [Rupert Thorneloe](/wiki/Rupert_Thorneloe "Rupert Thorneloe"), according to the journalist [Toby Harnden](/wiki/Toby_Harnden "Toby Harnden"). Thorneloe worked as an intelligence liaison officer between the [3rd Infantry Brigade](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "3rd Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)") and the [RUC Special Branch](/wiki/RUC_Special_Branch "RUC Special Branch"). Thorneloe, who reached the rank of lieutenant\-colonel, was killed in July 2009 by an improvised explosive device during the [war in Afghanistan](/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_%282001%E2%80%93present%29 "War in Afghanistan (2001–present)"). Another senior figure involved in the British efforts against the sniper squads was SAS Staff Sergeant Gaz Hunter, whose experience in South Armagh dated back to 1975\.Harnden 2000, p. 159 Despite the sense of relief among British forces after the arrests, there was concern over the other two Barrett rifles still in the possession of the South Armagh Brigade.Harnden 2000, 425\. One of the IRA volunteers captured, Michael Caraher, was the brother of [Fergal Caraher](/wiki/Fergal_Caraher "Fergal Caraher"), a [Sinn Féin](/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in "Sinn Féin") member and IRA volunteer"[Caraher family still seeking justice after 17 years](http://www.anphoblacht.com/contents/17986)" An Phoblacht, 10 January 2008 killed by [Royal Marines](/wiki/Royal_Marines "Royal Marines") at a checkpoint on 30 December 1990 near Cullyhanna. Michael, also shot and wounded in the same incident, had lost a lung in the aftermath.[*Irish Examiner*, 29 July 2000](http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2000/07/29/current/ipage_18.htm#prof) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604044459/http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2000/07/29/current/ipage\_18\.htm \|date\=4 June 2012 }} The Marines involved were tried and acquitted by Lord Chief Justice Hutton.Geraghty 2000, pp. 102–103\. The shooting of Guardsman Daniel Blinco in Crossmaglen took place on the second anniversary of the killing of Fergal Caraher. Michael Caraher was thought to be the shooter in several attacks,Harnden 2000, p. 408\. but he was indicted only for the case of the maimed constable. He was defended by the solicitor [Rosemary Nelson](/wiki/Rosemary_Nelson "Rosemary Nelson") who was later killed by the [loyalist](/wiki/Ulster_loyalism "Ulster loyalism") organisation [Red Hand Defenders](/wiki/Red_Hand_Defenders "Red Hand Defenders").Geraghty 2000, p. 377\. The other three men of the sniper team were convicted in 1999 for six killings, two of them unrelated to the sniping operations (the deaths of two men when one of the team's members, James McArdle, planted [the bomb at Canary Wharf](/wiki/1996_Docklands_bombing "1996 Docklands bombing") in 1996\). The capture of the sniper unit was the greatest success for the security forces in South Armagh in more than a decade.Geraghty 2000, p. 185\.Strachan 2006, p. 139\. The men were set free 18 months later, under the terms of the [Good Friday Agreement](/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement").Harnden 2000, p. 424\. The Dromintee sniper party was never apprehended.
[ "Sniper teams in South Armagh\n----------------------------", "### Rifles", "During the 1980s, the IRA relied mostly on [weaponry smuggled](/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army_arms_importation \"Provisional Irish Republican Army arms importation\") from [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\").Bowyer Bell 1997, pp. 556–571\\.*The Guardian* [\"IRA arms decommissioned\"](https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/sep/26/northernireland.northernireland1)\n26 September 2005\\. Retrieved: 22 March 2008\\.*The New York Times* [\"I.R.A. Disarmament Is Complete, Commission Reports\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/26/international/europe/26cnd-ulster.html?_r=1&oref=slogin) 26 September 2005\\. Retrieved: 22 March 2008\\. The regular shipments from the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), once the main source of arms for the republicans through the gunrunning operations of Irish immigrant and IRA veteran [George Harrison](/wiki/George_Harrison_%28Irish_republican%29 \"George Harrison (Irish republican)\"), were disrupted after he was arrested by the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") in 1981\\.Holland 1999, pp. 93–99\\. The smuggling scheme suffered a further blow when the [Fenit](/wiki/Fenit_Harbour \"Fenit Harbour\")\\-based trawler *Marita Ann*, with a huge arms cache from [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), was captured by the [Irish Naval Service](/wiki/Irish_Naval_Service \"Irish Naval Service\") in 1984\\.Holland 1999, p. 110\\.", "Between the mid\\-1980s and the 1990s, there was some small\\-scale activity,Harnden 2000, Chapter 10, *Made in USA*, pp. 353–386\\. leading to the purchase of US\\-made Barrett M82 and M90 rifles,O'Brien 1999, pp. 354–355\\. which became common weapons for the South Armagh snipers. According to letters seized by US federal authorities from a [Dundalk](/wiki/Dundalk \"Dundalk\") IRA member, Martin Quigley, who had travelled to the US to study computing at [Lehigh University](/wiki/Lehigh_University \"Lehigh University\") in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"),Harnden 2000, p. 366\\. the organisation managed to smuggle an M82 to the [Republic of Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\") just before his arrest in 1989\\. He was part of a larger plot to import electronic devices to defeat British Army countermeasures against IRA remote\\-controlled bombs.\"One of the items the FBI was unable to seize was a Barrett Light Fifty which letters found in Quigley's apartment indicated had been successfully shipped to the Irish Republic\" (Harnden 2000, p. 372\\).", "In August 1986, another M82 had been sent in pieces from Chicago to [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\"), where the rifle was reassembled.\"Another Light Fifty had been pieced together in Dublin's Central Sorting Office in August 1986 after its component parts had been sent in parcels from Chicago to addresses in the Irish capital\" (Harnden 2000, p. 372\\).\nAt least two of the M90 rifles were bought as recently as six months after the first IRA ceasefire.Harnden 1999\\. It was part of a batch of two sold to Michael Suárez, a Cuban resident of [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), on 27 January 1995 by a firearms dealer. Suárez later passed the weapons to an Irishman, who finally shipped the rifles, their ammunition and two telescopic sights to the Republic of Ireland.Harnden pp. 354–355\\. An unidentified leading figure inside the IRA sniper campaign, quoted by [Toby Harnden](/wiki/Toby_Harnden \"Toby Harnden\"), said:\n{{quote\\|What's special about the Barrett is the huge kinetic energy.... The bullet can just walk through a flak jacket. South Armagh was the prime place to use such weapon because of the availability of Brits. They came to dread it and that was part of its effectiveness.Harnden 2000, pp. 406–407\\.}}\nThree of the security forces members killed in the campaign were the victims of [7\\.62×51mm](/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm \"7.62×51mm\") rounds instead. Five missed shots belonged to the same kind of weapon.Harnden 200, pp. 400, 502–504 (*Appendix A*). Harnden recalls a Belgian [FN FAL](/wiki/FN_FAL \"FN FAL\") rifle recovered by the [Gardaí](/wiki/Garda%C3%AD \"Gardaí\") near [Inniskeen](/wiki/Inniskeen \"Inniskeen\") in 1998 as the possible source of these bullets.Harnden 2000, p. 400\\. Security sources suspected a [Heckler \\& Koch PSG1](/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_PSG1 \"Heckler & Koch PSG1\") sniper rifle might have been used in some attacks.*Sunday Life*, 8 August 1993\\.", "### Shootings", "", "| Name and rankHarnden 2000, pp. 502–505\\. | Date | Place | Rifle calibre |", "| Paul Turner, private | 28 August 1992 | Crossmaglen | .50 |\n| Jonathan Reid, constable | 25 February 1993 | Crossmaglen | 7\\.62 mm |\n| Lawrence Dickson, lance corporal | 17 March 1993 | Forkhill | 7\\.62 mm |\n| John Randall, private | 26 June 1993 | [Newtownhamilton](/wiki/Newtownhamilton \"Newtownhamilton\") | 7\\.62 mm |\n| Kevin Pullin, lance corporal | 17 July 1993 | Crossmaglen | .50 |\n| Brian Woods, constable | 2 November 1993 | [Newry](/wiki/Newry \"Newry\") | .50 |\n| Paul Garret, lance bombardier | 2 December 1993 | [Keady](/wiki/Keady \"Keady\") | .50 |\n| Daniel Blinco, guardsman | 30 December 1993 | Crossmaglen | .50 |\n| Stephen Restorick, lance bombardier | 12 February 1997 | Bessbrook | .50 |", "Contrary to the first British Army assessment and the speculation of the press,Stubblefield 1994, p. 232\\. there was not just a single sniper involved. According to Harnden, there were two different teams,\"Two PIRA ASUs were involved and, although there were some long distance shoots using the Barrett, the majority of engagements were at a range of 200 – 300 m using a 7\\.62 mm rifle\" (*Operation Banner* report. Paragraph 529\\).\none responsible for the east part of South Armagh, around [Dromintee](/wiki/Dromintee \"Dromintee\"), the other for the west, in the area surrounding [Cullyhanna](/wiki/Cullyhanna \"Cullyhanna\").Harnden 2000, pp. 400 \\& 404\\. The volunteer in charge of the Cullyhanna unit was Frank \"One Shot\" McCabe, a senior IRA member from Crossmaglen.Harnden 2000, p. 407\\.", "Each team comprised at least four members, not counting those in charge of support activities, such as scouting for targets and driving vehicles. Military officials claim that the Dromintee\\-based squad deployed up to 20 volunteers in some of the sniping missions.Harnden 2000, p. 404\\. The teams made good use of [dead ground](/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade%23Defilade \"Enfilade and defilade#Defilade\") to conceal themselves from British observation posts.\"The attacks, which were carefully mounted to use dead ground away from the Army's matrix of observation posts targeted security forces on their likely movement routes near bases and vehicle checkpoints\" (*Operation Banner* report. Paragraph 529\\).", "The sniper attack on a checkpoint at Newry killed Constable Brian Woods and was officially reported in an IRA South Down Brigade statement,{{Cite web\\|date\\=13 November 1993\\|title\\=War News\\|url\\=https://indianamemory.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/IP/id/17312/rec/44\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-12\\|website\\=indianamemory.contentdm.oclc.org\\|publisher\\=The Irish People\\|language\\=en}} but a high\\-profile IRA member from Dromintee, identified by Toby Harnden as a South Armagh Brigade volunteer known as \"The Surgeon\", was identified by the author as the mastermind behind the shooting.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Fergus\\|first\\=Lindsay\\|date\\=2001\\|title\\=HE PLEADS GUILTY TO FRAUD RAP; Ulster farmer tells judge that best\\-selling book identifies him as IRA killer, THEN.... \\- Free Online Library\\|url\\=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/HE\\+PLEADS\\+GUILTY\\+TO\\+FRAUD\\+RAP;\\+Ulster\\+farmer\\+tells\\+judge\\+that...\\-a071482956\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-12\\|website\\=www.thefreelibrary.com}}", "Between 1990 and 1997, 24 shots were fired at British forces. The first eight operations (1990–1992\\), ended in misses. On 16 March 1990, the Barrett M82 was used for the first time by the IRA. The target was a checkpoint manned by soldiers of [The Light Infantry](/wiki/The_Light_Infantry \"The Light Infantry\") regiment on Castleblaney Road. A single .50 round pierced the helmet and skimmed the skull of Lance Corporal Hartsthorne, who survived with minor head injuries.Jackson, Mike (2006\\).*[Operation Banner: An Analysis of Military Operations in Northern Ireland](http://www.vilaweb.cat/media/attach/vwedts/docs/op_banner_analysis_released.pdf)*. [MoD](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)\"), Army Code 71842\\. Chapter 2, p. 16, item 247Harnden 2000, p. 392\\. In August 1992, one team mortally wounded a Light Infantry soldier. By April 1997 seven soldiers and two policemen had been killed. An RUC [constable](/wiki/Constable \"Constable\") almost lost one of his legs in the last sniper attack during [the Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\").", "Another six rounds achieved nothing, but two of them narrowly missed the patrol boat HMS *Cygnet*, in [Carlingford Lough](/wiki/Carlingford_Lough \"Carlingford Lough\") and another holed Borucki sangar, a British Army outpost in Crossmaglen square. On 31 July 1993 at 10:00 pm a British Army patrol which had set up a mobile checkpoint on Newry Road, near [Newtownhamilton](/wiki/Newtownhamilton \"Newtownhamilton\"), was fired at by an IRA sniper team. The British soldiers returned fire, but there were no casualties on either side.[Sniper attack leads to security search: Police fear armed IRA team at work on border](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/sniper-attack-leads-to-security-search-police-fear-armed-ira-team-at-work-on-border-1458676.html), [The Irish Independent](/wiki/The_Irish_Independent \"The Irish Independent\"), 2 August 1993 The marksman usually fired from a distance of less than 300 m, despite the 1 km effective range of the rifles. Sixteen operations were carried out from the rear of a vehicle, with the sniper protected by an armour plate in case the patrols returned fire.Harnden 2000, p. 403\\. At least in one incident, after the killing of a soldier in [Forkhill](/wiki/Forkhill \"Forkhill\") on 17 March 1993, had the British Army fire back at the sniper's vehicle without effect.McKittrick, Kelters, Feeney \\& Thornton 2000, p. 1314\\. The IRA vehicles were escorted by scout cars, to alert about the presence of security checkpoints ahead.", "Two different sources include in the campaign two incidents that happened outside South Armagh; one in [Belcoo](/wiki/Belcoo \"Belcoo\"), [County Fermanagh](/wiki/County_Fermanagh \"County Fermanagh\"), where a constable was killed,\"Over the 15\\-month period from August 1992 to December 1993, six soldiers and three RUC constables were killed by single shot attacks in South Armagh (often described by the media as 'Bandit Country') and Fermanagh\" (*Operation Banner* report, paragraph 529\\). the other in West [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), which resulted in the death of a British soldier.Harnden 2000, p. 392\\. The IRA Belfast Brigade claimed that the latter incident actually involved two shooters, who fired 28 rounds from assault rifles on a British Army vehicle.{{Cite web\\|date\\=15 August 1992\\|title\\=British soldier killed as IRA attacks escalate\\|url\\=https://ulib.iupuidigital.org/digital/collection/IP/id/21559\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-21\\|website\\=ulib.iupuidigital.org\\|publisher\\=The Irish People\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=21 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421110409/https://ulib.iupuidigital.org/digital/collection/IP/id/21559\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} An RUC investigation after the Belfast ambush led to the discovery of one Barrett M82, hidden in a derelict house. It was later determined that this rifle was the weapon responsible for the first killing in South Armagh in 1992\\.\"The rifle used in the (August 1992\\) attack was thought to have been one of those made and sold legitimate in Texas by Ron Freshour, a former Barrett employee, and later bought by the IRA. Stamped with the word 'Tejas' –Spanish for Texas\\- on the butt, it was fired in west Belfast in June 1993 and seized a month later during an RUC search of a vacant house\" (Harnden 2000, p. 392\\). Another Barrett is reported to have been in possession of the IRA team in the [Occupation of Cullaville](/wiki/Occupation_of_Cullaville \"Occupation of Cullaville\") in South Armagh in April 1993\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://historical\\-debates.oireachtas.ie/S/0135/S.0135\\.199304290006\\.html\\|title\\=Senead Éireann – 29 April 1993\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016233843/http://historical\\-debates.oireachtas.ie/S/0135/S.0135\\.199304290006\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2013\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}", "A third unrelated sniper attack, which resulted in the death of a British soldier, was carried out by the IRA in the [New Lodge](/wiki/New_Lodge%2C_Belfast \"New Lodge, Belfast\"), [North Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), on 3 August 1992\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/chron/1992\\.html\\|title\\=CAIN database of deaths, 1992\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2014}} Two other soldiers were wounded by snipers in the New Lodge, which was suitable for sniper attacks because of the number of high\\-rise flats in the area, in November 1993Fortnight, Issues 324–334, Fortnight Publications, 1994\\. and January 1994\\. Two people were arrested and a loaded rifle recovered in the aftermath of the latter incident.[Peter Heathwood Collection of television programs: 1994](http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/1994.html). [Conflict Archive on the Internet](/wiki/Conflict_Archive_on_the_Internet \"Conflict Archive on the Internet\") (CAIN) On 30 December 1993 Guardsman Daniel Blinco became the last soldier killed by snipers in South Armagh before the first IRA ceasefire in 1994\\.Harnden 2000, pp. 409–410\\.", "His killing, along with the reaction of the [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") of his [constituency](/wiki/Constituency \"Constituency\"), was covered by the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\")'s *Inside Ulster*,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/1993\\.html\\|title\\=BBC NI news, Friday 31 December 1993 – From CAIN website\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2014}} which also showed Blinco's abandoned helmet and the hole that was made by the sniper's bullet on the wall of a pub.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2021}}\nThe [tabloid press](/wiki/Tabloid_press \"Tabloid press\") of the time started calling the sniper 'Goldfinger' or 'Terminator', the nicknames current in Crossmaglen's bars. The last serviceman killed by snipers at South Armagh, [Lance Bombardier](/wiki/Lance_Bombardier \"Lance Bombardier\") Stephen Restorick, was also the last British soldier to die by hostile fire during the Troubles, on 12 February 1997\\. Restorick's killing resulted in a public outcry. [Gerry Adams](/wiki/Gerry_Adams \"Gerry Adams\") called his death \"tragic\" and wrote a letter of condolence to his mother.English 2005, p. 293\\.Moloney 2003, p. 473\\.", "### Caraher team captured", "The IRA ceasefire from 31 August 1994 gave an opportunity to the British to collect intelligence to be used against the snipers.Harnden 2000, pp. 411, 416\\. The truce was strongly resented by South Armagh IRA members.\"The ceasefires have been humiliating.... Here in Crossmaglen we had the Army and the police on the run. All you needed to do was shoot one every six months...\" (Harnden 2000, p. 410, quoting a terrorist). During the ceasefire, an alleged member of the Drumintee squad, Kevin Donegan, was arrested by an RUC patrol in relation to the 1994 murder of a postal worker in the course of an armed robbery.See [Sutton Index of Deaths (1994\\), 10 November entry](http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/chron/1994.html#prof)Harnden 2000, pp. 410–11\\. When the IRA ended the ceasefire with the [bombing of the London Docklands](/wiki/1996_South_Quay_bombing \"1996 South Quay bombing\") in February 1996, some republicans had already abandoned the organisation, and others had turned to criminal activities.\"Some terrorists drifted away from the IRA while even the most experienced became rusty. The Special Branch Officer said: 'Micksey Martin is a case point. He is an absolute rascal who has been stealing and smoking cigarettes since he was eight years old. But he has tremendous organisational ability and was superb in a war situation. Once the ceasefire came, his criminality, his \"homers\" \\-raking off money for himself\\- drinking and womanising meant that he lost a lot of respect from people.' \" Harnden 2000, p. 411\\.\"During the previous 21 months (before June 1996\\), there had been seven Post Office robberies in South Armagh and the security forces believed they had identified the IRA team responsible\" (Harnden 2000, p. 412\\). The period after the ceasefire saw little IRA activity in South Armagh.\"After the Docklands bomb brought the ceasefire to an end, there were remarkably few IRA attacks in South Armagh\" (Harnden 2000, p. 411\\).", "After two attacks in 1997, a [Special Air Service](/wiki/Special_Air_Service \"Special Air Service\") unit captured four men from the [sniper team](/wiki/Sniper_team \"Sniper team\") based in the west of the region on April 10, who were responsible for several deaths. After a brief scuffle, James McArdle, Michael Caraher, [Bernard McGinn](/wiki/Bernard_Henry_McGinn \"Bernard Henry McGinn\") and Martin Mines were seized at a farm near Freeduff and handed over to the RUC. The British troops were under strict orders to avoid IRA casualties. A Barrett M90 rifle was seized,Harnden 2000, pp. 420–22\\. which [forensic](/wiki/Forensic \"Forensic\") and intelligence reports linked only to the 1997 shootings.\"16\\.9 Based on the findings of the investigation concluding that the Barrett .50 calibre rifle used on 12 February 1997 was not the same weapon used in sniper shootings in South Armagh between 1990 and 1994\\...\" ([Police Ombudsman report](https://web.archive.org/web/20061214225407/http://www.policeombudsman.org/publicationsuploads/Final%20redacted%20version.pdf#prof), 13 December 2006\\). It was hinted that there was an informer, a suggestion dismissed by the [Police Ombudsman](/wiki/Police_Ombudsman \"Police Ombudsman\") report.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/last\\-british\\-soldier\\-murdered\\-by\\-ira\\-sacrificed\\-for\\-spy\\-6262hjc7w3q\\|title\\=Last British soldier murdered by IRA 'sacrificed' for spy\\|work\\=The Times\\|date\\=20 June 2004\\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2021}}", "McGinn provided the RUC with a lot of information about IRA activities and even betrayed Frank McCabe, the IRA commander behind the sniper campaign,Harnden 2000, 283 but he eventually withdrew his statement. One of the key players in the British campaign against the South Armagh sniper was [Welsh Guards](/wiki/Welsh_Guards \"Welsh Guards\")' Captain [Rupert Thorneloe](/wiki/Rupert_Thorneloe \"Rupert Thorneloe\"), according to the journalist [Toby Harnden](/wiki/Toby_Harnden \"Toby Harnden\"). Thorneloe worked as an intelligence liaison officer between the [3rd Infantry Brigade](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"3rd Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") and the [RUC Special Branch](/wiki/RUC_Special_Branch \"RUC Special Branch\"). Thorneloe, who reached the rank of lieutenant\\-colonel, was killed in July 2009 by an improvised explosive device during the [war in Afghanistan](/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_%282001%E2%80%93present%29 \"War in Afghanistan (2001–present)\"). Another senior figure involved in the British efforts against the sniper squads was SAS Staff Sergeant Gaz Hunter, whose experience in South Armagh dated back to 1975\\.Harnden 2000, p. 159 Despite the sense of relief among British forces after the arrests, there was concern over the other two Barrett rifles still in the possession of the South Armagh Brigade.Harnden 2000, 425\\.", "One of the IRA volunteers captured, Michael Caraher, was the brother of [Fergal Caraher](/wiki/Fergal_Caraher \"Fergal Caraher\"), a [Sinn Féin](/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in \"Sinn Féin\") member and IRA volunteer\"[Caraher family still seeking justice after 17 years](http://www.anphoblacht.com/contents/17986)\" An Phoblacht, 10 January 2008 killed by [Royal Marines](/wiki/Royal_Marines \"Royal Marines\") at a checkpoint on 30 December 1990 near Cullyhanna. Michael, also shot and wounded in the same incident, had lost a lung in the aftermath.[*Irish Examiner*, 29 July 2000](http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2000/07/29/current/ipage_18.htm#prof) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604044459/http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2000/07/29/current/ipage\\_18\\.htm \\|date\\=4 June 2012 }} The Marines involved were tried and acquitted by Lord Chief Justice Hutton.Geraghty 2000, pp. 102–103\\. The shooting of Guardsman Daniel Blinco in Crossmaglen took place on the second anniversary of the killing of Fergal Caraher. Michael Caraher was thought to be the shooter in several attacks,Harnden 2000, p. 408\\. but he was indicted only for the case of the maimed constable. He was defended by the solicitor [Rosemary Nelson](/wiki/Rosemary_Nelson \"Rosemary Nelson\") who was later killed by the [loyalist](/wiki/Ulster_loyalism \"Ulster loyalism\") organisation [Red Hand Defenders](/wiki/Red_Hand_Defenders \"Red Hand Defenders\").Geraghty 2000, p. 377\\. The other three men of the sniper team were convicted in 1999 for six killings, two of them unrelated to the sniping operations (the deaths of two men when one of the team's members, James McArdle, planted [the bomb at Canary Wharf](/wiki/1996_Docklands_bombing \"1996 Docklands bombing\") in 1996\\).", "The capture of the sniper unit was the greatest success for the security forces in South Armagh in more than a decade.Geraghty 2000, p. 185\\.Strachan 2006, p. 139\\. The men were set free 18 months later, under the terms of the [Good Friday Agreement](/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement \"Good Friday Agreement\").Harnden 2000, p. 424\\. The Dromintee sniper party was never apprehended.", "" ]
### Shootings | Name and rankHarnden 2000, pp. 502–505\. | Date | Place | Rifle calibre | | Paul Turner, private | 28 August 1992 | Crossmaglen | .50 | | Jonathan Reid, constable | 25 February 1993 | Crossmaglen | 7\.62 mm | | Lawrence Dickson, lance corporal | 17 March 1993 | Forkhill | 7\.62 mm | | John Randall, private | 26 June 1993 | [Newtownhamilton](/wiki/Newtownhamilton "Newtownhamilton") | 7\.62 mm | | Kevin Pullin, lance corporal | 17 July 1993 | Crossmaglen | .50 | | Brian Woods, constable | 2 November 1993 | [Newry](/wiki/Newry "Newry") | .50 | | Paul Garret, lance bombardier | 2 December 1993 | [Keady](/wiki/Keady "Keady") | .50 | | Daniel Blinco, guardsman | 30 December 1993 | Crossmaglen | .50 | | Stephen Restorick, lance bombardier | 12 February 1997 | Bessbrook | .50 | Contrary to the first British Army assessment and the speculation of the press,Stubblefield 1994, p. 232\. there was not just a single sniper involved. According to Harnden, there were two different teams,"Two PIRA ASUs were involved and, although there were some long distance shoots using the Barrett, the majority of engagements were at a range of 200 – 300 m using a 7\.62 mm rifle" (*Operation Banner* report. Paragraph 529\). one responsible for the east part of South Armagh, around [Dromintee](/wiki/Dromintee "Dromintee"), the other for the west, in the area surrounding [Cullyhanna](/wiki/Cullyhanna "Cullyhanna").Harnden 2000, pp. 400 \& 404\. The volunteer in charge of the Cullyhanna unit was Frank "One Shot" McCabe, a senior IRA member from Crossmaglen.Harnden 2000, p. 407\. Each team comprised at least four members, not counting those in charge of support activities, such as scouting for targets and driving vehicles. Military officials claim that the Dromintee\-based squad deployed up to 20 volunteers in some of the sniping missions.Harnden 2000, p. 404\. The teams made good use of [dead ground](/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade%23Defilade "Enfilade and defilade#Defilade") to conceal themselves from British observation posts."The attacks, which were carefully mounted to use dead ground away from the Army's matrix of observation posts targeted security forces on their likely movement routes near bases and vehicle checkpoints" (*Operation Banner* report. Paragraph 529\). The sniper attack on a checkpoint at Newry killed Constable Brian Woods and was officially reported in an IRA South Down Brigade statement,{{Cite web\|date\=13 November 1993\|title\=War News\|url\=https://indianamemory.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/IP/id/17312/rec/44\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-12\|website\=indianamemory.contentdm.oclc.org\|publisher\=The Irish People\|language\=en}} but a high\-profile IRA member from Dromintee, identified by Toby Harnden as a South Armagh Brigade volunteer known as "The Surgeon", was identified by the author as the mastermind behind the shooting.{{Cite web\|last\=Fergus\|first\=Lindsay\|date\=2001\|title\=HE PLEADS GUILTY TO FRAUD RAP; Ulster farmer tells judge that best\-selling book identifies him as IRA killer, THEN.... \- Free Online Library\|url\=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/HE\+PLEADS\+GUILTY\+TO\+FRAUD\+RAP;\+Ulster\+farmer\+tells\+judge\+that...\-a071482956\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-12\|website\=www.thefreelibrary.com}} Between 1990 and 1997, 24 shots were fired at British forces. The first eight operations (1990–1992\), ended in misses. On 16 March 1990, the Barrett M82 was used for the first time by the IRA. The target was a checkpoint manned by soldiers of [The Light Infantry](/wiki/The_Light_Infantry "The Light Infantry") regiment on Castleblaney Road. A single .50 round pierced the helmet and skimmed the skull of Lance Corporal Hartsthorne, who survived with minor head injuries.Jackson, Mike (2006\).*[Operation Banner: An Analysis of Military Operations in Northern Ireland](http://www.vilaweb.cat/media/attach/vwedts/docs/op_banner_analysis_released.pdf)*. [MoD](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)"), Army Code 71842\. Chapter 2, p. 16, item 247Harnden 2000, p. 392\. In August 1992, one team mortally wounded a Light Infantry soldier. By April 1997 seven soldiers and two policemen had been killed. An RUC [constable](/wiki/Constable "Constable") almost lost one of his legs in the last sniper attack during [the Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles"). Another six rounds achieved nothing, but two of them narrowly missed the patrol boat HMS *Cygnet*, in [Carlingford Lough](/wiki/Carlingford_Lough "Carlingford Lough") and another holed Borucki sangar, a British Army outpost in Crossmaglen square. On 31 July 1993 at 10:00 pm a British Army patrol which had set up a mobile checkpoint on Newry Road, near [Newtownhamilton](/wiki/Newtownhamilton "Newtownhamilton"), was fired at by an IRA sniper team. The British soldiers returned fire, but there were no casualties on either side.[Sniper attack leads to security search: Police fear armed IRA team at work on border](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/sniper-attack-leads-to-security-search-police-fear-armed-ira-team-at-work-on-border-1458676.html), [The Irish Independent](/wiki/The_Irish_Independent "The Irish Independent"), 2 August 1993 The marksman usually fired from a distance of less than 300 m, despite the 1 km effective range of the rifles. Sixteen operations were carried out from the rear of a vehicle, with the sniper protected by an armour plate in case the patrols returned fire.Harnden 2000, p. 403\. At least in one incident, after the killing of a soldier in [Forkhill](/wiki/Forkhill "Forkhill") on 17 March 1993, had the British Army fire back at the sniper's vehicle without effect.McKittrick, Kelters, Feeney \& Thornton 2000, p. 1314\. The IRA vehicles were escorted by scout cars, to alert about the presence of security checkpoints ahead. Two different sources include in the campaign two incidents that happened outside South Armagh; one in [Belcoo](/wiki/Belcoo "Belcoo"), [County Fermanagh](/wiki/County_Fermanagh "County Fermanagh"), where a constable was killed,"Over the 15\-month period from August 1992 to December 1993, six soldiers and three RUC constables were killed by single shot attacks in South Armagh (often described by the media as 'Bandit Country') and Fermanagh" (*Operation Banner* report, paragraph 529\). the other in West [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), which resulted in the death of a British soldier.Harnden 2000, p. 392\. The IRA Belfast Brigade claimed that the latter incident actually involved two shooters, who fired 28 rounds from assault rifles on a British Army vehicle.{{Cite web\|date\=15 August 1992\|title\=British soldier killed as IRA attacks escalate\|url\=https://ulib.iupuidigital.org/digital/collection/IP/id/21559\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-21\|website\=ulib.iupuidigital.org\|publisher\=The Irish People\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=21 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421110409/https://ulib.iupuidigital.org/digital/collection/IP/id/21559\|url\-status\=dead}} An RUC investigation after the Belfast ambush led to the discovery of one Barrett M82, hidden in a derelict house. It was later determined that this rifle was the weapon responsible for the first killing in South Armagh in 1992\."The rifle used in the (August 1992\) attack was thought to have been one of those made and sold legitimate in Texas by Ron Freshour, a former Barrett employee, and later bought by the IRA. Stamped with the word 'Tejas' –Spanish for Texas\- on the butt, it was fired in west Belfast in June 1993 and seized a month later during an RUC search of a vacant house" (Harnden 2000, p. 392\). Another Barrett is reported to have been in possession of the IRA team in the [Occupation of Cullaville](/wiki/Occupation_of_Cullaville "Occupation of Cullaville") in South Armagh in April 1993\.{{cite web\|url\=http://historical\-debates.oireachtas.ie/S/0135/S.0135\.199304290006\.html\|title\=Senead Éireann – 29 April 1993\|access\-date\=3 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016233843/http://historical\-debates.oireachtas.ie/S/0135/S.0135\.199304290006\.html\|archive\-date\=16 October 2013\|df\=dmy\-all}} A third unrelated sniper attack, which resulted in the death of a British soldier, was carried out by the IRA in the [New Lodge](/wiki/New_Lodge%2C_Belfast "New Lodge, Belfast"), [North Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), on 3 August 1992\.{{cite web\|url\=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/chron/1992\.html\|title\=CAIN database of deaths, 1992\|access\-date\=3 October 2014}} Two other soldiers were wounded by snipers in the New Lodge, which was suitable for sniper attacks because of the number of high\-rise flats in the area, in November 1993Fortnight, Issues 324–334, Fortnight Publications, 1994\. and January 1994\. Two people were arrested and a loaded rifle recovered in the aftermath of the latter incident.[Peter Heathwood Collection of television programs: 1994](http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/1994.html). [Conflict Archive on the Internet](/wiki/Conflict_Archive_on_the_Internet "Conflict Archive on the Internet") (CAIN) On 30 December 1993 Guardsman Daniel Blinco became the last soldier killed by snipers in South Armagh before the first IRA ceasefire in 1994\.Harnden 2000, pp. 409–410\. His killing, along with the reaction of the [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") of his [constituency](/wiki/Constituency "Constituency"), was covered by the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC")'s *Inside Ulster*,{{cite web\|url\=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/1993\.html\|title\=BBC NI news, Friday 31 December 1993 – From CAIN website\|access\-date\=3 October 2014}} which also showed Blinco's abandoned helmet and the hole that was made by the sniper's bullet on the wall of a pub.{{cn\|date\=July 2021}} The [tabloid press](/wiki/Tabloid_press "Tabloid press") of the time started calling the sniper 'Goldfinger' or 'Terminator', the nicknames current in Crossmaglen's bars. The last serviceman killed by snipers at South Armagh, [Lance Bombardier](/wiki/Lance_Bombardier "Lance Bombardier") Stephen Restorick, was also the last British soldier to die by hostile fire during the Troubles, on 12 February 1997\. Restorick's killing resulted in a public outcry. [Gerry Adams](/wiki/Gerry_Adams "Gerry Adams") called his death "tragic" and wrote a letter of condolence to his mother.English 2005, p. 293\.Moloney 2003, p. 473\.
[ "### Shootings", "", "| Name and rankHarnden 2000, pp. 502–505\\. | Date | Place | Rifle calibre |", "| Paul Turner, private | 28 August 1992 | Crossmaglen | .50 |\n| Jonathan Reid, constable | 25 February 1993 | Crossmaglen | 7\\.62 mm |\n| Lawrence Dickson, lance corporal | 17 March 1993 | Forkhill | 7\\.62 mm |\n| John Randall, private | 26 June 1993 | [Newtownhamilton](/wiki/Newtownhamilton \"Newtownhamilton\") | 7\\.62 mm |\n| Kevin Pullin, lance corporal | 17 July 1993 | Crossmaglen | .50 |\n| Brian Woods, constable | 2 November 1993 | [Newry](/wiki/Newry \"Newry\") | .50 |\n| Paul Garret, lance bombardier | 2 December 1993 | [Keady](/wiki/Keady \"Keady\") | .50 |\n| Daniel Blinco, guardsman | 30 December 1993 | Crossmaglen | .50 |\n| Stephen Restorick, lance bombardier | 12 February 1997 | Bessbrook | .50 |", "Contrary to the first British Army assessment and the speculation of the press,Stubblefield 1994, p. 232\\. there was not just a single sniper involved. According to Harnden, there were two different teams,\"Two PIRA ASUs were involved and, although there were some long distance shoots using the Barrett, the majority of engagements were at a range of 200 – 300 m using a 7\\.62 mm rifle\" (*Operation Banner* report. Paragraph 529\\).\none responsible for the east part of South Armagh, around [Dromintee](/wiki/Dromintee \"Dromintee\"), the other for the west, in the area surrounding [Cullyhanna](/wiki/Cullyhanna \"Cullyhanna\").Harnden 2000, pp. 400 \\& 404\\. The volunteer in charge of the Cullyhanna unit was Frank \"One Shot\" McCabe, a senior IRA member from Crossmaglen.Harnden 2000, p. 407\\.", "Each team comprised at least four members, not counting those in charge of support activities, such as scouting for targets and driving vehicles. Military officials claim that the Dromintee\\-based squad deployed up to 20 volunteers in some of the sniping missions.Harnden 2000, p. 404\\. The teams made good use of [dead ground](/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade%23Defilade \"Enfilade and defilade#Defilade\") to conceal themselves from British observation posts.\"The attacks, which were carefully mounted to use dead ground away from the Army's matrix of observation posts targeted security forces on their likely movement routes near bases and vehicle checkpoints\" (*Operation Banner* report. Paragraph 529\\).", "The sniper attack on a checkpoint at Newry killed Constable Brian Woods and was officially reported in an IRA South Down Brigade statement,{{Cite web\\|date\\=13 November 1993\\|title\\=War News\\|url\\=https://indianamemory.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/IP/id/17312/rec/44\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-12\\|website\\=indianamemory.contentdm.oclc.org\\|publisher\\=The Irish People\\|language\\=en}} but a high\\-profile IRA member from Dromintee, identified by Toby Harnden as a South Armagh Brigade volunteer known as \"The Surgeon\", was identified by the author as the mastermind behind the shooting.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Fergus\\|first\\=Lindsay\\|date\\=2001\\|title\\=HE PLEADS GUILTY TO FRAUD RAP; Ulster farmer tells judge that best\\-selling book identifies him as IRA killer, THEN.... \\- Free Online Library\\|url\\=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/HE\\+PLEADS\\+GUILTY\\+TO\\+FRAUD\\+RAP;\\+Ulster\\+farmer\\+tells\\+judge\\+that...\\-a071482956\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-12\\|website\\=www.thefreelibrary.com}}", "Between 1990 and 1997, 24 shots were fired at British forces. The first eight operations (1990–1992\\), ended in misses. On 16 March 1990, the Barrett M82 was used for the first time by the IRA. The target was a checkpoint manned by soldiers of [The Light Infantry](/wiki/The_Light_Infantry \"The Light Infantry\") regiment on Castleblaney Road. A single .50 round pierced the helmet and skimmed the skull of Lance Corporal Hartsthorne, who survived with minor head injuries.Jackson, Mike (2006\\).*[Operation Banner: An Analysis of Military Operations in Northern Ireland](http://www.vilaweb.cat/media/attach/vwedts/docs/op_banner_analysis_released.pdf)*. [MoD](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)\"), Army Code 71842\\. Chapter 2, p. 16, item 247Harnden 2000, p. 392\\. In August 1992, one team mortally wounded a Light Infantry soldier. By April 1997 seven soldiers and two policemen had been killed. An RUC [constable](/wiki/Constable \"Constable\") almost lost one of his legs in the last sniper attack during [the Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\").", "Another six rounds achieved nothing, but two of them narrowly missed the patrol boat HMS *Cygnet*, in [Carlingford Lough](/wiki/Carlingford_Lough \"Carlingford Lough\") and another holed Borucki sangar, a British Army outpost in Crossmaglen square. On 31 July 1993 at 10:00 pm a British Army patrol which had set up a mobile checkpoint on Newry Road, near [Newtownhamilton](/wiki/Newtownhamilton \"Newtownhamilton\"), was fired at by an IRA sniper team. The British soldiers returned fire, but there were no casualties on either side.[Sniper attack leads to security search: Police fear armed IRA team at work on border](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/sniper-attack-leads-to-security-search-police-fear-armed-ira-team-at-work-on-border-1458676.html), [The Irish Independent](/wiki/The_Irish_Independent \"The Irish Independent\"), 2 August 1993 The marksman usually fired from a distance of less than 300 m, despite the 1 km effective range of the rifles. Sixteen operations were carried out from the rear of a vehicle, with the sniper protected by an armour plate in case the patrols returned fire.Harnden 2000, p. 403\\. At least in one incident, after the killing of a soldier in [Forkhill](/wiki/Forkhill \"Forkhill\") on 17 March 1993, had the British Army fire back at the sniper's vehicle without effect.McKittrick, Kelters, Feeney \\& Thornton 2000, p. 1314\\. The IRA vehicles were escorted by scout cars, to alert about the presence of security checkpoints ahead.", "Two different sources include in the campaign two incidents that happened outside South Armagh; one in [Belcoo](/wiki/Belcoo \"Belcoo\"), [County Fermanagh](/wiki/County_Fermanagh \"County Fermanagh\"), where a constable was killed,\"Over the 15\\-month period from August 1992 to December 1993, six soldiers and three RUC constables were killed by single shot attacks in South Armagh (often described by the media as 'Bandit Country') and Fermanagh\" (*Operation Banner* report, paragraph 529\\). the other in West [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), which resulted in the death of a British soldier.Harnden 2000, p. 392\\. The IRA Belfast Brigade claimed that the latter incident actually involved two shooters, who fired 28 rounds from assault rifles on a British Army vehicle.{{Cite web\\|date\\=15 August 1992\\|title\\=British soldier killed as IRA attacks escalate\\|url\\=https://ulib.iupuidigital.org/digital/collection/IP/id/21559\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-21\\|website\\=ulib.iupuidigital.org\\|publisher\\=The Irish People\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=21 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421110409/https://ulib.iupuidigital.org/digital/collection/IP/id/21559\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} An RUC investigation after the Belfast ambush led to the discovery of one Barrett M82, hidden in a derelict house. It was later determined that this rifle was the weapon responsible for the first killing in South Armagh in 1992\\.\"The rifle used in the (August 1992\\) attack was thought to have been one of those made and sold legitimate in Texas by Ron Freshour, a former Barrett employee, and later bought by the IRA. Stamped with the word 'Tejas' –Spanish for Texas\\- on the butt, it was fired in west Belfast in June 1993 and seized a month later during an RUC search of a vacant house\" (Harnden 2000, p. 392\\). Another Barrett is reported to have been in possession of the IRA team in the [Occupation of Cullaville](/wiki/Occupation_of_Cullaville \"Occupation of Cullaville\") in South Armagh in April 1993\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://historical\\-debates.oireachtas.ie/S/0135/S.0135\\.199304290006\\.html\\|title\\=Senead Éireann – 29 April 1993\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016233843/http://historical\\-debates.oireachtas.ie/S/0135/S.0135\\.199304290006\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2013\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}", "A third unrelated sniper attack, which resulted in the death of a British soldier, was carried out by the IRA in the [New Lodge](/wiki/New_Lodge%2C_Belfast \"New Lodge, Belfast\"), [North Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), on 3 August 1992\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/chron/1992\\.html\\|title\\=CAIN database of deaths, 1992\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2014}} Two other soldiers were wounded by snipers in the New Lodge, which was suitable for sniper attacks because of the number of high\\-rise flats in the area, in November 1993Fortnight, Issues 324–334, Fortnight Publications, 1994\\. and January 1994\\. Two people were arrested and a loaded rifle recovered in the aftermath of the latter incident.[Peter Heathwood Collection of television programs: 1994](http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/1994.html). [Conflict Archive on the Internet](/wiki/Conflict_Archive_on_the_Internet \"Conflict Archive on the Internet\") (CAIN) On 30 December 1993 Guardsman Daniel Blinco became the last soldier killed by snipers in South Armagh before the first IRA ceasefire in 1994\\.Harnden 2000, pp. 409–410\\.", "His killing, along with the reaction of the [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") of his [constituency](/wiki/Constituency \"Constituency\"), was covered by the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\")'s *Inside Ulster*,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/heathwood/static/1993\\.html\\|title\\=BBC NI news, Friday 31 December 1993 – From CAIN website\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2014}} which also showed Blinco's abandoned helmet and the hole that was made by the sniper's bullet on the wall of a pub.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2021}}\nThe [tabloid press](/wiki/Tabloid_press \"Tabloid press\") of the time started calling the sniper 'Goldfinger' or 'Terminator', the nicknames current in Crossmaglen's bars. The last serviceman killed by snipers at South Armagh, [Lance Bombardier](/wiki/Lance_Bombardier \"Lance Bombardier\") Stephen Restorick, was also the last British soldier to die by hostile fire during the Troubles, on 12 February 1997\\. Restorick's killing resulted in a public outcry. [Gerry Adams](/wiki/Gerry_Adams \"Gerry Adams\") called his death \"tragic\" and wrote a letter of condolence to his mother.English 2005, p. 293\\.Moloney 2003, p. 473\\.", "" ]
General duties -------------- ### Duties of employers Section 2 states that "It shall be the duty of every employer to ensure, so far as is **reasonably practicable**, the health, safety and welfare at work of all his/her [employees](/wiki/Employee "Employee")" (emphasis added), and in particular that such a duty extends to: * Provision and [maintenance](/wiki/Maintenance%2C_repair_and_operations "Maintenance, repair and operations") of plant and systems of work that are, so far as is reasonably practicable, [safe](/wiki/Safety "Safety") and without [risks](/wiki/Risk "Risk") to [health](/wiki/Health "Health"); * Arrangements for ensuring, so far as is reasonably practicable, safety and absence of risks to health in connection with the use, handling, storage and transport of articles and substances; * Provision of such information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health and safety at work of his employees; * So far as is reasonably practicable as regards any place of work under the employer's control, the maintenance of it in a condition that is safe and without risks to health and the provision and maintenance of means of access to and egress from it that are safe and without such risks; * Provision and maintenance of a working environment for his employees that is, so far as is reasonably practicable, safe, without risks to health, and adequate as regards facilities and arrangements for their welfare at work. Section 3(1\) imposes a duty on employers to conduct their undertaking so as to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the safety of persons other than employees. This could include, for example, contractors, visitors, the general public and clients. Employers must also prepare and keep under review a [safety policy](/wiki/Safety_policy "Safety policy") and to bring it to the attention of his employees (section 2(2\)). [Trade unions](/wiki/Trade_union "Trade union") may appoint safety representatives and demand safety committees. The representatives have a right to be consulted on safety issues (sections 2(4\), (6\) and (7\)). Since 1996 employers have had a duty to consult all employees on safety matters.Safety Representatives and Safety Committees Regulations 1977, SI 1977/500 as amended by the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992, [SI 1992/2051](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1992/Uksi_19922051_en_1.htm), the Health and Safety (Consultation with Employees) Regulations 1996, [SI 1996/1513](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si1996/Uksi_19961513_en_1.htm) and the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999, [1999/3242](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1999/19993242.htm){{cite web \| title\=The role of safety representative \| url\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/involvement/hsrepresentatives.htm \| publisher\=Health and Safety Executive \| year\=2007 \| access\-date\=24 March 2008 }} No employer may charge an employee for provision of health and safety arrangements (section 9\). The act does not apply to [domestic servants](/wiki/Domestic_servant "Domestic servant") (section 51\). ### Duties of self\-employed persons Section 3(2\) requires that some self\-employed persons conduct their undertaking in a way which does not expose non\-employees \- or themselves \- to risks to their health and safety, so far as is reasonably practicable. This duty applies only to self\-employed persons who conduct undertakings of a "prescribed description" (as defined by regulation 2 of The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (General Duties of Self\-Employed Persons) (Prescribed Undertakings) Regulations 2015\). The prescribed undertakings are agricultural activity; asbestos; construction; gas; genetically modified organisms; railways; or any other activity which may pose a risk to the health and safety of a person other than the self\-employed person or their employees. ### Duties of persons having control of premises Section 4 defines a duty of [occupiers](/wiki/Occupiers%27_liability "Occupiers' liability") of premises, for example commercial [landlords](/wiki/Landlord "Landlord"), managers of [serviced office](/wiki/Serviced_office "Serviced office") accommodation, and also maintenance contractors, towards people who use those premises for work. Those premises, and the means of entry and exit, must be, as far as reasonably practicable, safe and without risks to health. ### Duties towards articles used at work An "article for use at work" is any (s.53(1\)): * Plant (that is, machinery) designed for use or operation, whether exclusively or not, by persons at work, and * Article designed for use as a component in any such plant. Section 6(1\) defines the duty of any person who [designs](/wiki/Design "Design"), [manufactures](/wiki/Manufacturing "Manufacturing"), [imports](/wiki/Import "Import") or [supplies](/wiki/Merchant "Merchant") any article for use at work to: * Ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that the article is so designed and constructed that it will be safe and without risks to health at all times when it is being set, used, cleaned or maintained by a person at work; * Perform such [testing](/wiki/Acceptance_testing "Acceptance testing") and [examination](/wiki/Inspection "Inspection") as may be necessary to ensure safety; * Take such steps as are necessary to secure that persons supplied with the article are provided with adequate information about the use for which the article is designed, or has been tested, and about any conditions necessary to ensure that it will be safe and without risks to health at all times, including when it is being dismantled or [disposed of](/wiki/Waste "Waste"); and * Take such steps as are necessary to secure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that persons are provided with all such revisions of information as are necessary by reason of its becoming known that anything gives rise to a serious risk to health or safety. A person may rely on testing done by others so long as it is reasonable for him to do so (s.6(6\)). A person may rely on a [written](/wiki/Writing "Writing") undertaking by another person to ensure the safety of an item (s.6(8\)) Designers and manufacturers must carry out [research](/wiki/Research "Research") to identify and eliminate risks, as far as reasonably practicable (s.6(2\)). [Erectors](/wiki/Construction "Construction") and installers have responsibilities to ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that an article is so erected and installed that it will be safe and without risks to health at all times when it is being set, used, cleaned or maintained by a person at work (s.6(3\)). Section 6 was extended by the [Consumer Protection Act 1987](/wiki/Consumer_Protection_Act_1987 "Consumer Protection Act 1987") to cover [fairground equipment](/wiki/Funfair "Funfair") and its use by persons at work and enjoyment by members of the public.S.36, Sch.3 para.1(2\) ### Duties towards substances used at work Section 6(4\) defines the duty of any person who manufactures, imports or supplies any substance for use at work to: * Ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that the substance will be safe and without risks to health at all times when it is being used, handled, processed, stored or transported by a person at work or in work premises; * Perform such [testing](/wiki/Acceptance_testing "Acceptance testing") and [examination](/wiki/Inspection "Inspection") as may be necessary to ensure safety; * Take such steps as are necessary to secure that persons supplied with the substance are provided with adequate information about any risks to health or safety to which the inherent properties of the substance may give rise, about the results of any relevant tests which have been carried out on or in connection with the substance, and about any conditions necessary to ensure that the substance will be safe and without risks to health and when the substance is [disposed of](/wiki/Waste "Waste"); and * Take such steps as are necessary to secure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that persons are provided with all such revisions of information as are necessary by reason of its becoming known that anything gives rise to a serious risk to health or safety. Similar to the regulations concerning articles used at work, a person may also rely on testing or written undertaking by another person to ensure the safety of substances used at work. The duty to identify and eliminate risks of substances rests with manufacturers. ### Exceptions for supply of articles and substances The duties only extend to persons in [business](/wiki/Business "Business") or acting by way of [trade](/wiki/Trade "Trade"), even though [not for profit](/wiki/Not_for_profit "Not for profit"), and only to matters within their control (s.6(7\)). Persons who import into the UK are not relieved of liability for activities such as design and manufacture that took place outside the UK and over which they had control.Added by [Consumer Protection Act 1987](/wiki/Consumer_Protection_Act_1987 "Consumer Protection Act 1987"), s.36, Sch.3 para.1(2\) [Finance companies](/wiki/Finance_company "Finance company") who supply articles or substances by way of [hire purchase](/wiki/Hire_purchase "Hire purchase") or [credit agreement](/wiki/Credit_%28finance%29 "Credit (finance)") have no duties under section 6 (s.6(9\)). ### Duties of employees Under section 7 all employees have a duty while at work to: * Take reasonable care for the health and safety of him/herself and of other persons who may be affected by his/her acts or omissions at work; and * Co\-operate with employers or other persons so far as is necessary to enable them to perform their duties or requirements under the Act. ### Duties of persons in general Section 8 requires that "no person shall [intentionally or recklessly](/wiki/Mens_rea "Mens rea") interfere with or misuse anything provided in the interests of health, safety or welfare in pursuance of any of the relevant statutory provisions." ### Reasonably practicable What is reasonably practicable is a [question of fact](/wiki/Question_of_fact "Question of fact"). The [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_England_and_Wales "Court of Appeal of England and Wales") held in 1949 that*Edwards v. The National Coal Board* \[1949] 1 KB 704; \[1949] 1 All ER 743{{cite web \| title\=Principles and guidelines to assist HSE in its judgements that duty\-holders have reduced risk as low as reasonably practicable \| url\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/risk/theory/alarp1\.htm\#P21\_2414 \| year\=2002 \| publisher\=Health and Safety Executive \| access\-date\=23 March 2008 }} {{quotation \|in every case, it is the risk that has to be weighed against the measures necessary to eliminate the risk. The greater the risk, no doubt, the less will be the weight to be given to the factor of cost. \| Lord Justice Tucker }} and: {{quotation \| '''Reasonably practicable''' is a narrower term than 'physically possible' and seems to me to imply that a computation must be made by the owner in which the quantum of risk is placed on one scale and the sacrifice involved in the measures necessary for averting the risk (whether in money, time or trouble) is placed in the other, and that, if it be shown that there is a gross disproportion between them – the risk being insignificant in relation to the sacrifice – the defendants discharge the onus on them. \| Lord Justice Asquith }} Where a [criminal prosecution](/wiki/Criminal_prosecution "Criminal prosecution") arises from a breach of duty and the accused's defence is that it would not have been practicable or reasonably practicable to act otherwise, the [burden of proof](/wiki/Legal_burden_of_proof "Legal burden of proof") falls on the defendant (s.40\). The [prosecution](/wiki/Prosecution "Prosecution") have the burden of showing [beyond reasonable doubt](/wiki/Beyond_reasonable_doubt "Beyond reasonable doubt") that certain acts were done or omitted to provide a *[prima facie](/wiki/Prima_facie "Prima facie")* case against the accused. Only if the prosecution succeed in this does the defendant have the burden of proving that the alternative was not practicable or reasonably practicable, but only on the [balance of probabilities](/wiki/Balance_of_probabilities "Balance of probabilities").{{cite book \| pages\=4\-388–4\-390 \| location\=London \| publisher\=Sweet \& Maxwell \| year\=2007 \| isbn\=978\-0\-421\-94830\-3 \| title\=Archbold: Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice \| editor\-last\=Richardson \|editor\-first\=P. J. }} The Court of Appeal held in 2002 that this requirement was compliant with article 6(2\) of the [European Convention on Human Rights](/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights "European Convention on Human Rights") (ECHR) as to [presumption of innocence](/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence "Presumption of innocence"). The Court of Appeal noted that the "reverse burden" applied to purely [regulatory](/wiki/Regulatory_law "Regulatory law") breaches, rather than genuine [criminal offences](/wiki/Criminal_offence "Criminal offence") potentially punishable by [imprisonment](/wiki/Imprisonment "Imprisonment").*[Davies v. Health and Safety Executive](http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Crim/2002/2949.html)* \[2002] EWCA Crim 2949 However, the [Health and Safety (Offences) Act 2008](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_%28Offences%29_Act_2008 "Health and Safety (Offences) Act 2008") extended the sentences available for these offences to include imprisonment for two years. Before it was passed, the [Department for Work and Pensions](/wiki/Department_for_Work_and_Pensions "Department for Work and Pensions") expressed the opinion that this is still compliant with the ECHR as it "strikes a fair balance between the fundamental right of the individual and the general interests of the community".{{cite web \| title\=Health and Safety (Offences) Bill – Explanatory Notes \| publisher\=House of Commons \| year\=2007–2008 \| url\=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmbills/029/en/08029x\-\-.htm \| access\-date\=24 March 2008 }} In 2005, the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") challenged the defence as noncompliant with Directive 89/391/EEC, which states that (Art.5(1\) and (4\)): {{quotation \| "The employer shall have a duty to ensure the safety and health of workers in every aspect related to the work." but that "This Directive shall not restrict the option of Member States to provide for the exclusion or the limitation of employers' responsibility where occurrences are due to unusual and unforeseeable circumstances, beyond the employers' control, or to exceptional events, the consequences of which could not have been avoided despite the exercise of all due care."{{citation needed\|date\=February 2021}} }} The commission argued that the "reasonably practicable" defence was much broader than allowed under the directive but in 2007 the [European Court of Justice](/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice "European Court of Justice") found for the UK that the defence was in fact compliant.*Commission v. UK* \[2007] [Case C\-127/05](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:62005CJ0127) ### Development risks defence Section 6(10\) was added by the Consumer Protection Act 1987S.36/ Sch.3 para.1(10\) disapplies duties as to articles and substances used at work where a risk "is shown to be one the occurrence of which could not [reasonably](/wiki/Reasonable_person "Reasonable person") be [foreseen](/wiki/Foreseeability "Foreseeability")". This is known as the [development risks defence](/wiki/Development_risks_defence "Development risks defence").{{cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ar0xvdU\_mpcC \| title\=Consumer Protection Law \| author\=Howells, G. G. \| publisher\=Ashgate \| location\=London \| isbn\=0\-7546\-2338\-6 \| edition\=2nd \| year\=2005 \| page\=''p.''217 }} ([Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books "Google Books")){{cite book \| title\=Product Liability \| author\=Clark, A. M. \| location\=London \| publisher\=Sweet \& Maxwell \| isbn\=0\-421\-38880\-3 \| year\=1989 \| page\=Ch.6 }}
[ "General duties\n--------------", "### Duties of employers", "Section 2 states that \"It shall be the duty of every employer to ensure, so far as is **reasonably practicable**, the health, safety and welfare at work of all his/her [employees](/wiki/Employee \"Employee\")\" (emphasis added), and in particular that such a duty extends to:\n* Provision and [maintenance](/wiki/Maintenance%2C_repair_and_operations \"Maintenance, repair and operations\") of plant and systems of work that are, so far as is reasonably practicable, [safe](/wiki/Safety \"Safety\") and without [risks](/wiki/Risk \"Risk\") to [health](/wiki/Health \"Health\");\n* Arrangements for ensuring, so far as is reasonably practicable, safety and absence of risks to health in connection with the use, handling, storage and transport of articles and substances;\n* Provision of such information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health and safety at work of his employees;\n* So far as is reasonably practicable as regards any place of work under the employer's control, the maintenance of it in a condition that is safe and without risks to health and the provision and maintenance of means of access to and egress from it that are safe and without such risks;\n* Provision and maintenance of a working environment for his employees that is, so far as is reasonably practicable, safe, without risks to health, and adequate as regards facilities and arrangements for their welfare at work.", "Section 3(1\\) imposes a duty on employers to conduct their undertaking so as to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the safety of persons other than employees. This could include, for example, contractors, visitors, the general public and clients.", "Employers must also prepare and keep under review a [safety policy](/wiki/Safety_policy \"Safety policy\") and to bring it to the attention of his employees (section 2(2\\)). [Trade unions](/wiki/Trade_union \"Trade union\") may appoint safety representatives and demand safety committees. The representatives have a right to be consulted on safety issues (sections 2(4\\), (6\\) and (7\\)). Since 1996 employers have had a duty to consult all employees on safety matters.Safety Representatives and Safety Committees Regulations 1977, SI 1977/500 as amended by the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992, [SI 1992/2051](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1992/Uksi_19922051_en_1.htm), the Health and Safety (Consultation with Employees) Regulations 1996, [SI 1996/1513](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si1996/Uksi_19961513_en_1.htm) and the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999, [1999/3242](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1999/19993242.htm){{cite web \\| title\\=The role of safety representative \\| url\\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/involvement/hsrepresentatives.htm \\| publisher\\=Health and Safety Executive \\| year\\=2007 \\| access\\-date\\=24 March 2008 }} No employer may charge an employee for provision of health and safety arrangements (section 9\\).", "The act does not apply to [domestic servants](/wiki/Domestic_servant \"Domestic servant\") (section 51\\).", "### Duties of self\\-employed persons", "Section 3(2\\) requires that some self\\-employed persons conduct their undertaking in a way which does not expose non\\-employees \\- or themselves \\- to risks to their health and safety, so far as is reasonably practicable. This duty applies only to self\\-employed persons who conduct undertakings of a \"prescribed description\" (as defined by regulation 2 of The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (General Duties of Self\\-Employed Persons) (Prescribed Undertakings) Regulations 2015\\). The prescribed undertakings are agricultural activity; asbestos; construction; gas; genetically modified organisms; railways; or any other activity which may pose a risk to the health and safety of a person other than the self\\-employed person or their employees.", "### Duties of persons having control of premises", "Section 4 defines a duty of [occupiers](/wiki/Occupiers%27_liability \"Occupiers' liability\") of premises, for example commercial [landlords](/wiki/Landlord \"Landlord\"), managers of [serviced office](/wiki/Serviced_office \"Serviced office\") accommodation, and also maintenance contractors, towards people who use those premises for work. Those premises, and the means of entry and exit, must be, as far as reasonably practicable, safe and without risks to health.", "### Duties towards articles used at work", "An \"article for use at work\" is any (s.53(1\\)):\n* Plant (that is, machinery) designed for use or operation, whether exclusively or not, by persons at work, and\n* Article designed for use as a component in any such plant.", "Section 6(1\\) defines the duty of any person who [designs](/wiki/Design \"Design\"), [manufactures](/wiki/Manufacturing \"Manufacturing\"), [imports](/wiki/Import \"Import\") or [supplies](/wiki/Merchant \"Merchant\") any article for use at work to:\n* Ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that the article is so designed and constructed that it will be safe and without risks to health at all times when it is being set, used, cleaned or maintained by a person at work;\n* Perform such [testing](/wiki/Acceptance_testing \"Acceptance testing\") and [examination](/wiki/Inspection \"Inspection\") as may be necessary to ensure safety;\n* Take such steps as are necessary to secure that persons supplied with the article are provided with adequate information about the use for which the article is designed, or has been tested, and about any conditions necessary to ensure that it will be safe and without risks to health at all times, including when it is being dismantled or [disposed of](/wiki/Waste \"Waste\"); and\n* Take such steps as are necessary to secure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that persons are provided with all such revisions of information as are necessary by reason of its becoming known that anything gives rise to a serious risk to health or safety.", "A person may rely on testing done by others so long as it is reasonable for him to do so (s.6(6\\)). A person may rely on a [written](/wiki/Writing \"Writing\") undertaking by another person to ensure the safety of an item (s.6(8\\)) Designers and manufacturers must carry out [research](/wiki/Research \"Research\") to identify and eliminate risks, as far as reasonably practicable (s.6(2\\)). [Erectors](/wiki/Construction \"Construction\") and installers have responsibilities to ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that an article is so erected and installed that it will be safe and without risks to health at all times when it is being set, used, cleaned or maintained by a person at work (s.6(3\\)).", "Section 6 was extended by the [Consumer Protection Act 1987](/wiki/Consumer_Protection_Act_1987 \"Consumer Protection Act 1987\") to cover [fairground equipment](/wiki/Funfair \"Funfair\") and its use by persons at work and enjoyment by members of the public.S.36, Sch.3 para.1(2\\)", "### Duties towards substances used at work", "Section 6(4\\) defines the duty of any person who manufactures, imports or supplies any substance for use at work to:\n* Ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that the substance will be safe and without risks to health at all times when it is being used, handled, processed, stored or transported by a person at work or in work premises;\n* Perform such [testing](/wiki/Acceptance_testing \"Acceptance testing\") and [examination](/wiki/Inspection \"Inspection\") as may be necessary to ensure safety;\n* Take such steps as are necessary to secure that persons supplied with the substance are provided with adequate information about any risks to health or safety to which the inherent properties of the substance may give rise, about the results of any relevant tests which have been carried out on or in connection with the substance, and about any conditions necessary to ensure that the substance will be safe and without risks to health and when the substance is [disposed of](/wiki/Waste \"Waste\"); and\n* Take such steps as are necessary to secure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that persons are provided with all such revisions of information as are necessary by reason of its becoming known that anything gives rise to a serious risk to health or safety.", "Similar to the regulations concerning articles used at work, a person may also rely on testing or written undertaking by another person to ensure the safety of substances used at work. The duty to identify and eliminate risks of substances rests with manufacturers.", "### Exceptions for supply of articles and substances", "The duties only extend to persons in [business](/wiki/Business \"Business\") or acting by way of [trade](/wiki/Trade \"Trade\"), even though [not for profit](/wiki/Not_for_profit \"Not for profit\"), and only to matters within their control (s.6(7\\)). Persons who import into the UK are not relieved of liability for activities such as design and manufacture that took place outside the UK and over which they had control.Added by [Consumer Protection Act 1987](/wiki/Consumer_Protection_Act_1987 \"Consumer Protection Act 1987\"), s.36, Sch.3 para.1(2\\) [Finance companies](/wiki/Finance_company \"Finance company\") who supply articles or substances by way of [hire purchase](/wiki/Hire_purchase \"Hire purchase\") or [credit agreement](/wiki/Credit_%28finance%29 \"Credit (finance)\") have no duties under section 6 (s.6(9\\)).", "### Duties of employees", "Under section 7 all employees have a duty while at work to:\n* Take reasonable care for the health and safety of him/herself and of other persons who may be affected by his/her acts or omissions at work; and\n* Co\\-operate with employers or other persons so far as is necessary to enable them to perform their duties or requirements under the Act.", "### Duties of persons in general", "Section 8 requires that \"no person shall [intentionally or recklessly](/wiki/Mens_rea \"Mens rea\") interfere with or misuse anything provided in the interests of health, safety or welfare in pursuance of any of the relevant statutory provisions.\"", "### Reasonably practicable", "What is reasonably practicable is a [question of fact](/wiki/Question_of_fact \"Question of fact\"). The [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_England_and_Wales \"Court of Appeal of England and Wales\") held in 1949 that*Edwards v. The National Coal Board* \\[1949] 1 KB 704; \\[1949] 1 All ER 743{{cite web \\| title\\=Principles and guidelines to assist HSE in its judgements that duty\\-holders have reduced risk as low as reasonably practicable \\| url\\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/risk/theory/alarp1\\.htm\\#P21\\_2414 \\| year\\=2002 \\| publisher\\=Health and Safety Executive \\| access\\-date\\=23 March 2008 }}\n{{quotation \\|in every case, it is the risk that has to be weighed against the measures necessary to eliminate the risk. The greater the risk, no doubt, the less will be the weight to be given to the factor of cost. \\| Lord Justice Tucker }}\nand:\n{{quotation \\| '''Reasonably practicable''' is a narrower term than 'physically possible' and seems to me to imply that a computation must be made by the owner in which the quantum of risk is placed on one scale and the sacrifice involved in the measures necessary for averting the risk (whether in money, time or trouble) is placed in the other, and that, if it be shown that there is a gross disproportion between them – the risk being insignificant in relation to the sacrifice – the defendants discharge the onus on them. \\| Lord Justice Asquith }}", "Where a [criminal prosecution](/wiki/Criminal_prosecution \"Criminal prosecution\") arises from a breach of duty and the accused's defence is that it would not have been practicable or reasonably practicable to act otherwise, the [burden of proof](/wiki/Legal_burden_of_proof \"Legal burden of proof\") falls on the defendant (s.40\\). The [prosecution](/wiki/Prosecution \"Prosecution\") have the burden of showing [beyond reasonable doubt](/wiki/Beyond_reasonable_doubt \"Beyond reasonable doubt\") that certain acts were done or omitted to provide a *[prima facie](/wiki/Prima_facie \"Prima facie\")* case against the accused. Only if the prosecution succeed in this does the defendant have the burden of proving that the alternative was not practicable or reasonably practicable, but only on the [balance of probabilities](/wiki/Balance_of_probabilities \"Balance of probabilities\").{{cite book \\| pages\\=4\\-388–4\\-390 \\| location\\=London \\| publisher\\=Sweet \\& Maxwell \\| year\\=2007 \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-421\\-94830\\-3 \\| title\\=Archbold: Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice \\| editor\\-last\\=Richardson \\|editor\\-first\\=P. J. }} The Court of Appeal held in 2002 that this requirement was compliant with article 6(2\\) of the [European Convention on Human Rights](/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights \"European Convention on Human Rights\") (ECHR) as to [presumption of innocence](/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence \"Presumption of innocence\"). The Court of Appeal noted that the \"reverse burden\" applied to purely [regulatory](/wiki/Regulatory_law \"Regulatory law\") breaches, rather than genuine [criminal offences](/wiki/Criminal_offence \"Criminal offence\") potentially punishable by [imprisonment](/wiki/Imprisonment \"Imprisonment\").*[Davies v. Health and Safety Executive](http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Crim/2002/2949.html)* \\[2002] EWCA Crim 2949 However, the [Health and Safety (Offences) Act 2008](/wiki/Health_and_Safety_%28Offences%29_Act_2008 \"Health and Safety (Offences) Act 2008\") extended the sentences available for these offences to include imprisonment for two years. Before it was passed, the [Department for Work and Pensions](/wiki/Department_for_Work_and_Pensions \"Department for Work and Pensions\") expressed the opinion that this is still compliant with the ECHR as it \"strikes a fair balance between the fundamental right of the individual and the general interests of the community\".{{cite web \\| title\\=Health and Safety (Offences) Bill – Explanatory Notes \\| publisher\\=House of Commons \\| year\\=2007–2008 \\| url\\=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmbills/029/en/08029x\\-\\-.htm \\| access\\-date\\=24 March 2008 }}", "In 2005, the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission \"European Commission\") challenged the defence as noncompliant with Directive 89/391/EEC, which states that (Art.5(1\\) and (4\\)):", "{{quotation \\| \"The employer shall have a duty to ensure the safety and health of workers in every aspect related to the work.\" but that \"This Directive shall not restrict the option of Member States to provide for the exclusion or the limitation of employers' responsibility where occurrences are due to unusual and unforeseeable circumstances, beyond the employers' control, or to exceptional events, the consequences of which could not have been avoided despite the exercise of all due care.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2021}} }}", "The commission argued that the \"reasonably practicable\" defence was much broader than allowed under the directive but in 2007 the [European Court of Justice](/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice \"European Court of Justice\") found for the UK that the defence was in fact compliant.*Commission v. UK* \\[2007] [Case C\\-127/05](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:62005CJ0127)", "### Development risks defence", "Section 6(10\\) was added by the Consumer Protection Act 1987S.36/ Sch.3 para.1(10\\) disapplies duties as to articles and substances used at work where a risk \"is shown to be one the occurrence of which could not [reasonably](/wiki/Reasonable_person \"Reasonable person\") be [foreseen](/wiki/Foreseeability \"Foreseeability\")\". This is known as the [development risks defence](/wiki/Development_risks_defence \"Development risks defence\").{{cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ar0xvdU\\_mpcC \\| title\\=Consumer Protection Law \\| author\\=Howells, G. G. \\| publisher\\=Ashgate \\| location\\=London \\| isbn\\=0\\-7546\\-2338\\-6 \\| edition\\=2nd \\| year\\=2005 \\| page\\=''p.''217 }} ([Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\")){{cite book \\| title\\=Product Liability \\| author\\=Clark, A. M. \\| location\\=London \\| publisher\\=Sweet \\& Maxwell \\| isbn\\=0\\-421\\-38880\\-3 \\| year\\=1989 \\| page\\=Ch.6 }}", "" ]
Enforcement ----------- Because individual litigation is unlikely, given that employees may find the regulations complex, the Health and Safety Executive enforces the Act. However, the HSE may also delegate its functions to local government under section 18, which allows for a more decentralised and targeted approach to regulation. Any enforcing authority may appoint inspectors with a written document stating their powers. This is as evidence of their authority (section 19\). Enforcing authorities may [indemnify](/wiki/Indemnity "Indemnity") the inspector against any [civil litigation](/wiki/Civil_litigation "Civil litigation") if he has acted in the [honest](/wiki/Dishonesty "Dishonesty") belief that he was within his powers (section 26\). Local government bodies who may be enforcing authorities are:Health and Safety (Enforcing Authority) Regulations 1998, [1998/494](https://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1998/19980494.htm) * England: + [County councils](/wiki/County_council "County council") where there are no [district councils](/wiki/Districts_of_England "Districts of England"); + District councils; + [London borough councils](/wiki/London_borough_council "London borough council"); + The [Common Council of the City of London](/wiki/Common_Council_of_the_City_of_London "Common Council of the City of London"); + The Sub\-Treasurer of the [Inner Temple](/wiki/Inner_Temple "Inner Temple"); + The Under\-Treasurer of the [Middle Temple](/wiki/Middle_Temple "Middle Temple"); + The [Council of the Isles of Scilly](/wiki/Council_of_the_Isles_of_Scilly "Council of the Isles of Scilly"); * Scotland: + Councils for a local government area; and * Wales: + County councils or [county borough councils](/wiki/County_borough_council "County borough council"). Local government bodies can be enforcing authorities in respect of several workplaces and activities including [offices](/wiki/Office "Office"), [shops](/wiki/Retailing "Retailing"), [retail](/wiki/Retail "Retail") and [wholesale](/wiki/Wholesale "Wholesale") distribution, [hotel](/wiki/Hotel "Hotel") and [catering](/wiki/Catering "Catering") establishments, [petrol filling stations](/wiki/Petrol_filling_station "Petrol filling station"), [residential care homes](/wiki/Residential_care_home "Residential care home") and the [leisure industry](/wiki/Leisure_industry "Leisure industry"). {{As of\|2008}}, 410 such bodies have responsibility in 1\.1 million workplaces.{{cite web \| title\=Local authority health and safety enforcement \| publisher\=Health and Safety Executive \| year\=2008 \| access\-date\=25 March 2008 \| url\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/lau/index.htm }} From 1 April 2006 the Office of Rail Regulation (ORR) became the enforcing authority for the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and laws made under it, for all health and safety matters relating to the operation of a railway (or tramway). ### Inspectors Under section, inspectors have the following powers: * enter any premises which he has reason to believe it is necessary for him to enter so enforce the Act, at any reasonable time, or in a dangerous situation; * take with him a [constable](/wiki/Constable "Constable") if he has reasonable cause to fear any serious obstruction in the execution of his duty; * take with him: + any other person duly authorised by the enforcing authority; and + any equipment or materials required for any purpose for which the power of entry is being exercised; * make such examination and investigation as may in any circumstances be necessary for the purpose of enforcing the Act; * direct that the premises, or any part of them, or anything therein, shall be left undisturbed, whether generally or in particular respects, for so long as is reasonably necessary for the purpose of any examination or investigation; * take such [measurements](/wiki/Measurement "Measurement") and [photographs](/wiki/Photograph "Photograph") and make such [recordings](/wiki/Document "Document") as he considers necessary for the purpose of examination or investigation; * take samples of any articles or substances found, and of the [atmosphere](/wiki/Atmosphere "Atmosphere") in or in the vicinity of the premises; * cause an article or substance which appears to be a danger to health or safety, to be dismantled or subjected to any process or test, but not so as to damage or destroy it unless this is in the circumstances necessary to enforce the Act; * take possession of such an article and detain it for so long as is necessary in order to: + examine it and do to it anything which he has power to do; + ensure that it is not tampered with before his examination of it is completed; + Ensure that it is available for use as [evidence](/wiki/Evidence_%28law%29 "Evidence (law)") in any prosecution or any proceedings relating to a notice under sections 21 or 22; * require any person whom he has reasonable cause to believe to be able to give any information relevant to any examination or investigation to answer (in the absence of persons other than a person nominated by him to be present and any persons whom the inspector may allow to be present) such questions as the inspector thinks fit to ask and to sign a declaration of the truth of his answers; * require the production of, inspect, and take copies of or of any entry in: + any books or documents which by virtue of any of the relevant statutory provisions are required to be kept; and + any other books or documents which it is necessary for him to see for the purposes of any examination or investigation; * require any person to afford him such facilities and assistance with respect to any matters or things within that person's control or in relation to which that person has responsibilities as are necessary to enable the inspector to exercise any of the powers conferred on him; * any other power which is necessary to enforce the Act. The Consumer Protection Act 1987 added the power for a [customs officer](/wiki/Customs_officer "Customs officer") to seize imported goods for up to 48 hours (section 25A). In observance of the principle of a [right to silence](/wiki/Right_to_silence "Right to silence"), answers given to questions that the inspector required a person to answer cannot be used as evidence against him, nor his [spouse](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") or [civil partner](/wiki/Civil_partner "Civil partner") (section 20(7\)), neither can the inspector require production of a document protected by [legal professional privilege](/wiki/Legal_professional_privilege "Legal professional privilege") (section 20(8\)). ### Improvement notices If an inspector is of the opinion that a person is currently contravening the Act; or has contravened the Act in the past in circumstances that make it likely that the contravention will continue or be repeated he may [serve](/wiki/Service_of_process "Service of process") him with an *improvement notice (section 21\)*:{{cite web \| title\=Drafting notices \| url\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/notices/drafting.htm \| publisher\=Health and Safety Executive \| access\-date\=24 March 2008 \| year\=2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108132740/http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/notices/drafting.htm \|archive\-date\=2009\-11\-08}} * stating that he believes that the Act is being contravened or will be in the future; * specifying the relevant provisions of the Act, giving particulars of the reasons why he is of that opinion; and * requiring the person to remedy the contravention within a period, ending not earlier than the period within which an [appeal](/wiki/Appeal "Appeal") can be brought under section 24, {{As of\|2008\|lc\=on}}, 21 days.Employment Tribunals (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2004, [SI 2004/1861, Sch.4](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si2004/20041861.htm#sch4) Appeal against a notice is within 21 days to an [employment tribunal](/wiki/Employment_tribunal "Employment tribunal") who may appoint one or more [assessors](/wiki/Assessor_%28law%29 "Assessor (law)") to sit with them (s.24\).{{cite web\|title\=Notice of appeal \|access\-date\=24 March 2008 \|year\=2007 \|url\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/tribunals/appeal.htm \|publisher\=Health and Safety Executive \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224081636/http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/tribunals/appeal.htm \|archive\-date\=24 December 2007 \|url\-status\=dead }} An appeal against an Improvement Notice has the effect of suspending the Improvement Notice {{Citation \| title\=Notice of appeal \- Notices \- Enforcement Guide (England \& Wales) \| url\=https://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/tribunals\-appeal.htm \| access\-date\=5 April 2024}} (see section 24(3\)(a)). ### Prohibition notices If an inspector is of the opinion that activities are being carried on, or are likely to be carried on, involving the risk of serious [personal injury](/wiki/Personal_injury "Personal injury"), he may serve him with a *prohibition notice* (section 22\): * stating that the inspector is of that opinion; * specifying the matters which in his opinion give, or will give rise, to that risk; * where in his opinion any of those matters involves, or will involve a contravention of the Act: + stating that he is of that opinion; + specifying the relevant statutory provisions; and + giving particulars of the reasons why he is of that opinion; and * directing that the activities shall not be carried on unless the deficiencies have been remedied. The notice may start immediately or at the end of a specified period (section 22(4\). Appeal against a notice is within 21 days to an [employment tribunal](/wiki/Employment_tribunal "Employment tribunal") who may appoint one or more assessors to sit with them (section 24\). An appeal against a Prohibition Notice, unlike an appeal against an Improvement Notice (see above) does not suspend the Prohibition Notice. However, the appellant may make an application for a direction that the Prohibition Notice is suspended whilst the appeal proceedings are ongoing {{Citation \| title\=Notice of appeal \- Notices \- Enforcement Guide (England \& Wales) \| url\=https://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/tribunals\-appeal.htm \| access\-date\=5 April 2024}}(see section 24(3\)(b)). ### Prosecution {{main\|Health and safety crime in the United Kingdom}} Section 33(1\) creates 15 criminal offences including breach of a duty under the Act or a regulation, contravention of a notice, or obstructing an inspector. In [England and Wales](/wiki/England_and_Wales "England and Wales") prosecution under the Act could originally only be brought by an inspector or with the permission of the [Director of Public Prosecutions](/wiki/Director_of_Public_Prosecutions "Director of Public Prosecutions") but the [Environment Agency](/wiki/Environment_Agency "Environment Agency") was also authorised on 1 April 1996 (section 38\).[Environment Act 1995](/wiki/Environment_Act_1995 "Environment Act 1995"), section 120(1\)/ Sch 22 para 30(7\) (with ss 7(6\), 115, 117\); SI 1996/186, art 3 All offences under the Act are either [summary offences](/wiki/Summary_offence "Summary offence") or [offences triable either way](/wiki/Offence_triable_either_way "Offence triable either way") so inspectors start prosecutions by laying an [information](/wiki/Information_%28formal_criminal_charge%29 "Information (formal criminal charge)") before the [magistrates' court](/wiki/Magistrates%27_court_%28England_and_Wales%29 "Magistrates' court (England and Wales)").{{cite web \| title\=Pre\-trial procedure \| access\-date\=24 March 2008 \| year\=2007 \| url\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/pretrial/procedure/intro.htm \| publisher\=Health and Safety Executive \| work\=Enforcement Guide \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080225093830/http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/pretrial/procedure/intro.htm \|archive\-date \= 25 February 2008}} Inspectors can themselves be authorised to exercise [rights of audience](/wiki/Rights_of_audience "Rights of audience") before the Magistrates even though not legally qualified (section 39\). If a person, by some act or omission, [causes](/wiki/Causation_%28law%29 "Causation (law)") another person to commit the *[actus reus](/wiki/Actus_reus "Actus reus")* of an offence under the Act then they too are guilty of an offence, even if the other person was not prosecuted or could not be prosecuted because they were [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown "The Crown") (section 36\). Where an offence is committed by a [body corporate](/wiki/Body_corporate "Body corporate") with the consent or connivance, or by the neglect, of a [director](/wiki/Board_of_directors "Board of directors"), [manager](/wiki/Management "Management"), [secretary](/wiki/Company_secretary "Company secretary") or a member acting in a managerial capacity, that individual too is guilty of an offence (section 37\). Where a person is convicted under the act, the court can order that he remedy the state of affairs or can order [forfeiture](/wiki/Asset_forfeiture "Asset forfeiture") of an item in question (section 42\).
[ "Enforcement\n-----------", "Because individual litigation is unlikely, given that employees may find the regulations complex, the Health and Safety Executive enforces the Act. However, the HSE may also delegate its functions to local government under section 18, which allows for a more decentralised and targeted approach to regulation. Any enforcing authority may appoint inspectors with a written document stating their powers. This is as evidence of their authority (section 19\\). Enforcing authorities may [indemnify](/wiki/Indemnity \"Indemnity\") the inspector against any [civil litigation](/wiki/Civil_litigation \"Civil litigation\") if he has acted in the [honest](/wiki/Dishonesty \"Dishonesty\") belief that he was within his powers (section 26\\). Local government bodies who may be enforcing authorities are:Health and Safety (Enforcing Authority) Regulations 1998, [1998/494](https://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1998/19980494.htm)", "* England:\n\t+ [County councils](/wiki/County_council \"County council\") where there are no [district councils](/wiki/Districts_of_England \"Districts of England\");\n\t+ District councils;\n\t+ [London borough councils](/wiki/London_borough_council \"London borough council\");\n\t+ The [Common Council of the City of London](/wiki/Common_Council_of_the_City_of_London \"Common Council of the City of London\");\n\t+ The Sub\\-Treasurer of the [Inner Temple](/wiki/Inner_Temple \"Inner Temple\");\n\t+ The Under\\-Treasurer of the [Middle Temple](/wiki/Middle_Temple \"Middle Temple\");\n\t+ The [Council of the Isles of Scilly](/wiki/Council_of_the_Isles_of_Scilly \"Council of the Isles of Scilly\");\n* Scotland:\n\t+ Councils for a local government area; and\n* Wales:\n\t+ County councils or [county borough councils](/wiki/County_borough_council \"County borough council\").", "Local government bodies can be enforcing authorities in respect of several workplaces and activities including [offices](/wiki/Office \"Office\"), [shops](/wiki/Retailing \"Retailing\"), [retail](/wiki/Retail \"Retail\") and [wholesale](/wiki/Wholesale \"Wholesale\") distribution, [hotel](/wiki/Hotel \"Hotel\") and [catering](/wiki/Catering \"Catering\") establishments, [petrol filling stations](/wiki/Petrol_filling_station \"Petrol filling station\"), [residential care homes](/wiki/Residential_care_home \"Residential care home\") and the [leisure industry](/wiki/Leisure_industry \"Leisure industry\"). {{As of\\|2008}}, 410 such bodies have responsibility in 1\\.1 million workplaces.{{cite web \\| title\\=Local authority health and safety enforcement \\| publisher\\=Health and Safety Executive \\| year\\=2008 \\| access\\-date\\=25 March 2008 \\| url\\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/lau/index.htm }} From 1 April 2006 the Office of Rail Regulation (ORR) became the enforcing authority for the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and laws made under it, for all health and safety matters relating to the operation of a railway (or tramway).", "### Inspectors", "Under section, inspectors have the following powers:", "* enter any premises which he has reason to believe it is necessary for him to enter so enforce the Act, at any reasonable time, or in a dangerous situation;\n* take with him a [constable](/wiki/Constable \"Constable\") if he has reasonable cause to fear any serious obstruction in the execution of his duty;\n* take with him:\n\t+ any other person duly authorised by the enforcing authority; and\n\t+ any equipment or materials required for any purpose for which the power of entry is being exercised;\n* make such examination and investigation as may in any circumstances be necessary for the purpose of enforcing the Act;\n* direct that the premises, or any part of them, or anything therein, shall be left undisturbed, whether generally or in particular respects, for so long as is reasonably necessary for the purpose of any examination or investigation;\n* take such [measurements](/wiki/Measurement \"Measurement\") and [photographs](/wiki/Photograph \"Photograph\") and make such [recordings](/wiki/Document \"Document\") as he considers necessary for the purpose of examination or investigation;\n* take samples of any articles or substances found, and of the [atmosphere](/wiki/Atmosphere \"Atmosphere\") in or in the vicinity of the premises;\n* cause an article or substance which appears to be a danger to health or safety, to be dismantled or subjected to any process or test, but not so as to damage or destroy it unless this is in the circumstances necessary to enforce the Act;\n* take possession of such an article and detain it for so long as is necessary in order to:\n\t+ examine it and do to it anything which he has power to do;\n\t+ ensure that it is not tampered with before his examination of it is completed;\n\t+ Ensure that it is available for use as [evidence](/wiki/Evidence_%28law%29 \"Evidence (law)\") in any prosecution or any proceedings relating to a notice under sections 21 or 22;\n* require any person whom he has reasonable cause to believe to be able to give any information relevant to any examination or investigation to answer (in the absence of persons other than a person nominated by him to be present and any persons whom the inspector may allow to be present) such questions as the inspector thinks fit to ask and to sign a declaration of the truth of his answers;\n* require the production of, inspect, and take copies of or of any entry in:\n\t+ any books or documents which by virtue of any of the relevant statutory provisions are required to be kept; and\n\t+ any other books or documents which it is necessary for him to see for the purposes of any examination or investigation;\n* require any person to afford him such facilities and assistance with respect to any matters or things within that person's control or in relation to which that person has responsibilities as are necessary to enable the inspector to exercise any of the powers conferred on him;\n* any other power which is necessary to enforce the Act.", "The Consumer Protection Act 1987 added the power for a [customs officer](/wiki/Customs_officer \"Customs officer\") to seize imported goods for up to 48 hours (section 25A). In observance of the principle of a [right to silence](/wiki/Right_to_silence \"Right to silence\"), answers given to questions that the inspector required a person to answer cannot be used as evidence against him, nor his [spouse](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") or [civil partner](/wiki/Civil_partner \"Civil partner\") (section 20(7\\)), neither can the inspector require production of a document protected by [legal professional privilege](/wiki/Legal_professional_privilege \"Legal professional privilege\") (section 20(8\\)).", "### Improvement notices", "If an inspector is of the opinion that a person is currently contravening the Act; or has contravened the Act in the past in circumstances that make it likely that the contravention will continue or be repeated he may [serve](/wiki/Service_of_process \"Service of process\") him with an *improvement notice (section 21\\)*:{{cite web \\| title\\=Drafting notices \\| url\\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/notices/drafting.htm \\| publisher\\=Health and Safety Executive \\| access\\-date\\=24 March 2008 \\| year\\=2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108132740/http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/notices/drafting.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-11\\-08}}", "* stating that he believes that the Act is being contravened or will be in the future;\n* specifying the relevant provisions of the Act, giving particulars of the reasons why he is of that opinion; and\n* requiring the person to remedy the contravention within a period, ending not earlier than the period within which an [appeal](/wiki/Appeal \"Appeal\") can be brought under section 24, {{As of\\|2008\\|lc\\=on}}, 21 days.Employment Tribunals (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2004, [SI 2004/1861, Sch.4](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si2004/20041861.htm#sch4)", "Appeal against a notice is within 21 days to an [employment tribunal](/wiki/Employment_tribunal \"Employment tribunal\") who may appoint one or more [assessors](/wiki/Assessor_%28law%29 \"Assessor (law)\") to sit with them (s.24\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=Notice of appeal \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2008 \\|year\\=2007 \\|url\\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/tribunals/appeal.htm \\|publisher\\=Health and Safety Executive \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224081636/http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/tribunals/appeal.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "An appeal against an Improvement Notice has the effect of suspending the Improvement Notice {{Citation \\| title\\=Notice of appeal \\- Notices \\- Enforcement Guide (England \\& Wales) \\| url\\=https://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/tribunals\\-appeal.htm \\| access\\-date\\=5 April 2024}} (see section 24(3\\)(a)).", "### Prohibition notices", "If an inspector is of the opinion that activities are being carried on, or are likely to be carried on, involving the risk of serious [personal injury](/wiki/Personal_injury \"Personal injury\"), he may serve him with a *prohibition notice* (section 22\\):", "* stating that the inspector is of that opinion;\n* specifying the matters which in his opinion give, or will give rise, to that risk;\n* where in his opinion any of those matters involves, or will involve a contravention of the Act:\n\t+ stating that he is of that opinion;\n\t+ specifying the relevant statutory provisions; and\n\t+ giving particulars of the reasons why he is of that opinion; and\n* directing that the activities shall not be carried on unless the deficiencies have been remedied.", "The notice may start immediately or at the end of a specified period (section 22(4\\). Appeal against a notice is within 21 days to an [employment tribunal](/wiki/Employment_tribunal \"Employment tribunal\") who may appoint one or more assessors to sit with them (section 24\\).", "An appeal against a Prohibition Notice, unlike an appeal against an Improvement Notice (see above) does not suspend the Prohibition Notice. However, the appellant may make an application for a direction that the Prohibition Notice is suspended whilst the appeal proceedings are ongoing {{Citation \\| title\\=Notice of appeal \\- Notices \\- Enforcement Guide (England \\& Wales) \\| url\\=https://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/notices/tribunals\\-appeal.htm \\| access\\-date\\=5 April 2024}}(see section 24(3\\)(b)).", "### Prosecution", "{{main\\|Health and safety crime in the United Kingdom}}\nSection 33(1\\) creates 15 criminal offences including breach of a duty under the Act or a regulation, contravention of a notice, or obstructing an inspector. In [England and Wales](/wiki/England_and_Wales \"England and Wales\") prosecution under the Act could originally only be brought by an inspector or with the permission of the [Director of Public Prosecutions](/wiki/Director_of_Public_Prosecutions \"Director of Public Prosecutions\") but the [Environment Agency](/wiki/Environment_Agency \"Environment Agency\") was also authorised on 1 April 1996 (section 38\\).[Environment Act 1995](/wiki/Environment_Act_1995 \"Environment Act 1995\"), section 120(1\\)/ Sch 22 para 30(7\\) (with ss 7(6\\), 115, 117\\); SI 1996/186, art 3 All offences under the Act are either [summary offences](/wiki/Summary_offence \"Summary offence\") or [offences triable either way](/wiki/Offence_triable_either_way \"Offence triable either way\") so inspectors start prosecutions by laying an [information](/wiki/Information_%28formal_criminal_charge%29 \"Information (formal criminal charge)\") before the [magistrates' court](/wiki/Magistrates%27_court_%28England_and_Wales%29 \"Magistrates' court (England and Wales)\").{{cite web \\| title\\=Pre\\-trial procedure \\| access\\-date\\=24 March 2008 \\| year\\=2007 \\| url\\=http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/pretrial/procedure/intro.htm \\| publisher\\=Health and Safety Executive \\| work\\=Enforcement Guide \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080225093830/http://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/pretrial/procedure/intro.htm \\|archive\\-date \\= 25 February 2008}} Inspectors can themselves be authorised to exercise [rights of audience](/wiki/Rights_of_audience \"Rights of audience\") before the Magistrates even though not legally qualified (section 39\\).", "If a person, by some act or omission, [causes](/wiki/Causation_%28law%29 \"Causation (law)\") another person to commit the *[actus reus](/wiki/Actus_reus \"Actus reus\")* of an offence under the Act then they too are guilty of an offence, even if the other person was not prosecuted or could not be prosecuted because they were [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown \"The Crown\") (section 36\\). Where an offence is committed by a [body corporate](/wiki/Body_corporate \"Body corporate\") with the consent or connivance, or by the neglect, of a [director](/wiki/Board_of_directors \"Board of directors\"), [manager](/wiki/Management \"Management\"), [secretary](/wiki/Company_secretary \"Company secretary\") or a member acting in a managerial capacity, that individual too is guilty of an offence (section 37\\).", "Where a person is convicted under the act, the court can order that he remedy the state of affairs or can order [forfeiture](/wiki/Asset_forfeiture \"Asset forfeiture\") of an item in question (section 42\\).", "" ]
History ------- The Burlington Northern Railroad was the product of the merger of four major railroads: the [Great Northern Railway](/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_%28U.S.%29 "Great Northern Railway (U.S.)") (GN), the [Northern Pacific Railway](/wiki/Northern_Pacific_Railway "Northern Pacific Railway") (NP), the [Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Portland_and_Seattle_Railway "Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway") (SP\&S) and the [Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad "Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad") (CB\&Q). The four railroads shared a very intertwined history, due to the efforts of [James J. Hill](/wiki/James_J._Hill "James J. Hill"), the railroad tycoon who had founded the Great Northern Railway. Hill purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific in 1896 as the railway endured a period of financial turmoil. Hill attempted to merge the two railways but was rebuffed by the leaders of the Northern Pacific. In 1901, the two railways teamed up to purchase nearly all shares of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, giving both a needed connection to Chicago, the nation's railroad hub. That same year, came the next attempt to merge the railroads with the establishment of the [Northern Securities Company](/wiki/Northern_Securities_Company "Northern Securities Company"), a trust that controlled all three, with Hill serving as president. The company was sued in 1902 under the [Sherman Antitrust Act](/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act "Sherman Antitrust Act") and in 1904 the Justice Department won in the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") ruling *[Northern Securities Co. v. United States](/wiki/Northern_Securities_Co._v._United_States "Northern Securities Co. v. United States").* Although the ruling forced the three companies to be operated independently, they were still closely linked, even sharing a headquarters building, the [Railroad and Bank Building](/wiki/Railroad_and_Bank_Building "Railroad and Bank Building") in [Saint Paul, Minnesota](/wiki/Saint_Paul%2C_Minnesota "Saint Paul, Minnesota"). In 1905, the [Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Portland_and_Seattle_Railway "Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway") was founded. Like the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, this new railroad was co\-owned by the Great Northern and Northern Pacific and allowed both to access Portland via the Columbia River Gorge. Leaders attempted to merge another two times, in 1927 and 1955, but were unsuccessful. The four railroads were finally cleared to merge on March 2, 1970, after a legal challenge that once again went to the Supreme Court. By that time, the GN's president was [John M. Budd](/wiki/John_M._Budd "John M. Budd"), the NP's president was [Louis W. Menk](/wiki/Louis_W._Menk "Louis W. Menk"), and the CB\&Q's president was [William John Quinn](/wiki/William_John_Quinn "William John Quinn").Moore, Russell F., editor. *Who's Who in Railroading in North America. New York: Simmons\-Boardman,* 1964, p. 69{{cite book \|last\=Osthoff \|first\=Frederick C \|title\=Who's Who in Railroading in North America \|publisher\=Simmons\-Boardman \|year\=1968 \|location\=New York \|pages\=341}}{{cite news \|last\=Goldsborough \|first\=Bob \|date\=2015\-11\-18 \|title\=William J. Quinn, railroad executive, dies at 104 \|url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\-william\-quinn\-obituary\-met\-20151118\-story.html \|accessdate\=2015\-11\-20 \|newspaper\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]] \|publisher\=\[\[Tribune Publishing]]}} Under the leadership of Budd and Menk, the newly established [holding company](/wiki/Holding_company "Holding company"), **Burlington Northern, Inc.** purchased the four railroads and merged them into the Burlington Northern Railroad. Budd became the company's first board chairman and CEO while Menk became the company's first president and COO.{{cite book\| title\=Burlington Northern 1969 Annual Report\| date\=1970\| publisher\=Burlington Northern\| url\=https://research.nprha.org/Publications/Annual\_Reports/1960s/1969\_NPR\_ANNUAL\_REPORT\_M.pdf}} To further expand the Burlington Northern, a single track was constructed in 1972 into the [Powder River Basin](/wiki/Powder_River_Basin "Powder River Basin") to serve various coal mines. The expansion was a source of traffic unprecedented in United States railroad history. In 1971, the first full year for the new railroad, trains carried 64,116 million revenue ton\-miles of freight, by 1979 the total was 135,004 million.Moody's Transportation Manual 1981 Most of the increase was attributed to Powder River coal from Wyoming. The Burlington Northern, along with handling freight trains, briefly operated inter\-city passenger trains. The BN had started operations just a matter of weeks before the end of service of the original *[California Zephyr](/wiki/California_Zephyr "California Zephyr")*, which had been operated by the CB\&Q, in conjunction with the [Denver and Rio Grande Western](/wiki/Denver_and_Rio_Grande_Western_Railroad "Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad") and [Western Pacific](/wiki/Western_Pacific_Railroad "Western Pacific Railroad") railroads, and continued to operate the *[North Coast Limited](/wiki/North_Coast_Limited "North Coast Limited")*, *[Mainstreeter](/wiki/Mainstreeter "Mainstreeter")*, *[Empire Builder](/wiki/Empire_Builder "Empire Builder")*, *[Western Star](/wiki/Western_Star_%28train%29 "Western Star (train)")*, *[Denver Zephyr](/wiki/Denver_Zephyr "Denver Zephyr")*, "[Gopher](/wiki/Gopher_%28train%29 "Gopher (train)")", and "[International](/wiki/International_%28GN_train%29 "International (GN train)")", until [Amtrak](/wiki/Amtrak "Amtrak") took over intercity passenger service in May 1971, thus becoming the last "new" Class I railroad to operate its own passenger trains. The BN also operated a [commuter line](/wiki/BNSF_Railway_%28Metra%29 "BNSF Railway (Metra)") inherited from the CB\&Q from [Aurora, Illinois](/wiki/Aurora_Transportation_Center "Aurora Transportation Center") to [Chicago Union Station](/wiki/Chicago_Union_Station "Chicago Union Station"). This line is still owned and operated to this day by the BNSF Railway under a purchase\-of\-service agreement with [Metra](/wiki/Metra "Metra"). In May 1980 when [Mount St. Helens erupted](/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens "1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens"), the BNR owned the land around the summit of Mount St. Helens in Washington state. In the 19th century, the United States government distributed land to railroads as a way to open up the American West and the {{convert\|9,677\|ft\|adj\=on}} peak was granted to the Northern Pacific. It was inherited in the 1970 merger by Burlington Northern. Following the eruption the land including the volcano was subsequently transferred in a land swap between the railroad and the [United States Forest Service](/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service "United States Forest Service") so the [Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument](/wiki/Mount_St._Helens_National_Volcanic_Monument "Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument") could be established. On November 21, 1980, the [St. Louis–San Francisco Railway](/wiki/St._Louis%E2%80%93San_Francisco_Railway "St. Louis–San Francisco Railway") was acquired, giving the railroad trackage as far south as [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida"). In the early 1980s two independently operated railroads, owned by Burlington Northern Inc. were absorbed into the Burlington Northern Railroad; the [Colorado and Southern Railway](/wiki/Colorado_and_Southern_Railway "Colorado and Southern Railway") was absorbed in 1981, followed by the [Fort Worth and Denver Railway](/wiki/Fort_Worth_and_Denver_Railway "Fort Worth and Denver Railway") in 1982\. The railroad relocated its headquarters from Saint Paul to [Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Seattle%2C_Washington "Seattle, Washington") in 1981,{{cite journal\| title\=Taking Control at Burlington\| date\=April 16, 1982\| journal\=New York Times\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/04/16/business/taking\-control\-at\-burlington.html\| access\-date\=February 15, 2019}} as well as its parent company and sister companies. All of Burlington Northern, Inc's non\-rail operations were spun off to a new company, [Burlington Resources](/wiki/Burlington_Resources "Burlington Resources") in 1988\. The railroad once again relocated its headquarters in 1988, moving from Seattle to [Fort Worth, Texas](/wiki/Fort_Worth%2C_Texas "Fort Worth, Texas"). On September 22, 1995, the [Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway "Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway") merged with the Burlington Northern to create the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway. However, the merger was not official until December 31, 1996, when a common dispatching system was established, Santa Fe's non\-union dispatchers were unionized and the implementation of Santa Fe's train identification codes systemwide.{{cite journal\| title\=Burlington Northern \& Santa Fe: Merger\| date\=March 1997\| journal\=\[\[Pacific RailNews\|RailNews]]\| publisher\=\[\[Pentrex]]\| page\=87\| url\=http://www.trainlife.com/magazines/pages/237/17557/march\-1997\-page\-87\| access\-date\=March 24, 2012\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006020904/http://www.trainlife.com/magazines/pages/237/17557/march\-1997\-page\-87\| archive\-date\=2013\-10\-06\| url\-status\=dead}} On January 24, 2005, the railroad shortened its name to BNSF Railway.{{cite web\| title\=Form 10\-K: Burlington Northern Santa Fe Corporation for the year ended December 31, 2007\| date\=February 15, 2008\| publisher\=\[\[Securities and Exchange Commission]]\| url\=http://secfilings.nasdaq.com/edgar\_conv\_html%2f2008%2f02%2f15%2f0000934612\-08\-000012\.html\#FIS\_BUSINESS\| access\-date\=March 24, 2012\| archive\-date\=May 12, 2021\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512140736/https://secfilings.nasdaq.com/edgar\_conv\_html%2f2008%2f02%2f15%2f0000934612\-08\-000012\.html\#FIS\_BUSINESS\| url\-status\=dead}}
[ "History\n-------", "The Burlington Northern Railroad was the product of the merger of four major railroads: the [Great Northern Railway](/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_%28U.S.%29 \"Great Northern Railway (U.S.)\") (GN), the [Northern Pacific Railway](/wiki/Northern_Pacific_Railway \"Northern Pacific Railway\") (NP), the [Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Portland_and_Seattle_Railway \"Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway\") (SP\\&S) and the [Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad \"Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad\") (CB\\&Q).", "The four railroads shared a very intertwined history, due to the efforts of [James J. Hill](/wiki/James_J._Hill \"James J. Hill\"), the railroad tycoon who had founded the Great Northern Railway. Hill purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific in 1896 as the railway endured a period of financial turmoil. Hill attempted to merge the two railways but was rebuffed by the leaders of the Northern Pacific.", "In 1901, the two railways teamed up to purchase nearly all shares of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, giving both a needed connection to Chicago, the nation's railroad hub. That same year, came the next attempt to merge the railroads with the establishment of the [Northern Securities Company](/wiki/Northern_Securities_Company \"Northern Securities Company\"), a trust that controlled all three, with Hill serving as president. The company was sued in 1902 under the [Sherman Antitrust Act](/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act \"Sherman Antitrust Act\") and in 1904 the Justice Department won in the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") ruling *[Northern Securities Co. v. United States](/wiki/Northern_Securities_Co._v._United_States \"Northern Securities Co. v. United States\").*", "Although the ruling forced the three companies to be operated independently, they were still closely linked, even sharing a headquarters building, the [Railroad and Bank Building](/wiki/Railroad_and_Bank_Building \"Railroad and Bank Building\") in [Saint Paul, Minnesota](/wiki/Saint_Paul%2C_Minnesota \"Saint Paul, Minnesota\"). In 1905, the [Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Portland_and_Seattle_Railway \"Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway\") was founded. Like the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, this new railroad was co\\-owned by the Great Northern and Northern Pacific and allowed both to access Portland via the Columbia River Gorge. Leaders attempted to merge another two times, in 1927 and 1955, but were unsuccessful.", "The four railroads were finally cleared to merge on March 2, 1970, after a legal challenge that once again went to the Supreme Court. By that time, the GN's president was [John M. Budd](/wiki/John_M._Budd \"John M. Budd\"), the NP's president was [Louis W. Menk](/wiki/Louis_W._Menk \"Louis W. Menk\"), and the CB\\&Q's president was [William John Quinn](/wiki/William_John_Quinn \"William John Quinn\").Moore, Russell F., editor. *Who's Who in Railroading in North America. New York: Simmons\\-Boardman,* 1964, p. 69{{cite book \\|last\\=Osthoff \\|first\\=Frederick C \\|title\\=Who's Who in Railroading in North America \\|publisher\\=Simmons\\-Boardman \\|year\\=1968 \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=341}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Goldsborough \\|first\\=Bob \\|date\\=2015\\-11\\-18 \\|title\\=William J. Quinn, railroad executive, dies at 104 \\|url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct\\-william\\-quinn\\-obituary\\-met\\-20151118\\-story.html \\|accessdate\\=2015\\-11\\-20 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Tribune Publishing]]}} Under the leadership of Budd and Menk, the newly established [holding company](/wiki/Holding_company \"Holding company\"), **Burlington Northern, Inc.** purchased the four railroads and merged them into the Burlington Northern Railroad. Budd became the company's first board chairman and CEO while Menk became the company's first president and COO.{{cite book\\| title\\=Burlington Northern 1969 Annual Report\\| date\\=1970\\| publisher\\=Burlington Northern\\| url\\=https://research.nprha.org/Publications/Annual\\_Reports/1960s/1969\\_NPR\\_ANNUAL\\_REPORT\\_M.pdf}}", "To further expand the Burlington Northern, a single track was constructed in 1972 into the [Powder River Basin](/wiki/Powder_River_Basin \"Powder River Basin\") to serve various coal mines. The expansion was a source of traffic unprecedented in United States railroad history. In 1971, the first full year for the new railroad, trains carried 64,116 million revenue ton\\-miles of freight, by 1979 the total was 135,004 million.Moody's Transportation Manual 1981 Most of the increase was attributed to Powder River coal from Wyoming.", "The Burlington Northern, along with handling freight trains, briefly operated inter\\-city passenger trains. The BN had started operations just a matter of weeks before the end of service of the original *[California Zephyr](/wiki/California_Zephyr \"California Zephyr\")*, which had been operated by the CB\\&Q, in conjunction with the [Denver and Rio Grande Western](/wiki/Denver_and_Rio_Grande_Western_Railroad \"Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad\") and [Western Pacific](/wiki/Western_Pacific_Railroad \"Western Pacific Railroad\") railroads, and continued to operate the *[North Coast Limited](/wiki/North_Coast_Limited \"North Coast Limited\")*, *[Mainstreeter](/wiki/Mainstreeter \"Mainstreeter\")*, *[Empire Builder](/wiki/Empire_Builder \"Empire Builder\")*, *[Western Star](/wiki/Western_Star_%28train%29 \"Western Star (train)\")*, *[Denver Zephyr](/wiki/Denver_Zephyr \"Denver Zephyr\")*, \"[Gopher](/wiki/Gopher_%28train%29 \"Gopher (train)\")\", and \"[International](/wiki/International_%28GN_train%29 \"International (GN train)\")\", until [Amtrak](/wiki/Amtrak \"Amtrak\") took over intercity passenger service in May 1971, thus becoming the last \"new\" Class I railroad to operate its own passenger trains. The BN also operated a [commuter line](/wiki/BNSF_Railway_%28Metra%29 \"BNSF Railway (Metra)\") inherited from the CB\\&Q from [Aurora, Illinois](/wiki/Aurora_Transportation_Center \"Aurora Transportation Center\") to [Chicago Union Station](/wiki/Chicago_Union_Station \"Chicago Union Station\"). This line is still owned and operated to this day by the BNSF Railway under a purchase\\-of\\-service agreement with [Metra](/wiki/Metra \"Metra\").", "In May 1980 when [Mount St. Helens erupted](/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens \"1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens\"), the BNR owned the land around the summit of Mount St. Helens in Washington state. In the 19th century, the United States government distributed land to railroads as a way to open up the American West and the {{convert\\|9,677\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} peak was granted to the Northern Pacific. It was inherited in the 1970 merger by Burlington Northern. Following the eruption the land including the volcano was subsequently transferred in a land swap between the railroad and the [United States Forest Service](/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service \"United States Forest Service\") so the [Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument](/wiki/Mount_St._Helens_National_Volcanic_Monument \"Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument\") could be established.", "On November 21, 1980, the [St. Louis–San Francisco Railway](/wiki/St._Louis%E2%80%93San_Francisco_Railway \"St. Louis–San Francisco Railway\") was acquired, giving the railroad trackage as far south as [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\").", "In the early 1980s two independently operated railroads, owned by Burlington Northern Inc. were absorbed into the Burlington Northern Railroad; the [Colorado and Southern Railway](/wiki/Colorado_and_Southern_Railway \"Colorado and Southern Railway\") was absorbed in 1981, followed by the [Fort Worth and Denver Railway](/wiki/Fort_Worth_and_Denver_Railway \"Fort Worth and Denver Railway\") in 1982\\.", "The railroad relocated its headquarters from Saint Paul to [Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Seattle%2C_Washington \"Seattle, Washington\") in 1981,{{cite journal\\| title\\=Taking Control at Burlington\\| date\\=April 16, 1982\\| journal\\=New York Times\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/04/16/business/taking\\-control\\-at\\-burlington.html\\| access\\-date\\=February 15, 2019}} as well as its parent company and sister companies.", "All of Burlington Northern, Inc's non\\-rail operations were spun off to a new company, [Burlington Resources](/wiki/Burlington_Resources \"Burlington Resources\") in 1988\\.", "The railroad once again relocated its headquarters in 1988, moving from Seattle to [Fort Worth, Texas](/wiki/Fort_Worth%2C_Texas \"Fort Worth, Texas\").", "On September 22, 1995, the [Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway \"Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway\") merged with the Burlington Northern to create the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway. However, the merger was not official until December 31, 1996, when a common dispatching system was established, Santa Fe's non\\-union dispatchers were unionized and the implementation of Santa Fe's train identification codes systemwide.{{cite journal\\| title\\=Burlington Northern \\& Santa Fe: Merger\\| date\\=March 1997\\| journal\\=\\[\\[Pacific RailNews\\|RailNews]]\\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Pentrex]]\\| page\\=87\\| url\\=http://www.trainlife.com/magazines/pages/237/17557/march\\-1997\\-page\\-87\\| access\\-date\\=March 24, 2012\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006020904/http://www.trainlife.com/magazines/pages/237/17557/march\\-1997\\-page\\-87\\| archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-06\\| url\\-status\\=dead}} On January 24, 2005, the railroad shortened its name to BNSF Railway.{{cite web\\| title\\=Form 10\\-K: Burlington Northern Santa Fe Corporation for the year ended December 31, 2007\\| date\\=February 15, 2008\\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Securities and Exchange Commission]]\\| url\\=http://secfilings.nasdaq.com/edgar\\_conv\\_html%2f2008%2f02%2f15%2f0000934612\\-08\\-000012\\.html\\#FIS\\_BUSINESS\\| access\\-date\\=March 24, 2012\\| archive\\-date\\=May 12, 2021\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512140736/https://secfilings.nasdaq.com/edgar\\_conv\\_html%2f2008%2f02%2f15%2f0000934612\\-08\\-000012\\.html\\#FIS\\_BUSINESS\\| url\\-status\\=dead}}", "" ]
History ------- Trinidad and Tobago played their first ever rugby international in 1979 in Georgetown against [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda_national_rugby_union_team "Bermuda national rugby union team"). Trinidad and Tobago lost the contest 8 points to 42\. Trinidad and Tobago attempted to qualify for the [1999 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/1999_Rugby_World_Cup "1999 Rugby World Cup") in [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"). Their first match of the [Americas qualifying tournament](/wiki/1999_Rugby_World_Cup_qualifying%23Round_1_2 "1999 Rugby World Cup qualifying#Round 1 2") was a one\-off Round 1 match against [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_rugby_union_team "Brazil national rugby union team") in Port of Spain. Trinidad and Tobago won the game 41 points to nil and advanced to Round 2, where they faced [Chile](/wiki/Chile_national_rugby_union_team "Chile national rugby union team") and Bermuda in a pool series. Trinidad and Tobago lost their first match 6\-35 against Chile, and lost their second against Bermuda 52\-6, and were knocked out of the qualifying tournaments. The team were involved in qualifying tournaments for the [2003 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup "2003 Rugby World Cup") in Australia as well, participating in the [Round 1 Americas tournament](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup_-_Americas_qualification "2003 Rugby World Cup - Americas qualification"). The team defeated [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica_national_rugby_union_team "Jamaica national rugby union team") 51\-5 in their first match, and went on to win 12\-8 over the [Cayman Islands](/wiki/Cayman_Islands_national_rugby_union_team "Cayman Islands national rugby union team") in their second game. Trinidad and Tobago then won their third match 23\-12 over Bermuda to advance to Round 2\. There the team was narrowly defeated 10\-11 by Brazil, and then nil to 9 in the second match, and Trinidad and Tobago were knocked out of the tournament. In 2005 Trinidad and Tobago participated in [qualifying tournaments](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_-_Americas_qualification "2007 Rugby World Cup - Americas qualification") for the [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup "2007 Rugby World Cup") in France. They were grouped in the South of the pool of Round 1a along with [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados_national_rugby_union_team "Barbados national rugby union team"), [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana_national_rugby_union_team "Guyana national rugby union team") and [Saint Lucia](/wiki/Saint_Lucia_national_rugby_union_team "Saint Lucia national rugby union team"). Trinidad and Tobago won their first match 82\-8 over Saint Lucia, though they lost to Barbados and Guyana, finishing third in the pool which ended their qualifying campaign. Trinidad and Tobago compete in the [Caribbean Championship](/wiki/Caribbean_Championship "Caribbean Championship"), a tournament which includes [Antigua](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_national_rugby_union_team "Antigua and Barbuda national rugby union team"), [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda_national_rugby_union_team "Bermuda national rugby union team"), the [Cayman Islands](/wiki/Cayman_Islands_national_rugby_union_team "Cayman Islands national rugby union team"), [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica_national_rugby_union_team "Jamaica national rugby union team"), the [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas_national_rugby_union_team "Bahamas national rugby union team"), [British Virgin Islands](/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands_national_rugby_union_team "British Virgin Islands national rugby union team"), and [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana_national_rugby_union_team "Guyana national rugby union team").Bath, Richard (ed.) *The Complete Book of Rugby* (Seven Oaks Ltd, 1997 {{ISBN\|1\-86200\-013\-1}}) p78 Trinidad and Tobago win in the Caribbean Cup made them advance to the next round of the [2011 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2011_Rugby_World_Cup "2011 Rugby World Cup") qualification, where they had to face [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_rugby_union_team "Brazil national rugby union team"). The "Calypso Warriors" faced the notorious improvement of their South Americans counterparts and they lost both games, 31\-8 at home and 24\-12 away, ending their hopes to qualify again. In [2015](/wiki/2015_NACRA_Rugby_Championship "2015 NACRA Rugby Championship"), Trinidad and Tobago won the [NACRA Rugby Championship](/wiki/NACRA_Rugby_Championship "NACRA Rugby Championship"), defeating Mexico 30\-16 in the final.
[ "History\n-------", "Trinidad and Tobago played their first ever rugby international in 1979 in Georgetown against [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda_national_rugby_union_team \"Bermuda national rugby union team\"). Trinidad and Tobago lost the contest 8 points to 42\\. Trinidad and Tobago attempted to qualify for the [1999 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/1999_Rugby_World_Cup \"1999 Rugby World Cup\") in [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"). Their first match of the [Americas qualifying tournament](/wiki/1999_Rugby_World_Cup_qualifying%23Round_1_2 \"1999 Rugby World Cup qualifying#Round 1 2\") was a one\\-off Round 1 match against [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_rugby_union_team \"Brazil national rugby union team\") in Port of Spain. Trinidad and Tobago won the game 41 points to nil and advanced to Round 2, where they faced [Chile](/wiki/Chile_national_rugby_union_team \"Chile national rugby union team\") and Bermuda in a pool series. Trinidad and Tobago lost their first match 6\\-35 against Chile, and lost their second against Bermuda 52\\-6, and were knocked out of the qualifying tournaments.", "The team were involved in qualifying tournaments for the [2003 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby World Cup\") in Australia as well, participating in the [Round 1 Americas tournament](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup_-_Americas_qualification \"2003 Rugby World Cup - Americas qualification\"). The team defeated [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica_national_rugby_union_team \"Jamaica national rugby union team\") 51\\-5 in their first match, and went on to win 12\\-8 over the [Cayman Islands](/wiki/Cayman_Islands_national_rugby_union_team \"Cayman Islands national rugby union team\") in their second game. Trinidad and Tobago then won their third match 23\\-12 over Bermuda to advance to Round 2\\. There the team was narrowly defeated 10\\-11 by Brazil, and then nil to 9 in the second match, and Trinidad and Tobago were knocked out of the tournament.", "In 2005 Trinidad and Tobago participated in [qualifying tournaments](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_-_Americas_qualification \"2007 Rugby World Cup - Americas qualification\") for the [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup \"2007 Rugby World Cup\") in France. They were grouped in the South of the pool of Round 1a along with [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados_national_rugby_union_team \"Barbados national rugby union team\"), [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana_national_rugby_union_team \"Guyana national rugby union team\") and [Saint Lucia](/wiki/Saint_Lucia_national_rugby_union_team \"Saint Lucia national rugby union team\"). Trinidad and Tobago won their first match 82\\-8 over Saint Lucia, though they lost to Barbados and Guyana, finishing third in the pool which ended their qualifying campaign.", "Trinidad and Tobago compete in the [Caribbean Championship](/wiki/Caribbean_Championship \"Caribbean Championship\"), a tournament which includes [Antigua](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_national_rugby_union_team \"Antigua and Barbuda national rugby union team\"), [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda_national_rugby_union_team \"Bermuda national rugby union team\"), the [Cayman Islands](/wiki/Cayman_Islands_national_rugby_union_team \"Cayman Islands national rugby union team\"), [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica_national_rugby_union_team \"Jamaica national rugby union team\"), the [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas_national_rugby_union_team \"Bahamas national rugby union team\"), [British Virgin Islands](/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands_national_rugby_union_team \"British Virgin Islands national rugby union team\"), and [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana_national_rugby_union_team \"Guyana national rugby union team\").Bath, Richard (ed.) *The Complete Book of Rugby* (Seven Oaks Ltd, 1997 {{ISBN\\|1\\-86200\\-013\\-1}}) p78", "Trinidad and Tobago win in the Caribbean Cup made them advance to the next round of the [2011 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2011_Rugby_World_Cup \"2011 Rugby World Cup\") qualification, where they had to face [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_national_rugby_union_team \"Brazil national rugby union team\"). The \"Calypso Warriors\" faced the notorious improvement of their South Americans counterparts and they lost both games, 31\\-8 at home and 24\\-12 away, ending their hopes to qualify again.", "In [2015](/wiki/2015_NACRA_Rugby_Championship \"2015 NACRA Rugby Championship\"), Trinidad and Tobago won the [NACRA Rugby Championship](/wiki/NACRA_Rugby_Championship \"NACRA Rugby Championship\"), defeating Mexico 30\\-16 in the final.", "" ]
History ------- The BBC's first Russian\-language broadcast was a translation of a speech by British Prime Minister [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill") on 23 June 1941\.{{Cite web\|date\=2011\-02\-22\|title\=История Русской службы Би\-би\-си\|trans\-title\=History of the BBC Russian Service\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/russian/institutional/2011/02/000000\_g\_rs\_history\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-17\|publisher\=BBC News Russian\|language\=ru}} The first programme of the Russian section of the BBC was hosted by Sonya (Betty) Horsfall on 24 March 1946\. However, during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") there were sporadic broadcasts to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") in Russian only. Most of these broadcasts were after 1942\. These were mainly short news bulletins or announcements relating to UK [Foreign Office](/wiki/Foreign_Office "Foreign Office") policy in [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language") from 1943 onwards but often weeks or months apart. In the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War")\-era broadcasts were severely [jammed](/wiki/Radio_jamming "Radio jamming"). Despite this, it tried to bring to listeners in Soviet Union information they were deprived of, including works of writers and dissidents who could not publish their work at home, such as [Alexander Solzhenitsyn](/wiki/Alexander_Solzhenitsyn "Alexander Solzhenitsyn"). Jamming finally stopped in the late 1980s, as [perestroika](/wiki/Perestroika "Perestroika") took hold. On 26 March 2011 the service stopped broadcasting on medium and shortwave, and now publishes and broadcasts on the internet only.[BBC Russian radio hits the off switch after 65 years](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12820788), Steven Eke, Editor, BBC Russian Service, 22 March 2011 In March 2022, after the start of the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Russian invasion of Ukraine"), the BBC Russian Service ceased its operations in Russia.
[ "History\n-------", "The BBC's first Russian\\-language broadcast was a translation of a speech by British Prime Minister [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill \"Winston Churchill\") on 23 June 1941\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-22\\|title\\=История Русской службы Би\\-би\\-си\\|trans\\-title\\=History of the BBC Russian Service\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/russian/institutional/2011/02/000000\\_g\\_rs\\_history\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-17\\|publisher\\=BBC News Russian\\|language\\=ru}}", "The first programme of the Russian section of the BBC was hosted by Sonya (Betty) Horsfall on 24 March 1946\\.", "However, during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") there were sporadic broadcasts to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") in Russian only. Most of these broadcasts were after 1942\\.", "These were mainly short news bulletins or announcements relating to UK [Foreign Office](/wiki/Foreign_Office \"Foreign Office\") policy in [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language \"Russian language\") from 1943 onwards but often weeks or months apart.", "In the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\")\\-era broadcasts were severely [jammed](/wiki/Radio_jamming \"Radio jamming\"). Despite this, it tried to bring to listeners in Soviet Union information they were deprived of, including works of writers and dissidents who could not publish their work at home, such as [Alexander Solzhenitsyn](/wiki/Alexander_Solzhenitsyn \"Alexander Solzhenitsyn\"). Jamming finally stopped in the late 1980s, as [perestroika](/wiki/Perestroika \"Perestroika\") took hold.", "On 26 March 2011 the service stopped broadcasting on medium and shortwave, and now publishes and broadcasts on the internet only.[BBC Russian radio hits the off switch after 65 years](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12820788), Steven Eke, Editor, BBC Russian Service, 22 March 2011", "In March 2022, after the start of the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Russian invasion of Ukraine\"), the BBC Russian Service ceased its operations in Russia.", "" ]
NBA career ---------- ### Buffalo Braves (1976\) The [ABA–NBA merger](/wiki/ABA%E2%80%93NBA_merger "ABA–NBA merger") occurred after the 1975–76 season, but the Spirits of St. Louis were not among the ABA teams chosen to join the NBA.{{cite news\|author\=Jonathan Abrams\|title\=The TV Deal the NBA Wishes It Had Not Made\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2006\-jul\-31\-sp\-aba31\-story.html\|date\=July 31, 2006\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} Malone had already been selected by the NBA's [New Orleans Jazz](/wiki/New_Orleans_Jazz_%28NBA_team%29 "New Orleans Jazz (NBA team)") in a December 1975 pre\-merger draft for ABA players of undergraduate age. However, the NBA let them place Malone into the [1976 ABA Dispersal Draft](/wiki/1976_ABA_Dispersal_Draft "1976 ABA Dispersal Draft") pool in exchange for the return of their first\-round draft pick in 1977, which they used to trade for [Gail Goodrich](/wiki/Gail_Goodrich "Gail Goodrich").{{cite book\|author\=Bill Simmons\|title\=The Book of Basketball\|pages\=196–197\|year\=2009\|url\=https://archive.org/details/bookofbasketball00simm/page/196/mode/1up\|isbn\=9780345511768\|publisher\=ESPN Books\|via\=Internet Archive\|url\-access\=registration\|access\-date\=May 22, 2022}} In the 1976 dispersal draft, held for the remaining ABA players, Malone was selected by the [Portland Trail Blazers](/wiki/Portland_Trail_Blazers "Portland Trail Blazers") with the fifth overall pick.{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.si.com/vault/1979/02/19/823380/bounding\-into\-prominence\-moses\-malone\-jumped\-from\-high\-school\-to\-the\-pros\-where\-he\-has\-become\-the\-games\-top\-rebounder\|title\=Bounding Into Prominence Moses Malone jumped from high school to the pros, where he has become the game's top rebounder\|first\=Frank\|last\=Deford\|author\-link\=Frank Deford\|magazine\=\[\[Sports Illustrated]]\|date\=February 19, 1979\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} The Blazers, who had also acquired power forward [Maurice Lucas](/wiki/Maurice_Lucas "Maurice Lucas") in the draft,{{cite news\|first\=Ken\|last\=Doney\|title\=Tral Blazers deal Petrie, Hawes to Atlanta five\|date\=August 6, 1976\|newspaper\=The Oregon Statesman\|page\=1D\|agency\=Associated Press\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/99386869/\|access\-date\=April 9, 2022\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} chose Malone for trading purposes.{{cite news\|first\=Alan\|last\=Greenburg\|title\=In Moses Malone, the NBA Has Met The Irresistable Force\|date\=March 28, 1982\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|at\=Part III, p. 3\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/98687210/malone\-trade\-from\-portland/\|access\-date\=April 9, 2022\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} With a frontline of Lucas, [Bill Walton](/wiki/Bill_Walton "Bill Walton") and [Lloyd Neal](/wiki/Lloyd_Neal "Lloyd Neal"), Portland figured Malone would see little action.{{cite news\|title\=Malone off to Braves for cash, draft pick\|date\=October 20, 1976\|newspaper\=The Oregon Statesman\|page\=D1\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/99387173/\|access\-date\=April 9, 2022\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} They traded him to the [Buffalo Braves](/wiki/Buffalo_Braves "Buffalo Braves") prior to the first game of the 1976–77 season for a first\-round draft choice in the [1978 NBA draft](/wiki/1978_NBA_draft "1978 NBA draft") and $232,000\.(via Google News archive):{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1873\&dat\=19761020\&id\=fnE0AAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4216,1271070\&hl\=en\|title\=Moses Malone Traded to Buffalo\|work\=\[\[Daytona Beach Morning Journal]]\|date\=October 20, 1976\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} Malone played in two games with Buffalo. Because they could not meet Malone's demands for playing time, they then traded him to the [Houston Rockets](/wiki/Houston_Rockets "Houston Rockets") in exchange for first\-round draft picks in the [1977](/wiki/1977_NBA_draft "1977 NBA draft") and 1978 drafts.(via Google News archive):{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2512\&dat\=197610n26\&id\=s\-5cAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=1321,3685297\&hl\=en\|title\=His 5th trade Malone travels\|work\=The Morning Record\|date\=October 26, 1976\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} ### Houston Rockets (1976–1982\) #### 1976–77 season With the [Houston Rockets](/wiki/Houston_Rockets "Houston Rockets"), Malone played forward opposite [Rudy Tomjanovich](/wiki/Rudy_Tomjanovich "Rudy Tomjanovich"). He appeared in 82 games overall for both Buffalo and Houston and finished the season averaging 13\.2 points per game (ppg) with 13\.1 rebounds per game (rpg), ranking third in rpg. Malone set a then\-NBA record with 437 offensive rebounds in a season, going on to surpass the mark two years later.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/leaders/orb\_season.html\|title\=NBA \& ABA Single Season Leaders and Records for Offensive Rebounds\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} Malone also blocked 2\.21 shots per game, the seventh\-most in the league.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\_1977\_leaders.html\|title\=1976–77 NBA Leaders\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} In the second game of the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the [Washington Bullets](/wiki/Washington_Bullets "Washington Bullets"), Malone recorded 15 offensive rebounds in the overtime win, setting an [NBA playoff](/wiki/NBA_playoff "NBA playoff") record.{{cite web\|url\=http://thecommittedgeneration.com/moses\-malone\-the\-best\-offensive\-rebounder\-in\-nba\-history/\|title\=Moses Malone, the Best Offensive Rebounder in NBA History\|work\=the Committed Generation\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015\|date\=September 13, 2015\|first\=Valerie\|last\=Morales}} The Rockets reached the Eastern Conference Finals, where they lost 4–2 to the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers"), his future team.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1977\-nba\-eastern\-conference\-finals\-rockets\-vs\-76ers.html\|title\=1977 NBA Eastern Conference Finals\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} #### 1977–78 season: First All\-Star selection During his second season in the NBA, Malone was diagnosed with a [stress fracture](/wiki/Stress_fracture "Stress fracture") in his right foot, which caused him to miss the final 23 games.(via Google News archive):{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1368\&dat\=19911012\&id\=H2cxAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3406,3100391\&hl\=en\|title\=Malone plays young\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015\|date\=October 12, 1991\|work\=\[\[The Milwaukee Sentinel]]}}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Despite the time missed to injury, Malone led the NBA with 380 total offensive rebounds and finished second with 15\.0 rpg. His scoring improved to 19\.4 ppg, and he made his first appearance in an [NBA All\-Star Game](/wiki/NBA_All-Star_Game "NBA All-Star Game") in [1978](/wiki/1978_NBA_All-Star_Game "1978 NBA All-Star Game"). #### 1978–79 season: First MVP award During the 1978–79 season, Malone emerged as one of the top centers in the league after gaining {{convert\|15\|lbs}} in the offseason. He averaged 24\.8 points with a career\-best .540 shooting percentage and established another career high with a league\-leading 17\.6 rpg while winning the [NBA Most Valuable Player Award](/wiki/NBA_Most_Valuable_Player_Award "NBA Most Valuable Player Award").(via Google News archive):{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=110\&dat\=19790522\&id\=e9MdAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6658,2014389\&hl\=en\|title\=Malone Named most Valuable Player\|work\=\[\[Ludington Daily News]]\|date\=May 22, 1979\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} He again led the league in offensive rebounds, setting an all\-time single\-season record with 587 offensive rebounds.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/moses\-malone\-basketball\-player\-who\-excelled\-at\-the\-offensive\-rebound\-dies\-at\-60/2015/09/13/84fc9f30\-5a2c\-11e5\-8e9e\-dce8a2a2a679\_story.html?tid\=themost\_item\_4\|title\=Moses Malone, basketball player who excelled at the offensive rebound, dies at 60\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=September 13, 2015\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} He was voted to the [All\-NBA First Team](/wiki/All-NBA_First_Team "All-NBA First Team"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/awards/all\_league.html\|title\=NBA \& ABA All\-League Teams\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} and the All\-Defensive Second Team.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/awards/all\_defense.html\|title\=NBA \& ABA All\-Defensive Teams\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015\|archive\-date\=January 1, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101125851/http://www.basketball\-reference.com/awards/all\_defense.html\|url\-status\=dead}} He was also voted by fans to start for the East at center in the [1979 NBA All\-Star Game](/wiki/1979_NBA_All-Star_Game "1979 NBA All-Star Game"). On February 9, he grabbed a career\-high 37 rebounds versus the [New Orleans Jazz](/wiki/New_Orleans_Jazz_%28NBA_team%29 "New Orleans Jazz (NBA team)").(via Google News archive):{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1734\&dat\=19790210\&id\=WFUcAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5752,4377348\&hl\=en\|title\='Rookie' Malone Grabe 37Rebounds\|work\=The Dispatch\|date\=February 10, 1979\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} Although the Rockets qualified for the playoffs, they were eliminated by the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks "Atlanta Hawks") in a first\-round sweep. Malone averaged 24\.5 points and 20\.5 rebounds in the two games. #### 1979–80 season In 1979–80, Malone averaged 25\.8 points, fifth\-best in the NBA, and 14\.5 rebounds, second\-best in the league. He was named an All\-Star for a third straight season and was also named to the [All\-NBA Second Team](/wiki/All-NBA_Second_Team "All-NBA Second Team"). In the opening round of the playoffs, Houston defeated the [San Antonio Spurs](/wiki/San_Antonio_Spurs "San Antonio Spurs") in a best\-of\-three series. Malone registered 37 points and 20 rebounds in the deciding third game, leading the Rockets to a 141–120 victory. In the conference semifinals, the Rockets lost in a sweep to the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics "Boston Celtics").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1980\-nba\-eastern\-conference\-semifinals\-rockets\-vs\-celtics.html\|title\=1980 NBA Eastern Conference Semifinals\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} #### 1980–81 season: First NBA Finals appearance In the 1980–81 season, Malone led the league with 14\.8 rpg in 80 games and was again an All\-Star as well as a member of the All\-NBA Second Team. He finished second in scoring (28\.8\) to [Adrian Dantley](/wiki/Adrian_Dantley "Adrian Dantley") (30\.7\).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\_1981\_leaders.html\|title\=1980–81 NBA Leaders\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} On March 11, Malone scored 51 points against the [Golden State Warriors](/wiki/Golden_State_Warriors "Golden State Warriors").(via Google News archive):{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1368\&dat\=19810312\&id\=\-YZQAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4819,2075331\&hl\=en\|title\=Malone'a 51points fuel Rockets' romp\|work\=\[\[The Milwaukee Sentinel]]\|date\=March 12, 1981\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} That postseason, Malone advanced the Rockets to the [1981 NBA Finals](/wiki/1981_NBA_Finals "1981 NBA Finals"), by scoring 36 points and grabbing 11 rebounds in a decisive Game 5 Western Conference Finals win over the [Kansas City Kings](/wiki/Kansas_City_Kings "Kansas City Kings").{{cite web \|title\=A ROUNDUP OF THE WEEK APRIL 20\-26, 1981 \|url\=https://vault.si.com/vault/1981/05/04/for\-the\-record\-a\-roundup\-of\-the\-week\-april\-20\-26 \|website\=Sports Illustrated \- Vault}}{{cite web \|title\=1981 NBA Western Conference Finals Game 5: Houston Rockets at Kansas City Kings \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/boxscores/198104290KCK.html \|website\=Basketball Reference}} In the finals, despite Malone averaging 22\.3 points, 15\.7 rebounds, and 2\.2 blocks a game, he and the Rockets lost in six games to the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics "Boston Celtics").{{cite web \|title\=1981 NBA Finals Rockets vs. Celtics \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1981\-nba\-finals\-rockets\-vs\-celtics.html \|website\=Basketball Reference}} #### 1981–82 season: Second MVP award In their first season in the [Midwest Division](/wiki/Midwest_Division_%28NBA%29 "Midwest Division (NBA)"), Houston and the [Kansas City Kings](/wiki/Kansas_City_Kings "Kansas City Kings") tied for second place with identical 40–42 records. During the [1981\-82 NBA season](/wiki/1981-82_NBA_season "1981-82 NBA season"), Malone averaged 31\.1 points with 14\.7 rebounds and won his second MVP award.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/\_/id/13647582/nba\-moses\-malone\-was\-nba\-most\-underappreciated\-great\-player\|title\=Moses Malone was NBA's most underappreciated great player\|first\=J.A.\|last\=Adande\|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]]\|date\=September 13, 2015\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} He repeated as the NBA leader in rebounds and was the runner\-up for the league's scoring title to [George Gervin](/wiki/George_Gervin "George Gervin") (32\.3\). He was also the league leader in offensive rebounds (558\) and minutes played (3,398, 42\.0 per game). At the end of the season Malone earned his second placement on the All\-NBA First Team. He set a career\-high in scoring average and also set a single\-game career\-high with 53 points on February 2 against the [San Diego Clippers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Clippers%231978%E2%80%931984:San_Diego_Clippers "San Diego Clippers"). Nine days later, on February 11 against the [Seattle SuperSonics](/wiki/Seattle_SuperSonics "Seattle SuperSonics"), Malone eclipsed his own league record with 21 offensive rebounds. In Malone's last season in Houston the Rockets followed their NBA Finals appearance in 1981{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1981\-nba\-finals\-rockets\-vs\-celtics.html\|title\=1981 NBA Finals\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} with a first\-round exit in the 1982 playoffs. Though he averaged 24\.0 points with 17\.0 rebounds, Seattle defeated Houston 2–1\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1982\-nba\-western\-conference\-first\-round\-rockets\-vs\-supersonics.html\|title\=1982 NBA Western Conference First Round\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} ### Philadelphia 76ers (1982–1986\) #### 1982–83 season: Championship season and Finals MVP Malone became a [restricted free agent](/wiki/Restricted_free_agent "Restricted free agent") after the 1981–82 season. He signed an [offer sheet](/wiki/Offer_sheet "Offer sheet") of six\-years for $13\.2 million with the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers") on September 2, 1982\. The 76ers were coming off a 4–2 loss in the Finals to the [Los Angeles Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers "Los Angeles Lakers"), whose center, [Kareem Abdul\-Jabbar](/wiki/Kareem_Abdul-Jabbar "Kareem Abdul-Jabbar"), outplayed their big\-man duo of [Darryl Dawkins](/wiki/Darryl_Dawkins "Darryl Dawkins") and [Caldwell Jones](/wiki/Caldwell_Jones "Caldwell Jones"). The Rockets franchise was sold, and the new owners decided that Malone's $2 million annual salary did not fit their plans.{{cite news\|last\=Penner \|first\=Mark \|title\=The Sixers trade for Moses Malone \|date\=March 8, 2013 \|work\=Philadelphia Daily News \|url\=https://www.inquirer.com/philly/sports/sixers/20130308\_Holy\_Moses\_.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910103530/http://articles.philly.com/2013\-03\-08/sports/37564051\_1\_moses\-malone\-sixers\-fan\-lee\-fentress \|archive\-date\=September 10, 2015 \|url\-status\=live}} Houston matched the offer and agreed to trade Malone to the 76ers for Jones and their first\-round pick in the [1983 NBA draft](/wiki/1983_NBA_draft "1983 NBA draft") on September 15\.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2519\&dat\=19820916\&id\=V69dAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4683,2228079\&hl\=en\|title\=Mose Malone Traded\|work\=\[\[Observer\-Reporter]]\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015\|date\=September 16, 1982}} With [Julius Erving](/wiki/Julius_Erving "Julius Erving"), [Maurice Cheeks](/wiki/Maurice_Cheeks "Maurice Cheeks"), [Andrew Toney](/wiki/Andrew_Toney "Andrew Toney"), and [Bobby Jones](/wiki/Bobby_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1951%29 "Bobby Jones (basketball, born 1951)"), the Sixers ran away from the league en route to the NBA championship. Malone was named the league MVP for the second straight year, becoming the only NBA player ever to win the award in consecutive seasons with two different teams, a feat matched only by [Barry Bonds](/wiki/Barry_Bonds "Barry Bonds") (1992–1993\) in the [four major American sports leagues](/wiki/Major_professional_sports_leagues_in_the_United_States_and_Canada "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada").{{cite web\|url\=http://spectator.org/blog/64054/moses\-malone\-rip\|title\=Moses Malone, R.I.P.\|work\=The American Spectator\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} That year, Malone averaged 15\.3 rebounds per game, which led the league for the third consecutive year, and also averaged 24\.5 points, which was fifth\-best in the NBA. He was an All\-Star for the sixth consecutive season and earned first\-team honors on both the All\-NBA and All\-Defensive teams. The 76ers lost only one game in the postseason as they won the league championship, defeating the Lakers in a 4–0 sweep in the [1983 NBA Finals](/wiki/1983_NBA_Finals "1983 NBA Finals"). In 13 playoff games, Malone averaged 26\.0 points with 15\.8 rebounds. He was named the [Finals MVP](/wiki/Bill_Russell_NBA_Finals_Most_Valuable_Player_Award "Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award"), having outrebounded Abdul\-Jabbar 72–30 in the series. It was also around this time that Malone began to tutor [Hakeem Olajuwon](/wiki/Hakeem_Olajuwon "Hakeem Olajuwon"), passing on the torch to the future Rockets superstar.{{cite web\|last\=Blount\|first\=Terry\|url\=http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id\=1994\_1203645\|title\=Hakeem: For the record/"Kunta Kinte' image was way off\|work\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|date\=May 22, 1994\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} His head coach [Billy Cunningham](/wiki/Billy_Cunningham "Billy Cunningham") said, "Let's not make believe. The difference from last year was Moses." Before the [playoffs](/wiki/1983_NBA_Playoffs "1983 NBA Playoffs") began, Malone predicted in [Southern vernacular](/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English "African American Vernacular English") that Philadelphia would go "fo, fo, fo", envisioning a four\-game sweep in each of the playoffs' three rounds, playing the minimum 12 games. His prediction (and its formulation) became famous: *The New York Times* called it "an enduring quotation" and "an unforgettable line,"{{cite news\|last1\=Araton\|first1\=Harvey\|title\=Moses Malone Was Easy to Overlook but Undeniably Great\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/17/sports/basketball/moses\-malone\-was\-easy\-to\-overlook\-but\-undeniably\-great.html\|access\-date\=September 18, 2015\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=September 16, 2015}} and [Comcast SportsNet](/wiki/Comcast_SportsNet "Comcast SportsNet") called it "one of the greatest rallying cries ever uttered."{{cite news\|last1\=Jones\|first1\=Gordie\|title\=Moses Malone: The ultimate hard hat and 1980s NBA icon\|url\=http://www.csnphilly.com/basketball\-philadelphia\-76ers/fo\-fo\-fo\-remembering\-moses\-malone\-nba\-symbol\-80s\|access\-date\=September 18, 2015\|publisher\=csnphilly.com\|date\=September 14, 2015}} As it transpired, the Sixers only lost one playoff game (Game 4 of the Eastern Conference Finals to the [Milwaukee Bucks](/wiki/Milwaukee_Bucks "Milwaukee Bucks")) en route to making Malone a world champion for the first time, sweeping the [Knicks](/wiki/New_York_Knicks "New York Knicks") in the first round and the Lakers in the finals. This led to the inside of that year's [championship ring](/wiki/Championship_ring "Championship ring") being inscribed "fo' fi' fo (four, five, four)."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nba.com/all\_access/rings\_drj.html \|title\=The Ring's The Thing: Dr. J \|publisher\=National Basketball Association\|access\-date\=September 23, 2013}} The 76ers' 12–1 cruise through the 1983 playoffs was, at the time, the most dominant playoff run in NBA history. #### 1983–84 season In the 1983–84 season Malone led the league in rebounding with 13\.4 rpg. He was limited to 71 games that season due to ankle injuries, his lowest since the 1977–78 season. Malone scored 22\.7 ppg in his second season with Philadelphia and was named to the All\-NBA Second Team. Malone was selected again for the All\-Star Game but he was unable to play because of an ankle injury. During the season he averaged 21\.4 points with 13\.8 rebounds in five games in the playoffs, but Philadelphia lost in a first\-round upset against the [New Jersey Nets](/wiki/New_Jersey_Nets "New Jersey Nets"). #### 1984–85 season The Sixers selected [Charles Barkley](/wiki/Charles_Barkley "Charles Barkley") in the [1984 NBA draft](/wiki/1984_NBA_draft "1984 NBA draft"). When he reported to training camp at {{convert\|300\|lbs}}, Malone began to mentor him, encouraging him to get in better shape. Barkley got down to {{convert\|255\|lbs}} and made the [NBA All\-Rookie Team](/wiki/NBA_All-Rookie_Team "NBA All-Rookie Team").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/\_/id/13650802/nba\-how\-moses\-malone\-mentored\-young\-charles\-barkley\|title\=How Moses Malone mentored a young Charles Barkley\|publisher\=ESPN\|first\=Jackie\|last\=McMullen\|date\=September 13, 2015\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} In the 1984–85 season, Malone recorded 13\.1 rpg, leading the NBA in rebounding for a record\-setting fifth straight season (since surpassed by [Dennis Rodman](/wiki/Dennis_Rodman "Dennis Rodman") with seven consecutive seasons). He was voted by a fan ballot to the All\-Star team for the eighth time and finished the season with 24\.6 ppg, which ranked ninth\-best in the league. He received his fourth All\-NBA First Team honor and finished third in the NBA Most Valuable Player Award balloting; the award was won by [Larry Bird](/wiki/Larry_Bird "Larry Bird"). Malone scored his 15,000th NBA point on November 28,{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1928\&dat\=19841127\&id\=VZwgAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=1236,5074624\&hl\=en\|title\=Sixersbreeze past Pacer\|work\=\[\[The Lewiston Daily Sun]]\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015\|date\=November 27, 1984}} and grabbed his 10,000th NBA rebound on March 29\.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=860\&dat\=19850330\&id\=vplUAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3967,10529646\&hl\=en\|title\=Celtices hold off Sixer rally\|work\=\[\[Ellensburg Daily Record]]\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|date\=March 30, 1985\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} He scored 51 points against the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons "Detroit Pistons") on November 14\. The 76ers reached the Eastern Conference Finals in 1985 but were defeated 4–1 by the Celtics.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1985\-nba\-eastern\-conference\-finals\-76ers\-vs\-celtics.html\|title\=1985 NBA Eastern Conference Finals\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} #### 1985–86 season Malone's 1985–86 season ended when he suffered an [orbital fracture](/wiki/Orbital_fracture "Orbital fracture") in his right eye in a March 28 game against the Bucks. Despite hopes that he might return during the playoffs, he was ruled out for the postseason.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1320\&dat\=19860426\&id\=iT1WAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6960,3055036\&hl\=en\|title\=Sixers' Malone ruled out of playoff\|date\=April 26, 1986\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|work\=\[\[The Gainesville Sun]]\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} In the Eastern Conference Semifinals, Philadelphia lost 4–3 to the Bucks.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1986\-nba\-eastern\-conference\-semifinals\-76ers\-vs\-bucks.html\|title\=1986 NBA Eastern Conference Semifinals\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} Malone averaged 23\.8 points with 11\.8 rebounds in 74 appearances that season.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/teams/PHI/1986\.html\|title\=1985–86 Philadelphia 76ers\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} He ranked seventh in the league in scoring and fourth in rebounding, ending his five\-season streak as the NBA rebounding champion.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\_1986\_leaders.html\|title\=1985–86 NBA Leaders\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} Malone was named an All\-Star, but he was not named to the All\-NBA Team, the first time he was not selected since 1978\. ### Washington Bullets (1986–1988\) Shortly after the 1985–86 season, Philadelphia traded Malone, [Terry Catledge](/wiki/Terry_Catledge "Terry Catledge"), and two first\-round draft picks to the [Washington Bullets](/wiki/Washington_Bullets "Washington Bullets") in exchange for [Jeff Ruland](/wiki/Jeff_Ruland "Jeff Ruland") and [Clifford T. Robinson](/wiki/Cliff_Robinson_%28basketball%2C_born_1960%29 "Cliff Robinson (basketball, born 1960)").{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2209\&dat\=19860617\&id\=OrorAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6759,4955728\&hl\=en\|title\=Philadelphia trades Malone, first draft choice\|agency\=Associated Press\|work\=The Telegraph\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|page\=13\|date\=June 17, 1986\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} Malone bounced back from an injury\-shortened 1985–86 campaign, averaging 24\.1 points with 11\.3 rebounds. He was named to his 10th consecutive All\-Star Game and again was named to the All\-NBA Second Team. Malone was the only player to finish in the top 10 in both ppg and rpg; he placed ninth in both categories.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\_1987\_leaders.html\|title\=1986–87 NBA Leaders\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} Malone scored his 20,000th NBA point on April 12 against the Detroit Pistons.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1129\&dat\=19870413\&id\=\_65RAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=2862,4665806\&hl\=en\|title\=Malone nets 20,000th; Bullets win\|agency\=Associated Press\|page\=30\|date\=April 13, 1987\|work\=Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} He scored 50 points versus the New Jersey Nets on April 8,{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1499\&dat\=19870409\&id\=tmcaAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6902,559913\&hl\=en\|title\=Malone's 50 points are a pain to Nets\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=April 9, 1987\|page\=7C\|work\=The Milwaukee Journal\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} joining [Earl Monroe](/wiki/Earl_Monroe "Earl Monroe") (56\) and [Phil Chenier](/wiki/Phil_Chenier "Phil Chenier") (52\) as the only Bullets players ever to score 50 points in a game. Washington appeared in the postseason but was swept by the Pistons in the first round. Malone averaged 20\.7 points and 12\.7 rebounds in the series.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1987\-nba\-eastern\-conference\-first\-round\-bullets\-vs\-pistons.html\|title\=1987 NBA Eastern Conference First Round\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} In his 12th NBA season, Malone ranked eighth in the NBA in rebounding (11\.2\) and 19th in scoring (20\.3\). Malone was named to his 11th consecutive All\-Star Game in [1988](/wiki/1988_NBA_All-Star_Game "1988 NBA All-Star Game"). Malone scored in double figures in 76 of 79 games and recorded 55 [double\-doubles](/wiki/Double_%28basketball%29%23Double-double "Double (basketball)#Double-double") for the year. The Bullets reached the [1988 NBA Playoffs](/wiki/1988_NBA_Playoffs "1988 NBA Playoffs"), but lost to Detroit 3–2 in their first\-round series. Malone averaged 18\.6 points with 11\.2 rebounds in the series. ### Atlanta Hawks (1988–1991\) #### 1988–89 season: Final All\-Star selection Before the 1988–89 season, Malone agreed to a three\-year deal to play with the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks "Atlanta Hawks"). The Hawks, featuring [Dominique Wilkins](/wiki/Dominique_Wilkins "Dominique Wilkins"), had won at least 50 games in the prior three seasons, and believed the free\-agent center was a missing piece to a potential championship team.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1356\&dat\=19880817\&id\=asVOAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=2488,266888\&hl\=en\|title\=Holy Moses! Malone signs 3\-year contract with Atlanta\|first\=Tom\|last\=Saladino\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=August 17, 1988\|page\=1C\|work\=Ocala Star\-Banner\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} During the season, Malone averaged 20\.2 points with 11\.8 rebounds, becoming the first and only player in professional history to average 20 points and 10 rebounds for four different teams. He was voted by a fan ballot to the [1989 NBA All\-Star Game](/wiki/1989_NBA_All-Star_Game "1989 NBA All-Star Game"), which was his 12th straight and final appearance. Malone reached double figures in points in 75 of his 81 games and recorded double figures in rebounds 55 times. On February 4, 1989, he scored a season\-high 37 points against the [Phoenix Suns](/wiki/Phoenix_Suns "Phoenix Suns"). The Hawks were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by Milwaukee. In the series, Malone scored 21\.0 ppg and had 12\.0 rpg.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1989\-nba\-eastern\-conference\-first\-round\-bucks\-vs\-hawks.html\|title\=1989 NBA Eastern Conference First Round\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} #### 1989–90 season The following season, Malone finished with 18\.9 ppg and 10\.0 rpg, ending a string of 11 consecutive 20–10 campaigns. Malone led the NBA with 364 offensive rebounds and tied for eighth in rpg. In [Mike Fratello](/wiki/Mike_Fratello "Mike Fratello")'s final year as head coach, Atlanta finished with a 41–41 record, failing to qualify for the playoffs. Malone began the 1990–91 season as the Hawks' starting center, but after 15 games, Atlanta's new coach, [Bob Weiss](/wiki/Bob_Weiss "Bob Weiss"), made [Jon Koncak](/wiki/Jon_Koncak "Jon Koncak") the starter and Malone his backup for the final 67 contests.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2209\&dat\=19901218\&id\=\-pFKAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6874,4091326\&hl\=en\|title\=Pro Roundup\|agency\=Associated Press\|page\=13\|date\=December 18, 1990\|work\=The Telegraph\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} #### 1990–91 season Coming off the bench for the first time in his career, Malone averaged 10\.6 points with 8\.1 rebounds in 23\.3 [minutes per game](/wiki/Minutes_per_game "Minutes per game") while starting just 18 of 82 games played during the 1990–91 season—all career lows at that point. On November 3, against the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers "Indiana Pacers"), Malone became the NBA career leader in [free throws](/wiki/Free_throw "Free throw") made with 7,695, besting the previous record set by [Oscar Robertson](/wiki/Oscar_Robertson "Oscar Robertson"). On November 21, against the Bucks, Malone scored his 25,000th career point.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=348\&dat\=19910118\&id\=mAFNAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=2946,2565444\&hl\=en\|title\=Moses quietly keeps playing\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=January 18, 1991\|page\=1B\|work\=Rome News\-Tribune\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} On March 15, he recorded his 15,000th career rebound against the [Dallas Mavericks](/wiki/Dallas_Mavericks "Dallas Mavericks").{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=894\&dat\=19960315\&id\=ch0OAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6831,1788037\&hl\=en\|title\=On This Date\|page\=15A\|date\=March 15, 1996\|work\=The Daily Courier\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} Malone surpassed [Wilt Chamberlain](/wiki/Wilt_Chamberlain "Wilt Chamberlain")'s mark of consecutive games without fouling out with his 1,046th straight game against the Detroit Pistons on April 19\.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1310\&dat\=19910420\&id\=QLVYAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6841,4349229\&hl\=en\|title\=Blazers crown Kings for 16th straight victory\|agency\=Associated Press\|page\=3C\|date\=April 20, 1991\|work\=Eugene Register\-Guard\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} The Hawks returned to the playoffs but were eliminated in the first round by Detroit, 3–2\. In the series, Malone averaged just 4\.2 points with 6\.2 rebounds.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/playoffs/1991\-nba\-eastern\-conference\-first\-round\-hawks\-vs\-pistons.html\|title\=1991 NBA Eastern Conference First Round\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} ### Milwaukee Bucks (1991–1993\) A free agent after the 1990–91 season, Malone signed a two\-year contract with the [Milwaukee Bucks](/wiki/Milwaukee_Bucks "Milwaukee Bucks"). Malone was reported to earn $1\.6 million in the first season and $2 million for the second season. Malone once again started at center during the 1991–92 season,{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1817\&dat\=19910711\&id\=MDgdAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6747,2117196\&hl\=en\|title\=Milwaukee's bucks lure Moses Malone\|agency\=Associated Press\|page\=4C\|date\=July 11, 1991\|work\=The Tuscaloosa News\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} averaging 15\.6 points with 9\.1 rebounds while playing in all 82 games. He led the Bucks in rebounding and finished second on the team in scoring. He scored a season\-high 30 points twice and grabbed 19 rebounds against the Seattle SuperSonics on March 27\. Milwaukee finished with a 31–51 record, tied for last place of the [Central Division](/wiki/Central_Division_%28NBA%29 "Central Division (NBA)") with the [Charlotte Hornets](/wiki/Charlotte_Hornets "Charlotte Hornets").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\_1992\.html\|title\=1991–92 NBA Season Summary\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} After one practice in training camp in October 1992, Malone was sidelined due to a [herniated disc](/wiki/Herniated_disc "Herniated disc") in his back.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1957\&dat\=19921015\&id\=epNGAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3843,4029329\&hl\=en\|title\=Malone has herniated disc\|work\=The Daily Gazette\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|page\=C3\|date\=October 15, 1992\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} After trying to play through the pain, he decided to have surgery in November.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2026\&dat\=19921105\&id\=2L0jAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3486,4041318\&hl\=en\|title\=Moses Malone out indefinitely\|page\=5D\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=November 5, 1992\|work\=Moscow\-Pullman Daily News\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} Recovery from the surgery caused Malone to miss the majority of the 1992–93 season.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1298\&dat\=19921107\&id\=MeFLAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5426,1035340\&hl\=en\|title\=Malone sidelined by back surgery\|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=November 7, 1992\|page\=C8\|work\=The Free Lance\-Star\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} He returned to the Bucks on March 27, appearing in 11 games during the remainder of the season.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1955\&dat\=19930812\&id\=hAIiAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5176,6734505\&hl\=en\|title\=Malone returning to Sixers\|page\=D5\|date\=August 12, 1993\|work\=Reading Eagle\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} Struggling with the younger players on their roster, the Bucks finished 28–54 and last in the Central Division.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\_1993\.html\|title\=1992–93 NBA Season Summary\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} ### Return to Philadelphia (1993–1994\) The [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers") signed Malone as a free agent in August, so that he could serve as a backup and mentor to {{convert\|7\|ft\|6\|in\|adj\=on}} rookie [Shawn Bradley](/wiki/Shawn_Bradley "Shawn Bradley").{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1665\&dat\=19930813\&id\=QTIaAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6816,3068241\&hl\=en\|title\=Moses Malone returns to Philadelphia\|agency\=Associated Press\|page\=2B\|date\=August 13, 1993\|work\=The Times\-News\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2026\&dat\=19930817\&id\=ag0kAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4771,4261638\&hl\=en\|title\=Sixers' Bradley gets top tutoring from old pros\|agency\=Associated Press\|page\=3B\|date\=August 17, 1993\|work\=Moscow\-Pullman Daily News\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 14, 2015}} Malone appeared in 55 games as a reserve for the 76ers, averaging 5\.3 points with 4\.1 rebounds.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/teams/PHI/1994\.html\|title\=1993–94 Philadelphia 76ers\|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} ### San Antonio Spurs (1994–1995\) In 1994, Malone signed with the [San Antonio Spurs](/wiki/San_Antonio_Spurs "San Antonio Spurs"), where he was used as a back\-up center to [David Robinson](/wiki/David_Robinson "David Robinson").{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1876\&dat\=19940826\&id\=GTIfAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4007,3042448\&hl\=en\|title\=Moses Malone signs deal to play for Spurs\|page\=B2\|date\=August 26, 1994\|work\=Herald\-Journal\|via\=Google News Archive Search\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015}} The [1994–95 NBA season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_NBA_season "1994–95 NBA season") was his last in the NBA, and at that time, he was the only remaining active former ABA player. During the final game of his NBA career, against the [Charlotte Hornets](/wiki/Charlotte_Hornets "Charlotte Hornets"), he hit a buzzer\-beating three\-point shot from the opposing free throw line, {{convert\|74\|ft}} away from the basket. He played 17 games for the Spurs.{{cite web\|url\=http://blog.mysanantonio.com/spursnation/2015/09/13/nba\-legend\-former\-spur\-moses\-malone\-dies\-at\-60/\|title\=NBA legend, former Spur Moses Malone dies at 60\|work\=Spurs Nation\|access\-date\=September 13, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915140814/http://blog.mysanantonio.com/spursnation/2015/09/13/nba\-legend\-former\-spur\-moses\-malone\-dies\-at\-60/\|archive\-date\=September 15, 2015}}
[ "NBA career\n----------", "### Buffalo Braves (1976\\)", "The [ABA–NBA merger](/wiki/ABA%E2%80%93NBA_merger \"ABA–NBA merger\") occurred after the 1975–76 season, but the Spirits of St. Louis were not among the ABA teams chosen to join the NBA.{{cite news\\|author\\=Jonathan Abrams\\|title\\=The TV Deal the NBA Wishes It Had Not Made\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2006\\-jul\\-31\\-sp\\-aba31\\-story.html\\|date\\=July 31, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} Malone had already been selected by the NBA's [New Orleans Jazz](/wiki/New_Orleans_Jazz_%28NBA_team%29 \"New Orleans Jazz (NBA team)\") in a December 1975 pre\\-merger draft for ABA players of undergraduate age. However, the NBA let them place Malone into the [1976 ABA Dispersal Draft](/wiki/1976_ABA_Dispersal_Draft \"1976 ABA Dispersal Draft\") pool in exchange for the return of their first\\-round draft pick in 1977, which they used to trade for [Gail Goodrich](/wiki/Gail_Goodrich \"Gail Goodrich\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Bill Simmons\\|title\\=The Book of Basketball\\|pages\\=196–197\\|year\\=2009\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bookofbasketball00simm/page/196/mode/1up\\|isbn\\=9780345511768\\|publisher\\=ESPN Books\\|via\\=Internet Archive\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|access\\-date\\=May 22, 2022}} In the 1976 dispersal draft, held for the remaining ABA players, Malone was selected by the [Portland Trail Blazers](/wiki/Portland_Trail_Blazers \"Portland Trail Blazers\") with the fifth overall pick.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.si.com/vault/1979/02/19/823380/bounding\\-into\\-prominence\\-moses\\-malone\\-jumped\\-from\\-high\\-school\\-to\\-the\\-pros\\-where\\-he\\-has\\-become\\-the\\-games\\-top\\-rebounder\\|title\\=Bounding Into Prominence Moses Malone jumped from high school to the pros, where he has become the game's top rebounder\\|first\\=Frank\\|last\\=Deford\\|author\\-link\\=Frank Deford\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Sports Illustrated]]\\|date\\=February 19, 1979\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}}", "The Blazers, who had also acquired power forward [Maurice Lucas](/wiki/Maurice_Lucas \"Maurice Lucas\") in the draft,{{cite news\\|first\\=Ken\\|last\\=Doney\\|title\\=Tral Blazers deal Petrie, Hawes to Atlanta five\\|date\\=August 6, 1976\\|newspaper\\=The Oregon Statesman\\|page\\=1D\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/99386869/\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2022\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} chose Malone for trading purposes.{{cite news\\|first\\=Alan\\|last\\=Greenburg\\|title\\=In Moses Malone, the NBA Has Met The Irresistable Force\\|date\\=March 28, 1982\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|at\\=Part III, p. 3\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/98687210/malone\\-trade\\-from\\-portland/\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2022\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} With a frontline of Lucas, [Bill Walton](/wiki/Bill_Walton \"Bill Walton\") and [Lloyd Neal](/wiki/Lloyd_Neal \"Lloyd Neal\"), Portland figured Malone would see little action.{{cite news\\|title\\=Malone off to Braves for cash, draft pick\\|date\\=October 20, 1976\\|newspaper\\=The Oregon Statesman\\|page\\=D1\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/99387173/\\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2022\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} They traded him to the [Buffalo Braves](/wiki/Buffalo_Braves \"Buffalo Braves\") prior to the first game of the 1976–77 season for a first\\-round draft choice in the [1978 NBA draft](/wiki/1978_NBA_draft \"1978 NBA draft\") and $232,000\\.(via Google News archive):{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1873\\&dat\\=19761020\\&id\\=fnE0AAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4216,1271070\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Moses Malone Traded to Buffalo\\|work\\=\\[\\[Daytona Beach Morning Journal]]\\|date\\=October 20, 1976\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} Malone played in two games with Buffalo. Because they could not meet Malone's demands for playing time, they then traded him to the [Houston Rockets](/wiki/Houston_Rockets \"Houston Rockets\") in exchange for first\\-round draft picks in the [1977](/wiki/1977_NBA_draft \"1977 NBA draft\") and 1978 drafts.(via Google News archive):{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2512\\&dat\\=197610n26\\&id\\=s\\-5cAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=1321,3685297\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=His 5th trade Malone travels\\|work\\=The Morning Record\\|date\\=October 26, 1976\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}}", "### Houston Rockets (1976–1982\\)", "#### 1976–77 season", "With the [Houston Rockets](/wiki/Houston_Rockets \"Houston Rockets\"), Malone played forward opposite [Rudy Tomjanovich](/wiki/Rudy_Tomjanovich \"Rudy Tomjanovich\"). He appeared in 82 games overall for both Buffalo and Houston and finished the season averaging 13\\.2 points per game (ppg) with 13\\.1 rebounds per game (rpg), ranking third in rpg. Malone set a then\\-NBA record with 437 offensive rebounds in a season, going on to surpass the mark two years later.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/leaders/orb\\_season.html\\|title\\=NBA \\& ABA Single Season Leaders and Records for Offensive Rebounds\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} Malone also blocked 2\\.21 shots per game, the seventh\\-most in the league.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\\_1977\\_leaders.html\\|title\\=1976–77 NBA Leaders\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} In the second game of the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the [Washington Bullets](/wiki/Washington_Bullets \"Washington Bullets\"), Malone recorded 15 offensive rebounds in the overtime win, setting an [NBA playoff](/wiki/NBA_playoff \"NBA playoff\") record.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://thecommittedgeneration.com/moses\\-malone\\-the\\-best\\-offensive\\-rebounder\\-in\\-nba\\-history/\\|title\\=Moses Malone, the Best Offensive Rebounder in NBA History\\|work\\=the Committed Generation\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015\\|date\\=September 13, 2015\\|first\\=Valerie\\|last\\=Morales}} The Rockets reached the Eastern Conference Finals, where they lost 4–2 to the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\"), his future team.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1977\\-nba\\-eastern\\-conference\\-finals\\-rockets\\-vs\\-76ers.html\\|title\\=1977 NBA Eastern Conference Finals\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "#### 1977–78 season: First All\\-Star selection", "During his second season in the NBA, Malone was diagnosed with a [stress fracture](/wiki/Stress_fracture \"Stress fracture\") in his right foot, which caused him to miss the final 23 games.(via Google News archive):{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1368\\&dat\\=19911012\\&id\\=H2cxAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3406,3100391\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Malone plays young\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015\\|date\\=October 12, 1991\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Milwaukee Sentinel]]}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Despite the time missed to injury, Malone led the NBA with 380 total offensive rebounds and finished second with 15\\.0 rpg. His scoring improved to 19\\.4 ppg, and he made his first appearance in an [NBA All\\-Star Game](/wiki/NBA_All-Star_Game \"NBA All-Star Game\") in [1978](/wiki/1978_NBA_All-Star_Game \"1978 NBA All-Star Game\").", "#### 1978–79 season: First MVP award", "During the 1978–79 season, Malone emerged as one of the top centers in the league after gaining {{convert\\|15\\|lbs}} in the offseason. He averaged 24\\.8 points with a career\\-best .540 shooting percentage and established another career high with a league\\-leading 17\\.6 rpg while winning the [NBA Most Valuable Player Award](/wiki/NBA_Most_Valuable_Player_Award \"NBA Most Valuable Player Award\").(via Google News archive):{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=110\\&dat\\=19790522\\&id\\=e9MdAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6658,2014389\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Malone Named most Valuable Player\\|work\\=\\[\\[Ludington Daily News]]\\|date\\=May 22, 1979\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} He again led the league in offensive rebounds, setting an all\\-time single\\-season record with 587 offensive rebounds.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/moses\\-malone\\-basketball\\-player\\-who\\-excelled\\-at\\-the\\-offensive\\-rebound\\-dies\\-at\\-60/2015/09/13/84fc9f30\\-5a2c\\-11e5\\-8e9e\\-dce8a2a2a679\\_story.html?tid\\=themost\\_item\\_4\\|title\\=Moses Malone, basketball player who excelled at the offensive rebound, dies at 60\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=September 13, 2015\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} He was voted to the [All\\-NBA First Team](/wiki/All-NBA_First_Team \"All-NBA First Team\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/awards/all\\_league.html\\|title\\=NBA \\& ABA All\\-League Teams\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} and the All\\-Defensive Second Team.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/awards/all\\_defense.html\\|title\\=NBA \\& ABA All\\-Defensive Teams\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=January 1, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101125851/http://www.basketball\\-reference.com/awards/all\\_defense.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was also voted by fans to start for the East at center in the [1979 NBA All\\-Star Game](/wiki/1979_NBA_All-Star_Game \"1979 NBA All-Star Game\"). On February 9, he grabbed a career\\-high 37 rebounds versus the [New Orleans Jazz](/wiki/New_Orleans_Jazz_%28NBA_team%29 \"New Orleans Jazz (NBA team)\").(via Google News archive):{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1734\\&dat\\=19790210\\&id\\=WFUcAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5752,4377348\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\='Rookie' Malone Grabe 37Rebounds\\|work\\=The Dispatch\\|date\\=February 10, 1979\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} Although the Rockets qualified for the playoffs, they were eliminated by the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks \"Atlanta Hawks\") in a first\\-round sweep. Malone averaged 24\\.5 points and 20\\.5 rebounds in the two games.", "#### 1979–80 season", "In 1979–80, Malone averaged 25\\.8 points, fifth\\-best in the NBA, and 14\\.5 rebounds, second\\-best in the league. He was named an All\\-Star for a third straight season and was also named to the [All\\-NBA Second Team](/wiki/All-NBA_Second_Team \"All-NBA Second Team\"). In the opening round of the playoffs, Houston defeated the [San Antonio Spurs](/wiki/San_Antonio_Spurs \"San Antonio Spurs\") in a best\\-of\\-three series. Malone registered 37 points and 20 rebounds in the deciding third game, leading the Rockets to a 141–120 victory. In the conference semifinals, the Rockets lost in a sweep to the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics \"Boston Celtics\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1980\\-nba\\-eastern\\-conference\\-semifinals\\-rockets\\-vs\\-celtics.html\\|title\\=1980 NBA Eastern Conference Semifinals\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "#### 1980–81 season: First NBA Finals appearance", "In the 1980–81 season, Malone led the league with 14\\.8 rpg in 80 games and was again an All\\-Star as well as a member of the All\\-NBA Second Team. He finished second in scoring (28\\.8\\) to [Adrian Dantley](/wiki/Adrian_Dantley \"Adrian Dantley\") (30\\.7\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\\_1981\\_leaders.html\\|title\\=1980–81 NBA Leaders\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} On March 11, Malone scored 51 points against the [Golden State Warriors](/wiki/Golden_State_Warriors \"Golden State Warriors\").(via Google News archive):{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1368\\&dat\\=19810312\\&id\\=\\-YZQAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4819,2075331\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Malone'a 51points fuel Rockets' romp\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Milwaukee Sentinel]]\\|date\\=March 12, 1981\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} That postseason, Malone advanced the Rockets to the [1981 NBA Finals](/wiki/1981_NBA_Finals \"1981 NBA Finals\"), by scoring 36 points and grabbing 11 rebounds in a decisive Game 5 Western Conference Finals win over the [Kansas City Kings](/wiki/Kansas_City_Kings \"Kansas City Kings\").{{cite web \\|title\\=A ROUNDUP OF THE WEEK APRIL 20\\-26, 1981 \\|url\\=https://vault.si.com/vault/1981/05/04/for\\-the\\-record\\-a\\-roundup\\-of\\-the\\-week\\-april\\-20\\-26 \\|website\\=Sports Illustrated \\- Vault}}{{cite web \\|title\\=1981 NBA Western Conference Finals Game 5: Houston Rockets at Kansas City Kings \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/boxscores/198104290KCK.html \\|website\\=Basketball Reference}} In the finals, despite Malone averaging 22\\.3 points, 15\\.7 rebounds, and 2\\.2 blocks a game, he and the Rockets lost in six games to the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics \"Boston Celtics\").{{cite web \\|title\\=1981 NBA Finals Rockets vs. Celtics \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1981\\-nba\\-finals\\-rockets\\-vs\\-celtics.html \\|website\\=Basketball Reference}}", "#### 1981–82 season: Second MVP award", "In their first season in the [Midwest Division](/wiki/Midwest_Division_%28NBA%29 \"Midwest Division (NBA)\"), Houston and the [Kansas City Kings](/wiki/Kansas_City_Kings \"Kansas City Kings\") tied for second place with identical 40–42 records. During the [1981\\-82 NBA season](/wiki/1981-82_NBA_season \"1981-82 NBA season\"), Malone averaged 31\\.1 points with 14\\.7 rebounds and won his second MVP award.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/\\_/id/13647582/nba\\-moses\\-malone\\-was\\-nba\\-most\\-underappreciated\\-great\\-player\\|title\\=Moses Malone was NBA's most underappreciated great player\\|first\\=J.A.\\|last\\=Adande\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|date\\=September 13, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} He repeated as the NBA leader in rebounds and was the runner\\-up for the league's scoring title to [George Gervin](/wiki/George_Gervin \"George Gervin\") (32\\.3\\). He was also the league leader in offensive rebounds (558\\) and minutes played (3,398, 42\\.0 per game). At the end of the season Malone earned his second placement on the All\\-NBA First Team. He set a career\\-high in scoring average and also set a single\\-game career\\-high with 53 points on February 2 against the [San Diego Clippers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Clippers%231978%E2%80%931984:San_Diego_Clippers \"San Diego Clippers\"). Nine days later, on February 11 against the [Seattle SuperSonics](/wiki/Seattle_SuperSonics \"Seattle SuperSonics\"), Malone eclipsed his own league record with 21 offensive rebounds. In Malone's last season in Houston the Rockets followed their NBA Finals appearance in 1981{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1981\\-nba\\-finals\\-rockets\\-vs\\-celtics.html\\|title\\=1981 NBA Finals\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} with a first\\-round exit in the 1982 playoffs. Though he averaged 24\\.0 points with 17\\.0 rebounds, Seattle defeated Houston 2–1\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1982\\-nba\\-western\\-conference\\-first\\-round\\-rockets\\-vs\\-supersonics.html\\|title\\=1982 NBA Western Conference First Round\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "### Philadelphia 76ers (1982–1986\\)", "#### 1982–83 season: Championship season and Finals MVP", "Malone became a [restricted free agent](/wiki/Restricted_free_agent \"Restricted free agent\") after the 1981–82 season. He signed an [offer sheet](/wiki/Offer_sheet \"Offer sheet\") of six\\-years for $13\\.2 million with the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\") on September 2, 1982\\. The 76ers were coming off a 4–2 loss in the Finals to the [Los Angeles Lakers](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers \"Los Angeles Lakers\"), whose center, [Kareem Abdul\\-Jabbar](/wiki/Kareem_Abdul-Jabbar \"Kareem Abdul-Jabbar\"), outplayed their big\\-man duo of [Darryl Dawkins](/wiki/Darryl_Dawkins \"Darryl Dawkins\") and [Caldwell Jones](/wiki/Caldwell_Jones \"Caldwell Jones\"). The Rockets franchise was sold, and the new owners decided that Malone's $2 million annual salary did not fit their plans.{{cite news\\|last\\=Penner \\|first\\=Mark \\|title\\=The Sixers trade for Moses Malone \\|date\\=March 8, 2013 \\|work\\=Philadelphia Daily News \\|url\\=https://www.inquirer.com/philly/sports/sixers/20130308\\_Holy\\_Moses\\_.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910103530/http://articles.philly.com/2013\\-03\\-08/sports/37564051\\_1\\_moses\\-malone\\-sixers\\-fan\\-lee\\-fentress \\|archive\\-date\\=September 10, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Houston matched the offer and agreed to trade Malone to the 76ers for Jones and their first\\-round pick in the [1983 NBA draft](/wiki/1983_NBA_draft \"1983 NBA draft\") on September 15\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2519\\&dat\\=19820916\\&id\\=V69dAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4683,2228079\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Mose Malone Traded\\|work\\=\\[\\[Observer\\-Reporter]]\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015\\|date\\=September 16, 1982}} With [Julius Erving](/wiki/Julius_Erving \"Julius Erving\"), [Maurice Cheeks](/wiki/Maurice_Cheeks \"Maurice Cheeks\"), [Andrew Toney](/wiki/Andrew_Toney \"Andrew Toney\"), and [Bobby Jones](/wiki/Bobby_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1951%29 \"Bobby Jones (basketball, born 1951)\"), the Sixers ran away from the league en route to the NBA championship. Malone was named the league MVP for the second straight year, becoming the only NBA player ever to win the award in consecutive seasons with two different teams, a feat matched only by [Barry Bonds](/wiki/Barry_Bonds \"Barry Bonds\") (1992–1993\\) in the [four major American sports leagues](/wiki/Major_professional_sports_leagues_in_the_United_States_and_Canada \"Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://spectator.org/blog/64054/moses\\-malone\\-rip\\|title\\=Moses Malone, R.I.P.\\|work\\=The American Spectator\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}}", "That year, Malone averaged 15\\.3 rebounds per game, which led the league for the third consecutive year, and also averaged 24\\.5 points, which was fifth\\-best in the NBA. He was an All\\-Star for the sixth consecutive season and earned first\\-team honors on both the All\\-NBA and All\\-Defensive teams. The 76ers lost only one game in the postseason as they won the league championship, defeating the Lakers in a 4–0 sweep in the [1983 NBA Finals](/wiki/1983_NBA_Finals \"1983 NBA Finals\"). In 13 playoff games, Malone averaged 26\\.0 points with 15\\.8 rebounds. He was named the [Finals MVP](/wiki/Bill_Russell_NBA_Finals_Most_Valuable_Player_Award \"Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award\"), having outrebounded Abdul\\-Jabbar 72–30 in the series. It was also around this time that Malone began to tutor [Hakeem Olajuwon](/wiki/Hakeem_Olajuwon \"Hakeem Olajuwon\"), passing on the torch to the future Rockets superstar.{{cite web\\|last\\=Blount\\|first\\=Terry\\|url\\=http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id\\=1994\\_1203645\\|title\\=Hakeem: For the record/\"Kunta Kinte' image was way off\\|work\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|date\\=May 22, 1994\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}}", "His head coach [Billy Cunningham](/wiki/Billy_Cunningham \"Billy Cunningham\") said, \"Let's not make believe. The difference from last year was Moses.\" Before the [playoffs](/wiki/1983_NBA_Playoffs \"1983 NBA Playoffs\") began, Malone predicted in [Southern vernacular](/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English \"African American Vernacular English\") that Philadelphia would go \"fo, fo, fo\", envisioning a four\\-game sweep in each of the playoffs' three rounds, playing the minimum 12 games. His prediction (and its formulation) became famous: *The New York Times* called it \"an enduring quotation\" and \"an unforgettable line,\"{{cite news\\|last1\\=Araton\\|first1\\=Harvey\\|title\\=Moses Malone Was Easy to Overlook but Undeniably Great\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/17/sports/basketball/moses\\-malone\\-was\\-easy\\-to\\-overlook\\-but\\-undeniably\\-great.html\\|access\\-date\\=September 18, 2015\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=September 16, 2015}} and [Comcast SportsNet](/wiki/Comcast_SportsNet \"Comcast SportsNet\") called it \"one of the greatest rallying cries ever uttered.\"{{cite news\\|last1\\=Jones\\|first1\\=Gordie\\|title\\=Moses Malone: The ultimate hard hat and 1980s NBA icon\\|url\\=http://www.csnphilly.com/basketball\\-philadelphia\\-76ers/fo\\-fo\\-fo\\-remembering\\-moses\\-malone\\-nba\\-symbol\\-80s\\|access\\-date\\=September 18, 2015\\|publisher\\=csnphilly.com\\|date\\=September 14, 2015}} As it transpired, the Sixers only lost one playoff game (Game 4 of the Eastern Conference Finals to the [Milwaukee Bucks](/wiki/Milwaukee_Bucks \"Milwaukee Bucks\")) en route to making Malone a world champion for the first time, sweeping the [Knicks](/wiki/New_York_Knicks \"New York Knicks\") in the first round and the Lakers in the finals. This led to the inside of that year's [championship ring](/wiki/Championship_ring \"Championship ring\") being inscribed \"fo' fi' fo (four, five, four).\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/all\\_access/rings\\_drj.html \\|title\\=The Ring's The Thing: Dr. J \\|publisher\\=National Basketball Association\\|access\\-date\\=September 23, 2013}} The 76ers' 12–1 cruise through the 1983 playoffs was, at the time, the most dominant playoff run in NBA history.", "#### 1983–84 season", "In the 1983–84 season Malone led the league in rebounding with 13\\.4 rpg. He was limited to 71 games that season due to ankle injuries, his lowest since the 1977–78 season. Malone scored 22\\.7 ppg in his second season with Philadelphia and was named to the All\\-NBA Second Team. Malone was selected again for the All\\-Star Game but he was unable to play because of an ankle injury. During the season he averaged 21\\.4 points with 13\\.8 rebounds in five games in the playoffs, but Philadelphia lost in a first\\-round upset against the [New Jersey Nets](/wiki/New_Jersey_Nets \"New Jersey Nets\").", "#### 1984–85 season", "The Sixers selected [Charles Barkley](/wiki/Charles_Barkley \"Charles Barkley\") in the [1984 NBA draft](/wiki/1984_NBA_draft \"1984 NBA draft\"). When he reported to training camp at {{convert\\|300\\|lbs}}, Malone began to mentor him, encouraging him to get in better shape. Barkley got down to {{convert\\|255\\|lbs}} and made the [NBA All\\-Rookie Team](/wiki/NBA_All-Rookie_Team \"NBA All-Rookie Team\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/\\_/id/13650802/nba\\-how\\-moses\\-malone\\-mentored\\-young\\-charles\\-barkley\\|title\\=How Moses Malone mentored a young Charles Barkley\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|first\\=Jackie\\|last\\=McMullen\\|date\\=September 13, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} In the 1984–85 season, Malone recorded 13\\.1 rpg, leading the NBA in rebounding for a record\\-setting fifth straight season (since surpassed by [Dennis Rodman](/wiki/Dennis_Rodman \"Dennis Rodman\") with seven consecutive seasons). He was voted by a fan ballot to the All\\-Star team for the eighth time and finished the season with 24\\.6 ppg, which ranked ninth\\-best in the league. He received his fourth All\\-NBA First Team honor and finished third in the NBA Most Valuable Player Award balloting; the award was won by [Larry Bird](/wiki/Larry_Bird \"Larry Bird\"). Malone scored his 15,000th NBA point on November 28,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1928\\&dat\\=19841127\\&id\\=VZwgAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=1236,5074624\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Sixersbreeze past Pacer\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Lewiston Daily Sun]]\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015\\|date\\=November 27, 1984}} and grabbed his 10,000th NBA rebound on March 29\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=860\\&dat\\=19850330\\&id\\=vplUAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3967,10529646\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Celtices hold off Sixer rally\\|work\\=\\[\\[Ellensburg Daily Record]]\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|date\\=March 30, 1985\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} He scored 51 points against the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons \"Detroit Pistons\") on November 14\\. The 76ers reached the Eastern Conference Finals in 1985 but were defeated 4–1 by the Celtics.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1985\\-nba\\-eastern\\-conference\\-finals\\-76ers\\-vs\\-celtics.html\\|title\\=1985 NBA Eastern Conference Finals\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "#### 1985–86 season", "Malone's 1985–86 season ended when he suffered an [orbital fracture](/wiki/Orbital_fracture \"Orbital fracture\") in his right eye in a March 28 game against the Bucks. Despite hopes that he might return during the playoffs, he was ruled out for the postseason.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1320\\&dat\\=19860426\\&id\\=iT1WAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6960,3055036\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Sixers' Malone ruled out of playoff\\|date\\=April 26, 1986\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Gainesville Sun]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} In the Eastern Conference Semifinals, Philadelphia lost 4–3 to the Bucks.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1986\\-nba\\-eastern\\-conference\\-semifinals\\-76ers\\-vs\\-bucks.html\\|title\\=1986 NBA Eastern Conference Semifinals\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} Malone averaged 23\\.8 points with 11\\.8 rebounds in 74 appearances that season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/teams/PHI/1986\\.html\\|title\\=1985–86 Philadelphia 76ers\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} He ranked seventh in the league in scoring and fourth in rebounding, ending his five\\-season streak as the NBA rebounding champion.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\\_1986\\_leaders.html\\|title\\=1985–86 NBA Leaders\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} Malone was named an All\\-Star, but he was not named to the All\\-NBA Team, the first time he was not selected since 1978\\.", "### Washington Bullets (1986–1988\\)", "Shortly after the 1985–86 season, Philadelphia traded Malone, [Terry Catledge](/wiki/Terry_Catledge \"Terry Catledge\"), and two first\\-round draft picks to the [Washington Bullets](/wiki/Washington_Bullets \"Washington Bullets\") in exchange for [Jeff Ruland](/wiki/Jeff_Ruland \"Jeff Ruland\") and [Clifford T. Robinson](/wiki/Cliff_Robinson_%28basketball%2C_born_1960%29 \"Cliff Robinson (basketball, born 1960)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2209\\&dat\\=19860617\\&id\\=OrorAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6759,4955728\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Philadelphia trades Malone, first draft choice\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|work\\=The Telegraph\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|page\\=13\\|date\\=June 17, 1986\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} Malone bounced back from an injury\\-shortened 1985–86 campaign, averaging 24\\.1 points with 11\\.3 rebounds. He was named to his 10th consecutive All\\-Star Game and again was named to the All\\-NBA Second Team. Malone was the only player to finish in the top 10 in both ppg and rpg; he placed ninth in both categories.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\\_1987\\_leaders.html\\|title\\=1986–87 NBA Leaders\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "Malone scored his 20,000th NBA point on April 12 against the Detroit Pistons.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1129\\&dat\\=19870413\\&id\\=\\_65RAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=2862,4665806\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Malone nets 20,000th; Bullets win\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|page\\=30\\|date\\=April 13, 1987\\|work\\=Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} He scored 50 points versus the New Jersey Nets on April 8,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1499\\&dat\\=19870409\\&id\\=tmcaAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6902,559913\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Malone's 50 points are a pain to Nets\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=April 9, 1987\\|page\\=7C\\|work\\=The Milwaukee Journal\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} joining [Earl Monroe](/wiki/Earl_Monroe \"Earl Monroe\") (56\\) and [Phil Chenier](/wiki/Phil_Chenier \"Phil Chenier\") (52\\) as the only Bullets players ever to score 50 points in a game. Washington appeared in the postseason but was swept by the Pistons in the first round. Malone averaged 20\\.7 points and 12\\.7 rebounds in the series.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1987\\-nba\\-eastern\\-conference\\-first\\-round\\-bullets\\-vs\\-pistons.html\\|title\\=1987 NBA Eastern Conference First Round\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "In his 12th NBA season, Malone ranked eighth in the NBA in rebounding (11\\.2\\) and 19th in scoring (20\\.3\\). Malone was named to his 11th consecutive All\\-Star Game in [1988](/wiki/1988_NBA_All-Star_Game \"1988 NBA All-Star Game\"). Malone scored in double figures in 76 of 79 games and recorded 55 [double\\-doubles](/wiki/Double_%28basketball%29%23Double-double \"Double (basketball)#Double-double\") for the year. The Bullets reached the [1988 NBA Playoffs](/wiki/1988_NBA_Playoffs \"1988 NBA Playoffs\"), but lost to Detroit 3–2 in their first\\-round series. Malone averaged 18\\.6 points with 11\\.2 rebounds in the series.", "### Atlanta Hawks (1988–1991\\)", "#### 1988–89 season: Final All\\-Star selection", "Before the 1988–89 season, Malone agreed to a three\\-year deal to play with the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks \"Atlanta Hawks\"). The Hawks, featuring [Dominique Wilkins](/wiki/Dominique_Wilkins \"Dominique Wilkins\"), had won at least 50 games in the prior three seasons, and believed the free\\-agent center was a missing piece to a potential championship team.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1356\\&dat\\=19880817\\&id\\=asVOAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=2488,266888\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Holy Moses! Malone signs 3\\-year contract with Atlanta\\|first\\=Tom\\|last\\=Saladino\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=August 17, 1988\\|page\\=1C\\|work\\=Ocala Star\\-Banner\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} During the season, Malone averaged 20\\.2 points with 11\\.8 rebounds, becoming the first and only player in professional history to average 20 points and 10 rebounds for four different teams. He was voted by a fan ballot to the [1989 NBA All\\-Star Game](/wiki/1989_NBA_All-Star_Game \"1989 NBA All-Star Game\"), which was his 12th straight and final appearance. Malone reached double figures in points in 75 of his 81 games and recorded double figures in rebounds 55 times. On February 4, 1989, he scored a season\\-high 37 points against the [Phoenix Suns](/wiki/Phoenix_Suns \"Phoenix Suns\"). The Hawks were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by Milwaukee. In the series, Malone scored 21\\.0 ppg and had 12\\.0 rpg.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1989\\-nba\\-eastern\\-conference\\-first\\-round\\-bucks\\-vs\\-hawks.html\\|title\\=1989 NBA Eastern Conference First Round\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "#### 1989–90 season", "The following season, Malone finished with 18\\.9 ppg and 10\\.0 rpg, ending a string of 11 consecutive 20–10 campaigns. Malone led the NBA with 364 offensive rebounds and tied for eighth in rpg. In [Mike Fratello](/wiki/Mike_Fratello \"Mike Fratello\")'s final year as head coach, Atlanta finished with a 41–41 record, failing to qualify for the playoffs. Malone began the 1990–91 season as the Hawks' starting center, but after 15 games, Atlanta's new coach, [Bob Weiss](/wiki/Bob_Weiss \"Bob Weiss\"), made [Jon Koncak](/wiki/Jon_Koncak \"Jon Koncak\") the starter and Malone his backup for the final 67 contests.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2209\\&dat\\=19901218\\&id\\=\\-pFKAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6874,4091326\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Pro Roundup\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|page\\=13\\|date\\=December 18, 1990\\|work\\=The Telegraph\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}}", "#### 1990–91 season", "Coming off the bench for the first time in his career, Malone averaged 10\\.6 points with 8\\.1 rebounds in 23\\.3 [minutes per game](/wiki/Minutes_per_game \"Minutes per game\") while starting just 18 of 82 games played during the 1990–91 season—all career lows at that point. On November 3, against the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers \"Indiana Pacers\"), Malone became the NBA career leader in [free throws](/wiki/Free_throw \"Free throw\") made with 7,695, besting the previous record set by [Oscar Robertson](/wiki/Oscar_Robertson \"Oscar Robertson\"). On November 21, against the Bucks, Malone scored his 25,000th career point.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=348\\&dat\\=19910118\\&id\\=mAFNAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=2946,2565444\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Moses quietly keeps playing\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=January 18, 1991\\|page\\=1B\\|work\\=Rome News\\-Tribune\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} On March 15, he recorded his 15,000th career rebound against the [Dallas Mavericks](/wiki/Dallas_Mavericks \"Dallas Mavericks\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=894\\&dat\\=19960315\\&id\\=ch0OAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6831,1788037\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=On This Date\\|page\\=15A\\|date\\=March 15, 1996\\|work\\=The Daily Courier\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} Malone surpassed [Wilt Chamberlain](/wiki/Wilt_Chamberlain \"Wilt Chamberlain\")'s mark of consecutive games without fouling out with his 1,046th straight game against the Detroit Pistons on April 19\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1310\\&dat\\=19910420\\&id\\=QLVYAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6841,4349229\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Blazers crown Kings for 16th straight victory\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|page\\=3C\\|date\\=April 20, 1991\\|work\\=Eugene Register\\-Guard\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} The Hawks returned to the playoffs but were eliminated in the first round by Detroit, 3–2\\. In the series, Malone averaged just 4\\.2 points with 6\\.2 rebounds.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/playoffs/1991\\-nba\\-eastern\\-conference\\-first\\-round\\-hawks\\-vs\\-pistons.html\\|title\\=1991 NBA Eastern Conference First Round\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "### Milwaukee Bucks (1991–1993\\)", "A free agent after the 1990–91 season, Malone signed a two\\-year contract with the [Milwaukee Bucks](/wiki/Milwaukee_Bucks \"Milwaukee Bucks\"). Malone was reported to earn $1\\.6 million in the first season and $2 million for the second season. Malone once again started at center during the 1991–92 season,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1817\\&dat\\=19910711\\&id\\=MDgdAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6747,2117196\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Milwaukee's bucks lure Moses Malone\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|page\\=4C\\|date\\=July 11, 1991\\|work\\=The Tuscaloosa News\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} averaging 15\\.6 points with 9\\.1 rebounds while playing in all 82 games. He led the Bucks in rebounding and finished second on the team in scoring. He scored a season\\-high 30 points twice and grabbed 19 rebounds against the Seattle SuperSonics on March 27\\. Milwaukee finished with a 31–51 record, tied for last place of the [Central Division](/wiki/Central_Division_%28NBA%29 \"Central Division (NBA)\") with the [Charlotte Hornets](/wiki/Charlotte_Hornets \"Charlotte Hornets\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\\_1992\\.html\\|title\\=1991–92 NBA Season Summary\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}}", "After one practice in training camp in October 1992, Malone was sidelined due to a [herniated disc](/wiki/Herniated_disc \"Herniated disc\") in his back.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1957\\&dat\\=19921015\\&id\\=epNGAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3843,4029329\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Malone has herniated disc\\|work\\=The Daily Gazette\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|page\\=C3\\|date\\=October 15, 1992\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} After trying to play through the pain, he decided to have surgery in November.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2026\\&dat\\=19921105\\&id\\=2L0jAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3486,4041318\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Moses Malone out indefinitely\\|page\\=5D\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=November 5, 1992\\|work\\=Moscow\\-Pullman Daily News\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} Recovery from the surgery caused Malone to miss the majority of the 1992–93 season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1298\\&dat\\=19921107\\&id\\=MeFLAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5426,1035340\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Malone sidelined by back surgery\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=November 7, 1992\\|page\\=C8\\|work\\=The Free Lance\\-Star\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} He returned to the Bucks on March 27, appearing in 11 games during the remainder of the season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1955\\&dat\\=19930812\\&id\\=hAIiAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5176,6734505\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Malone returning to Sixers\\|page\\=D5\\|date\\=August 12, 1993\\|work\\=Reading Eagle\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} Struggling with the younger players on their roster, the Bucks finished 28–54 and last in the Central Division.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\\_1993\\.html\\|title\\=1992–93 NBA Season Summary\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}}", "### Return to Philadelphia (1993–1994\\)", "The [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\") signed Malone as a free agent in August, so that he could serve as a backup and mentor to {{convert\\|7\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|adj\\=on}} rookie [Shawn Bradley](/wiki/Shawn_Bradley \"Shawn Bradley\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1665\\&dat\\=19930813\\&id\\=QTIaAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6816,3068241\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Moses Malone returns to Philadelphia\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|page\\=2B\\|date\\=August 13, 1993\\|work\\=The Times\\-News\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2026\\&dat\\=19930817\\&id\\=ag0kAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4771,4261638\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Sixers' Bradley gets top tutoring from old pros\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|page\\=3B\\|date\\=August 17, 1993\\|work\\=Moscow\\-Pullman Daily News\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2015}} Malone appeared in 55 games as a reserve for the 76ers, averaging 5\\.3 points with 4\\.1 rebounds.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/teams/PHI/1994\\.html\\|title\\=1993–94 Philadelphia 76ers\\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}}", "### San Antonio Spurs (1994–1995\\)", "In 1994, Malone signed with the [San Antonio Spurs](/wiki/San_Antonio_Spurs \"San Antonio Spurs\"), where he was used as a back\\-up center to [David Robinson](/wiki/David_Robinson \"David Robinson\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1876\\&dat\\=19940826\\&id\\=GTIfAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4007,3042448\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Moses Malone signs deal to play for Spurs\\|page\\=B2\\|date\\=August 26, 1994\\|work\\=Herald\\-Journal\\|via\\=Google News Archive Search\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015}} The [1994–95 NBA season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_NBA_season \"1994–95 NBA season\") was his last in the NBA, and at that time, he was the only remaining active former ABA player. During the final game of his NBA career, against the [Charlotte Hornets](/wiki/Charlotte_Hornets \"Charlotte Hornets\"), he hit a buzzer\\-beating three\\-point shot from the opposing free throw line, {{convert\\|74\\|ft}} away from the basket. He played 17 games for the Spurs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://blog.mysanantonio.com/spursnation/2015/09/13/nba\\-legend\\-former\\-spur\\-moses\\-malone\\-dies\\-at\\-60/\\|title\\=NBA legend, former Spur Moses Malone dies at 60\\|work\\=Spurs Nation\\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915140814/http://blog.mysanantonio.com/spursnation/2015/09/13/nba\\-legend\\-former\\-spur\\-moses\\-malone\\-dies\\-at\\-60/\\|archive\\-date\\=September 15, 2015}}", "" ]