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Mixed martial arts career
-------------------------
### Early career
For a number of years Torres fought primarily in small, unsanctioned events held in nightclubs and bars. As a result, much of his early fighting career is undocumented. Prior to signing with the [WEC](/wiki/World_Extreme_Cagefighting "World Extreme Cagefighting"), he fought often on local shows, including the Total Fight Challenge and Ironheart Crown. He held the bantamweight title in both of these organizations for several years and his participation in those events is well documented.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmaheadliner.com/mma\-news/my\-first\-fight\-miguel\-torres \|title\=MMA News \- My First Fight: Miguel Torres \|access\-date\=2011\-12\-28 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426080302/http://www.mmaheadliner.com/mma\-news/my\-first\-fight\-miguel\-torres \|archive\-date\=April 26, 2012 }}
After fighting for several years, Torres sought guidance and training under [Carlson Gracie](/wiki/Carlson_Gracie "Carlson Gracie"), Sr. As a trainer of many world champions, Gracie immediately recognized Torres's talent and took him on a trip to Brazil where he would publicly issue a challenge to the entire world. Long before Torres gained fame in the WEC, Gracie believed that no one could beat him at 135 pounds.
### World Extreme Cagefighting
His first fight with the WEC came on September 5, 2007, against Jeff Bedard. Torres submitted Bedard in the first round with a [triangle choke](/wiki/Triangle_choke "Triangle choke") submission and then would go on to publicly request a title shot.
Torres would get one for his next fight and at [WEC 32](/wiki/WEC_32 "WEC 32") he fought [Chase Beebe](/wiki/Chase_Beebe "Chase Beebe") for the [WEC Bantamweight Championship](/wiki/List_of_WEC_champions%23Bantamweight_Championship "List of WEC champions#Bantamweight Championship"). Torres displayed great striking and an equally impressive ground game and submitted Beebe in the first round to become the new WEC Bantamweight Champion.
Following his victory over Beebe, Torres successfully defended his title with back\-to\-back TKO victories; one over [Yoshiro Maeda](/wiki/Yoshiro_Maeda "Yoshiro Maeda") in an exciting fight and the other over the previously undefeated fellow Mexican\-American [Manny Tapia](/wiki/Manny_Tapia "Manny Tapia"). It capped off a 2008 where Torres earned Breakthrough Fighter of the Year honors from [Sherdog.com](/wiki/Sherdog.com "Sherdog.com").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/articles/4/Sherdogs\-Miscellaneous\-Awards\-for\-2008\-15727 \|title\=Sherdog's Miscellaneous Awards for 2008 \- Breakthrough Fighter of the Year \|website\=Sherdog.com \|date\=2009\-01\-10 \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-26}}
Torres was next expected to face [Brian Bowles](/wiki/Brian_Bowles_%28fighter%29 "Brian Bowles (fighter)") in the main event of [WEC 40](/wiki/WEC_40 "WEC 40") on April 5, 2009, in Chicago, Illinois. However, Bowles injured and replaced by Japanese newcomer [Takeya Mizugaki](/wiki/Takeya_Mizugaki "Takeya Mizugaki"). Torres defeated Mizugaki by unanimous decision to retain his belt.
Bowles was ringside at [WEC 40](/wiki/WEC_40 "WEC 40") and was called out by Torres after his five\-round bout with Mizugaki. The fight headlined [WEC 42](/wiki/WEC_42 "WEC 42") on August 9, 2009, at the [Hard Rock Hotel and Casino](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Hotel_and_Casino_%28Las_Vegas%29 "Hard Rock Hotel and Casino (Las Vegas)") in Las Vegas, Nevada. Torres started out strong, but he rushed Bowles wildly, resulting in Torres being knocked out in a huge upset. The loss snapped Torres' streak of 17 consecutive victories and marked his first loss in the [Bantamweight](/wiki/Bantamweight_%28MMA%29 "Bantamweight (MMA)") division.
On March 6, 2010, at [WEC 47](/wiki/WEC_47 "WEC 47"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wec.tv/index.cfm?fa\=eventdetail.fightCard\&eid\=2685\|title\=Event – WEC: Bowles vs. Cruz\|publisher\=wec.tv\|date\=December 19, 2009}} Torres faced and was defeated by [Joseph Benavidez](/wiki/Joseph_Benavidez "Joseph Benavidez"), via guillotine choke midway through the second round.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/17373/miguel\-torres\-vs\-joseph\-benavidez\-set\-for\-wec\-47\-likely\-to\-determine\-no\-1\-contender.mma \|title\=Miguel Torres vs. Joseph Benavidez set for WEC 47, likely to determine No. 1 contender \|publisher\=mmajunkie.com \|date\=December 31, 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102005444/http://mmajunkie.com/news/17373/miguel\-torres\-vs\-joseph\-benavidez\-set\-for\-wec\-47\-likely\-to\-determine\-no\-1\-contender.mma \|archive\-date\=January 2, 2010 }}
Torres faced [Charlie Valencia](/wiki/Charlie_Valencia "Charlie Valencia") on September 30, 2010, at [WEC 51](/wiki/WEC_51 "WEC 51").{{cite web\| url\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2010/07/09/miguel\-torres\-to\-face\-charlie\-valencia\-in\-wec\-51\-co\-main\-event/\| title\=Miguel Torres to Face Charlie Valencia in WEC 51 Co\-Main Event \|publisher\=mmafighting.com\| date\=September 7, 2010}} He won the fight via submission in the second round.
### Ultimate Fighting Championship
On October 28, 2010, the WEC merged with the [UFC](/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship "Ultimate Fighting Championship"). As part of the merger, all WEC fighters were transferred to the UFC.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/21189/ufc\-and\-wec\-set\-to\-merge\-in\-2011\-events\-to\-air\-on\-versus\-and\-spike\-tv.mma \|title\=UFC and WEC set to merge in 2011; events to air on Versus and Spike TV \|publisher\=mmajunkie.com \|date\=October 28, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120525095952/http://mmajunkie.com/news/21189/ufc\-and\-wec\-set\-to\-merge\-in\-2011\-events\-to\-air\-on\-versus\-and\-spike\-tv.mma \|archive\-date\=May 25, 2012 }}
Torres made his promotional debut against fellow WEC veteran [Antonio Banuelos](/wiki/Antonio_Banuelos "Antonio Banuelos") on February 5, 2011, at [UFC 126](/wiki/UFC_126 "UFC 126").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.heavy.com/mma/mma\-news/2010/11/exclusive\-miguel\-torres\-takes\-on\-antonio\-banuelos\-at\-ufc\-126/\|title\=Miguel Torres Takes on Antonio Banuelos at UFC 126\|publisher\=heavy.com\|date\=November 4, 2010}} He won the fight via unanimous decision.
Torres was expected to face English fighter [Brad Pickett](/wiki/Brad_Pickett "Brad Pickett") on May 28, 2011, at [UFC 130](/wiki/UFC_130 "UFC 130").{{cite web\|url\=http://mmaweekly.com/miguel\-torres\-announces\-hes\-been\-offered\-and\-accepted\-a\-fight\-with\-brad\-pickett\-at\-ufc\-130\|title\=Miguel Torres announces he's been offered and accepted a fight with Brad Pickett at UFC 130\|publisher\=mmaweekly.com\|date\=February 11, 2011}} However, Pickett was forced out of the bout with an injury and replaced by future [UFC Flyweight Champion](/wiki/UFC_Flyweight_Championship "UFC Flyweight Championship") [Demetrious Johnson](/wiki/Demetrious_Johnson_%28fighter%29 "Demetrious Johnson (fighter)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmamania.com/2011/4/21/2124237/ufc\-130\-miguel\-torres\-vs\-demetrious\-johnson\-booked\-with\-brad\-pickett\|title\=UFC 130: Miguel Torres vs Demetrious Johnson booked with Brad Pickett injured \|publisher\=mmamania.com\|date\=April 21, 2011}} Torres lost to Johnson via unanimous decision (29–28 on all cards). While taken down early in the first round, Torres controlled the first round, but in rounds two and three was outstruck and controlled on the ground, resulting in Johnson receiving the victory.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmamania.com/2011/5/29/2196569/ufc\-130\-results\-miguel\-torres\-vs\-demetrious\-johnson\-ends\-in\|title\=UFC 130 results: Miguel Torres vs Demetrious Johnson ends in controversy; did the judges cageside monitors help? \|publisher\=mmamania.com\|date\=May 29, 2011}}
Torres faced [Nick Pace](/wiki/Nick_Pace "Nick Pace") on November 19, 2011, at [UFC 139](/wiki/UFC_139 "UFC 139").{{cite web \|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/25372/nick\-pace\-says\-hes\-fighting\-miguel\-torres\-at\-ufc\-139\-in\-november.mma \|title\=Nick Pace says he's fighting Miguel Torres at UFC 139 in November \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-22 \|publisher\=mmajunkie.com}} He dominated Pace, winning a unanimous decision (30–27, 30–27, 30–27\).
On December 8, 2011, it was announced by UFC president [Dana White](/wiki/Dana_White "Dana White"), in an interview with SI.com, that Torres had been cut from the UFC due to the following quote from the TV show [Workaholics](/wiki/Workaholics "Workaholics") made on Torres' [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter") page: "If a rape van was called a surprise van more women wouldn't mind going for rides in them. Everyone likes surprises."{{cite web\|url\=http://mma\-boxing.si.com/2011/12/08/dana\-white\-responds\-to\-rashad\-evans\-miguel\-torres\-media\-miscues/\|title\=Dana White responds to Rashad Evans, Miguel Torres insensitive comments\|publisher\=SI.com\|date\=December 9, 2011}}
On December 28, 2011, it was announced by White after the [UFC 141](/wiki/UFC_141 "UFC 141") press conference that Torres was back in the UFC. Regarding Torres' return, White stated that "Torres handled his business like a man and no one told him to do it."
Torres was knocked out by [Michael McDonald](/wiki/Michael_McDonald_%28mixed_martial_artist%29 "Michael McDonald (mixed martial artist)") on April 21, 2012, at [UFC 145](/wiki/UFC_145 "UFC 145").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmamania.com/2012/1/20/2722113/ufc\-145\-miguel\-torres\-vs\-michael\-mcdonald\-fight\-announced\-seven\-bouts\|title\=UFC 145: Miguel Torres vs Michael McDonald fight announced\|publisher\=mmamania.com\|date\=January 20, 2012}} After the loss he was once again released from the promotion.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/30314/former\-champ\-miguel\-torres\-released\-by\-ufc\-signs\-with\-titan\-for\-nov\-2\-home\-debut.mma\|title\=Former champ Miguel Torres released by UFC, signs with Titan for Nov. 2 home debut\|author\=Matt Erickson\|date\=August 21, 2012\|publisher\=MMAjunkie.com\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825004146/http://mmajunkie.com/news/30314/former\-champ\-miguel\-torres\-released\-by\-ufc\-signs\-with\-titan\-for\-nov\-2\-home\-debut.mma\|archive\-date\=August 25, 2012\|df\=mdy\-all}}
### World Series of Fighting
On September 6, 2012, it was announced that Torres was one of many fighters to sign on with the [World Series of Fighting](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting "World Series of Fighting").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/WSOF\-Inks\-1Year\-Deal\-with\-NBC\-Sports\-Torres\-Lashley\-Among\-Notables\-Expected\-for\-Nov\-3\-Debut\-45445\|title\=Torres Signs with the WSOF\| access\-date\=2012\-09\-06}} Torres made his WSOF debut on November 3, 2012, at [WSOF 1](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting:Arlovski_vs._Cole "Arlovski vs. Cole") against Bantamweight prospect [Marlon Moraes](/wiki/Marlon_Moraes "Marlon Moraes"), he lost via split decision.
For his second fight with the promotion, Torres fought on October 26, 2013, at [WSOF 6](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_6:Burkman_vs._Carl "Burkman vs. Carl") against Pablo Alfonso. He lost the fight via submission in the first round.
### Independent Promotions
Torres signed with Indiana\-based promotion "United Combat League" in early 2014\. He faced Giovanni Moljo in his debut fight on February 15, 2014\. Torres won the fight via unanimous decision, snapping his three fight losing streak in the process.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmamania.com/2014/2/17/5419016/video\-miguel\-torres\-decisions\-giovanni\-moljo\-united\-combat\-hammond\-mma\|title\=Video: Miguel Torres gets back into the win column, decisions Giovanni Moljo on Feb. 15 in Indiana\|publisher\=mmamania.com\|date\=February 17, 2014}} He then faced Wade Choate at UCL: Torres vs. Choate on May 31, 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bluegrassmma.com/2014/05/united\-combat\-league\-returns\-hammond\-civic\-center/\|title\=United Combat League returns to Hammond Civic Center\|publisher\=bluegrassmma.com\|date\=May 30, 2014}} He won the fight via guillotine choke submission.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tapology.com/fightcenter/bouts/137507\-united\-combat\-league\-miguel\-torres\-vs\-wade\-choate\|title\=United Combat League: Miguel Torres vs. Wade Choate\|publisher\=tapology.com\|date\=May 31, 2014}}
Torres faced Takahiro Ashida at Rebel FC 2 on August 1, 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tapology.com/fightcenter/events/24033\-rebel\-fc\-2\-battle\-royal\|title\=Rebel FC 2: Battle Royal Card and Results\|publisher\=tapology.com\|access\-date\=July 3, 2014}} He won the fight via split decision.
### GLORY
Torres signed with the [GLORY](/wiki/Glory_%28kickboxing%29 "Glory (kickboxing)") [kickboxing](/wiki/Kickboxing "Kickboxing") promotion's Featherweight (\-65 kg/143 lb) division in May 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other\-sports/mma/miguel\-torres\-former\-wec\-champion\-3513856\|title\=Former WEC champion Miguel Torres set to sign for Glory World Series kickboxing\|first\=Andreas\|last\=Georgiou\|date\=May 8, 2014\|website\=Mirrorco.uk\|access\-date\=April 21, 2017}}{{cite web \| url\=http://www.fightofthenight.com/news/miguel\-torres\-set\-to\-fight\-in\-an\-mma\-and\-a\-kickboxing\-tournament \| title\=Miguel Torres Set To Fight In An MMA And A Kickboxing Tournament \| publisher\=Fight of the Night \| date\=9 May 2014 \| access\-date\=13 May 2014 \| author\=Cole, Ross}} He was expected to compete in the *[Glory 17: Los Angeles \- Featherweight Contendership Tournament](/wiki/Glory_17:Los_Angeles_-_Featherweight_Contendership_Tournament "Los Angeles - Featherweight Contendership Tournament")* in [Inglewood, California](/wiki/Inglewood%2C_California "Inglewood, California") on June 21, 2014{{cite web\|url\=http://liverkick.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=2970:miguel\-torres\-added\-to\-glory\-17\-tournament\-cro\-cop\-vs\-kharitonov\&catid\=50:glory\&Itemid\=75\|title\=Miguel Torres Added to GLORY 17 Tournament, Cro Cop vs. Kharitonov\|first\=Dave\|last\=Walsh\|website\=Liverkick.com\|access\-date\=April 21, 2017}} but withdrew for undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Marcus Vinicius.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmamania.com/2014/5/29/5761460/ufc\-miguel\-torres\-withdraws\-from\-glory\-17\-replaced\-by\-marcus\-vinicius\-mma\|title\=Miguel Torres Withdraws From GLORY 17\|date\=May 29, 2014\|website\=Mmamania.com\|access\-date\=April 21, 2017}}
### Titan Fighting Championship
In early October 2014, it was announced that Torres had signed a contract with [Titan Fighting Championship](/wiki/Titan_Fighting_Championship "Titan Fighting Championship"). He made his debut on October 31, 2014, in the main event at Titan FC 31 against [Desmond Green](/wiki/Desmond_Green "Desmond Green"). Torres lost the fight via knockout in the first round.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/11/titan\-fc\-31\-results\-desmond\-green\-makes\-quick\-work\-of\-miguel\-torres/\|title\=Desmond Green makes quick work of Miguel Torres\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|date\=2014\-11\-01}}
|
[
"Mixed martial arts career\n-------------------------",
"### Early career",
"For a number of years Torres fought primarily in small, unsanctioned events held in nightclubs and bars. As a result, much of his early fighting career is undocumented. Prior to signing with the [WEC](/wiki/World_Extreme_Cagefighting \"World Extreme Cagefighting\"), he fought often on local shows, including the Total Fight Challenge and Ironheart Crown. He held the bantamweight title in both of these organizations for several years and his participation in those events is well documented.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmaheadliner.com/mma\\-news/my\\-first\\-fight\\-miguel\\-torres \\|title\\=MMA News \\- My First Fight: Miguel Torres \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-12\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426080302/http://www.mmaheadliner.com/mma\\-news/my\\-first\\-fight\\-miguel\\-torres \\|archive\\-date\\=April 26, 2012 }}",
"After fighting for several years, Torres sought guidance and training under [Carlson Gracie](/wiki/Carlson_Gracie \"Carlson Gracie\"), Sr. As a trainer of many world champions, Gracie immediately recognized Torres's talent and took him on a trip to Brazil where he would publicly issue a challenge to the entire world. Long before Torres gained fame in the WEC, Gracie believed that no one could beat him at 135 pounds.",
"### World Extreme Cagefighting",
"His first fight with the WEC came on September 5, 2007, against Jeff Bedard. Torres submitted Bedard in the first round with a [triangle choke](/wiki/Triangle_choke \"Triangle choke\") submission and then would go on to publicly request a title shot.",
"Torres would get one for his next fight and at [WEC 32](/wiki/WEC_32 \"WEC 32\") he fought [Chase Beebe](/wiki/Chase_Beebe \"Chase Beebe\") for the [WEC Bantamweight Championship](/wiki/List_of_WEC_champions%23Bantamweight_Championship \"List of WEC champions#Bantamweight Championship\"). Torres displayed great striking and an equally impressive ground game and submitted Beebe in the first round to become the new WEC Bantamweight Champion.",
"Following his victory over Beebe, Torres successfully defended his title with back\\-to\\-back TKO victories; one over [Yoshiro Maeda](/wiki/Yoshiro_Maeda \"Yoshiro Maeda\") in an exciting fight and the other over the previously undefeated fellow Mexican\\-American [Manny Tapia](/wiki/Manny_Tapia \"Manny Tapia\"). It capped off a 2008 where Torres earned Breakthrough Fighter of the Year honors from [Sherdog.com](/wiki/Sherdog.com \"Sherdog.com\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/articles/4/Sherdogs\\-Miscellaneous\\-Awards\\-for\\-2008\\-15727 \\|title\\=Sherdog's Miscellaneous Awards for 2008 \\- Breakthrough Fighter of the Year \\|website\\=Sherdog.com \\|date\\=2009\\-01\\-10 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-26}}",
"Torres was next expected to face [Brian Bowles](/wiki/Brian_Bowles_%28fighter%29 \"Brian Bowles (fighter)\") in the main event of [WEC 40](/wiki/WEC_40 \"WEC 40\") on April 5, 2009, in Chicago, Illinois. However, Bowles injured and replaced by Japanese newcomer [Takeya Mizugaki](/wiki/Takeya_Mizugaki \"Takeya Mizugaki\"). Torres defeated Mizugaki by unanimous decision to retain his belt.",
"Bowles was ringside at [WEC 40](/wiki/WEC_40 \"WEC 40\") and was called out by Torres after his five\\-round bout with Mizugaki. The fight headlined [WEC 42](/wiki/WEC_42 \"WEC 42\") on August 9, 2009, at the [Hard Rock Hotel and Casino](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Hotel_and_Casino_%28Las_Vegas%29 \"Hard Rock Hotel and Casino (Las Vegas)\") in Las Vegas, Nevada. Torres started out strong, but he rushed Bowles wildly, resulting in Torres being knocked out in a huge upset. The loss snapped Torres' streak of 17 consecutive victories and marked his first loss in the [Bantamweight](/wiki/Bantamweight_%28MMA%29 \"Bantamweight (MMA)\") division.",
"On March 6, 2010, at [WEC 47](/wiki/WEC_47 \"WEC 47\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wec.tv/index.cfm?fa\\=eventdetail.fightCard\\&eid\\=2685\\|title\\=Event – WEC: Bowles vs. Cruz\\|publisher\\=wec.tv\\|date\\=December 19, 2009}} Torres faced and was defeated by [Joseph Benavidez](/wiki/Joseph_Benavidez \"Joseph Benavidez\"), via guillotine choke midway through the second round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/17373/miguel\\-torres\\-vs\\-joseph\\-benavidez\\-set\\-for\\-wec\\-47\\-likely\\-to\\-determine\\-no\\-1\\-contender.mma \\|title\\=Miguel Torres vs. Joseph Benavidez set for WEC 47, likely to determine No. 1 contender \\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com \\|date\\=December 31, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102005444/http://mmajunkie.com/news/17373/miguel\\-torres\\-vs\\-joseph\\-benavidez\\-set\\-for\\-wec\\-47\\-likely\\-to\\-determine\\-no\\-1\\-contender.mma \\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2010 }}",
"Torres faced [Charlie Valencia](/wiki/Charlie_Valencia \"Charlie Valencia\") on September 30, 2010, at [WEC 51](/wiki/WEC_51 \"WEC 51\").{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2010/07/09/miguel\\-torres\\-to\\-face\\-charlie\\-valencia\\-in\\-wec\\-51\\-co\\-main\\-event/\\| title\\=Miguel Torres to Face Charlie Valencia in WEC 51 Co\\-Main Event \\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\| date\\=September 7, 2010}} He won the fight via submission in the second round.",
"### Ultimate Fighting Championship",
"On October 28, 2010, the WEC merged with the [UFC](/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship \"Ultimate Fighting Championship\"). As part of the merger, all WEC fighters were transferred to the UFC.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/21189/ufc\\-and\\-wec\\-set\\-to\\-merge\\-in\\-2011\\-events\\-to\\-air\\-on\\-versus\\-and\\-spike\\-tv.mma \\|title\\=UFC and WEC set to merge in 2011; events to air on Versus and Spike TV \\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com \\|date\\=October 28, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120525095952/http://mmajunkie.com/news/21189/ufc\\-and\\-wec\\-set\\-to\\-merge\\-in\\-2011\\-events\\-to\\-air\\-on\\-versus\\-and\\-spike\\-tv.mma \\|archive\\-date\\=May 25, 2012 }}",
"Torres made his promotional debut against fellow WEC veteran [Antonio Banuelos](/wiki/Antonio_Banuelos \"Antonio Banuelos\") on February 5, 2011, at [UFC 126](/wiki/UFC_126 \"UFC 126\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.heavy.com/mma/mma\\-news/2010/11/exclusive\\-miguel\\-torres\\-takes\\-on\\-antonio\\-banuelos\\-at\\-ufc\\-126/\\|title\\=Miguel Torres Takes on Antonio Banuelos at UFC 126\\|publisher\\=heavy.com\\|date\\=November 4, 2010}} He won the fight via unanimous decision.",
"Torres was expected to face English fighter [Brad Pickett](/wiki/Brad_Pickett \"Brad Pickett\") on May 28, 2011, at [UFC 130](/wiki/UFC_130 \"UFC 130\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmaweekly.com/miguel\\-torres\\-announces\\-hes\\-been\\-offered\\-and\\-accepted\\-a\\-fight\\-with\\-brad\\-pickett\\-at\\-ufc\\-130\\|title\\=Miguel Torres announces he's been offered and accepted a fight with Brad Pickett at UFC 130\\|publisher\\=mmaweekly.com\\|date\\=February 11, 2011}} However, Pickett was forced out of the bout with an injury and replaced by future [UFC Flyweight Champion](/wiki/UFC_Flyweight_Championship \"UFC Flyweight Championship\") [Demetrious Johnson](/wiki/Demetrious_Johnson_%28fighter%29 \"Demetrious Johnson (fighter)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmamania.com/2011/4/21/2124237/ufc\\-130\\-miguel\\-torres\\-vs\\-demetrious\\-johnson\\-booked\\-with\\-brad\\-pickett\\|title\\=UFC 130: Miguel Torres vs Demetrious Johnson booked with Brad Pickett injured \\|publisher\\=mmamania.com\\|date\\=April 21, 2011}} Torres lost to Johnson via unanimous decision (29–28 on all cards). While taken down early in the first round, Torres controlled the first round, but in rounds two and three was outstruck and controlled on the ground, resulting in Johnson receiving the victory.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmamania.com/2011/5/29/2196569/ufc\\-130\\-results\\-miguel\\-torres\\-vs\\-demetrious\\-johnson\\-ends\\-in\\|title\\=UFC 130 results: Miguel Torres vs Demetrious Johnson ends in controversy; did the judges cageside monitors help? \\|publisher\\=mmamania.com\\|date\\=May 29, 2011}}",
"Torres faced [Nick Pace](/wiki/Nick_Pace \"Nick Pace\") on November 19, 2011, at [UFC 139](/wiki/UFC_139 \"UFC 139\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/25372/nick\\-pace\\-says\\-hes\\-fighting\\-miguel\\-torres\\-at\\-ufc\\-139\\-in\\-november.mma \\|title\\=Nick Pace says he's fighting Miguel Torres at UFC 139 in November \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-22 \\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com}} He dominated Pace, winning a unanimous decision (30–27, 30–27, 30–27\\).",
"On December 8, 2011, it was announced by UFC president [Dana White](/wiki/Dana_White \"Dana White\"), in an interview with SI.com, that Torres had been cut from the UFC due to the following quote from the TV show [Workaholics](/wiki/Workaholics \"Workaholics\") made on Torres' [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\") page: \"If a rape van was called a surprise van more women wouldn't mind going for rides in them. Everyone likes surprises.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mma\\-boxing.si.com/2011/12/08/dana\\-white\\-responds\\-to\\-rashad\\-evans\\-miguel\\-torres\\-media\\-miscues/\\|title\\=Dana White responds to Rashad Evans, Miguel Torres insensitive comments\\|publisher\\=SI.com\\|date\\=December 9, 2011}}",
"On December 28, 2011, it was announced by White after the [UFC 141](/wiki/UFC_141 \"UFC 141\") press conference that Torres was back in the UFC. Regarding Torres' return, White stated that \"Torres handled his business like a man and no one told him to do it.\"",
"Torres was knocked out by [Michael McDonald](/wiki/Michael_McDonald_%28mixed_martial_artist%29 \"Michael McDonald (mixed martial artist)\") on April 21, 2012, at [UFC 145](/wiki/UFC_145 \"UFC 145\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmamania.com/2012/1/20/2722113/ufc\\-145\\-miguel\\-torres\\-vs\\-michael\\-mcdonald\\-fight\\-announced\\-seven\\-bouts\\|title\\=UFC 145: Miguel Torres vs Michael McDonald fight announced\\|publisher\\=mmamania.com\\|date\\=January 20, 2012}} After the loss he was once again released from the promotion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/30314/former\\-champ\\-miguel\\-torres\\-released\\-by\\-ufc\\-signs\\-with\\-titan\\-for\\-nov\\-2\\-home\\-debut.mma\\|title\\=Former champ Miguel Torres released by UFC, signs with Titan for Nov. 2 home debut\\|author\\=Matt Erickson\\|date\\=August 21, 2012\\|publisher\\=MMAjunkie.com\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825004146/http://mmajunkie.com/news/30314/former\\-champ\\-miguel\\-torres\\-released\\-by\\-ufc\\-signs\\-with\\-titan\\-for\\-nov\\-2\\-home\\-debut.mma\\|archive\\-date\\=August 25, 2012\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}",
"### World Series of Fighting",
"On September 6, 2012, it was announced that Torres was one of many fighters to sign on with the [World Series of Fighting](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting \"World Series of Fighting\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/WSOF\\-Inks\\-1Year\\-Deal\\-with\\-NBC\\-Sports\\-Torres\\-Lashley\\-Among\\-Notables\\-Expected\\-for\\-Nov\\-3\\-Debut\\-45445\\|title\\=Torres Signs with the WSOF\\| access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-06}} Torres made his WSOF debut on November 3, 2012, at [WSOF 1](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting:Arlovski_vs._Cole \"Arlovski vs. Cole\") against Bantamweight prospect [Marlon Moraes](/wiki/Marlon_Moraes \"Marlon Moraes\"), he lost via split decision.",
"For his second fight with the promotion, Torres fought on October 26, 2013, at [WSOF 6](/wiki/World_Series_of_Fighting_6:Burkman_vs._Carl \"Burkman vs. Carl\") against Pablo Alfonso. He lost the fight via submission in the first round.",
"### Independent Promotions",
"Torres signed with Indiana\\-based promotion \"United Combat League\" in early 2014\\. He faced Giovanni Moljo in his debut fight on February 15, 2014\\. Torres won the fight via unanimous decision, snapping his three fight losing streak in the process.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmamania.com/2014/2/17/5419016/video\\-miguel\\-torres\\-decisions\\-giovanni\\-moljo\\-united\\-combat\\-hammond\\-mma\\|title\\=Video: Miguel Torres gets back into the win column, decisions Giovanni Moljo on Feb. 15 in Indiana\\|publisher\\=mmamania.com\\|date\\=February 17, 2014}} He then faced Wade Choate at UCL: Torres vs. Choate on May 31, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bluegrassmma.com/2014/05/united\\-combat\\-league\\-returns\\-hammond\\-civic\\-center/\\|title\\=United Combat League returns to Hammond Civic Center\\|publisher\\=bluegrassmma.com\\|date\\=May 30, 2014}} He won the fight via guillotine choke submission.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tapology.com/fightcenter/bouts/137507\\-united\\-combat\\-league\\-miguel\\-torres\\-vs\\-wade\\-choate\\|title\\=United Combat League: Miguel Torres vs. Wade Choate\\|publisher\\=tapology.com\\|date\\=May 31, 2014}}",
"Torres faced Takahiro Ashida at Rebel FC 2 on August 1, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tapology.com/fightcenter/events/24033\\-rebel\\-fc\\-2\\-battle\\-royal\\|title\\=Rebel FC 2: Battle Royal Card and Results\\|publisher\\=tapology.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 3, 2014}} He won the fight via split decision.",
"### GLORY",
"Torres signed with the [GLORY](/wiki/Glory_%28kickboxing%29 \"Glory (kickboxing)\") [kickboxing](/wiki/Kickboxing \"Kickboxing\") promotion's Featherweight (\\-65 kg/143 lb) division in May 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other\\-sports/mma/miguel\\-torres\\-former\\-wec\\-champion\\-3513856\\|title\\=Former WEC champion Miguel Torres set to sign for Glory World Series kickboxing\\|first\\=Andreas\\|last\\=Georgiou\\|date\\=May 8, 2014\\|website\\=Mirrorco.uk\\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2017}}{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.fightofthenight.com/news/miguel\\-torres\\-set\\-to\\-fight\\-in\\-an\\-mma\\-and\\-a\\-kickboxing\\-tournament \\| title\\=Miguel Torres Set To Fight In An MMA And A Kickboxing Tournament \\| publisher\\=Fight of the Night \\| date\\=9 May 2014 \\| access\\-date\\=13 May 2014 \\| author\\=Cole, Ross}} He was expected to compete in the *[Glory 17: Los Angeles \\- Featherweight Contendership Tournament](/wiki/Glory_17:Los_Angeles_-_Featherweight_Contendership_Tournament \"Los Angeles - Featherweight Contendership Tournament\")* in [Inglewood, California](/wiki/Inglewood%2C_California \"Inglewood, California\") on June 21, 2014{{cite web\\|url\\=http://liverkick.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=2970:miguel\\-torres\\-added\\-to\\-glory\\-17\\-tournament\\-cro\\-cop\\-vs\\-kharitonov\\&catid\\=50:glory\\&Itemid\\=75\\|title\\=Miguel Torres Added to GLORY 17 Tournament, Cro Cop vs. Kharitonov\\|first\\=Dave\\|last\\=Walsh\\|website\\=Liverkick.com\\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2017}} but withdrew for undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Marcus Vinicius.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmamania.com/2014/5/29/5761460/ufc\\-miguel\\-torres\\-withdraws\\-from\\-glory\\-17\\-replaced\\-by\\-marcus\\-vinicius\\-mma\\|title\\=Miguel Torres Withdraws From GLORY 17\\|date\\=May 29, 2014\\|website\\=Mmamania.com\\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2017}}",
"### Titan Fighting Championship",
"In early October 2014, it was announced that Torres had signed a contract with [Titan Fighting Championship](/wiki/Titan_Fighting_Championship \"Titan Fighting Championship\"). He made his debut on October 31, 2014, in the main event at Titan FC 31 against [Desmond Green](/wiki/Desmond_Green \"Desmond Green\"). Torres lost the fight via knockout in the first round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/11/titan\\-fc\\-31\\-results\\-desmond\\-green\\-makes\\-quick\\-work\\-of\\-miguel\\-torres/\\|title\\=Desmond Green makes quick work of Miguel Torres\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-01}}",
""
] |
### World Extreme Cagefighting
His first fight with the WEC came on September 5, 2007, against Jeff Bedard. Torres submitted Bedard in the first round with a [triangle choke](/wiki/Triangle_choke "Triangle choke") submission and then would go on to publicly request a title shot.
Torres would get one for his next fight and at [WEC 32](/wiki/WEC_32 "WEC 32") he fought [Chase Beebe](/wiki/Chase_Beebe "Chase Beebe") for the [WEC Bantamweight Championship](/wiki/List_of_WEC_champions%23Bantamweight_Championship "List of WEC champions#Bantamweight Championship"). Torres displayed great striking and an equally impressive ground game and submitted Beebe in the first round to become the new WEC Bantamweight Champion.
Following his victory over Beebe, Torres successfully defended his title with back\-to\-back TKO victories; one over [Yoshiro Maeda](/wiki/Yoshiro_Maeda "Yoshiro Maeda") in an exciting fight and the other over the previously undefeated fellow Mexican\-American [Manny Tapia](/wiki/Manny_Tapia "Manny Tapia"). It capped off a 2008 where Torres earned Breakthrough Fighter of the Year honors from [Sherdog.com](/wiki/Sherdog.com "Sherdog.com").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/articles/4/Sherdogs\-Miscellaneous\-Awards\-for\-2008\-15727 \|title\=Sherdog's Miscellaneous Awards for 2008 \- Breakthrough Fighter of the Year \|website\=Sherdog.com \|date\=2009\-01\-10 \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-26}}
Torres was next expected to face [Brian Bowles](/wiki/Brian_Bowles_%28fighter%29 "Brian Bowles (fighter)") in the main event of [WEC 40](/wiki/WEC_40 "WEC 40") on April 5, 2009, in Chicago, Illinois. However, Bowles injured and replaced by Japanese newcomer [Takeya Mizugaki](/wiki/Takeya_Mizugaki "Takeya Mizugaki"). Torres defeated Mizugaki by unanimous decision to retain his belt.
Bowles was ringside at [WEC 40](/wiki/WEC_40 "WEC 40") and was called out by Torres after his five\-round bout with Mizugaki. The fight headlined [WEC 42](/wiki/WEC_42 "WEC 42") on August 9, 2009, at the [Hard Rock Hotel and Casino](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Hotel_and_Casino_%28Las_Vegas%29 "Hard Rock Hotel and Casino (Las Vegas)") in Las Vegas, Nevada. Torres started out strong, but he rushed Bowles wildly, resulting in Torres being knocked out in a huge upset. The loss snapped Torres' streak of 17 consecutive victories and marked his first loss in the [Bantamweight](/wiki/Bantamweight_%28MMA%29 "Bantamweight (MMA)") division.
On March 6, 2010, at [WEC 47](/wiki/WEC_47 "WEC 47"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wec.tv/index.cfm?fa\=eventdetail.fightCard\&eid\=2685\|title\=Event – WEC: Bowles vs. Cruz\|publisher\=wec.tv\|date\=December 19, 2009}} Torres faced and was defeated by [Joseph Benavidez](/wiki/Joseph_Benavidez "Joseph Benavidez"), via guillotine choke midway through the second round.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/17373/miguel\-torres\-vs\-joseph\-benavidez\-set\-for\-wec\-47\-likely\-to\-determine\-no\-1\-contender.mma \|title\=Miguel Torres vs. Joseph Benavidez set for WEC 47, likely to determine No. 1 contender \|publisher\=mmajunkie.com \|date\=December 31, 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102005444/http://mmajunkie.com/news/17373/miguel\-torres\-vs\-joseph\-benavidez\-set\-for\-wec\-47\-likely\-to\-determine\-no\-1\-contender.mma \|archive\-date\=January 2, 2010 }}
Torres faced [Charlie Valencia](/wiki/Charlie_Valencia "Charlie Valencia") on September 30, 2010, at [WEC 51](/wiki/WEC_51 "WEC 51").{{cite web\| url\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2010/07/09/miguel\-torres\-to\-face\-charlie\-valencia\-in\-wec\-51\-co\-main\-event/\| title\=Miguel Torres to Face Charlie Valencia in WEC 51 Co\-Main Event \|publisher\=mmafighting.com\| date\=September 7, 2010}} He won the fight via submission in the second round.
|
[
"### World Extreme Cagefighting",
"His first fight with the WEC came on September 5, 2007, against Jeff Bedard. Torres submitted Bedard in the first round with a [triangle choke](/wiki/Triangle_choke \"Triangle choke\") submission and then would go on to publicly request a title shot.",
"Torres would get one for his next fight and at [WEC 32](/wiki/WEC_32 \"WEC 32\") he fought [Chase Beebe](/wiki/Chase_Beebe \"Chase Beebe\") for the [WEC Bantamweight Championship](/wiki/List_of_WEC_champions%23Bantamweight_Championship \"List of WEC champions#Bantamweight Championship\"). Torres displayed great striking and an equally impressive ground game and submitted Beebe in the first round to become the new WEC Bantamweight Champion.",
"Following his victory over Beebe, Torres successfully defended his title with back\\-to\\-back TKO victories; one over [Yoshiro Maeda](/wiki/Yoshiro_Maeda \"Yoshiro Maeda\") in an exciting fight and the other over the previously undefeated fellow Mexican\\-American [Manny Tapia](/wiki/Manny_Tapia \"Manny Tapia\"). It capped off a 2008 where Torres earned Breakthrough Fighter of the Year honors from [Sherdog.com](/wiki/Sherdog.com \"Sherdog.com\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/articles/4/Sherdogs\\-Miscellaneous\\-Awards\\-for\\-2008\\-15727 \\|title\\=Sherdog's Miscellaneous Awards for 2008 \\- Breakthrough Fighter of the Year \\|website\\=Sherdog.com \\|date\\=2009\\-01\\-10 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-26}}",
"Torres was next expected to face [Brian Bowles](/wiki/Brian_Bowles_%28fighter%29 \"Brian Bowles (fighter)\") in the main event of [WEC 40](/wiki/WEC_40 \"WEC 40\") on April 5, 2009, in Chicago, Illinois. However, Bowles injured and replaced by Japanese newcomer [Takeya Mizugaki](/wiki/Takeya_Mizugaki \"Takeya Mizugaki\"). Torres defeated Mizugaki by unanimous decision to retain his belt.",
"Bowles was ringside at [WEC 40](/wiki/WEC_40 \"WEC 40\") and was called out by Torres after his five\\-round bout with Mizugaki. The fight headlined [WEC 42](/wiki/WEC_42 \"WEC 42\") on August 9, 2009, at the [Hard Rock Hotel and Casino](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Hotel_and_Casino_%28Las_Vegas%29 \"Hard Rock Hotel and Casino (Las Vegas)\") in Las Vegas, Nevada. Torres started out strong, but he rushed Bowles wildly, resulting in Torres being knocked out in a huge upset. The loss snapped Torres' streak of 17 consecutive victories and marked his first loss in the [Bantamweight](/wiki/Bantamweight_%28MMA%29 \"Bantamweight (MMA)\") division.",
"On March 6, 2010, at [WEC 47](/wiki/WEC_47 \"WEC 47\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wec.tv/index.cfm?fa\\=eventdetail.fightCard\\&eid\\=2685\\|title\\=Event – WEC: Bowles vs. Cruz\\|publisher\\=wec.tv\\|date\\=December 19, 2009}} Torres faced and was defeated by [Joseph Benavidez](/wiki/Joseph_Benavidez \"Joseph Benavidez\"), via guillotine choke midway through the second round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/17373/miguel\\-torres\\-vs\\-joseph\\-benavidez\\-set\\-for\\-wec\\-47\\-likely\\-to\\-determine\\-no\\-1\\-contender.mma \\|title\\=Miguel Torres vs. Joseph Benavidez set for WEC 47, likely to determine No. 1 contender \\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com \\|date\\=December 31, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102005444/http://mmajunkie.com/news/17373/miguel\\-torres\\-vs\\-joseph\\-benavidez\\-set\\-for\\-wec\\-47\\-likely\\-to\\-determine\\-no\\-1\\-contender.mma \\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2010 }}",
"Torres faced [Charlie Valencia](/wiki/Charlie_Valencia \"Charlie Valencia\") on September 30, 2010, at [WEC 51](/wiki/WEC_51 \"WEC 51\").{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2010/07/09/miguel\\-torres\\-to\\-face\\-charlie\\-valencia\\-in\\-wec\\-51\\-co\\-main\\-event/\\| title\\=Miguel Torres to Face Charlie Valencia in WEC 51 Co\\-Main Event \\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\| date\\=September 7, 2010}} He won the fight via submission in the second round.",
""
] |
Physiology
----------
### Sleep Onset
Breathing changes as we transition from wakefulness to sleep. These changes arise due to biological changes in the processes that regulate our breathing. When we fall asleep, [minute ventilation](/wiki/Minute_ventilation "Minute ventilation") (the amount of air that we breathe per minute) reduces due to decreased metabolism.
### Non\-REM (NREM) Sleep
During NREM sleep, we move through three [sleep stages](/wiki/Sleep "Sleep"), with each progressively deeper than the last. As our sleep deepens, our [minute ventilation](/wiki/Minute_ventilation "Minute ventilation") continues to decrease, reducing by 13% in the second NREM stage and by 15% in the third. For example, a study of 19 healthy adults revealed that the [minute ventilation](/wiki/Respiratory_minute_volume "Respiratory minute volume") in NREM sleep was 7\.18 liters/minute compared to 7\.66 liters/minute when awake.{{cite journal \|title\=Respiration during sleep in normal man \|journal\=Thorax \|year\=1982 \|last1\=Douglas \|first1\=NJ \|last2\=White \|first2\=DP \|last3\=Pickett \|first3\=CK \|last4\=Weil \|first4\=JV \|last5\=Zwillich \|first5\=CW \|volume\=37 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=840–844 \|pmc\=459437 \|doi\=10\.1136/thx.37\.11\.840 \|pmid\=7164002}}
#### Ribcage \& Abdominal Muscle Contributions
[Rib cage](/wiki/Human_rib_cage "Human rib cage") contribution to ventilation increases during NREM sleep, mostly by lateral movement, and is detected by an increase in EMG amplitude during breathing. [Diaphragm](/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm "Thoracic diaphragm") activity is little increased or unchanged and [abdominal muscle](/wiki/Abdominal_muscle "Abdominal muscle") activity is slightly increased during these sleep stages.
#### Upper Airway Resistance
[Airway resistance](/wiki/Airway_resistance "Airway resistance") increases by about 230% during NREM sleep. Elastic and flow resistive properties of the [lung](/wiki/Lung "Lung") do not change during NREM sleep. The increase in resistance comes primarily from the upper airway in the retro\-epiglottic region. Tonic activity of the [pharyngeal](/wiki/Human_pharynx "Human pharynx") dilator muscles of the upper airway decreases during the NREM sleep, contributing to the increased resistance, which is reflected in increased [esophageal](/wiki/Esophagus "Esophagus") pressure swings during sleep. The other ventilatory muscles compensate for the increased resistance, and so the airflow decreases much less than the increase in resistance.
#### Arterial Blood Gases
The [Arterial blood gasses](/wiki/Arterial_blood_gas "Arterial blood gas") pCO2 increases by 3\-7mmHg, pO2 drops by 3\-9mmHg and SaO2 drops by 2% or less. These changes occur despite a reduced [metabolic rate](/wiki/Basal_metabolic_rate "Basal metabolic rate"), reflected by a 10\-20% decrease in O2 consumption, suggesting overall [hypoventilation](/wiki/Hypoventilation "Hypoventilation") instead of decreased production/[metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism "Metabolism").
#### Pulmonary Arterial Pressure
Periodic oscillations of the pulmonary [arterial pressure](/wiki/Blood_pressure "Blood pressure") occur with [respiration](/wiki/Respiration_%28physiology%29 "Respiration (physiology)"). Pulmonary arterial systolic and diastolic pressure and PAD increase by 4\-5mm in NREM sleep
#### Effects Of Arousals
Induced transient arousal from NREM sleep cause the following:
Increase [EMG](/wiki/Electromyography "Electromyography") activity of the diaphragm 150%, increased activity of upper airway dilating muscles 250%, increased airflow and tidal volume 160% and decreased upper airway resistance.
### Steady REM Sleep
#### Ventilation
Irregular breathing with sudden changes in both amplitude and frequency at times interrupted by central [apneas](/wiki/Apnea "Apnea") lasting 10–30 seconds are noted in [Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep](/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_%28sleep%29 "Rapid eye movement (sleep)"). (These are physiologic changes and are different from abnormal breathing patterns noted in sleep disordered breathing). These breathing irregularities are not random, but correspond to bursts of eye movements. This breathing pattern is not controlled by the [chemoreceptors](/wiki/Chemoreceptors "Chemoreceptors"), but is due to the activation of behavioral [respiratory control system](/wiki/Respiratory_system "Respiratory system") by REM sleep processes. Quantitative measure of airflow is quite variable in this sleep stage and has been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged. Tidal volume has also been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged by quantitative measures in REM sleep. So breathing during REM sleep is somewhat discordant.
In a study of 19 healthy adults, the [minute ventilation](/wiki/Respiratory_minute_volume "Respiratory minute volume") in REM sleep was 6\.46 \+/\- 0\.29([SEM](/wiki/Standard_error_of_the_mean%23Standard_error_of_the_mean "Standard error of the mean#Standard error of the mean")) liters/minute compared to 7\.66 \+/\- 0\.34 liters/minute when awake.
#### Ribcage \& Abdominal Muscle Contributions
Intercostal muscle activity decreases in REM sleep and contribution of rib cage to respiration decreases during REM sleep. This is due to REM related supraspinal inhibition of [alpha motoneuron](/wiki/Alpha_motor_neurons "Alpha motor neurons") drive and specific depression of fusimotor function. Diaphraghmatic activity correspondingly increases during REM sleep. Although paradoxical thoracoabdominal movements are not observed, the thoracic and abdominal displacements are not exactly in phase. This decrease in intercostal muscle activity is primarily responsible for hypoventilation that occurs in patients with borderline pulmonary function.
#### Upper Airway Function
Upper airway resistance is expected to be highest during REM sleep because of atonia of the pharyngeal dilator muscles and partial airway collapse. Many studies have shown this, but not all. Some have shown unchanged airway resistance during REM sleep, others have shown it to increase to NREM levels.
#### Arterial Blood Gases
[Hypoxemia](/wiki/Hypoxemia "Hypoxemia") due to hypoventilation is noted in REM sleep but this is less well studied than NREM sleep. These changes are equal to or greater than NREM sleep
#### Pulmonary Arterial Pressure
Pulmonary arterial pressure fluctuates with respiration and rises during REM sleep.
#### Effect of Arousals
Arousals cause return of airway resistance and airflow to near awake values. Refer arousals in NREM sleep.
|
[
"Physiology\n----------",
"### Sleep Onset",
"Breathing changes as we transition from wakefulness to sleep. These changes arise due to biological changes in the processes that regulate our breathing. When we fall asleep, [minute ventilation](/wiki/Minute_ventilation \"Minute ventilation\") (the amount of air that we breathe per minute) reduces due to decreased metabolism.",
"### Non\\-REM (NREM) Sleep",
"During NREM sleep, we move through three [sleep stages](/wiki/Sleep \"Sleep\"), with each progressively deeper than the last. As our sleep deepens, our [minute ventilation](/wiki/Minute_ventilation \"Minute ventilation\") continues to decrease, reducing by 13% in the second NREM stage and by 15% in the third. For example, a study of 19 healthy adults revealed that the [minute ventilation](/wiki/Respiratory_minute_volume \"Respiratory minute volume\") in NREM sleep was 7\\.18 liters/minute compared to 7\\.66 liters/minute when awake.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Respiration during sleep in normal man \\|journal\\=Thorax \\|year\\=1982 \\|last1\\=Douglas \\|first1\\=NJ \\|last2\\=White \\|first2\\=DP \\|last3\\=Pickett \\|first3\\=CK \\|last4\\=Weil \\|first4\\=JV \\|last5\\=Zwillich \\|first5\\=CW \\|volume\\=37 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=840–844 \\|pmc\\=459437 \\|doi\\=10\\.1136/thx.37\\.11\\.840 \\|pmid\\=7164002}}",
"#### Ribcage \\& Abdominal Muscle Contributions",
"[Rib cage](/wiki/Human_rib_cage \"Human rib cage\") contribution to ventilation increases during NREM sleep, mostly by lateral movement, and is detected by an increase in EMG amplitude during breathing. [Diaphragm](/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm \"Thoracic diaphragm\") activity is little increased or unchanged and [abdominal muscle](/wiki/Abdominal_muscle \"Abdominal muscle\") activity is slightly increased during these sleep stages.",
"#### Upper Airway Resistance",
"[Airway resistance](/wiki/Airway_resistance \"Airway resistance\") increases by about 230% during NREM sleep. Elastic and flow resistive properties of the [lung](/wiki/Lung \"Lung\") do not change during NREM sleep. The increase in resistance comes primarily from the upper airway in the retro\\-epiglottic region. Tonic activity of the [pharyngeal](/wiki/Human_pharynx \"Human pharynx\") dilator muscles of the upper airway decreases during the NREM sleep, contributing to the increased resistance, which is reflected in increased [esophageal](/wiki/Esophagus \"Esophagus\") pressure swings during sleep. The other ventilatory muscles compensate for the increased resistance, and so the airflow decreases much less than the increase in resistance.",
"#### Arterial Blood Gases",
"The [Arterial blood gasses](/wiki/Arterial_blood_gas \"Arterial blood gas\") pCO2 increases by 3\\-7mmHg, pO2 drops by 3\\-9mmHg and SaO2 drops by 2% or less. These changes occur despite a reduced [metabolic rate](/wiki/Basal_metabolic_rate \"Basal metabolic rate\"), reflected by a 10\\-20% decrease in O2 consumption, suggesting overall [hypoventilation](/wiki/Hypoventilation \"Hypoventilation\") instead of decreased production/[metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism \"Metabolism\").",
"#### Pulmonary Arterial Pressure",
"Periodic oscillations of the pulmonary [arterial pressure](/wiki/Blood_pressure \"Blood pressure\") occur with [respiration](/wiki/Respiration_%28physiology%29 \"Respiration (physiology)\"). Pulmonary arterial systolic and diastolic pressure and PAD increase by 4\\-5mm in NREM sleep",
"#### Effects Of Arousals",
"Induced transient arousal from NREM sleep cause the following:\nIncrease [EMG](/wiki/Electromyography \"Electromyography\") activity of the diaphragm 150%, increased activity of upper airway dilating muscles 250%, increased airflow and tidal volume 160% and decreased upper airway resistance.",
"### Steady REM Sleep",
"#### Ventilation",
"Irregular breathing with sudden changes in both amplitude and frequency at times interrupted by central [apneas](/wiki/Apnea \"Apnea\") lasting 10–30 seconds are noted in [Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep](/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_%28sleep%29 \"Rapid eye movement (sleep)\"). (These are physiologic changes and are different from abnormal breathing patterns noted in sleep disordered breathing). These breathing irregularities are not random, but correspond to bursts of eye movements. This breathing pattern is not controlled by the [chemoreceptors](/wiki/Chemoreceptors \"Chemoreceptors\"), but is due to the activation of behavioral [respiratory control system](/wiki/Respiratory_system \"Respiratory system\") by REM sleep processes. Quantitative measure of airflow is quite variable in this sleep stage and has been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged. Tidal volume has also been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged by quantitative measures in REM sleep. So breathing during REM sleep is somewhat discordant.",
"In a study of 19 healthy adults, the [minute ventilation](/wiki/Respiratory_minute_volume \"Respiratory minute volume\") in REM sleep was 6\\.46 \\+/\\- 0\\.29([SEM](/wiki/Standard_error_of_the_mean%23Standard_error_of_the_mean \"Standard error of the mean#Standard error of the mean\")) liters/minute compared to 7\\.66 \\+/\\- 0\\.34 liters/minute when awake.",
"#### Ribcage \\& Abdominal Muscle Contributions",
"Intercostal muscle activity decreases in REM sleep and contribution of rib cage to respiration decreases during REM sleep. This is due to REM related supraspinal inhibition of [alpha motoneuron](/wiki/Alpha_motor_neurons \"Alpha motor neurons\") drive and specific depression of fusimotor function. Diaphraghmatic activity correspondingly increases during REM sleep. Although paradoxical thoracoabdominal movements are not observed, the thoracic and abdominal displacements are not exactly in phase. This decrease in intercostal muscle activity is primarily responsible for hypoventilation that occurs in patients with borderline pulmonary function.",
"#### Upper Airway Function",
"Upper airway resistance is expected to be highest during REM sleep because of atonia of the pharyngeal dilator muscles and partial airway collapse. Many studies have shown this, but not all. Some have shown unchanged airway resistance during REM sleep, others have shown it to increase to NREM levels.",
"#### Arterial Blood Gases",
"[Hypoxemia](/wiki/Hypoxemia \"Hypoxemia\") due to hypoventilation is noted in REM sleep but this is less well studied than NREM sleep. These changes are equal to or greater than NREM sleep",
"#### Pulmonary Arterial Pressure",
"Pulmonary arterial pressure fluctuates with respiration and rises during REM sleep.",
"#### Effect of Arousals",
"Arousals cause return of airway resistance and airflow to near awake values. Refer arousals in NREM sleep.",
""
] |
### Steady REM Sleep
#### Ventilation
Irregular breathing with sudden changes in both amplitude and frequency at times interrupted by central [apneas](/wiki/Apnea "Apnea") lasting 10–30 seconds are noted in [Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep](/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_%28sleep%29 "Rapid eye movement (sleep)"). (These are physiologic changes and are different from abnormal breathing patterns noted in sleep disordered breathing). These breathing irregularities are not random, but correspond to bursts of eye movements. This breathing pattern is not controlled by the [chemoreceptors](/wiki/Chemoreceptors "Chemoreceptors"), but is due to the activation of behavioral [respiratory control system](/wiki/Respiratory_system "Respiratory system") by REM sleep processes. Quantitative measure of airflow is quite variable in this sleep stage and has been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged. Tidal volume has also been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged by quantitative measures in REM sleep. So breathing during REM sleep is somewhat discordant.
In a study of 19 healthy adults, the [minute ventilation](/wiki/Respiratory_minute_volume "Respiratory minute volume") in REM sleep was 6\.46 \+/\- 0\.29([SEM](/wiki/Standard_error_of_the_mean%23Standard_error_of_the_mean "Standard error of the mean#Standard error of the mean")) liters/minute compared to 7\.66 \+/\- 0\.34 liters/minute when awake.
#### Ribcage \& Abdominal Muscle Contributions
Intercostal muscle activity decreases in REM sleep and contribution of rib cage to respiration decreases during REM sleep. This is due to REM related supraspinal inhibition of [alpha motoneuron](/wiki/Alpha_motor_neurons "Alpha motor neurons") drive and specific depression of fusimotor function. Diaphraghmatic activity correspondingly increases during REM sleep. Although paradoxical thoracoabdominal movements are not observed, the thoracic and abdominal displacements are not exactly in phase. This decrease in intercostal muscle activity is primarily responsible for hypoventilation that occurs in patients with borderline pulmonary function.
#### Upper Airway Function
Upper airway resistance is expected to be highest during REM sleep because of atonia of the pharyngeal dilator muscles and partial airway collapse. Many studies have shown this, but not all. Some have shown unchanged airway resistance during REM sleep, others have shown it to increase to NREM levels.
#### Arterial Blood Gases
[Hypoxemia](/wiki/Hypoxemia "Hypoxemia") due to hypoventilation is noted in REM sleep but this is less well studied than NREM sleep. These changes are equal to or greater than NREM sleep
#### Pulmonary Arterial Pressure
Pulmonary arterial pressure fluctuates with respiration and rises during REM sleep.
#### Effect of Arousals
Arousals cause return of airway resistance and airflow to near awake values. Refer arousals in NREM sleep.
|
[
"### Steady REM Sleep",
"#### Ventilation",
"Irregular breathing with sudden changes in both amplitude and frequency at times interrupted by central [apneas](/wiki/Apnea \"Apnea\") lasting 10–30 seconds are noted in [Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep](/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_%28sleep%29 \"Rapid eye movement (sleep)\"). (These are physiologic changes and are different from abnormal breathing patterns noted in sleep disordered breathing). These breathing irregularities are not random, but correspond to bursts of eye movements. This breathing pattern is not controlled by the [chemoreceptors](/wiki/Chemoreceptors \"Chemoreceptors\"), but is due to the activation of behavioral [respiratory control system](/wiki/Respiratory_system \"Respiratory system\") by REM sleep processes. Quantitative measure of airflow is quite variable in this sleep stage and has been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged. Tidal volume has also been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged by quantitative measures in REM sleep. So breathing during REM sleep is somewhat discordant.",
"In a study of 19 healthy adults, the [minute ventilation](/wiki/Respiratory_minute_volume \"Respiratory minute volume\") in REM sleep was 6\\.46 \\+/\\- 0\\.29([SEM](/wiki/Standard_error_of_the_mean%23Standard_error_of_the_mean \"Standard error of the mean#Standard error of the mean\")) liters/minute compared to 7\\.66 \\+/\\- 0\\.34 liters/minute when awake.",
"#### Ribcage \\& Abdominal Muscle Contributions",
"Intercostal muscle activity decreases in REM sleep and contribution of rib cage to respiration decreases during REM sleep. This is due to REM related supraspinal inhibition of [alpha motoneuron](/wiki/Alpha_motor_neurons \"Alpha motor neurons\") drive and specific depression of fusimotor function. Diaphraghmatic activity correspondingly increases during REM sleep. Although paradoxical thoracoabdominal movements are not observed, the thoracic and abdominal displacements are not exactly in phase. This decrease in intercostal muscle activity is primarily responsible for hypoventilation that occurs in patients with borderline pulmonary function.",
"#### Upper Airway Function",
"Upper airway resistance is expected to be highest during REM sleep because of atonia of the pharyngeal dilator muscles and partial airway collapse. Many studies have shown this, but not all. Some have shown unchanged airway resistance during REM sleep, others have shown it to increase to NREM levels.",
"#### Arterial Blood Gases",
"[Hypoxemia](/wiki/Hypoxemia \"Hypoxemia\") due to hypoventilation is noted in REM sleep but this is less well studied than NREM sleep. These changes are equal to or greater than NREM sleep",
"#### Pulmonary Arterial Pressure",
"Pulmonary arterial pressure fluctuates with respiration and rises during REM sleep.",
"#### Effect of Arousals",
"Arousals cause return of airway resistance and airflow to near awake values. Refer arousals in NREM sleep.",
""
] |
Oaths
-----
### Belgium
{{further\|Belgian nationality law}}
Dutch version:
> *"Ik verklaar Belgisch staatsburger te willen worden en de Grondwet, de wetten van het Belgische volk en het Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden te zullen naleven."*
French version:
> *“Je déclare vouloir acquérir la nationalité belge et me soumettre à la Constitution, aux lois du peuple belge et à la Convention de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales.”*
The English translation:
> “I declare my desire to acquire the Belgian nationality and to submit myself to the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Belgium "Constitution of Belgium"), the [laws of Belgium](/wiki/Law_of_Belgium "Law of Belgium"), and to the [Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms](/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights "European Convention on Human Rights").”
### Brazil
Portuguese version:{{cite web\|title\=Naturalização: O papel da Justiça Federal no processo de naturalização de estrangeiros\|url\=http://www.jfsp.jus.br/assets/Uploads/administrativo/NUCS/revista/revista18/JR0018\.pdf\|access\-date\=20 May 2016}}
> Declaro expressamente que assumo o compromisso de bem cumprir os deveres de cidadão brasileiro, observando e respeitando os preceitos da Constituição Federal.
The English translation:
> I expressly declare that I assume the commitment to well comply the Brazilian citizen duties, observing and respecting the principles of the Federal Constitution.
### Canada
{{main\|Oath of Citizenship (Canada)}}
The Oath of Citizenship, or Citizenship Oath (in [French](/wiki/French_language "French language"): *serment de citoyenneté*), is a statement recited and signed by candidates who wish to become citizens of [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"). Administered at a ceremony presided over by assigned officers, most often a citizenship judge. The oath is a promise or declaration of [fealty](/wiki/Fealty "Fealty") to Canada in the name of the [Canadian monarch](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada "Monarchy of Canada") and a promise to abide by [Canada's laws](/wiki/Law_of_Canada "Law of Canada") and customs; upon signing the oath, [citizenship](/wiki/Citizenship "Citizenship") is granted to the signer.{{Citation\| last\=Citizenship and Immigration Canada\| author\-link\=Citizenship and Immigration Canada\| date\=27 May 2008\| title\=Guide to Citizenship Ceremonies\| series\=CP 15\| location\=Ottawa\| publisher\=Queen's Printer for Canada\| page\=6\| url\=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/manuals/cp/cp15e.pdf \| access\-date\=6 January 2009 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080406022048/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/manuals/cp/cp15e.pdf \|archive\-date \= April 6, 2008}} New citizens must take the oath. As Canada is officially bilingual in English and French, the presiding official leads new citizens in both languages at citizenship ceremonies. It is mandatory that the presiding official and/or the citizenship officials observe each applicant reciting the oath.
English version:{{Citation\|url\= https://parl.ca/Content/Bills/432/Government/C\-8/C\-8\_1/C\-8\_1\.PDF\|last\=Parliament of Canada\|author\-link\=Parliament of Canada\|publication\-date\=2021\|title\= An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada's call to action number 94\)\|publication\-place\=Ottawa\|publisher\=Queen's Printer for Canada\|access\-date\=24 June 2021}}{{cite web\|title\=The citizenship ceremony, Canada\|url\=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/citizenship/cit\-ceremony.asp\|access\-date\=4 June 2012\|date\=2007\-03\-31}}
> I swear (or affirm) that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty [King Charles the Third](/wiki/Charles_III "Charles III"), King of Canada, His Heirs and Successors, and that I will faithfully observe the laws of Canada, including the Constitution, which recognizes and affirms the Aboriginal and treaty rights of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples, and fulfil my duties as a Canadian citizen.
French version:{{cite web\|title\=Se préparer en vue de la cérémonie de citoyenneté \- Canada.ca\|url\=https://www.canada.ca/fr/immigration\-refugies\-citoyennete/services/citoyennete\-canadienne/devenir\-citoyen\-canadien/ceremonie\-citoyennete.html\|access\-date\=2022\-09\-08\|date\=2021\-12\-22}}
> Je jure (ou j'affirme solennellement) que je serai fidèle et porterai sincère allégeance à Sa Majesté le Roi Charles Trois, Roi du Canada, à ses héritiers et successeurs, que j'observerai fidèlement les lois du Canada, y compris la Constitution, qui reconnaît et confirme les droits ancestraux ou issus de traités des Premières Nations, des Inuits et des Métis, et que je remplirai loyalement mes obligations de citoyen canadien.
### Colombia
The Colombian Oath of Allegiance (Acta de Juramento), does not have an official text. The oath is usually made before a Mayor,[https://www.gobiernobogota.gov.co/transparencia/tramites\-servicios/juramento\-colombiano\-adopcion](https://www.gobiernobogota.gov.co/transparencia/tramites-servicios/juramento-colombiano-adopcion) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.cancilleria.gov.co/faq/perfecciona\-tramite\-nacionalidad\-colombiana\-adopcion\-vez\-me\-sea\-notificado\-acto\-administrativo \| title\=¿Cómo se perfecciona el trámite de nacionalidad colombiana por adopción, una vez me sea notificado el acto administrativo emitido por el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores? \| Cancillería }} if the applicant was born in a Latin American country, or the Governor{{cite web \| url\=https://www.cancilleria.gov.co/tramites\_servicios/nacionalidad/adquisicion \| title\=Naturalización \| Cancillería }} if the applicant was born anywhere else, and is administered in the form of a question. In special cases the oath may also be taken by the Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canciller), or the President of the Republic.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.eltiempo.com/politica/gobierno/nacho\-recibe\-la\-nacionalidad\-colombiana\-330426 \| title\=El cantante venezolano Nacho ahora es ciudadano colombiano \| date\=23 February 2019 }} An example of an oath that is given is:
Spanish Version:
"Señor/Señora \[inserte nombre aquí], ¿Jura usted que es de su libre voluntad ser colombiano(a) y como tal de cumplir, sostener y defender la Constitución y las leyes de la República de Colombia?"
If the applicant responds in the affirmative, the oath taker finishes the oath by saying:
"Si así lo hiciera, Dios y la patria os la premien, y si no, Él y Ella os lo(a) demanden."
English Translation: "Mr/Mrs. \[Insert Name Here]: Do you swear that you freely wish to become Colombian and as such to fulfill, uphold and defend the constitution and the laws of the Republic of Colombia?"
If the applicant responds in the affirmative, the oath taker finishes the oath by saying:
"If you do so, may God and the motherland reward you, and if not, may he and she demand it from you."
### Germany
According to § 16 National Act the oath of citizenship reads as follows. German version:{{cite web\|title\=Staatsangehörigkeitsgesetz (StAG) § 16\|url\=https://www.gesetze\-im\-internet.de/stag/\_\_16\.html\|publisher\=\[\[Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection]]}}
> Ich erkläre feierlich, dass ich das Grundgesetz und die Gesetze der Bundesrepublik Deutschland achten und alles unterlassen werde, was ihr schaden könnte.
English version:{{cite web\|title\=Nationality Act\|url\=http://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzestexte/EN/Staatsangehoerigkeitsgesetz\_englisch.pdf?\_\_blob\=publicationFile\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403102105/http://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzestexte/EN/Staatsangehoerigkeitsgesetz\_englisch.pdf?\_\_blob\=publicationFile\|archive\-date\=2012\-04\-03}}
> I solemnly declare that I will respect and observe the Basic Law and the laws of the Federal Republic of Germany, and that I will refrain from any activity which might cause it harm.
### Hungary
Officially called the "Oath of Allegiance".
Hungarian version:
> Én, \[name] esküszöm, hogy Magyarországot hazámnak tekintem. Magyarországnak hű állampolgára leszek, az Alaptörvényt és a jogszabályokat tiszteletben tartom és megtartom. Hazámat erőmhöz mérten megvédem, képességeimnek megfelelően szolgálom. Isten engem úgy segéljen.
English version:{{Citation\| last\=Consular Services Hungary\| author\-link\=Consular Services Hungary\| date\=26 December 2011\| title\=Act LV of 1993 on Hungarian Citizenship\| pages\=4–5\| url\=http://www.mfa.gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/93F5CE78\-6F49\-4FBB\-9360\-D99B09BBB6D0/0/ActLVof1993onHungarianCitizenship.pdf \| access\-date\=18 February 2014 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20111226031657/http://www.mfa.gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/93F5CE78\-6F49\-4FBB\-9360\-D99B09BBB6D0/0/ActLVof1993onHungarianCitizenship.pdf \|archive\-date \= December 26, 2011}}
> I, \[name], do solemnly swear that I shall consider Hungary my homeland. I shall be a loyal citizen of the [Republic of Hungary](/wiki/Republic_of_Hungary "Republic of Hungary"), and shall honour and observe its Constitution and laws. I shall defend my homeland in function with my force, and shall serve it to the best of my ability. So help me God!
The "Pledge of Allegiance" is the same with the exception of "So help me God!" \["Isten engem úgy segéljen."] and is of equal value.
### India
Officially called the "Oath of Allegiance":
**English Version**:{{Cite web\|title\=Oath\|url\=https://www.iiap.res.in/files/Oath\-of\-Allegiance.doc}}
> I, \[name] do solemnly affirm (or, swear in the name of God) that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the [Constitution of India](/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") as by law established, and that I will faithfully observe the [laws of India](/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India") and fulfil my duties as a citizen of India.
**Hindi version**:{{Cite web\|title\=शपथ\|url\=https://www.iiap.res.in/files/Oath\-of\-Allegiance.doc}}
> मैं.....\[नाम].....शपथ लेता/लेती हूँ (अथवा सत्यनिष्ठा से प्रतिज्ञान करता/करती हूँ) कि मैं [भारत के संविधान](/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%23 "भारत का संविधान#") के प्रति श्रद्धावान एवं सच्ची निष्ठा रखूँगा/रखूँगी, जो विधि द्वारा स्थापित है तथा भारत के नागरिक के रूप में भारत के कानूनों और अपने कर्तव्यों का निष्ठापूर्वक पालन करूँगा/करूँगी।
### Indonesia
Indonesian oath of allegiance:
> Saya bersumpah (*atau* berjanji) bahwa saya melepaskan seluruhnya, segala kesetiaan kepada kekuasaan asing, bahwa saya mengaku dan menerima kekuasaan yang tertinggi dari Republik Indonesia dan akan menepati kesetiaan kepadanya, bahwa saya akan menjunjung tinggi Undang\-undang Dasar dan hukum\-hukum Republik Indonesia dan akan membelanya dengan sungguh\-sungguh, bahwa saya memikul kewajiban ini dengan rela hati dan tidak akan mengurangi sedikitpun.
The English Translation:
> I swear (*or* promise) that I release all and every allegiance to foreign powers, that I acknowledge and accept the highest powers from the Republic of Indonesia and will fulfill allegiance upon them, that I will highly honor the Constitution and laws of the Republic of Indonesia and will solemnly defend them, that I assume these obligations freely and will not diminish them even a little.
### Ireland
The Declaration of Fidelity to the Nation and Loyalty to the State is the final act in the naturalisation process. The declaration is as follows:
> “I (name) having applied to the Minister for Justice and Equality for a certificate of naturalisation, hereby solemnly declare my fidelity to the Irish nation and my loyalty to the State. I undertake to faithfully observe the laws of the State and to respect its democratic values.”
### Israel
Non\-Jews who wish to become citizens by way of naturalization must take an oath reading:{{cite journal\|first\=William\|last\=Safran\|date\=1997\-07\-01\|title\=Citizenship and Nationality in Democratic Systems: Approaches to Defining and Acquiring Membership in the Political Community\|journal\=International Political Science Review\|volume\=18\|issue\=3\|pages\=313–335\|doi\=10\.1177/019251297018003006\|s2cid\=145476893\|doi\-access\=free}}
> "I declare that I will be a loyal national of the State of Israel."
### Italy
In [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), Article 54 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Italian_Constitution "Italian Constitution") states that every citizen has the duty to be loyal to the Republic and to uphold its Constitution and laws, while Provision XVIII requires every citizen to faithfully observe the Constitution as the fundamental law of the Republic.{{cite web\|title\=The Italian Constitution\|url\=http://www.quirinale.it/page/costituzione\|publisher\=The official website of the Presidency of the Italian Republic}} New citizens take an oath to that effect at the end of their [naturalization process](/wiki/Italian_nationality_law "Italian nationality law"):{{cite web\|title\=Solemn naturalization ceremony\|url\=http://www.comune.perugia.it/media/solenne\-cerimonia\-di\-conferimento\-cittadinanza\-ita\|publisher\=The official website of the city of Perugia}}
The oath in Italian is:
> Giuro di essere fedele alla Repubblica e di osservare la Costituzione e le leggi dello Stato.
The English translation of the oath is:
> I swear to be loyal to the Republic and to observe the Constitution and the laws of the State.
### Jamaica
> I, \[name], do swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty [King Charles the Third](/wiki/Charles_III "Charles III"), His Heirs and Successors according to the Laws of Jamaica and that I will faithfully observe the laws of Jamaica and fulfil my duties as a citizen of Jamaica. So help me God.{{cite web\|url\=https://jis.gov.jm/information/returning\-residents/jamaican\-citizenship/\|work\=Jamaica Information Service\|title\=Jamaican Citizenship\|access\-date\=27 February 2024}}
### Netherlands
Immigrants who have applied for Dutch citizenship by naturalization or by option must make a Declaration of Solidarity (*Verklaring van verbondenheid*) before they become citizens:{{cite web \| url\=https://www.government.nl/topics/dutch\-citizenship/question\-and\-answer/naturalisation\-ceremony\-netherlands\#:\~:text\=Declaration%20of%20Solidarity\&text\=In%20the%20declaration%20you%20promise,version%20you%20wish%20to%20use. \| title\=What happens at a naturalisation ceremony in the Netherlands? \- Government.nl \| date\=11 January 2016 }}
> Ik zweer dat ik de grondwettelijke orde van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, haar vrijheden en rechten respecteer. En zweer de plichten die het staatsburgerschap met zich meebrengt getrouw te vervullen. Zo waarlijk helpe mij God almachtig. (Dutch)
>
> *I swear that I will respect the constitutional order of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, its liberties and rights and I swear that I will faithfully fulfill the duties which this citizenship imposes on me. So help me God.*
For those who are not religious or who so choose, the following affirmation is also an option:
> Ik verklaar dat ik de grondwettelijke orde van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, haar vrijheden en rechten respecteer. En beloof de plichten die het staatsburgerschap met zich meebrengt getrouw te vervullen. Dat verklaar en beloof ik. (Dutch)
>
> *I declare that I will respect the constitutional order of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, its liberties and rights and I declare and promise that I will faithfully fulfill the duties which this citizenship imposes on me. This I declare and promise.*
### New Zealand
{{main\|Oath of Citizenship (New Zealand)}}
According to New Zealand law, new citizens are given the option of taking the oath in either English or [Maori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language "Māori language") when swearing in at a citizenship ceremony.
English versions:
Oath of allegiance:
> I, \[full name], swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His (or Her) Majesty \[specify the name of the reigning Sovereign, as thus: King Charles the Third, King of New Zealand] His (or Her) heirs and successors according to law, and that I will faithfully observe the laws of New Zealand and fulfil my duties as a New Zealand citizen. So help me God.
Those who object to adding "God" to the end of an oath may take the affirmation of allegiance instead:
> I \[name] solemnly and sincerely affirm that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His (or Her) Majesty \[specify the name of the reigning Sovereign, as thus: King Charles the Third, King of New Zealand] His (or Her) heirs and successors according to the law and that I will faithfully observe the laws of New Zealand and fulfil my duties as a New Zealand citizen.
Maori versions:
Oath of allegiance:
> Tenei au, a \[name], te oati nei ka pirihongo au, ka noho au hei haumi tuturu ki te Mana Roera, ki a Kuini Irihapeti te Tuarua, te Kuini o Aotearoa, ana kawa me ana piki turanga i raro i te ture, a, ka u marika au ki nga ture o Aotearoa, ka whakatutuki ano hoki i nga kawenga kei runga i a au hei kirirarau o Aotearoa, i runga i nga manaakitanga a te atua.
Affirmation of allegiance:
> Tenei au, a \[name], te whakau nei i runga i te ngakau pono, i te ngakau pai, ka pirihongo au, ka noho au hei haumi tuturu ki a Kuini Irihapeti te Tuarua, te Kuini o Aotearoa, ana kawa me ana piki turanga i raro i te ture, a, ka u marika au ki nga ture o Aotearoa, ka whakatutuki ano hoki i nga kawenga kei runga i a au hei kirirarau o Aotearoa.
### Philippines
{{main\|Oath of Allegiance (Philippines)}}
> I, (name), solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines and obey the laws and legal orders promulgated by the duly constituted authorities of the Philippines and I hereby declare that I recognize and accept the supreme authority of the Philippines and will maintain true faith and allegiance thereto; and that I imposed this obligation upon myself voluntarily without mental reservation or purpose of evasion. So help me God.
### Russia
Russian version:{{cite news \|date\=29 June 2017 \|title\= Клятва при принятии гражданства. Досье \|trans\-title\=Oath when taking citizenship. The dossier \|work\=ТАСС\|language\=ru \|url\=http://tass.ru/info/4318162 \|access\-date\=29 November 2017}}
> Я, Ф. И. О., добровольно и осознанно принимая гражданство РФ, клянусь соблюдать Конституцию и законодательство РФ, права и свободы ее граждан, исполнять обязанности гражданина РФ на благо государства и общества, защищать свободу и независимость РФ, быть верным России, уважать ее культуру, историю и традиции.
The English translation:{{cite news\|date\=19 July 2017 \|title\=State Duma approves law on Russian naturalization oath \|work\=\[\[TASS]] \|url\=http://tass.com/politics/956884 \|access\-date\=29 November 2017}}
> I, (surname, name, middle name), swear that, by taking the citizenship of the Russian Federation, I will observe the Constitution and laws of the Russian Federation, and the rights and freedoms of its citizens; that I shall fulfill my duties as a citizen of the Russian Federation for the welfare of the state and society; that I will protect the freedom and independence of the Russian Federation; and that I will be loyal to Russia and respect its culture, history and traditions.
### Singapore
> I, \[name], do solemnly swear that I will be faithful, and bear true allegiance to the Republic of Singapore, and that I will observe the laws and be a true, loyal and faithful citizen of Singapore.
### South Africa
> I, \[name], do hereby solemnly declare that I will be loyal to the Republic of South Africa, promote all that will advance it and oppose all that may harm it, uphold and respect its Constitution and commit myself to the furtherance of the ideals and principles contained therein.
### Switzerland
The oath is different in each canton. The formula below is the English translation of the one used in Geneva.{{cite journal \|last1\=Ossipow \|first1\=Laurence \|last2\=Felder \|first2\=Maxime \|title\=Ethnography of a political ritual: speeches given to new Swiss citizens by representatives of the state \|journal\=Citizenship Studies \|date\=5 May 2015 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=3–4 \|pages\=233–247 \|doi\=10\.1080/13621025\.2015\.1006175\|s2cid\=146210567 }}
> I swear or I solemnly promise: to be loyal to the Republic and the canton of Geneva as to the Swiss Confederation; to scrupulously observe the constitution and the laws; to respect the traditions, to justify my adhesion to the community of Geneva by my actions and behavior; and to contribute with all my power to keeping it free and prosperous.
### United Kingdom
{{see also\|Oath of Allegiance (United Kingdom)\|British nationality law}}
> I, \[name], \[swear by Almighty God] \[do solemnly, sincerely and truly affirm and declare] that, on becoming a British citizen, I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty [Charles III](/wiki/Charles_III "Charles III"), his heirs, and successors, according to law.
Since 1 January 2004, applicants for British citizenship are also required to make a pledge (see [Pledges](/wiki/%23Pledges "#Pledges") below).
### United States
{{main\|Oath of Allegiance (United States)}}
The **United States Oath of Allegiance** (officially referred to as the "Oath of Allegiance," 8 C.F.R. Part 337 (2008\)) is an [oath](/wiki/Oath "Oath") that must be taken by all immigrants who wish to become [United States citizens](/wiki/United_States_citizen "United States citizen").
> I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty of whom or which I have heretofore been a subject or citizen; that I will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law; and that I take this obligation freely without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; so help me God.{{Citation
> \|url\=http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.5af9bb95919f35e66f614176543f6d1a/?vgnextoid\=facd6db8d7e37210VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD\&vgnextchannel\=dd7ffe9dd4aa3210VgnVCM100000b92ca60aRCRD
> \|title\=Oath of Allegiance for Naturalized Citizens
> \|publisher\=Citizenship and Immigration Services, U.S. Department of Homeland Security
> \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-30}}
For people who object to taking an oath (or are not religious), the words "on oath" can be replaced with "and solemnly affirm", and the words "so help me God" can be omitted.
|
[
"Oaths\n-----",
"### Belgium",
"{{further\\|Belgian nationality law}}",
"Dutch version:\n> *\"Ik verklaar Belgisch staatsburger te willen worden en de Grondwet, de wetten van het Belgische volk en het Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden te zullen naleven.\"*",
"French version:\n> *“Je déclare vouloir acquérir la nationalité belge et me soumettre à la Constitution, aux lois du peuple belge et à la Convention de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales.”*",
"The English translation:\n> “I declare my desire to acquire the Belgian nationality and to submit myself to the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Belgium \"Constitution of Belgium\"), the [laws of Belgium](/wiki/Law_of_Belgium \"Law of Belgium\"), and to the [Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms](/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights \"European Convention on Human Rights\").”",
"",
"### Brazil",
"Portuguese version:{{cite web\\|title\\=Naturalização: O papel da Justiça Federal no processo de naturalização de estrangeiros\\|url\\=http://www.jfsp.jus.br/assets/Uploads/administrativo/NUCS/revista/revista18/JR0018\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=20 May 2016}}\n> Declaro expressamente que assumo o compromisso de bem cumprir os deveres de cidadão brasileiro, observando e respeitando os preceitos da Constituição Federal.",
"The English translation:\n> I expressly declare that I assume the commitment to well comply the Brazilian citizen duties, observing and respecting the principles of the Federal Constitution.",
"",
"### Canada",
"{{main\\|Oath of Citizenship (Canada)}}\nThe Oath of Citizenship, or Citizenship Oath (in [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\"): *serment de citoyenneté*), is a statement recited and signed by candidates who wish to become citizens of [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"). Administered at a ceremony presided over by assigned officers, most often a citizenship judge. The oath is a promise or declaration of [fealty](/wiki/Fealty \"Fealty\") to Canada in the name of the [Canadian monarch](/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada \"Monarchy of Canada\") and a promise to abide by [Canada's laws](/wiki/Law_of_Canada \"Law of Canada\") and customs; upon signing the oath, [citizenship](/wiki/Citizenship \"Citizenship\") is granted to the signer.{{Citation\\| last\\=Citizenship and Immigration Canada\\| author\\-link\\=Citizenship and Immigration Canada\\| date\\=27 May 2008\\| title\\=Guide to Citizenship Ceremonies\\| series\\=CP 15\\| location\\=Ottawa\\| publisher\\=Queen's Printer for Canada\\| page\\=6\\| url\\=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/manuals/cp/cp15e.pdf \\| access\\-date\\=6 January 2009 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080406022048/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/manuals/cp/cp15e.pdf \\|archive\\-date \\= April 6, 2008}} New citizens must take the oath. As Canada is officially bilingual in English and French, the presiding official leads new citizens in both languages at citizenship ceremonies. It is mandatory that the presiding official and/or the citizenship officials observe each applicant reciting the oath.",
"English version:{{Citation\\|url\\= https://parl.ca/Content/Bills/432/Government/C\\-8/C\\-8\\_1/C\\-8\\_1\\.PDF\\|last\\=Parliament of Canada\\|author\\-link\\=Parliament of Canada\\|publication\\-date\\=2021\\|title\\= An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada's call to action number 94\\)\\|publication\\-place\\=Ottawa\\|publisher\\=Queen's Printer for Canada\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2021}}{{cite web\\|title\\=The citizenship ceremony, Canada\\|url\\=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/citizenship/cit\\-ceremony.asp\\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2012\\|date\\=2007\\-03\\-31}}\n> I swear (or affirm) that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty [King Charles the Third](/wiki/Charles_III \"Charles III\"), King of Canada, His Heirs and Successors, and that I will faithfully observe the laws of Canada, including the Constitution, which recognizes and affirms the Aboriginal and treaty rights of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples, and fulfil my duties as a Canadian citizen.",
"",
"French version:{{cite web\\|title\\=Se préparer en vue de la cérémonie de citoyenneté \\- Canada.ca\\|url\\=https://www.canada.ca/fr/immigration\\-refugies\\-citoyennete/services/citoyennete\\-canadienne/devenir\\-citoyen\\-canadien/ceremonie\\-citoyennete.html\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-08\\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-22}} \n> Je jure (ou j'affirme solennellement) que je serai fidèle et porterai sincère allégeance à Sa Majesté le Roi Charles Trois, Roi du Canada, à ses héritiers et successeurs, que j'observerai fidèlement les lois du Canada, y compris la Constitution, qui reconnaît et confirme les droits ancestraux ou issus de traités des Premières Nations, des Inuits et des Métis, et que je remplirai loyalement mes obligations de citoyen canadien.",
"",
"### Colombia",
"The Colombian Oath of Allegiance (Acta de Juramento), does not have an official text. The oath is usually made before a Mayor,[https://www.gobiernobogota.gov.co/transparencia/tramites\\-servicios/juramento\\-colombiano\\-adopcion](https://www.gobiernobogota.gov.co/transparencia/tramites-servicios/juramento-colombiano-adopcion) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.cancilleria.gov.co/faq/perfecciona\\-tramite\\-nacionalidad\\-colombiana\\-adopcion\\-vez\\-me\\-sea\\-notificado\\-acto\\-administrativo \\| title\\=¿Cómo se perfecciona el trámite de nacionalidad colombiana por adopción, una vez me sea notificado el acto administrativo emitido por el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores? \\| Cancillería }} if the applicant was born in a Latin American country, or the Governor{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.cancilleria.gov.co/tramites\\_servicios/nacionalidad/adquisicion \\| title\\=Naturalización \\| Cancillería }} if the applicant was born anywhere else, and is administered in the form of a question. In special cases the oath may also be taken by the Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canciller), or the President of the Republic.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.eltiempo.com/politica/gobierno/nacho\\-recibe\\-la\\-nacionalidad\\-colombiana\\-330426 \\| title\\=El cantante venezolano Nacho ahora es ciudadano colombiano \\| date\\=23 February 2019 }} An example of an oath that is given is:",
"Spanish Version:\n\"Señor/Señora \\[inserte nombre aquí], ¿Jura usted que es de su libre voluntad ser colombiano(a) y como tal de cumplir, sostener y defender la Constitución y las leyes de la República de Colombia?\"",
"If the applicant responds in the affirmative, the oath taker finishes the oath by saying:",
"\"Si así lo hiciera, Dios y la patria os la premien, y si no, Él y Ella os lo(a) demanden.\"",
"",
"English Translation: \"Mr/Mrs. \\[Insert Name Here]: Do you swear that you freely wish to become Colombian and as such to fulfill, uphold and defend the constitution and the laws of the Republic of Colombia?\"",
"If the applicant responds in the affirmative, the oath taker finishes the oath by saying:",
"\"If you do so, may God and the motherland reward you, and if not, may he and she demand it from you.\"",
"### Germany",
"According to § 16 National Act the oath of citizenship reads as follows. German version:{{cite web\\|title\\=Staatsangehörigkeitsgesetz (StAG) § 16\\|url\\=https://www.gesetze\\-im\\-internet.de/stag/\\_\\_16\\.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection]]}}\n> Ich erkläre feierlich, dass ich das Grundgesetz und die Gesetze der Bundesrepublik Deutschland achten und alles unterlassen werde, was ihr schaden könnte.",
"English version:{{cite web\\|title\\=Nationality Act\\|url\\=http://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzestexte/EN/Staatsangehoerigkeitsgesetz\\_englisch.pdf?\\_\\_blob\\=publicationFile\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403102105/http://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Gesetzestexte/EN/Staatsangehoerigkeitsgesetz\\_englisch.pdf?\\_\\_blob\\=publicationFile\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-03}}\n> I solemnly declare that I will respect and observe the Basic Law and the laws of the Federal Republic of Germany, and that I will refrain from any activity which might cause it harm.",
"",
"### Hungary",
"Officially called the \"Oath of Allegiance\".",
"Hungarian version:\n> Én, \\[name] esküszöm, hogy Magyarországot hazámnak tekintem. Magyarországnak hű állampolgára leszek, az Alaptörvényt és a jogszabályokat tiszteletben tartom és megtartom. Hazámat erőmhöz mérten megvédem, képességeimnek megfelelően szolgálom. Isten engem úgy segéljen.",
"English version:{{Citation\\| last\\=Consular Services Hungary\\| author\\-link\\=Consular Services Hungary\\| date\\=26 December 2011\\| title\\=Act LV of 1993 on Hungarian Citizenship\\| pages\\=4–5\\| url\\=http://www.mfa.gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/93F5CE78\\-6F49\\-4FBB\\-9360\\-D99B09BBB6D0/0/ActLVof1993onHungarianCitizenship.pdf \\| access\\-date\\=18 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111226031657/http://www.mfa.gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/93F5CE78\\-6F49\\-4FBB\\-9360\\-D99B09BBB6D0/0/ActLVof1993onHungarianCitizenship.pdf \\|archive\\-date \\= December 26, 2011}}\n> I, \\[name], do solemnly swear that I shall consider Hungary my homeland. I shall be a loyal citizen of the [Republic of Hungary](/wiki/Republic_of_Hungary \"Republic of Hungary\"), and shall honour and observe its Constitution and laws. I shall defend my homeland in function with my force, and shall serve it to the best of my ability. So help me God!",
"The \"Pledge of Allegiance\" is the same with the exception of \"So help me God!\" \\[\"Isten engem úgy segéljen.\"] and is of equal value.",
"### India",
"Officially called the \"Oath of Allegiance\":",
"**English Version**:{{Cite web\\|title\\=Oath\\|url\\=https://www.iiap.res.in/files/Oath\\-of\\-Allegiance.doc}}\n> I, \\[name] do solemnly affirm (or, swear in the name of God) that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the [Constitution of India](/wiki/Constitution_of_India \"Constitution of India\") as by law established, and that I will faithfully observe the [laws of India](/wiki/Law_of_India \"Law of India\") and fulfil my duties as a citizen of India.",
"",
"**Hindi version**:{{Cite web\\|title\\=शपथ\\|url\\=https://www.iiap.res.in/files/Oath\\-of\\-Allegiance.doc}}\n> मैं.....\\[नाम].....शपथ लेता/लेती हूँ (अथवा सत्यनिष्ठा से प्रतिज्ञान करता/करती हूँ) कि मैं [भारत के संविधान](/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%23 \"भारत का संविधान#\") के प्रति श्रद्धावान एवं सच्ची निष्ठा रखूँगा/रखूँगी, जो विधि द्वारा स्थापित है तथा भारत के नागरिक के रूप में भारत के कानूनों और अपने कर्तव्यों का निष्ठापूर्वक पालन करूँगा/करूँगी।",
"",
"### Indonesia",
"Indonesian oath of allegiance:\n> Saya bersumpah (*atau* berjanji) bahwa saya melepaskan seluruhnya, segala kesetiaan kepada kekuasaan asing, bahwa saya mengaku dan menerima kekuasaan yang tertinggi dari Republik Indonesia dan akan menepati kesetiaan kepadanya, bahwa saya akan menjunjung tinggi Undang\\-undang Dasar dan hukum\\-hukum Republik Indonesia dan akan membelanya dengan sungguh\\-sungguh, bahwa saya memikul kewajiban ini dengan rela hati dan tidak akan mengurangi sedikitpun.",
"",
"The English Translation: \n> I swear (*or* promise) that I release all and every allegiance to foreign powers, that I acknowledge and accept the highest powers from the Republic of Indonesia and will fulfill allegiance upon them, that I will highly honor the Constitution and laws of the Republic of Indonesia and will solemnly defend them, that I assume these obligations freely and will not diminish them even a little.",
"",
"### Ireland",
"The Declaration of Fidelity to the Nation and Loyalty to the State is the final act in the naturalisation process. The declaration is as follows:",
"> “I (name) having applied to the Minister for Justice and Equality for a certificate of naturalisation, hereby solemnly declare my fidelity to the Irish nation and my loyalty to the State. I undertake to faithfully observe the laws of the State and to respect its democratic values.”",
"",
"### Israel",
"Non\\-Jews who wish to become citizens by way of naturalization must take an oath reading:{{cite journal\\|first\\=William\\|last\\=Safran\\|date\\=1997\\-07\\-01\\|title\\=Citizenship and Nationality in Democratic Systems: Approaches to Defining and Acquiring Membership in the Political Community\\|journal\\=International Political Science Review\\|volume\\=18\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=313–335\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/019251297018003006\\|s2cid\\=145476893\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"",
"> \"I declare that I will be a loyal national of the State of Israel.\"",
"### Italy",
"In [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), Article 54 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Italian_Constitution \"Italian Constitution\") states that every citizen has the duty to be loyal to the Republic and to uphold its Constitution and laws, while Provision XVIII requires every citizen to faithfully observe the Constitution as the fundamental law of the Republic.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Italian Constitution\\|url\\=http://www.quirinale.it/page/costituzione\\|publisher\\=The official website of the Presidency of the Italian Republic}} New citizens take an oath to that effect at the end of their [naturalization process](/wiki/Italian_nationality_law \"Italian nationality law\"):{{cite web\\|title\\=Solemn naturalization ceremony\\|url\\=http://www.comune.perugia.it/media/solenne\\-cerimonia\\-di\\-conferimento\\-cittadinanza\\-ita\\|publisher\\=The official website of the city of Perugia}}",
"The oath in Italian is:",
"> Giuro di essere fedele alla Repubblica e di osservare la Costituzione e le leggi dello Stato.",
"",
"",
"The English translation of the oath is:",
"> I swear to be loyal to the Republic and to observe the Constitution and the laws of the State.",
"",
"### Jamaica",
"",
"> I, \\[name], do swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty [King Charles the Third](/wiki/Charles_III \"Charles III\"), His Heirs and Successors according to the Laws of Jamaica and that I will faithfully observe the laws of Jamaica and fulfil my duties as a citizen of Jamaica. So help me God.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://jis.gov.jm/information/returning\\-residents/jamaican\\-citizenship/\\|work\\=Jamaica Information Service\\|title\\=Jamaican Citizenship\\|access\\-date\\=27 February 2024}}",
"### Netherlands",
"Immigrants who have applied for Dutch citizenship by naturalization or by option must make a Declaration of Solidarity (*Verklaring van verbondenheid*) before they become citizens:{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.government.nl/topics/dutch\\-citizenship/question\\-and\\-answer/naturalisation\\-ceremony\\-netherlands\\#:\\~:text\\=Declaration%20of%20Solidarity\\&text\\=In%20the%20declaration%20you%20promise,version%20you%20wish%20to%20use. \\| title\\=What happens at a naturalisation ceremony in the Netherlands? \\- Government.nl \\| date\\=11 January 2016 }}",
"> Ik zweer dat ik de grondwettelijke orde van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, haar vrijheden en rechten respecteer. En zweer de plichten die het staatsburgerschap met zich meebrengt getrouw te vervullen. Zo waarlijk helpe mij God almachtig. (Dutch) \n> \n> *I swear that I will respect the constitutional order of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, its liberties and rights and I swear that I will faithfully fulfill the duties which this citizenship imposes on me. So help me God.*",
"",
"For those who are not religious or who so choose, the following affirmation is also an option:",
"> Ik verklaar dat ik de grondwettelijke orde van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, haar vrijheden en rechten respecteer. En beloof de plichten die het staatsburgerschap met zich meebrengt getrouw te vervullen. Dat verklaar en beloof ik. (Dutch) \n> \n> *I declare that I will respect the constitutional order of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, its liberties and rights and I declare and promise that I will faithfully fulfill the duties which this citizenship imposes on me. This I declare and promise.*",
"",
"### New Zealand",
"{{main\\|Oath of Citizenship (New Zealand)}}",
"According to New Zealand law, new citizens are given the option of taking the oath in either English or [Maori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language \"Māori language\") when swearing in at a citizenship ceremony.",
"English versions:",
"Oath of allegiance:",
"> I, \\[full name], swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His (or Her) Majesty \\[specify the name of the reigning Sovereign, as thus: King Charles the Third, King of New Zealand] His (or Her) heirs and successors according to law, and that I will faithfully observe the laws of New Zealand and fulfil my duties as a New Zealand citizen. So help me God.",
"Those who object to adding \"God\" to the end of an oath may take the affirmation of allegiance instead:",
"> I \\[name] solemnly and sincerely affirm that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His (or Her) Majesty \\[specify the name of the reigning Sovereign, as thus: King Charles the Third, King of New Zealand] His (or Her) heirs and successors according to the law and that I will faithfully observe the laws of New Zealand and fulfil my duties as a New Zealand citizen.",
"",
"Maori versions:",
"Oath of allegiance:",
"> Tenei au, a \\[name], te oati nei ka pirihongo au, ka noho au hei haumi tuturu ki te Mana Roera, ki a Kuini Irihapeti te Tuarua, te Kuini o Aotearoa, ana kawa me ana piki turanga i raro i te ture, a, ka u marika au ki nga ture o Aotearoa, ka whakatutuki ano hoki i nga kawenga kei runga i a au hei kirirarau o Aotearoa, i runga i nga manaakitanga a te atua.",
"Affirmation of allegiance:",
"> Tenei au, a \\[name], te whakau nei i runga i te ngakau pono, i te ngakau pai, ka pirihongo au, ka noho au hei haumi tuturu ki a Kuini Irihapeti te Tuarua, te Kuini o Aotearoa, ana kawa me ana piki turanga i raro i te ture, a, ka u marika au ki nga ture o Aotearoa, ka whakatutuki ano hoki i nga kawenga kei runga i a au hei kirirarau o Aotearoa.",
"",
"### Philippines",
"{{main\\|Oath of Allegiance (Philippines)}}",
"",
"> I, (name), solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines and obey the laws and legal orders promulgated by the duly constituted authorities of the Philippines and I hereby declare that I recognize and accept the supreme authority of the Philippines and will maintain true faith and allegiance thereto; and that I imposed this obligation upon myself voluntarily without mental reservation or purpose of evasion. So help me God.",
"### Russia",
"Russian version:{{cite news \\|date\\=29 June 2017 \\|title\\= Клятва при принятии гражданства. Досье \\|trans\\-title\\=Oath when taking citizenship. The dossier \\|work\\=ТАСС\\|language\\=ru \\|url\\=http://tass.ru/info/4318162 \\|access\\-date\\=29 November 2017}}",
"> Я, Ф. И. О., добровольно и осознанно принимая гражданство РФ, клянусь соблюдать Конституцию и законодательство РФ, права и свободы ее граждан, исполнять обязанности гражданина РФ на благо государства и общества, защищать свободу и независимость РФ, быть верным России, уважать ее культуру, историю и традиции.",
"The English translation:{{cite news\\|date\\=19 July 2017 \\|title\\=State Duma approves law on Russian naturalization oath \\|work\\=\\[\\[TASS]] \\|url\\=http://tass.com/politics/956884 \\|access\\-date\\=29 November 2017}}",
"> I, (surname, name, middle name), swear that, by taking the citizenship of the Russian Federation, I will observe the Constitution and laws of the Russian Federation, and the rights and freedoms of its citizens; that I shall fulfill my duties as a citizen of the Russian Federation for the welfare of the state and society; that I will protect the freedom and independence of the Russian Federation; and that I will be loyal to Russia and respect its culture, history and traditions.",
"",
"### Singapore",
"",
"> I, \\[name], do solemnly swear that I will be faithful, and bear true allegiance to the Republic of Singapore, and that I will observe the laws and be a true, loyal and faithful citizen of Singapore.",
"### South Africa",
"",
"> I, \\[name], do hereby solemnly declare that I will be loyal to the Republic of South Africa, promote all that will advance it and oppose all that may harm it, uphold and respect its Constitution and commit myself to the furtherance of the ideals and principles contained therein.",
"### Switzerland",
"The oath is different in each canton. The formula below is the English translation of the one used in Geneva.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Ossipow \\|first1\\=Laurence \\|last2\\=Felder \\|first2\\=Maxime \\|title\\=Ethnography of a political ritual: speeches given to new Swiss citizens by representatives of the state \\|journal\\=Citizenship Studies \\|date\\=5 May 2015 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=3–4 \\|pages\\=233–247 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13621025\\.2015\\.1006175\\|s2cid\\=146210567 }}",
"> I swear or I solemnly promise: to be loyal to the Republic and the canton of Geneva as to the Swiss Confederation; to scrupulously observe the constitution and the laws; to respect the traditions, to justify my adhesion to the community of Geneva by my actions and behavior; and to contribute with all my power to keeping it free and prosperous.",
"",
"### United Kingdom",
"{{see also\\|Oath of Allegiance (United Kingdom)\\|British nationality law}}",
"> I, \\[name], \\[swear by Almighty God] \\[do solemnly, sincerely and truly affirm and declare] that, on becoming a British citizen, I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty [Charles III](/wiki/Charles_III \"Charles III\"), his heirs, and successors, according to law.",
"",
"Since 1 January 2004, applicants for British citizenship are also required to make a pledge (see [Pledges](/wiki/%23Pledges \"#Pledges\") below).",
"### United States",
"{{main\\|Oath of Allegiance (United States)}}\nThe **United States Oath of Allegiance** (officially referred to as the \"Oath of Allegiance,\" 8 C.F.R. Part 337 (2008\\)) is an [oath](/wiki/Oath \"Oath\") that must be taken by all immigrants who wish to become [United States citizens](/wiki/United_States_citizen \"United States citizen\").",
"",
"> I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty of whom or which I have heretofore been a subject or citizen; that I will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law; and that I take this obligation freely without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; so help me God.{{Citation\n> \\|url\\=http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.5af9bb95919f35e66f614176543f6d1a/?vgnextoid\\=facd6db8d7e37210VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD\\&vgnextchannel\\=dd7ffe9dd4aa3210VgnVCM100000b92ca60aRCRD\n> \\|title\\=Oath of Allegiance for Naturalized Citizens\n> \\|publisher\\=Citizenship and Immigration Services, U.S. Department of Homeland Security\n> \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-30}}",
"For people who object to taking an oath (or are not religious), the words \"on oath\" can be replaced with \"and solemnly affirm\", and the words \"so help me God\" can be omitted.",
""
] |
Racing career
-------------
### Local racing
Sellers started his racing career in [karting](/wiki/Karting "Karting"), beginning at age 7\. By age 13, Sellers was driving [open wheel](/wiki/Open_wheel "Open wheel") [sprint cars](/wiki/Sprint_cars "Sprint cars"), collecting 11 feature wins in his first 20 races. After competing for several years in Sprints, Sellers decided to try his hand in [stock car racing](/wiki/Stock_car_racing "Stock car racing") on asphalt ovals. He ran the 2001 season in the Limited Sportsman division at Orange County Speedway in Rougemont, North Carolina. He competed at [South Boston Speedway](/wiki/South_Boston_Speedway "South Boston Speedway") in Virginia as a rookie in 2002, winning Rookie of the Year honors in the Late Model Stock Car division.
In 2005, Sellers won 14 of his 16 starts at South Boston, winning the Dodge Weekly Series National championship.
### National NASCAR racing
In 2006 Sellers raced in the NASCAR West Division, where he drove the No. 16 [NAPA Auto Parts](/wiki/NAPA_Auto_Parts "NAPA Auto Parts") [Chevrolet](/wiki/Chevrolet "Chevrolet"), his only win coming at Douglas County Speedway on July 1, 2006\. He was a member of the [Richard Childress Racing](/wiki/Richard_Childress_Racing "Richard Childress Racing") [driver development program](/wiki/Driver_development_program "Driver development program") during that season. Sellers also competed in his first [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") [Busch Series](/wiki/Busch_Series "Busch Series") race at [New Hampshire International Speedway](/wiki/New_Hampshire_International_Speedway "New Hampshire International Speedway"), driving the No. 31 [Chevrolet](/wiki/Chevrolet "Chevrolet") for [Marsh Racing](/wiki/Marsh_Racing "Marsh Racing").
[thumb\|left\|Seller's 2009 No. 77 Nationwide car (orange)](/wiki/File:PeytonSellersChevroletMilwaukeeMile2009.jpg "PeytonSellersChevroletMilwaukeeMile2009.jpg")
Sellers headed back east for the 2007 season and raced out of his home shop with brother, HC Sellers, as crew chief. Sellers finished 3rd overall in the [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") [Busch East Series](/wiki/Busch_East_Series "Busch East Series").[EastSeries.com 2007 Points Standings](http://eastseries.com/point2007.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906165748/http://eastseries.com/point2007\.html \|date\=September 6, 2008 }} He would go on to finish 2nd in the [Toyota All\-Star Showdown](/wiki/Toyota_All-Star_Showdown "Toyota All-Star Showdown").[NASCAR Toyota All\-Star Showdown Race Results](http://eastseries.com/results/2007/showdown.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720152606/http://eastseries.com/results/2007/showdown.html \|date\=July 20, 2008 }}
In 2008, Sellers signed on with [Andy Santerre](/wiki/Andy_Santerre "Andy Santerre") Motorsports in the No. 44 Chevrolet. Sellers took the pole and the win at the season opener at [Greenville\-Pickens Speedway](/wiki/Greenville-Pickens_Speedway "Greenville-Pickens Speedway"), in Greenville, SC. The victory was short\-lived due to a rules infraction. Sellers was stripped of his win and given a 30th\-place finish.Newton, David. *Should postrace disqualification set precedence for NASCAR's top series?*. ESPN.com, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA, April 24, 2008\. At [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa_Speedway "Iowa Speedway"), in the closing laps, Sellers took second from [Austin Dillon](/wiki/Austin_Dillon "Austin Dillon") before a caution but he was placed back into fourth place on the restart (the position he was in on the restart after the previous yellow) because the NASCAR officials determined that a full lap had not been run since Sellers was in fourth and he never had the chance to challenge [Brian Ickler](/wiki/Brian_Ickler "Brian Ickler") for the lead. In the season finale, at [Stafford](/wiki/Stafford_150 "Stafford 150") Sellers finally win his first race. He finished the season 8th overall points standings, with a series high 3 poles. Peyton again came close to taking the win at the Toyota All\-Star Showdown, with [Jig\-A\-Loo](/wiki/Jig-A-Loo "Jig-A-Loo") as his sponsor, when a last lap spin out, while in the lead, made him finish 14th.
The announcement came in December 2008 that Sellers would run a limited Nationwide Series schedule in 2009 with Cardinal Motorsports. Sellers is part owner of Cardinal motorsports, alongside Will Spencer of JKS Motorsports and Ed Berrier. In January Cardinal Motorsports announced a ten race NASCAR Nationwide sponsorship with SFP.
Sellers was suspended from NASCAR competition on October 25, 2011, as a result of an altercation following a race at [South Boston Speedway](/wiki/South_Boston_Speedway "South Boston Speedway") until March 1, 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www2\.godanriver.com/sports/2011/oct/25/nascar\-hands\-down\-fines\-suspensions\-sobo\-post\-race\-ar\-1410222/\|title\=NASCAR hands down fines, suspensions from SoBo post\-race incidents\|last\=Sordelett\|first\=Damien\|date\=October 25, 2011\|work\=Danville Register\|access\-date\=October 26, 2011\|location\=Danville, VA\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130124143258/http://www2\.godanriver.com/sports/2011/oct/25/nascar\-hands\-down\-fines\-suspensions\-sobo\-post\-race\-ar\-1410222/\|archive\-date\=January 24, 2013}}
For 2015, Sellers planned to race in the [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") [Xfinity Series](/wiki/Xfinity_Series "Xfinity Series") full\-time, taking over the No. 97 for [Obaika Racing](/wiki/Obaika_Racing "Obaika Racing") after [Josh Reaume](/wiki/Josh_Reaume "Josh Reaume") was released from the team after three race weekends, but was released from the team after Watkins Glen due to mediocre results.
After leaving NASCAR competition as a driver, Sellers he co\-owned [NASCAR K\&N Pro Series East](/wiki/NASCAR_K%26N_Pro_Series_East "NASCAR K&N Pro Series East") team Hunt\-Sellers Racing with former KNPSE competitor Sam Hunt.{{Cite web\|url\=http://brock.lastcar.info/2018/05/k\-east\-colin\-garretts\-cinderella\-run.html\|title\=K\&N EAST: Colin Garrett's Cinderella run ends halfway through at South Boston\|last\=Soquet\|first\=William\|date\=May 15, 2018\|website\=LASTCAR\|publisher\=\[\[Blogger]]\|language\=en\|access\-date\=May 15, 2018}} However the partnership ended in 2018\. Sam Hunt renamed his team to [Sam Hunt Racing](/wiki/Sam_Hunt_Racing "Sam Hunt Racing") and moved to Xfinity Series.
### Regional racing
Sellers' team (Sellers Racing Inc.) then fielded cars in the [NASCAR Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series](/wiki/NASCAR_Advance_Auto_Parts_Weekly_Series "NASCAR Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series"). Sellers continued to racing at local tracks. In 2021, Sellers won the track championships at [Dominion Speedway](/wiki/Dominion_Speedway "Dominion Speedway") and South Boston Speedway to win his second NASCAR Weekly Series championships by 34 points.{{cite web \|last1\=Cara \|first1\=Cooper \|title\=Peyton Sellers: 2021 NASCAR Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series Division I champion profile \|url\=https://m.nascar.com/news\-media/2021/12/05/peyton\-sellers\-2021\-nascar\-advance\-auto\-parts\-weekly\-series\-division\-i\-champion\-profile/ \|website\=\[\[NASCAR]] \|access\-date\=April 2, 2022 \|date\=December 6, 2021}}
On April 2, 2022, the [Superstar Racing Experience](/wiki/Superstar_Racing_Experience "Superstar Racing Experience") announced that Sellers would race in the series' June 25 race at South Boston.{{cite web \|last1\=Nebbia \|first1\=Michael \|title\=SRX Signs Former NASCAR Weekly Series Champ Peyton Sellers \|url\=https://www.frontstretch.com/2022/04/02/srx\-signs\-former\-nascar\-weekly\-series\-champ\-peyton\-sellers/ \|website\=www.frontstretch.com \|access\-date\=April 2, 2022 \|date\=April 2, 2022}}
|
[
"Racing career\n-------------",
"### Local racing",
"Sellers started his racing career in [karting](/wiki/Karting \"Karting\"), beginning at age 7\\. By age 13, Sellers was driving [open wheel](/wiki/Open_wheel \"Open wheel\") [sprint cars](/wiki/Sprint_cars \"Sprint cars\"), collecting 11 feature wins in his first 20 races. After competing for several years in Sprints, Sellers decided to try his hand in [stock car racing](/wiki/Stock_car_racing \"Stock car racing\") on asphalt ovals. He ran the 2001 season in the Limited Sportsman division at Orange County Speedway in Rougemont, North Carolina. He competed at [South Boston Speedway](/wiki/South_Boston_Speedway \"South Boston Speedway\") in Virginia as a rookie in 2002, winning Rookie of the Year honors in the Late Model Stock Car division.",
"In 2005, Sellers won 14 of his 16 starts at South Boston, winning the Dodge Weekly Series National championship.",
"### National NASCAR racing",
"In 2006 Sellers raced in the NASCAR West Division, where he drove the No. 16 [NAPA Auto Parts](/wiki/NAPA_Auto_Parts \"NAPA Auto Parts\") [Chevrolet](/wiki/Chevrolet \"Chevrolet\"), his only win coming at Douglas County Speedway on July 1, 2006\\. He was a member of the [Richard Childress Racing](/wiki/Richard_Childress_Racing \"Richard Childress Racing\") [driver development program](/wiki/Driver_development_program \"Driver development program\") during that season. Sellers also competed in his first [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") [Busch Series](/wiki/Busch_Series \"Busch Series\") race at [New Hampshire International Speedway](/wiki/New_Hampshire_International_Speedway \"New Hampshire International Speedway\"), driving the No. 31 [Chevrolet](/wiki/Chevrolet \"Chevrolet\") for [Marsh Racing](/wiki/Marsh_Racing \"Marsh Racing\").\n[thumb\\|left\\|Seller's 2009 No. 77 Nationwide car (orange)](/wiki/File:PeytonSellersChevroletMilwaukeeMile2009.jpg \"PeytonSellersChevroletMilwaukeeMile2009.jpg\")",
"Sellers headed back east for the 2007 season and raced out of his home shop with brother, HC Sellers, as crew chief. Sellers finished 3rd overall in the [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") [Busch East Series](/wiki/Busch_East_Series \"Busch East Series\").[EastSeries.com 2007 Points Standings](http://eastseries.com/point2007.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906165748/http://eastseries.com/point2007\\.html \\|date\\=September 6, 2008 }} He would go on to finish 2nd in the [Toyota All\\-Star Showdown](/wiki/Toyota_All-Star_Showdown \"Toyota All-Star Showdown\").[NASCAR Toyota All\\-Star Showdown Race Results](http://eastseries.com/results/2007/showdown.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720152606/http://eastseries.com/results/2007/showdown.html \\|date\\=July 20, 2008 }}",
"In 2008, Sellers signed on with [Andy Santerre](/wiki/Andy_Santerre \"Andy Santerre\") Motorsports in the No. 44 Chevrolet. Sellers took the pole and the win at the season opener at [Greenville\\-Pickens Speedway](/wiki/Greenville-Pickens_Speedway \"Greenville-Pickens Speedway\"), in Greenville, SC. The victory was short\\-lived due to a rules infraction. Sellers was stripped of his win and given a 30th\\-place finish.Newton, David. *Should postrace disqualification set precedence for NASCAR's top series?*. ESPN.com, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA, April 24, 2008\\. At [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa_Speedway \"Iowa Speedway\"), in the closing laps, Sellers took second from [Austin Dillon](/wiki/Austin_Dillon \"Austin Dillon\") before a caution but he was placed back into fourth place on the restart (the position he was in on the restart after the previous yellow) because the NASCAR officials determined that a full lap had not been run since Sellers was in fourth and he never had the chance to challenge [Brian Ickler](/wiki/Brian_Ickler \"Brian Ickler\") for the lead. In the season finale, at [Stafford](/wiki/Stafford_150 \"Stafford 150\") Sellers finally win his first race. He finished the season 8th overall points standings, with a series high 3 poles. Peyton again came close to taking the win at the Toyota All\\-Star Showdown, with [Jig\\-A\\-Loo](/wiki/Jig-A-Loo \"Jig-A-Loo\") as his sponsor, when a last lap spin out, while in the lead, made him finish 14th.\nThe announcement came in December 2008 that Sellers would run a limited Nationwide Series schedule in 2009 with Cardinal Motorsports. Sellers is part owner of Cardinal motorsports, alongside Will Spencer of JKS Motorsports and Ed Berrier. In January Cardinal Motorsports announced a ten race NASCAR Nationwide sponsorship with SFP.",
"Sellers was suspended from NASCAR competition on October 25, 2011, as a result of an altercation following a race at [South Boston Speedway](/wiki/South_Boston_Speedway \"South Boston Speedway\") until March 1, 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www2\\.godanriver.com/sports/2011/oct/25/nascar\\-hands\\-down\\-fines\\-suspensions\\-sobo\\-post\\-race\\-ar\\-1410222/\\|title\\=NASCAR hands down fines, suspensions from SoBo post\\-race incidents\\|last\\=Sordelett\\|first\\=Damien\\|date\\=October 25, 2011\\|work\\=Danville Register\\|access\\-date\\=October 26, 2011\\|location\\=Danville, VA\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130124143258/http://www2\\.godanriver.com/sports/2011/oct/25/nascar\\-hands\\-down\\-fines\\-suspensions\\-sobo\\-post\\-race\\-ar\\-1410222/\\|archive\\-date\\=January 24, 2013}}",
"For 2015, Sellers planned to race in the [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") [Xfinity Series](/wiki/Xfinity_Series \"Xfinity Series\") full\\-time, taking over the No. 97 for [Obaika Racing](/wiki/Obaika_Racing \"Obaika Racing\") after [Josh Reaume](/wiki/Josh_Reaume \"Josh Reaume\") was released from the team after three race weekends, but was released from the team after Watkins Glen due to mediocre results.",
"After leaving NASCAR competition as a driver, Sellers he co\\-owned [NASCAR K\\&N Pro Series East](/wiki/NASCAR_K%26N_Pro_Series_East \"NASCAR K&N Pro Series East\") team Hunt\\-Sellers Racing with former KNPSE competitor Sam Hunt.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://brock.lastcar.info/2018/05/k\\-east\\-colin\\-garretts\\-cinderella\\-run.html\\|title\\=K\\&N EAST: Colin Garrett's Cinderella run ends halfway through at South Boston\\|last\\=Soquet\\|first\\=William\\|date\\=May 15, 2018\\|website\\=LASTCAR\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Blogger]]\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=May 15, 2018}} However the partnership ended in 2018\\. Sam Hunt renamed his team to [Sam Hunt Racing](/wiki/Sam_Hunt_Racing \"Sam Hunt Racing\") and moved to Xfinity Series.",
"### Regional racing",
"Sellers' team (Sellers Racing Inc.) then fielded cars in the [NASCAR Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series](/wiki/NASCAR_Advance_Auto_Parts_Weekly_Series \"NASCAR Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series\"). Sellers continued to racing at local tracks. In 2021, Sellers won the track championships at [Dominion Speedway](/wiki/Dominion_Speedway \"Dominion Speedway\") and South Boston Speedway to win his second NASCAR Weekly Series championships by 34 points.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Cara \\|first1\\=Cooper \\|title\\=Peyton Sellers: 2021 NASCAR Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series Division I champion profile \\|url\\=https://m.nascar.com/news\\-media/2021/12/05/peyton\\-sellers\\-2021\\-nascar\\-advance\\-auto\\-parts\\-weekly\\-series\\-division\\-i\\-champion\\-profile/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[NASCAR]] \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2022 \\|date\\=December 6, 2021}}",
"On April 2, 2022, the [Superstar Racing Experience](/wiki/Superstar_Racing_Experience \"Superstar Racing Experience\") announced that Sellers would race in the series' June 25 race at South Boston.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Nebbia \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=SRX Signs Former NASCAR Weekly Series Champ Peyton Sellers \\|url\\=https://www.frontstretch.com/2022/04/02/srx\\-signs\\-former\\-nascar\\-weekly\\-series\\-champ\\-peyton\\-sellers/ \\|website\\=www.frontstretch.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2022 \\|date\\=April 2, 2022}}",
""
] |
Production
----------
In 1991, Xuxa still decided whether or not *[Xou da Xuxa](/wiki/Xou_da_Xuxa "Xou da Xuxa")* program would be closed that year. But, I was almost certain that the sixth album of the same title of the program, would be the last of the series. Already it was thought of a collection with the hits of the *Xou* and a [song book](/wiki/Song_book "Song book"), a book with tablature and instrumental scores of some successes of the singer. With the continuation of the program in 1992, was produced the last album of the series.
In an interview, Xuxa even commented that he has received a lot of excited songs for the album and in fact, the album is quite cheerful, despite the air of farewell. The first ones to be recorded were: "Xuxa Park" and "A Vida é Uma Festa", which served as the theme for *Xou da Xuxa* that season.
The actress Fafy Siqueira who wrote "A Dança do Paloê" for the *[Xou da Xuxa Seis](/wiki/Xou_da_Xuxa_Seis "Xou da Xuxa Seis")* (1991\), the previous year wrote another song especially for the *Queen*. "Marquei um X" merge its joyful rhythm with the mood of farewell, asking the public to remember Xuxa and his concert with great affection.
As was done since the fifth album of the series, most of the songs recorded for *Xou Sete* were also recorded in [Spanish language](/wiki/Spanish_language "Spanish language"). Even those discarded as Earth and Heart and My Mirror.
Initially, the album would be called *Xétimo Xou da Xuxa*. However, they opted for Xou Xuxa Sete, with the number 7 in full, as well as the previous disk. It would be released between the end of August and the beginning of September, but due to delays in production was released in October.
One of the highlights of the disc is the insert stuffed with images from the personal archive of Xuxa. Several childhood photos were selected, along with the singer's birth certificate and a photo of the rehearsal for the album.
Some of the discarded tracks from the album were made known to the public when they were released on the album *[Xuxa](/wiki/Xuxa_%28album_1993%29 "Xuxa (album 1993)")* in 1993\. In addition to the previously mentioned, "Brincando com o Tempo" and "Maçã do Amor" were also added to the album.
"Lá vem o Trem", composition by Evandro Mesquita was removed from the album at the last minute. In fact, the title of the song even became known to the press.
*Xou da Xuxa Sete* was produced by [Michael Sullivan](/wiki/Michael_Sullivan_%28singer-songwriter%29 "Michael Sullivan (singer-songwriter)") and Paulo Massadas, with artistic coordination Marlene Mattos and [Xuxa](/wiki/Xuxa "Xuxa"). It was recorded in the studios of [Som Livre](/wiki/Som_Livre "Som Livre"), and had artistic direction of Max Pierre.{{cite web\|url\=http://xuxa.globo.com/discos/pagina/33/xou\-da\-xuxa\-7\|title\=Xuxa.com \- Discos\|publisher\=xuxa.globo.com/\|access\-date\=22 February 2015}}
|
[
"Production\n----------",
"In 1991, Xuxa still decided whether or not *[Xou da Xuxa](/wiki/Xou_da_Xuxa \"Xou da Xuxa\")* program would be closed that year. But, I was almost certain that the sixth album of the same title of the program, would be the last of the series. Already it was thought of a collection with the hits of the *Xou* and a [song book](/wiki/Song_book \"Song book\"), a book with tablature and instrumental scores of some successes of the singer. With the continuation of the program in 1992, was produced the last album of the series.",
"In an interview, Xuxa even commented that he has received a lot of excited songs for the album and in fact, the album is quite cheerful, despite the air of farewell. The first ones to be recorded were: \"Xuxa Park\" and \"A Vida é Uma Festa\", which served as the theme for *Xou da Xuxa* that season.",
"The actress Fafy Siqueira who wrote \"A Dança do Paloê\" for the *[Xou da Xuxa Seis](/wiki/Xou_da_Xuxa_Seis \"Xou da Xuxa Seis\")* (1991\\), the previous year wrote another song especially for the *Queen*. \"Marquei um X\" merge its joyful rhythm with the mood of farewell, asking the public to remember Xuxa and his concert with great affection.",
"As was done since the fifth album of the series, most of the songs recorded for *Xou Sete* were also recorded in [Spanish language](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\"). Even those discarded as Earth and Heart and My Mirror.",
"Initially, the album would be called *Xétimo Xou da Xuxa*. However, they opted for Xou Xuxa Sete, with the number 7 in full, as well as the previous disk. It would be released between the end of August and the beginning of September, but due to delays in production was released in October.",
"One of the highlights of the disc is the insert stuffed with images from the personal archive of Xuxa. Several childhood photos were selected, along with the singer's birth certificate and a photo of the rehearsal for the album.",
"Some of the discarded tracks from the album were made known to the public when they were released on the album *[Xuxa](/wiki/Xuxa_%28album_1993%29 \"Xuxa (album 1993)\")* in 1993\\. In addition to the previously mentioned, \"Brincando com o Tempo\" and \"Maçã do Amor\" were also added to the album.",
"\"Lá vem o Trem\", composition by Evandro Mesquita was removed from the album at the last minute. In fact, the title of the song even became known to the press.",
"*Xou da Xuxa Sete* was produced by [Michael Sullivan](/wiki/Michael_Sullivan_%28singer-songwriter%29 \"Michael Sullivan (singer-songwriter)\") and Paulo Massadas, with artistic coordination Marlene Mattos and [Xuxa](/wiki/Xuxa \"Xuxa\"). It was recorded in the studios of [Som Livre](/wiki/Som_Livre \"Som Livre\"), and had artistic direction of Max Pierre.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://xuxa.globo.com/discos/pagina/33/xou\\-da\\-xuxa\\-7\\|title\\=Xuxa.com \\- Discos\\|publisher\\=xuxa.globo.com/\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2015}}",
""
] |
Promotion
---------
The songs of *Xou da Xuxa Sete* used to be performed in *[Xou da Xuxa](/wiki/Xou_da_Xuxa "Xou da Xuxa")* and *Paradão da Xuxa*. The blonde also sang some tracks, mainly "Nosso Canto de Paz", "A Vida é Uma Festa", "A Pulga" and "Marquei um X", that were the most worked, besides "Xuxa Park" that was used as descent of the ship in the final season of the *[Xuxa Park](/wiki/Xuxa_Park_%28Brazilian_TV_series%29 "Xuxa Park (Brazilian TV series)")*. "Marquei um X", "Baila Baila", "A Pulga", "Nosso Canto de Paz", "A Vida é Uma Festa" and "América Geral" won [music videos](/wiki/Music_video "Music video") at that year's Christmas special.
Unlike previous albums, Xuxa did not even disclose *Xou Sete* in another TV show that was not her own. On April 25, 1993, the blonde sang some of her hits in [Domingão do Faustão](/wiki/Doming%C3%A3o_do_Faust%C3%A3o "Domingão do Faustão"), in addition to "Marquei um X" and "Nosso Canto de Paz", but the participation in the program was with the intention of releasing the program Xuxa, which debuted the following Sunday and not to release the latest album.
There was also a release of the album on the radio. It was sent to radios all over Brazil, the [CD\-single](/wiki/CD-single "CD-single") of the song "Marquei um X", shortly before the album's release. In addition, on October 10, 1992, Xuxa gave an interview to the radio station FM 105 in the program *Sala de Visitas* (Visiting Room).
Due to the delay in the release of the album and the accumulation of appointments in the Xuxa agenda, only two concerts of the *Xuxa 92 tour* in Brazil were performed: one in [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo "São Paulo") and another in [Belo Horizonte](/wiki/Belo_Horizonte "Belo Horizonte").
It was broadcast during [Rede Globo](/wiki/Rede_Globo "Rede Globo")'s programming, two commercials releasing the launch, The first of 30 seconds and the second of 10 seconds.
|
[
"Promotion\n---------",
"The songs of *Xou da Xuxa Sete* used to be performed in *[Xou da Xuxa](/wiki/Xou_da_Xuxa \"Xou da Xuxa\")* and *Paradão da Xuxa*. The blonde also sang some tracks, mainly \"Nosso Canto de Paz\", \"A Vida é Uma Festa\", \"A Pulga\" and \"Marquei um X\", that were the most worked, besides \"Xuxa Park\" that was used as descent of the ship in the final season of the *[Xuxa Park](/wiki/Xuxa_Park_%28Brazilian_TV_series%29 \"Xuxa Park (Brazilian TV series)\")*. \"Marquei um X\", \"Baila Baila\", \"A Pulga\", \"Nosso Canto de Paz\", \"A Vida é Uma Festa\" and \"América Geral\" won [music videos](/wiki/Music_video \"Music video\") at that year's Christmas special.",
"Unlike previous albums, Xuxa did not even disclose *Xou Sete* in another TV show that was not her own. On April 25, 1993, the blonde sang some of her hits in [Domingão do Faustão](/wiki/Doming%C3%A3o_do_Faust%C3%A3o \"Domingão do Faustão\"), in addition to \"Marquei um X\" and \"Nosso Canto de Paz\", but the participation in the program was with the intention of releasing the program Xuxa, which debuted the following Sunday and not to release the latest album.",
"There was also a release of the album on the radio. It was sent to radios all over Brazil, the [CD\\-single](/wiki/CD-single \"CD-single\") of the song \"Marquei um X\", shortly before the album's release. In addition, on October 10, 1992, Xuxa gave an interview to the radio station FM 105 in the program *Sala de Visitas* (Visiting Room).",
"Due to the delay in the release of the album and the accumulation of appointments in the Xuxa agenda, only two concerts of the *Xuxa 92 tour* in Brazil were performed: one in [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"São Paulo\") and another in [Belo Horizonte](/wiki/Belo_Horizonte \"Belo Horizonte\").",
"It was broadcast during [Rede Globo](/wiki/Rede_Globo \"Rede Globo\")'s programming, two commercials releasing the launch, The first of 30 seconds and the second of 10 seconds.",
""
] |
Exhibits
--------
### Jewels of the Forest
Opened in 2004, this exhibit houses various Asian birds such as:
* [Palawan peacock\-pheasant](/wiki/Palawan_peacock-pheasant "Palawan peacock-pheasant")
* [Blue\-crowned laughingthrush](/wiki/Blue-crowned_laughingthrush "Blue-crowned laughingthrush")
* [Red\-tailed laughingthrush](/wiki/Red-tailed_laughingthrush "Red-tailed laughingthrush")
* [White\-rumped shama](/wiki/White-rumped_shama "White-rumped shama")
* [Nicobar pigeon](/wiki/Nicobar_pigeon "Nicobar pigeon")
* [Emerald dove](/wiki/Emerald_dove "Emerald dove")
* [Mindanao bleeding\-heart dove](/wiki/Mindanao_bleeding-heart "Mindanao bleeding-heart")
* [Java sparrow](/wiki/Java_sparrow "Java sparrow")
* [Pekin robin](/wiki/Pekin_robin "Pekin robin")
* [Chestnut\-backed thrush](/wiki/Chestnut-backed_thrush "Chestnut-backed thrush")
* [Asian fairy\-bluebird](/wiki/Asian_fairy-bluebird "Asian fairy-bluebird")
* [Grey\-faced liocichla](/wiki/Grey-faced_liocichla "Grey-faced liocichla")
### Cloud Forest
Opened in 1999, the Cloud Forest is the first enclosure at Durrell to feature mixed animals, including carnivorous species.
* [Andean bear](/wiki/Spectacled_bear "Spectacled bear")
* [Visayan warty pig](/wiki/Visayan_warty_pig "Visayan warty pig") \- temporary residents whilst new home is built (completed in 2023\)
* [Black howler](/wiki/Black_howler "Black howler") monkey
* [Linnaeus's two\-toed sloth](/wiki/Linnaeus%27s_two-toed_sloth "Linnaeus's two-toed sloth")
* [Bush Dog](/wiki/Bush_Dog "Bush Dog")
### Princess Royal Pavilion
The Pavilion was opened by Princess Anne in the 1970s, and serves as a conference centre, and classroom. The theatre shows films depicting the work of the trust, and also exhibits artwork. It highlights the work undertaken by the Trust around the world.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
### The Gaherty Reptile and Amphibian Centre
The reptile house is the home of many species of reptiles and amphibians. The Gaherty Reptile and Amphibian Centre was so named because of a gift from Canadian philanthropist Geoff Gaherty. Around sixty percent of the species are not on public display. Those that are include:
Reptiles
* [Ploughshare tortoise](/wiki/Angonoka "Angonoka")
* [Madagascan big\-headed turtle](/wiki/Madagascan_big-headed_turtle "Madagascan big-headed turtle")
* [Lesser Antillean iguana](/wiki/Lesser_Antillean_iguana "Lesser Antillean iguana")
* [Cuban Iguana](/wiki/Cyclura_nubila "Cyclura nubila")
* [Serrated casquehead iguana](/wiki/Serrated_casquehead_iguana "Serrated casquehead iguana")
* Rio Fuerte [beaded lizard](/wiki/Beaded_lizard "Beaded lizard")
* [Telfair's skink](/wiki/Round_Island_skink "Round Island skink")
* [Turqoise Dwarf Gecko](/wiki/Lygodactylus_williamsi "Lygodactylus williamsi")
* [Lesser night gecko](/wiki/Lesser_night_gecko "Lesser night gecko")
* [Martinique's anole](/wiki/Martinique%27s_anole "Martinique's anole")
* [Emerald tree boa](/wiki/Emerald_tree_boa "Emerald tree boa")
* [Dumeril's boa](/wiki/Acrantophis_dumerili "Acrantophis dumerili")
* [Galapagos giant tortoise](/wiki/Galapagos_giant_tortoise "Galapagos giant tortoise") \- external paddock (seasonal)
* [Radiated tortoise](/wiki/Radiated_tortoise "Radiated tortoise") \- external paddock (seasonal)
* [European adder](/wiki/European_adder "European adder") \- outdoor enclosure (seasonal)
Amphibians
* [Mountain chicken](/wiki/Mountain_chicken "Mountain chicken")
* [Strawberry poison\-dart frog](/wiki/Strawberry_poison-dart_frog "Strawberry poison-dart frog")
* [Blue poison dart frog](/wiki/Blue_poison_dart_frog "Blue poison dart frog")
* [Golden poison dart frog](/wiki/Golden_poison_dart_frog "Golden poison dart frog")
* [Mission golden\-eyed tree frog](/wiki/Mission_golden-eyed_tree_frog "Mission golden-eyed tree frog")
* [Amazon poison dart frog](/wiki/Ranitomeya_amazonica "Ranitomeya amazonica")
### Discovery Desert
[thumb\|One of the meerkats in 2012\.](/wiki/File:Suricata_suricatta_-Durrell_Wildlife_Park%2C_Jersey%2C_UK-8.jpg "Suricata suricatta -Durrell Wildlife Park, Jersey, UK-8.jpg")
The Discovery Desert was opened in April 2009, and was designed to give the family of [meerkats](/wiki/Meerkat "Meerkat") more room to roam, and ensure they don't dig for freedom. Discovery desert is a mixed species exhibit featuring other animals which share the meerkat's habitat in the wild.
### Gorillas
The [western lowland gorilla](/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla "Western lowland gorilla") family has been represented at Durrell since it first opened in 1959, when they had only an infant female (thought to be male at first) [gorilla](/wiki/Gorilla "Gorilla") named *N'Pongo*, who was later joined by a younger infant female gorilla named *Nandi*. The current enclosure includes an outdoor play area, and three internal rooms, two large on\-show ones and a smaller off\-show one.
The family of five is led by a silverback called *Badongo*, who was born in [La Vallée des Singes](/wiki/La_Vall%C3%A9e_des_Singes "La Vallée des Singes"). *Badongo* is the successor of *Ya Kwanza*, and has had two offspring with *Bahasha*, a male named *Indigo* and a female named *Amari*. *Indigo* has since left to start his own family. The remaining members of the troupe are *Kishka* (who died in 2024\), and *Hlalli Kahilli* a female descendant of [Jambo](/wiki/Jambo "Jambo") and *N'Pongo*.
A expanded and updated gorilla complex is due to be completed in 2024\.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
Jambo
{{main\|Jambo}}
Jambo was a gorilla who was born in 1961, in the [Zoo Basel](/wiki/Zoo_Basel "Zoo Basel"), Switzerland. Jambo featured in the news in 31 August 1986, when five\-year\-old Levan Merritt fell into the gorilla enclosure and lost consciousness. Jambo stood guard over the boy when he was unconscious, placing himself between the boy and other gorillas in what ethnologists analyse as a protective gesture. He later stroked the unconscious boy. When the boy regained consciousness and started to cry, Jambo and the other gorillas retreated, and an ambulance paramedic and two keepers rescued the boy.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
### Orangutans and gibbons
In an enclosure which was revamped in the 1990s the [orangutans](/wiki/Orangutan "Orangutan") have a large outdoor play area for them to swing around. The enclosure consists of one large main house, with two extensive external islands surrounded by a moat.
The orangutan family have been in Durrell since 1968, and come from Sumatra. Durrell used to have the [Bornean orangutans](/wiki/Bornean_orangutan "Bornean orangutan"), until it was decided that Durrell should focus on the rarest when the redevelopment took place. There are currently five orangutans at Durell; The dominant male is called Dagu. The adult females are, Annette and Dana. The two offspring are Mawar (who moved to Prague Zoo with her son Gempa in 2011\)'s eldest son Jiwa and Annette's son Jantho.
Sharing the island play areas is a female [lar gibbon](/wiki/Lar_gibbon "Lar gibbon") named Hazel and a white cheeked gibbon named Genta. {{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
### Tamarins and marmosets
The tamarins are kept in two areas of the park, some such as the [golden lion](/wiki/Golden_lion_tamarin "Golden lion tamarin") and [emperor tamarins](/wiki/Emperor_tamarin "Emperor tamarin") best kept within their own enclosures. Meanwhile, others such as the [pied tamarin](/wiki/Pied_tamarin "Pied tamarin") and the [silvery marmoset](/wiki/Silvery_marmoset "Silvery marmoset") are allowed to run free in a small wooded area.
### Central Valley
The Central Valley, expands across the centre of the park, creating a natural barrier and water resource for local species. £1 million project to redevelop the central valley, completed in 2002, has created an area for kingfishers, bank voles, butterflies, dragonflies, and several species of waterfowl. During the valley restoration two species of locally rare orchid were encouraged, and first flowered in 2005\. They are *[Anacamptis laxiflora](/wiki/Anacamptis_laxiflora "Anacamptis laxiflora")* and [Dactylorhiza praetermissa](/wiki/Dactylorhiza_praetermissa "Dactylorhiza praetermissa").{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
Since 1964 Durrell have been working with the [macaque family](/wiki/Celebes_crested_macaque "Celebes crested macaque"), in the same location, just to the side of the valley. The family have bred well, though events in Sulawesi counterbalance the work by the Durrell team.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
In 2022 Durrell introduced a troupe of 15 [Gelada](/wiki/Gelada "Gelada") to the park. They moved in next door to the Macaque family.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
### Aviaries
Dotted around the Central Valley are a number of aviaries which house a selection of birds from different parts of the world. The aviaries are specialised to reflect habitat the birds should become adapted to should they be released back into the wild. They are large enough for them to fly short distances, or search the ground for food.
* [Northern bald ibis](/wiki/Northern_bald_ibis "Northern bald ibis")
* [Edward's pheasant](/wiki/Edward%27s_pheasant "Edward's pheasant")
* [Bali starling](/wiki/Bali_starling "Bali starling")
* [Pink pigeon](/wiki/Pink_pigeon "Pink pigeon")
* [Malagasy Black bulbul](/wiki/Malagasy_bulbul "Malagasy bulbul")
* [Montserrat oriole](/wiki/Montserrat_oriole "Montserrat oriole")
* [Wrinkled hornbill](/wiki/Wrinkled_hornbill "Wrinkled hornbill")
* [White\-crowned robin\-chat](/wiki/White-crowned_robin-chat "White-crowned robin-chat")
* [Javan green magpie](/wiki/Javan_green_magpie "Javan green magpie")
* [Sumatran laughingthrush](/wiki/Sumatran_laughingthrush "Sumatran laughingthrush")
* [Black\-winged stilt](/wiki/Black-winged_stilt "Black-winged stilt")
* [White\-winged duck](/wiki/White-winged_duck "White-winged duck")
* [White\-backed duck](/wiki/White-backed_duck "White-backed duck")
* [African pygmy goose](/wiki/African_pygmy_goose "African pygmy goose")
* [Madagascar turtle dove](/wiki/Madagascar_turtle_dove "Madagascar turtle dove")
### Lemur Lake and Pontoon
* [Ring\-tailed lemur](/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur "Ring-tailed lemur")
* [Red ruffed lemur](/wiki/Red_ruffed_lemur "Red ruffed lemur")
* [Alaotran gentle lemur](/wiki/Alaotran_gentle_lemur "Alaotran gentle lemur")
### Island Bat Roost
A large polytunnel was built with used tyres in spring 2011\. It is the new home of two species of bat. An additional tunnel was completed in summer 2017\. It was also built using recycled materials and will provide more room for the bats to fly, in particular creating a circular flying pattern.
* [Rodrigues flying fox](/wiki/Rodrigues_flying_fox "Rodrigues flying fox")
* [Livingstone's fruit bat](/wiki/Livingstone%27s_fruit_bat "Livingstone's fruit bat")
### Butterfly Kaleidoscope
In 2019, a butterfly walkthrough tunnel was built and opened by Princess Anne. It contains [Menelaus blue morpho\|butterfly](/wiki/Morpho_menelaus "Morpho menelaus") species and some [giant tortoises](/wiki/Galapagos_giant_tortoise "Galapagos giant tortoise").
### Tortoise Tunnel
Opened in 2023 this is a new temperature controlled home for 4 [Aldabra giant tortoise](/wiki/Aldabra_giant_tortoise "Aldabra giant tortoise").
### Kirindy Forest
A major renovation project was to transform the Walled Gardens into an area marked Kirindy Forest. Based on the dry forests of Madagascar, the area is designed to showcase the work being done with the native species. There are homes for lemurs, giant jumping rats, mongooses and a walkthrough aviary.
* [Black\-and\-white ruffed lemur](/wiki/Black-and-white_ruffed_lemur "Black-and-white ruffed lemur")
* [Red\-fronted brown lemur](/wiki/Red-fronted_brown_lemur "Red-fronted brown lemur")
* [Aye\-aye](/wiki/Aye-aye "Aye-aye")
* [Narrow\-striped mongoose](/wiki/Narrow-striped_mongoose "Narrow-striped mongoose")
* [Malagasy giant rat](/wiki/Malagasy_giant_rat "Malagasy giant rat")
Kirindy Walkthrough Aviary
* [Hammerkop](/wiki/Hammerkop "Hammerkop")
* [Meller's duck](/wiki/Meller%27s_duck "Meller's duck")
* [Madagascar crested ibis](/wiki/Madagascar_crested_ibis "Madagascar crested ibis")
* [Red fody](/wiki/Red_fody "Red fody")
* [Namaqua dove](/wiki/Namaqua_dove "Namaqua dove")
### Conservation successes
In 1976 there were only four [Mauritius kestrel](/wiki/Mauritius_kestrel "Mauritius kestrel") individuals in the wild with one female. Durrell took the risk of taking a recent clutch of eggs and had them hatched successfully – rebuilding the species, almost from scratch. The conservation for the species has moved on to the next stage and its focus has returned to Mauritius, re\-establishing the species in the community and [ecosystem](/wiki/Ecosystem "Ecosystem").{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
Originally extinct from the wild, the zoo was part of the coalition of zoos which together brought the [Przewalski's horse](/wiki/Przewalski%27s_horse "Przewalski's horse") species from the brink of extinction.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2024}}
|
[
"Exhibits\n--------",
"### Jewels of the Forest",
"Opened in 2004, this exhibit houses various Asian birds such as:",
"* [Palawan peacock\\-pheasant](/wiki/Palawan_peacock-pheasant \"Palawan peacock-pheasant\")\n* [Blue\\-crowned laughingthrush](/wiki/Blue-crowned_laughingthrush \"Blue-crowned laughingthrush\")\n* [Red\\-tailed laughingthrush](/wiki/Red-tailed_laughingthrush \"Red-tailed laughingthrush\")\n* [White\\-rumped shama](/wiki/White-rumped_shama \"White-rumped shama\")\n* [Nicobar pigeon](/wiki/Nicobar_pigeon \"Nicobar pigeon\")\n* [Emerald dove](/wiki/Emerald_dove \"Emerald dove\")\n* [Mindanao bleeding\\-heart dove](/wiki/Mindanao_bleeding-heart \"Mindanao bleeding-heart\")\n* [Java sparrow](/wiki/Java_sparrow \"Java sparrow\")\n* [Pekin robin](/wiki/Pekin_robin \"Pekin robin\")\n* [Chestnut\\-backed thrush](/wiki/Chestnut-backed_thrush \"Chestnut-backed thrush\")\n* [Asian fairy\\-bluebird](/wiki/Asian_fairy-bluebird \"Asian fairy-bluebird\")\n* [Grey\\-faced liocichla](/wiki/Grey-faced_liocichla \"Grey-faced liocichla\")",
"### Cloud Forest",
"Opened in 1999, the Cloud Forest is the first enclosure at Durrell to feature mixed animals, including carnivorous species.",
"* [Andean bear](/wiki/Spectacled_bear \"Spectacled bear\")\n* [Visayan warty pig](/wiki/Visayan_warty_pig \"Visayan warty pig\") \\- temporary residents whilst new home is built (completed in 2023\\)\n* [Black howler](/wiki/Black_howler \"Black howler\") monkey\n* [Linnaeus's two\\-toed sloth](/wiki/Linnaeus%27s_two-toed_sloth \"Linnaeus's two-toed sloth\")\n* [Bush Dog](/wiki/Bush_Dog \"Bush Dog\")",
"### Princess Royal Pavilion",
"The Pavilion was opened by Princess Anne in the 1970s, and serves as a conference centre, and classroom. The theatre shows films depicting the work of the trust, and also exhibits artwork. It highlights the work undertaken by the Trust around the world.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"### The Gaherty Reptile and Amphibian Centre",
"The reptile house is the home of many species of reptiles and amphibians. The Gaherty Reptile and Amphibian Centre was so named because of a gift from Canadian philanthropist Geoff Gaherty. Around sixty percent of the species are not on public display. Those that are include:",
"Reptiles\n* [Ploughshare tortoise](/wiki/Angonoka \"Angonoka\")\n* [Madagascan big\\-headed turtle](/wiki/Madagascan_big-headed_turtle \"Madagascan big-headed turtle\")\n* [Lesser Antillean iguana](/wiki/Lesser_Antillean_iguana \"Lesser Antillean iguana\")\n* [Cuban Iguana](/wiki/Cyclura_nubila \"Cyclura nubila\")\n* [Serrated casquehead iguana](/wiki/Serrated_casquehead_iguana \"Serrated casquehead iguana\")\n* Rio Fuerte [beaded lizard](/wiki/Beaded_lizard \"Beaded lizard\")\n* [Telfair's skink](/wiki/Round_Island_skink \"Round Island skink\")\n* [Turqoise Dwarf Gecko](/wiki/Lygodactylus_williamsi \"Lygodactylus williamsi\")\n* [Lesser night gecko](/wiki/Lesser_night_gecko \"Lesser night gecko\")\n* [Martinique's anole](/wiki/Martinique%27s_anole \"Martinique's anole\")\n* [Emerald tree boa](/wiki/Emerald_tree_boa \"Emerald tree boa\")\n* [Dumeril's boa](/wiki/Acrantophis_dumerili \"Acrantophis dumerili\")\n* [Galapagos giant tortoise](/wiki/Galapagos_giant_tortoise \"Galapagos giant tortoise\") \\- external paddock (seasonal)\n* [Radiated tortoise](/wiki/Radiated_tortoise \"Radiated tortoise\") \\- external paddock (seasonal)\n* [European adder](/wiki/European_adder \"European adder\") \\- outdoor enclosure (seasonal)",
"Amphibians\n* [Mountain chicken](/wiki/Mountain_chicken \"Mountain chicken\")\n* [Strawberry poison\\-dart frog](/wiki/Strawberry_poison-dart_frog \"Strawberry poison-dart frog\")\n* [Blue poison dart frog](/wiki/Blue_poison_dart_frog \"Blue poison dart frog\")\n* [Golden poison dart frog](/wiki/Golden_poison_dart_frog \"Golden poison dart frog\")\n* [Mission golden\\-eyed tree frog](/wiki/Mission_golden-eyed_tree_frog \"Mission golden-eyed tree frog\")\n* [Amazon poison dart frog](/wiki/Ranitomeya_amazonica \"Ranitomeya amazonica\")",
"### Discovery Desert",
"[thumb\\|One of the meerkats in 2012\\.](/wiki/File:Suricata_suricatta_-Durrell_Wildlife_Park%2C_Jersey%2C_UK-8.jpg \"Suricata suricatta -Durrell Wildlife Park, Jersey, UK-8.jpg\")\nThe Discovery Desert was opened in April 2009, and was designed to give the family of [meerkats](/wiki/Meerkat \"Meerkat\") more room to roam, and ensure they don't dig for freedom. Discovery desert is a mixed species exhibit featuring other animals which share the meerkat's habitat in the wild.",
"### Gorillas",
"The [western lowland gorilla](/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla \"Western lowland gorilla\") family has been represented at Durrell since it first opened in 1959, when they had only an infant female (thought to be male at first) [gorilla](/wiki/Gorilla \"Gorilla\") named *N'Pongo*, who was later joined by a younger infant female gorilla named *Nandi*. The current enclosure includes an outdoor play area, and three internal rooms, two large on\\-show ones and a smaller off\\-show one.\nThe family of five is led by a silverback called *Badongo*, who was born in [La Vallée des Singes](/wiki/La_Vall%C3%A9e_des_Singes \"La Vallée des Singes\"). *Badongo* is the successor of *Ya Kwanza*, and has had two offspring with *Bahasha*, a male named *Indigo* and a female named *Amari*. *Indigo* has since left to start his own family. The remaining members of the troupe are *Kishka* (who died in 2024\\), and *Hlalli Kahilli* a female descendant of [Jambo](/wiki/Jambo \"Jambo\") and *N'Pongo*.",
"A expanded and updated gorilla complex is due to be completed in 2024\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"Jambo\n{{main\\|Jambo}}\nJambo was a gorilla who was born in 1961, in the [Zoo Basel](/wiki/Zoo_Basel \"Zoo Basel\"), Switzerland. Jambo featured in the news in 31 August 1986, when five\\-year\\-old Levan Merritt fell into the gorilla enclosure and lost consciousness. Jambo stood guard over the boy when he was unconscious, placing himself between the boy and other gorillas in what ethnologists analyse as a protective gesture. He later stroked the unconscious boy. When the boy regained consciousness and started to cry, Jambo and the other gorillas retreated, and an ambulance paramedic and two keepers rescued the boy.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}\n### Orangutans and gibbons",
"In an enclosure which was revamped in the 1990s the [orangutans](/wiki/Orangutan \"Orangutan\") have a large outdoor play area for them to swing around. The enclosure consists of one large main house, with two extensive external islands surrounded by a moat.\nThe orangutan family have been in Durrell since 1968, and come from Sumatra. Durrell used to have the [Bornean orangutans](/wiki/Bornean_orangutan \"Bornean orangutan\"), until it was decided that Durrell should focus on the rarest when the redevelopment took place. There are currently five orangutans at Durell; The dominant male is called Dagu. The adult females are, Annette and Dana. The two offspring are Mawar (who moved to Prague Zoo with her son Gempa in 2011\\)'s eldest son Jiwa and Annette's son Jantho.\nSharing the island play areas is a female [lar gibbon](/wiki/Lar_gibbon \"Lar gibbon\") named Hazel and a white cheeked gibbon named Genta. {{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"### Tamarins and marmosets",
"The tamarins are kept in two areas of the park, some such as the [golden lion](/wiki/Golden_lion_tamarin \"Golden lion tamarin\") and [emperor tamarins](/wiki/Emperor_tamarin \"Emperor tamarin\") best kept within their own enclosures. Meanwhile, others such as the [pied tamarin](/wiki/Pied_tamarin \"Pied tamarin\") and the [silvery marmoset](/wiki/Silvery_marmoset \"Silvery marmoset\") are allowed to run free in a small wooded area.",
"### Central Valley",
"The Central Valley, expands across the centre of the park, creating a natural barrier and water resource for local species. £1 million project to redevelop the central valley, completed in 2002, has created an area for kingfishers, bank voles, butterflies, dragonflies, and several species of waterfowl. During the valley restoration two species of locally rare orchid were encouraged, and first flowered in 2005\\. They are *[Anacamptis laxiflora](/wiki/Anacamptis_laxiflora \"Anacamptis laxiflora\")* and [Dactylorhiza praetermissa](/wiki/Dactylorhiza_praetermissa \"Dactylorhiza praetermissa\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"Since 1964 Durrell have been working with the [macaque family](/wiki/Celebes_crested_macaque \"Celebes crested macaque\"), in the same location, just to the side of the valley. The family have bred well, though events in Sulawesi counterbalance the work by the Durrell team.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"In 2022 Durrell introduced a troupe of 15 [Gelada](/wiki/Gelada \"Gelada\") to the park. They moved in next door to the Macaque family.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"### Aviaries",
"Dotted around the Central Valley are a number of aviaries which house a selection of birds from different parts of the world. The aviaries are specialised to reflect habitat the birds should become adapted to should they be released back into the wild. They are large enough for them to fly short distances, or search the ground for food.",
"* [Northern bald ibis](/wiki/Northern_bald_ibis \"Northern bald ibis\")\n* [Edward's pheasant](/wiki/Edward%27s_pheasant \"Edward's pheasant\")\n* [Bali starling](/wiki/Bali_starling \"Bali starling\")\n* [Pink pigeon](/wiki/Pink_pigeon \"Pink pigeon\")\n* [Malagasy Black bulbul](/wiki/Malagasy_bulbul \"Malagasy bulbul\")\n* [Montserrat oriole](/wiki/Montserrat_oriole \"Montserrat oriole\")\n* [Wrinkled hornbill](/wiki/Wrinkled_hornbill \"Wrinkled hornbill\")\n* [White\\-crowned robin\\-chat](/wiki/White-crowned_robin-chat \"White-crowned robin-chat\")\n* [Javan green magpie](/wiki/Javan_green_magpie \"Javan green magpie\")\n* [Sumatran laughingthrush](/wiki/Sumatran_laughingthrush \"Sumatran laughingthrush\")\n* [Black\\-winged stilt](/wiki/Black-winged_stilt \"Black-winged stilt\")\n* [White\\-winged duck](/wiki/White-winged_duck \"White-winged duck\")\n* [White\\-backed duck](/wiki/White-backed_duck \"White-backed duck\")\n* [African pygmy goose](/wiki/African_pygmy_goose \"African pygmy goose\")\n* [Madagascar turtle dove](/wiki/Madagascar_turtle_dove \"Madagascar turtle dove\")",
"### Lemur Lake and Pontoon",
"* [Ring\\-tailed lemur](/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur \"Ring-tailed lemur\")\n* [Red ruffed lemur](/wiki/Red_ruffed_lemur \"Red ruffed lemur\")\n* [Alaotran gentle lemur](/wiki/Alaotran_gentle_lemur \"Alaotran gentle lemur\")",
"### Island Bat Roost",
"A large polytunnel was built with used tyres in spring 2011\\. It is the new home of two species of bat. An additional tunnel was completed in summer 2017\\. It was also built using recycled materials and will provide more room for the bats to fly, in particular creating a circular flying pattern.",
"* [Rodrigues flying fox](/wiki/Rodrigues_flying_fox \"Rodrigues flying fox\")\n* [Livingstone's fruit bat](/wiki/Livingstone%27s_fruit_bat \"Livingstone's fruit bat\")",
"### Butterfly Kaleidoscope",
"In 2019, a butterfly walkthrough tunnel was built and opened by Princess Anne. It contains [Menelaus blue morpho\\|butterfly](/wiki/Morpho_menelaus \"Morpho menelaus\") species and some [giant tortoises](/wiki/Galapagos_giant_tortoise \"Galapagos giant tortoise\").",
"### Tortoise Tunnel",
"Opened in 2023 this is a new temperature controlled home for 4 [Aldabra giant tortoise](/wiki/Aldabra_giant_tortoise \"Aldabra giant tortoise\").",
"### Kirindy Forest",
"A major renovation project was to transform the Walled Gardens into an area marked Kirindy Forest. Based on the dry forests of Madagascar, the area is designed to showcase the work being done with the native species. There are homes for lemurs, giant jumping rats, mongooses and a walkthrough aviary.",
"* [Black\\-and\\-white ruffed lemur](/wiki/Black-and-white_ruffed_lemur \"Black-and-white ruffed lemur\")\n* [Red\\-fronted brown lemur](/wiki/Red-fronted_brown_lemur \"Red-fronted brown lemur\")\n* [Aye\\-aye](/wiki/Aye-aye \"Aye-aye\")\n* [Narrow\\-striped mongoose](/wiki/Narrow-striped_mongoose \"Narrow-striped mongoose\")\n* [Malagasy giant rat](/wiki/Malagasy_giant_rat \"Malagasy giant rat\")",
"Kirindy Walkthrough Aviary\n* [Hammerkop](/wiki/Hammerkop \"Hammerkop\")\n* [Meller's duck](/wiki/Meller%27s_duck \"Meller's duck\")\n* [Madagascar crested ibis](/wiki/Madagascar_crested_ibis \"Madagascar crested ibis\")\n* [Red fody](/wiki/Red_fody \"Red fody\")\n* [Namaqua dove](/wiki/Namaqua_dove \"Namaqua dove\")",
"### Conservation successes",
"In 1976 there were only four [Mauritius kestrel](/wiki/Mauritius_kestrel \"Mauritius kestrel\") individuals in the wild with one female. Durrell took the risk of taking a recent clutch of eggs and had them hatched successfully – rebuilding the species, almost from scratch. The conservation for the species has moved on to the next stage and its focus has returned to Mauritius, re\\-establishing the species in the community and [ecosystem](/wiki/Ecosystem \"Ecosystem\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"Originally extinct from the wild, the zoo was part of the coalition of zoos which together brought the [Przewalski's horse](/wiki/Przewalski%27s_horse \"Przewalski's horse\") species from the brink of extinction.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
""
] |
Baseball career
---------------
In 1973, he signed with the [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals "Kansas City Royals") but was released in 1974\. He signed with the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates "Pittsburgh Pirates") in 1975\. On August 5, 1980, Salazar, along with [Rick Lancellotti](/wiki/Rick_Lancellotti "Rick Lancellotti"), was traded to the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres "San Diego Padres") for a player to be named later and [Kurt Bevacqua](/wiki/Kurt_Bevacqua "Kurt Bevacqua"). The Padres later sent [Mark Lee](/wiki/Mark_Lee_%28right-handed_pitcher%29 "Mark Lee (right-handed pitcher)") to Pittsburgh to complete the trade. After seven minors seasons, finally, he got a chance with San Diego in the 1980 season.
An extremely versatile reserve who played every position but catcher in his career, Salazar was the Padres' [third baseman](/wiki/Third_baseman "Third baseman") between 1981 and 1983\. In [1984](/wiki/1984_San_Diego_Padres_season "1984 San Diego Padres season"), they acquired 39\-year\-old [Graig Nettles](/wiki/Graig_Nettles "Graig Nettles"), who [platooned](/wiki/Platoon_system "Platoon system") with Salazar at third base. The Padres won the [National League pennant](/wiki/List_of_National_League_pennant_winners "List of National League pennant winners"),{{cite web\|first\=Steve\|last\=Goldman\|title\=You Could Look It Up: 1984 Part III: Ghostbusters\|date\=February 19, 2014\|work\=Baseball Prospectus\|url\=https://www.baseballprospectus.com/news/article/2578/you\-could\-look\-it\-up\-1984\-part\-iii\-ghostbusters/\|access\-date\=November 7, 2022}} before losing [the World Series](/wiki/1984_World_Series "1984 World Series") in five games to the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers "Detroit Tigers").{{cite news\|last\=Center \|first\=Bill \|title\=Chemistry 101 \|date\=October 26, 2004 \|newspaper\=The San Diego Union\-Tribune \|url\=http://www.utsandiego.com/sports/padres/20041026\-9999\-lz1s26chem.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208155053/http://www.utsandiego.com/sports/padres/20041026\-9999\-lz1s26chem.html \|archive\-date\=December 8, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=mdy }} Salazar was traded to the White Sox along with [Ozzie Guillén](/wiki/Ozzie_Guill%C3%A9n "Ozzie Guillén") ([1985](/wiki/1985_in_sports "1985 in sports")), and returned to the Padres as a free agent ([1987](/wiki/1987_in_sports "1987 in sports")). Then, he signed with Detroit ([1988](/wiki/1988_in_sports "1988 in sports")), before being dealt back to San Diego. Salazar finished his career with the Cubs.
In his first stint with the Padres, Salazar hit 29 [home runs](/wiki/Home_run "Home run") with 187 [runs batted in](/wiki/Runs_batted_in "Runs batted in") and 109 [stolen bases](/wiki/Stolen_base "Stolen base") in 525 games. In 126 games with the White Sox, he played on [third base](/wiki/Third_baseman "Third baseman"), [first base](/wiki/First_baseman "First baseman"), [shortstop](/wiki/Shortstop "Shortstop") and [outfield](/wiki/Outfielder "Outfielder") (eventually was [DH](/wiki/Designated_hitter "Designated hitter") and [relief pitcher](/wiki/Relief_pitcher "Relief pitcher")), [batting](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)") .245 with 10 homers and 45 RBI. For Detroit, mostly in the outfield, he hit .270, 12, 62\. Also, he kept the Tigers in a pennant race by filling in at shortstop for injured [Alan Trammell](/wiki/Alan_Trammell "Alan Trammell").
On August 31, [1989](/wiki/1989_in_sports "1989 in sports"), a few minutes before the postseason rosters must be filed, the Cubs obtained Salazar from San Diego in a last effort to replace their four slumping third basemen. Salazar gave the club a lift in September, playing a solid third base and batting .325 (26\-80\) with 12 RBI and a .357 [on\-base percentage](/wiki/On-base_percentage "On-base percentage"). The Cubs won the [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28baseball%29 "National League (baseball)") East division title. The next three seasons Salazar played predominantly on third base, batting .243 with 31 homers, 110 RBI, and 78 [runs](/wiki/Run_%28baseball_statistics%29 "Run (baseball statistics)") in 316 games.
In a 1,302\-game career, Salazar batted .261 with 179 home runs, 653 RBI, 438 runs scored, 1070 [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball_statistics%29 "Hit (baseball statistics)"), 144 [doubles](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 "Double (baseball)"), 33 [triples](/wiki/Triple_%28baseball%29 "Triple (baseball)") and 117 stolen bases. Salazar was also a valuable [pinch\-hitter](/wiki/Pinch_hitter_%28baseball%29 "Pinch hitter (baseball)") in his career. He went 28\-for\-91 for a .308 of batting average, with four home runs and 17 runs batted in.
He has served as a hitting coach with the [Louisville RiverBats](/wiki/Louisville_RiverBats "Louisville RiverBats") (1999\), [Indianapolis Indians](/wiki/Indianapolis_Indians "Indianapolis Indians") (2000\), [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers "Milwaukee Brewers"), [Jacksonville Suns](/wiki/Jacksonville_Suns "Jacksonville Suns") (2008\) and [Chattanooga Lookouts](/wiki/Chattanooga_Lookouts "Chattanooga Lookouts") (2009\).
Salazar was inducted into the [Hispanic Heritage Baseball Museum Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hispanic_Heritage_Baseball_Museum_Hall_of_Fame "Hispanic Heritage Baseball Museum Hall of Fame") in 2010\.
Salazar joined the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves "Atlanta Braves") organization in 2011 and was poised to serve as the manager of their [Class A\-Advanced](/wiki/Class_A-Advanced "Class A-Advanced") minor league affiliate, the [Lynchburg Hillcats](/wiki/Lynchburg_Hillcats "Lynchburg Hillcats") of the [Carolina League](/wiki/Carolina_League "Carolina League"). On March 9, 2011, he was struck in the face by a foul ball hit by Braves catcher [Brian McCann](/wiki/Brian_McCann_%28baseball%29 "Brian McCann (baseball)") during a spring training game between the Braves and the [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals "St. Louis Cardinals"). He was airlifted to a local hospital to undergo surgery.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/spring2011/news/story?id\=6201841\|title\=Luis Salazar has surgery after liner\|work\=\[\[ESPN.com]]\|date\=March 10, 2011\|access\-date\=May 8, 2011}} Salazar had his left eye [removed](/wiki/Enucleation_of_the_eye "Enucleation of the eye") on March 15, 2011, due to the injuries he sustained from the incident.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/spring2011/news/story?id\=6223098\|title\=Luis Salazar's eye removed in surgery\|date\=March 16, 2011\|work\=\[\[ESPN.com]]\|access\-date\=May 8, 2011}} After the injury, Salazar stated that he intended to continue working for the Braves organization, and he was expected to return to manage the Hillcats once medically cleared to return to work.{{cite web\|url\=http://blogs.ajc.com/atlanta\-braves\-blog/2011/03/23/salazar\-returns\-2\-weeks\-after\-catastrophic\-eye\-injury/\|title\=Salazar returns, 2 weeks after catastrophic eye injury\|last\=O'Brien\|first\=David\|publisher\=\[\[The Atlanta Journal\-Constitution\|AJC.com]]\|date\=March 23, 2011\|access\-date\=May 8, 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326193757/http://blogs.ajc.com/atlanta\-braves\-blog/2011/03/23/salazar\-returns\-2\-weeks\-after\-catastrophic\-eye\-injury/\|archive\-date\=March 26, 2011}} Salazar returned to the Hillcats dugout on April 15, 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.minorleaguebaseball.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20110416\&content\_id\=17846056\&vkey\=news\_milb\&fext\=.jsp\|title\=Salazar manages Hillcats' home opener\|work\=\[\[MLB.com]]\|last\=Smith\|first\=Daren\|date\=April 16, 2011\|access\-date\=May 8, 2011}}
Salazar was named manager for the A advanced [Florida Fire Frogs](/wiki/Florida_Fire_Frogs "Florida Fire Frogs") in the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves "Atlanta Braves") organization for the 2018 season.
|
[
"Baseball career\n---------------",
"In 1973, he signed with the [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals \"Kansas City Royals\") but was released in 1974\\. He signed with the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates \"Pittsburgh Pirates\") in 1975\\. On August 5, 1980, Salazar, along with [Rick Lancellotti](/wiki/Rick_Lancellotti \"Rick Lancellotti\"), was traded to the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres \"San Diego Padres\") for a player to be named later and [Kurt Bevacqua](/wiki/Kurt_Bevacqua \"Kurt Bevacqua\"). The Padres later sent [Mark Lee](/wiki/Mark_Lee_%28right-handed_pitcher%29 \"Mark Lee (right-handed pitcher)\") to Pittsburgh to complete the trade. After seven minors seasons, finally, he got a chance with San Diego in the 1980 season.",
"An extremely versatile reserve who played every position but catcher in his career, Salazar was the Padres' [third baseman](/wiki/Third_baseman \"Third baseman\") between 1981 and 1983\\. In [1984](/wiki/1984_San_Diego_Padres_season \"1984 San Diego Padres season\"), they acquired 39\\-year\\-old [Graig Nettles](/wiki/Graig_Nettles \"Graig Nettles\"), who [platooned](/wiki/Platoon_system \"Platoon system\") with Salazar at third base. The Padres won the [National League pennant](/wiki/List_of_National_League_pennant_winners \"List of National League pennant winners\"),{{cite web\\|first\\=Steve\\|last\\=Goldman\\|title\\=You Could Look It Up: 1984 Part III: Ghostbusters\\|date\\=February 19, 2014\\|work\\=Baseball Prospectus\\|url\\=https://www.baseballprospectus.com/news/article/2578/you\\-could\\-look\\-it\\-up\\-1984\\-part\\-iii\\-ghostbusters/\\|access\\-date\\=November 7, 2022}} before losing [the World Series](/wiki/1984_World_Series \"1984 World Series\") in five games to the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers \"Detroit Tigers\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Center \\|first\\=Bill \\|title\\=Chemistry 101 \\|date\\=October 26, 2004 \\|newspaper\\=The San Diego Union\\-Tribune \\|url\\=http://www.utsandiego.com/sports/padres/20041026\\-9999\\-lz1s26chem.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208155053/http://www.utsandiego.com/sports/padres/20041026\\-9999\\-lz1s26chem.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 8, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=mdy }} Salazar was traded to the White Sox along with [Ozzie Guillén](/wiki/Ozzie_Guill%C3%A9n \"Ozzie Guillén\") ([1985](/wiki/1985_in_sports \"1985 in sports\")), and returned to the Padres as a free agent ([1987](/wiki/1987_in_sports \"1987 in sports\")). Then, he signed with Detroit ([1988](/wiki/1988_in_sports \"1988 in sports\")), before being dealt back to San Diego. Salazar finished his career with the Cubs.",
"In his first stint with the Padres, Salazar hit 29 [home runs](/wiki/Home_run \"Home run\") with 187 [runs batted in](/wiki/Runs_batted_in \"Runs batted in\") and 109 [stolen bases](/wiki/Stolen_base \"Stolen base\") in 525 games. In 126 games with the White Sox, he played on [third base](/wiki/Third_baseman \"Third baseman\"), [first base](/wiki/First_baseman \"First baseman\"), [shortstop](/wiki/Shortstop \"Shortstop\") and [outfield](/wiki/Outfielder \"Outfielder\") (eventually was [DH](/wiki/Designated_hitter \"Designated hitter\") and [relief pitcher](/wiki/Relief_pitcher \"Relief pitcher\")), [batting](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\") .245 with 10 homers and 45 RBI. For Detroit, mostly in the outfield, he hit .270, 12, 62\\. Also, he kept the Tigers in a pennant race by filling in at shortstop for injured [Alan Trammell](/wiki/Alan_Trammell \"Alan Trammell\").",
"On August 31, [1989](/wiki/1989_in_sports \"1989 in sports\"), a few minutes before the postseason rosters must be filed, the Cubs obtained Salazar from San Diego in a last effort to replace their four slumping third basemen. Salazar gave the club a lift in September, playing a solid third base and batting .325 (26\\-80\\) with 12 RBI and a .357 [on\\-base percentage](/wiki/On-base_percentage \"On-base percentage\"). The Cubs won the [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28baseball%29 \"National League (baseball)\") East division title. The next three seasons Salazar played predominantly on third base, batting .243 with 31 homers, 110 RBI, and 78 [runs](/wiki/Run_%28baseball_statistics%29 \"Run (baseball statistics)\") in 316 games.",
"In a 1,302\\-game career, Salazar batted .261 with 179 home runs, 653 RBI, 438 runs scored, 1070 [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball_statistics%29 \"Hit (baseball statistics)\"), 144 [doubles](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 \"Double (baseball)\"), 33 [triples](/wiki/Triple_%28baseball%29 \"Triple (baseball)\") and 117 stolen bases. Salazar was also a valuable [pinch\\-hitter](/wiki/Pinch_hitter_%28baseball%29 \"Pinch hitter (baseball)\") in his career. He went 28\\-for\\-91 for a .308 of batting average, with four home runs and 17 runs batted in.",
"He has served as a hitting coach with the [Louisville RiverBats](/wiki/Louisville_RiverBats \"Louisville RiverBats\") (1999\\), [Indianapolis Indians](/wiki/Indianapolis_Indians \"Indianapolis Indians\") (2000\\), [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers \"Milwaukee Brewers\"), [Jacksonville Suns](/wiki/Jacksonville_Suns \"Jacksonville Suns\") (2008\\) and [Chattanooga Lookouts](/wiki/Chattanooga_Lookouts \"Chattanooga Lookouts\") (2009\\).",
"Salazar was inducted into the [Hispanic Heritage Baseball Museum Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hispanic_Heritage_Baseball_Museum_Hall_of_Fame \"Hispanic Heritage Baseball Museum Hall of Fame\") in 2010\\.",
"Salazar joined the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves \"Atlanta Braves\") organization in 2011 and was poised to serve as the manager of their [Class A\\-Advanced](/wiki/Class_A-Advanced \"Class A-Advanced\") minor league affiliate, the [Lynchburg Hillcats](/wiki/Lynchburg_Hillcats \"Lynchburg Hillcats\") of the [Carolina League](/wiki/Carolina_League \"Carolina League\"). On March 9, 2011, he was struck in the face by a foul ball hit by Braves catcher [Brian McCann](/wiki/Brian_McCann_%28baseball%29 \"Brian McCann (baseball)\") during a spring training game between the Braves and the [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals \"St. Louis Cardinals\"). He was airlifted to a local hospital to undergo surgery.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/spring2011/news/story?id\\=6201841\\|title\\=Luis Salazar has surgery after liner\\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN.com]]\\|date\\=March 10, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2011}} Salazar had his left eye [removed](/wiki/Enucleation_of_the_eye \"Enucleation of the eye\") on March 15, 2011, due to the injuries he sustained from the incident.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/spring2011/news/story?id\\=6223098\\|title\\=Luis Salazar's eye removed in surgery\\|date\\=March 16, 2011\\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN.com]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2011}} After the injury, Salazar stated that he intended to continue working for the Braves organization, and he was expected to return to manage the Hillcats once medically cleared to return to work.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://blogs.ajc.com/atlanta\\-braves\\-blog/2011/03/23/salazar\\-returns\\-2\\-weeks\\-after\\-catastrophic\\-eye\\-injury/\\|title\\=Salazar returns, 2 weeks after catastrophic eye injury\\|last\\=O'Brien\\|first\\=David\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution\\|AJC.com]]\\|date\\=March 23, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326193757/http://blogs.ajc.com/atlanta\\-braves\\-blog/2011/03/23/salazar\\-returns\\-2\\-weeks\\-after\\-catastrophic\\-eye\\-injury/\\|archive\\-date\\=March 26, 2011}} Salazar returned to the Hillcats dugout on April 15, 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.minorleaguebaseball.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20110416\\&content\\_id\\=17846056\\&vkey\\=news\\_milb\\&fext\\=.jsp\\|title\\=Salazar manages Hillcats' home opener\\|work\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]\\|last\\=Smith\\|first\\=Daren\\|date\\=April 16, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2011}}",
"Salazar was named manager for the A advanced [Florida Fire Frogs](/wiki/Florida_Fire_Frogs \"Florida Fire Frogs\") in the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves \"Atlanta Braves\") organization for the 2018 season.",
""
] |
Bali
----
[thumb\|right\|A Balinese statuette of a woman made from Chinese cash coins.](/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_een_vrouw_gemaakt_van_Chinese_kepeng-munten_TMnr_740-52.jpg "COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van een vrouw gemaakt van Chinese kepeng-munten TMnr 740-52.jpg")
According to a popular legend Chinese cash coins ([Balinese](/wiki/Balinese_language "Balinese language"): *Pis Bolong*) were introduced to [Bali](/wiki/Bali_%28island%29 "Bali (island)") around the year 12 AD when the ancient Balinese King [Sri Maharaja Aji Jayapangus](/wiki/Sri_Maharaja_Aji_Jayapangus "Sri Maharaja Aji Jayapangus") married the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty") princess [Kang Cin Wei](/wiki/Kang_Cin_Wei "Kang Cin Wei") and the princess asked the King if Chinese cash coins could become a part of all rituals in Bali, which at the time were considered to be one of the most important things in the daily lives of the [Balinese people](/wiki/Balinese_people "Balinese people"). After which Chinese cash coins would become a part of the Balinese [monetary system](/wiki/Monetary_system "Monetary system") replacing [barter](/wiki/Barter "Barter").{{cite web\|url\= https://www.baliaround.com/chinese\-coins\-in\-balinese\-life/\|title\= Chinese Coins in Balinese Life.\|date\=2008\|accessdate\=9 March 2019\|author\= Bali Around (Bali Hotels and Travel Guide by Baliaround.com).\|language\=en}} Another popular story claims that a Chinese traveler named [Fa\-Hien](/wiki/Faxian "Faxian") introduced cash coins to the region when he went on a journey to what are today called [India](/wiki/India "India") and [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") but in 414 AD his ship was stranded on Java after his ship was attacked and damaged by storms. The reliability of these stories is questionable as Chinese cash coins only started appearing in the rest of [Nusantara](/wiki/Nusantara_%28archipelago%29 "Nusantara (archipelago)") around the 13th century, while Dutch historian R. Gorrid claims that cash coins were already known in Bali around 882 AD.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.gustibali.com/mystical\-power\-pis\-bolong/\|title\= The Mystical Power of "Pis Bolong".\|date\=2019\|accessdate\=9 March 2019\|author\= Gusti Bali\|language\=en}}
In Bali it is believed that dolls made from cash coins (or *Pis Bolong* in Balinese) strung together by cotton threads would guarantee that all the organs and body parts of the deceased will be in the right place during their [reincarnation](/wiki/Reincarnation "Reincarnation").Australian Museum [Kepeng (Chinese coins) Bali, Indonesia. Australian Museum Collection](https://australianmuseum.net.au/image/kepeng-chinese-coins) Last update: 27 October 2009\. Access date: 03 October 2017\.[Tropenmuseum](/wiki/Tropenmuseum "Tropenmuseum") \- [Bij een begrafenis op Bali worden op een graf offers reisbenodigdheden geld (kèpèngs) en voedsel voor de dode geplaatst TMnr 10003255](http://collectie.wereldculturen.nl/default.aspx?idx=ALL&field=*&search=10003255). Retrieved: 09 March 2019\. (in [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_language "Dutch language")).
When the [Portuguese](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal "Kingdom of Portugal") and [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic") arrived around the 17th century to the [Bali Kingdom](/wiki/Bali_Kingdom "Bali Kingdom"), European influence did not suppress the circulation of Balinese cash coins but were supplanted with additional European coinages. After [Indonesian independence](/wiki/Indonesian_independence "Indonesian independence"), cash coins would remain in the daily usage of the Balinese people well after the introduction of the [Indonesian rupiah](/wiki/Indonesian_rupiah "Indonesian rupiah"). Cash coins were used by the Balinese people in their day\-to\-day lives up until the year 1970, where they were used to buy things like household essentials at marketplaces as well food at schools for children.{{cite web\|url\= https://e27\.co/inevitable\-marriage\-bitcoin\-silicon\-bali\-20160712/\|title\= The inevitable marriage of bitcoin and Silicon Bali \- While not glaringly evident, the cultural, financial, historical and even geographical facts of Bali make it the perfect place for bitcoin.\|date\=\|accessdate\=8 March 2019\|author\= Lucia Z. Wang\|publisher\= e27\|language\=en}}{{cite web\|url\= https://sg.news.yahoo.com/inevitable\-marriage\-bitcoin\-silicon\-bali\-103805545\.html\|title\= The inevitable marriage of bitcoin and Silicon Bali \- While not glaringly evident, the cultural, financial, historical and even geographical facts of Bali make it the perfect place for bitcoin.\|date\=12 July 2016\|accessdate\=8 March 2019\|author\= Lucia Z. Wang\|publisher\= \[\[Yahoo! News]] Singapore\|language\=en}}
### Modern usage
{{See also\|Indonesian numismatic charm\#Bali}}
Ceremonies in Bali are often considered "incomplete" without the presence of cash coins, however despite their omnipresence in Balinese [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") rituals the quality of Chinese cash coins has been steadily decreasing while the demand for them has been increasing rocketing sky\-high levels due to the explosive population growth the island has experienced. Another reason for this decline in stock is because during certain Balinese rituals and ceremonies such as the [Ngaben](/wiki/Ngaben "Ngaben") cremations (also known as Pitra Yadyna or Pelebon) or rituals for the [Butha kala](/wiki/Buta_Kola "Buta Kola") (the lower deities of Hinduism), the cash coins cannot be re\-used for other ceremonies. The higher demand met with a lower stock of authentic Chinese cash coins have prompted many local Balinese to produce their own rough duplicate cash coins which are often diminutive in size and weight, thinner, and the [Traditional Chinese characters](/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters "Traditional Chinese characters") on them are often vague or have even completely disappeared. These local duplicates usually sell for 200 rupiah per coin in the year 2008 while authentic Chinese cash coins go for around 1500 rupiah around that time.
Because many people simply don't have a choice many people will buy the modern duplicates while for other people their relatively low price might be the main motivation for their preference because in a minor ritual in a small local temple the quantity of cash coins needed may amount to many thousands of rupiah making it an expensive endeavour if they would prefer authentic Chinese cash coins. Despite this, the usage of imitation cash coins is actually not recommended becoming a rather big problem for many of these rituals, this has become such a big problem that it has come to the attention of the [Indonesian government](/wiki/Government_of_Indonesia "Government of Indonesia"). As a response to this situation [Bali Cultural Office](/wiki/Bali_Cultural_Office "Bali Cultural Office") formed the [Bali Heritage Trust](/wiki/Bali_Heritage_Trust "Bali Heritage Trust") with a vision to keep the [local Balinese culture](/wiki/Culture_of_Bali "Culture of Bali") "pure" and in 2004 launched a programme to make localised Balinese versions of Chinese cash coins which was initiated in the [Tojan](/wiki/Tojan "Tojan") village, [Klungkung Regency](/wiki/Klungkung_Regency "Klungkung Regency") building a factory there that mass\-produces cash coins for Hindu rituals and accessories which is positioned there alongside a showroom for these cash coins and the [UD Kamasan Bali](/wiki/UD_Kamasan_Bali "UD Kamasan Bali"), these coins sold for 750 rupiah in 2008 which was higher than other imitations but cheaper than authentic Chinese cash coins. This project was also facilitated by the [United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization](/wiki/United_Nations_Educational%2C_Scientific_and_Cultural_Organization "United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization") (UNESCO).
The cash coin factory in Tojan has equipment to forge and merge different types of metal in its basement while the front of the factory features the showroom, and at the top floor of the factory is where the cash coins\-based accessories are made. This factory produces cash coins which differ greatly from the original Chinese cash coins, one of the ways these new cash coins are different is by the fact that they are produced from an alloy known as *Panca Datu* (which translates as the "Five Strengths of Life") made from 5 distinct types of metal, these are [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze"), [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper"), [iron](/wiki/Iron "Iron"), [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"), and [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold") which have all have unique meanings in Balinese culture. According to [Sukma Swacita](/wiki/Sukma_Swacita "Sukma Swacita") (the manager of UD Kamasan Bali in 2008\) these cash coins are additionally made from recycled household materials such as broken water taps, second\-hand irons. Another feature which sets these cash coins apart from the originals is the fact that instead of having Traditional Chinese characters around the square centre hole these cash coins feature the [Balinese characters](/wiki/Balinese_script "Balinese script") representing the strength in the four corner points of the compass ("Sa", "Ba", "Ta", and "A"), over these a [Hindu lotus symbol](/wiki/Padma_%28attribute%29 "Padma (attribute)") is shown. These cash coins are asked for holy blessings in [Penganugerahan](/wiki/Penganugerahan "Penganugerahan") ceremonies in [Pura Besakih](/wiki/Pura_Besakih "Pura Besakih") and at the [Pura Ulun Danu Batur](/wiki/Pura_Ulun_Danu_Batur "Pura Ulun Danu Batur") temple in the hopes that this will convince more people to use these cash coins instead of Chinese cash coins, because of these ceremony [Hindu priests](/wiki/Hindu_priest "Hindu priest") have started recommending using these new cash coins calling them "a ritual necessity". Other than just the cash coins, this factory also produces small statues made from them such as statues of [Bhatara Rambut Sedana](/wiki/Bhatara_Rambut_Sedana "Bhatara Rambut Sedana") who is worshipped by the Hindu people of Bali as the [God of Wealth](/wiki/God_of_Wealth "God of Wealth").
Despite this push for these newly made cash coins by the government some people hold on to the older Chinese cash coins for ritualistic purposes because they believe that such coins have divine powers, this is due to their symbolism and association with [Wayang](/wiki/Wayang "Wayang") characters. Some people believe that cash coins *Rejuna* (the local name for [Arjuna](/wiki/Arjuna "Arjuna")) symbolic markings will supposedly bestow its carrier with the charm and agility of this legendary figure. As of 2008 many people who perform Balinese rituals still prefer original Chinese cash coins over the locally produced versions.
|
[
"Bali\n----",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A Balinese statuette of a woman made from Chinese cash coins.](/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_een_vrouw_gemaakt_van_Chinese_kepeng-munten_TMnr_740-52.jpg \"COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van een vrouw gemaakt van Chinese kepeng-munten TMnr 740-52.jpg\")",
"According to a popular legend Chinese cash coins ([Balinese](/wiki/Balinese_language \"Balinese language\"): *Pis Bolong*) were introduced to [Bali](/wiki/Bali_%28island%29 \"Bali (island)\") around the year 12 AD when the ancient Balinese King [Sri Maharaja Aji Jayapangus](/wiki/Sri_Maharaja_Aji_Jayapangus \"Sri Maharaja Aji Jayapangus\") married the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\") princess [Kang Cin Wei](/wiki/Kang_Cin_Wei \"Kang Cin Wei\") and the princess asked the King if Chinese cash coins could become a part of all rituals in Bali, which at the time were considered to be one of the most important things in the daily lives of the [Balinese people](/wiki/Balinese_people \"Balinese people\"). After which Chinese cash coins would become a part of the Balinese [monetary system](/wiki/Monetary_system \"Monetary system\") replacing [barter](/wiki/Barter \"Barter\").{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.baliaround.com/chinese\\-coins\\-in\\-balinese\\-life/\\|title\\= Chinese Coins in Balinese Life.\\|date\\=2008\\|accessdate\\=9 March 2019\\|author\\= Bali Around (Bali Hotels and Travel Guide by Baliaround.com).\\|language\\=en}} Another popular story claims that a Chinese traveler named [Fa\\-Hien](/wiki/Faxian \"Faxian\") introduced cash coins to the region when he went on a journey to what are today called [India](/wiki/India \"India\") and [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\") but in 414 AD his ship was stranded on Java after his ship was attacked and damaged by storms. The reliability of these stories is questionable as Chinese cash coins only started appearing in the rest of [Nusantara](/wiki/Nusantara_%28archipelago%29 \"Nusantara (archipelago)\") around the 13th century, while Dutch historian R. Gorrid claims that cash coins were already known in Bali around 882 AD.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.gustibali.com/mystical\\-power\\-pis\\-bolong/\\|title\\= The Mystical Power of \"Pis Bolong\".\\|date\\=2019\\|accessdate\\=9 March 2019\\|author\\= Gusti Bali\\|language\\=en}}",
"In Bali it is believed that dolls made from cash coins (or *Pis Bolong* in Balinese) strung together by cotton threads would guarantee that all the organs and body parts of the deceased will be in the right place during their [reincarnation](/wiki/Reincarnation \"Reincarnation\").Australian Museum [Kepeng (Chinese coins) Bali, Indonesia. Australian Museum Collection](https://australianmuseum.net.au/image/kepeng-chinese-coins) Last update: 27 October 2009\\. Access date: 03 October 2017\\.[Tropenmuseum](/wiki/Tropenmuseum \"Tropenmuseum\") \\- [Bij een begrafenis op Bali worden op een graf offers reisbenodigdheden geld (kèpèngs) en voedsel voor de dode geplaatst TMnr 10003255](http://collectie.wereldculturen.nl/default.aspx?idx=ALL&field=*&search=10003255). Retrieved: 09 March 2019\\. (in [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_language \"Dutch language\")).",
"When the [Portuguese](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal \"Kingdom of Portugal\") and [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\") arrived around the 17th century to the [Bali Kingdom](/wiki/Bali_Kingdom \"Bali Kingdom\"), European influence did not suppress the circulation of Balinese cash coins but were supplanted with additional European coinages. After [Indonesian independence](/wiki/Indonesian_independence \"Indonesian independence\"), cash coins would remain in the daily usage of the Balinese people well after the introduction of the [Indonesian rupiah](/wiki/Indonesian_rupiah \"Indonesian rupiah\"). Cash coins were used by the Balinese people in their day\\-to\\-day lives up until the year 1970, where they were used to buy things like household essentials at marketplaces as well food at schools for children.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://e27\\.co/inevitable\\-marriage\\-bitcoin\\-silicon\\-bali\\-20160712/\\|title\\= The inevitable marriage of bitcoin and Silicon Bali \\- While not glaringly evident, the cultural, financial, historical and even geographical facts of Bali make it the perfect place for bitcoin.\\|date\\=\\|accessdate\\=8 March 2019\\|author\\= Lucia Z. Wang\\|publisher\\= e27\\|language\\=en}}{{cite web\\|url\\= https://sg.news.yahoo.com/inevitable\\-marriage\\-bitcoin\\-silicon\\-bali\\-103805545\\.html\\|title\\= The inevitable marriage of bitcoin and Silicon Bali \\- While not glaringly evident, the cultural, financial, historical and even geographical facts of Bali make it the perfect place for bitcoin.\\|date\\=12 July 2016\\|accessdate\\=8 March 2019\\|author\\= Lucia Z. Wang\\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Yahoo! News]] Singapore\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Modern usage",
"{{See also\\|Indonesian numismatic charm\\#Bali}}",
"Ceremonies in Bali are often considered \"incomplete\" without the presence of cash coins, however despite their omnipresence in Balinese [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") rituals the quality of Chinese cash coins has been steadily decreasing while the demand for them has been increasing rocketing sky\\-high levels due to the explosive population growth the island has experienced. Another reason for this decline in stock is because during certain Balinese rituals and ceremonies such as the [Ngaben](/wiki/Ngaben \"Ngaben\") cremations (also known as Pitra Yadyna or Pelebon) or rituals for the [Butha kala](/wiki/Buta_Kola \"Buta Kola\") (the lower deities of Hinduism), the cash coins cannot be re\\-used for other ceremonies. The higher demand met with a lower stock of authentic Chinese cash coins have prompted many local Balinese to produce their own rough duplicate cash coins which are often diminutive in size and weight, thinner, and the [Traditional Chinese characters](/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters \"Traditional Chinese characters\") on them are often vague or have even completely disappeared. These local duplicates usually sell for 200 rupiah per coin in the year 2008 while authentic Chinese cash coins go for around 1500 rupiah around that time.",
"Because many people simply don't have a choice many people will buy the modern duplicates while for other people their relatively low price might be the main motivation for their preference because in a minor ritual in a small local temple the quantity of cash coins needed may amount to many thousands of rupiah making it an expensive endeavour if they would prefer authentic Chinese cash coins. Despite this, the usage of imitation cash coins is actually not recommended becoming a rather big problem for many of these rituals, this has become such a big problem that it has come to the attention of the [Indonesian government](/wiki/Government_of_Indonesia \"Government of Indonesia\"). As a response to this situation [Bali Cultural Office](/wiki/Bali_Cultural_Office \"Bali Cultural Office\") formed the [Bali Heritage Trust](/wiki/Bali_Heritage_Trust \"Bali Heritage Trust\") with a vision to keep the [local Balinese culture](/wiki/Culture_of_Bali \"Culture of Bali\") \"pure\" and in 2004 launched a programme to make localised Balinese versions of Chinese cash coins which was initiated in the [Tojan](/wiki/Tojan \"Tojan\") village, [Klungkung Regency](/wiki/Klungkung_Regency \"Klungkung Regency\") building a factory there that mass\\-produces cash coins for Hindu rituals and accessories which is positioned there alongside a showroom for these cash coins and the [UD Kamasan Bali](/wiki/UD_Kamasan_Bali \"UD Kamasan Bali\"), these coins sold for 750 rupiah in 2008 which was higher than other imitations but cheaper than authentic Chinese cash coins. This project was also facilitated by the [United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization](/wiki/United_Nations_Educational%2C_Scientific_and_Cultural_Organization \"United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization\") (UNESCO).",
"The cash coin factory in Tojan has equipment to forge and merge different types of metal in its basement while the front of the factory features the showroom, and at the top floor of the factory is where the cash coins\\-based accessories are made. This factory produces cash coins which differ greatly from the original Chinese cash coins, one of the ways these new cash coins are different is by the fact that they are produced from an alloy known as *Panca Datu* (which translates as the \"Five Strengths of Life\") made from 5 distinct types of metal, these are [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\"), [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\"), [iron](/wiki/Iron \"Iron\"), [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"), and [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\") which have all have unique meanings in Balinese culture. According to [Sukma Swacita](/wiki/Sukma_Swacita \"Sukma Swacita\") (the manager of UD Kamasan Bali in 2008\\) these cash coins are additionally made from recycled household materials such as broken water taps, second\\-hand irons. Another feature which sets these cash coins apart from the originals is the fact that instead of having Traditional Chinese characters around the square centre hole these cash coins feature the [Balinese characters](/wiki/Balinese_script \"Balinese script\") representing the strength in the four corner points of the compass (\"Sa\", \"Ba\", \"Ta\", and \"A\"), over these a [Hindu lotus symbol](/wiki/Padma_%28attribute%29 \"Padma (attribute)\") is shown. These cash coins are asked for holy blessings in [Penganugerahan](/wiki/Penganugerahan \"Penganugerahan\") ceremonies in [Pura Besakih](/wiki/Pura_Besakih \"Pura Besakih\") and at the [Pura Ulun Danu Batur](/wiki/Pura_Ulun_Danu_Batur \"Pura Ulun Danu Batur\") temple in the hopes that this will convince more people to use these cash coins instead of Chinese cash coins, because of these ceremony [Hindu priests](/wiki/Hindu_priest \"Hindu priest\") have started recommending using these new cash coins calling them \"a ritual necessity\". Other than just the cash coins, this factory also produces small statues made from them such as statues of [Bhatara Rambut Sedana](/wiki/Bhatara_Rambut_Sedana \"Bhatara Rambut Sedana\") who is worshipped by the Hindu people of Bali as the [God of Wealth](/wiki/God_of_Wealth \"God of Wealth\").",
"Despite this push for these newly made cash coins by the government some people hold on to the older Chinese cash coins for ritualistic purposes because they believe that such coins have divine powers, this is due to their symbolism and association with [Wayang](/wiki/Wayang \"Wayang\") characters. Some people believe that cash coins *Rejuna* (the local name for [Arjuna](/wiki/Arjuna \"Arjuna\")) symbolic markings will supposedly bestow its carrier with the charm and agility of this legendary figure. As of 2008 many people who perform Balinese rituals still prefer original Chinese cash coins over the locally produced versions.",
""
] |
History
-------
### DE15\-0
Six Class DE15\-0 locomotives were built between 1967 and 1969 by Kisha and [Nippon Sharyo](/wiki/Nippon_Sharyo "Nippon Sharyo"). The locomotives were based on the Class DE10\-0 design and were equipped with a {{Convert\|1250\|hp\|abbr\=on}} engine and train\-heating steam generator. Locomotive DE15 3 had a snowplough unit designed for clearing single\-track lines, while the other five locomotives were designed for clearing double\-track lines. Initially, the locomotives operated with only one snowplough unit, but locomotives DE15 1 to 3 and 6 were subsequently modified with snowplough units at both ends. DE15 3 was renumbered DE15 2053\.
{{As of\|2016\|04\|01}}, no Class DE15\-0 locomotives remain in service.
### DE15\-1000
Six Class DE15\-1000 locomotives were built between 1971 and 1973 by Nippon Sharyo using the DML61ZB engine uprated to {{Convert\|1350\|hp\|abbr\=on}}. Locomotive DE15 1002 had a snowplough unit designed for clearing single\-track lines, while the other five locomotives were designed for clearing double\-track lines. Initially, the locomotives operated with only one snowplough unit, but locomotives DE15 1002, 1004, and 1006 were subsequently modified with snowplough units at both ends. DE15 1002 was renumbered DE15 2052\.
Type for clearing double\-track lines, fitted with {{Convert\|1350\|hp\|abbr\=on}} engine and train\-heating steam generator.
{{As of\|2016\|04\|01}}, no Class DE15\-1000 locomotives remain in service.
### DE15\-1500
18 Class DE15\-1500 locomotives were initially built, initially with a snowplough unit at only one end. Locomotives DE15 1501 to 1504, 1507, 1509 to 1512, 1514 to 1516, and 1518 were designed for clearing double\-track lines, while the others were designed for single\-track lines. Like the DE15\-1000, these locomotives were equipped with a {{Convert\|1350\|hp\|abbr\=on}} engine, but had no train\-heating steam generator.
From 1976, a further batch of locomotives was built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Nippon Sharyo with snowplough units at both ends and designed for clearing double\-track lines.
{{As of\|2016\|04\|01}}, 15 Class DE15\-1500 locomotives remain in service, operated by JR Hokkaido (nine locomotives), JR East (two locomotive), and JR West (four locomotive).
File:JR HOKKAIDO DE15 1501\.jpg\|JR Hokkaido DE15 1501 hauling a ''Marimo'' service
File:JNR DE15 1543 20090126\.jpg\|JR Hokkaido DE15 1543 in January 2009 with snowplough units attached
File:JNR DE15 1525 Naebo 20100911\.jpg\|JR Hokkaido DE15 1525 in September 2010 with its snowplough units removed
### DE15\-2050
This subclass consisted of two locomotives for clearing single\-track lines. DE15 2052 was converted from DE15 1002 and was fitted with a {{Convert\|1350\|hp\|abbr\=on}} engine, while DE15 2053 was converted from DE15 3 and was fitted with a {{Convert\|1250\|hp\|abbr\=on}} engine.
{{As of\|2016\|04\|01}}, one Class DE15\-2050 locomotive remains in service, DE15 2052, operated by JR West.
File:DE15 2052 Tottori 20060101\.jpg\|JR West DE15 2052 in January 2006
### DE15\-2500
This subclass was built between 1976 and 1979 by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Nippon Sharyo with snowplough units at both ends and designed for clearing single\-track lines. The locomotives were equipped with a {{Convert\|1350\|hp\|abbr\=on}} engine and no train\-heating steam generator.
{{As of\|2016\|04\|01}}, eight Class DE15\-2500 locomotives remain in service, operated by JR Hokkaido (five locomotives) and JR West (three locomotives).
File:DE15 2525 Toyooka Station.jpg\|JR West DE15 2525 in July 2010
### DE15\-2550
Five Class DE15\-2500 locomotives were formed by modifying Class DE15\-1500 locomotives with the addition of a second snowplough unit at the other end. These were designed for clearing single\-track lines.
| Original number | Modified number |
| --- | --- |
| DE15 1505 | DE15 2555 |
| DE15 1506 | DE15 2556 |
| DE15 1508 | DE15 2558 |
| DE15 1513 | DE15 2563 |
| DE15 1517 | DE15 2567 |
{{As of\|2016\|04\|01}}, one Class DE15\-2550 locomotive remains in service, DE15 2558, operated by JR West.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### DE15\\-0",
"Six Class DE15\\-0 locomotives were built between 1967 and 1969 by Kisha and [Nippon Sharyo](/wiki/Nippon_Sharyo \"Nippon Sharyo\"). The locomotives were based on the Class DE10\\-0 design and were equipped with a {{Convert\\|1250\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}} engine and train\\-heating steam generator. Locomotive DE15 3 had a snowplough unit designed for clearing single\\-track lines, while the other five locomotives were designed for clearing double\\-track lines. Initially, the locomotives operated with only one snowplough unit, but locomotives DE15 1 to 3 and 6 were subsequently modified with snowplough units at both ends. DE15 3 was renumbered DE15 2053\\.",
"{{As of\\|2016\\|04\\|01}}, no Class DE15\\-0 locomotives remain in service.",
"### DE15\\-1000",
"Six Class DE15\\-1000 locomotives were built between 1971 and 1973 by Nippon Sharyo using the DML61ZB engine uprated to {{Convert\\|1350\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}}. Locomotive DE15 1002 had a snowplough unit designed for clearing single\\-track lines, while the other five locomotives were designed for clearing double\\-track lines. Initially, the locomotives operated with only one snowplough unit, but locomotives DE15 1002, 1004, and 1006 were subsequently modified with snowplough units at both ends. DE15 1002 was renumbered DE15 2052\\.",
"Type for clearing double\\-track lines, fitted with {{Convert\\|1350\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}} engine and train\\-heating steam generator.",
"{{As of\\|2016\\|04\\|01}}, no Class DE15\\-1000 locomotives remain in service.",
"### DE15\\-1500",
"18 Class DE15\\-1500 locomotives were initially built, initially with a snowplough unit at only one end. Locomotives DE15 1501 to 1504, 1507, 1509 to 1512, 1514 to 1516, and 1518 were designed for clearing double\\-track lines, while the others were designed for single\\-track lines. Like the DE15\\-1000, these locomotives were equipped with a {{Convert\\|1350\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}} engine, but had no train\\-heating steam generator.",
"From 1976, a further batch of locomotives was built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Nippon Sharyo with snowplough units at both ends and designed for clearing double\\-track lines.",
"{{As of\\|2016\\|04\\|01}}, 15 Class DE15\\-1500 locomotives remain in service, operated by JR Hokkaido (nine locomotives), JR East (two locomotive), and JR West (four locomotive).",
"File:JR HOKKAIDO DE15 1501\\.jpg\\|JR Hokkaido DE15 1501 hauling a ''Marimo'' service\nFile:JNR DE15 1543 20090126\\.jpg\\|JR Hokkaido DE15 1543 in January 2009 with snowplough units attached\nFile:JNR DE15 1525 Naebo 20100911\\.jpg\\|JR Hokkaido DE15 1525 in September 2010 with its snowplough units removed",
"",
"### DE15\\-2050",
"This subclass consisted of two locomotives for clearing single\\-track lines. DE15 2052 was converted from DE15 1002 and was fitted with a {{Convert\\|1350\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}} engine, while DE15 2053 was converted from DE15 3 and was fitted with a {{Convert\\|1250\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}} engine.",
"{{As of\\|2016\\|04\\|01}}, one Class DE15\\-2050 locomotive remains in service, DE15 2052, operated by JR West.",
"",
"File:DE15 2052 Tottori 20060101\\.jpg\\|JR West DE15 2052 in January 2006",
"",
"### DE15\\-2500",
"This subclass was built between 1976 and 1979 by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Nippon Sharyo with snowplough units at both ends and designed for clearing single\\-track lines. The locomotives were equipped with a {{Convert\\|1350\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}} engine and no train\\-heating steam generator.",
"{{As of\\|2016\\|04\\|01}}, eight Class DE15\\-2500 locomotives remain in service, operated by JR Hokkaido (five locomotives) and JR West (three locomotives).",
"",
"File:DE15 2525 Toyooka Station.jpg\\|JR West DE15 2525 in July 2010",
"",
"### DE15\\-2550",
"Five Class DE15\\-2500 locomotives were formed by modifying Class DE15\\-1500 locomotives with the addition of a second snowplough unit at the other end. These were designed for clearing single\\-track lines.",
"",
"| Original number | Modified number |\n| --- | --- |\n| DE15 1505 | DE15 2555 |\n| DE15 1506 | DE15 2556 |\n| DE15 1508 | DE15 2558 |\n| DE15 1513 | DE15 2563 |\n| DE15 1517 | DE15 2567 |",
"{{As of\\|2016\\|04\\|01}}, one Class DE15\\-2550 locomotive remains in service, DE15 2558, operated by JR West.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Ancient and medieval use
In Egyptian society men and women commonly had clean\-shaven or close\-cropped hair and often wore wigs.{{cite book \|title\= The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students, Volume 2 \|last\= Wallenfels \|first\= Ronald \|year\= 2000 \|publisher\= Scribner \|isbn\=9780684805948 \|page\=145}}{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.11141/ia.42\.6\.3 \| issue\=42 \| title\=An Ancient Egyptian Wig: Construction and Reconstruction \| year\=2016 \| journal\=Internet Archaeology \| last1 \= Fletcher \| first1 \= Joann \| last2 \= Salamone \| first2 \= Filippo\| doi\-access \= free}} The [ancient Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") created the wig to shield shaved, hairless heads from the sun. They also wore the wigs on top of their hair using [beeswax](/wiki/Beeswax "Beeswax") and resin to keep the wigs in place. Wealthy Egyptians would wear elaborate wigs and scented [head cones](/wiki/Head_cone "Head cone") of animal fat on top of their wigs. Other ancient cultures, including the [Assyrians](/wiki/Ancient_Assyrians "Ancient Assyrians"),{{cite web\|url\=http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi\-bin/etcsl.cgi?text\=t.1\.4\.1\.1\&charenc\=j\# \|title\=Dumuzid and Jectin\-ana \|website\=The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature \|date\=December 19, 2006 \|access\-date\=March 16, 2013}} [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians "Phoenicians"), [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews") in ancient [Israel](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel "Kingdom of Israel") and [Judea](/wiki/Judaea_%28Roman_province%29 "Judaea (Roman province)"),Mishna tractate Sabbath Chapter 6 Mishna 5 [Greeks](/wiki/Ancient_Greeks "Ancient Greeks"), and [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome"), also used wigs as an everyday fashion.
{{Gallery
\|title\=Examples of ancient wigs
\|width\=200
\|height\=200
\|align\=center
\|File:Ägyptisches Museum Kairo 2016\-03\-29 Nofret 03\.jpg\|Statue of princess \[\[Nofret]] wearing a wig (c. 2613 to 2494 BC)
\|Image:Egypte louvre 286 couple.jpg\|Egyptian couple wearing formal wigs of the 4th or 5th dynasties
\|Image:Nebamun tomb fresco dancers and musicians.png\|Tomb fresco depicting dancers and musicians in elaborate wigs with \[\[head cone]]s. Thebes, Egypt, \[\[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt\|18th Dynasty]].
\|Image:Bust Roman woman Glyptothek Munich 333\.jpg\|Bust of a Roman woman wearing a "diadem" wig, {{Circa\|80 CE}}
\|Image:Wig Headdress, 600\-1000 C.E, 41\.427\.jpg\|''Wig Headdress'', \[\[Wari culture\|Wari People]], 600–1000 CE, \[\[Brooklyn Museum]]
}}
In [China](/wiki/China "China"), the popularization of the wig started in the [Spring and Autumn period](/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period "Spring and Autumn period").{{cite book \|last\=Snodgrass \|first\=Mary Ellen \|title\=World Clothing and Fashion: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence \|year\=2015 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=9781317451679 \|pages\=119–121 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gO9nBwAAQBAJ\&q\=In\+China%2C\+the\+popularization\+of\+the\+wig\+started\+from\+Spring\+and\+Autumn\+period\&pg\=PA121 \|language\=en}}{{citation needed\|date\=May 2017}}
In [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), the upper classes started wearing wigs before the [Nara period](/wiki/Nara_period "Nara period").{{citation needed\|date\=May 2017}}
In [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea"), [gache](/wiki/Gache "Gache") were popular among women during the [Goryeo dynasty](/wiki/Goryeo_dynasty "Goryeo dynasty") until they were banned in the late 18th century.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2017}}
### 16th and 17th centuries
After the [fall of the Western Roman Empire](/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire "Fall of the Western Roman Empire"), the use of wigs fell into disuse in the West for a thousand years until they were revived in the 16th century as a means of compensating for hair loss or improving one's personal appearance.{{cite web \|title\=Fashion: The history of the wig: On a wig and a prayer \|website\=\[\[The Independent]] \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/life\-style/fashion\-the\-history\-of\-the\-wig\-on\-a\-wig\-and\-a\-prayer\-1074469\.html \|date\=January 17, 1999}} They also served a practical purpose: the unhygienic conditions of the time meant that hair attracted [head lice](/wiki/Head_lice "Head lice"), a problem that could be much reduced if natural hair were shaved and replaced with a more easily de\-loused artificial hairpiece.{{cite web\|title\=Perukes, Pomade, and Powder: Hair Care in the 1700s \|date\=January 28, 2015 \|url\=https://livesandlegaciesblog.org/2015/01/28/perukes\-pomade\-powder}} Fur hoods were also used in a similar preventive fashion.
Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig.{{cite web \|url\=http://envywigs.com/a\-brief\-history\-of\-the\-wig\|title\=A Brief History of the Wig\|date\=June 15, 2015}} Queen [Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England") famously wore a red wig, tightly and elaborately curled in a "Roman" style, while among men King [Louis XIII of France](/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France "Louis XIII of France") (1601–1643\) started to pioneer wig\-wearing [in 1624](/wiki/1600%E2%80%931650_in_Western_European_fashion%23Men%27s_fashions "1600–1650 in Western European fashion#Men's fashions") when he had prematurely begun to bald.{{cite web\|author\=Marcel Gomes \|url\=http://thebeautifultimes.wordpress.com/tag/louis\-xiii/ \|title\=Louis XIII \|website\=The Beautiful Times \|access\-date\=March 16, 2013}} This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor [Louis XIV of France](/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France "Louis XIV of France") (1638–1715\), which contributed to its spread in Europe and European\-influenced countries [in the 1660s](/wiki/1650%E2%80%931700_in_Western_European_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion "1650–1700 in Western European fashion#Men's fashion"). Wig\-wearing remained a dominant style among men for about 140 years until the change of dress, affected by the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution"), [in the 1790s](/wiki/1795%E2%80%931820_in_Western_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion "1795–1820 in Western fashion#Men's fashion").
Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English\-speaking world with other French styles when [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England") was [restored to the throne](/wiki/Restoration_%28England%29 "Restoration (England)") in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder\-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist [Samuel Pepys](/wiki/Samuel_Pepys "Samuel Pepys") recorded the day in 1665 that a [barber](/wiki/Barber "Barber") had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of [plague](/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London "Great Plague of London") he was uneasy about wearing it:{{cite book \|title\=The Diary of Samuel Pepys (Volume 9, Page 60\) \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PkbKlB0g2ckC \|author1\=Samuel Pepys \|author2\=Henry Benjamin Wheatley \|year\=1895}}
> 3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster "Westminster") when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague.
Wigs were not without other drawbacks, as Pepys noted on March 27, 1663:
> I did go to the Swan; and there sent for Jervas my old periwig\-maker and he did bring me a periwig; but it was full of [nits](/wiki/Head_louse "Head louse"), so as I was troubled to see it (it being his old fault) and did send him to make it clean.
With wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige. A wigmakers' guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Their job was a skilled one as 17th century wigs were extraordinarily elaborate, covering the back and shoulders and flowing down the chest; not surprisingly, they were also extremely heavy and often uncomfortable to wear. Such wigs were expensive to produce. The best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative.{{cite web \|last\=Chaudhary \|first\=Amit \|title\=History of Hair Wigs \- Why It is in Trend Today \- Artificial Heads of Hair \|url\=https://www.planetofhaircloning.com/history\-of\-hair\-wigs/ \|website\=Planetofhaircloning.com \|date\=July 10, 2018}}
Several contemporary writings which have survived noted that some viewed men who wore wigs as looking deformed and emasculated. It especially attracted disapproval from Puritans, and during times of plague, it was said that wigs were made of hair of plague victims.{{Cite book \|last\=Cockayne \|first\=Emily \|title\=Filth, Noise \& Stench in England \|publisher\=Yale University Press \|year\=2021 \|pages\=66–72}}
Wigs required cleaning using [fuller's earth](/wiki/Fuller%27s_earth "Fuller's earth"), and the powder used to freshen it was made from low grade flour and scented with [pomatum](/wiki/Pomatum "Pomatum").
{{Gallery
\|title\=Examples of wigs in the 16th and 17th centuries
\|width\=250
\|height\=200
\|align\=center
\|File:Elizabeth I (Armada Portrait).jpg\|Queen \[\[Elizabeth I of England\|Elizabeth I]], pictured in 1588
\|File:De Vermont\-Largilliere.jpg\|Nicolas de Vermont
\|File:Ex\-voto a sainte\-genevieve \-Detail\-Largilliere.jpg\|Portrait of men wearing wigs by \[\[Nicolas de Largillière]], 17th century
\|File:Miindo\-Yun.family.of.Haenam\-d1\.jpg\|Korean traditional wig (\[\[gache]])
\|File:Peter\_Lely\_(1618\-1680\)\_(after)\_\-\_James\_Scott\_(1649%E2%80%931685\),\_Duke\_of\_Monmouth,\_KG,\_in\_Garter\_Robes\_\-\_1171154\_\-\_National\_Trust.jpg\|James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, (illegitimate son of \[\[Charles II of England]])
}}
### 18th century
[thumb\|*[Five Orders of Periwigs](/wiki/Five_Orders_of_Periwigs "Five Orders of Periwigs")*, 1761](/wiki/File:William_Hogarth_-_The_Five_Orders_of_Perriwigs.png "William Hogarth - The Five Orders of Perriwigs.png")
[alt\=Wig 1780–1800\|thumb\|Wig, 1780–1800\. Wigs that had the back hair enclosed in a bag were called bag wigs.{{Cite web\|last\=McDowall\|first\=Carolyn\|title\=Adventures in Hair for 18th Century Gentlemen\|url\=https://www.thecultureconcept.com/adventures\-in\-hair\-for\-18th\-century\-gentlemen\|access\-date\=July 19, 2020\|website\=The Culture Concept Circle\|language\=en\-US}}](/wiki/File:Wig_MET_74.153.1g_front_CP4.jpg "Wig MET 74.153.1g front CP4.jpg")
[thumb\|[William Pitt the Younger](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger "William Pitt the Younger") (standing centre) addressing the Commons on the outbreak of the war with France in 1793\. Pitt and members of Parliament wore powdered wigs; in 1795 the Parliament passed the [Duty on Hair Powder Act](/wiki/Duty_on_Hair_Powder_Act_1795 "Duty on Hair Powder Act 1795") which caused the demise of both the fashion for wigs and powder.](/wiki/File:The_House_of_Commons_1793-94_by_Karl_Anton_Hickel.jpg "The House of Commons 1793-94 by Karl Anton Hickel.jpg")
In the 18th century, men's wigs were powdered to give them their distinctive white or off\-white color.{{cite web\|url\=https://medium.com/s/pulling\-at\-threads/when\-did\-men\-stop\-wearing\-wigs\-9e3890ffaeab \|title\=When Did Men Stop Wearing Wigs? \|date\=June 8, 2017}} Women in the 18th century did not wear wigs, but wore a coiffure supplemented by artificial hair or hair from other sources. Powdered wigs (men) and powdered natural hair with supplemental hairpieces (women) became essential for full dress occasions and continued in use until almost the end of the 18th century.
The elaborate form of wigs worn at the coronation of [George III](/wiki/George_III "George III") in 1761 was lampooned by [William Hogarth](/wiki/William_Hogarth "William Hogarth") in his engraving *[Five Orders of Periwigs](/wiki/Five_Orders_of_Periwigs "Five Orders of Periwigs")*. Powdering wigs and extensions was messy and inconvenient, and the development of the naturally white or off\-white powderless wig (made of horsehair) for men made the retention of wigs in everyday [court dress](/wiki/Court_dress "Court dress") a practical possibility. By 1765, wig\-wearing went out of fashion except for some occupational groups such as coachmen and lawyers. During this period, people tended to simply wear their natural hair, styled and powdered to resemble a wig. However, the trend revived extravagantly during the [Macaroni](/wiki/Macaroni_%28fashion%29 "Macaroni (fashion)") period of the 1770s. Women mainly powdered their hair grey, or blue\-ish grey, and from the 1770s onwards never bright white like men. Wig powder was made from finely ground [starch](/wiki/Starch "Starch") that was scented with orange flower, [lavender](/wiki/Lavender "Lavender"), or [orris root](/wiki/Orris_root "Orris root"). Wig powder was occasionally colored violet, blue, pink or yellow, but was most often off\-white.{{cite web\|title\=Hair Powder Tax \|date\=July 22, 2013 \|url\=https://georgianera.wordpress.com/2013/07/22/hair\-powder\-tax \|website\=All Things Georgian}}
By the 1780s, young men were setting a fashion trend by lightly powdering their natural hair, as women had already done from the 1770s onwards. After 1790, both wigs and powder were reserved for older, more conservative men, and were in use by ladies being presented at court. After 1790, English women seldom powdered their hair.
In 1795, the British government levied a tax on hair powder of one guinea per year. This tax effectively caused the demise of both the fashion for wigs and powder. [Granville Leveson\-Gower](/wiki/Granville_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Earl_Granville "Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Granville"), in Paris during the winter of 1796, at the height of the [Thermidorian](/wiki/Thermidorians "Thermidorians") [Directory](/wiki/French_Directory "French Directory"), noted "The word *citoyen* seemed but very little in use, and hair powder being very common, the appearance of the people was less democratic than in England."Noted in Janet Gleeson, *Privilege and Scandal: The Remarkable Life of Harriet Spencer, Sister of Georgiana* 2006:178\.
Among women in the French court of [Versailles](/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles "Palace of Versailles") in the mid\-to\-late 18th century, large, elaborate and often themed wigs (such as the stereotypical "boat poufs") were in vogue. These combed\-up hair extensions were often very heavy, weighted down with pomades, powders, and other ornamentation. In the late 18th century these coiffures (along with many other indulgences in court life) became symbolic of the decadence of the French nobility, and for that reason quickly became out of fashion from the beginning of the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution") in 1789\.
During the 18th century, men's wigs became smaller and more formal with several professions adopting them as part of their official costumes. This tradition survives in a few legal systems. They are routinely worn in various countries of the [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations"). Until 1823, bishops of the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England "Church of England") and [Church of Ireland](/wiki/Church_of_Ireland "Church of Ireland") wore ceremonial wigs. The wigs worn by barristers are in the style favoured in the late eighteenth century. Judges' wigs, in everyday use as [court dress](/wiki/Court_dress "Court dress"), are short like barristers' wigs (although in a slightly different style), but for ceremonial occasions judges and also senior barristers ([KCs](/wiki/King%27s_Counsel "King's Counsel")) wear full\-bottomed wigs.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.judiciary.uk/about\-the\-judiciary/history\-of\-the\-judiciary\-in\-england\-and\-wales/history/ \|title\=History of Court Dress \|website\=Courts and Tribunals Judiciary \|access\-date\=February 6, 2023}}
In the 18th century, wigmaking was a craft guild in multiple cities. The guilds, government, and others were constantly concerned about quality. The Lyon Wigmaker Guild petitioned local magistrates to uphold statutes banning bleached human hair, as well as wild goat and lamb hair. The guild officers claimed that the process of bleaching damaged the hair too much, thereby forcing a wigmaker to sell a faulty product to consumers. As for the wild goat and lamb hair, they claimed it was too coarse to style. 18th century French wigmakers used an interesting technique to ensure that the hair retained moisture: baking hair into dough. In Paris, gingerbread bakers would routinely bake hair dough for wigmakers, although in other French cities, it was not necessarily gingerbread. Taxes on hair dough baking were proposed in 1705\. In [Grenoble](/wiki/Grenoble "Grenoble"), wigmakers complained that such tax obligations "destroy the liberty of commerce; because no baker is obliged to bake wigmakers' hair dough, instead doing it for them as a courtesy."Gayne, Mary K. “Illicit Wigmaking in Eighteenth\-Century Paris.” Eighteenth\-Century Studies, vol. 38, no. 1, 2004, pp. 119–37\. JSTOR, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/30053631>. Accessed 3 Dec. 2023\.
{{Gallery
\|title\=Examples of 18th century wigs
\|width\=200
\|height\=200
\|align\=center
\|File:Marie\-Antoinette cropped.jpg\|\[\[Marie Antoinette]] wearing the distinctive ''\[\[pouf]]'' style coiffure; her own natural hair is extended on the top with an artificial hairpiece.
\|File:Vigée\-Lebrun, Elisabeth\-Louise \- Charles\-Alexandre de Calonne (1734\-1802\) (cropped).jpg\|''\[\[Charles\-Alexandre de Calonne]]'' by \[\[Élisabeth\-Louise Vigée\-Le Brun]] (1784\), London, \[\[Royal Collection]]
\|File:John Smart \- Colonel James Hamilton.png\|Colonel James Hamilton by \[\[John Smart]] (1784\), wearing a white wig powdered with pink\-coloured powder
\|File:Arciduca Giovanni d'Austria.jpg\|\[\[Archduke John of Austria]] (1782–1859\) as a boy (c. 1795\), the latest\-born notable person to be portrayed wearing a powdered wig tied in a \[\[Queue (hairstyle)\|queue]]
}}
### 19th and 20th centuries
Due to the association with ruling classes in European [monarchies](/wiki/Monarchy "Monarchy"), the wearing of wigs as a symbol of social status was largely abandoned in the newly created [republics](/wiki/Republic "Republic"), the United States and [France](/wiki/French_First_Republic "French First Republic"), [by the start of the 19th century](/wiki/1795%E2%80%931820_in_Western_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion "1795–1820 in Western fashion#Men's fashion"), though formal court dress of European monarchies still required a powdered wig or long powdered hair tied in a queue until the accession of [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte "Napoleon Bonaparte") (1769–1821\) to the throne as emperor in 1804\.
In the United States, only [four presidents](/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States%23Presidents "List of presidents of the United States#Presidents"), from [John Adams](/wiki/John_Adams "John Adams") (1735–1826\) to [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe "James Monroe") (1758–1831\), wore curly powdered wigs tied in a queue according to the [old\-fashioned style of the 18th century](/wiki/1775%E2%80%931795_in_Western_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion "1775–1795 in Western fashion#Men's fashion"),{{cite book\|author\=Albert J. Menendez\|title\=Christmas in the White House\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BcBhdqM6zfIC\&dq\=James\+Madison\+\+James\+Monroe\+\+powdered\+wig\+\+christmas\&pg\=PA56\|year\=1983\|publisher\=Westminster John Knox Press\|isbn\=0\-664\-21392\-8\|page\=56}}{{cite book\|last1\=Whitcomb\|first1\=John\|last2\=Whitcomb\|first2\=Claire\|title\=Real life at the White House: 200 years of daily life at America's most famous residence\|publisher\=Routledge\|location\=London\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-93951\-5\|edition\=1st Routledge pbk.\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=p1unoHtahSsC\&pg\=PA37\|date\=May 3, 2002\|access\-date\=April 20, 2010}} though [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") (1743–1826\) wore a powdered wig only rarely and stopped wearing a wig entirely shortly after becoming president in 1801\.{{cite book\|author\=Merril D. Smith\|title\=The World of the American Revolution: A Daily Life Encyclopedia \[2 volumes]: A Daily Life Encyclopedia\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=yqxmCgAAQBAJ\&dq\=Thomas\+Jefferson\+\+powdered\+wigs\+\+purchased\&pg\=PA261\|year\=2015\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=978\-1\-4408\-3027\-3\|page\=261}} [John Quincy Adams](/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams "John Quincy Adams") (1767–1848\) also wore a powdered wig in his youth, but he abandoned this fashion while serving as the [U.S. Minister to Russia](/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Russia "List of ambassadors of the United States to Russia") (1809–1814\),{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=L\-Dq\-sFThFgC\&pg\=PA41\|title\=John Quincy Adams \|date\=January 1, 2009\|access\-date\=November 4, 2018\|isbn\=978\-0\-7910\-7599\-9\|last1\=Hewson\|first1\=Martha S. \|publisher\=Infobase}} long before his accession to the presidency in 1825\. Unlike them, the first president, [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington") (1732–1799\), never wore a wig; instead, he [powdered, curled and tied in a queue his own long hair](/wiki/George_Washington%23Personal_life "George Washington#Personal life").{{cite web\|url\=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/project/faq/index.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051120035433/http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/project/faq/index.html\|archive\-date\=November 20, 2005\|title\=Frequently Asked Questions: Did George Washington wear a wig?\|work\=The Papers of George Washington \|publisher\=University of Virginia\|access\-date\=October 4, 2010}}
Women's wigs developed in a somewhat different way. They were worn from the 18th century onwards, although at first only surreptitiously. Full wigs in the 19th and early 20th century were not fashionable. They were often worn by old ladies who had lost their hair.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2009}} In the film *[Mr. Skeffington](/wiki/Mr._Skeffington "Mr. Skeffington")* (1944\), [Bette Davis](/wiki/Bette_Davis "Bette Davis")'s character has to wear a wig after a bout of [diphtheria](/wiki/Diphtheria "Diphtheria"), which is a moment of pathos and a symbol of her frailty.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2009}}
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century hairdressers in England and France did a brisk business supplying *postiches*, or pre\-made small wiglets, curls, and false buns to be incorporated into the hairstyle. The use of postiches did not diminish even as women's hair grew shorter in the decade between 1910 and 1920, but they seem to have gone out of fashion during the 1920s.Emile Long, *Hairstyles and Fashion: A Hairdresser's History of Paris, 1910–1920*, edited with an introduction by Steven Zdatny, Berg (Oxford International Publishers Ltd), 1999 {{ISBN\|1\-85973\-222\-4}} In the 1960s a new type of synthetic wig was developed using a [modacrylic](/wiki/Modacrylic "Modacrylic") fiber which made wigs more affordable. Reid\-Meredith was a pioneer in the sales of these types of wigs.{{cite web\|work\=Associated Press News \|url\=https://apnews.com/5b8ade259917453fa1e5bae6b612a8d0 \|title\=Expert Says Korean Labor Problems Knock Wig Market Askew \|date\=August 3, 1988 \|access\-date\=October 8, 2013}}
{{Gallery
\|title\=Presidents of the United States in powdered wigs
\|width\=200
\|height\=200
\|align\=center
\|File:JohnAdams.png\|\[\[John Adams]] in 1788
\|File:Mather Brown \- Thomas Jefferson \- Google Art Project.jpg\|\[\[Thomas Jefferson]] in 1786
\|File:1811, Sharples, James, James Madison.jpg\|\[\[James Madison]] in c. 1770–1780
\|File:James Monroe (1758\-1831\).jpg\|\[\[James Monroe]] in 1794
}}
{{Gallery
\|title\=Change of hairstyle fashion as a part of formal court dress
\|width\=300
\|height\=200
\|align\=center
\|File:Van Loo, Louis\-Michel \- The Count of Artois, later Charles X of France.jpg\|\[\[Charles X of France\|Charles X]] (1757–1836\), the future King of France, as Count of Artois in 1771, wears a curly powdered wig tied in a queue.
\|File:Daniel Saint \- Charles X, King of France and Navarre \- NMB 2393 \- Nationalmuseum.jpg\|Charles X, depicted as King of France (1824–1830\), wears a short unpowdered haircut.
}}
### 21st century
The art of wigs became a billion dollar industry in the 21st century. Three main processes happen within the industry: the collection of material, manufacturing, and distribution. India is the main source of hair. It has been reported from time to time that for global human hair trade, women from the [ASEAN](/wiki/ASEAN "ASEAN") region are being exploited.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.business\-humanrights.org/en/asean\-multi\-billion\-hair\-industry\-exploits\-women\-by\-buying\-hair\-at\-very\-low\-prices\|title\=ASEAN: Multi\-billion hair industry exploits women by buying hair at very low prices {{!}} Business \& Human Rights Resource Centre\|website\=Business \& Human Rights Resource Centre \|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020}} Hair from this region has a significant commercial value in the international market.{{Cite web\|url\=https://theaseanpost.com/article/human\-hair\-trade\-exploiting\-asean\-women\|title\=Human hair trade is exploiting ASEAN women\|website\=The ASEAN Post\|date\=December 29, 2016 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020}} Particularly in [India](/wiki/India "India"), the women are forced by their husbands into selling their hair,{{Cite news\|last\=McDougall\|first\=Dan\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/25/india.theobserver\|title\=Trade in hair forces India's children to pay the price\|date\=June 24, 2006\|work\=The Observer\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|language\=en\-GB\|issn\=0029\-7712}} and [slum](/wiki/Slum "Slum") children were being tricked into "having their heads shaved in exchange for toys".{{Cite news\|last\=Khaleeli\|first\=Homa\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/oct/28/hair\-extension\-global\-trade\-secrets\|title\=The hair trade's dirty secret\|date\=October 28, 2012\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|access\-date\=March 4, 2020 \|language\=en\-GB\|issn\=0261\-3077}} Scrap pickers are another source of hair in India, these people find hair in miscellaneous places such as hair brushes, clothes, or in the trash. While manufacturing and processing mainly takes place in China, where the hair is sorted through and constructed into wigs, the final product exported abroad, with the top countries being the United States and the United Kingdom.Boland, Rosita. ["The Hair Collectors: Where Wigs and Hair Extensions Come From"](https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/fashion/beauty/the-hair-collectors-where-wigs-and-hair-extensions-come-from-1.3848296). *[The Irish Times](/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")*, April 6, 2019\.
#### Official use
In the United Kingdom, most [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") nations and Ireland, special wigs are also worn by [barristers](/wiki/Barrister "Barrister"), [judges](/wiki/Judge "Judge") and certain parliamentary and municipal or civic officials as a symbol of the office.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
Hong Kong barristers and judges continue to wear wigs as part of [court dress](/wiki/Court_dress "Court dress") as a legacy of the court system from the time of British rule.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
In July 2007, judges in [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales "New South Wales"), Australia, voted to discontinue the wearing of wigs in the NSW Court of Appeal.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/woolly\-headed\-not\-this\-verdict/2007/08/02/1185648038982\.html \|last\=Ramachandran \|first\=Arjun \|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|title\=Woolly headed? Not this verdict \|date\=August 2, 2007}}
New Zealand lawyers and judges have ceased to wear wigs except for ceremonial occasions, such as when newly qualified lawyers are [called to the bar](/wiki/Call_to_the_bar "Call to the bar").{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
In Canada lawyers and judges do not wear wigs.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
#### Entertainment
A number of celebrities, including [Donna Summer](/wiki/Donna_Summer "Donna Summer"), [Dolly Parton](/wiki/Dolly_Parton "Dolly Parton"), [Sia](/wiki/Sia "Sia"), [Nicki Minaj](/wiki/Nicki_Minaj "Nicki Minaj"), [Katy Perry](/wiki/Katy_Perry "Katy Perry"), [Lady Gaga](/wiki/Lady_Gaga "Lady Gaga"), [Diana Ross \& The Supremes](/wiki/Diana_Ross_%26_The_Supremes "Diana Ross & The Supremes"), [Tina Turner](/wiki/Tina_Turner "Tina Turner") and [Raquel Welch](/wiki/Raquel_Welch "Raquel Welch"), popularized wigs. [Cher](/wiki/Cher "Cher") has worn all kinds of wigs in the last 40 years, from blonde to black, and curly to straight. They may also be worn for fun as part of [fancy dress](/wiki/Fancy_dress "Fancy dress") ([costume](/wiki/Costume "Costume") wearing), when they can be of outlandish color or made from [tinsel](/wiki/Tinsel "Tinsel"). They are quite common at [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween "Halloween"), when "rubber wigs" (solid [bald cap](/wiki/Bald_cap "Bald cap")\-like hats, shaped like hair), are sold at some stores.
Wigs are used in film, theater, and television. In the Japanese film and television genre [Jidaigeki](/wiki/Jidaigeki "Jidaigeki"), wigs are used extensively to alter appearance to reflect the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period "Edo period") when most stories take place. Only a few actors starring in big\-budgeted films and television series will grow their hair so that it may be cut to the appropriate hair style, and forgo using a wig.
In the theater, especially on Broadway, wigs are used to give a performer a fixed character. Nearly all women and many men do so not only for character design, but also to cover their microphone packs. Often the microphone pack goes on the actor's head, mainly to efficiently facilitate quick changes.
An actor not wearing a wig needs to change their look every time they go on stage. The wig helps solidify the character's design; natural hair is different day to day.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/SPa144JFDz8){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20170811143120/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPa144JFDz8){{cbignore}}: {{Cite web \|author\=American Theatre Wing \|title\=Theatrical Wig Maker \|date\=October 28, 2013 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=SPa144JFDz8\&t\=16s \|publisher\=YouTube \|access\-date\=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/5XsOMG6q860){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20191221081545/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5XsOMG6q860){{cbignore}}: {{Cite web \|author\=American Theatre Wing \|title\=Working in the Theatre: Wigs \|date\=October 10, 2018 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=5XsOMG6q860 \|website\=YouTube \|access\-date\=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}
#### Convenience
Wigs are worn by some people on a daily or occasional basis in everyday life. This is sometimes done for reasons of convenience, since wigs can be styled ahead of time. A common practice of wigs for convenience is called protective styling. Many use wigs to avoid damage to their natural tresses, or to create styles that may not be possible otherwise.Forbes, Jihan. ["Wigs Are Cool and All, But Do They Really Give Us a Break from Styling?"](https://www.allure.com/story/are-we-over-wigs/amp). *[Allure](/wiki/Allure_%28magazine%29 "Allure (magazine)")*, December 27, 2021\. They are also worn by individuals who are experiencing hair loss for medical reasons (most commonly cancer patients who are undergoing [chemotherapy](/wiki/Chemotherapy "Chemotherapy"), or those who are suffering from [alopecia areata](/wiki/Alopecia_areata "Alopecia areata")).
Some men who [crossdress](/wiki/Crossdress "Crossdress") as women wear wigs in different styles to make their hair seem more feminine.
#### Merkin
{{main\|Merkin}}
A merkin is a pubic wig often worn as a decorative item or for theatrical and fashion purposes. They are sometimes viewed as erotic and some designs are meant for entertainment or as a form of comedy.
### Image gallery
{{Gallery
\|title\=Examples of contemporary wigs
\|width\=250
\|height\=200
\|align\=center
\|File:Colourful wigs.jpg\|Colourful wigs for costume parties
\|File:Wigs on display.jpg\|An assortment of wigs in display cabinet
\|File:Legal wigs today.jpg\|Wigs as court dress
\|File:Wig Bunkin for Kasane.jpg\|Japanese wig for traditional hairstyle}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Ancient and medieval use",
"In Egyptian society men and women commonly had clean\\-shaven or close\\-cropped hair and often wore wigs.{{cite book \\|title\\= The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students, Volume 2 \\|last\\= Wallenfels \\|first\\= Ronald \\|year\\= 2000 \\|publisher\\= Scribner \\|isbn\\=9780684805948 \\|page\\=145}}{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.11141/ia.42\\.6\\.3 \\| issue\\=42 \\| title\\=An Ancient Egyptian Wig: Construction and Reconstruction \\| year\\=2016 \\| journal\\=Internet Archaeology \\| last1 \\= Fletcher \\| first1 \\= Joann \\| last2 \\= Salamone \\| first2 \\= Filippo\\| doi\\-access \\= free}} The [ancient Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") created the wig to shield shaved, hairless heads from the sun. They also wore the wigs on top of their hair using [beeswax](/wiki/Beeswax \"Beeswax\") and resin to keep the wigs in place. Wealthy Egyptians would wear elaborate wigs and scented [head cones](/wiki/Head_cone \"Head cone\") of animal fat on top of their wigs. Other ancient cultures, including the [Assyrians](/wiki/Ancient_Assyrians \"Ancient Assyrians\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi\\-bin/etcsl.cgi?text\\=t.1\\.4\\.1\\.1\\&charenc\\=j\\# \\|title\\=Dumuzid and Jectin\\-ana \\|website\\=The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature \\|date\\=December 19, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=March 16, 2013}} [Phoenicians](/wiki/Phoenicians \"Phoenicians\"), [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") in ancient [Israel](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel \"Kingdom of Israel\") and [Judea](/wiki/Judaea_%28Roman_province%29 \"Judaea (Roman province)\"),Mishna tractate Sabbath Chapter 6 Mishna 5 [Greeks](/wiki/Ancient_Greeks \"Ancient Greeks\"), and [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\"), also used wigs as an everyday fashion.\n{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Examples of ancient wigs\n\\|width\\=200\n\\|height\\=200\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Ägyptisches Museum Kairo 2016\\-03\\-29 Nofret 03\\.jpg\\|Statue of princess \\[\\[Nofret]] wearing a wig (c. 2613 to 2494 BC) \n\\|Image:Egypte louvre 286 couple.jpg\\|Egyptian couple wearing formal wigs of the 4th or 5th dynasties\n\\|Image:Nebamun tomb fresco dancers and musicians.png\\|Tomb fresco depicting dancers and musicians in elaborate wigs with \\[\\[head cone]]s. Thebes, Egypt, \\[\\[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt\\|18th Dynasty]]. \n\\|Image:Bust Roman woman Glyptothek Munich 333\\.jpg\\|Bust of a Roman woman wearing a \"diadem\" wig, {{Circa\\|80 CE}}\n\\|Image:Wig Headdress, 600\\-1000 C.E, 41\\.427\\.jpg\\|''Wig Headdress'', \\[\\[Wari culture\\|Wari People]], 600–1000 CE, \\[\\[Brooklyn Museum]]\n}}",
"In [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), the popularization of the wig started in the [Spring and Autumn period](/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period \"Spring and Autumn period\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Snodgrass \\|first\\=Mary Ellen \\|title\\=World Clothing and Fashion: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence \\|year\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=9781317451679 \\|pages\\=119–121 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gO9nBwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=In\\+China%2C\\+the\\+popularization\\+of\\+the\\+wig\\+started\\+from\\+Spring\\+and\\+Autumn\\+period\\&pg\\=PA121 \\|language\\=en}}{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2017}}",
"In [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), the upper classes started wearing wigs before the [Nara period](/wiki/Nara_period \"Nara period\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2017}}",
"In [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\"), [gache](/wiki/Gache \"Gache\") were popular among women during the [Goryeo dynasty](/wiki/Goryeo_dynasty \"Goryeo dynasty\") until they were banned in the late 18th century.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2017}}",
"### 16th and 17th centuries",
"After the [fall of the Western Roman Empire](/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire \"Fall of the Western Roman Empire\"), the use of wigs fell into disuse in the West for a thousand years until they were revived in the 16th century as a means of compensating for hair loss or improving one's personal appearance.{{cite web \\|title\\=Fashion: The history of the wig: On a wig and a prayer \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/life\\-style/fashion\\-the\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-wig\\-on\\-a\\-wig\\-and\\-a\\-prayer\\-1074469\\.html \\|date\\=January 17, 1999}} They also served a practical purpose: the unhygienic conditions of the time meant that hair attracted [head lice](/wiki/Head_lice \"Head lice\"), a problem that could be much reduced if natural hair were shaved and replaced with a more easily de\\-loused artificial hairpiece.{{cite web\\|title\\=Perukes, Pomade, and Powder: Hair Care in the 1700s \\|date\\=January 28, 2015 \\|url\\=https://livesandlegaciesblog.org/2015/01/28/perukes\\-pomade\\-powder}} Fur hoods were also used in a similar preventive fashion.",
"Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://envywigs.com/a\\-brief\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-wig\\|title\\=A Brief History of the Wig\\|date\\=June 15, 2015}} Queen [Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\") famously wore a red wig, tightly and elaborately curled in a \"Roman\" style, while among men King [Louis XIII of France](/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France \"Louis XIII of France\") (1601–1643\\) started to pioneer wig\\-wearing [in 1624](/wiki/1600%E2%80%931650_in_Western_European_fashion%23Men%27s_fashions \"1600–1650 in Western European fashion#Men's fashions\") when he had prematurely begun to bald.{{cite web\\|author\\=Marcel Gomes \\|url\\=http://thebeautifultimes.wordpress.com/tag/louis\\-xiii/ \\|title\\=Louis XIII \\|website\\=The Beautiful Times \\|access\\-date\\=March 16, 2013}} This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor [Louis XIV of France](/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France \"Louis XIV of France\") (1638–1715\\), which contributed to its spread in Europe and European\\-influenced countries [in the 1660s](/wiki/1650%E2%80%931700_in_Western_European_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion \"1650–1700 in Western European fashion#Men's fashion\"). Wig\\-wearing remained a dominant style among men for about 140 years until the change of dress, affected by the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\"), [in the 1790s](/wiki/1795%E2%80%931820_in_Western_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion \"1795–1820 in Western fashion#Men's fashion\").",
"Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English\\-speaking world with other French styles when [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\") was [restored to the throne](/wiki/Restoration_%28England%29 \"Restoration (England)\") in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder\\-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist [Samuel Pepys](/wiki/Samuel_Pepys \"Samuel Pepys\") recorded the day in 1665 that a [barber](/wiki/Barber \"Barber\") had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of [plague](/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London \"Great Plague of London\") he was uneasy about wearing it:{{cite book \\|title\\=The Diary of Samuel Pepys (Volume 9, Page 60\\) \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PkbKlB0g2ckC \\|author1\\=Samuel Pepys \\|author2\\=Henry Benjamin Wheatley \\|year\\=1895}}\n> 3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster \"Westminster\") when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague.",
"",
"Wigs were not without other drawbacks, as Pepys noted on March 27, 1663:\n> I did go to the Swan; and there sent for Jervas my old periwig\\-maker and he did bring me a periwig; but it was full of [nits](/wiki/Head_louse \"Head louse\"), so as I was troubled to see it (it being his old fault) and did send him to make it clean.",
"",
"With wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige. A wigmakers' guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Their job was a skilled one as 17th century wigs were extraordinarily elaborate, covering the back and shoulders and flowing down the chest; not surprisingly, they were also extremely heavy and often uncomfortable to wear. Such wigs were expensive to produce. The best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative.{{cite web \\|last\\=Chaudhary \\|first\\=Amit \\|title\\=History of Hair Wigs \\- Why It is in Trend Today \\- Artificial Heads of Hair \\|url\\=https://www.planetofhaircloning.com/history\\-of\\-hair\\-wigs/ \\|website\\=Planetofhaircloning.com \\|date\\=July 10, 2018}}",
"Several contemporary writings which have survived noted that some viewed men who wore wigs as looking deformed and emasculated. It especially attracted disapproval from Puritans, and during times of plague, it was said that wigs were made of hair of plague victims.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Cockayne \\|first\\=Emily \\|title\\=Filth, Noise \\& Stench in England \\|publisher\\=Yale University Press \\|year\\=2021 \\|pages\\=66–72}}",
"Wigs required cleaning using [fuller's earth](/wiki/Fuller%27s_earth \"Fuller's earth\"), and the powder used to freshen it was made from low grade flour and scented with [pomatum](/wiki/Pomatum \"Pomatum\").",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Examples of wigs in the 16th and 17th centuries\n\\|width\\=250\n\\|height\\=200\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Elizabeth I (Armada Portrait).jpg\\|Queen \\[\\[Elizabeth I of England\\|Elizabeth I]], pictured in 1588\n\\|File:De Vermont\\-Largilliere.jpg\\|Nicolas de Vermont\n\\|File:Ex\\-voto a sainte\\-genevieve \\-Detail\\-Largilliere.jpg\\|Portrait of men wearing wigs by \\[\\[Nicolas de Largillière]], 17th century\n\\|File:Miindo\\-Yun.family.of.Haenam\\-d1\\.jpg\\|Korean traditional wig (\\[\\[gache]])\n\\|File:Peter\\_Lely\\_(1618\\-1680\\)\\_(after)\\_\\-\\_James\\_Scott\\_(1649%E2%80%931685\\),\\_Duke\\_of\\_Monmouth,\\_KG,\\_in\\_Garter\\_Robes\\_\\-\\_1171154\\_\\-\\_National\\_Trust.jpg\\|James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, (illegitimate son of \\[\\[Charles II of England]])\n}}",
"### 18th century",
"[thumb\\|*[Five Orders of Periwigs](/wiki/Five_Orders_of_Periwigs \"Five Orders of Periwigs\")*, 1761](/wiki/File:William_Hogarth_-_The_Five_Orders_of_Perriwigs.png \"William Hogarth - The Five Orders of Perriwigs.png\")\n[alt\\=Wig 1780–1800\\|thumb\\|Wig, 1780–1800\\. Wigs that had the back hair enclosed in a bag were called bag wigs.{{Cite web\\|last\\=McDowall\\|first\\=Carolyn\\|title\\=Adventures in Hair for 18th Century Gentlemen\\|url\\=https://www.thecultureconcept.com/adventures\\-in\\-hair\\-for\\-18th\\-century\\-gentlemen\\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2020\\|website\\=The Culture Concept Circle\\|language\\=en\\-US}}](/wiki/File:Wig_MET_74.153.1g_front_CP4.jpg \"Wig MET 74.153.1g front CP4.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[William Pitt the Younger](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger \"William Pitt the Younger\") (standing centre) addressing the Commons on the outbreak of the war with France in 1793\\. Pitt and members of Parliament wore powdered wigs; in 1795 the Parliament passed the [Duty on Hair Powder Act](/wiki/Duty_on_Hair_Powder_Act_1795 \"Duty on Hair Powder Act 1795\") which caused the demise of both the fashion for wigs and powder.](/wiki/File:The_House_of_Commons_1793-94_by_Karl_Anton_Hickel.jpg \"The House of Commons 1793-94 by Karl Anton Hickel.jpg\")\nIn the 18th century, men's wigs were powdered to give them their distinctive white or off\\-white color.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://medium.com/s/pulling\\-at\\-threads/when\\-did\\-men\\-stop\\-wearing\\-wigs\\-9e3890ffaeab \\|title\\=When Did Men Stop Wearing Wigs? \\|date\\=June 8, 2017}} Women in the 18th century did not wear wigs, but wore a coiffure supplemented by artificial hair or hair from other sources. Powdered wigs (men) and powdered natural hair with supplemental hairpieces (women) became essential for full dress occasions and continued in use until almost the end of the 18th century.",
"The elaborate form of wigs worn at the coronation of [George III](/wiki/George_III \"George III\") in 1761 was lampooned by [William Hogarth](/wiki/William_Hogarth \"William Hogarth\") in his engraving *[Five Orders of Periwigs](/wiki/Five_Orders_of_Periwigs \"Five Orders of Periwigs\")*. Powdering wigs and extensions was messy and inconvenient, and the development of the naturally white or off\\-white powderless wig (made of horsehair) for men made the retention of wigs in everyday [court dress](/wiki/Court_dress \"Court dress\") a practical possibility. By 1765, wig\\-wearing went out of fashion except for some occupational groups such as coachmen and lawyers. During this period, people tended to simply wear their natural hair, styled and powdered to resemble a wig. However, the trend revived extravagantly during the [Macaroni](/wiki/Macaroni_%28fashion%29 \"Macaroni (fashion)\") period of the 1770s. Women mainly powdered their hair grey, or blue\\-ish grey, and from the 1770s onwards never bright white like men. Wig powder was made from finely ground [starch](/wiki/Starch \"Starch\") that was scented with orange flower, [lavender](/wiki/Lavender \"Lavender\"), or [orris root](/wiki/Orris_root \"Orris root\"). Wig powder was occasionally colored violet, blue, pink or yellow, but was most often off\\-white.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hair Powder Tax \\|date\\=July 22, 2013 \\|url\\=https://georgianera.wordpress.com/2013/07/22/hair\\-powder\\-tax \\|website\\=All Things Georgian}}",
"By the 1780s, young men were setting a fashion trend by lightly powdering their natural hair, as women had already done from the 1770s onwards. After 1790, both wigs and powder were reserved for older, more conservative men, and were in use by ladies being presented at court. After 1790, English women seldom powdered their hair.",
"In 1795, the British government levied a tax on hair powder of one guinea per year. This tax effectively caused the demise of both the fashion for wigs and powder. [Granville Leveson\\-Gower](/wiki/Granville_Leveson-Gower%2C_1st_Earl_Granville \"Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Granville\"), in Paris during the winter of 1796, at the height of the [Thermidorian](/wiki/Thermidorians \"Thermidorians\") [Directory](/wiki/French_Directory \"French Directory\"), noted \"The word *citoyen* seemed but very little in use, and hair powder being very common, the appearance of the people was less democratic than in England.\"Noted in Janet Gleeson, *Privilege and Scandal: The Remarkable Life of Harriet Spencer, Sister of Georgiana* 2006:178\\.",
"Among women in the French court of [Versailles](/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles \"Palace of Versailles\") in the mid\\-to\\-late 18th century, large, elaborate and often themed wigs (such as the stereotypical \"boat poufs\") were in vogue. These combed\\-up hair extensions were often very heavy, weighted down with pomades, powders, and other ornamentation. In the late 18th century these coiffures (along with many other indulgences in court life) became symbolic of the decadence of the French nobility, and for that reason quickly became out of fashion from the beginning of the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\") in 1789\\.",
"During the 18th century, men's wigs became smaller and more formal with several professions adopting them as part of their official costumes. This tradition survives in a few legal systems. They are routinely worn in various countries of the [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\"). Until 1823, bishops of the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\") and [Church of Ireland](/wiki/Church_of_Ireland \"Church of Ireland\") wore ceremonial wigs. The wigs worn by barristers are in the style favoured in the late eighteenth century. Judges' wigs, in everyday use as [court dress](/wiki/Court_dress \"Court dress\"), are short like barristers' wigs (although in a slightly different style), but for ceremonial occasions judges and also senior barristers ([KCs](/wiki/King%27s_Counsel \"King's Counsel\")) wear full\\-bottomed wigs.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.judiciary.uk/about\\-the\\-judiciary/history\\-of\\-the\\-judiciary\\-in\\-england\\-and\\-wales/history/ \\|title\\=History of Court Dress \\|website\\=Courts and Tribunals Judiciary \\|access\\-date\\=February 6, 2023}}",
"In the 18th century, wigmaking was a craft guild in multiple cities. The guilds, government, and others were constantly concerned about quality. The Lyon Wigmaker Guild petitioned local magistrates to uphold statutes banning bleached human hair, as well as wild goat and lamb hair. The guild officers claimed that the process of bleaching damaged the hair too much, thereby forcing a wigmaker to sell a faulty product to consumers. As for the wild goat and lamb hair, they claimed it was too coarse to style. 18th century French wigmakers used an interesting technique to ensure that the hair retained moisture: baking hair into dough. In Paris, gingerbread bakers would routinely bake hair dough for wigmakers, although in other French cities, it was not necessarily gingerbread. Taxes on hair dough baking were proposed in 1705\\. In [Grenoble](/wiki/Grenoble \"Grenoble\"), wigmakers complained that such tax obligations \"destroy the liberty of commerce; because no baker is obliged to bake wigmakers' hair dough, instead doing it for them as a courtesy.\"Gayne, Mary K. “Illicit Wigmaking in Eighteenth\\-Century Paris.” Eighteenth\\-Century Studies, vol. 38, no. 1, 2004, pp. 119–37\\. JSTOR, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/30053631>. Accessed 3 Dec. 2023\\.",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Examples of 18th century wigs\n\\|width\\=200\n\\|height\\=200\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Marie\\-Antoinette cropped.jpg\\|\\[\\[Marie Antoinette]] wearing the distinctive ''\\[\\[pouf]]'' style coiffure; her own natural hair is extended on the top with an artificial hairpiece.\n\\|File:Vigée\\-Lebrun, Elisabeth\\-Louise \\- Charles\\-Alexandre de Calonne (1734\\-1802\\) (cropped).jpg\\|''\\[\\[Charles\\-Alexandre de Calonne]]'' by \\[\\[Élisabeth\\-Louise Vigée\\-Le Brun]] (1784\\), London, \\[\\[Royal Collection]]\n\\|File:John Smart \\- Colonel James Hamilton.png\\|Colonel James Hamilton by \\[\\[John Smart]] (1784\\), wearing a white wig powdered with pink\\-coloured powder\n\\|File:Arciduca Giovanni d'Austria.jpg\\|\\[\\[Archduke John of Austria]] (1782–1859\\) as a boy (c. 1795\\), the latest\\-born notable person to be portrayed wearing a powdered wig tied in a \\[\\[Queue (hairstyle)\\|queue]]\n}}",
"### 19th and 20th centuries",
"Due to the association with ruling classes in European [monarchies](/wiki/Monarchy \"Monarchy\"), the wearing of wigs as a symbol of social status was largely abandoned in the newly created [republics](/wiki/Republic \"Republic\"), the United States and [France](/wiki/French_First_Republic \"French First Republic\"), [by the start of the 19th century](/wiki/1795%E2%80%931820_in_Western_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion \"1795–1820 in Western fashion#Men's fashion\"), though formal court dress of European monarchies still required a powdered wig or long powdered hair tied in a queue until the accession of [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte \"Napoleon Bonaparte\") (1769–1821\\) to the throne as emperor in 1804\\.",
"In the United States, only [four presidents](/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States%23Presidents \"List of presidents of the United States#Presidents\"), from [John Adams](/wiki/John_Adams \"John Adams\") (1735–1826\\) to [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe \"James Monroe\") (1758–1831\\), wore curly powdered wigs tied in a queue according to the [old\\-fashioned style of the 18th century](/wiki/1775%E2%80%931795_in_Western_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion \"1775–1795 in Western fashion#Men's fashion\"),{{cite book\\|author\\=Albert J. Menendez\\|title\\=Christmas in the White House\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BcBhdqM6zfIC\\&dq\\=James\\+Madison\\+\\+James\\+Monroe\\+\\+powdered\\+wig\\+\\+christmas\\&pg\\=PA56\\|year\\=1983\\|publisher\\=Westminster John Knox Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-664\\-21392\\-8\\|page\\=56}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Whitcomb\\|first1\\=John\\|last2\\=Whitcomb\\|first2\\=Claire\\|title\\=Real life at the White House: 200 years of daily life at America's most famous residence\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-93951\\-5\\|edition\\=1st Routledge pbk.\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=p1unoHtahSsC\\&pg\\=PA37\\|date\\=May 3, 2002\\|access\\-date\\=April 20, 2010}} though [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\") (1743–1826\\) wore a powdered wig only rarely and stopped wearing a wig entirely shortly after becoming president in 1801\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=Merril D. Smith\\|title\\=The World of the American Revolution: A Daily Life Encyclopedia \\[2 volumes]: A Daily Life Encyclopedia\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yqxmCgAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=Thomas\\+Jefferson\\+\\+powdered\\+wigs\\+\\+purchased\\&pg\\=PA261\\|year\\=2015\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4408\\-3027\\-3\\|page\\=261}} [John Quincy Adams](/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams \"John Quincy Adams\") (1767–1848\\) also wore a powdered wig in his youth, but he abandoned this fashion while serving as the [U.S. Minister to Russia](/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Russia \"List of ambassadors of the United States to Russia\") (1809–1814\\),{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=L\\-Dq\\-sFThFgC\\&pg\\=PA41\\|title\\=John Quincy Adams \\|date\\=January 1, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=November 4, 2018\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7910\\-7599\\-9\\|last1\\=Hewson\\|first1\\=Martha S. \\|publisher\\=Infobase}} long before his accession to the presidency in 1825\\. Unlike them, the first president, [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\") (1732–1799\\), never wore a wig; instead, he [powdered, curled and tied in a queue his own long hair](/wiki/George_Washington%23Personal_life \"George Washington#Personal life\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/project/faq/index.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051120035433/http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/project/faq/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=November 20, 2005\\|title\\=Frequently Asked Questions: Did George Washington wear a wig?\\|work\\=The Papers of George Washington \\|publisher\\=University of Virginia\\|access\\-date\\=October 4, 2010}}",
"Women's wigs developed in a somewhat different way. They were worn from the 18th century onwards, although at first only surreptitiously. Full wigs in the 19th and early 20th century were not fashionable. They were often worn by old ladies who had lost their hair.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2009}} In the film *[Mr. Skeffington](/wiki/Mr._Skeffington \"Mr. Skeffington\")* (1944\\), [Bette Davis](/wiki/Bette_Davis \"Bette Davis\")'s character has to wear a wig after a bout of [diphtheria](/wiki/Diphtheria \"Diphtheria\"), which is a moment of pathos and a symbol of her frailty.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2009}}",
"During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century hairdressers in England and France did a brisk business supplying *postiches*, or pre\\-made small wiglets, curls, and false buns to be incorporated into the hairstyle. The use of postiches did not diminish even as women's hair grew shorter in the decade between 1910 and 1920, but they seem to have gone out of fashion during the 1920s.Emile Long, *Hairstyles and Fashion: A Hairdresser's History of Paris, 1910–1920*, edited with an introduction by Steven Zdatny, Berg (Oxford International Publishers Ltd), 1999 {{ISBN\\|1\\-85973\\-222\\-4}} In the 1960s a new type of synthetic wig was developed using a [modacrylic](/wiki/Modacrylic \"Modacrylic\") fiber which made wigs more affordable. Reid\\-Meredith was a pioneer in the sales of these types of wigs.{{cite web\\|work\\=Associated Press News \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/5b8ade259917453fa1e5bae6b612a8d0 \\|title\\=Expert Says Korean Labor Problems Knock Wig Market Askew \\|date\\=August 3, 1988 \\|access\\-date\\=October 8, 2013}}\n{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Presidents of the United States in powdered wigs\n\\|width\\=200\n\\|height\\=200\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:JohnAdams.png\\|\\[\\[John Adams]] in 1788\n\\|File:Mather Brown \\- Thomas Jefferson \\- Google Art Project.jpg\\|\\[\\[Thomas Jefferson]] in 1786\n\\|File:1811, Sharples, James, James Madison.jpg\\|\\[\\[James Madison]] in c. 1770–1780\n\\|File:James Monroe (1758\\-1831\\).jpg\\|\\[\\[James Monroe]] in 1794\n}}",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Change of hairstyle fashion as a part of formal court dress \n\\|width\\=300\n\\|height\\=200\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Van Loo, Louis\\-Michel \\- The Count of Artois, later Charles X of France.jpg\\|\\[\\[Charles X of France\\|Charles X]] (1757–1836\\), the future King of France, as Count of Artois in 1771, wears a curly powdered wig tied in a queue.\n\\|File:Daniel Saint \\- Charles X, King of France and Navarre \\- NMB 2393 \\- Nationalmuseum.jpg\\|Charles X, depicted as King of France (1824–1830\\), wears a short unpowdered haircut.\n}}",
"### 21st century",
"The art of wigs became a billion dollar industry in the 21st century. Three main processes happen within the industry: the collection of material, manufacturing, and distribution. India is the main source of hair. It has been reported from time to time that for global human hair trade, women from the [ASEAN](/wiki/ASEAN \"ASEAN\") region are being exploited.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.business\\-humanrights.org/en/asean\\-multi\\-billion\\-hair\\-industry\\-exploits\\-women\\-by\\-buying\\-hair\\-at\\-very\\-low\\-prices\\|title\\=ASEAN: Multi\\-billion hair industry exploits women by buying hair at very low prices {{!}} Business \\& Human Rights Resource Centre\\|website\\=Business \\& Human Rights Resource Centre \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020}} Hair from this region has a significant commercial value in the international market.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://theaseanpost.com/article/human\\-hair\\-trade\\-exploiting\\-asean\\-women\\|title\\=Human hair trade is exploiting ASEAN women\\|website\\=The ASEAN Post\\|date\\=December 29, 2016 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020}} Particularly in [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), the women are forced by their husbands into selling their hair,{{Cite news\\|last\\=McDougall\\|first\\=Dan\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/25/india.theobserver\\|title\\=Trade in hair forces India's children to pay the price\\|date\\=June 24, 2006\\|work\\=The Observer\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|issn\\=0029\\-7712}} and [slum](/wiki/Slum \"Slum\") children were being tricked into \"having their heads shaved in exchange for toys\".{{Cite news\\|last\\=Khaleeli\\|first\\=Homa\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/oct/28/hair\\-extension\\-global\\-trade\\-secrets\\|title\\=The hair trade's dirty secret\\|date\\=October 28, 2012\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020 \\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} Scrap pickers are another source of hair in India, these people find hair in miscellaneous places such as hair brushes, clothes, or in the trash. While manufacturing and processing mainly takes place in China, where the hair is sorted through and constructed into wigs, the final product exported abroad, with the top countries being the United States and the United Kingdom.Boland, Rosita. [\"The Hair Collectors: Where Wigs and Hair Extensions Come From\"](https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/fashion/beauty/the-hair-collectors-where-wigs-and-hair-extensions-come-from-1.3848296). *[The Irish Times](/wiki/The_Irish_Times \"The Irish Times\")*, April 6, 2019\\.",
"#### Official use",
"In the United Kingdom, most [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") nations and Ireland, special wigs are also worn by [barristers](/wiki/Barrister \"Barrister\"), [judges](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") and certain parliamentary and municipal or civic officials as a symbol of the office.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"Hong Kong barristers and judges continue to wear wigs as part of [court dress](/wiki/Court_dress \"Court dress\") as a legacy of the court system from the time of British rule.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"In July 2007, judges in [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\"), Australia, voted to discontinue the wearing of wigs in the NSW Court of Appeal.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/woolly\\-headed\\-not\\-this\\-verdict/2007/08/02/1185648038982\\.html \\|last\\=Ramachandran \\|first\\=Arjun \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|title\\=Woolly headed? Not this verdict \\|date\\=August 2, 2007}}",
"New Zealand lawyers and judges have ceased to wear wigs except for ceremonial occasions, such as when newly qualified lawyers are [called to the bar](/wiki/Call_to_the_bar \"Call to the bar\").{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"In Canada lawyers and judges do not wear wigs.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"#### Entertainment",
"A number of celebrities, including [Donna Summer](/wiki/Donna_Summer \"Donna Summer\"), [Dolly Parton](/wiki/Dolly_Parton \"Dolly Parton\"), [Sia](/wiki/Sia \"Sia\"), [Nicki Minaj](/wiki/Nicki_Minaj \"Nicki Minaj\"), [Katy Perry](/wiki/Katy_Perry \"Katy Perry\"), [Lady Gaga](/wiki/Lady_Gaga \"Lady Gaga\"), [Diana Ross \\& The Supremes](/wiki/Diana_Ross_%26_The_Supremes \"Diana Ross & The Supremes\"), [Tina Turner](/wiki/Tina_Turner \"Tina Turner\") and [Raquel Welch](/wiki/Raquel_Welch \"Raquel Welch\"), popularized wigs. [Cher](/wiki/Cher \"Cher\") has worn all kinds of wigs in the last 40 years, from blonde to black, and curly to straight. They may also be worn for fun as part of [fancy dress](/wiki/Fancy_dress \"Fancy dress\") ([costume](/wiki/Costume \"Costume\") wearing), when they can be of outlandish color or made from [tinsel](/wiki/Tinsel \"Tinsel\"). They are quite common at [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween \"Halloween\"), when \"rubber wigs\" (solid [bald cap](/wiki/Bald_cap \"Bald cap\")\\-like hats, shaped like hair), are sold at some stores.",
"Wigs are used in film, theater, and television. In the Japanese film and television genre [Jidaigeki](/wiki/Jidaigeki \"Jidaigeki\"), wigs are used extensively to alter appearance to reflect the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\") when most stories take place. Only a few actors starring in big\\-budgeted films and television series will grow their hair so that it may be cut to the appropriate hair style, and forgo using a wig.",
"In the theater, especially on Broadway, wigs are used to give a performer a fixed character. Nearly all women and many men do so not only for character design, but also to cover their microphone packs. Often the microphone pack goes on the actor's head, mainly to efficiently facilitate quick changes.",
"An actor not wearing a wig needs to change their look every time they go on stage. The wig helps solidify the character's design; natural hair is different day to day.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/SPa144JFDz8){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20170811143120/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPa144JFDz8){{cbignore}}: {{Cite web \\|author\\=American Theatre Wing \\|title\\=Theatrical Wig Maker \\|date\\=October 28, 2013 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=SPa144JFDz8\\&t\\=16s \\|publisher\\=YouTube \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/5XsOMG6q860){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20191221081545/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5XsOMG6q860){{cbignore}}: {{Cite web \\|author\\=American Theatre Wing \\|title\\=Working in the Theatre: Wigs \\|date\\=October 10, 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=5XsOMG6q860 \\|website\\=YouTube \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}",
"#### Convenience",
"Wigs are worn by some people on a daily or occasional basis in everyday life. This is sometimes done for reasons of convenience, since wigs can be styled ahead of time. A common practice of wigs for convenience is called protective styling. Many use wigs to avoid damage to their natural tresses, or to create styles that may not be possible otherwise.Forbes, Jihan. [\"Wigs Are Cool and All, But Do They Really Give Us a Break from Styling?\"](https://www.allure.com/story/are-we-over-wigs/amp). *[Allure](/wiki/Allure_%28magazine%29 \"Allure (magazine)\")*, December 27, 2021\\. They are also worn by individuals who are experiencing hair loss for medical reasons (most commonly cancer patients who are undergoing [chemotherapy](/wiki/Chemotherapy \"Chemotherapy\"), or those who are suffering from [alopecia areata](/wiki/Alopecia_areata \"Alopecia areata\")).",
"Some men who [crossdress](/wiki/Crossdress \"Crossdress\") as women wear wigs in different styles to make their hair seem more feminine.",
"#### Merkin",
"{{main\\|Merkin}}\nA merkin is a pubic wig often worn as a decorative item or for theatrical and fashion purposes. They are sometimes viewed as erotic and some designs are meant for entertainment or as a form of comedy.",
"### Image gallery",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Examples of contemporary wigs\n\\|width\\=250\n\\|height\\=200\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Colourful wigs.jpg\\|Colourful wigs for costume parties\n\\|File:Wigs on display.jpg\\|An assortment of wigs in display cabinet\n\\|File:Legal wigs today.jpg\\|Wigs as court dress\n\\|File:Wig Bunkin for Kasane.jpg\\|Japanese wig for traditional hairstyle}}",
""
] |
### 16th and 17th centuries
After the [fall of the Western Roman Empire](/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire "Fall of the Western Roman Empire"), the use of wigs fell into disuse in the West for a thousand years until they were revived in the 16th century as a means of compensating for hair loss or improving one's personal appearance.{{cite web \|title\=Fashion: The history of the wig: On a wig and a prayer \|website\=\[\[The Independent]] \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/life\-style/fashion\-the\-history\-of\-the\-wig\-on\-a\-wig\-and\-a\-prayer\-1074469\.html \|date\=January 17, 1999}} They also served a practical purpose: the unhygienic conditions of the time meant that hair attracted [head lice](/wiki/Head_lice "Head lice"), a problem that could be much reduced if natural hair were shaved and replaced with a more easily de\-loused artificial hairpiece.{{cite web\|title\=Perukes, Pomade, and Powder: Hair Care in the 1700s \|date\=January 28, 2015 \|url\=https://livesandlegaciesblog.org/2015/01/28/perukes\-pomade\-powder}} Fur hoods were also used in a similar preventive fashion.
Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig.{{cite web \|url\=http://envywigs.com/a\-brief\-history\-of\-the\-wig\|title\=A Brief History of the Wig\|date\=June 15, 2015}} Queen [Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England") famously wore a red wig, tightly and elaborately curled in a "Roman" style, while among men King [Louis XIII of France](/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France "Louis XIII of France") (1601–1643\) started to pioneer wig\-wearing [in 1624](/wiki/1600%E2%80%931650_in_Western_European_fashion%23Men%27s_fashions "1600–1650 in Western European fashion#Men's fashions") when he had prematurely begun to bald.{{cite web\|author\=Marcel Gomes \|url\=http://thebeautifultimes.wordpress.com/tag/louis\-xiii/ \|title\=Louis XIII \|website\=The Beautiful Times \|access\-date\=March 16, 2013}} This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor [Louis XIV of France](/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France "Louis XIV of France") (1638–1715\), which contributed to its spread in Europe and European\-influenced countries [in the 1660s](/wiki/1650%E2%80%931700_in_Western_European_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion "1650–1700 in Western European fashion#Men's fashion"). Wig\-wearing remained a dominant style among men for about 140 years until the change of dress, affected by the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution"), [in the 1790s](/wiki/1795%E2%80%931820_in_Western_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion "1795–1820 in Western fashion#Men's fashion").
Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English\-speaking world with other French styles when [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England") was [restored to the throne](/wiki/Restoration_%28England%29 "Restoration (England)") in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder\-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist [Samuel Pepys](/wiki/Samuel_Pepys "Samuel Pepys") recorded the day in 1665 that a [barber](/wiki/Barber "Barber") had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of [plague](/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London "Great Plague of London") he was uneasy about wearing it:{{cite book \|title\=The Diary of Samuel Pepys (Volume 9, Page 60\) \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PkbKlB0g2ckC \|author1\=Samuel Pepys \|author2\=Henry Benjamin Wheatley \|year\=1895}}
> 3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster "Westminster") when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague.
Wigs were not without other drawbacks, as Pepys noted on March 27, 1663:
> I did go to the Swan; and there sent for Jervas my old periwig\-maker and he did bring me a periwig; but it was full of [nits](/wiki/Head_louse "Head louse"), so as I was troubled to see it (it being his old fault) and did send him to make it clean.
With wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige. A wigmakers' guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Their job was a skilled one as 17th century wigs were extraordinarily elaborate, covering the back and shoulders and flowing down the chest; not surprisingly, they were also extremely heavy and often uncomfortable to wear. Such wigs were expensive to produce. The best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative.{{cite web \|last\=Chaudhary \|first\=Amit \|title\=History of Hair Wigs \- Why It is in Trend Today \- Artificial Heads of Hair \|url\=https://www.planetofhaircloning.com/history\-of\-hair\-wigs/ \|website\=Planetofhaircloning.com \|date\=July 10, 2018}}
Several contemporary writings which have survived noted that some viewed men who wore wigs as looking deformed and emasculated. It especially attracted disapproval from Puritans, and during times of plague, it was said that wigs were made of hair of plague victims.{{Cite book \|last\=Cockayne \|first\=Emily \|title\=Filth, Noise \& Stench in England \|publisher\=Yale University Press \|year\=2021 \|pages\=66–72}}
Wigs required cleaning using [fuller's earth](/wiki/Fuller%27s_earth "Fuller's earth"), and the powder used to freshen it was made from low grade flour and scented with [pomatum](/wiki/Pomatum "Pomatum").
{{Gallery
\|title\=Examples of wigs in the 16th and 17th centuries
\|width\=250
\|height\=200
\|align\=center
\|File:Elizabeth I (Armada Portrait).jpg\|Queen \[\[Elizabeth I of England\|Elizabeth I]], pictured in 1588
\|File:De Vermont\-Largilliere.jpg\|Nicolas de Vermont
\|File:Ex\-voto a sainte\-genevieve \-Detail\-Largilliere.jpg\|Portrait of men wearing wigs by \[\[Nicolas de Largillière]], 17th century
\|File:Miindo\-Yun.family.of.Haenam\-d1\.jpg\|Korean traditional wig (\[\[gache]])
\|File:Peter\_Lely\_(1618\-1680\)\_(after)\_\-\_James\_Scott\_(1649%E2%80%931685\),\_Duke\_of\_Monmouth,\_KG,\_in\_Garter\_Robes\_\-\_1171154\_\-\_National\_Trust.jpg\|James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, (illegitimate son of \[\[Charles II of England]])
}}
|
[
"### 16th and 17th centuries",
"After the [fall of the Western Roman Empire](/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire \"Fall of the Western Roman Empire\"), the use of wigs fell into disuse in the West for a thousand years until they were revived in the 16th century as a means of compensating for hair loss or improving one's personal appearance.{{cite web \\|title\\=Fashion: The history of the wig: On a wig and a prayer \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/life\\-style/fashion\\-the\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-wig\\-on\\-a\\-wig\\-and\\-a\\-prayer\\-1074469\\.html \\|date\\=January 17, 1999}} They also served a practical purpose: the unhygienic conditions of the time meant that hair attracted [head lice](/wiki/Head_lice \"Head lice\"), a problem that could be much reduced if natural hair were shaved and replaced with a more easily de\\-loused artificial hairpiece.{{cite web\\|title\\=Perukes, Pomade, and Powder: Hair Care in the 1700s \\|date\\=January 28, 2015 \\|url\\=https://livesandlegaciesblog.org/2015/01/28/perukes\\-pomade\\-powder}} Fur hoods were also used in a similar preventive fashion.",
"Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://envywigs.com/a\\-brief\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-wig\\|title\\=A Brief History of the Wig\\|date\\=June 15, 2015}} Queen [Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\") famously wore a red wig, tightly and elaborately curled in a \"Roman\" style, while among men King [Louis XIII of France](/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France \"Louis XIII of France\") (1601–1643\\) started to pioneer wig\\-wearing [in 1624](/wiki/1600%E2%80%931650_in_Western_European_fashion%23Men%27s_fashions \"1600–1650 in Western European fashion#Men's fashions\") when he had prematurely begun to bald.{{cite web\\|author\\=Marcel Gomes \\|url\\=http://thebeautifultimes.wordpress.com/tag/louis\\-xiii/ \\|title\\=Louis XIII \\|website\\=The Beautiful Times \\|access\\-date\\=March 16, 2013}} This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor [Louis XIV of France](/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France \"Louis XIV of France\") (1638–1715\\), which contributed to its spread in Europe and European\\-influenced countries [in the 1660s](/wiki/1650%E2%80%931700_in_Western_European_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion \"1650–1700 in Western European fashion#Men's fashion\"). Wig\\-wearing remained a dominant style among men for about 140 years until the change of dress, affected by the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\"), [in the 1790s](/wiki/1795%E2%80%931820_in_Western_fashion%23Men%27s_fashion \"1795–1820 in Western fashion#Men's fashion\").",
"Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English\\-speaking world with other French styles when [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\") was [restored to the throne](/wiki/Restoration_%28England%29 \"Restoration (England)\") in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder\\-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist [Samuel Pepys](/wiki/Samuel_Pepys \"Samuel Pepys\") recorded the day in 1665 that a [barber](/wiki/Barber \"Barber\") had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of [plague](/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London \"Great Plague of London\") he was uneasy about wearing it:{{cite book \\|title\\=The Diary of Samuel Pepys (Volume 9, Page 60\\) \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PkbKlB0g2ckC \\|author1\\=Samuel Pepys \\|author2\\=Henry Benjamin Wheatley \\|year\\=1895}}\n> 3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster \"Westminster\") when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague.",
"",
"Wigs were not without other drawbacks, as Pepys noted on March 27, 1663:\n> I did go to the Swan; and there sent for Jervas my old periwig\\-maker and he did bring me a periwig; but it was full of [nits](/wiki/Head_louse \"Head louse\"), so as I was troubled to see it (it being his old fault) and did send him to make it clean.",
"",
"With wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige. A wigmakers' guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Their job was a skilled one as 17th century wigs were extraordinarily elaborate, covering the back and shoulders and flowing down the chest; not surprisingly, they were also extremely heavy and often uncomfortable to wear. Such wigs were expensive to produce. The best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative.{{cite web \\|last\\=Chaudhary \\|first\\=Amit \\|title\\=History of Hair Wigs \\- Why It is in Trend Today \\- Artificial Heads of Hair \\|url\\=https://www.planetofhaircloning.com/history\\-of\\-hair\\-wigs/ \\|website\\=Planetofhaircloning.com \\|date\\=July 10, 2018}}",
"Several contemporary writings which have survived noted that some viewed men who wore wigs as looking deformed and emasculated. It especially attracted disapproval from Puritans, and during times of plague, it was said that wigs were made of hair of plague victims.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Cockayne \\|first\\=Emily \\|title\\=Filth, Noise \\& Stench in England \\|publisher\\=Yale University Press \\|year\\=2021 \\|pages\\=66–72}}",
"Wigs required cleaning using [fuller's earth](/wiki/Fuller%27s_earth \"Fuller's earth\"), and the powder used to freshen it was made from low grade flour and scented with [pomatum](/wiki/Pomatum \"Pomatum\").",
"{{Gallery\n\\|title\\=Examples of wigs in the 16th and 17th centuries\n\\|width\\=250\n\\|height\\=200\n\\|align\\=center\n\\|File:Elizabeth I (Armada Portrait).jpg\\|Queen \\[\\[Elizabeth I of England\\|Elizabeth I]], pictured in 1588\n\\|File:De Vermont\\-Largilliere.jpg\\|Nicolas de Vermont\n\\|File:Ex\\-voto a sainte\\-genevieve \\-Detail\\-Largilliere.jpg\\|Portrait of men wearing wigs by \\[\\[Nicolas de Largillière]], 17th century\n\\|File:Miindo\\-Yun.family.of.Haenam\\-d1\\.jpg\\|Korean traditional wig (\\[\\[gache]])\n\\|File:Peter\\_Lely\\_(1618\\-1680\\)\\_(after)\\_\\-\\_James\\_Scott\\_(1649%E2%80%931685\\),\\_Duke\\_of\\_Monmouth,\\_KG,\\_in\\_Garter\\_Robes\\_\\-\\_1171154\\_\\-\\_National\\_Trust.jpg\\|James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, (illegitimate son of \\[\\[Charles II of England]])\n}}",
""
] |
### 21st century
The art of wigs became a billion dollar industry in the 21st century. Three main processes happen within the industry: the collection of material, manufacturing, and distribution. India is the main source of hair. It has been reported from time to time that for global human hair trade, women from the [ASEAN](/wiki/ASEAN "ASEAN") region are being exploited.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.business\-humanrights.org/en/asean\-multi\-billion\-hair\-industry\-exploits\-women\-by\-buying\-hair\-at\-very\-low\-prices\|title\=ASEAN: Multi\-billion hair industry exploits women by buying hair at very low prices {{!}} Business \& Human Rights Resource Centre\|website\=Business \& Human Rights Resource Centre \|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020}} Hair from this region has a significant commercial value in the international market.{{Cite web\|url\=https://theaseanpost.com/article/human\-hair\-trade\-exploiting\-asean\-women\|title\=Human hair trade is exploiting ASEAN women\|website\=The ASEAN Post\|date\=December 29, 2016 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020}} Particularly in [India](/wiki/India "India"), the women are forced by their husbands into selling their hair,{{Cite news\|last\=McDougall\|first\=Dan\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/25/india.theobserver\|title\=Trade in hair forces India's children to pay the price\|date\=June 24, 2006\|work\=The Observer\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|language\=en\-GB\|issn\=0029\-7712}} and [slum](/wiki/Slum "Slum") children were being tricked into "having their heads shaved in exchange for toys".{{Cite news\|last\=Khaleeli\|first\=Homa\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/oct/28/hair\-extension\-global\-trade\-secrets\|title\=The hair trade's dirty secret\|date\=October 28, 2012\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|access\-date\=March 4, 2020 \|language\=en\-GB\|issn\=0261\-3077}} Scrap pickers are another source of hair in India, these people find hair in miscellaneous places such as hair brushes, clothes, or in the trash. While manufacturing and processing mainly takes place in China, where the hair is sorted through and constructed into wigs, the final product exported abroad, with the top countries being the United States and the United Kingdom.Boland, Rosita. ["The Hair Collectors: Where Wigs and Hair Extensions Come From"](https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/fashion/beauty/the-hair-collectors-where-wigs-and-hair-extensions-come-from-1.3848296). *[The Irish Times](/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")*, April 6, 2019\.
#### Official use
In the United Kingdom, most [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") nations and Ireland, special wigs are also worn by [barristers](/wiki/Barrister "Barrister"), [judges](/wiki/Judge "Judge") and certain parliamentary and municipal or civic officials as a symbol of the office.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
Hong Kong barristers and judges continue to wear wigs as part of [court dress](/wiki/Court_dress "Court dress") as a legacy of the court system from the time of British rule.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
In July 2007, judges in [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales "New South Wales"), Australia, voted to discontinue the wearing of wigs in the NSW Court of Appeal.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/woolly\-headed\-not\-this\-verdict/2007/08/02/1185648038982\.html \|last\=Ramachandran \|first\=Arjun \|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|title\=Woolly headed? Not this verdict \|date\=August 2, 2007}}
New Zealand lawyers and judges have ceased to wear wigs except for ceremonial occasions, such as when newly qualified lawyers are [called to the bar](/wiki/Call_to_the_bar "Call to the bar").{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
In Canada lawyers and judges do not wear wigs.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
#### Entertainment
A number of celebrities, including [Donna Summer](/wiki/Donna_Summer "Donna Summer"), [Dolly Parton](/wiki/Dolly_Parton "Dolly Parton"), [Sia](/wiki/Sia "Sia"), [Nicki Minaj](/wiki/Nicki_Minaj "Nicki Minaj"), [Katy Perry](/wiki/Katy_Perry "Katy Perry"), [Lady Gaga](/wiki/Lady_Gaga "Lady Gaga"), [Diana Ross \& The Supremes](/wiki/Diana_Ross_%26_The_Supremes "Diana Ross & The Supremes"), [Tina Turner](/wiki/Tina_Turner "Tina Turner") and [Raquel Welch](/wiki/Raquel_Welch "Raquel Welch"), popularized wigs. [Cher](/wiki/Cher "Cher") has worn all kinds of wigs in the last 40 years, from blonde to black, and curly to straight. They may also be worn for fun as part of [fancy dress](/wiki/Fancy_dress "Fancy dress") ([costume](/wiki/Costume "Costume") wearing), when they can be of outlandish color or made from [tinsel](/wiki/Tinsel "Tinsel"). They are quite common at [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween "Halloween"), when "rubber wigs" (solid [bald cap](/wiki/Bald_cap "Bald cap")\-like hats, shaped like hair), are sold at some stores.
Wigs are used in film, theater, and television. In the Japanese film and television genre [Jidaigeki](/wiki/Jidaigeki "Jidaigeki"), wigs are used extensively to alter appearance to reflect the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period "Edo period") when most stories take place. Only a few actors starring in big\-budgeted films and television series will grow their hair so that it may be cut to the appropriate hair style, and forgo using a wig.
In the theater, especially on Broadway, wigs are used to give a performer a fixed character. Nearly all women and many men do so not only for character design, but also to cover their microphone packs. Often the microphone pack goes on the actor's head, mainly to efficiently facilitate quick changes.
An actor not wearing a wig needs to change their look every time they go on stage. The wig helps solidify the character's design; natural hair is different day to day.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/SPa144JFDz8){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20170811143120/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPa144JFDz8){{cbignore}}: {{Cite web \|author\=American Theatre Wing \|title\=Theatrical Wig Maker \|date\=October 28, 2013 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=SPa144JFDz8\&t\=16s \|publisher\=YouTube \|access\-date\=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/5XsOMG6q860){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20191221081545/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5XsOMG6q860){{cbignore}}: {{Cite web \|author\=American Theatre Wing \|title\=Working in the Theatre: Wigs \|date\=October 10, 2018 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=5XsOMG6q860 \|website\=YouTube \|access\-date\=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}
#### Convenience
Wigs are worn by some people on a daily or occasional basis in everyday life. This is sometimes done for reasons of convenience, since wigs can be styled ahead of time. A common practice of wigs for convenience is called protective styling. Many use wigs to avoid damage to their natural tresses, or to create styles that may not be possible otherwise.Forbes, Jihan. ["Wigs Are Cool and All, But Do They Really Give Us a Break from Styling?"](https://www.allure.com/story/are-we-over-wigs/amp). *[Allure](/wiki/Allure_%28magazine%29 "Allure (magazine)")*, December 27, 2021\. They are also worn by individuals who are experiencing hair loss for medical reasons (most commonly cancer patients who are undergoing [chemotherapy](/wiki/Chemotherapy "Chemotherapy"), or those who are suffering from [alopecia areata](/wiki/Alopecia_areata "Alopecia areata")).
Some men who [crossdress](/wiki/Crossdress "Crossdress") as women wear wigs in different styles to make their hair seem more feminine.
#### Merkin
{{main\|Merkin}}
A merkin is a pubic wig often worn as a decorative item or for theatrical and fashion purposes. They are sometimes viewed as erotic and some designs are meant for entertainment or as a form of comedy.
|
[
"### 21st century",
"The art of wigs became a billion dollar industry in the 21st century. Three main processes happen within the industry: the collection of material, manufacturing, and distribution. India is the main source of hair. It has been reported from time to time that for global human hair trade, women from the [ASEAN](/wiki/ASEAN \"ASEAN\") region are being exploited.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.business\\-humanrights.org/en/asean\\-multi\\-billion\\-hair\\-industry\\-exploits\\-women\\-by\\-buying\\-hair\\-at\\-very\\-low\\-prices\\|title\\=ASEAN: Multi\\-billion hair industry exploits women by buying hair at very low prices {{!}} Business \\& Human Rights Resource Centre\\|website\\=Business \\& Human Rights Resource Centre \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020}} Hair from this region has a significant commercial value in the international market.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://theaseanpost.com/article/human\\-hair\\-trade\\-exploiting\\-asean\\-women\\|title\\=Human hair trade is exploiting ASEAN women\\|website\\=The ASEAN Post\\|date\\=December 29, 2016 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020}} Particularly in [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), the women are forced by their husbands into selling their hair,{{Cite news\\|last\\=McDougall\\|first\\=Dan\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/25/india.theobserver\\|title\\=Trade in hair forces India's children to pay the price\\|date\\=June 24, 2006\\|work\\=The Observer\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|issn\\=0029\\-7712}} and [slum](/wiki/Slum \"Slum\") children were being tricked into \"having their heads shaved in exchange for toys\".{{Cite news\\|last\\=Khaleeli\\|first\\=Homa\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/oct/28/hair\\-extension\\-global\\-trade\\-secrets\\|title\\=The hair trade's dirty secret\\|date\\=October 28, 2012\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020 \\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} Scrap pickers are another source of hair in India, these people find hair in miscellaneous places such as hair brushes, clothes, or in the trash. While manufacturing and processing mainly takes place in China, where the hair is sorted through and constructed into wigs, the final product exported abroad, with the top countries being the United States and the United Kingdom.Boland, Rosita. [\"The Hair Collectors: Where Wigs and Hair Extensions Come From\"](https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/fashion/beauty/the-hair-collectors-where-wigs-and-hair-extensions-come-from-1.3848296). *[The Irish Times](/wiki/The_Irish_Times \"The Irish Times\")*, April 6, 2019\\.",
"#### Official use",
"In the United Kingdom, most [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") nations and Ireland, special wigs are also worn by [barristers](/wiki/Barrister \"Barrister\"), [judges](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") and certain parliamentary and municipal or civic officials as a symbol of the office.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"Hong Kong barristers and judges continue to wear wigs as part of [court dress](/wiki/Court_dress \"Court dress\") as a legacy of the court system from the time of British rule.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"In July 2007, judges in [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\"), Australia, voted to discontinue the wearing of wigs in the NSW Court of Appeal.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/woolly\\-headed\\-not\\-this\\-verdict/2007/08/02/1185648038982\\.html \\|last\\=Ramachandran \\|first\\=Arjun \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|title\\=Woolly headed? Not this verdict \\|date\\=August 2, 2007}}",
"New Zealand lawyers and judges have ceased to wear wigs except for ceremonial occasions, such as when newly qualified lawyers are [called to the bar](/wiki/Call_to_the_bar \"Call to the bar\").{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"In Canada lawyers and judges do not wear wigs.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"#### Entertainment",
"A number of celebrities, including [Donna Summer](/wiki/Donna_Summer \"Donna Summer\"), [Dolly Parton](/wiki/Dolly_Parton \"Dolly Parton\"), [Sia](/wiki/Sia \"Sia\"), [Nicki Minaj](/wiki/Nicki_Minaj \"Nicki Minaj\"), [Katy Perry](/wiki/Katy_Perry \"Katy Perry\"), [Lady Gaga](/wiki/Lady_Gaga \"Lady Gaga\"), [Diana Ross \\& The Supremes](/wiki/Diana_Ross_%26_The_Supremes \"Diana Ross & The Supremes\"), [Tina Turner](/wiki/Tina_Turner \"Tina Turner\") and [Raquel Welch](/wiki/Raquel_Welch \"Raquel Welch\"), popularized wigs. [Cher](/wiki/Cher \"Cher\") has worn all kinds of wigs in the last 40 years, from blonde to black, and curly to straight. They may also be worn for fun as part of [fancy dress](/wiki/Fancy_dress \"Fancy dress\") ([costume](/wiki/Costume \"Costume\") wearing), when they can be of outlandish color or made from [tinsel](/wiki/Tinsel \"Tinsel\"). They are quite common at [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween \"Halloween\"), when \"rubber wigs\" (solid [bald cap](/wiki/Bald_cap \"Bald cap\")\\-like hats, shaped like hair), are sold at some stores.",
"Wigs are used in film, theater, and television. In the Japanese film and television genre [Jidaigeki](/wiki/Jidaigeki \"Jidaigeki\"), wigs are used extensively to alter appearance to reflect the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\") when most stories take place. Only a few actors starring in big\\-budgeted films and television series will grow their hair so that it may be cut to the appropriate hair style, and forgo using a wig.",
"In the theater, especially on Broadway, wigs are used to give a performer a fixed character. Nearly all women and many men do so not only for character design, but also to cover their microphone packs. Often the microphone pack goes on the actor's head, mainly to efficiently facilitate quick changes.",
"An actor not wearing a wig needs to change their look every time they go on stage. The wig helps solidify the character's design; natural hair is different day to day.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/SPa144JFDz8){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20170811143120/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPa144JFDz8){{cbignore}}: {{Cite web \\|author\\=American Theatre Wing \\|title\\=Theatrical Wig Maker \\|date\\=October 28, 2013 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=SPa144JFDz8\\&t\\=16s \\|publisher\\=YouTube \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/5XsOMG6q860){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20191221081545/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5XsOMG6q860){{cbignore}}: {{Cite web \\|author\\=American Theatre Wing \\|title\\=Working in the Theatre: Wigs \\|date\\=October 10, 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=5XsOMG6q860 \\|website\\=YouTube \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}",
"#### Convenience",
"Wigs are worn by some people on a daily or occasional basis in everyday life. This is sometimes done for reasons of convenience, since wigs can be styled ahead of time. A common practice of wigs for convenience is called protective styling. Many use wigs to avoid damage to their natural tresses, or to create styles that may not be possible otherwise.Forbes, Jihan. [\"Wigs Are Cool and All, But Do They Really Give Us a Break from Styling?\"](https://www.allure.com/story/are-we-over-wigs/amp). *[Allure](/wiki/Allure_%28magazine%29 \"Allure (magazine)\")*, December 27, 2021\\. They are also worn by individuals who are experiencing hair loss for medical reasons (most commonly cancer patients who are undergoing [chemotherapy](/wiki/Chemotherapy \"Chemotherapy\"), or those who are suffering from [alopecia areata](/wiki/Alopecia_areata \"Alopecia areata\")).",
"Some men who [crossdress](/wiki/Crossdress \"Crossdress\") as women wear wigs in different styles to make their hair seem more feminine.",
"#### Merkin",
"{{main\\|Merkin}}\nA merkin is a pubic wig often worn as a decorative item or for theatrical and fashion purposes. They are sometimes viewed as erotic and some designs are meant for entertainment or as a form of comedy.",
""
] |
Manufacture
-----------
In the 18th and 19th centuries, wigmakers were called perruquiers.{{cite web
\|title\=Perruquier's Shop, England, 18th century. Illustration of maker of perukes or wigs.
\|date\=July 8, 2013
\|url\=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news\-photo/perruquiers\-shop\-england\-18th\-century\-illustration\-of\-maker\-news\-photo/173305413
\|quote\=maker of perukes}}
There are two methods of attaching hair to wigs. The first and oldest is to weave the root ends of the hair onto a stretch of three silk threads to form a sort of fringe called a "weft". The wefts are then sewn to a foundation made of net or other material.{{cite book\|last1\=Huaixiang\|first1\=Han\|title\=Costume Craftwork on a Budget\|date\=June 20, 2014\|publisher\=Focal Press\|location\=Burlington, MA\|isbn\=978\-0240808536\|pages\=86–87\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9J\_cAwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA86\|access\-date\=November 21, 2014}} In modern times, the wefts can also be made (a warp is the vertical thread of a weave, the weft is the horizontal thread) with a specially adapted sewing machine, reducing the amount of hand labour involved. In the 19th century another method came into use. A small hook called a "ventilating needle" or "knotting needle", similar to the [tambour hooks](/wiki/Tambour_lace "Tambour lace") used for decorating fabric with chain\-stitch embroidery at that period, is used to knot a few strands of hair at a time directly to a suitable foundation material. This newer method produces a lighter and more natural looking wig. High quality custom wigs, and those used for film and theatrical productions are usually done this way. It is also possible to combine the two techniques, using weft for the main part of the wig and ventilating hair at the edges and partings to give a fine finish.[thumb\|left\|[Historical reenactment](/wiki/Historical_reenactment "Historical reenactment") of wig making in [Colonial Williamsburg](/wiki/Colonial_Williamsburg "Colonial Williamsburg"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia")](/wiki/File:Wig_makers_15-29-18.jpg "Wig makers 15-29-18.jpg")
### Measurement
Making custom wigs starts with measuring the subject's head. The natural hair is arranged in flat curls against the head as the various measurements are taken. It is often helpful to make a pattern from layers of transparent adhesive tape applied over a piece of plastic wrap, on which the natural hairline can be traced accurately. These measurements are then transferred to the "block", a wooden or cork\-stuffed canvas form the same size and shape as the client's head.{{cite episode
\| title \= Wigs
\| series \= How It's Made
\| series\-link \= How It's Made
\| network \= Discovery Channel Canada
\| season \= 6
\| number \= 6\-06
}}
### Foundation
Depending on the style of the wig, a foundation is made of net or other material, different sizes and textures of mesh being used for different parts of the wig. The edges and other places might be trimmed and reinforced with a narrow ribbon called "galloon". Sometimes flesh colored silk or synthetic material is applied where it will show through the hair at crown and partings, and small bones or elastic are inserted to make the wig fit securely. Theatrical, and some fine custom wigs, have a fine, flesh colored net called "hair lace" at the front which is very inconspicuous in wear and allows the hair to look as if it is coming directly from the skin underneath. These are usually referred to as "[lace front wigs](/wiki/Lace_front_wig "Lace front wig")"."The Art and Craft of Hairdressing" Wolters
### Hair preparation
[thumb\|Trimmed human hair that is partly bleached](/wiki/File:Human_Hair_Partly_Bleached.png "Human Hair Partly Bleached.png")
Natural hair, either human or from an animal such as a goat or yak, must be carefully sorted so that the direction of growth is maintained, root to root, and point to point. Because of the scale\-like structure of the cuticle of a hair shaft, if some hairs get turned the wrong way, they will ride backwards against their neighbors and cause tangles and matting. The highest quality of hair has never been bleached or colored, and has been carefully sorted to ensure the direction is correct. This process is called "turning". For less expensive wigs, this labour\-intensive sorting process is substituted by "processing" the hair. It is treated with a strong base solution which partially dissolves the cuticle leaving the strands smooth. It is then bleached and dyed to the required shade and given a synthetic resin finish which partially restores the strength and luster of the now damaged hair. Synthetic fiber, of course, is simply manufactured in the required colors, and has no direction.
The wigmaker will choose the type, length and colors of hair required by the design of the wig and blend them by pulling the hair through the upright teeth of a brush\-like tool called a "[hackle](/wiki/Hackle_%28wig_making%29 "Hackle (wig making)")" which also removes tangles and any short or broken strands. The hair is placed on one of a pair of short\-bristled brushes called "drawing brushes" with the root ends extending over one edge; the edge facing the wigmaker (or properly called, boardworker), and the second brush is pressed down on top of it so that a few strands can be withdrawn at a time, leaving the rest undisturbed.
### Adding the hair
Weft structured wigs can have the wefts sewn to the foundation by hand, while it is on the block or, as is common with mass\-produced wigs, sewn to a ready\-made base by skilled sewing machine operators. Ventilated (hand knotted) wigs have the hair knotted directly to the foundation, a few strands at a time while the foundation is fastened to the block. With the hair folded over the finger, the wigmaker pulls a loop of hair under the mesh, and then moves the hook forward to catch both sides of the loop. The ends are pulled through the loop and the knot is tightened for a "single knot", or a second loop is pulled through the first before finishing for a "double knot". Typically, the bulkier but more secure double knot is used over the majority of the wig and the less obvious single knot at the edges and parting areas. A skilled wigmaker will consider the number of strands of hair used and the direction of each knot to give the most natural effect possible."The Art and Craft of Hairdressing" ed. N.E.B. Wolters, The New Era Publishing Company, Ltd. London, 1963
It takes generally six heads of hair to make a full human hair wig.{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2011}}
### Styling
At this point, the hair on the wig is all the same length. The wig must be styled into the desired form in much the same manner as a regular [stylist](/wiki/Hairdresser "Hairdresser").
### Fitting
The subject's natural hair is again knotted tightly against the head and the wig is applied. Any remaining superfluous wiglace is trimmed away. Hairpins can be used to secure the lace to the hair and occasionally, skin\-safe adhesives are used to adhere the wig against bald skin and to better hide any exposed lace. Finishing touches are done to the hair styling to achieve the desired effect.
### Types of human hair wigs
There are two basic kinds of hair wigs: The traditional machine stitched weft wig and the hand tied [lace wig](/wiki/Lace_wig "Lace wig"). The machine stitched wigs are still the most widely worn wigs today. The hair is sewn on a stretch weft material and come with back straps for adjusting to various head sizes. These wigs are typically pre\-styled and lack any kind of realistic expectations.
Lace wigs are quickly becoming one of the most sought\-after wigs among wig wearers. The illusion of hair growing from the scalp is the feature that makes this wig the best of the best when it comes to wearing fake hair. These wigs are made with a French or Swiss lace material base. They are made as a full lace or partial lace front with a stretch weft back. Each hair strand is individually stitched into a lace material which creates the natural look of hair at the base. This is where the term "hand tied" originates.
Hair type is the distinguishing factor in human hair wigs. Four main types of hair are used in manufacturing: Chinese or "Malaysian", Indian, Indonesian or "Brazilian", and Caucasian or "European". The majority of human hair wigs are made of Chinese or Indian hair, while European hair is considered the most expensive and rare, as most donors are from Russia or Northern Europe, where there is a smaller portion of hair donors to the market.
*Remy* human hair is considered to be the best quality of human hair because the cuticles are kept intact and not stripped away;{{cite news \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]
\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/17/us/17hair.html
\|title\=Hair Extension Thefts on the Rise
\|quote\=sold with its outermost cuticle layer intact.
\|date\=May 16, 2011}} "strands retain their scaled natural outer cuticle."{{cite news \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]
\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/15/style/gray\-mermaid\-hair.html
\|title\=We Made Gray Hair Even Prettier With Pastels
\|author\=Crystal Martin \|date\=May 15, 2019}} The preserved cuticles are also aligned in a unidirectional manner, which decreases tangling and matting. Also, the hair is carefully separated after collecting from the donor to ensure all the cuticles are of the same length.{{cite news \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]
\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/28/fashion/for\-more\-everyday\-women\-their\-crowning\-glory\-comes\-in\-a\-box\-skin\-deep.html
\|title\=Her Crowning Glory in a Box
\|quote\=kept in the same direction after harvesting
\|author\=Lauren Lipton \|date\=February 27, 2013}}
|
[
"Manufacture\n-----------",
"In the 18th and 19th centuries, wigmakers were called perruquiers.{{cite web\n \\|title\\=Perruquier's Shop, England, 18th century. Illustration of maker of perukes or wigs.\n \\|date\\=July 8, 2013\n \\|url\\=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news\\-photo/perruquiers\\-shop\\-england\\-18th\\-century\\-illustration\\-of\\-maker\\-news\\-photo/173305413\n \\|quote\\=maker of perukes}}",
"There are two methods of attaching hair to wigs. The first and oldest is to weave the root ends of the hair onto a stretch of three silk threads to form a sort of fringe called a \"weft\". The wefts are then sewn to a foundation made of net or other material.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Huaixiang\\|first1\\=Han\\|title\\=Costume Craftwork on a Budget\\|date\\=June 20, 2014\\|publisher\\=Focal Press\\|location\\=Burlington, MA\\|isbn\\=978\\-0240808536\\|pages\\=86–87\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9J\\_cAwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA86\\|access\\-date\\=November 21, 2014}} In modern times, the wefts can also be made (a warp is the vertical thread of a weave, the weft is the horizontal thread) with a specially adapted sewing machine, reducing the amount of hand labour involved. In the 19th century another method came into use. A small hook called a \"ventilating needle\" or \"knotting needle\", similar to the [tambour hooks](/wiki/Tambour_lace \"Tambour lace\") used for decorating fabric with chain\\-stitch embroidery at that period, is used to knot a few strands of hair at a time directly to a suitable foundation material. This newer method produces a lighter and more natural looking wig. High quality custom wigs, and those used for film and theatrical productions are usually done this way. It is also possible to combine the two techniques, using weft for the main part of the wig and ventilating hair at the edges and partings to give a fine finish.[thumb\\|left\\|[Historical reenactment](/wiki/Historical_reenactment \"Historical reenactment\") of wig making in [Colonial Williamsburg](/wiki/Colonial_Williamsburg \"Colonial Williamsburg\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\")](/wiki/File:Wig_makers_15-29-18.jpg \"Wig makers 15-29-18.jpg\")",
"### Measurement",
"Making custom wigs starts with measuring the subject's head. The natural hair is arranged in flat curls against the head as the various measurements are taken. It is often helpful to make a pattern from layers of transparent adhesive tape applied over a piece of plastic wrap, on which the natural hairline can be traced accurately. These measurements are then transferred to the \"block\", a wooden or cork\\-stuffed canvas form the same size and shape as the client's head.{{cite episode\n\\| title \\= Wigs\n\\| series \\= How It's Made\n\\| series\\-link \\= How It's Made\n\\| network \\= Discovery Channel Canada\n\\| season \\= 6\n\\| number \\= 6\\-06\n}}",
"### Foundation",
"Depending on the style of the wig, a foundation is made of net or other material, different sizes and textures of mesh being used for different parts of the wig. The edges and other places might be trimmed and reinforced with a narrow ribbon called \"galloon\". Sometimes flesh colored silk or synthetic material is applied where it will show through the hair at crown and partings, and small bones or elastic are inserted to make the wig fit securely. Theatrical, and some fine custom wigs, have a fine, flesh colored net called \"hair lace\" at the front which is very inconspicuous in wear and allows the hair to look as if it is coming directly from the skin underneath. These are usually referred to as \"[lace front wigs](/wiki/Lace_front_wig \"Lace front wig\")\".\"The Art and Craft of Hairdressing\" Wolters",
"### Hair preparation",
"[thumb\\|Trimmed human hair that is partly bleached](/wiki/File:Human_Hair_Partly_Bleached.png \"Human Hair Partly Bleached.png\")\nNatural hair, either human or from an animal such as a goat or yak, must be carefully sorted so that the direction of growth is maintained, root to root, and point to point. Because of the scale\\-like structure of the cuticle of a hair shaft, if some hairs get turned the wrong way, they will ride backwards against their neighbors and cause tangles and matting. The highest quality of hair has never been bleached or colored, and has been carefully sorted to ensure the direction is correct. This process is called \"turning\". For less expensive wigs, this labour\\-intensive sorting process is substituted by \"processing\" the hair. It is treated with a strong base solution which partially dissolves the cuticle leaving the strands smooth. It is then bleached and dyed to the required shade and given a synthetic resin finish which partially restores the strength and luster of the now damaged hair. Synthetic fiber, of course, is simply manufactured in the required colors, and has no direction.",
"The wigmaker will choose the type, length and colors of hair required by the design of the wig and blend them by pulling the hair through the upright teeth of a brush\\-like tool called a \"[hackle](/wiki/Hackle_%28wig_making%29 \"Hackle (wig making)\")\" which also removes tangles and any short or broken strands. The hair is placed on one of a pair of short\\-bristled brushes called \"drawing brushes\" with the root ends extending over one edge; the edge facing the wigmaker (or properly called, boardworker), and the second brush is pressed down on top of it so that a few strands can be withdrawn at a time, leaving the rest undisturbed.",
"### Adding the hair",
"Weft structured wigs can have the wefts sewn to the foundation by hand, while it is on the block or, as is common with mass\\-produced wigs, sewn to a ready\\-made base by skilled sewing machine operators. Ventilated (hand knotted) wigs have the hair knotted directly to the foundation, a few strands at a time while the foundation is fastened to the block. With the hair folded over the finger, the wigmaker pulls a loop of hair under the mesh, and then moves the hook forward to catch both sides of the loop. The ends are pulled through the loop and the knot is tightened for a \"single knot\", or a second loop is pulled through the first before finishing for a \"double knot\". Typically, the bulkier but more secure double knot is used over the majority of the wig and the less obvious single knot at the edges and parting areas. A skilled wigmaker will consider the number of strands of hair used and the direction of each knot to give the most natural effect possible.\"The Art and Craft of Hairdressing\" ed. N.E.B. Wolters, The New Era Publishing Company, Ltd. London, 1963",
"It takes generally six heads of hair to make a full human hair wig.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2011}}",
"### Styling",
"At this point, the hair on the wig is all the same length. The wig must be styled into the desired form in much the same manner as a regular [stylist](/wiki/Hairdresser \"Hairdresser\").",
"### Fitting",
"The subject's natural hair is again knotted tightly against the head and the wig is applied. Any remaining superfluous wiglace is trimmed away. Hairpins can be used to secure the lace to the hair and occasionally, skin\\-safe adhesives are used to adhere the wig against bald skin and to better hide any exposed lace. Finishing touches are done to the hair styling to achieve the desired effect.",
"### Types of human hair wigs",
"There are two basic kinds of hair wigs: The traditional machine stitched weft wig and the hand tied [lace wig](/wiki/Lace_wig \"Lace wig\"). The machine stitched wigs are still the most widely worn wigs today. The hair is sewn on a stretch weft material and come with back straps for adjusting to various head sizes. These wigs are typically pre\\-styled and lack any kind of realistic expectations.",
"Lace wigs are quickly becoming one of the most sought\\-after wigs among wig wearers. The illusion of hair growing from the scalp is the feature that makes this wig the best of the best when it comes to wearing fake hair. These wigs are made with a French or Swiss lace material base. They are made as a full lace or partial lace front with a stretch weft back. Each hair strand is individually stitched into a lace material which creates the natural look of hair at the base. This is where the term \"hand tied\" originates.",
"Hair type is the distinguishing factor in human hair wigs. Four main types of hair are used in manufacturing: Chinese or \"Malaysian\", Indian, Indonesian or \"Brazilian\", and Caucasian or \"European\". The majority of human hair wigs are made of Chinese or Indian hair, while European hair is considered the most expensive and rare, as most donors are from Russia or Northern Europe, where there is a smaller portion of hair donors to the market.",
"*Remy* human hair is considered to be the best quality of human hair because the cuticles are kept intact and not stripped away;{{cite news \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\n \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/17/us/17hair.html\n \\|title\\=Hair Extension Thefts on the Rise\n \\|quote\\=sold with its outermost cuticle layer intact. \n \\|date\\=May 16, 2011}} \"strands retain their scaled natural outer cuticle.\"{{cite news \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\n\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/15/style/gray\\-mermaid\\-hair.html\n\\|title\\=We Made Gray Hair Even Prettier With Pastels \n\\|author\\=Crystal Martin \\|date\\=May 15, 2019}} The preserved cuticles are also aligned in a unidirectional manner, which decreases tangling and matting. Also, the hair is carefully separated after collecting from the donor to ensure all the cuticles are of the same length.{{cite news \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\n \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/28/fashion/for\\-more\\-everyday\\-women\\-their\\-crowning\\-glory\\-comes\\-in\\-a\\-box\\-skin\\-deep.html\n \\|title\\=Her Crowning Glory in a Box\n \\|quote\\=kept in the same direction after harvesting\n \\|author\\=Lauren Lipton \\|date\\=February 27, 2013}}",
""
] |
Labor issues
------------
{{See also\|Endo contractualization\|Child labor in the Philippines}}
### Low wages
Many workers receive wages that are below what is considered a living wage.{{Cite news \|last\=Peña \|first\=Kurt Dela \|date\=2023\-02\-09 \|title\=Giving up some needs: How the poor deal with high inflation \|url\=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1727685/giving\-up\-some\-needs\-how\-the\-poor\-deal\-with\-high\-inflation \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-19 \|newspaper\=Philippine Daily Inquirer \|language\=en}} Labor groups have called for the raising of the minimum daily wage mandated by the government.{{Cite web \|last\=Ragasa \|first\=Faith Yuen Wei \|date\=February 8, 2023 \|title\='No more excuses': Group renews call for wage hike as gov't misreads inflation forecast \|url\=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2023/2/8/Group\-renews\-call\-for\-wage\-hike\-.html \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-19 \|website\=CNN \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=February 19, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219083849/https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2023/2/8/Group\-renews\-call\-for\-wage\-hike\-.html \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|date\=May 1, 2022 \|title\=On Labor Day, groups push for living wage, security of tenure \|url\=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2022/05/01/2178068/labor\-day\-groups\-push\-living\-wage\-security\-tenure \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-19 \|website\=Philippine Star}}
Estimates from the Japanese External Trade Organization state that as of 2023 manufacturing sector wages in the Philippines is lower than that in Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam, while non\-manufacturing sector wages is lower than that in Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia.{{Cite web \|last\=Africa \|first\=Sonny \|date\=March 4, 2024 \|title\=Kung ayaw ng wage hike, maraming dahilan \|url\=https://pinoyweekly.org/2024/03/kung\-ayaw\-ng\-wage\-hike\-maraming\-dahilan/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-09 \|website\=Pinoy Weekly \|language\=en}}
#### Balance between workers' welfare and employment generation
Some businesses argue that having policies that are biased on workers’ welfare and protection may hinder employment creation. They argue that a rigid labor market due to government intervention may result in lower investments and thus, slower growth.
### Hazardous working conditions
A substantial number of workers in the Philippines are exposed to hazardous working conditions and are not provided sufficient safety equipment and training. Of the country's 13\.8 million workers, an estimated 17 out 18 are exposed to various safety and health hazards.{{Cite web \|title\=Safety and health at work in the Philippines \|url\=https://www.ilo.org/manila/areasofwork/safety\-and\-health\-at\-work/lang\-\-en/index.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-20 \|website\=International Labour Organization \|language\=en}} As many as 2 million people die annually from accidents at work or work\-related illnesses.
The type of hazards workers are exposed to depends on the industry they are in. Workers in construction and manufacturing, for example, tend to work with electrical equipment and other dangerous tools and machinery, while those in agriculture are frequently exposed to toxic pesticides and fertilizers.{{Cite web \|title\=Examples of Common Hazards Faced by Young Workers \|url\=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/\-\-\-ed\_dialogue/\-\-\-lab\_admin/documents/poster/wcms\_724889\.pdf \|access\-date\=February 20, 2023 \|website\=International Labor Organization}}
### Maltreatment of migrant workers
Many Filipino migrant workers have experienced abuse, exploitation, or human trafficking.{{Cite web \|title\=How Migrant Workers From the Philippines Power Modern Capitalism \|url\=https://jacobin.com/2022/05/philippines\-labor\-export\-ofws\-marcos\-duterte\-exploitation \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-21 \|website\=jacobin.com \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite news \|last\=Ramos \|first\=Christia Marie \|date\=2021\-03\-08 \|title\=Nearly 5,000 cases of abused OFWs recorded in 2020 \|url\=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/194235/fwd\-nearly\-5k\-cases\-of\-ofw\-maltreatment\-recorded\-in\-2020\-polo\-data\-shows \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-21 \|newspaper\=Philippine Daily Inquirer \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Valmonte \|first\=Kaycee \|date\=January 25, 2023 \|title\=Immigration revamp, more welfare offices needed vs human trafficking \|url\=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/01/25/2240149/immigration\-revamp\-more\-welfare\-offices\-needed\-vs\-human\-trafficking \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-21 \|website\=Philippine Star}} In 2020, almost 5,000 cases of maltreatment of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) were recorded by Philippine Overseas Labor Offices.
### Labor productivity
[Total factor productivity](/wiki/Total_factor_productivity "Total factor productivity") (TFP), the efficiency in use of both labor and capital, is important because labor income depends on [labor productivity](/wiki/Labor_productivity "Labor productivity") growth. This growth is the average product of labor which correlates with labor's contribution to enterprise revenue and profits. Improvements in workers’ [real wages](/wiki/Real_wages "Real wages") and earnings is related to labor productivity growth and not exactly to employment growth. Improvements in real wages, improves the poverty incidence of the people thus helping in [poverty](/wiki/Poverty "Poverty") reduction. Canlas, Aldaba, Esguerra argues that policymakers should have a good understanding of the sources of TFP because [sustainable growth](/wiki/Sustainable_growth "Sustainable growth") comes from rising TFP growth.
"One key factor is educated labor, which has the capacity to invent, innovate, and master new techniques." At the long run, it is important to educate the population and invest in human development and research and development to improve TFP. Canlas, Aldaba, Esguerra advise that to raise TFP growth, [monetary policy](/wiki/Monetary_policy "Monetary policy") and [fiscal policy](/wiki/Fiscal_policy "Fiscal policy") should stabilize a predictable environment for the private sector.{{Cite report \|first1\=Fernando \|last1\=Aldaba \|first2\=Dante \|last2\=Canlas \|first3\=Emmanuel \|last3\=Esguerra \|title\= Growth, Employment Creation, and Poverty Reduction in the Philippines}}
### Underemployment, overseas employment
With the declining earnings, people are looking for additional hours of work (underemployed), or going abroad (overseas employment) or choose to be self\-employed. This also shows how they are not content with the quality of employment. The self\-employed are actually indifferent between the wage employment and self\-employment that they decided to be on their own. This makes them, together with the unpaid family workers, part of the vulnerable employment and its earnings is weak compared to the wage one. On the other hand, they can be [overseas Filipino workers](/wiki/Overseas_Filipino_workers "Overseas Filipino workers"). In 2009, it was reported that 1\.423 million Filipinos were deployed overseas.{{Cite report \|date\=April 2011 \|title\=The Philippine Labor and Employment Plan 2011–2016 \|url\=http://ncmb.ph/Others/dole/dole11\.pdf \|publisher\= Department of Labor and Employment \|access\-date\= September 10, 2011}} This mitigates the unemployment problem but also poses moral hazard problems, reducing labor force participation in the family.
### Youth unemployment, job and skill mismatch, educated unemployed
In 2010, half of the 2\.9 million unemployed Filipinos were age 15–24\. More than half of the unemployed youth are stuck due to lack of job opportunities, lack of skills and the competition with older ones. This lack of training and skills and incompetence may be due to poor education. On the other hand, there is the job and skill mismatch. Even with the high unemployment rate, there are jobs that are not filled because there are no applicants who have the right qualifications. From this job mismatch problem also arises the educated unemployed. In 2010, the unemployment rate among the college educated is about 11%. Some have difficulty in finding an appropriate job for the degree they have. Others, on the other hand, have higher reservation wages and can afford to wait for better opportunities.
|
[
"Labor issues\n------------",
"{{See also\\|Endo contractualization\\|Child labor in the Philippines}}",
"### Low wages",
"Many workers receive wages that are below what is considered a living wage.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Peña \\|first\\=Kurt Dela \\|date\\=2023\\-02\\-09 \\|title\\=Giving up some needs: How the poor deal with high inflation \\|url\\=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1727685/giving\\-up\\-some\\-needs\\-how\\-the\\-poor\\-deal\\-with\\-high\\-inflation \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-19 \\|newspaper\\=Philippine Daily Inquirer \\|language\\=en}} Labor groups have called for the raising of the minimum daily wage mandated by the government.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ragasa \\|first\\=Faith Yuen Wei \\|date\\=February 8, 2023 \\|title\\='No more excuses': Group renews call for wage hike as gov't misreads inflation forecast \\|url\\=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2023/2/8/Group\\-renews\\-call\\-for\\-wage\\-hike\\-.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-19 \\|website\\=CNN \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=February 19, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219083849/https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2023/2/8/Group\\-renews\\-call\\-for\\-wage\\-hike\\-.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|date\\=May 1, 2022 \\|title\\=On Labor Day, groups push for living wage, security of tenure \\|url\\=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2022/05/01/2178068/labor\\-day\\-groups\\-push\\-living\\-wage\\-security\\-tenure \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-19 \\|website\\=Philippine Star}}",
"Estimates from the Japanese External Trade Organization state that as of 2023 manufacturing sector wages in the Philippines is lower than that in Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam, while non\\-manufacturing sector wages is lower than that in Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Africa \\|first\\=Sonny \\|date\\=March 4, 2024 \\|title\\=Kung ayaw ng wage hike, maraming dahilan \\|url\\=https://pinoyweekly.org/2024/03/kung\\-ayaw\\-ng\\-wage\\-hike\\-maraming\\-dahilan/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-09 \\|website\\=Pinoy Weekly \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Balance between workers' welfare and employment generation",
"Some businesses argue that having policies that are biased on workers’ welfare and protection may hinder employment creation. They argue that a rigid labor market due to government intervention may result in lower investments and thus, slower growth.",
"### Hazardous working conditions",
"A substantial number of workers in the Philippines are exposed to hazardous working conditions and are not provided sufficient safety equipment and training. Of the country's 13\\.8 million workers, an estimated 17 out 18 are exposed to various safety and health hazards.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Safety and health at work in the Philippines \\|url\\=https://www.ilo.org/manila/areasofwork/safety\\-and\\-health\\-at\\-work/lang\\-\\-en/index.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-20 \\|website\\=International Labour Organization \\|language\\=en}} As many as 2 million people die annually from accidents at work or work\\-related illnesses.",
"The type of hazards workers are exposed to depends on the industry they are in. Workers in construction and manufacturing, for example, tend to work with electrical equipment and other dangerous tools and machinery, while those in agriculture are frequently exposed to toxic pesticides and fertilizers.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Examples of Common Hazards Faced by Young Workers \\|url\\=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/\\-\\-\\-ed\\_dialogue/\\-\\-\\-lab\\_admin/documents/poster/wcms\\_724889\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2023 \\|website\\=International Labor Organization}}",
"### Maltreatment of migrant workers",
"Many Filipino migrant workers have experienced abuse, exploitation, or human trafficking.{{Cite web \\|title\\=How Migrant Workers From the Philippines Power Modern Capitalism \\|url\\=https://jacobin.com/2022/05/philippines\\-labor\\-export\\-ofws\\-marcos\\-duterte\\-exploitation \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-21 \\|website\\=jacobin.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Ramos \\|first\\=Christia Marie \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-08 \\|title\\=Nearly 5,000 cases of abused OFWs recorded in 2020 \\|url\\=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/194235/fwd\\-nearly\\-5k\\-cases\\-of\\-ofw\\-maltreatment\\-recorded\\-in\\-2020\\-polo\\-data\\-shows \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-21 \\|newspaper\\=Philippine Daily Inquirer \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Valmonte \\|first\\=Kaycee \\|date\\=January 25, 2023 \\|title\\=Immigration revamp, more welfare offices needed vs human trafficking \\|url\\=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/01/25/2240149/immigration\\-revamp\\-more\\-welfare\\-offices\\-needed\\-vs\\-human\\-trafficking \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-21 \\|website\\=Philippine Star}} In 2020, almost 5,000 cases of maltreatment of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) were recorded by Philippine Overseas Labor Offices.",
"### Labor productivity",
"[Total factor productivity](/wiki/Total_factor_productivity \"Total factor productivity\") (TFP), the efficiency in use of both labor and capital, is important because labor income depends on [labor productivity](/wiki/Labor_productivity \"Labor productivity\") growth. This growth is the average product of labor which correlates with labor's contribution to enterprise revenue and profits. Improvements in workers’ [real wages](/wiki/Real_wages \"Real wages\") and earnings is related to labor productivity growth and not exactly to employment growth. Improvements in real wages, improves the poverty incidence of the people thus helping in [poverty](/wiki/Poverty \"Poverty\") reduction. Canlas, Aldaba, Esguerra argues that policymakers should have a good understanding of the sources of TFP because [sustainable growth](/wiki/Sustainable_growth \"Sustainable growth\") comes from rising TFP growth.\n\"One key factor is educated labor, which has the capacity to invent, innovate, and master new techniques.\" At the long run, it is important to educate the population and invest in human development and research and development to improve TFP. Canlas, Aldaba, Esguerra advise that to raise TFP growth, [monetary policy](/wiki/Monetary_policy \"Monetary policy\") and [fiscal policy](/wiki/Fiscal_policy \"Fiscal policy\") should stabilize a predictable environment for the private sector.{{Cite report \\|first1\\=Fernando \\|last1\\=Aldaba \\|first2\\=Dante \\|last2\\=Canlas \\|first3\\=Emmanuel \\|last3\\=Esguerra \\|title\\= Growth, Employment Creation, and Poverty Reduction in the Philippines}}",
"### Underemployment, overseas employment",
"With the declining earnings, people are looking for additional hours of work (underemployed), or going abroad (overseas employment) or choose to be self\\-employed. This also shows how they are not content with the quality of employment. The self\\-employed are actually indifferent between the wage employment and self\\-employment that they decided to be on their own. This makes them, together with the unpaid family workers, part of the vulnerable employment and its earnings is weak compared to the wage one. On the other hand, they can be [overseas Filipino workers](/wiki/Overseas_Filipino_workers \"Overseas Filipino workers\"). In 2009, it was reported that 1\\.423 million Filipinos were deployed overseas.{{Cite report \\|date\\=April 2011 \\|title\\=The Philippine Labor and Employment Plan 2011–2016 \\|url\\=http://ncmb.ph/Others/dole/dole11\\.pdf \\|publisher\\= Department of Labor and Employment \\|access\\-date\\= September 10, 2011}} This mitigates the unemployment problem but also poses moral hazard problems, reducing labor force participation in the family.",
"### Youth unemployment, job and skill mismatch, educated unemployed",
"In 2010, half of the 2\\.9 million unemployed Filipinos were age 15–24\\. More than half of the unemployed youth are stuck due to lack of job opportunities, lack of skills and the competition with older ones. This lack of training and skills and incompetence may be due to poor education. On the other hand, there is the job and skill mismatch. Even with the high unemployment rate, there are jobs that are not filled because there are no applicants who have the right qualifications. From this job mismatch problem also arises the educated unemployed. In 2010, the unemployment rate among the college educated is about 11%. Some have difficulty in finding an appropriate job for the degree they have. Others, on the other hand, have higher reservation wages and can afford to wait for better opportunities.",
""
] |
Labor Code of the Philippines
-----------------------------
{{main\|Labor Code of the Philippines}}
The Labor Code of the Philippines governs employment practices and labor relations in the Philippines. It also identifies the rules and standards regarding employment such as pre\-employment policies, labor conditions, wage rate, work hours, employee benefits, and termination of employees. Under the regime of the President \[Ferdinand Marcos], it was promulgated on May 1, 1974 and took effect November 1, 1974, six months after its promulgation.{{cite journal\|last\=Jimenez\|first\=Josephus\|title\=The Philippine Labor Code's Overhaul: Its Philosophy and Scope\|journal\=UST Law Review\|date\=January–December 2004\|volume\=XLVII\|pages\=191–208\|url\=http://ustlawreview.com/pdf/vol.XLVIII/Articles/Phil\_Labor\_Code.pdf\|access\-date\=October 7, 2011}}
### Pre\-employment policies
#### Minimum employable age
The minimum age for employment is 15 years old for non\-hazardous environments, and 18 for hazardous ones.{{cite book\|last\=Philippines\|url\=http://www.dole.gov.ph/labor\_codes.php\|title\=Labor Code of the Philippines : as amended with implementing rules and regulations\|publisher\=Department of Labor and Employment\|year\=1990\|location\=Manila\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117024015/http://www.dole.gov.ph/labor\_codes.php\|archive\-date\=January 17, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite book\|last\=Zuzik\|first\=Michael Benedict\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rg4in0nWYLoC\&dq\=Minimum\+Age\+of\+Labor\+Philippines\&pg\=PA25\|title\=Labor Law and Practice in the Philippines\|date\=1963\|publisher\=U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics\|language\=en}} Persons below that age are not allowed to be employed unless they are working directly under their parent's supervision or are working with family members.{{Cite web\|title\=Human Trafficking, forced labour \& slavery corporate accountability database\|url\=http://merckx.com/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-13\|website\=Human Trafficking, forced labour \& slavery corporate accountability database\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=January 28, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128220929/http://merckx.com/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web\|date\=2018\-12\-21\|title\=Hiring Employees in The Philippines {{!}} Employment Guide\|url\=https://nnroad.com/blog/hiring\-employees\-guides/hiring\-employees\-guide\-in\-the\-philippines/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-13\|website\=NNRoad\|language\=en\-US}}
#### Overseas employment
As for overseas employment of Filipinos, foreign employers are not allowed to directly hire Philippine nationals except through board and entities authorized by the [Philippine Overseas Employment Administration](/wiki/Philippine_Overseas_Employment_Administration "Philippine Overseas Employment Administration").{{failed verification\|date\=February 2017}} Travel agencies also cannot transact or help in any transactions for the employment or placement of Filipino workers abroad.{{failed verification\|date\=February 2017}}
### Regulation on conditions of employment
#### Minimum wage rate
Minimum wage rates in the Philippines vary from region to region, with regional wage boards established for each region to monitor economic activity and adjust minimum wages based on growth rates, unemployment rates, and other factors.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2014/05/01/how\-do\-the\-wage\-boards\-work/\|title \= How is minimum wage determined? \| GOVPH}} The Wage Rationalization Act, or Republic Act 6727, was enacted in 1989 and it is the ruling law regarding minimum wage rates. It established the National Wages and Productivity Commission which has supervision over Regional Tripartite Wages and Productivity Boards, which ultimately decide on minimum wage rates. {{cite web \|last1\=Department of Labor and Employment \|title\=DOLE ILS Official \- DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT STATEMENT ON WAGE INCREASES \|url\=https://ils.dole.gov.ph/policy\-advocacies/media\-resources/news/department\-of\-labor\-and\-employment\-statement\-on\-wage\-increases \|website\=ils.dole.gov.ph}} As of July 2024, the highest minimum wage rate is in [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila "Metro Manila"), set at ₱645 daily non\-agricultural wage rate, while the lowest, as of February 2024, is in the [Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao](/wiki/Bangsamoro "Bangsamoro"), at ₱336 daily non\-agricultural wage rate.{{cite web \|last1\=Patinio \|first1\=Ferdinand \|title\=P35 wage hike for NCR private sector workers effective July \|url\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1227990 \|website\=Philippine News Agency \|publisher\=Philippine News Agency \|access\-date\=4 October 2024}}{{cite web \|last1\=Patinio \|first1\=Ferdinand \|title\=P20 hike in BARMM minimum wage takes effect Feb. 28 \|url\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1219316 \|website\=Philippine News Agency \|publisher\=Philippine News Agency \|access\-date\=4 October 2024}}{{cite web \|last1\=Guidaben \|first1\=Agatha \|last2\=GMA Integrated News Research \|title\=How much have PH minimum wages increased since 1989? \|url\=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/economy/899214/how\-much\-have\-philippine\-minimum\-wages\-increased\-since\-rationalization\-in\-1989/story/ \|website\=GMA News Online \|language\=en \|date\=5 March 2024}}
#### Regular work hours and rest periods
Normal hours of work. – The normal hours of work of any employee shall not exceed eight (8\) hours a day.
Health personnel in cities and municipalities with a population of at least one million (1,000,000\) or in hospitals and clinics with a bed capacity of at least one hundred (100\) shall hold regular office hours for eight (8\) hours a day, for five (5\) days a week, exclusive of time for meals, except where the exigencies of the service require that such personnel work for six (6\) days or forty\-eight (48\) hours, in which case, they shall be entitled to an additional compensation of at least thirty percent (30%) of their regular wage for work on the sixth day. For purposes of this Article, "health personnel" shall include resident physicians, nurses, nutritionists, dietitians, pharmacists, social workers, laboratory technicians, paramedical technicians, psychologists, midwives, attendants and all other hospital or clinic personnel.
Meal periods. – Subject to such regulations as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe, it shall be the duty of every employer to give his employees not less than sixty (60\) minutes time\-off for their regular meals.
#### Rest days
All employee have the right to have a 24 consecutive hours of rest day after every 6 days of work. Employers are responsible for determining and scheduling the rest day of employees except only if the employee prefers a different day based on religious grounds. However, the employer may require an employee to work during his/her rest day in cases of emergencies, special circumstances at work in which employees are seriously needed, to prevent losses or damage to any goods or to the employer, and other cases that have reasonable grounds.
#### Nightshift differential and overtime
Employees are also given additional wages for working in night shifts. The night shift starts from 10 o’clock in the evening until 6 o’clock in the morning, and employees will receive 10% more of his/her regular wage rate.
Overtime work for employees (beyond 8 hours) are allowed and workers shall be paid with his/her regular wage plus an additional 25% of the regular wage per hour worked or 30% during holidays or rest days.
#### Household helpers
Household helpers, or maids, are common in the Philippines. Household helpers deliver services at the employer's home, attending to the employer's instructions and convenience. The minimum wage of household helpers is P800 per month for some cities in Metro Manila, while a lower wage is paid to those outside of Metro Manila,. However, most household helpers receive more than the minimum wage; employers usually give wages ranging from P2,500 and above per month. On top of that, employers are required to provide food, sanitary lodging, and just treatment to the household helper.
### Post\-employment
#### Termination by employer
The employer has the right to terminate an employee due to the following reasons: serious misconduct or disobedience to the employer, neglect of duties or commission of a crime by the employee, and such gives the employer a just case to terminate the services of the employee.
#### Retirement
The retirement age for an employee depends on the employment contract. Upon retirement, the retired employee should be given his/her benefits according to the agreement or contract between the employer and the employee. However, if there is no existing retirement plan or agreement for the employee, he/she may retire at the age of 60, given that he/she has served the employer for 5 years, and shall be given a retirement pay of at least half a month's salary for every year of service (6 months of work given is considered as 1 whole year for the retirement pay).
|
[
"Labor Code of the Philippines\n-----------------------------",
"{{main\\|Labor Code of the Philippines}}",
"The Labor Code of the Philippines governs employment practices and labor relations in the Philippines. It also identifies the rules and standards regarding employment such as pre\\-employment policies, labor conditions, wage rate, work hours, employee benefits, and termination of employees. Under the regime of the President \\[Ferdinand Marcos], it was promulgated on May 1, 1974 and took effect November 1, 1974, six months after its promulgation.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Jimenez\\|first\\=Josephus\\|title\\=The Philippine Labor Code's Overhaul: Its Philosophy and Scope\\|journal\\=UST Law Review\\|date\\=January–December 2004\\|volume\\=XLVII\\|pages\\=191–208\\|url\\=http://ustlawreview.com/pdf/vol.XLVIII/Articles/Phil\\_Labor\\_Code.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=October 7, 2011}}",
"### Pre\\-employment policies",
"#### Minimum employable age",
"The minimum age for employment is 15 years old for non\\-hazardous environments, and 18 for hazardous ones.{{cite book\\|last\\=Philippines\\|url\\=http://www.dole.gov.ph/labor\\_codes.php\\|title\\=Labor Code of the Philippines : as amended with implementing rules and regulations\\|publisher\\=Department of Labor and Employment\\|year\\=1990\\|location\\=Manila\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117024015/http://www.dole.gov.ph/labor\\_codes.php\\|archive\\-date\\=January 17, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Zuzik\\|first\\=Michael Benedict\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rg4in0nWYLoC\\&dq\\=Minimum\\+Age\\+of\\+Labor\\+Philippines\\&pg\\=PA25\\|title\\=Labor Law and Practice in the Philippines\\|date\\=1963\\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics\\|language\\=en}} Persons below that age are not allowed to be employed unless they are working directly under their parent's supervision or are working with family members.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Human Trafficking, forced labour \\& slavery corporate accountability database\\|url\\=http://merckx.com/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-13\\|website\\=Human Trafficking, forced labour \\& slavery corporate accountability database\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=January 28, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128220929/http://merckx.com/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2018\\-12\\-21\\|title\\=Hiring Employees in The Philippines {{!}} Employment Guide\\|url\\=https://nnroad.com/blog/hiring\\-employees\\-guides/hiring\\-employees\\-guide\\-in\\-the\\-philippines/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-13\\|website\\=NNRoad\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### Overseas employment",
"As for overseas employment of Filipinos, foreign employers are not allowed to directly hire Philippine nationals except through board and entities authorized by the [Philippine Overseas Employment Administration](/wiki/Philippine_Overseas_Employment_Administration \"Philippine Overseas Employment Administration\").{{failed verification\\|date\\=February 2017}} Travel agencies also cannot transact or help in any transactions for the employment or placement of Filipino workers abroad.{{failed verification\\|date\\=February 2017}}",
"### Regulation on conditions of employment",
"#### Minimum wage rate",
"Minimum wage rates in the Philippines vary from region to region, with regional wage boards established for each region to monitor economic activity and adjust minimum wages based on growth rates, unemployment rates, and other factors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2014/05/01/how\\-do\\-the\\-wage\\-boards\\-work/\\|title \\= How is minimum wage determined? \\| GOVPH}} The Wage Rationalization Act, or Republic Act 6727, was enacted in 1989 and it is the ruling law regarding minimum wage rates. It established the National Wages and Productivity Commission which has supervision over Regional Tripartite Wages and Productivity Boards, which ultimately decide on minimum wage rates. {{cite web \\|last1\\=Department of Labor and Employment \\|title\\=DOLE ILS Official \\- DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT STATEMENT ON WAGE INCREASES \\|url\\=https://ils.dole.gov.ph/policy\\-advocacies/media\\-resources/news/department\\-of\\-labor\\-and\\-employment\\-statement\\-on\\-wage\\-increases \\|website\\=ils.dole.gov.ph}} As of July 2024, the highest minimum wage rate is in [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila \"Metro Manila\"), set at ₱645 daily non\\-agricultural wage rate, while the lowest, as of February 2024, is in the [Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao](/wiki/Bangsamoro \"Bangsamoro\"), at ₱336 daily non\\-agricultural wage rate.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Patinio \\|first1\\=Ferdinand \\|title\\=P35 wage hike for NCR private sector workers effective July \\|url\\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1227990 \\|website\\=Philippine News Agency \\|publisher\\=Philippine News Agency \\|access\\-date\\=4 October 2024}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Patinio \\|first1\\=Ferdinand \\|title\\=P20 hike in BARMM minimum wage takes effect Feb. 28 \\|url\\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1219316 \\|website\\=Philippine News Agency \\|publisher\\=Philippine News Agency \\|access\\-date\\=4 October 2024}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Guidaben \\|first1\\=Agatha \\|last2\\=GMA Integrated News Research \\|title\\=How much have PH minimum wages increased since 1989? \\|url\\=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/economy/899214/how\\-much\\-have\\-philippine\\-minimum\\-wages\\-increased\\-since\\-rationalization\\-in\\-1989/story/ \\|website\\=GMA News Online \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=5 March 2024}}",
"#### Regular work hours and rest periods",
"Normal hours of work. – The normal hours of work of any employee shall not exceed eight (8\\) hours a day.",
"Health personnel in cities and municipalities with a population of at least one million (1,000,000\\) or in hospitals and clinics with a bed capacity of at least one hundred (100\\) shall hold regular office hours for eight (8\\) hours a day, for five (5\\) days a week, exclusive of time for meals, except where the exigencies of the service require that such personnel work for six (6\\) days or forty\\-eight (48\\) hours, in which case, they shall be entitled to an additional compensation of at least thirty percent (30%) of their regular wage for work on the sixth day. For purposes of this Article, \"health personnel\" shall include resident physicians, nurses, nutritionists, dietitians, pharmacists, social workers, laboratory technicians, paramedical technicians, psychologists, midwives, attendants and all other hospital or clinic personnel.",
"Meal periods. – Subject to such regulations as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe, it shall be the duty of every employer to give his employees not less than sixty (60\\) minutes time\\-off for their regular meals.",
"#### Rest days",
"All employee have the right to have a 24 consecutive hours of rest day after every 6 days of work. Employers are responsible for determining and scheduling the rest day of employees except only if the employee prefers a different day based on religious grounds. However, the employer may require an employee to work during his/her rest day in cases of emergencies, special circumstances at work in which employees are seriously needed, to prevent losses or damage to any goods or to the employer, and other cases that have reasonable grounds.",
"#### Nightshift differential and overtime",
"Employees are also given additional wages for working in night shifts. The night shift starts from 10 o’clock in the evening until 6 o’clock in the morning, and employees will receive 10% more of his/her regular wage rate. \nOvertime work for employees (beyond 8 hours) are allowed and workers shall be paid with his/her regular wage plus an additional 25% of the regular wage per hour worked or 30% during holidays or rest days.",
"#### Household helpers",
"Household helpers, or maids, are common in the Philippines. Household helpers deliver services at the employer's home, attending to the employer's instructions and convenience. The minimum wage of household helpers is P800 per month for some cities in Metro Manila, while a lower wage is paid to those outside of Metro Manila,. However, most household helpers receive more than the minimum wage; employers usually give wages ranging from P2,500 and above per month. On top of that, employers are required to provide food, sanitary lodging, and just treatment to the household helper.",
"### Post\\-employment",
"#### Termination by employer",
"The employer has the right to terminate an employee due to the following reasons: serious misconduct or disobedience to the employer, neglect of duties or commission of a crime by the employee, and such gives the employer a just case to terminate the services of the employee.",
"#### Retirement",
"The retirement age for an employee depends on the employment contract. Upon retirement, the retired employee should be given his/her benefits according to the agreement or contract between the employer and the employee. However, if there is no existing retirement plan or agreement for the employee, he/she may retire at the age of 60, given that he/she has served the employer for 5 years, and shall be given a retirement pay of at least half a month's salary for every year of service (6 months of work given is considered as 1 whole year for the retirement pay).",
""
] |
### Regulation on conditions of employment
#### Minimum wage rate
Minimum wage rates in the Philippines vary from region to region, with regional wage boards established for each region to monitor economic activity and adjust minimum wages based on growth rates, unemployment rates, and other factors.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2014/05/01/how\-do\-the\-wage\-boards\-work/\|title \= How is minimum wage determined? \| GOVPH}} The Wage Rationalization Act, or Republic Act 6727, was enacted in 1989 and it is the ruling law regarding minimum wage rates. It established the National Wages and Productivity Commission which has supervision over Regional Tripartite Wages and Productivity Boards, which ultimately decide on minimum wage rates. {{cite web \|last1\=Department of Labor and Employment \|title\=DOLE ILS Official \- DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT STATEMENT ON WAGE INCREASES \|url\=https://ils.dole.gov.ph/policy\-advocacies/media\-resources/news/department\-of\-labor\-and\-employment\-statement\-on\-wage\-increases \|website\=ils.dole.gov.ph}} As of July 2024, the highest minimum wage rate is in [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila "Metro Manila"), set at ₱645 daily non\-agricultural wage rate, while the lowest, as of February 2024, is in the [Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao](/wiki/Bangsamoro "Bangsamoro"), at ₱336 daily non\-agricultural wage rate.{{cite web \|last1\=Patinio \|first1\=Ferdinand \|title\=P35 wage hike for NCR private sector workers effective July \|url\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1227990 \|website\=Philippine News Agency \|publisher\=Philippine News Agency \|access\-date\=4 October 2024}}{{cite web \|last1\=Patinio \|first1\=Ferdinand \|title\=P20 hike in BARMM minimum wage takes effect Feb. 28 \|url\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1219316 \|website\=Philippine News Agency \|publisher\=Philippine News Agency \|access\-date\=4 October 2024}}{{cite web \|last1\=Guidaben \|first1\=Agatha \|last2\=GMA Integrated News Research \|title\=How much have PH minimum wages increased since 1989? \|url\=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/economy/899214/how\-much\-have\-philippine\-minimum\-wages\-increased\-since\-rationalization\-in\-1989/story/ \|website\=GMA News Online \|language\=en \|date\=5 March 2024}}
#### Regular work hours and rest periods
Normal hours of work. – The normal hours of work of any employee shall not exceed eight (8\) hours a day.
Health personnel in cities and municipalities with a population of at least one million (1,000,000\) or in hospitals and clinics with a bed capacity of at least one hundred (100\) shall hold regular office hours for eight (8\) hours a day, for five (5\) days a week, exclusive of time for meals, except where the exigencies of the service require that such personnel work for six (6\) days or forty\-eight (48\) hours, in which case, they shall be entitled to an additional compensation of at least thirty percent (30%) of their regular wage for work on the sixth day. For purposes of this Article, "health personnel" shall include resident physicians, nurses, nutritionists, dietitians, pharmacists, social workers, laboratory technicians, paramedical technicians, psychologists, midwives, attendants and all other hospital or clinic personnel.
Meal periods. – Subject to such regulations as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe, it shall be the duty of every employer to give his employees not less than sixty (60\) minutes time\-off for their regular meals.
#### Rest days
All employee have the right to have a 24 consecutive hours of rest day after every 6 days of work. Employers are responsible for determining and scheduling the rest day of employees except only if the employee prefers a different day based on religious grounds. However, the employer may require an employee to work during his/her rest day in cases of emergencies, special circumstances at work in which employees are seriously needed, to prevent losses or damage to any goods or to the employer, and other cases that have reasonable grounds.
#### Nightshift differential and overtime
Employees are also given additional wages for working in night shifts. The night shift starts from 10 o’clock in the evening until 6 o’clock in the morning, and employees will receive 10% more of his/her regular wage rate.
Overtime work for employees (beyond 8 hours) are allowed and workers shall be paid with his/her regular wage plus an additional 25% of the regular wage per hour worked or 30% during holidays or rest days.
#### Household helpers
Household helpers, or maids, are common in the Philippines. Household helpers deliver services at the employer's home, attending to the employer's instructions and convenience. The minimum wage of household helpers is P800 per month for some cities in Metro Manila, while a lower wage is paid to those outside of Metro Manila,. However, most household helpers receive more than the minimum wage; employers usually give wages ranging from P2,500 and above per month. On top of that, employers are required to provide food, sanitary lodging, and just treatment to the household helper.
|
[
"### Regulation on conditions of employment",
"#### Minimum wage rate",
"Minimum wage rates in the Philippines vary from region to region, with regional wage boards established for each region to monitor economic activity and adjust minimum wages based on growth rates, unemployment rates, and other factors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2014/05/01/how\\-do\\-the\\-wage\\-boards\\-work/\\|title \\= How is minimum wage determined? \\| GOVPH}} The Wage Rationalization Act, or Republic Act 6727, was enacted in 1989 and it is the ruling law regarding minimum wage rates. It established the National Wages and Productivity Commission which has supervision over Regional Tripartite Wages and Productivity Boards, which ultimately decide on minimum wage rates. {{cite web \\|last1\\=Department of Labor and Employment \\|title\\=DOLE ILS Official \\- DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT STATEMENT ON WAGE INCREASES \\|url\\=https://ils.dole.gov.ph/policy\\-advocacies/media\\-resources/news/department\\-of\\-labor\\-and\\-employment\\-statement\\-on\\-wage\\-increases \\|website\\=ils.dole.gov.ph}} As of July 2024, the highest minimum wage rate is in [Metro Manila](/wiki/Metro_Manila \"Metro Manila\"), set at ₱645 daily non\\-agricultural wage rate, while the lowest, as of February 2024, is in the [Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao](/wiki/Bangsamoro \"Bangsamoro\"), at ₱336 daily non\\-agricultural wage rate.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Patinio \\|first1\\=Ferdinand \\|title\\=P35 wage hike for NCR private sector workers effective July \\|url\\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1227990 \\|website\\=Philippine News Agency \\|publisher\\=Philippine News Agency \\|access\\-date\\=4 October 2024}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Patinio \\|first1\\=Ferdinand \\|title\\=P20 hike in BARMM minimum wage takes effect Feb. 28 \\|url\\=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1219316 \\|website\\=Philippine News Agency \\|publisher\\=Philippine News Agency \\|access\\-date\\=4 October 2024}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Guidaben \\|first1\\=Agatha \\|last2\\=GMA Integrated News Research \\|title\\=How much have PH minimum wages increased since 1989? \\|url\\=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/economy/899214/how\\-much\\-have\\-philippine\\-minimum\\-wages\\-increased\\-since\\-rationalization\\-in\\-1989/story/ \\|website\\=GMA News Online \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=5 March 2024}}",
"#### Regular work hours and rest periods",
"Normal hours of work. – The normal hours of work of any employee shall not exceed eight (8\\) hours a day.",
"Health personnel in cities and municipalities with a population of at least one million (1,000,000\\) or in hospitals and clinics with a bed capacity of at least one hundred (100\\) shall hold regular office hours for eight (8\\) hours a day, for five (5\\) days a week, exclusive of time for meals, except where the exigencies of the service require that such personnel work for six (6\\) days or forty\\-eight (48\\) hours, in which case, they shall be entitled to an additional compensation of at least thirty percent (30%) of their regular wage for work on the sixth day. For purposes of this Article, \"health personnel\" shall include resident physicians, nurses, nutritionists, dietitians, pharmacists, social workers, laboratory technicians, paramedical technicians, psychologists, midwives, attendants and all other hospital or clinic personnel.",
"Meal periods. – Subject to such regulations as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe, it shall be the duty of every employer to give his employees not less than sixty (60\\) minutes time\\-off for their regular meals.",
"#### Rest days",
"All employee have the right to have a 24 consecutive hours of rest day after every 6 days of work. Employers are responsible for determining and scheduling the rest day of employees except only if the employee prefers a different day based on religious grounds. However, the employer may require an employee to work during his/her rest day in cases of emergencies, special circumstances at work in which employees are seriously needed, to prevent losses or damage to any goods or to the employer, and other cases that have reasonable grounds.",
"#### Nightshift differential and overtime",
"Employees are also given additional wages for working in night shifts. The night shift starts from 10 o’clock in the evening until 6 o’clock in the morning, and employees will receive 10% more of his/her regular wage rate. \nOvertime work for employees (beyond 8 hours) are allowed and workers shall be paid with his/her regular wage plus an additional 25% of the regular wage per hour worked or 30% during holidays or rest days.",
"#### Household helpers",
"Household helpers, or maids, are common in the Philippines. Household helpers deliver services at the employer's home, attending to the employer's instructions and convenience. The minimum wage of household helpers is P800 per month for some cities in Metro Manila, while a lower wage is paid to those outside of Metro Manila,. However, most household helpers receive more than the minimum wage; employers usually give wages ranging from P2,500 and above per month. On top of that, employers are required to provide food, sanitary lodging, and just treatment to the household helper.",
""
] |
Structure and bonding
---------------------
### Bonding
[200px\|thumb\|Ethylene (ethene), showing the pi bond in green](/wiki/Image:Ethylene_3D.png "Ethylene 3D.png")
A carbon–carbon double bond consists of a [sigma bond](/wiki/Sigma_bond "Sigma bond") and a [pi bond](/wiki/Pi_bond "Pi bond"). This double bond is stronger than a single [covalent bond](/wiki/Covalent_bond "Covalent bond") (611 [kJ](/wiki/Joule "Joule")/[mol](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 "Mole (unit)") for C\=C vs. 347 kJ/mol for C–C), but not twice as strong. Double bonds are shorter than single bonds with an average [bond length](/wiki/Bond_length "Bond length") of 1\.33 [Å](/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m "Ångström") (133 [pm](/wiki/Picometre "Picometre")) vs 1\.53 Å for a typical C\-C single bond.{{March6th\|page\=23}}
Each carbon atom of the double bond uses its three sp2 [hybrid orbitals](/wiki/Orbital_hybridization "Orbital hybridization") to form sigma bonds to three atoms (the other carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms). The unhybridized 2p atomic orbitals, which lie perpendicular to the plane created by the axes of the three sp2 hybrid orbitals, combine to form the pi bond. This bond lies outside the main C–C axis, with half of the bond on one side of the molecule and a half on the other. With a strength of 65 kcal/mol, the pi bond is significantly weaker than the sigma bond.
Rotation about the carbon–carbon double bond is restricted because it incurs an energetic cost to break the alignment of the [p orbitals](/wiki/P_orbital "P orbital") on the two carbon atoms. Consequently *cis* or *trans* isomers interconvert so slowly that they can be freely handled at ambient conditions without isomerization. More complex alkenes may be named with the [*E*–*Z* notation](/wiki/E-Z_notation "E-Z notation") for molecules with three or four different [substituents](/wiki/Substituent "Substituent") (side groups). For example, of the [isomers of butene](/wiki/Butene%23Isomers "Butene#Isomers"), the two methyl groups of (*Z*)\-but\-2[\-ene](/wiki/-ene "-ene") (a.k.a. *cis*\-2\-butene) appear on the same side of the double bond, and in (*E*)\-but\-2\-ene (a.k.a. *trans*\-2\-butene) the methyl groups appear on opposite sides. These two isomers of butene have distinct properties.
### Shape
As predicted by the [VSEPR](/wiki/VSEPR_theory "VSEPR theory") model of [electron](/wiki/Electron "Electron") pair repulsion, the [molecular geometry](/wiki/Molecular_geometry "Molecular geometry") of alkenes includes [bond angles](/wiki/Bond_angle "Bond angle") about each carbon atom in a double bond of about 120°. The angle may vary because of [steric strain](/wiki/Steric_strain "Steric strain") introduced by [nonbonded interactions](/wiki/Nonbonded_interactions "Nonbonded interactions") between [functional groups](/wiki/Functional_group "Functional group") attached to the carbon atoms of the double bond. For example, the C–C–C bond angle in [propylene](/wiki/Propylene "Propylene") is 123\.9°.
For bridged alkenes, [Bredt's rule](/wiki/Bredt%27s_rule "Bredt's rule") states that a double bond cannot occur at the bridgehead of a bridged ring system unless the rings are large enough. Following Fawcett and defining *S* as the total number of non\-bridgehead atoms in the rings,{{cite journal \|title\=Bredt's Rule of Double Bonds in Atomic\-Bridged\-Ring Structures \|first\=Frank S. \|last\=Fawcett \|journal\=\[\[Chem. Rev.]] \|year\=1950 \|volume\=47 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=219–274 \|doi\=10\.1021/cr60147a003 \|pmid\=24538877}} bicyclic systems require *S* ≥ 7 for stability{{cite book \|title\=Organic Reaction Mechanisms \|chapter\=Bredt's Rule \|pages\=14–16 \|first\=Raj K. \|last\=Bansal \|edition\=3rd \|year\=1998 \|publisher\=\[\[McGraw\-Hill Education]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-07\-462083\-0 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bga3xjLVCo0C\&pg\=PT29}} and tricyclic systems require *S* ≥ 11\.{{Cite book \|year\=2010 \|chapter\=Bredt's Rule \|title\=Comprehensive Organic Name Reactions and Reagents \|volume\=116 \|pages\=525–8 \|doi\=10\.1002/9780470638859\.conrr116 \|isbn\=978\-0\-470\-63885\-9}}
### Isomerism
{{main\|Cis–trans isomerism\|E–Z notation}}
In [organic chemistry](/wiki/Organic_chemistry "Organic chemistry"),the [prefixes](/wiki/Prefix "Prefix") [cis\- and trans\-](/wiki/Cis-trans_isomerism "Cis-trans isomerism") are used to describe the positions of functional groups attached to [carbon](/wiki/Carbon "Carbon") atoms joined by a double bond. In Latin, *cis* and *trans* mean "on this side of" and "on the other side of" respectively. Therefore, if the functional groups are both on the same side of the carbon chain, the bond is said to have **cis\-** configuration, otherwise (i.e. the functional groups are on the opposite side of the carbon chain), the bond is said to have **trans\-** configuration.
Cis\-2\-Buten.svg\|structure of cis\-2\-butene
Trans\-2\-Buten.svg\|structure of trans\-2\-butene
Trans\-2\-butene.svg\|(''E'')\-But\-2\-ene
Cis\-2\-butene.svg\|(''Z'')\-But\-2\-ene
For there to be cis\- and trans\- configurations, there must be a carbon chain, or at least one [functional group](/wiki/Functional_group "Functional group") attached to each carbon is the same for both. [E\- and Z\- configuration](/wiki/E%E2%80%93Z_notation "E–Z notation") can be used instead in a more general case where all four functional groups attached to carbon atoms in a double bond are different. E\- and Z\- are abbreviations of German words *zusammen* (together) and *entgegen* (opposite). In E\- and Z\-isomerism, each functional group is assigned a priority based on the [Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules](/wiki/Cahn%E2%80%93Ingold%E2%80%93Prelog_priority_rules "Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules"). If the two groups with higher priority are on the same side of the double bond, the bond is assigned **Z\-** configuration, otherwise (i.e. the two groups with higher priority are on the opposite side of the double bond), the bond is assigned **E\-** configuration. Cis\- and trans\- configurations do not have a fixed relationship with **E**\- and **Z**\-configurations.
|
[
"Structure and bonding\n---------------------",
"### Bonding",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|Ethylene (ethene), showing the pi bond in green](/wiki/Image:Ethylene_3D.png \"Ethylene 3D.png\")\nA carbon–carbon double bond consists of a [sigma bond](/wiki/Sigma_bond \"Sigma bond\") and a [pi bond](/wiki/Pi_bond \"Pi bond\"). This double bond is stronger than a single [covalent bond](/wiki/Covalent_bond \"Covalent bond\") (611 [kJ](/wiki/Joule \"Joule\")/[mol](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 \"Mole (unit)\") for C\\=C vs. 347 kJ/mol for C–C), but not twice as strong. Double bonds are shorter than single bonds with an average [bond length](/wiki/Bond_length \"Bond length\") of 1\\.33 [Å](/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m \"Ångström\") (133 [pm](/wiki/Picometre \"Picometre\")) vs 1\\.53 Å for a typical C\\-C single bond.{{March6th\\|page\\=23}}",
"Each carbon atom of the double bond uses its three sp2 [hybrid orbitals](/wiki/Orbital_hybridization \"Orbital hybridization\") to form sigma bonds to three atoms (the other carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms). The unhybridized 2p atomic orbitals, which lie perpendicular to the plane created by the axes of the three sp2 hybrid orbitals, combine to form the pi bond. This bond lies outside the main C–C axis, with half of the bond on one side of the molecule and a half on the other. With a strength of 65 kcal/mol, the pi bond is significantly weaker than the sigma bond.",
"Rotation about the carbon–carbon double bond is restricted because it incurs an energetic cost to break the alignment of the [p orbitals](/wiki/P_orbital \"P orbital\") on the two carbon atoms. Consequently *cis* or *trans* isomers interconvert so slowly that they can be freely handled at ambient conditions without isomerization. More complex alkenes may be named with the [*E*–*Z* notation](/wiki/E-Z_notation \"E-Z notation\") for molecules with three or four different [substituents](/wiki/Substituent \"Substituent\") (side groups). For example, of the [isomers of butene](/wiki/Butene%23Isomers \"Butene#Isomers\"), the two methyl groups of (*Z*)\\-but\\-2[\\-ene](/wiki/-ene \"-ene\") (a.k.a. *cis*\\-2\\-butene) appear on the same side of the double bond, and in (*E*)\\-but\\-2\\-ene (a.k.a. *trans*\\-2\\-butene) the methyl groups appear on opposite sides. These two isomers of butene have distinct properties.",
"### Shape",
"As predicted by the [VSEPR](/wiki/VSEPR_theory \"VSEPR theory\") model of [electron](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") pair repulsion, the [molecular geometry](/wiki/Molecular_geometry \"Molecular geometry\") of alkenes includes [bond angles](/wiki/Bond_angle \"Bond angle\") about each carbon atom in a double bond of about 120°. The angle may vary because of [steric strain](/wiki/Steric_strain \"Steric strain\") introduced by [nonbonded interactions](/wiki/Nonbonded_interactions \"Nonbonded interactions\") between [functional groups](/wiki/Functional_group \"Functional group\") attached to the carbon atoms of the double bond. For example, the C–C–C bond angle in [propylene](/wiki/Propylene \"Propylene\") is 123\\.9°.",
"For bridged alkenes, [Bredt's rule](/wiki/Bredt%27s_rule \"Bredt's rule\") states that a double bond cannot occur at the bridgehead of a bridged ring system unless the rings are large enough. Following Fawcett and defining *S* as the total number of non\\-bridgehead atoms in the rings,{{cite journal \\|title\\=Bredt's Rule of Double Bonds in Atomic\\-Bridged\\-Ring Structures \\|first\\=Frank S. \\|last\\=Fawcett \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Chem. Rev.]] \\|year\\=1950 \\|volume\\=47 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=219–274 \\|doi\\=10\\.1021/cr60147a003 \\|pmid\\=24538877}} bicyclic systems require *S* ≥ 7 for stability{{cite book \\|title\\=Organic Reaction Mechanisms \\|chapter\\=Bredt's Rule \\|pages\\=14–16 \\|first\\=Raj K. \\|last\\=Bansal \\|edition\\=3rd \\|year\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[McGraw\\-Hill Education]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-07\\-462083\\-0 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bga3xjLVCo0C\\&pg\\=PT29}} and tricyclic systems require *S* ≥ 11\\.{{Cite book \\|year\\=2010 \\|chapter\\=Bredt's Rule \\|title\\=Comprehensive Organic Name Reactions and Reagents \\|volume\\=116 \\|pages\\=525–8 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/9780470638859\\.conrr116 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-470\\-63885\\-9}}",
"### Isomerism",
"{{main\\|Cis–trans isomerism\\|E–Z notation}}",
"In [organic chemistry](/wiki/Organic_chemistry \"Organic chemistry\"),the [prefixes](/wiki/Prefix \"Prefix\") [cis\\- and trans\\-](/wiki/Cis-trans_isomerism \"Cis-trans isomerism\") are used to describe the positions of functional groups attached to [carbon](/wiki/Carbon \"Carbon\") atoms joined by a double bond. In Latin, *cis* and *trans* mean \"on this side of\" and \"on the other side of\" respectively. Therefore, if the functional groups are both on the same side of the carbon chain, the bond is said to have **cis\\-** configuration, otherwise (i.e. the functional groups are on the opposite side of the carbon chain), the bond is said to have **trans\\-** configuration.",
"",
"Cis\\-2\\-Buten.svg\\|structure of cis\\-2\\-butene\nTrans\\-2\\-Buten.svg\\|structure of trans\\-2\\-butene\nTrans\\-2\\-butene.svg\\|(''E'')\\-But\\-2\\-ene\nCis\\-2\\-butene.svg\\|(''Z'')\\-But\\-2\\-ene",
"",
"For there to be cis\\- and trans\\- configurations, there must be a carbon chain, or at least one [functional group](/wiki/Functional_group \"Functional group\") attached to each carbon is the same for both. [E\\- and Z\\- configuration](/wiki/E%E2%80%93Z_notation \"E–Z notation\") can be used instead in a more general case where all four functional groups attached to carbon atoms in a double bond are different. E\\- and Z\\- are abbreviations of German words *zusammen* (together) and *entgegen* (opposite). In E\\- and Z\\-isomerism, each functional group is assigned a priority based on the [Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules](/wiki/Cahn%E2%80%93Ingold%E2%80%93Prelog_priority_rules \"Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules\"). If the two groups with higher priority are on the same side of the double bond, the bond is assigned **Z\\-** configuration, otherwise (i.e. the two groups with higher priority are on the opposite side of the double bond), the bond is assigned **E\\-** configuration. Cis\\- and trans\\- configurations do not have a fixed relationship with **E**\\- and **Z**\\-configurations.",
""
] |
Reactions
---------
Alkenes are relatively stable compounds, but are more reactive than [alkanes](/wiki/Alkane "Alkane"). Most reactions of alkenes involve additions to this pi bond, forming new [single bonds](/wiki/Sigma_bond "Sigma bond"). Alkenes serve as a feedstock for the [petrochemical industry](/wiki/Petrochemical_industry "Petrochemical industry") because they can participate in a wide variety of reactions, prominently polymerization and alkylation. Except for ethylene, alkenes have two sites of reactivity: the carbon–carbon pi\-bond and the presence of [allylic](/wiki/Allylic "Allylic") CH centers. The former dominates but the allylic sites are important too.
### Addition to the unsaturated bonds
[400px\|thumb\|typical electrophilic addition reaction of [ethylene](/wiki/Ethylene "Ethylene")](/wiki/Image:Ear.png "Ear.png")
[Hydrogenation](/wiki/Hydrogenation "Hydrogenation") involves the addition of [H2](/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") resulting in an alkane. The equation of hydrogenation of [ethylene](/wiki/Ethylene "Ethylene") to form [ethane](/wiki/Ethane "Ethane") is:
H2C\=CH2 \+ H2→H3C−CH3
Hydrogenation reactions usually require [catalysts](/wiki/Catalyst "Catalyst") to increase their [reaction rate](/wiki/Reaction_rate "Reaction rate"). The total number of hydrogens that can be added to an unsaturated hydrocarbon depends on its [degree of unsaturation](/wiki/Degree_of_unsaturation "Degree of unsaturation").
Similar to hydrogen, halogens added to double bonds.
H2C\=CH2 \+ Br2→H2CBr−CH2Br
[Halonium ions](/wiki/Halonium_ion "Halonium ion") are intermediates. These reactions do not require catalysts.
[170px\|thumb\|Structure of a [bromonium ion](/wiki/Bromonium_ion "Bromonium ion")](/wiki/File:Biadamantylidene-bromonium-ion-from-xtal-1994-2D-skeletal.png "Biadamantylidene-bromonium-ion-from-xtal-1994-2D-skeletal.png")
[Bromine test](/wiki/Bromine_test "Bromine test") is used to test the saturation of hydrocarbons.{{Cite book \| title \= The Systematic Identification of Organic Compounds \| first1 \= R.L. \|last1\=Shriner \| first2 \=C.K.F. \|last2\=Hermann \| first3 \=T.C. \|last3\=Morrill \| first4 \=D.Y. \|last4\=Curtin \| first5 \=R.C. \|last5\=Fuson \| publisher \= Wiley \| date \= 1997\| isbn \= 0\-471\-59748\-1}} The bromine test can also be used as an indication of the [degree of unsaturation](/wiki/Degree_of_unsaturation "Degree of unsaturation") for unsaturated hydrocarbons. [Bromine number](/wiki/Bromine_number "Bromine number") is defined as gram of bromine able to react with 100g of product.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hach.com/asset\-get.download.jsa?id\=3980387617\|website\=Hach company\|title\=Bromine Number\|access\-date\=May 5, 2019}} Similar as hydrogenation, the halogenation of bromine is also depend on the number of π bond. A higher bromine number indicates higher degree of unsaturation.
The π bonds of alkenes hydrocarbons are also susceptible to [hydration](/wiki/Hydration_reaction "Hydration reaction"). The reaction usually involves [strong acid](/wiki/Strong_acid "Strong acid") as [catalyst](/wiki/Catalyst "Catalyst").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/catalysis/hydrate.html\|title\=The Mechanism for the Acid Catalysed Hydration of Ethene \|last\=Clark\|first\=Jim\|website\=Chemguide\|date\=November 2007\|access\-date\=May 6, 2019}} The first step in hydration often involves formation of a [carbocation](/wiki/Carbocation "Carbocation"). The net result of the reaction will be an [alcohol](/wiki/Alcohol_%28chemistry%29 "Alcohol (chemistry)"). The reaction equation for hydration of ethylene is:
H2C\=CH2 \+ H2O→{{coloredlink\|black\|ethanol\|H3C\-CH2OH}}
[350px\|thumb\|Example of hydrohalogenation: addition of [HBr](/wiki/Hydrogen_bromide "Hydrogen bromide") to an alkene](/wiki/File:HBr-addition.svg "HBr-addition.svg")
[Hydrohalogenation](/wiki/Hydrohalogenation "Hydrohalogenation") involves addition of H−X to unsaturated hydrocarbons. This reaction results in new C−H and C−X σ bonds. The formation of the intermediate carbocation is selective and follows [Markovnikov's rule](/wiki/Markovnikov%27s_rule "Markovnikov's rule"). The hydrohalogenation of alkene will result in [haloalkane](/wiki/Haloalkane "Haloalkane"). The reaction equation of HBr addition to ethylene is:
H2C\=CH2 \+ HBr → {{coloredlink\|black\|bromoethane\|H3C−CH2Br}}
### Cycloaddition
{{Main\|cycloaddition}}
[right\|thumb\|a Diels\-Alder reaction](/wiki/File:Diels-Alder_%281%2C3-butadiene_%2B_ethylene%29_red.svg "Diels-Alder (1,3-butadiene + ethylene) red.svg")
[350px\|center\|alt\=Generation of singlet oxygen and its \[4\+2]\-cycloaddition with cyclopentadiene](/wiki/File:4%2B2_cycloaddition_cyclopentadiene_O2.svg "4+2 cycloaddition cyclopentadiene O2.svg")
Alkenes add to [dienes](/wiki/Diene "Diene") to give [cyclohexenes](/wiki/Cyclohexene "Cyclohexene"). This conversion is an example of a [Diels\-Alder reaction](/wiki/Diels-Alder_reaction "Diels-Alder reaction"). Such reaction proceed with retention of stereochemistry. The rates are sensitive to electron\-withdrawing or electron\-donating substituents. When irradiated by UV\-light, alkenes dimerize to give [cyclobutanes](/wiki/Cyclobutane "Cyclobutane").{{March6th}} Another example is the [Schenck ene reaction](/wiki/Ene_reaction%23Singlet-oxygen_ene_reaction "Ene reaction#Singlet-oxygen ene reaction"), in which singlet oxygen reacts with an [allylic](/wiki/Allyl "Allyl") structure to give a transposed allyl [peroxide](/wiki/Peroxide "Peroxide"):
[200px\|center\|alt\=Reaction of singlet oxygen with an allyl structure to give allyl peroxide](/wiki/File:Schenck_ene_reaction.svg "Schenck ene reaction.svg")
#### Oxidation
Alkenes react with [percarboxylic acids](/wiki/Peroxy_acid "Peroxy acid") and even hydrogen peroxide to yield [epoxides](/wiki/Epoxide "Epoxide"):
{{chem2\|RCH\\dCH2 \+ RCO3H \-\> RCHOCH2 \+ RCO2H}}
For ethylene, the [epoxidation](/wiki/Epoxidation "Epoxidation") is conducted on a very large scale industrially using oxygen in the presence of silver\-based catalysts:
{{chem2\|C2H4 \+ 1/2 O2 \-\> C2H4O}}
Alkenes react with ozone, leading to the scission of the double bond. The process is called [ozonolysis](/wiki/Ozonolysis "Ozonolysis"). Often the reaction procedure includes a mild reductant, such as dimethylsulfide ({{chem2\|SMe2}}):
{{chem2\|RCH\\dCHR' \+ O3 \+ SMe2 \-\> RCHO \+ R'CHO \+ O\\dSMe2}}
{{chem2\|R2C\\dCHR' \+ O3 \-\> R2CHO \+ R'CHO \+ O\\dSMe2}}
When treated with a hot concentrated, acidified solution of {{chem2\|\[\[potassium permanganate\|KMnO4]]}}, alkenes are cleaved to form [ketones](/wiki/Ketone "Ketone") and/or [carboxylic acids](/wiki/Carboxylic_acid "Carboxylic acid"). The stoichiometry of the reaction is sensitive to conditions. This reaction and the ozonolysis can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown alkene.
The oxidation can be stopped at the [vicinal](/wiki/Vicinal_%28chemistry%29 "Vicinal (chemistry)") [diol](/wiki/Diol "Diol") rather than full cleavage of the alkene by using [osmium tetroxide](/wiki/Osmium_tetroxide "Osmium tetroxide") or other oxidants:
R'CH\=CR2 \+ 1/2 O2 \+ H2O \-\> R'CH(OH)\-C(OH)R2
This reaction is called [dihydroxylation](/wiki/Dihydroxylation "Dihydroxylation").
In the presence of an appropriate [photosensitiser](/wiki/Photosensitiser "Photosensitiser"), such as [methylene blue](/wiki/Methylene_blue "Methylene blue") and light, alkenes can undergo reaction with reactive oxygen species generated by the photosensitiser, such as [hydroxyl radicals](/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical "Hydroxyl radical"), [singlet oxygen](/wiki/Singlet_oxygen "Singlet oxygen") or [superoxide](/wiki/Superoxide "Superoxide") ion. Reactions of the excited sensitizer can involve electron or hydrogen transfer, usually with a reducing substrate (Type I reaction) or interaction with oxygen (Type II reaction).{{cite journal \|last1\=Baptista \|first1\=Maurício S. \|last2\=Cadet \|first2\=Jean \|last3\=Mascio \|first3\=Paolo Di \|last4\=Ghogare \|first4\=Ashwini A. \|last5\=Greer \|first5\=Alexander \|last6\=Hamblin \|first6\=Michael R. \|last7\=Lorente \|first7\=Carolina \|last8\=Nunez \|first8\=Silvia Cristina \|last9\=Ribeiro \|first9\=Martha Simões \|last10\=Thomas \|first10\=Andrés H. \|last11\=Vignoni \|first11\=Mariana \|last12\=Yoshimura \|first12\=Tania Mateus \|title\=Type I and Type II Photosensitized Oxidation Reactions: Guidelines and Mechanistic Pathways \|journal\=Photochemistry and Photobiology \|date\=2017 \|volume\=93 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=912–9 \|doi\=10\.1111/php.12716\|pmid\=28084040 \|pmc\=5500392 \|doi\-access\=free }} These various alternative processes and reactions can be controlled by choice of specific reaction conditions, leading to a wide range of products. A common example is the \[4\+2]\-[cycloaddition](/wiki/Cycloaddition "Cycloaddition") of singlet oxygen with a [diene](/wiki/Diene "Diene") such as [cyclopentadiene](/wiki/Cyclopentadiene "Cyclopentadiene") to yield an [endoperoxide](/wiki/Endoperoxide "Endoperoxide"):
### Polymerization
{{main\|polyolefin}}
Terminal alkenes are precursors to [polymers](/wiki/Polymer "Polymer") via processes termed [polymerization](/wiki/Polymerization "Polymerization"). Some polymerizations are of great economic significance, as they generate the plastics [polyethylene](/wiki/Polyethylene "Polyethylene") and [polypropylene](/wiki/Polypropylene "Polypropylene"). Polymers from alkene are usually referred to as *[polyolefins](/wiki/Polyolefin "Polyolefin")* although they contain no olefins. Polymerization can proceed via diverse mechanisms. [Conjugated](/wiki/Conjugated_system "Conjugated system") [dienes](/wiki/Diene "Diene") such as [buta\-1,3\-diene](/wiki/Buta-1%2C3-diene "Buta-1,3-diene") and [isoprene](/wiki/Isoprene "Isoprene") (2\-methylbuta\-1,3\-diene) also produce polymers, one example being natural rubber.
### Allylic substitution
The presence of a C\=C π bond in unsaturated hydrocarbons weakens the dissociation energy of the [allylic](/wiki/Allylic "Allylic") C−H bonds. Thus, these groupings are susceptible to [free radical substitution](/wiki/Free_radical_substitution "Free radical substitution") at these C\-H sites as well as addition reactions at the C\=C site. In the presence of [radical initiators](/wiki/Radical_initiator "Radical initiator"), allylic C\-H bonds can be halogenated.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.15227/orgsyn.073\.0240 \|title\=1,3,5\-Cyclooctatriene \|journal\=Organic Syntheses \|date\=1996 \|volume\=73 \|page\=240\|first1\=Masaji\|last1\=Oda\|first2\=Takeshi\|last2\=Kawase\|first3\=Hiroyuki\|last3\= Kurata }} The presence of two C\=C bonds flanking one methylene, i.e., doubly allylic, results in particularly weak HC\-H bonds. The high reactivity of these situations is the basis for certain free radical reactions, manifested in the chemistry of [drying oils](/wiki/Drying_oil "Drying oil").
### Metathesis
Alkenes undergo [olefin metathesis](/wiki/Olefin_metathesis "Olefin metathesis"), which cleaves and interchanges the substituents of the alkene. A related reaction is [ethenolysis](/wiki/Ethenolysis "Ethenolysis"):
\\overset{\\text{diisobutene}}{\\ce{(CH3\)3C\-CH\=C(CH3\)2}} \+ {\\color{red}\\ce{CH2\=CH2}} \\longrightarrow \\overset{\\text{neohexane}}{\\ce{(CH3\)3C\-CH\=}{\\color{red}\\ce{CH2}}} \+ \\ce{(CH3\)2C\=}{\\color{red}\\ce{CH2}}
### Metal complexation
[thumb\|The [Dewar\-Chatt\-Duncanson model](/wiki/Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson_model "Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson model") for alkene\-metal bonding.](/wiki/File:DCDmodel.png "DCDmodel.png")
[thumb\|right\|220px\|Structure of [bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0\)](/wiki/Bis%28cyclooctadiene%29nickel%280%29 "Bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0)"), a metal–alkene complex](/wiki/Image:Ni%28cod%292.png "Ni(cod)2.png")
In [transition metal alkene complexes](/wiki/Transition_metal_alkene_complex "Transition metal alkene complex"), alkenes serve as ligands for metals.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ilpi.com/organomet/alkene.html\|title\=Alkene Complexes\|last\=Toreki\|first\=Rob\|date\=March 31, 2015\|access\-date\=May 29, 2019\|website\=Organometallic HyperTextbook}} In this case, the π electron density is donated{{clarify\|date\=September 2023}} to the metal d orbitals. The stronger the donation is, the stronger the [back bonding](/wiki/Back_bonding "Back bonding") from the metal d orbital to π\* anti\-bonding orbital of the alkene. This effect lowers the bond order of the alkene and increases the C\-C [bond length](/wiki/Bond_length "Bond length"). One example is the complex {{chem2\|PtCl3(C2H4\)]\-}}. These complexes are related to the mechanisms of metal\-catalyzed reactions of unsaturated hydrocarbons.{{cite book \| title\=Organotransition Metal Chemistry: From Bonding to Catalysis \| publisher\=University Science Books \| last\=Hartwig \|first\=John \| year\=2010 \| location\=New York \| pages\=1160 \| isbn\=978\-1\-938787\-15\-7}}
### Reaction overview
| Reaction name | Product | Comment |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Hydrogenation](/wiki/Hydrogenation "Hydrogenation")
alkanes
addition of hydrogen |
| [Hydroalkenylation](/wiki/Hydroalkenylation "Hydroalkenylation") | alkenes | hydrometalation / insertion / beta\-elimination by metal catalyst |
| [Halogen addition reaction](/wiki/Halogen_addition_reaction "Halogen addition reaction")
1,2\-dihalide
electrophilic addition of halogens |
| [Hydrohalogenation](/wiki/Hydrohalogenation "Hydrohalogenation") ([Markovnikov](/wiki/Markovnikov%27s_rule "Markovnikov's rule"))
haloalkanes
addition of hydrohalic acids |
| Anti\-Markovnikov [hydrohalogenation](/wiki/Hydrohalogenation "Hydrohalogenation")
haloalkanes
free radicals mediated addition of hydrohalic acids |
| [Hydroamination](/wiki/Hydroamination "Hydroamination")
amines
addition of {{chem2\|N\\sH}} bond across {{chem2\|C\\sC}} double bond |
| [Hydroformylation](/wiki/Hydroformylation "Hydroformylation")
aldehydes
industrial process, addition of CO and {{chem2\|H2}} |
| [Hydrocarboxylation](/wiki/Hydrocarboxylation "Hydrocarboxylation") and [Koch reaction](/wiki/Koch_reaction "Koch reaction")
carboxylic acid
industrial process, addition of CO and {{chem2\|H2O}}. |
| [Carboalkoxylation](/wiki/Carboalkoxylation "Carboalkoxylation")
ester
industrial process, addition of CO and alcohol. |
| [alkylation](/wiki/Alkylation "Alkylation")
ester
industrial process: alkene alkylating carboxylic acid with [silicotungstic acid](/wiki/Silicotungstic_acid "Silicotungstic acid") the catalyst. |
| [Sharpless bishydroxylation](/wiki/Sharpless_bishydroxylation "Sharpless bishydroxylation")
diols
oxidation, reagent: osmium tetroxide, chiral ligand |
| [Woodward *cis*\-hydroxylation](/wiki/Woodward_cis-hydroxylation "Woodward cis-hydroxylation")
diols
oxidation, reagents: iodine, silver acetate |
| [Ozonolysis](/wiki/Ozonolysis "Ozonolysis")
aldehydes or ketones
reagent: ozone |
| [Olefin metathesis](/wiki/Olefin_metathesis "Olefin metathesis") | alkenes | two alkenes rearrange to form two new alkenes |
| [Diels–Alder reaction](/wiki/Diels%E2%80%93Alder_reaction "Diels–Alder reaction") | cyclohexenes | cycloaddition with a diene |
| [Pauson–Khand reaction](/wiki/Pauson%E2%80%93Khand_reaction "Pauson–Khand reaction") | cyclopentenones | cycloaddition with an alkyne and CO |
| [Hydroboration–oxidation](/wiki/Hydroboration%E2%80%93oxidation "Hydroboration–oxidation") | alcohols | reagents: borane, then a peroxide |
| [Oxymercuration\-reduction](/wiki/Oxymercuration-reduction "Oxymercuration-reduction") | alcohols | electrophilic addition of mercuric acetate, then reduction |
| [Prins reaction](/wiki/Prins_reaction "Prins reaction") | 1,3\-diols | electrophilic addition with aldehyde or ketone |
| [Paterno–Büchi reaction](/wiki/Paterno%E2%80%93B%C3%BCchi_reaction "Paterno–Büchi reaction") | oxetanes | photochemical reaction with aldehyde or ketone |
| [Epoxidation](/wiki/Epoxidation "Epoxidation") | epoxide | electrophilic addition of a peroxide |
| [Cyclopropanation](/wiki/Cyclopropanation "Cyclopropanation") | cyclopropanes | addition of carbenes or carbenoids |
| [Hydroacylation](/wiki/Hydroacylation "Hydroacylation") | ketones | oxidative addition / reductive elimination by metal catalyst |
| [Hydrophosphination](/wiki/Hydrophosphination "Hydrophosphination") | phosphines | |
|
|
[
"Reactions\n---------",
"Alkenes are relatively stable compounds, but are more reactive than [alkanes](/wiki/Alkane \"Alkane\"). Most reactions of alkenes involve additions to this pi bond, forming new [single bonds](/wiki/Sigma_bond \"Sigma bond\"). Alkenes serve as a feedstock for the [petrochemical industry](/wiki/Petrochemical_industry \"Petrochemical industry\") because they can participate in a wide variety of reactions, prominently polymerization and alkylation. Except for ethylene, alkenes have two sites of reactivity: the carbon–carbon pi\\-bond and the presence of [allylic](/wiki/Allylic \"Allylic\") CH centers. The former dominates but the allylic sites are important too.",
"### Addition to the unsaturated bonds",
"[400px\\|thumb\\|typical electrophilic addition reaction of [ethylene](/wiki/Ethylene \"Ethylene\")](/wiki/Image:Ear.png \"Ear.png\")\n[Hydrogenation](/wiki/Hydrogenation \"Hydrogenation\") involves the addition of [H2](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") resulting in an alkane. The equation of hydrogenation of [ethylene](/wiki/Ethylene \"Ethylene\") to form [ethane](/wiki/Ethane \"Ethane\") is:\nH2C\\=CH2 \\+ H2→H3C−CH3\nHydrogenation reactions usually require [catalysts](/wiki/Catalyst \"Catalyst\") to increase their [reaction rate](/wiki/Reaction_rate \"Reaction rate\"). The total number of hydrogens that can be added to an unsaturated hydrocarbon depends on its [degree of unsaturation](/wiki/Degree_of_unsaturation \"Degree of unsaturation\").",
"Similar to hydrogen, halogens added to double bonds. \nH2C\\=CH2 \\+ Br2→H2CBr−CH2Br\n[Halonium ions](/wiki/Halonium_ion \"Halonium ion\") are intermediates. These reactions do not require catalysts.",
"[170px\\|thumb\\|Structure of a [bromonium ion](/wiki/Bromonium_ion \"Bromonium ion\")](/wiki/File:Biadamantylidene-bromonium-ion-from-xtal-1994-2D-skeletal.png \"Biadamantylidene-bromonium-ion-from-xtal-1994-2D-skeletal.png\")",
"[Bromine test](/wiki/Bromine_test \"Bromine test\") is used to test the saturation of hydrocarbons.{{Cite book \\| title \\= The Systematic Identification of Organic Compounds \\| first1 \\= R.L. \\|last1\\=Shriner \\| first2 \\=C.K.F. \\|last2\\=Hermann \\| first3 \\=T.C. \\|last3\\=Morrill \\| first4 \\=D.Y. \\|last4\\=Curtin \\| first5 \\=R.C. \\|last5\\=Fuson \\| publisher \\= Wiley \\| date \\= 1997\\| isbn \\= 0\\-471\\-59748\\-1}} The bromine test can also be used as an indication of the [degree of unsaturation](/wiki/Degree_of_unsaturation \"Degree of unsaturation\") for unsaturated hydrocarbons. [Bromine number](/wiki/Bromine_number \"Bromine number\") is defined as gram of bromine able to react with 100g of product.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hach.com/asset\\-get.download.jsa?id\\=3980387617\\|website\\=Hach company\\|title\\=Bromine Number\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2019}} Similar as hydrogenation, the halogenation of bromine is also depend on the number of π bond. A higher bromine number indicates higher degree of unsaturation.",
"The π bonds of alkenes hydrocarbons are also susceptible to [hydration](/wiki/Hydration_reaction \"Hydration reaction\"). The reaction usually involves [strong acid](/wiki/Strong_acid \"Strong acid\") as [catalyst](/wiki/Catalyst \"Catalyst\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/catalysis/hydrate.html\\|title\\=The Mechanism for the Acid Catalysed Hydration of Ethene \\|last\\=Clark\\|first\\=Jim\\|website\\=Chemguide\\|date\\=November 2007\\|access\\-date\\=May 6, 2019}} The first step in hydration often involves formation of a [carbocation](/wiki/Carbocation \"Carbocation\"). The net result of the reaction will be an [alcohol](/wiki/Alcohol_%28chemistry%29 \"Alcohol (chemistry)\"). The reaction equation for hydration of ethylene is:\nH2C\\=CH2 \\+ H2O→{{coloredlink\\|black\\|ethanol\\|H3C\\-CH2OH}}",
"[350px\\|thumb\\|Example of hydrohalogenation: addition of [HBr](/wiki/Hydrogen_bromide \"Hydrogen bromide\") to an alkene](/wiki/File:HBr-addition.svg \"HBr-addition.svg\")",
"[Hydrohalogenation](/wiki/Hydrohalogenation \"Hydrohalogenation\") involves addition of H−X to unsaturated hydrocarbons. This reaction results in new C−H and C−X σ bonds. The formation of the intermediate carbocation is selective and follows [Markovnikov's rule](/wiki/Markovnikov%27s_rule \"Markovnikov's rule\"). The hydrohalogenation of alkene will result in [haloalkane](/wiki/Haloalkane \"Haloalkane\"). The reaction equation of HBr addition to ethylene is:\nH2C\\=CH2 \\+ HBr → {{coloredlink\\|black\\|bromoethane\\|H3C−CH2Br}}",
"### Cycloaddition",
"{{Main\\|cycloaddition}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|a Diels\\-Alder reaction](/wiki/File:Diels-Alder_%281%2C3-butadiene_%2B_ethylene%29_red.svg \"Diels-Alder (1,3-butadiene + ethylene) red.svg\")\n[350px\\|center\\|alt\\=Generation of singlet oxygen and its \\[4\\+2]\\-cycloaddition with cyclopentadiene](/wiki/File:4%2B2_cycloaddition_cyclopentadiene_O2.svg \"4+2 cycloaddition cyclopentadiene O2.svg\")\nAlkenes add to [dienes](/wiki/Diene \"Diene\") to give [cyclohexenes](/wiki/Cyclohexene \"Cyclohexene\"). This conversion is an example of a [Diels\\-Alder reaction](/wiki/Diels-Alder_reaction \"Diels-Alder reaction\"). Such reaction proceed with retention of stereochemistry. The rates are sensitive to electron\\-withdrawing or electron\\-donating substituents. When irradiated by UV\\-light, alkenes dimerize to give [cyclobutanes](/wiki/Cyclobutane \"Cyclobutane\").{{March6th}} Another example is the [Schenck ene reaction](/wiki/Ene_reaction%23Singlet-oxygen_ene_reaction \"Ene reaction#Singlet-oxygen ene reaction\"), in which singlet oxygen reacts with an [allylic](/wiki/Allyl \"Allyl\") structure to give a transposed allyl [peroxide](/wiki/Peroxide \"Peroxide\"):",
"[200px\\|center\\|alt\\=Reaction of singlet oxygen with an allyl structure to give allyl peroxide](/wiki/File:Schenck_ene_reaction.svg \"Schenck ene reaction.svg\")",
"#### Oxidation",
"Alkenes react with [percarboxylic acids](/wiki/Peroxy_acid \"Peroxy acid\") and even hydrogen peroxide to yield [epoxides](/wiki/Epoxide \"Epoxide\"):\n{{chem2\\|RCH\\\\dCH2 \\+ RCO3H \\-\\> RCHOCH2 \\+ RCO2H}}",
"For ethylene, the [epoxidation](/wiki/Epoxidation \"Epoxidation\") is conducted on a very large scale industrially using oxygen in the presence of silver\\-based catalysts:\n{{chem2\\|C2H4 \\+ 1/2 O2 \\-\\> C2H4O}}",
"Alkenes react with ozone, leading to the scission of the double bond. The process is called [ozonolysis](/wiki/Ozonolysis \"Ozonolysis\"). Often the reaction procedure includes a mild reductant, such as dimethylsulfide ({{chem2\\|SMe2}}):\n{{chem2\\|RCH\\\\dCHR' \\+ O3 \\+ SMe2 \\-\\> RCHO \\+ R'CHO \\+ O\\\\dSMe2}}\n{{chem2\\|R2C\\\\dCHR' \\+ O3 \\-\\> R2CHO \\+ R'CHO \\+ O\\\\dSMe2}}",
"When treated with a hot concentrated, acidified solution of {{chem2\\|\\[\\[potassium permanganate\\|KMnO4]]}}, alkenes are cleaved to form [ketones](/wiki/Ketone \"Ketone\") and/or [carboxylic acids](/wiki/Carboxylic_acid \"Carboxylic acid\"). The stoichiometry of the reaction is sensitive to conditions. This reaction and the ozonolysis can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown alkene.",
"The oxidation can be stopped at the [vicinal](/wiki/Vicinal_%28chemistry%29 \"Vicinal (chemistry)\") [diol](/wiki/Diol \"Diol\") rather than full cleavage of the alkene by using [osmium tetroxide](/wiki/Osmium_tetroxide \"Osmium tetroxide\") or other oxidants:\nR'CH\\=CR2 \\+ 1/2 O2 \\+ H2O \\-\\> R'CH(OH)\\-C(OH)R2\nThis reaction is called [dihydroxylation](/wiki/Dihydroxylation \"Dihydroxylation\").",
"In the presence of an appropriate [photosensitiser](/wiki/Photosensitiser \"Photosensitiser\"), such as [methylene blue](/wiki/Methylene_blue \"Methylene blue\") and light, alkenes can undergo reaction with reactive oxygen species generated by the photosensitiser, such as [hydroxyl radicals](/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical \"Hydroxyl radical\"), [singlet oxygen](/wiki/Singlet_oxygen \"Singlet oxygen\") or [superoxide](/wiki/Superoxide \"Superoxide\") ion. Reactions of the excited sensitizer can involve electron or hydrogen transfer, usually with a reducing substrate (Type I reaction) or interaction with oxygen (Type II reaction).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Baptista \\|first1\\=Maurício S. \\|last2\\=Cadet \\|first2\\=Jean \\|last3\\=Mascio \\|first3\\=Paolo Di \\|last4\\=Ghogare \\|first4\\=Ashwini A. \\|last5\\=Greer \\|first5\\=Alexander \\|last6\\=Hamblin \\|first6\\=Michael R. \\|last7\\=Lorente \\|first7\\=Carolina \\|last8\\=Nunez \\|first8\\=Silvia Cristina \\|last9\\=Ribeiro \\|first9\\=Martha Simões \\|last10\\=Thomas \\|first10\\=Andrés H. \\|last11\\=Vignoni \\|first11\\=Mariana \\|last12\\=Yoshimura \\|first12\\=Tania Mateus \\|title\\=Type I and Type II Photosensitized Oxidation Reactions: Guidelines and Mechanistic Pathways \\|journal\\=Photochemistry and Photobiology \\|date\\=2017 \\|volume\\=93 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=912–9 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/php.12716\\|pmid\\=28084040 \\|pmc\\=5500392 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} These various alternative processes and reactions can be controlled by choice of specific reaction conditions, leading to a wide range of products. A common example is the \\[4\\+2]\\-[cycloaddition](/wiki/Cycloaddition \"Cycloaddition\") of singlet oxygen with a [diene](/wiki/Diene \"Diene\") such as [cyclopentadiene](/wiki/Cyclopentadiene \"Cyclopentadiene\") to yield an [endoperoxide](/wiki/Endoperoxide \"Endoperoxide\"):",
"### Polymerization",
"{{main\\|polyolefin}}\nTerminal alkenes are precursors to [polymers](/wiki/Polymer \"Polymer\") via processes termed [polymerization](/wiki/Polymerization \"Polymerization\"). Some polymerizations are of great economic significance, as they generate the plastics [polyethylene](/wiki/Polyethylene \"Polyethylene\") and [polypropylene](/wiki/Polypropylene \"Polypropylene\"). Polymers from alkene are usually referred to as *[polyolefins](/wiki/Polyolefin \"Polyolefin\")* although they contain no olefins. Polymerization can proceed via diverse mechanisms. [Conjugated](/wiki/Conjugated_system \"Conjugated system\") [dienes](/wiki/Diene \"Diene\") such as [buta\\-1,3\\-diene](/wiki/Buta-1%2C3-diene \"Buta-1,3-diene\") and [isoprene](/wiki/Isoprene \"Isoprene\") (2\\-methylbuta\\-1,3\\-diene) also produce polymers, one example being natural rubber.",
"### Allylic substitution",
"The presence of a C\\=C π bond in unsaturated hydrocarbons weakens the dissociation energy of the [allylic](/wiki/Allylic \"Allylic\") C−H bonds. Thus, these groupings are susceptible to [free radical substitution](/wiki/Free_radical_substitution \"Free radical substitution\") at these C\\-H sites as well as addition reactions at the C\\=C site. In the presence of [radical initiators](/wiki/Radical_initiator \"Radical initiator\"), allylic C\\-H bonds can be halogenated.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.15227/orgsyn.073\\.0240 \\|title\\=1,3,5\\-Cyclooctatriene \\|journal\\=Organic Syntheses \\|date\\=1996 \\|volume\\=73 \\|page\\=240\\|first1\\=Masaji\\|last1\\=Oda\\|first2\\=Takeshi\\|last2\\=Kawase\\|first3\\=Hiroyuki\\|last3\\= Kurata }} The presence of two C\\=C bonds flanking one methylene, i.e., doubly allylic, results in particularly weak HC\\-H bonds. The high reactivity of these situations is the basis for certain free radical reactions, manifested in the chemistry of [drying oils](/wiki/Drying_oil \"Drying oil\").",
"### Metathesis",
"Alkenes undergo [olefin metathesis](/wiki/Olefin_metathesis \"Olefin metathesis\"), which cleaves and interchanges the substituents of the alkene. A related reaction is [ethenolysis](/wiki/Ethenolysis \"Ethenolysis\"):\n\\\\overset{\\\\text{diisobutene}}{\\\\ce{(CH3\\)3C\\-CH\\=C(CH3\\)2}} \\+ {\\\\color{red}\\\\ce{CH2\\=CH2}} \\\\longrightarrow \\\\overset{\\\\text{neohexane}}{\\\\ce{(CH3\\)3C\\-CH\\=}{\\\\color{red}\\\\ce{CH2}}} \\+ \\\\ce{(CH3\\)2C\\=}{\\\\color{red}\\\\ce{CH2}}",
"### Metal complexation",
"[thumb\\|The [Dewar\\-Chatt\\-Duncanson model](/wiki/Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson_model \"Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson model\") for alkene\\-metal bonding.](/wiki/File:DCDmodel.png \"DCDmodel.png\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|220px\\|Structure of [bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0\\)](/wiki/Bis%28cyclooctadiene%29nickel%280%29 \"Bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0)\"), a metal–alkene complex](/wiki/Image:Ni%28cod%292.png \"Ni(cod)2.png\")\nIn [transition metal alkene complexes](/wiki/Transition_metal_alkene_complex \"Transition metal alkene complex\"), alkenes serve as ligands for metals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilpi.com/organomet/alkene.html\\|title\\=Alkene Complexes\\|last\\=Toreki\\|first\\=Rob\\|date\\=March 31, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2019\\|website\\=Organometallic HyperTextbook}} In this case, the π electron density is donated{{clarify\\|date\\=September 2023}} to the metal d orbitals. The stronger the donation is, the stronger the [back bonding](/wiki/Back_bonding \"Back bonding\") from the metal d orbital to π\\* anti\\-bonding orbital of the alkene. This effect lowers the bond order of the alkene and increases the C\\-C [bond length](/wiki/Bond_length \"Bond length\"). One example is the complex {{chem2\\|PtCl3(C2H4\\)]\\-}}. These complexes are related to the mechanisms of metal\\-catalyzed reactions of unsaturated hydrocarbons.{{cite book \\| title\\=Organotransition Metal Chemistry: From Bonding to Catalysis \\| publisher\\=University Science Books \\| last\\=Hartwig \\|first\\=John \\| year\\=2010 \\| location\\=New York \\| pages\\=1160 \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-938787\\-15\\-7}}",
"### Reaction overview",
"",
"| Reaction name | Product | Comment |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Hydrogenation](/wiki/Hydrogenation \"Hydrogenation\")",
"alkanes",
"addition of hydrogen |\n| [Hydroalkenylation](/wiki/Hydroalkenylation \"Hydroalkenylation\") | alkenes | hydrometalation / insertion / beta\\-elimination by metal catalyst |\n| [Halogen addition reaction](/wiki/Halogen_addition_reaction \"Halogen addition reaction\")",
"1,2\\-dihalide",
"electrophilic addition of halogens |\n| [Hydrohalogenation](/wiki/Hydrohalogenation \"Hydrohalogenation\") ([Markovnikov](/wiki/Markovnikov%27s_rule \"Markovnikov's rule\"))",
"haloalkanes",
"addition of hydrohalic acids |\n| Anti\\-Markovnikov [hydrohalogenation](/wiki/Hydrohalogenation \"Hydrohalogenation\")",
"haloalkanes",
"free radicals mediated addition of hydrohalic acids |\n| [Hydroamination](/wiki/Hydroamination \"Hydroamination\")",
"amines",
"addition of {{chem2\\|N\\\\sH}} bond across {{chem2\\|C\\\\sC}} double bond |\n| [Hydroformylation](/wiki/Hydroformylation \"Hydroformylation\")",
"aldehydes",
"industrial process, addition of CO and {{chem2\\|H2}} |\n| [Hydrocarboxylation](/wiki/Hydrocarboxylation \"Hydrocarboxylation\") and [Koch reaction](/wiki/Koch_reaction \"Koch reaction\")",
"carboxylic acid",
"industrial process, addition of CO and {{chem2\\|H2O}}. |\n| [Carboalkoxylation](/wiki/Carboalkoxylation \"Carboalkoxylation\")",
"ester",
"industrial process, addition of CO and alcohol. |\n| [alkylation](/wiki/Alkylation \"Alkylation\")",
"ester",
"industrial process: alkene alkylating carboxylic acid with [silicotungstic acid](/wiki/Silicotungstic_acid \"Silicotungstic acid\") the catalyst. |\n| [Sharpless bishydroxylation](/wiki/Sharpless_bishydroxylation \"Sharpless bishydroxylation\")",
"diols",
"oxidation, reagent: osmium tetroxide, chiral ligand |\n| [Woodward *cis*\\-hydroxylation](/wiki/Woodward_cis-hydroxylation \"Woodward cis-hydroxylation\")",
"diols",
"oxidation, reagents: iodine, silver acetate |\n| [Ozonolysis](/wiki/Ozonolysis \"Ozonolysis\")",
"aldehydes or ketones",
"reagent: ozone |\n| [Olefin metathesis](/wiki/Olefin_metathesis \"Olefin metathesis\") | alkenes | two alkenes rearrange to form two new alkenes |\n| [Diels–Alder reaction](/wiki/Diels%E2%80%93Alder_reaction \"Diels–Alder reaction\") | cyclohexenes | cycloaddition with a diene |\n| [Pauson–Khand reaction](/wiki/Pauson%E2%80%93Khand_reaction \"Pauson–Khand reaction\") | cyclopentenones | cycloaddition with an alkyne and CO |\n| [Hydroboration–oxidation](/wiki/Hydroboration%E2%80%93oxidation \"Hydroboration–oxidation\") | alcohols | reagents: borane, then a peroxide |\n| [Oxymercuration\\-reduction](/wiki/Oxymercuration-reduction \"Oxymercuration-reduction\") | alcohols | electrophilic addition of mercuric acetate, then reduction |\n| [Prins reaction](/wiki/Prins_reaction \"Prins reaction\") | 1,3\\-diols | electrophilic addition with aldehyde or ketone |\n| [Paterno–Büchi reaction](/wiki/Paterno%E2%80%93B%C3%BCchi_reaction \"Paterno–Büchi reaction\") | oxetanes | photochemical reaction with aldehyde or ketone |\n| [Epoxidation](/wiki/Epoxidation \"Epoxidation\") | epoxide | electrophilic addition of a peroxide |\n| [Cyclopropanation](/wiki/Cyclopropanation \"Cyclopropanation\") | cyclopropanes | addition of carbenes or carbenoids |\n| [Hydroacylation](/wiki/Hydroacylation \"Hydroacylation\") | ketones | oxidative addition / reductive elimination by metal catalyst |\n| [Hydrophosphination](/wiki/Hydrophosphination \"Hydrophosphination\") | phosphines | |\n|",
""
] |
Synthesis
---------
### Industrial methods
Alkenes are produced by hydrocarbon [cracking](/wiki/Cracking_%28chemistry%29 "Cracking (chemistry)"). Raw materials are mostly [natural\-gas condensate](/wiki/Natural-gas_condensate "Natural-gas condensate") components (principally ethane and propane) in the US and Mideast and [naphtha](/wiki/Naphtha "Naphtha") in Europe and Asia. Alkanes are broken apart at high temperatures, often in the presence of a [zeolite](/wiki/Zeolite "Zeolite") catalyst, to produce a mixture of primarily aliphatic alkenes and lower molecular weight alkanes. The mixture is feedstock and temperature dependent, and separated by fractional distillation. This is mainly used for the manufacture of small alkenes (up to six carbons).{{cite book \| last \= Wade \| first \= L.G. \| title \= Organic Chemistry \| url \= https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00wade\_388 \| url\-access \= limited \| publisher \= Pearson \[\[Prentice Hall]] \| date \= 2006 \|edition\=6th\| pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00wade\_388/page/n351 309] \| isbn \= 978\-1\-4058\-5345\-3 }}
[500px\|center\|Cracking of *n*\-octane to give pentane and propene](/wiki/Image:OctaneCracking.svg "OctaneCracking.svg")
Related to this is catalytic [dehydrogenation](/wiki/Dehydrogenation "Dehydrogenation"), where an alkane loses hydrogen at high temperatures to produce a corresponding alkene. This is the reverse of the [catalytic hydrogenation](/wiki/Catalytic_hydrogenation "Catalytic hydrogenation") of alkenes.
[600px\|center\|Dehydrogenation of butane to give butadiene and isomers of butene](/wiki/Image:ButaneDehydrogenation.svg "ButaneDehydrogenation.svg")
This process is also known as [reforming](/wiki/Catalytic_reforming "Catalytic reforming"). Both processes are endothermic and are driven towards the alkene at high temperatures by [entropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy").
[Catalytic](/wiki/Catalytic "Catalytic") synthesis of higher α\-alkenes (of the type RCH\=CH2) can also be achieved by a reaction of ethylene with the [organometallic compound](/wiki/Organometallic_compound "Organometallic compound") [triethylaluminium](/wiki/Triethylaluminium "Triethylaluminium") in the presence of [nickel](/wiki/Nickel "Nickel"), [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt "Cobalt"), or [platinum](/wiki/Platinum "Platinum").
### Elimination reactions
One of the principal methods for alkene synthesis in the laboratory is the [elimination reaction](/wiki/Elimination_reaction "Elimination reaction") of alkyl halides, alcohols, and similar compounds. Most common is the β\-elimination via the E2 or E1 mechanism.{{cite book \| last \= Saunders \| first \= W. H. \| editor \= Patai, Saul \| title \= The Chemistry of Alkenes\| chapter\=Elimination Reactions in Solution\|publisher \= Wiley Interscience \|series\=PATAI'S Chemistry of Functional Groups \| year \= 1964 \| pages \= 149–201\|doi\=10\.1002/9780470771044 \| isbn \= 978\-0\-470\-77104\-4 }} A commercially significant example is the production of [vinyl chloride](/wiki/Vinyl_chloride "Vinyl chloride").
The E2 mechanism provides a more reliable β\-elimination method than E1 for most alkene syntheses. Most E2 eliminations start with an alkyl halide or alkyl sulfonate ester (such as a [tosylate](/wiki/Tosylate "Tosylate") or [triflate](/wiki/Triflate "Triflate")). When an alkyl halide is used, the reaction is called a [dehydrohalogenation](/wiki/Dehydrohalogenation "Dehydrohalogenation"). For unsymmetrical products, the more substituted alkenes (those with fewer hydrogens attached to the C\=C) tend to predominate (see [Zaitsev's rule](/wiki/Zaitsev%27s_rule "Zaitsev's rule")). Two common methods of elimination reactions are dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides and dehydration of alcohols. A typical example is shown below; note that if possible, the H is *anti* to the leaving group, even though this leads to the less stable *Z*\-isomer.{{cite journal
\| last1 \= Cram \|first1 \= D.J.
\| year \= 1956
\| title \= Studies in Stereochemistry. XXV. Eclipsing Effects in the E2 Reaction1
\| journal \= Journal of the American Chemical Society
\| volume \= 78
\| issue \= 4
\| pages \= 790–6
\| doi \= 10\.1021/ja01585a024
\| last2 \= Greene
\| first2 \= Frederick D.
\| last3 \= Depuy
\| first3 \= C. H.
}}
[500px\|center\|An example of an E2 Elimination](/wiki/Image:E2EliminationExample.png "E2EliminationExample.png")
Alkenes can be synthesized from alcohols via [dehydration](/wiki/Dehydration_reaction "Dehydration reaction"), in which case water is lost via the E1 mechanism. For example, the dehydration of [ethanol](/wiki/Ethanol "Ethanol") produces ethylene:
CH3CH2OH → H2C\=CH2 \+ H2O
An alcohol may also be converted to a better leaving group (e.g., [xanthate](/wiki/Xanthate "Xanthate")), so as to allow a milder *syn*\-elimination such as the [Chugaev elimination](/wiki/Chugaev_elimination "Chugaev elimination") and the [Grieco elimination](/wiki/Grieco_elimination "Grieco elimination"). Related reactions include eliminations by β\-haloethers (the [Boord olefin synthesis](/wiki/Boord_olefin_synthesis "Boord olefin synthesis")) and esters ([ester pyrolysis](/wiki/Ester_pyrolysis "Ester pyrolysis")). A [thioketone](/wiki/Thioketone "Thioketone") and a [phosphite ester](/wiki/Phosphite_ester "Phosphite ester") combined (the [Corey\-Winter olefination](/wiki/Corey-Winter_olefination "Corey-Winter olefination")) or [diphosphorus tetraiodide](/wiki/Diphosphorus_tetraiodide "Diphosphorus tetraiodide") will deoxygenate [glycols](/wiki/Glycol "Glycol") to alkenes.
Alkenes can be prepared indirectly from alkyl [amines](/wiki/Amine "Amine"). The amine or ammonia is not a suitable leaving group, so the amine is first either [alkylated](/wiki/Alkylation "Alkylation") (as in the [Hofmann elimination](/wiki/Hofmann_elimination "Hofmann elimination")) or oxidized to an [amine oxide](/wiki/Amine_oxide "Amine oxide") (the [Cope reaction](/wiki/Cope_reaction "Cope reaction")) to render a smooth elimination possible. The Cope reaction is a *syn*\-elimination that occurs at or below 150 °C, for example:{{cite journal \| last1 \= Bach \|first1\=R.D. \| title\=Mechanism of the Cope elimination \| journal\=J. Org. Chem. \| year\=1973\| volume\=38\| pages\=1742–3 \| doi\=10\.1021/jo00949a029 \| last2 \= Andrzejewski \| first2 \= Denis \| last3 \= Dusold \| first3 \= Laurence R. \| issue \= 9 }}
[300px\|center\|Synthesis of cyclooctene via Cope elimination](/wiki/Image:CopeEliminationExample.svg "CopeEliminationExample.svg")
The Hofmann elimination is unusual in that the *less* substituted (non\-[Zaitsev](/wiki/Zaitsev%27s_rule "Zaitsev's rule")) alkene is usually the major product.
Alkenes are generated from α\-halo[sulfones](/wiki/Sulfone "Sulfone") in the [Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction](/wiki/Ramberg%E2%80%93B%C3%A4cklund_reaction "Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction"), via a three\-membered ring sulfone intermediate.
### Synthesis from carbonyl compounds
Another important class of methods for alkene synthesis involves construction of a new carbon–carbon double bond by coupling or condensation of a carbonyl compound (such as an [aldehyde](/wiki/Aldehyde "Aldehyde") or [ketone](/wiki/Ketone "Ketone")) to a [carbanion](/wiki/Carbanion "Carbanion") or its equivalent. Pre\-eminent is the [aldol condensation](/wiki/Aldol_condensation "Aldol condensation"). Knoevenagel condensations are a related class of reactions that convert carbonyls into alkenes.Well\-known methods are called *olefinations*. The [Wittig reaction](/wiki/Wittig_reaction "Wittig reaction") is illustrative, but other related methods are known, including the [Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction](/wiki/Horner%E2%80%93Wadsworth%E2%80%93Emmons_reaction "Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction").
The Wittig reaction involves reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with a [Wittig reagent](/wiki/Wittig_reagent "Wittig reagent") (or phosphorane) of the type Ph3P\=CHR to produce an alkene and [Ph3P\=O](/wiki/Triphenylphosphine_oxide "Triphenylphosphine oxide"). The Wittig reagent is itself prepared easily from [triphenylphosphine](/wiki/Triphenylphosphine "Triphenylphosphine") and an alkyl halide.{{cite book \| last \= Crowell \| first \= Thomas I.\|chapter\=Alkene\-Forming Condensation Reactions \|series\=PATAI'S Chemistry of Functional Groups\| editor \= Patai, Saul \| title \= The Chemistry of Alkenes\| publisher \= Wiley Interscience \| year \= 1964 \| pages \= 241–270\|doi\=10\.1002/9780470771044\.ch4 \| isbn \= 978\-0\-470\-77104\-4}}
[350px\|center\|A typical example of the Wittig reaction](/wiki/Image:Wittig_reaction_example.svg "Wittig reaction example.svg")
Related to the Wittig reaction is the [Peterson olefination](/wiki/Peterson_olefination "Peterson olefination"), which uses silicon\-based reagents in place of the phosphorane. This reaction allows for the selection of *E*\- or *Z*\-products. If an *E*\-product is desired, another alternative is the [Julia olefination](/wiki/Julia_olefination "Julia olefination"), which uses the carbanion generated from a [phenyl](/wiki/Phenyl "Phenyl") [sulfone](/wiki/Sulfone "Sulfone"). The [Takai olefination](/wiki/Takai_olefination "Takai olefination") based on an organochromium intermediate also delivers E\-products. A titanium compound, [Tebbe's reagent](/wiki/Tebbe%27s_reagent "Tebbe's reagent"), is useful for the synthesis of methylene compounds; in this case, even esters and amides react.
A pair of ketones or aldehydes can be [deoxygenated](/wiki/Deoxygenation "Deoxygenation") to generate an alkene. Symmetrical alkenes can be prepared from a single aldehyde or ketone coupling with itself, using [titanium](/wiki/Titanium "Titanium") metal reduction (the [McMurry reaction](/wiki/McMurry_reaction "McMurry reaction")). If different ketones are to be coupled, a more complicated method is required, such as the [Barton–Kellogg reaction](/wiki/Barton%E2%80%93Kellogg_reaction "Barton–Kellogg reaction").
A single ketone can also be converted to the corresponding alkene via its tosylhydrazone, using [sodium methoxide](/wiki/Sodium_methoxide "Sodium methoxide") (the [Bamford–Stevens reaction](/wiki/Bamford%E2%80%93Stevens_reaction "Bamford–Stevens reaction")) or an alkyllithium (the [Shapiro reaction](/wiki/Shapiro_reaction "Shapiro reaction")).
### Synthesis from alkenes
The formation of longer alkenes via the step\-wise polymerisation of smaller ones is appealing, as [ethylene](/wiki/Ethylene "Ethylene") (the smallest alkene) is both inexpensive and readily available, with hundreds of millions of tonnes produced annually. The [Ziegler–Natta process](/wiki/Ziegler%E2%80%93Natta_process "Ziegler–Natta process") allows for the formation of very long chains, for instance those used for [polyethylene](/wiki/Polyethylene "Polyethylene"). Where shorter chains are wanted, as they for the production of [surfactants](/wiki/Surfactant "Surfactant"), then processes incorporating a [olefin metathesis](/wiki/Olefin_metathesis "Olefin metathesis") step, such as the [Shell higher olefin process](/wiki/Shell_higher_olefin_process "Shell higher olefin process") are important.
Olefin metathesis is also used commercially for the interconversion of ethylene and 2\-butene to propylene. Rhenium\- and molybdenum\-containing [heterogeneous catalysis](/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis "Heterogeneous catalysis") are used in this process:{{cite encyclopedia\|encyclopedia\=Kirk\-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology \|first1\=Lionel \|last1\=Delaude \|first2\=Alfred F. \|last2\=Noels\|year\=2005\| doi\=10\.1002/0471238961\.metanoel.a01\|place\=Weinheim\|publisher\=Wiley\-VCH\|isbn \= 978\-0\-471\-23896\-6\|chapter \= Metathesis\|pages\=metanoel.a01 }}
CH2\=CH2 \+ CH3CH\=CHCH3 → 2 CH2\=CHCH3
Transition metal catalyzed [hydrovinylation](/wiki/Hydrovinylation "Hydrovinylation") is another important alkene synthesis process starting from alkene itself.{{cite journal \| last \= Vogt \|first\=D. \| year \= 2010 \| pages \= 7166–8 \| title \= Cobalt\-Catalyzed Asymmetric Hydrovinylation \| issue \= 40 \| pmid \= 20672269 \| journal \= Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. \| volume \= 49 \| doi \= 10\.1002/anie.201003133 }} It involves the addition of a hydrogen and a vinyl group (or an alkenyl group) across a double bond.
### From alkynes
Reduction of [alkynes](/wiki/Alkyne "Alkyne") is a useful method for the [stereoselective](/wiki/Stereoselectivity "Stereoselectivity") synthesis of disubstituted alkenes. If the *cis*\-alkene is desired, [hydrogenation](/wiki/Hydrogenation "Hydrogenation") in the presence of [Lindlar's catalyst](/wiki/Lindlar%27s_catalyst "Lindlar's catalyst") (a heterogeneous catalyst that consists of palladium deposited on calcium carbonate and treated with various forms of lead) is commonly used, though hydroboration followed by hydrolysis provides an alternative approach. Reduction of the alkyne by [sodium](/wiki/Sodium "Sodium") metal in liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia "Ammonia") gives the *trans*\-alkene.{{cite book \| last1 \= Zweifel \| first1 \= George S. \|last2\=Nantz \|first2\=Michael H.\| title \= Modern Organic Synthesis: An Introduction \| url \= https://archive.org/details/modernorganicsyn00zwei \| url\-access \= limited \| publisher \= W. H. Freeman \| year \= 2007 \| pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/modernorganicsyn00zwei/page/n373 366] \| isbn \= 978\-0\-7167\-7266\-8 }}
[600px\|center\|Synthesis of *cis*\- and *trans*\-alkenes from alkynes](/wiki/Image:AlkyneToAlkene.png "AlkyneToAlkene.png")
For the preparation multisubstituted alkenes, [carbometalation](/wiki/Carbometalation "Carbometalation") of alkynes can give rise to a large variety of alkene derivatives.
### Rearrangements and related reactions
Alkenes can be synthesized from other alkenes via [rearrangement reactions](/wiki/Rearrangement_reaction "Rearrangement reaction"). Besides [olefin metathesis](/wiki/Olefin_metathesis "Olefin metathesis") (described [above](/wiki/%23Synthesis_from_alkenes "#Synthesis from alkenes")), many [pericyclic reactions](/wiki/Pericyclic_reaction "Pericyclic reaction") can be used such as the [ene reaction](/wiki/Ene_reaction "Ene reaction") and the [Cope rearrangement](/wiki/Cope_rearrangement "Cope rearrangement").
[180px\|center\|Cope rearrangement of divinylcyclobutane to cyclooctadiene](/wiki/Image:3%2C3copeexpansion.svg "3,3copeexpansion.svg")
In the [Diels–Alder reaction](/wiki/Diels%E2%80%93Alder_reaction "Diels–Alder reaction"), a [cyclohexene](/wiki/Cyclohexene "Cyclohexene") derivative is prepared from a diene and a reactive or electron\-deficient alkene.
|
[
"Synthesis\n---------",
"### Industrial methods",
"Alkenes are produced by hydrocarbon [cracking](/wiki/Cracking_%28chemistry%29 \"Cracking (chemistry)\"). Raw materials are mostly [natural\\-gas condensate](/wiki/Natural-gas_condensate \"Natural-gas condensate\") components (principally ethane and propane) in the US and Mideast and [naphtha](/wiki/Naphtha \"Naphtha\") in Europe and Asia. Alkanes are broken apart at high temperatures, often in the presence of a [zeolite](/wiki/Zeolite \"Zeolite\") catalyst, to produce a mixture of primarily aliphatic alkenes and lower molecular weight alkanes. The mixture is feedstock and temperature dependent, and separated by fractional distillation. This is mainly used for the manufacture of small alkenes (up to six carbons).{{cite book \\| last \\= Wade \\| first \\= L.G. \\| title \\= Organic Chemistry \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00wade\\_388 \\| url\\-access \\= limited \\| publisher \\= Pearson \\[\\[Prentice Hall]] \\| date \\= 2006 \\|edition\\=6th\\| pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00wade\\_388/page/n351 309] \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-4058\\-5345\\-3 }}\n[500px\\|center\\|Cracking of *n*\\-octane to give pentane and propene](/wiki/Image:OctaneCracking.svg \"OctaneCracking.svg\")",
"Related to this is catalytic [dehydrogenation](/wiki/Dehydrogenation \"Dehydrogenation\"), where an alkane loses hydrogen at high temperatures to produce a corresponding alkene. This is the reverse of the [catalytic hydrogenation](/wiki/Catalytic_hydrogenation \"Catalytic hydrogenation\") of alkenes.\n[600px\\|center\\|Dehydrogenation of butane to give butadiene and isomers of butene](/wiki/Image:ButaneDehydrogenation.svg \"ButaneDehydrogenation.svg\")\nThis process is also known as [reforming](/wiki/Catalytic_reforming \"Catalytic reforming\"). Both processes are endothermic and are driven towards the alkene at high temperatures by [entropy](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\").",
"[Catalytic](/wiki/Catalytic \"Catalytic\") synthesis of higher α\\-alkenes (of the type RCH\\=CH2) can also be achieved by a reaction of ethylene with the [organometallic compound](/wiki/Organometallic_compound \"Organometallic compound\") [triethylaluminium](/wiki/Triethylaluminium \"Triethylaluminium\") in the presence of [nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\"), [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt \"Cobalt\"), or [platinum](/wiki/Platinum \"Platinum\").",
"### Elimination reactions",
"One of the principal methods for alkene synthesis in the laboratory is the [elimination reaction](/wiki/Elimination_reaction \"Elimination reaction\") of alkyl halides, alcohols, and similar compounds. Most common is the β\\-elimination via the E2 or E1 mechanism.{{cite book \\| last \\= Saunders \\| first \\= W. H. \\| editor \\= Patai, Saul \\| title \\= The Chemistry of Alkenes\\| chapter\\=Elimination Reactions in Solution\\|publisher \\= Wiley Interscience \\|series\\=PATAI'S Chemistry of Functional Groups \\| year \\= 1964 \\| pages \\= 149–201\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/9780470771044 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-470\\-77104\\-4 }} A commercially significant example is the production of [vinyl chloride](/wiki/Vinyl_chloride \"Vinyl chloride\").",
"The E2 mechanism provides a more reliable β\\-elimination method than E1 for most alkene syntheses. Most E2 eliminations start with an alkyl halide or alkyl sulfonate ester (such as a [tosylate](/wiki/Tosylate \"Tosylate\") or [triflate](/wiki/Triflate \"Triflate\")). When an alkyl halide is used, the reaction is called a [dehydrohalogenation](/wiki/Dehydrohalogenation \"Dehydrohalogenation\"). For unsymmetrical products, the more substituted alkenes (those with fewer hydrogens attached to the C\\=C) tend to predominate (see [Zaitsev's rule](/wiki/Zaitsev%27s_rule \"Zaitsev's rule\")). Two common methods of elimination reactions are dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides and dehydration of alcohols. A typical example is shown below; note that if possible, the H is *anti* to the leaving group, even though this leads to the less stable *Z*\\-isomer.{{cite journal\n \\| last1 \\= Cram \\|first1 \\= D.J.\n \\| year \\= 1956\n \\| title \\= Studies in Stereochemistry. XXV. Eclipsing Effects in the E2 Reaction1\n \\| journal \\= Journal of the American Chemical Society\n \\| volume \\= 78\n \\| issue \\= 4\n \\| pages \\= 790–6\n \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/ja01585a024\n \\| last2 \\= Greene\n \\| first2 \\= Frederick D.\n \\| last3 \\= Depuy\n \\| first3 \\= C. H.\n}}",
"[500px\\|center\\|An example of an E2 Elimination](/wiki/Image:E2EliminationExample.png \"E2EliminationExample.png\")",
"Alkenes can be synthesized from alcohols via [dehydration](/wiki/Dehydration_reaction \"Dehydration reaction\"), in which case water is lost via the E1 mechanism. For example, the dehydration of [ethanol](/wiki/Ethanol \"Ethanol\") produces ethylene:\nCH3CH2OH → H2C\\=CH2 \\+ H2O",
"An alcohol may also be converted to a better leaving group (e.g., [xanthate](/wiki/Xanthate \"Xanthate\")), so as to allow a milder *syn*\\-elimination such as the [Chugaev elimination](/wiki/Chugaev_elimination \"Chugaev elimination\") and the [Grieco elimination](/wiki/Grieco_elimination \"Grieco elimination\"). Related reactions include eliminations by β\\-haloethers (the [Boord olefin synthesis](/wiki/Boord_olefin_synthesis \"Boord olefin synthesis\")) and esters ([ester pyrolysis](/wiki/Ester_pyrolysis \"Ester pyrolysis\")). A [thioketone](/wiki/Thioketone \"Thioketone\") and a [phosphite ester](/wiki/Phosphite_ester \"Phosphite ester\") combined (the [Corey\\-Winter olefination](/wiki/Corey-Winter_olefination \"Corey-Winter olefination\")) or [diphosphorus tetraiodide](/wiki/Diphosphorus_tetraiodide \"Diphosphorus tetraiodide\") will deoxygenate [glycols](/wiki/Glycol \"Glycol\") to alkenes.",
"Alkenes can be prepared indirectly from alkyl [amines](/wiki/Amine \"Amine\"). The amine or ammonia is not a suitable leaving group, so the amine is first either [alkylated](/wiki/Alkylation \"Alkylation\") (as in the [Hofmann elimination](/wiki/Hofmann_elimination \"Hofmann elimination\")) or oxidized to an [amine oxide](/wiki/Amine_oxide \"Amine oxide\") (the [Cope reaction](/wiki/Cope_reaction \"Cope reaction\")) to render a smooth elimination possible. The Cope reaction is a *syn*\\-elimination that occurs at or below 150 °C, for example:{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Bach \\|first1\\=R.D. \\| title\\=Mechanism of the Cope elimination \\| journal\\=J. Org. Chem. \\| year\\=1973\\| volume\\=38\\| pages\\=1742–3 \\| doi\\=10\\.1021/jo00949a029 \\| last2 \\= Andrzejewski \\| first2 \\= Denis \\| last3 \\= Dusold \\| first3 \\= Laurence R. \\| issue \\= 9 }}",
"[300px\\|center\\|Synthesis of cyclooctene via Cope elimination](/wiki/Image:CopeEliminationExample.svg \"CopeEliminationExample.svg\")",
"The Hofmann elimination is unusual in that the *less* substituted (non\\-[Zaitsev](/wiki/Zaitsev%27s_rule \"Zaitsev's rule\")) alkene is usually the major product.",
"Alkenes are generated from α\\-halo[sulfones](/wiki/Sulfone \"Sulfone\") in the [Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction](/wiki/Ramberg%E2%80%93B%C3%A4cklund_reaction \"Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction\"), via a three\\-membered ring sulfone intermediate.",
"### Synthesis from carbonyl compounds",
"Another important class of methods for alkene synthesis involves construction of a new carbon–carbon double bond by coupling or condensation of a carbonyl compound (such as an [aldehyde](/wiki/Aldehyde \"Aldehyde\") or [ketone](/wiki/Ketone \"Ketone\")) to a [carbanion](/wiki/Carbanion \"Carbanion\") or its equivalent. Pre\\-eminent is the [aldol condensation](/wiki/Aldol_condensation \"Aldol condensation\"). Knoevenagel condensations are a related class of reactions that convert carbonyls into alkenes.Well\\-known methods are called *olefinations*. The [Wittig reaction](/wiki/Wittig_reaction \"Wittig reaction\") is illustrative, but other related methods are known, including the [Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction](/wiki/Horner%E2%80%93Wadsworth%E2%80%93Emmons_reaction \"Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction\").",
"The Wittig reaction involves reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with a [Wittig reagent](/wiki/Wittig_reagent \"Wittig reagent\") (or phosphorane) of the type Ph3P\\=CHR to produce an alkene and [Ph3P\\=O](/wiki/Triphenylphosphine_oxide \"Triphenylphosphine oxide\"). The Wittig reagent is itself prepared easily from [triphenylphosphine](/wiki/Triphenylphosphine \"Triphenylphosphine\") and an alkyl halide.{{cite book \\| last \\= Crowell \\| first \\= Thomas I.\\|chapter\\=Alkene\\-Forming Condensation Reactions \\|series\\=PATAI'S Chemistry of Functional Groups\\| editor \\= Patai, Saul \\| title \\= The Chemistry of Alkenes\\| publisher \\= Wiley Interscience \\| year \\= 1964 \\| pages \\= 241–270\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/9780470771044\\.ch4 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-470\\-77104\\-4}}",
"[350px\\|center\\|A typical example of the Wittig reaction](/wiki/Image:Wittig_reaction_example.svg \"Wittig reaction example.svg\")",
"Related to the Wittig reaction is the [Peterson olefination](/wiki/Peterson_olefination \"Peterson olefination\"), which uses silicon\\-based reagents in place of the phosphorane. This reaction allows for the selection of *E*\\- or *Z*\\-products. If an *E*\\-product is desired, another alternative is the [Julia olefination](/wiki/Julia_olefination \"Julia olefination\"), which uses the carbanion generated from a [phenyl](/wiki/Phenyl \"Phenyl\") [sulfone](/wiki/Sulfone \"Sulfone\"). The [Takai olefination](/wiki/Takai_olefination \"Takai olefination\") based on an organochromium intermediate also delivers E\\-products. A titanium compound, [Tebbe's reagent](/wiki/Tebbe%27s_reagent \"Tebbe's reagent\"), is useful for the synthesis of methylene compounds; in this case, even esters and amides react.",
"A pair of ketones or aldehydes can be [deoxygenated](/wiki/Deoxygenation \"Deoxygenation\") to generate an alkene. Symmetrical alkenes can be prepared from a single aldehyde or ketone coupling with itself, using [titanium](/wiki/Titanium \"Titanium\") metal reduction (the [McMurry reaction](/wiki/McMurry_reaction \"McMurry reaction\")). If different ketones are to be coupled, a more complicated method is required, such as the [Barton–Kellogg reaction](/wiki/Barton%E2%80%93Kellogg_reaction \"Barton–Kellogg reaction\").",
"A single ketone can also be converted to the corresponding alkene via its tosylhydrazone, using [sodium methoxide](/wiki/Sodium_methoxide \"Sodium methoxide\") (the [Bamford–Stevens reaction](/wiki/Bamford%E2%80%93Stevens_reaction \"Bamford–Stevens reaction\")) or an alkyllithium (the [Shapiro reaction](/wiki/Shapiro_reaction \"Shapiro reaction\")).",
"### Synthesis from alkenes",
"The formation of longer alkenes via the step\\-wise polymerisation of smaller ones is appealing, as [ethylene](/wiki/Ethylene \"Ethylene\") (the smallest alkene) is both inexpensive and readily available, with hundreds of millions of tonnes produced annually. The [Ziegler–Natta process](/wiki/Ziegler%E2%80%93Natta_process \"Ziegler–Natta process\") allows for the formation of very long chains, for instance those used for [polyethylene](/wiki/Polyethylene \"Polyethylene\"). Where shorter chains are wanted, as they for the production of [surfactants](/wiki/Surfactant \"Surfactant\"), then processes incorporating a [olefin metathesis](/wiki/Olefin_metathesis \"Olefin metathesis\") step, such as the [Shell higher olefin process](/wiki/Shell_higher_olefin_process \"Shell higher olefin process\") are important.",
"Olefin metathesis is also used commercially for the interconversion of ethylene and 2\\-butene to propylene. Rhenium\\- and molybdenum\\-containing [heterogeneous catalysis](/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis \"Heterogeneous catalysis\") are used in this process:{{cite encyclopedia\\|encyclopedia\\=Kirk\\-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology \\|first1\\=Lionel \\|last1\\=Delaude \\|first2\\=Alfred F. \\|last2\\=Noels\\|year\\=2005\\| doi\\=10\\.1002/0471238961\\.metanoel.a01\\|place\\=Weinheim\\|publisher\\=Wiley\\-VCH\\|isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-471\\-23896\\-6\\|chapter \\= Metathesis\\|pages\\=metanoel.a01 }}\nCH2\\=CH2 \\+ CH3CH\\=CHCH3 → 2 CH2\\=CHCH3",
"Transition metal catalyzed [hydrovinylation](/wiki/Hydrovinylation \"Hydrovinylation\") is another important alkene synthesis process starting from alkene itself.{{cite journal \\| last \\= Vogt \\|first\\=D. \\| year \\= 2010 \\| pages \\= 7166–8 \\| title \\= Cobalt\\-Catalyzed Asymmetric Hydrovinylation \\| issue \\= 40 \\| pmid \\= 20672269 \\| journal \\= Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. \\| volume \\= 49 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/anie.201003133 }} It involves the addition of a hydrogen and a vinyl group (or an alkenyl group) across a double bond.",
"### From alkynes",
"Reduction of [alkynes](/wiki/Alkyne \"Alkyne\") is a useful method for the [stereoselective](/wiki/Stereoselectivity \"Stereoselectivity\") synthesis of disubstituted alkenes. If the *cis*\\-alkene is desired, [hydrogenation](/wiki/Hydrogenation \"Hydrogenation\") in the presence of [Lindlar's catalyst](/wiki/Lindlar%27s_catalyst \"Lindlar's catalyst\") (a heterogeneous catalyst that consists of palladium deposited on calcium carbonate and treated with various forms of lead) is commonly used, though hydroboration followed by hydrolysis provides an alternative approach. Reduction of the alkyne by [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") metal in liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") gives the *trans*\\-alkene.{{cite book \\| last1 \\= Zweifel \\| first1 \\= George S. \\|last2\\=Nantz \\|first2\\=Michael H.\\| title \\= Modern Organic Synthesis: An Introduction \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/modernorganicsyn00zwei \\| url\\-access \\= limited \\| publisher \\= W. H. Freeman \\| year \\= 2007 \\| pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/modernorganicsyn00zwei/page/n373 366] \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-7167\\-7266\\-8 }}",
"[600px\\|center\\|Synthesis of *cis*\\- and *trans*\\-alkenes from alkynes](/wiki/Image:AlkyneToAlkene.png \"AlkyneToAlkene.png\")",
"For the preparation multisubstituted alkenes, [carbometalation](/wiki/Carbometalation \"Carbometalation\") of alkynes can give rise to a large variety of alkene derivatives.",
"### Rearrangements and related reactions",
"Alkenes can be synthesized from other alkenes via [rearrangement reactions](/wiki/Rearrangement_reaction \"Rearrangement reaction\"). Besides [olefin metathesis](/wiki/Olefin_metathesis \"Olefin metathesis\") (described [above](/wiki/%23Synthesis_from_alkenes \"#Synthesis from alkenes\")), many [pericyclic reactions](/wiki/Pericyclic_reaction \"Pericyclic reaction\") can be used such as the [ene reaction](/wiki/Ene_reaction \"Ene reaction\") and the [Cope rearrangement](/wiki/Cope_rearrangement \"Cope rearrangement\").",
"[180px\\|center\\|Cope rearrangement of divinylcyclobutane to cyclooctadiene](/wiki/Image:3%2C3copeexpansion.svg \"3,3copeexpansion.svg\")",
"In the [Diels–Alder reaction](/wiki/Diels%E2%80%93Alder_reaction \"Diels–Alder reaction\"), a [cyclohexene](/wiki/Cyclohexene \"Cyclohexene\") derivative is prepared from a diene and a reactive or electron\\-deficient alkene.",
"",
"",
""
] |
History
-------
The Centenary Pool complex was constructed in 1959 by the [Brisbane City Council](/wiki/Brisbane_City_Council "Brisbane City Council"), as its principal contribution to the celebrations marking the centenary of local government in [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane"), proclaimed a City in October 1859, and the proclamation of the [separation of Queensland](/wiki/Separation_of_Queensland "Separation of Queensland") from New South Wales in December 1859\.
The complex was designed by [Brisbane City](/wiki/City_of_Brisbane "City of Brisbane") Architect James Birrell and his staff, who commenced work on the design in 1957, and was completed in November 1959 at a cost of approximately {{A£\|150,000}}. The contractor was Brisbane Master Builder, Cyril Porter Hornick. The project was Brisbane's first [Olympic standard pool](/wiki/Olympic_pool "Olympic pool") and diving pool complex and, until the construction of the [Sleeman Sports Complex](/wiki/Sleeman_Sports_Complex "Sleeman Sports Complex") at [Chandler](/wiki/Chandler%2C_Queensland "Chandler, Queensland") in 1980, remained Brisbane's principal aquatic sports centre. The inclusion of an up\-market restaurant was an innovative concept which raised the status of the complex above that of simply a sports facility.
The City Council's choice of a pool complex of Olympic standard, reflected the intense public interest in competitive swimming which had been generated by Australian successes at the [1956 Melbourne Olympic Games](/wiki/1956_Melbourne_Olympic_Games "1956 Melbourne Olympic Games"). Not only was Australia the proud host nation; at the Melbourne Olympics, Australia produced its best performance ever, winning 13 gold medals \- [8 in swimming events](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_1956_Summer_Olympics "Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics"). Throughout Australia, the popularity of competitive swimming surged, and in the ten years following the Olympics, the Brisbane City Council built seven new public swimming pools. Of these, the Centenary complex was the only one to incorporate diving facilities. The BCC was keen to include a wading pool in the Centenary complex, one of its principal objectives being to provide facilities for children of an early age to be taught to swim.
Centenary Pool was the first public pool complex to be designed by the City Architect rather than by the City Engineers. The [Langlands Park](/wiki/Langlands_Park "Langlands Park") pool, the first public swimming pool built by the Council since the early 1930s, was completed in 1958 with some involvement from James Birrell, but had been started by the Engineering Department.
On a national level, Centenary Pool was an Olympic\-size pool similar to the [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne") and [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra "Canberra") Olympic Pools constructed in 1955\. As a type, all three are significant as constructed either for, or as a direct result of, the Melbourne Olympic Games.
James Birrell, Brisbane's City Architect from 1955 to 1961, produced a substantial body of civic work for the Brisbane City Council, including the [Wickham Terrace Car Park](/wiki/Wickham_Terrace_Car_Park "Wickham Terrace Car Park"), the former [Toowong Municipal Library Building](/wiki/Toowong_Municipal_Library_Building "Toowong Municipal Library Building"), Toowong Pool, and various suburban libraries. Of his civic work, the Centenary Pool Complex and the Wickham Terrace Carpark are his most important designs. From 1961 to 1966, Birrell was appointed Architect to the [University of Queensland](/wiki/University_of_Queensland "University of Queensland"), overseeing the university's second major phase of construction development. His most notable buildings from this period include [Union College](/wiki/Union_College "Union College"), the JD Story Administration Building, Staff House and the Agriculture and Entomology Building (the Hartley Teakle building). In 1966 he entered private practice.
Birrell had a talent for exploring new and exciting architectural trends, and of translating these to the Brisbane context. This is demonstrated in the design of the Centenary Pool Complex, which is unlike any of Birrell's other work, and is not in the mainstream of modern international style architecture that was being practised in Australia in the 1950s. It is more closely related to the work of [Oscar Niemeyer](/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer "Oscar Niemeyer"), (one of the principal designers of Brazil's new capital, [Brasilia](/wiki/Brasilia "Brasilia"), in the 1950s and 1960s. Like Niemeyer, Birrell attempted to create in the Centenary Pool design a work of art rather than a purely functionalist structure.
Like many architects of the 1950s, Birrell experimented with using familiar materials and technology in unfamiliar ways. The most innovative use of material in the Centenary Pool complex was in the structural steel in the restaurant and diving tower. Birrell utilised the skills of Brisbane shipbuilders [Evans Deakin and Company](/wiki/Evans_Deakin_and_Company "Evans Deakin and Company") to shape the top and bottom beams of the restaurant, and of local steel fabricators Sargeants to bend the steel core of the diving tower.
The complex was designed to fit into the slope of the hill overlooking [Victoria Park](/wiki/Victoria_Park%2C_Brisbane "Victoria Park, Brisbane"), and little excavation was required. On technical aspects of the pool's construction, such as the size and positioning of the filtration equipment, Birrell worked closely with the Brisbane City Council's Chief Health Officer, James Douglas Mabbett.
Underwater floodlighting and observation windows were included in the design, to permit coaches to view their pupils in action from below the surface. These features were highlighted at the official opening of the pool on the evening of 25 November 1959, when the [Governor of Queensland](/wiki/Governor_of_Queensland "Governor of Queensland"), Sir [Henry Abel Smith](/wiki/Henry_Abel_Smith "Henry Abel Smith"), was treated to an underwater diving display, viewed through the observation window to the diving pool.
The initial design of the complex included a landscaped entrance road and carpark to the south of the pool. Queensland subtropical landscape designer [Harry Oakman](/wiki/Harry_Oakman "Harry Oakman"), who was then manager of the BCC's Parks Department, is understood to have been responsible for the landscape design.
In 1960 the Centenary Pool complex was selected by the editors of the Melbourne publication Architecture and Arts as one of the top ten buildings in Australia. It was also the sole Queensland entry in the 1961 publication New Buildings in the Commonwealth, Australian material for which was compiled by [Robin Boyd](/wiki/Robin_Boyd_%28architect%29 "Robin Boyd (architect)").
By 2009, the restaurant had been replaced by a gym and medical suites.{{cite web\|title\=Centenary Pool\|url\=http://www.yourbrisbanepastandpresent.com/2009/11/centenary\-pool.html\|website\=Your Brisbane: Past and Present\|accessdate\=29 January 2015\|date\=16 November 2009}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Centenary Pool complex was constructed in 1959 by the [Brisbane City Council](/wiki/Brisbane_City_Council \"Brisbane City Council\"), as its principal contribution to the celebrations marking the centenary of local government in [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), proclaimed a City in October 1859, and the proclamation of the [separation of Queensland](/wiki/Separation_of_Queensland \"Separation of Queensland\") from New South Wales in December 1859\\.",
"The complex was designed by [Brisbane City](/wiki/City_of_Brisbane \"City of Brisbane\") Architect James Birrell and his staff, who commenced work on the design in 1957, and was completed in November 1959 at a cost of approximately {{A£\\|150,000}}. The contractor was Brisbane Master Builder, Cyril Porter Hornick. The project was Brisbane's first [Olympic standard pool](/wiki/Olympic_pool \"Olympic pool\") and diving pool complex and, until the construction of the [Sleeman Sports Complex](/wiki/Sleeman_Sports_Complex \"Sleeman Sports Complex\") at [Chandler](/wiki/Chandler%2C_Queensland \"Chandler, Queensland\") in 1980, remained Brisbane's principal aquatic sports centre. The inclusion of an up\\-market restaurant was an innovative concept which raised the status of the complex above that of simply a sports facility.",
"The City Council's choice of a pool complex of Olympic standard, reflected the intense public interest in competitive swimming which had been generated by Australian successes at the [1956 Melbourne Olympic Games](/wiki/1956_Melbourne_Olympic_Games \"1956 Melbourne Olympic Games\"). Not only was Australia the proud host nation; at the Melbourne Olympics, Australia produced its best performance ever, winning 13 gold medals \\- [8 in swimming events](/wiki/Swimming_at_the_1956_Summer_Olympics \"Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics\"). Throughout Australia, the popularity of competitive swimming surged, and in the ten years following the Olympics, the Brisbane City Council built seven new public swimming pools. Of these, the Centenary complex was the only one to incorporate diving facilities. The BCC was keen to include a wading pool in the Centenary complex, one of its principal objectives being to provide facilities for children of an early age to be taught to swim.",
"Centenary Pool was the first public pool complex to be designed by the City Architect rather than by the City Engineers. The [Langlands Park](/wiki/Langlands_Park \"Langlands Park\") pool, the first public swimming pool built by the Council since the early 1930s, was completed in 1958 with some involvement from James Birrell, but had been started by the Engineering Department.",
"On a national level, Centenary Pool was an Olympic\\-size pool similar to the [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\") and [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\") Olympic Pools constructed in 1955\\. As a type, all three are significant as constructed either for, or as a direct result of, the Melbourne Olympic Games.",
"James Birrell, Brisbane's City Architect from 1955 to 1961, produced a substantial body of civic work for the Brisbane City Council, including the [Wickham Terrace Car Park](/wiki/Wickham_Terrace_Car_Park \"Wickham Terrace Car Park\"), the former [Toowong Municipal Library Building](/wiki/Toowong_Municipal_Library_Building \"Toowong Municipal Library Building\"), Toowong Pool, and various suburban libraries. Of his civic work, the Centenary Pool Complex and the Wickham Terrace Carpark are his most important designs. From 1961 to 1966, Birrell was appointed Architect to the [University of Queensland](/wiki/University_of_Queensland \"University of Queensland\"), overseeing the university's second major phase of construction development. His most notable buildings from this period include [Union College](/wiki/Union_College \"Union College\"), the JD Story Administration Building, Staff House and the Agriculture and Entomology Building (the Hartley Teakle building). In 1966 he entered private practice.",
"Birrell had a talent for exploring new and exciting architectural trends, and of translating these to the Brisbane context. This is demonstrated in the design of the Centenary Pool Complex, which is unlike any of Birrell's other work, and is not in the mainstream of modern international style architecture that was being practised in Australia in the 1950s. It is more closely related to the work of [Oscar Niemeyer](/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer \"Oscar Niemeyer\"), (one of the principal designers of Brazil's new capital, [Brasilia](/wiki/Brasilia \"Brasilia\"), in the 1950s and 1960s. Like Niemeyer, Birrell attempted to create in the Centenary Pool design a work of art rather than a purely functionalist structure.",
"Like many architects of the 1950s, Birrell experimented with using familiar materials and technology in unfamiliar ways. The most innovative use of material in the Centenary Pool complex was in the structural steel in the restaurant and diving tower. Birrell utilised the skills of Brisbane shipbuilders [Evans Deakin and Company](/wiki/Evans_Deakin_and_Company \"Evans Deakin and Company\") to shape the top and bottom beams of the restaurant, and of local steel fabricators Sargeants to bend the steel core of the diving tower.",
"The complex was designed to fit into the slope of the hill overlooking [Victoria Park](/wiki/Victoria_Park%2C_Brisbane \"Victoria Park, Brisbane\"), and little excavation was required. On technical aspects of the pool's construction, such as the size and positioning of the filtration equipment, Birrell worked closely with the Brisbane City Council's Chief Health Officer, James Douglas Mabbett.",
"Underwater floodlighting and observation windows were included in the design, to permit coaches to view their pupils in action from below the surface. These features were highlighted at the official opening of the pool on the evening of 25 November 1959, when the [Governor of Queensland](/wiki/Governor_of_Queensland \"Governor of Queensland\"), Sir [Henry Abel Smith](/wiki/Henry_Abel_Smith \"Henry Abel Smith\"), was treated to an underwater diving display, viewed through the observation window to the diving pool.",
"The initial design of the complex included a landscaped entrance road and carpark to the south of the pool. Queensland subtropical landscape designer [Harry Oakman](/wiki/Harry_Oakman \"Harry Oakman\"), who was then manager of the BCC's Parks Department, is understood to have been responsible for the landscape design.",
"In 1960 the Centenary Pool complex was selected by the editors of the Melbourne publication Architecture and Arts as one of the top ten buildings in Australia. It was also the sole Queensland entry in the 1961 publication New Buildings in the Commonwealth, Australian material for which was compiled by [Robin Boyd](/wiki/Robin_Boyd_%28architect%29 \"Robin Boyd (architect)\").",
"By 2009, the restaurant had been replaced by a gym and medical suites.{{cite web\\|title\\=Centenary Pool\\|url\\=http://www.yourbrisbanepastandpresent.com/2009/11/centenary\\-pool.html\\|website\\=Your Brisbane: Past and Present\\|accessdate\\=29 January 2015\\|date\\=16 November 2009}}",
""
] |
Description
-----------
The Centenary Pool complex comprises pools (a swimming pool, diving pool with diving boards and wading pool), a grandstand, a single storeyed bath house, and a two\-storeyed restaurant and kiosk. These structures sit on a [podium](/wiki/Podium "Podium") which is set into the north\-eastern slope of Victoria Park. Constructed in concrete, steel, brick and glass, the elements of the pool form a loose composition of geometric and plastic forms. The complex is modernist\-influenced in both design conception and detailing; in particular the buildings are related to the plastic expressionism of modernist architects and artists such as Oscar Niemeyer and [Hans Arp](/wiki/Hans_Arp "Hans Arp").
The design of the pool complex was described by the architect in a brochure celebrating the opening of the pool: *"The pools are arranged in a random manner so the festive air is developed. Pools in line become too regimented for a park setting....The general aesthetic scheme is that of a free form shape pierced with geometric incisions, that is the concourse with the pools in it. ...hovering above this is another free form volume with geometric shapes placed in it, that is the restaurant with access [stairs](/wiki/Stairs "Stairs"), ceiling lights and the roof terrace"*. (Birrell, 1959\)
The boundaries of the complex form a fluid rhomboid shape. Within this boundary the pools and buildings relate to a bisecting north\-south axis which extends through the park and finishes at the [facade](/wiki/Facade "Facade") of the [University of Queensland Mayne Medical School](/wiki/University_of_Queensland_Mayne_Medical_School "University of Queensland Mayne Medical School"). The axis locates the central concourse. To the east of this concourse is the swimming pool, measuring {{convert\|165\|by\|60\|ft}}, whose eastern edge is lined by a stepped concrete grandstand (designed to seat 1200\). The diving pool, measuring {{convert\|90\|by\|60\|ft}}, is located in the north west corner of the site and has a four\-level diving tower to its western end, and single level boards at each end. A round wading pool is located in the south west corner of the site. The bath house comprises a long curved building which hugs the edge of the slope, and is entered via a ramp leading down to a central ticket office. The restaurant, a raised pavilion with [curvilinear](/wiki/Curvilinear "Curvilinear") walls, also sits on axis and [overhangs](/wiki/Overhang_%28architecture%29 "Overhang (architecture)") the swimming pool. The restaurant building contains a kiosk at ground level, and is entered via a concrete ramp which arches over the roof of the dressing [sheds](/wiki/Sheds "Sheds").
The buildings exhibit a combination of sculptural and technical inventiveness in their design and detailing. The curvilinear walls of the restaurant are formed with faceted glazed panels set in circular steel [columns](/wiki/Columns "Columns"). The building has a curved off\-centre service core containing open\-riser concrete stairs spiralling around a concrete riser duct. The service core merges through the roof of the buildings to give access to a roof terrace via oval\-shaped doors. The terrace is encircled by a steel balustrade with continuous horizontal rails. The service core is clad with glazed tiles with diamond motifs. The kiosk at ground level is rendered concrete, and has strip windows, a service counter, and T\&G boarding running under counter height.
Internally, the restaurant is a fluid, transparent space, with the kitchen at the centre encircled by a curved wall clad in T\&G boarding. The northern end of the restaurant has a raised round lit floor which has translucent glass panes set in a steel frame.
The bath house comprises a series of externally expressed steel portal frames, with a concave rendered concrete masonry wall to the south with obscured glass louvres at high level, a convex brick wall to the north with steel louvres, and a metal deck roof. It contains female dressing areas to the west, male dressing areas to the east, and administration, storage and ticketing areas in the centre, flanked by corridors giving access to the pools. The administration and ticketing areas are timber\-lined. The change rooms have ceramic tiled floors, and rows of large concrete benches. The female change room has blue terrazzo partitions, while its male counterpart has grey terrazzo and blue glazed ceramic tiled partitions. Externally the brickwork is left unstruck, to express the plasticity of the material (Kennedy, 1993\).
The pools and podium area also exhibit considered technical, decorative and sculptural detailing. The main pool has ceramic tiled rounded edging, a scupper channel to absorb waves, and hexagonal ceramic tiled patterns at the ends of the lanes on the floor of the pool. The wading pool is tiled in fluid abstract patterns. The diving boards are supported on splayed concrete columns, from which spring splayed cantilevered platforms, and steel balustrades and stairs with central steel stringers; the diving tower has curved stairs clinging to its northern face. The podium is paved with hexagonal concrete pavers flecked with exposed aggregate, and has raised seating and planting areas with hexagonal concrete edging. The diving pool and main pool have portholes which are accessed via a "clubroom" below podium level.
The complex has complementary "modern tropical" landscaping around its boundaries. The eastern and southern edges of the complex have domestically\-scaled tracts of brightly coloured tropical plantings (for example [Acalyphas](/wiki/Acalypha "Acalypha"), [Hibiscus](/wiki/Hibiscus "Hibiscus"), [Travellers palms](/wiki/Travellers_palm "Travellers palm"), [Aloes](/wiki/Aloes "Aloes")). A substantial amount of this landscaping is original.
Centenary Pool is sophisticated in its design conception, and inventive in its sculptural and decorative detailing. The original plantings complement the buildings.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"The Centenary Pool complex comprises pools (a swimming pool, diving pool with diving boards and wading pool), a grandstand, a single storeyed bath house, and a two\\-storeyed restaurant and kiosk. These structures sit on a [podium](/wiki/Podium \"Podium\") which is set into the north\\-eastern slope of Victoria Park. Constructed in concrete, steel, brick and glass, the elements of the pool form a loose composition of geometric and plastic forms. The complex is modernist\\-influenced in both design conception and detailing; in particular the buildings are related to the plastic expressionism of modernist architects and artists such as Oscar Niemeyer and [Hans Arp](/wiki/Hans_Arp \"Hans Arp\").",
"The design of the pool complex was described by the architect in a brochure celebrating the opening of the pool: *\"The pools are arranged in a random manner so the festive air is developed. Pools in line become too regimented for a park setting....The general aesthetic scheme is that of a free form shape pierced with geometric incisions, that is the concourse with the pools in it. ...hovering above this is another free form volume with geometric shapes placed in it, that is the restaurant with access [stairs](/wiki/Stairs \"Stairs\"), ceiling lights and the roof terrace\"*. (Birrell, 1959\\)",
"The boundaries of the complex form a fluid rhomboid shape. Within this boundary the pools and buildings relate to a bisecting north\\-south axis which extends through the park and finishes at the [facade](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\") of the [University of Queensland Mayne Medical School](/wiki/University_of_Queensland_Mayne_Medical_School \"University of Queensland Mayne Medical School\"). The axis locates the central concourse. To the east of this concourse is the swimming pool, measuring {{convert\\|165\\|by\\|60\\|ft}}, whose eastern edge is lined by a stepped concrete grandstand (designed to seat 1200\\). The diving pool, measuring {{convert\\|90\\|by\\|60\\|ft}}, is located in the north west corner of the site and has a four\\-level diving tower to its western end, and single level boards at each end. A round wading pool is located in the south west corner of the site. The bath house comprises a long curved building which hugs the edge of the slope, and is entered via a ramp leading down to a central ticket office. The restaurant, a raised pavilion with [curvilinear](/wiki/Curvilinear \"Curvilinear\") walls, also sits on axis and [overhangs](/wiki/Overhang_%28architecture%29 \"Overhang (architecture)\") the swimming pool. The restaurant building contains a kiosk at ground level, and is entered via a concrete ramp which arches over the roof of the dressing [sheds](/wiki/Sheds \"Sheds\").",
"The buildings exhibit a combination of sculptural and technical inventiveness in their design and detailing. The curvilinear walls of the restaurant are formed with faceted glazed panels set in circular steel [columns](/wiki/Columns \"Columns\"). The building has a curved off\\-centre service core containing open\\-riser concrete stairs spiralling around a concrete riser duct. The service core merges through the roof of the buildings to give access to a roof terrace via oval\\-shaped doors. The terrace is encircled by a steel balustrade with continuous horizontal rails. The service core is clad with glazed tiles with diamond motifs. The kiosk at ground level is rendered concrete, and has strip windows, a service counter, and T\\&G boarding running under counter height.",
"Internally, the restaurant is a fluid, transparent space, with the kitchen at the centre encircled by a curved wall clad in T\\&G boarding. The northern end of the restaurant has a raised round lit floor which has translucent glass panes set in a steel frame.",
"The bath house comprises a series of externally expressed steel portal frames, with a concave rendered concrete masonry wall to the south with obscured glass louvres at high level, a convex brick wall to the north with steel louvres, and a metal deck roof. It contains female dressing areas to the west, male dressing areas to the east, and administration, storage and ticketing areas in the centre, flanked by corridors giving access to the pools. The administration and ticketing areas are timber\\-lined. The change rooms have ceramic tiled floors, and rows of large concrete benches. The female change room has blue terrazzo partitions, while its male counterpart has grey terrazzo and blue glazed ceramic tiled partitions. Externally the brickwork is left unstruck, to express the plasticity of the material (Kennedy, 1993\\).",
"The pools and podium area also exhibit considered technical, decorative and sculptural detailing. The main pool has ceramic tiled rounded edging, a scupper channel to absorb waves, and hexagonal ceramic tiled patterns at the ends of the lanes on the floor of the pool. The wading pool is tiled in fluid abstract patterns. The diving boards are supported on splayed concrete columns, from which spring splayed cantilevered platforms, and steel balustrades and stairs with central steel stringers; the diving tower has curved stairs clinging to its northern face. The podium is paved with hexagonal concrete pavers flecked with exposed aggregate, and has raised seating and planting areas with hexagonal concrete edging. The diving pool and main pool have portholes which are accessed via a \"clubroom\" below podium level.",
"The complex has complementary \"modern tropical\" landscaping around its boundaries. The eastern and southern edges of the complex have domestically\\-scaled tracts of brightly coloured tropical plantings (for example [Acalyphas](/wiki/Acalypha \"Acalypha\"), [Hibiscus](/wiki/Hibiscus \"Hibiscus\"), [Travellers palms](/wiki/Travellers_palm \"Travellers palm\"), [Aloes](/wiki/Aloes \"Aloes\")). A substantial amount of this landscaping is original.",
"Centenary Pool is sophisticated in its design conception, and inventive in its sculptural and decorative detailing. The original plantings complement the buildings.",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
Centenary Pool Complex was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register "Queensland Heritage Register") on 5 November 1996 having satisfied the following criteria.
**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**
The Centenary Pool complex is historically significant as the Brisbane City Council's principal contribution to the Brisbane and Queensland 1959 centenary celebrations. Its construction also reflects the enormous popularity of competitive swimming in Australia following the successful 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games.
**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**
It demonstrates the details, materials, and construction methods of a sculptural variant of Post\-War International style. Nationally, Centenary Pool is a significant example of a 1950s Olympic\-standard pool and diving pool complex, and can be ranked in importance with the Melbourne and Canberra Olympic pools.
**The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.**
It is sophisticated in its design conception, and inventive in its sculptural and decorative detailing. The original plantings complement the buildings.
**The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.**
It is sophisticated in its design conception, and inventive in its sculptural and decorative detailing. The original plantings complement the buildings.
**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**
Its social significance lies in its contribution to the development of competitive swimming in Brisbane, having been the city's principal aquatic sports centre from 1959 to 1980\.
**The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.**
The complex is important as one of the major civic works designed by prominent Queensland architect James Birrell.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"Centenary Pool Complex was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register \"Queensland Heritage Register\") on 5 November 1996 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**",
"The Centenary Pool complex is historically significant as the Brisbane City Council's principal contribution to the Brisbane and Queensland 1959 centenary celebrations. Its construction also reflects the enormous popularity of competitive swimming in Australia following the successful 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**",
"It demonstrates the details, materials, and construction methods of a sculptural variant of Post\\-War International style. Nationally, Centenary Pool is a significant example of a 1950s Olympic\\-standard pool and diving pool complex, and can be ranked in importance with the Melbourne and Canberra Olympic pools.",
"**The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.**",
"It is sophisticated in its design conception, and inventive in its sculptural and decorative detailing. The original plantings complement the buildings.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.**",
"It is sophisticated in its design conception, and inventive in its sculptural and decorative detailing. The original plantings complement the buildings.",
"**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**",
"Its social significance lies in its contribution to the development of competitive swimming in Brisbane, having been the city's principal aquatic sports centre from 1959 to 1980\\.",
"**The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.**",
"The complex is important as one of the major civic works designed by prominent Queensland architect James Birrell.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The book continues after the ending of the previous book, *[A Child Called "It"](/wiki/Dave_Pelzer%23Books "Dave Pelzer#Books")* with [David Pelzer](/wiki/Dave_Pelzer "Dave Pelzer"), 9 years old, running away from his home in [Daly City, California](/wiki/Daly_City%2C_California "Daly City, California"). He ends up in a bar, getting caught by a staff named Mark for stealing a quarter. Mark calls the police while tricking David to stay by baiting him with a pizza. The police brings David to the police station while sharing a pizza Mark gave David before he left. David's father arrives to bring David home to his abusive mother, telling the police that David is just upset for not being allowed to ride his bicycle. David's teachers eventually contact the authorities, causing David to be placed with a social services worker named Ms. Gold. Before the trial of whether or not to permanently remove him from his mother's custody, David becomes confused about whether he may have deserved the treatment his mother gave him. Ms. Gold, on the other hand, assures him it had nothing to do with him, and that his mother is sick. David eventually tells the truth about his mother, and becomes a permanent ward of the court, escaping from the abuse of his mother.
After the trial, he is put into a home under the care of a woman he calls Aunt Mary. He is admired by the other foster children for being able to steal, and he is active and disruptive in this new setting. When his mother and brothers visit, she swears to David that she will get him back. Later, David meets his first 'permanent' foster parents\-\-\-Lilian and Rudy Catanze. Following another visit from his mother, and the return of his broken bike, David is distraught. He decides to earn money to fix the bicycle by doing chores. Afterwards, he rides the repaired bicycle down the road where his old home is. His family sees him riding on the road, and contacts his foster family.
Later in the book, a person who he thinks is his friend starts using him to do illegal things. One of those times is when they plan to set a teacher's classroom on fire. The fire gets out of control, though David tries to stop it. His "friend" later tells the teacher that it was David. As a result, he is removed from his foster home, and sent to [Juvenile Hall](/wiki/Juvenile_Hall "Juvenile Hall"). He returns to the California foster care system upon his release.
In his sophomore year of [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school"), he is placed into a class for slow learners. He then decides that he is more interested in earning money than school because he will be out of foster care in less than a year. He also looks for his father, only to find out he lost his job at the fire station due to his alcoholism, but he gives David his fireman's badge as a proper goodbye present before he and David part ways. When he is out of foster care, he enlists in the [US Air Force](/wiki/US_Air_Force "US Air Force").
As he talked to his mother and began to cry, he then hopes that his mother will say the three special words that he has always wanted her to say, "I love you." She does not say it and he believes she is just playing with his emotions. He soon realizes that the mother's love that he has always been searching for was in the arms of his foster mother, Alice.
The story ends with him beginning his career in the Air Force so he can learn how to treat others. From then on, it continues to the book *[A Man Named Dave](/wiki/Dave_Pelzer%23Books "Dave Pelzer#Books")*.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The book continues after the ending of the previous book, *[A Child Called \"It\"](/wiki/Dave_Pelzer%23Books \"Dave Pelzer#Books\")* with [David Pelzer](/wiki/Dave_Pelzer \"Dave Pelzer\"), 9 years old, running away from his home in [Daly City, California](/wiki/Daly_City%2C_California \"Daly City, California\"). He ends up in a bar, getting caught by a staff named Mark for stealing a quarter. Mark calls the police while tricking David to stay by baiting him with a pizza. The police brings David to the police station while sharing a pizza Mark gave David before he left. David's father arrives to bring David home to his abusive mother, telling the police that David is just upset for not being allowed to ride his bicycle. David's teachers eventually contact the authorities, causing David to be placed with a social services worker named Ms. Gold. Before the trial of whether or not to permanently remove him from his mother's custody, David becomes confused about whether he may have deserved the treatment his mother gave him. Ms. Gold, on the other hand, assures him it had nothing to do with him, and that his mother is sick. David eventually tells the truth about his mother, and becomes a permanent ward of the court, escaping from the abuse of his mother.",
"After the trial, he is put into a home under the care of a woman he calls Aunt Mary. He is admired by the other foster children for being able to steal, and he is active and disruptive in this new setting. When his mother and brothers visit, she swears to David that she will get him back. Later, David meets his first 'permanent' foster parents\\-\\-\\-Lilian and Rudy Catanze. Following another visit from his mother, and the return of his broken bike, David is distraught. He decides to earn money to fix the bicycle by doing chores. Afterwards, he rides the repaired bicycle down the road where his old home is. His family sees him riding on the road, and contacts his foster family.",
"Later in the book, a person who he thinks is his friend starts using him to do illegal things. One of those times is when they plan to set a teacher's classroom on fire. The fire gets out of control, though David tries to stop it. His \"friend\" later tells the teacher that it was David. As a result, he is removed from his foster home, and sent to [Juvenile Hall](/wiki/Juvenile_Hall \"Juvenile Hall\"). He returns to the California foster care system upon his release.",
"In his sophomore year of [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\"), he is placed into a class for slow learners. He then decides that he is more interested in earning money than school because he will be out of foster care in less than a year. He also looks for his father, only to find out he lost his job at the fire station due to his alcoholism, but he gives David his fireman's badge as a proper goodbye present before he and David part ways. When he is out of foster care, he enlists in the [US Air Force](/wiki/US_Air_Force \"US Air Force\").",
"As he talked to his mother and began to cry, he then hopes that his mother will say the three special words that he has always wanted her to say, \"I love you.\" She does not say it and he believes she is just playing with his emotions. He soon realizes that the mother's love that he has always been searching for was in the arms of his foster mother, Alice.",
"The story ends with him beginning his career in the Air Force so he can learn how to treat others. From then on, it continues to the book *[A Man Named Dave](/wiki/Dave_Pelzer%23Books \"Dave Pelzer#Books\")*.",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
The 1st/15th Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection is of State heritage significance because it documents the complete and continuous history of Australia's oldest and most highly decorated regiment from its inception through to the present day. The collection interprets major themes in Australia's history, including the role played by Australian troops in the Boer War and the First and Second World Wars.
The collection is also significant because of its relationship to the historic Parramatta Barracks. The Barracks are the oldest surviving mainland military barracks in Australia. The collection is important in the interpretation of the Barracks and it enhances the significance of the place.
The Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection has over 50 items identified as being of National significance and some of International significance. It includes significant items relating to:
* The formation and development of a colonial military unit;
* The role played by the regiment in Sydney society;
* The evolution of the regiment and its weaponry, equipment and uniforms from horse mounted lancers to modern, heavy\-armoured vehicles;
* The participation of the regiment in important state, national and international occasions and major conflicts, such as WW1 and WW2; and
* The relationship between prominent and influential members of NSW society and the development of the regiment.
The collection also contains the first versions of five poems written by [Banjo Paterson](/wiki/Banjo_Paterson "Banjo Paterson") during the period he was a war correspondent in South Africa. The poems all show differences, some very extensive, from later published versions. The poems are important for their ability to demonstrate the creative writing process of this renowned Australian Poet.
The collection is significant because it has the potential to provide information, not available from other sources on a range of topics including: the role played by Australian forces in major military conflicts; the evolution of the Australian cavalry; important state, national and international events; the lives and military careers of influential prominent figures in NSW society and the literary work of renowned Australian poet Banjo Paterson.
The collection contains relics, artefacts and documents that bear testimony to the contribution of individual members of the regiment to major Australian conflicts. The significance of the collection to past and present members of the regiment is evidenced by the involvement of serving and retired members of the regiment in the management and running of the Museum: the board of management for the Museum comprises both serving and retired members; and the Museum is staffed by retired Lancers.
The Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection is unique as there is no other collection covering the entire 125\-year history of Australia's oldest surviving regiment. There are also no other Light Horse or cavalry museums in Australia with as comprehensive collection as the Royal NSW Lancers either in terms of the size and extent of the collection or the periods covered.
1st\-15th Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register "New South Wales State Heritage Register") on 14 May 2010 having satisfied the following criteria.
**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**
The 1st/15th Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection documents the complete and continuous history of Australia's oldest and most highly decorated regiment from its inception, in 1885, through to the present day. The collection interprets major themes in Australian History including the role played by Australian troops in the Boer War and the First and Second World Wars.
The collection includes significant items that relate to: the formation and development of a colonial military unit; the role played by the regiment in Sydney society; the evolution of the regiment and its weaponry, equipment and uniforms from horse mounted lancers to modern, heavy\-armoured vehicles; the participation of the regiment in important state, national and international occasions and major conflicts; and the relationship between prominent and influential members of NSW society and the development of the regiment.
The Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection is also significant because of its relationship to historic Parramatta Barracks. The Lancers' occupation of the barracks commenced in 1893 and continues to this day. The collection is important in the interpretation of the Barracks and it enhances the significance of the place.
**The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.**
The collection is of State heritage significance as it contains items associated with members of the regiment who were also prominent and influential leaders in NSW society including:
* Sir [James Burns](/wiki/James_Burns_%28Australian_shipowner%29 "James Burns (Australian shipowner)") businessman, shipowner, philanthropist, politician and soldier;
* [Walter Liberty Vernon](/wiki/Walter_Liberty_Vernon "Walter Liberty Vernon") NSW [Government Architect](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Government_Architect "New South Wales Government Architect");
* Sir [John Sulman](/wiki/John_Sulman "John Sulman") architect and town planner;
* Sir [John Northcott](/wiki/John_Northcott "John Northcott") first Australian\-born and one of the longest\-serving governors of NSW;
* Lieutenant\-Colonel James McMahon, businessman, politician and sportsman; and
* Major General [James Macarthur\-Onslow](/wiki/James_Macarthur-Onslow "James Macarthur-Onslow")
The collection also contains the first known versions of five poems written by renowned Australian Poet Banjo Paterson. [Paterson](/wiki/Paterson%2C_New_South_Wales "Paterson, New South Wales") accompanied the Lancers to South Africa as a war correspondent for the Sydney Morning Herald. Two of the poems have been scientifically verified as being in his own hand writing. One of the poems "the Reveille" was written specifically about the Lancers and its service with the British cavalry.
**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**
The collection is of State significance as it shows the evolution of the uniforms, weaponry and equipment of the Australian cavalry, from horses and lances through to early mechanisation and the introduction of heavy armoured vehicles.
The collection is also significant for its ability to demonstrate the creative writing process of renowned Australian Poet Banjo Paterson. The collection contains first versions of 5 Banjo Paterson poems written by Paterson during the period he was a war correspondent in South Africa.. The poems all show differences, some very extensive, from later published versions.
**The place has strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**
The collection contains relics, artefacts and documents that trace the history of the 1st/15th Royal NSW Lancer Regiment and bear testimony to the contribution of individual members of the regiment to major Australian conflicts. The significance of the collection to past and present members of the regiment is evidenced by the involvement of serving and retired members of the regiment in the management and running of the Museum: the board of management for the Museum comprises both serving and retired members; and the Museum is staffed by retired Lancers.
**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**
The collection is of State heritage significance as it has the potential to provide information, not available from other sources, on the following subjects:
* the role played by Australian forces in major military conflicts;
* the development of Australian cavalry uniforms, equipment, weapons, organisation and administration;
* state and national events such as the visit of the Great White Fleet in 1908;
* the lives and military careers of influential and prominent figures in New South Wales society;
* the literary work of renowned Australian poet Banjo Patterson.
**The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**
The Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection is unique as there is no other collection covering the entire 125\-year history of Australia's oldest surviving regiment. There are also no other Light Horse or cavalry museums in Australia with as comprehensive collection as the Royal NSW Lancers either in terms of the size and extent of the collection or the periods covered.
The collection includes over 50 items identified as being of National significance and some of International significance including:
* Rare photographs, documents and memorabilia relating to important ceremonies the 1st/15th Regiment participated in, including events such as: the visit of the Great White Fleet in 1908; the opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge; the opening of pre [Federation](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia "Federation of Australia") Parliaments; and the dedication of site of modern\-day Canberra;
* Rare photographs, documents and memorabilia relating to the regiment's participation in major conflicts including: rare photographs of the Boer War and a collection of rare Boer war medals;
* Rare examples of Australian military equipment such as: the only mobile forge used in the NSW/Australian military, 1 of 3 surviving Balikpapan Matilda Tanks, 1 of 3 Covenanter Bridge Layer Tanks in the world and the only surviving Bridgelayer used at Balikpapan.
Internationally rare Bergaman MP 18\.1 sub\-machine gun, the forerunner of all subsequent machine guns;
* Rare and exceptional examples of the earliest NSW ceremonial cavalry uniforms and accoutrements, many of them the personal uniforms of prominent members of NSW Society;
* Rare ceremonial flags, pennants and the original mounted side drums and drapes for the regiment band's first drum horse;
* Rare turn of the 20th Century illuminated Regimental nominal roles of the three Regiments making up the 1st Light Horse Brigade at the formation of the Commonwealth military forces; and
* The first version of five Banjo Patterson poems two of which have been scientifically verified as being in his own handwriting.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"The 1st/15th Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection is of State heritage significance because it documents the complete and continuous history of Australia's oldest and most highly decorated regiment from its inception through to the present day. The collection interprets major themes in Australia's history, including the role played by Australian troops in the Boer War and the First and Second World Wars.",
"The collection is also significant because of its relationship to the historic Parramatta Barracks. The Barracks are the oldest surviving mainland military barracks in Australia. The collection is important in the interpretation of the Barracks and it enhances the significance of the place.",
"The Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection has over 50 items identified as being of National significance and some of International significance. It includes significant items relating to:",
"* The formation and development of a colonial military unit;\n* The role played by the regiment in Sydney society;\n* The evolution of the regiment and its weaponry, equipment and uniforms from horse mounted lancers to modern, heavy\\-armoured vehicles;\n* The participation of the regiment in important state, national and international occasions and major conflicts, such as WW1 and WW2; and\n* The relationship between prominent and influential members of NSW society and the development of the regiment.",
"The collection also contains the first versions of five poems written by [Banjo Paterson](/wiki/Banjo_Paterson \"Banjo Paterson\") during the period he was a war correspondent in South Africa. The poems all show differences, some very extensive, from later published versions. The poems are important for their ability to demonstrate the creative writing process of this renowned Australian Poet.",
"The collection is significant because it has the potential to provide information, not available from other sources on a range of topics including: the role played by Australian forces in major military conflicts; the evolution of the Australian cavalry; important state, national and international events; the lives and military careers of influential prominent figures in NSW society and the literary work of renowned Australian poet Banjo Paterson.",
"The collection contains relics, artefacts and documents that bear testimony to the contribution of individual members of the regiment to major Australian conflicts. The significance of the collection to past and present members of the regiment is evidenced by the involvement of serving and retired members of the regiment in the management and running of the Museum: the board of management for the Museum comprises both serving and retired members; and the Museum is staffed by retired Lancers.",
"The Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection is unique as there is no other collection covering the entire 125\\-year history of Australia's oldest surviving regiment. There are also no other Light Horse or cavalry museums in Australia with as comprehensive collection as the Royal NSW Lancers either in terms of the size and extent of the collection or the periods covered.",
"1st\\-15th Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register \"New South Wales State Heritage Register\") on 14 May 2010 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**",
"The 1st/15th Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection documents the complete and continuous history of Australia's oldest and most highly decorated regiment from its inception, in 1885, through to the present day. The collection interprets major themes in Australian History including the role played by Australian troops in the Boer War and the First and Second World Wars.",
"The collection includes significant items that relate to: the formation and development of a colonial military unit; the role played by the regiment in Sydney society; the evolution of the regiment and its weaponry, equipment and uniforms from horse mounted lancers to modern, heavy\\-armoured vehicles; the participation of the regiment in important state, national and international occasions and major conflicts; and the relationship between prominent and influential members of NSW society and the development of the regiment.",
"The Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection is also significant because of its relationship to historic Parramatta Barracks. The Lancers' occupation of the barracks commenced in 1893 and continues to this day. The collection is important in the interpretation of the Barracks and it enhances the significance of the place.",
"**The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.**",
"The collection is of State heritage significance as it contains items associated with members of the regiment who were also prominent and influential leaders in NSW society including:",
"* Sir [James Burns](/wiki/James_Burns_%28Australian_shipowner%29 \"James Burns (Australian shipowner)\") businessman, shipowner, philanthropist, politician and soldier;\n* [Walter Liberty Vernon](/wiki/Walter_Liberty_Vernon \"Walter Liberty Vernon\") NSW [Government Architect](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Government_Architect \"New South Wales Government Architect\");\n* Sir [John Sulman](/wiki/John_Sulman \"John Sulman\") architect and town planner;\n* Sir [John Northcott](/wiki/John_Northcott \"John Northcott\") first Australian\\-born and one of the longest\\-serving governors of NSW;\n* Lieutenant\\-Colonel James McMahon, businessman, politician and sportsman; and\n* Major General [James Macarthur\\-Onslow](/wiki/James_Macarthur-Onslow \"James Macarthur-Onslow\")",
"The collection also contains the first known versions of five poems written by renowned Australian Poet Banjo Paterson. [Paterson](/wiki/Paterson%2C_New_South_Wales \"Paterson, New South Wales\") accompanied the Lancers to South Africa as a war correspondent for the Sydney Morning Herald. Two of the poems have been scientifically verified as being in his own hand writing. One of the poems \"the Reveille\" was written specifically about the Lancers and its service with the British cavalry.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**",
"The collection is of State significance as it shows the evolution of the uniforms, weaponry and equipment of the Australian cavalry, from horses and lances through to early mechanisation and the introduction of heavy armoured vehicles.",
"The collection is also significant for its ability to demonstrate the creative writing process of renowned Australian Poet Banjo Paterson. The collection contains first versions of 5 Banjo Paterson poems written by Paterson during the period he was a war correspondent in South Africa.. The poems all show differences, some very extensive, from later published versions.",
"**The place has strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**",
"The collection contains relics, artefacts and documents that trace the history of the 1st/15th Royal NSW Lancer Regiment and bear testimony to the contribution of individual members of the regiment to major Australian conflicts. The significance of the collection to past and present members of the regiment is evidenced by the involvement of serving and retired members of the regiment in the management and running of the Museum: the board of management for the Museum comprises both serving and retired members; and the Museum is staffed by retired Lancers.",
"**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**",
"The collection is of State heritage significance as it has the potential to provide information, not available from other sources, on the following subjects:",
"* the role played by Australian forces in major military conflicts;\n* the development of Australian cavalry uniforms, equipment, weapons, organisation and administration;\n* state and national events such as the visit of the Great White Fleet in 1908;\n* the lives and military careers of influential and prominent figures in New South Wales society;\n* the literary work of renowned Australian poet Banjo Patterson.",
"**The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**",
"The Royal NSW Lancers Memorial Museum Collection is unique as there is no other collection covering the entire 125\\-year history of Australia's oldest surviving regiment. There are also no other Light Horse or cavalry museums in Australia with as comprehensive collection as the Royal NSW Lancers either in terms of the size and extent of the collection or the periods covered.",
"The collection includes over 50 items identified as being of National significance and some of International significance including:",
"* Rare photographs, documents and memorabilia relating to important ceremonies the 1st/15th Regiment participated in, including events such as: the visit of the Great White Fleet in 1908; the opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge; the opening of pre [Federation](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia \"Federation of Australia\") Parliaments; and the dedication of site of modern\\-day Canberra;\n* Rare photographs, documents and memorabilia relating to the regiment's participation in major conflicts including: rare photographs of the Boer War and a collection of rare Boer war medals;\n* Rare examples of Australian military equipment such as: the only mobile forge used in the NSW/Australian military, 1 of 3 surviving Balikpapan Matilda Tanks, 1 of 3 Covenanter Bridge Layer Tanks in the world and the only surviving Bridgelayer used at Balikpapan.\nInternationally rare Bergaman MP 18\\.1 sub\\-machine gun, the forerunner of all subsequent machine guns;\n* Rare and exceptional examples of the earliest NSW ceremonial cavalry uniforms and accoutrements, many of them the personal uniforms of prominent members of NSW Society;\n* Rare ceremonial flags, pennants and the original mounted side drums and drapes for the regiment band's first drum horse;\n* Rare turn of the 20th Century illuminated Regimental nominal roles of the three Regiments making up the 1st Light Horse Brigade at the formation of the Commonwealth military forces; and\n* The first version of five Banjo Patterson poems two of which have been scientifically verified as being in his own handwriting."
] |
History
-------
WFRL began broadcasting October 28, 1947, on 1570 kHz, running 1,000 during daytime hours only.{{cite magazine\|title\=WFRL in Freeport Begins Operations on 1570 kc\|url\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1947/1947\-11\-10\-BC.pdf\|magazine\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable\|Broadcasting]]\|date\=November 10, 1947\|access\-date\=September 14, 2018}}[History Cards for WFRL](https://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi-bin/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/getimportletter_exh.cgi?import_letter_id=52706), fcc.gov. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. The station was licensed to Freeport Broadcasting Company, owned by Mr. and Mrs. Vincent S. Barker.Ghrist, John R. (1996\). *Valley Voices: A Radio History*. Crossroads Communications. p. 493\-494\. Barker built the station's transmitter in his basement during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").
In 1959, the station was sold to Triad Television Corp for $275,000\."[Ownership Changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1959/1959-08-10-BC.pdf)", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable")*. August 10, 1959\. p. 93\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. In 1964, the station's power was increased to 5,000 watts. On April 11, 1965, its sister station, WFRL\-FM, began broadcasting on 98\.5\. WFRL\-FM is now [WXXQ](/wiki/WXXQ "WXXQ").
The station aired a country music format until June 1977 and flipped to a [top 40](/wiki/Top_40 "Top 40") format with the change of ownership.*[Broadcasting Yearbook 1978](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1978/C-1-Broadcasting-Yearbook-1978-Full.pdf)*, [Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable"). 1978\. p. C\-65\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. In 1977, the station was sold to Bradford\-Ross Associates, along with WFRL\-FM, for $475,000\."[Changing Hands](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1977/BC-1977-02-07.pdf)", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable")*. February 7, 1977\. p. 76\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. In 1980, the station was sold to Illinois Broadcasting, along with WXXQ, for $975,000\."[Changing Hands](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1980/1980-11-24-BC.pdf)", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable")*. November 24, 1980\. p. 60\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. In 1980, the station had adopted a [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") format.*[Broadcasting/Cablecasting Yearbook 1983](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1983/B-Radio-Ala-Mt-1983-YB.pdf)*, [Broadcasting/Cablecasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable"). 1983\. p. B\-73\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. In 1983, the station was sold to a partnership of C.R. Griggs, James D. McQuality and Larry S. Ward."[Ownership changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1983/BC-1983-11-07.pdf)", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable")*. November 7, 1983\. p. 83\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. In 1985, the station was sold to Freeport Radio Associates, along with WXXQ, for $1 million."[Changing Hands](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1985/BC-1985-02-18.pdf)", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable")*. February 18, 1985\. p. 79\-80\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\.
By 1989, the station had adopted an [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary "Adult contemporary") format, and the station had begun nighttime operations, running 500 watts.*[Broadcasting \& Cable Yearbook 1989](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1989/B-1%20Radio%20Ala%20to%20Mont%201989-5.pdf)*, [Broadcasting \& Cable](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable"). 1989\. p. B\-92\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. In 1991, the station was sold to Stateline Broadcasting, along with WXXQ, for $900,000\."[Transactions](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1991/RR-1991-09-06.pdf)", *[Radio \& Records](/wiki/Radio_%26_Records "Radio & Records")*. September 6, 1991\. p. 9\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\. In 1993, the station added talk programming."[Format Changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-M-Street/M-Street-Journal/IDX/IDX/M-Street-1993-05-OCR-Page-0023.pdf)", *The M\-Street Journal*. Vol. 10, No. 21\. May 26, 1993\. p. 1\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\. In 1995, the station was sold to Connoisseur Communications, along with WXXQ, for $2\.3 million."[Transactions](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1995/RR-1995-08-25.pdf)", *[Radio \& Records](/wiki/Radio_%26_Records "Radio & Records")*. August 25, 1995\. p. 6\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\. By 1996, talk programming had replaced all music on the station."[Format Changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-M-Street/M-Street-Journal/IDX/IDX/M-Street-1996-05-OCR-Page-0029.pdf)", *The M\-Street Journal*. Vol. 13, No. 21\. May 22, 1996\. p. 1\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\. In 1996, the station was sold to Eveningstar Media Group for $245,000\."[Transactions](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1996/R&R-1996-05-24.pdf)", *[Radio \& Records](/wiki/Radio_%26_Records "Radio & Records")*. May 24, 1996\. p. 8\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\. The station temporarily simulcast 1440 [WROK](/wiki/WROK_%28AM%29 "WROK (AM)") while the sale was pending."[Format Changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-M-Street/M-Street-Journal/IDX/IDX/M-Street-1996-10-OCR-Page-0001.pdf)", *The M\-Street Journal*. Vol. 13, No. 40\. October 2, 1996\. p. 1\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\.
[thumb\|Former logo](/wiki/File:WFRL1570.png "WFRL1570.png")
In 1998, the station adopted an [adult standards](/wiki/Adult_standards "Adult standards") format."[Format Changes \& Updates](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-M-Street/M-Street-Journal/IDX/IDX/M-Street-1998-10-OCR-Page-0033.pdf)", *The M\-Street Journal*. Vol. 15, No. 43\. October 28, 1998\. p. 1\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\. In 2005, the station was sold to Maverick Media."[Deal of the Week](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/2000s/2005/RR-2005-03-11.pdf)", *[Radio \& Records](/wiki/Radio_%26_Records "Radio & Records")*. March 11, 2005\. p. 9\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\. In 2006, the station was sold to Green County Broadcasting, along with 92\.1 [WFPS](/wiki/WFPS "WFPS"), for $1,475,000\.[Asset Sale Agreement](https://licensing.fcc.gov/cdbs/CDBS_Attachment/getattachment.jsp?appn=101109598&qnum=5040©num=1&exhcnum=1), fcc.gov. Retrieved September 15, 2018\. In 2010, the station was an affiliate of the short lived "Hit Parade Radio" [oldies](/wiki/Oldies "Oldies") network, which featured DJs [Larry Lujack](/wiki/Larry_Lujack "Larry Lujack") and [Wink Martindale](/wiki/Wink_Martindale "Wink Martindale")."[Broadcasting News\-June 2010](http://www.northpine.com/broadcast/archive/news0610.html)", Upper Midwest Broadcasting. June 7, 2010\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\."[Hit Parade Radio's Parade Is Over](http://chicagoradioandmedia.com/news/638-hit-parade-radios-parade-is-over)", *Chicagoland Radio and Media*. June 4, 2010\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\. After the network's shutdown, WFRL retained the oldies format with local personalities. In 2017, WFRL switched to a classic country format.
WFRL was granted a modification in August 2022 to change its signal from directional to non\-directional and reduce power to 1,000 watts daytime and 210 watts nighttime. This took effect as of August 2023\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"WFRL began broadcasting October 28, 1947, on 1570 kHz, running 1,000 during daytime hours only.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=WFRL in Freeport Begins Operations on 1570 kc\\|url\\=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1947/1947\\-11\\-10\\-BC.pdf\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|Broadcasting]]\\|date\\=November 10, 1947\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2018}}[History Cards for WFRL](https://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi-bin/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/getimportletter_exh.cgi?import_letter_id=52706), fcc.gov. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. The station was licensed to Freeport Broadcasting Company, owned by Mr. and Mrs. Vincent S. Barker.Ghrist, John R. (1996\\). *Valley Voices: A Radio History*. Crossroads Communications. p. 493\\-494\\. Barker built the station's transmitter in his basement during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").",
"In 1959, the station was sold to Triad Television Corp for $275,000\\.\"[Ownership Changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1959/1959-08-10-BC.pdf)\", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\")*. August 10, 1959\\. p. 93\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. In 1964, the station's power was increased to 5,000 watts. On April 11, 1965, its sister station, WFRL\\-FM, began broadcasting on 98\\.5\\. WFRL\\-FM is now [WXXQ](/wiki/WXXQ \"WXXQ\").",
"The station aired a country music format until June 1977 and flipped to a [top 40](/wiki/Top_40 \"Top 40\") format with the change of ownership.*[Broadcasting Yearbook 1978](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1978/C-1-Broadcasting-Yearbook-1978-Full.pdf)*, [Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\"). 1978\\. p. C\\-65\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. In 1977, the station was sold to Bradford\\-Ross Associates, along with WFRL\\-FM, for $475,000\\.\"[Changing Hands](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1977/BC-1977-02-07.pdf)\", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\")*. February 7, 1977\\. p. 76\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. In 1980, the station was sold to Illinois Broadcasting, along with WXXQ, for $975,000\\.\"[Changing Hands](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1980/1980-11-24-BC.pdf)\", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\")*. November 24, 1980\\. p. 60\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. In 1980, the station had adopted a [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") format.*[Broadcasting/Cablecasting Yearbook 1983](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1983/B-Radio-Ala-Mt-1983-YB.pdf)*, [Broadcasting/Cablecasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\"). 1983\\. p. B\\-73\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. In 1983, the station was sold to a partnership of C.R. Griggs, James D. McQuality and Larry S. Ward.\"[Ownership changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1983/BC-1983-11-07.pdf)\", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\")*. November 7, 1983\\. p. 83\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. In 1985, the station was sold to Freeport Radio Associates, along with WXXQ, for $1 million.\"[Changing Hands](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1985/BC-1985-02-18.pdf)\", *[Broadcasting](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\")*. February 18, 1985\\. p. 79\\-80\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\.",
"By 1989, the station had adopted an [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary \"Adult contemporary\") format, and the station had begun nighttime operations, running 500 watts.*[Broadcasting \\& Cable Yearbook 1989](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1989/B-1%20Radio%20Ala%20to%20Mont%201989-5.pdf)*, [Broadcasting \\& Cable](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\"). 1989\\. p. B\\-92\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. In 1991, the station was sold to Stateline Broadcasting, along with WXXQ, for $900,000\\.\"[Transactions](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1991/RR-1991-09-06.pdf)\", *[Radio \\& Records](/wiki/Radio_%26_Records \"Radio & Records\")*. September 6, 1991\\. p. 9\\. Retrieved September 14, 2018\\. In 1993, the station added talk programming.\"[Format Changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-M-Street/M-Street-Journal/IDX/IDX/M-Street-1993-05-OCR-Page-0023.pdf)\", *The M\\-Street Journal*. Vol. 10, No. 21\\. May 26, 1993\\. p. 1\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\. In 1995, the station was sold to Connoisseur Communications, along with WXXQ, for $2\\.3 million.\"[Transactions](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1995/RR-1995-08-25.pdf)\", *[Radio \\& Records](/wiki/Radio_%26_Records \"Radio & Records\")*. August 25, 1995\\. p. 6\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\. By 1996, talk programming had replaced all music on the station.\"[Format Changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-M-Street/M-Street-Journal/IDX/IDX/M-Street-1996-05-OCR-Page-0029.pdf)\", *The M\\-Street Journal*. Vol. 13, No. 21\\. May 22, 1996\\. p. 1\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\. In 1996, the station was sold to Eveningstar Media Group for $245,000\\.\"[Transactions](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1996/R&R-1996-05-24.pdf)\", *[Radio \\& Records](/wiki/Radio_%26_Records \"Radio & Records\")*. May 24, 1996\\. p. 8\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\. The station temporarily simulcast 1440 [WROK](/wiki/WROK_%28AM%29 \"WROK (AM)\") while the sale was pending.\"[Format Changes](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-M-Street/M-Street-Journal/IDX/IDX/M-Street-1996-10-OCR-Page-0001.pdf)\", *The M\\-Street Journal*. Vol. 13, No. 40\\. October 2, 1996\\. p. 1\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\.",
"[thumb\\|Former logo](/wiki/File:WFRL1570.png \"WFRL1570.png\")\nIn 1998, the station adopted an [adult standards](/wiki/Adult_standards \"Adult standards\") format.\"[Format Changes \\& Updates](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-M-Street/M-Street-Journal/IDX/IDX/M-Street-1998-10-OCR-Page-0033.pdf)\", *The M\\-Street Journal*. Vol. 15, No. 43\\. October 28, 1998\\. p. 1\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\. In 2005, the station was sold to Maverick Media.\"[Deal of the Week](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/2000s/2005/RR-2005-03-11.pdf)\", *[Radio \\& Records](/wiki/Radio_%26_Records \"Radio & Records\")*. March 11, 2005\\. p. 9\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\. In 2006, the station was sold to Green County Broadcasting, along with 92\\.1 [WFPS](/wiki/WFPS \"WFPS\"), for $1,475,000\\.[Asset Sale Agreement](https://licensing.fcc.gov/cdbs/CDBS_Attachment/getattachment.jsp?appn=101109598&qnum=5040©num=1&exhcnum=1), fcc.gov. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\. In 2010, the station was an affiliate of the short lived \"Hit Parade Radio\" [oldies](/wiki/Oldies \"Oldies\") network, which featured DJs [Larry Lujack](/wiki/Larry_Lujack \"Larry Lujack\") and [Wink Martindale](/wiki/Wink_Martindale \"Wink Martindale\").\"[Broadcasting News\\-June 2010](http://www.northpine.com/broadcast/archive/news0610.html)\", Upper Midwest Broadcasting. June 7, 2010\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\.\"[Hit Parade Radio's Parade Is Over](http://chicagoradioandmedia.com/news/638-hit-parade-radios-parade-is-over)\", *Chicagoland Radio and Media*. June 4, 2010\\. Retrieved September 15, 2018\\. After the network's shutdown, WFRL retained the oldies format with local personalities. In 2017, WFRL switched to a classic country format.",
"WFRL was granted a modification in August 2022 to change its signal from directional to non\\-directional and reduce power to 1,000 watts daytime and 210 watts nighttime. This took effect as of August 2023\\.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
### Adult
The coloration of the adult moths [mimics](/wiki/Mimicry "Mimicry") the coloration of a [vespid wasp](/wiki/Vespidae "Vespidae"). Their movements may also be reminiscent of wasps, with "intermittent rapid running and fluttering of wings".{{Cite report \|url\=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/22150 \|title\=''Guide to Insect Borers in North American Broadleaf Trees and Shrubs'' \|last\=Solomon \|first\=James D. \|date\=1995 \|publisher\=U.S. Forest Service Treesearch Department \|department\=Southern Hardwoods Laboratory, Southern Forest Experiment Station \|location\=Stoneville, Mississippi \|pages\=72–75 \|series\=Handbook AH\-706 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317035812/https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/22150 \|archive\-date\=2024\-03\-17 \|url\-status\=live}} {{PD\-inline}}
Adults are mostly yellow with black markings on the [thorax](/wiki/Thorax_%28arthropod_anatomy%29 "Thorax (arthropod anatomy)") and [abdomen](/wiki/Abdomen_%28insect_anatomy%29 "Abdomen (insect anatomy)"). Sycamore borer moths typically have a brownish black or bluish black head and antennae, yellow [palpi](/wiki/Pedipalp "Pedipalp"), and a yellow collar, with a blue\-black thorax that has nearly parallel yellow lines on the sides.
This moth's wings are mostly transparent, with yellow\- to orange\-colored borders. The [forewings](/wiki/Insect_wing "Insect wing") have iridescent blue\-black veins and yellow scales on the [apical cells](/wiki/Apical_%28anatomy%29 "Apical (anatomy)"); the [hindwings](/wiki/Hindwings "Hindwings") are completely transparent with brownish black fringes and inner yellow scales. The [wingspan](/wiki/Wingspan "Wingspan") of the moth is about {{convert\|18\|–\|24\|mm\|abbr\=on}} across.
This species is [sexually dimorphic](/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism "Sexual dimorphism"); females are larger than males.
### Eggs, pupae, larvae
Egg color is gold or pink. The eggs are about {{Convert\|.8\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}} long, [ovoid](/wiki/Oval "Oval"), and have a slightly reticulated (net\-like) appearance or texture.
Pupae are about {{convert\|10\|mm\|abbr\=on}}, are found in white to brownish silken [cocoons](/wiki/Pupa "Pupa"), and are a "shining mahogany brown".
Larvae are pinkish to whitish and reach {{convert\|18\|mm\|abbr\=on}} in length; the head is reddish brown.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"### Adult",
"The coloration of the adult moths [mimics](/wiki/Mimicry \"Mimicry\") the coloration of a [vespid wasp](/wiki/Vespidae \"Vespidae\"). Their movements may also be reminiscent of wasps, with \"intermittent rapid running and fluttering of wings\".{{Cite report \\|url\\=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/22150 \\|title\\=''Guide to Insect Borers in North American Broadleaf Trees and Shrubs'' \\|last\\=Solomon \\|first\\=James D. \\|date\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Forest Service Treesearch Department \\|department\\=Southern Hardwoods Laboratory, Southern Forest Experiment Station \\|location\\=Stoneville, Mississippi \\|pages\\=72–75 \\|series\\=Handbook AH\\-706 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317035812/https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/22150 \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} {{PD\\-inline}}",
"Adults are mostly yellow with black markings on the [thorax](/wiki/Thorax_%28arthropod_anatomy%29 \"Thorax (arthropod anatomy)\") and [abdomen](/wiki/Abdomen_%28insect_anatomy%29 \"Abdomen (insect anatomy)\"). Sycamore borer moths typically have a brownish black or bluish black head and antennae, yellow [palpi](/wiki/Pedipalp \"Pedipalp\"), and a yellow collar, with a blue\\-black thorax that has nearly parallel yellow lines on the sides.",
"This moth's wings are mostly transparent, with yellow\\- to orange\\-colored borders. The [forewings](/wiki/Insect_wing \"Insect wing\") have iridescent blue\\-black veins and yellow scales on the [apical cells](/wiki/Apical_%28anatomy%29 \"Apical (anatomy)\"); the [hindwings](/wiki/Hindwings \"Hindwings\") are completely transparent with brownish black fringes and inner yellow scales. The [wingspan](/wiki/Wingspan \"Wingspan\") of the moth is about {{convert\\|18\\|–\\|24\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} across.",
"This species is [sexually dimorphic](/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism \"Sexual dimorphism\"); females are larger than males.",
"### Eggs, pupae, larvae",
"Egg color is gold or pink. The eggs are about {{Convert\\|.8\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} long, [ovoid](/wiki/Oval \"Oval\"), and have a slightly reticulated (net\\-like) appearance or texture.",
"Pupae are about {{convert\\|10\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}, are found in white to brownish silken [cocoons](/wiki/Pupa \"Pupa\"), and are a \"shining mahogany brown\".",
"Larvae are pinkish to whitish and reach {{convert\\|18\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} in length; the head is reddish brown.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early history
Although Adell Broadcasting filed for an application for the channel 38 license on September 25, 1985, it took four years for WADL to begin broadcasting, signing on the air for the first time on May 20, 1989\. The station was founded by Franklin Z. Adell, previously the owner of an automotive parts supplier company. His son Kevin Adell joined the company after graduating from [Arizona State University](/wiki/Arizona_State_University "Arizona State University") in 1988\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20150206/NEWS/150209808/wadl\-may\-command\-even\-larger\-auction\-price\-than\-expected\-up\-to\-380m\|title\=WADL may command even larger auction price than expected: up to $380M, FCC says\|date\=February 6, 2015\|access\-date\=November 30, 2016}} Its original programming blocks were filled with mostly [Home Shopping Network](/wiki/Home_Shopping_Network "Home Shopping Network") programs, [religious](/wiki/Religious_broadcasting "Religious broadcasting") shows and other paid programming, classic [movies](/wiki/Feature_film "Feature film") and hourly blocks of the [syndicated](/wiki/Broadcast_syndication "Broadcast syndication") music video show *[Hit Video USA](/wiki/Hit_Video_USA "Hit Video USA")*. In 1990, it began running several hours of syndicated programs.
In 1992, channel 38 began running [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") shows that were preempted by that network's then\-affiliate [WJBK\-TV](/wiki/WJBK-TV "WJBK-TV") (channel 2\). Despite its relationship with WJBK, WADL was barely competitive in the ratings at first. Most of the stronger syndicated programs had been acquired by [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company "Fox Broadcasting Company") affiliate [WKBD\-TV](/wiki/WKBD-TV "WKBD-TV") (channel 50; which, for all intents and purposes, was programmed as an independent as Fox did not carry a full week's worth of programming until 1993\) and fellow [independent station](/wiki/Independent_station "Independent station") WXON (channel 20, now [WMYD](/wiki/WMYD "WMYD")). There simply was not enough programming to go around, even for a market as large as Detroit. Channel 38 faced an additional problem in the form of [CBC](/wiki/CBC_Television "CBC Television")\-[owned](/wiki/Owned-and-operated_station "Owned-and-operated station") [CBET](/wiki/CBET-DT "CBET-DT") (channel 9\) in [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario "Windsor, Ontario"), which owned the Detroit market rights to other syndicated programs. It relied mostly on [paid programming](/wiki/Paid_programming "Paid programming"); the few entertainment shows seen on WADL's schedule consisted of [barter programming](/wiki/Broadcast_syndication%23Monetary_rates "Broadcast syndication#Monetary rates").
In May 1994, WJBK's then\-owner, [New World Communications](/wiki/New_World_Pictures%23New_World_Communications "New World Pictures#New World Communications") signed a groupwide deal with Fox to switch the network affiliations of twelve of the company's 14 stations to Fox ([two of](/wiki/WBRC "WBRC") [which](/wiki/WGHP "WGHP") New World would sell to Fox outright as it could not keep them due to ownership conflicts).{{cite news\|last\=Carter\|first\=Bill\|title\=FOX WILL SIGN UP 12 NEW STATIONS; TAKES 8 FROM CBS\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/24/us/fox\-will\-sign\-up\-12\-new\-stations\-takes\-8\-from\-cbs.html?pagewanted\=4\|access\-date\=October 22, 2012\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=May 24, 1994}}{{cite news\|last\=Lowry\|first\=Brian\|title\=New World Vision : Murdoch's News Corp. to Buy Broadcast Group\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1996\-07\-18\-fi\-25271\-story.html\|access\-date\=June 22, 2012\|newspaper\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date\=July 18, 1996}} One of the stations due to switch was WJBK. CBS approached three of Detroit's major stations—[WXYZ\-TV](/wiki/WXYZ-TV "WXYZ-TV") (channel 7, which renewed its ABC affiliation), WKBD, and WXON—all of which turned CBS down; [WDIV\-TV](/wiki/WDIV-TV "WDIV-TV") was eliminated as a possibility due to the station's long\-term affiliation contract with NBC. Fearing it would be left without an affiliate in Detroit, CBS began talks with WADL. As a measure of how desperate CBS was at the time, it approached WADL even though most Detroit\-area viewers didn't even know the station existed. However, Franklin Adell and CBS could not come to a mutual agreement, due to what CBS called unreasonable demands on Adell's part. CBS eventually bought Detroit's other low\-profile independent, WGPR\-TV (channel 62\), changing its calls to [WWJ\-TV](/wiki/WWJ-TV "WWJ-TV") and moved the network's programming there on December 11, 1994, months before its purchase was finalized.
On August 31, 1998, WADL began carrying children's programming from [Fox Kids](/wiki/Fox_Kids "Fox Kids") (later [FoxBox](/wiki/FoxBox "FoxBox") and [4KidsTV](/wiki/4KidsTV "4KidsTV")), after picking up the rights to the block from then\-[UPN](/wiki/UPN "UPN") affiliate WKBD, which had continued to air the Fox Kids weekday and Saturday blocks even after losing its Fox affiliation to WJBK. The station also acquired several syndicated children's programs. After Fox discontinued the Fox Kids weekday block in 2002, WADL continued running the revamped Fox Box until the fall of 2003, when Fox's [4Kids TV](/wiki/4Kids_TV "4Kids TV") Saturday morning block moved to then\-[WB](/wiki/The_WB "The WB") affiliate WDWB (later MyNetworkTV affiliate WMYD). During this time, until October 2007, WADL was the only other station besides WKBD and WMYD to continuously air children's programming. From the program's 1999 debut until 2002, WADL also broadcast the NBC [daytime](/wiki/NBC_Daytime "NBC Daytime") soap opera *[Passions](/wiki/Passions "Passions")*, which WDIV originally declined to broadcast, before adding the serial to its schedule in the fall of 2002\.
### Breakthrough
In September 2007, WADL began to cement its standing as a major player among the Detroit market's television stations with the acquisition of popular syndicated shows, including older series such as *[The Nanny](/wiki/The_Nanny "The Nanny")*, *[Mad About You](/wiki/Mad_About_You "Mad About You")*, *[The Jeffersons](/wiki/The_Jeffersons "The Jeffersons")* and *[Good Times](/wiki/Good_Times "Good Times")*; the station also kept many religious programs and a few infomercials as well, and eliminated the remaining [animated shows](/wiki/Animated_cartoon "Animated cartoon"). Over the years, WADL began positioning itself as being a voice of Detroit's urban community, with local programs including a weekly feature with the [Mayor of Detroit](/wiki/Mayor_of_Detroit "Mayor of Detroit") and former player for the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons "Detroit Pistons"), [Dave Bing](/wiki/Dave_Bing "Dave Bing").
In the fall of 2007, WADL was relaunched as "Detroit's Urban Station" to appeal to the African\-American community (much as the old WGPR\-TV did) and acquired syndicated programs such as *[The Fresh Prince of Bel\-Air](/wiki/The_Fresh_Prince_of_Bel-Air "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air")*, *[American Chopper](/wiki/American_Chopper "American Chopper")*, *[Reno 911!](/wiki/Reno_911%21 "Reno 911!")*, *[The Montel Williams Show](/wiki/The_Montel_Williams_Show "The Montel Williams Show")*, *[In the Heat of the Night](/wiki/In_the_Heat_of_the_Night_%28TV_series%29 "In the Heat of the Night (TV series)")*, *[Chappelle's Show](/wiki/Chappelle%27s_Show "Chappelle's Show")*, *[A Different World](/wiki/A_Different_World "A Different World")*, *[Magnum, P.I.](/wiki/Magnum%2C_P.I. "Magnum, P.I.")* and *[Sanford and Son](/wiki/Sanford_and_Son "Sanford and Son")*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.broadcastingcable.com/article/CA6579263\.html?rssid\=193\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120730225000/http://www.broadcastingcable.com/article/CA6579263\.html?rssid\=193\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 30, 2012\|work\=Broadcasting and Cable\|title\='Detroit's Urban Station' to Debut Chopper, Cribs\|date\=July 16, 2008}} In 2009, the station added classic television series such as *[The Brady Bunch](/wiki/The_Brady_Bunch "The Brady Bunch")*, *[I Love Lucy](/wiki/I_Love_Lucy "I Love Lucy")*, *[Happy Days](/wiki/Happy_Days "Happy Days")*, *[M\*A\*S\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH_%28TV_series%29 "M*A*S*H (TV series)")*, *The Jeffersons* and *[Laverne and Shirley](/wiki/Laverne_and_Shirley "Laverne and Shirley")* to its schedule. By this time, WADL began running a mix of both recent and older syndicated programs. WADL also increased its local [public affairs](/wiki/Public_affairs_%28broadcasting%29 "Public affairs (broadcasting)") programming with shows such as *Real Talk* (hosted by political activist Rev. [Horace Sheffield](/wiki/Horace_Sheffield "Horace Sheffield")). WADL has further cemented its presence in the community, broadcasting political debates with all candidates and inviting the community to attend.
On June 18, 2014, WADL named broadcasting veteran David Bangura as its new president; Bangura had formerly held a similar position at WMYD, which was later sold to the [E. W. Scripps Company](/wiki/E._W._Scripps_Company "E. W. Scripps Company"), owner of WXYZ\-TV.[Scripps Buying Granite TVs in Buffalo, Detroit](http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/73998/scripps-buying-granite-tvs-in-buffalo-detroit), *TVNewsCheck*, Retrieved February 10, 2014{{cite web\|title\=WADL Detroit Names David Bangura GM\|url\=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/77119/wadl\-detroit\-names\-david\-bangura\-gm\|website\=TVNewsCheck\|date\=June 18, 2014 \|access\-date\=June 18, 2014}}
On July 9, 2021, it was announced that WADL would become the new MyNetworkTV affiliate for the Detroit market beginning September 20, replacing WMYD.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/wadl\-gets\-detroits\-mynetworktv\-affiliation\|title\=WADL Gets Detroit's MyNetworkTV Affiliation\|work\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable]]\|publisher\=\[\[Future US, Inc.]]\|date\=July 9, 2021\|accessdate\=July 9, 2021}}
### Short\-lived CW affiliation; canceled sale to Mission Broadcasting
[thumb\|CW38 WADL Detroit logo, used in 2023\.\|175px](/wiki/File:CW_38_WADL_logo_2.png "CW 38 WADL logo 2.png")
On May 17, 2023, Adell Broadcasting announced it would sell WADL to [Mission Broadcasting](/wiki/Mission_Broadcasting "Mission Broadcasting") in a deal valued at $75 million.{{Cite web \|title\=Metro Detroit media mogul sells WADL\-TV as feds pursue him for unpaid estate, gift taxes \|url\=https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2023/05/21/wadl\-tv\-sells\-for\-75m/70239987007/ \|access\-date\=September 6, 2023 \|website\= freep.com\|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/views/public/assignmentDraftCopy.html?displayType\=html\&appKey\=25076ff387de8c4a0187e7ea3d64032c\&id\=25076ff387de8c4a0187e7ea3d64032c\&goBack\=N\|title\=Assignments\|website\=Licensing and Management System\|date\=May 17, 2023\|access\-date\=May 17, 2023\|publisher\=\[\[Federal Communications Commission]]}} As is typical with Mission Broadcasting stations, [Nexstar Media Group](/wiki/Nexstar_Media_Group "Nexstar Media Group") would both finance the deal and completely operate WADL, through a [shared services agreement](/wiki/Shared_services_agreement "Shared services agreement") (SSA), if the deal closes.[Form of Station Services Agreement](https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/api/download/attachment/25076f9188269b2a01882af4389000c1) The deal faced a number of objections by various public interest groups,{{Cite web \|last\=Keys \|first\=Matthew \|date\=June 20, 2023 \|title\=Group asks FCC to deny WADL acquisition by Mission \|url\=https://thedesk.net/news/atva\-opposes\-nexstar\-mission\-acqusition\-wadl\-detroit/ \|access\-date\=April 9, 2024 \|website\=The Desk \|language\=en\-us}} who argue that allowing Mission to acquire WADL will allow Nexstar to demand higher fees for the station and permit Nexstar to operate stations above the federal ownership cap.
On August 23, 2023, WADL announced on its website that the station was joining [The CW](/wiki/The_CW "The CW") on a primary basis, with MyNetworkTV programming airing afterwards from 10 p.m. to midnight, effective September 1\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cw38wadl.com/\|title\=The CW38 WADL Detroit \| CW38Detroit\|website\=The CW38 WADL}}
On October 30, 2023, the station posted a press release noting it had dropped The CW over a dispute with Nexstar, claiming the sale would not be approved in the near future, with MyNetworkTV programming reverting to its prime time berth. *[The Detroit News](/wiki/The_Detroit_News "The Detroit News")* reported the conflict was over Nexstar asking for a transitional affiliation agreement being signed by Adell before the station came under Mission ownership;{{cite news\|url\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/entertainment/television/2023/10/30/cw\-network\-yanked\-from\-detroit\-airwaves\-over\-business\-spat/71380700007/\|title\=CW Network yanked from Detroit airwaves over business spat\|first\=Adam\|last\=Graham\|newspaper\=\[\[The Detroit News]]\|date\=October 30, 2023\|accessdate\=October 30, 2023}} owner Kevin Adell told a trade publication that WADL was running CW programming as an "accommodation", that he was seeking payments from Nexstar as part of any affiliation agreement, and that he had "more options to put other programming" on the station.{{cite news \|last1\=Malone \|first1\=Michael \|title\=WMYD Detroit Will Become Market's The CW Station \|url\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/wmyd\-detroit\-will\-become\-markets\-cw\-station \|access\-date\=November 8, 2023 \|work\=\[\[Broadcasting \& Cable]] \|date\=November 6, 2023 \|language\=en}} Nexstar and The CW signed an affiliation agreement with the [E. W. Scripps Company](/wiki/E._W._Scripps_Company "E. W. Scripps Company")\-owned [WMYD](/wiki/WMYD "WMYD"), which was announced on November 6 and took effect on November 13,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nexstar.tv/detroit\-wmyd\-to\-become\-cw\-affiliate\-nov\-13/\|title\=Detroit's WMYD\-TV To Become CW Affiliate On Monday, Nov. 13\|website\=\[\[Nexstar Media Group]]\|date\=November 6, 2023\|accessdate\=November 6, 2023}} leading Adell to send a [cease and desist](/wiki/Cease_and_desist "Cease and desist") letter to Scripps with the intention to stop The CW's agreement with Scripps from going into effect. Adell claimed Scripps conspired with Nexstar to harm WADL's business and to interfere with the Mission acquisition.{{cite web \|last\=Keys \|first\=Matthew\|url\=https://thedesk.net/2023/11/wadl\-cease\-and\-desist\-scripps\-nexstar\-detroit\-cw/\|title\=WADL sends cease\-and\-desist to Scripps over CW in Detroit\|website\=TheDesk.net\|date\=November 7, 2023\|accessdate\=November 7, 2023}}
Despite several months of meeting with the FCC and support from groups like the Detroit chapter of the NAACP and the Rainbow Push Coalition, Adell Broadcasting owner Kevin Adell admitted the first week of April 2024 that his pending transaction with Mission and Nexstar was likely not going to get approved.{{Cite web \|last\=Keys \|first\=Matthew \|date\=April 4, 2024 \|title\=Exclusive: WADL owner Kevin Adell says FCC unlikely to approve station's sale to Mission \|url\=https://thedesk.net/news/wadl\-mission\-sale\-dead\-kevin\-adell\-fcc/ \|access\-date\=April 9, 2024 \|website\=The Desk \|language\=en\-us}} The affirmation came after the FCC levied a substantial fine against Mission and Nexstar over the latter's operational control of New York–based [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX "WPIX"), which was operated through a local marketing agreement similar to one that Mission would have engaged in shortly after the sale of WADL closed.{{Cite web \|title\=FCC Issues $1\.8 Million Penalty Against Nexstar and Mission; Orders Station Divestiture \|url\=https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/fcc\-issues\-1\-8\-million\-penalty\-against\-2488381/ \|access\-date\=April 9, 2024 \|website\=JD Supra \|language\=en}}
On April 23, 2024, however, Kevin Adell announced that FCC had given approval of Mission's application to purchase WADL, but the commission imposed conditions on the deal, namely that Nexstar cannot be involved in financing Mission's purchase of the station, and any SSA between Mission and Nexstar must provide limited performance bonuses and ad revenues to Nexstar, and that any SSA cannot include an option for Nexstar to purchase WADL outright. Though Kevin Adell indicated that Mission called the purchase conditions "problematic", he was optimistic that a sale to Mission would still go through.{{cite web\|url\=https://thedesk.net/news/fcc\-approves\-wadl\-mission\-sale\-with\-conditions/\|title\=FCC approves sale of WADL to Mission with conditions\|website\=TheDesk.net\|date\=April 23, 2024}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/problematic\-fcc\-conditions\-on\-station\-sale\-could\-create\-detroit\-drama\|title\='Problematic' FCC Conditions On Station Sale Could Create Detroit Drama\|website\=Broadcasting \& Cable\|date\=April 24, 2024}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/nexstar\-dropping\-scripps\-owned\-cw\-affiliates\-in\-seven\-markets\|title\=Nexstar Dropping Scripps\-Owned The CW Affiliates in 7 Markets\|website\=Broadcasting \& Cable\|date\=April 19, 2024}} The sale was called off on May 22, 2024, after Mission filed a non\-consummation notice with the FCC.{{cite web\|url\=https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/views/public/consummationDraftCopy?displayType\=html\&appKey\=25076f918f97d380018fa194b220152a\&id\=25076f918f97d380018fa194b220152a\&goBack\=N\|title\=Non\-Consummation Notification\|work\=Licensing and Management System\|publisher\=\[\[Federal Communications Commission]]\|date\=May 22, 2024\|accessdate\=May 22, 2024}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://thedesk.net/news/mission\-terminates\-deal\-wadl\-detroit/\|title\=Mission Broadcasting terminates deal to acquire Detroit's WADL\|website\=TheDesk.net\|first\=Matthew\|last\=Keys\|date\=May 22, 2024\|accessdate\=May 23, 2024}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early history",
"Although Adell Broadcasting filed for an application for the channel 38 license on September 25, 1985, it took four years for WADL to begin broadcasting, signing on the air for the first time on May 20, 1989\\. The station was founded by Franklin Z. Adell, previously the owner of an automotive parts supplier company. His son Kevin Adell joined the company after graduating from [Arizona State University](/wiki/Arizona_State_University \"Arizona State University\") in 1988\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20150206/NEWS/150209808/wadl\\-may\\-command\\-even\\-larger\\-auction\\-price\\-than\\-expected\\-up\\-to\\-380m\\|title\\=WADL may command even larger auction price than expected: up to $380M, FCC says\\|date\\=February 6, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=November 30, 2016}} Its original programming blocks were filled with mostly [Home Shopping Network](/wiki/Home_Shopping_Network \"Home Shopping Network\") programs, [religious](/wiki/Religious_broadcasting \"Religious broadcasting\") shows and other paid programming, classic [movies](/wiki/Feature_film \"Feature film\") and hourly blocks of the [syndicated](/wiki/Broadcast_syndication \"Broadcast syndication\") music video show *[Hit Video USA](/wiki/Hit_Video_USA \"Hit Video USA\")*. In 1990, it began running several hours of syndicated programs.",
"In 1992, channel 38 began running [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") shows that were preempted by that network's then\\-affiliate [WJBK\\-TV](/wiki/WJBK-TV \"WJBK-TV\") (channel 2\\). Despite its relationship with WJBK, WADL was barely competitive in the ratings at first. Most of the stronger syndicated programs had been acquired by [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company \"Fox Broadcasting Company\") affiliate [WKBD\\-TV](/wiki/WKBD-TV \"WKBD-TV\") (channel 50; which, for all intents and purposes, was programmed as an independent as Fox did not carry a full week's worth of programming until 1993\\) and fellow [independent station](/wiki/Independent_station \"Independent station\") WXON (channel 20, now [WMYD](/wiki/WMYD \"WMYD\")). There simply was not enough programming to go around, even for a market as large as Detroit. Channel 38 faced an additional problem in the form of [CBC](/wiki/CBC_Television \"CBC Television\")\\-[owned](/wiki/Owned-and-operated_station \"Owned-and-operated station\") [CBET](/wiki/CBET-DT \"CBET-DT\") (channel 9\\) in [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario \"Windsor, Ontario\"), which owned the Detroit market rights to other syndicated programs. It relied mostly on [paid programming](/wiki/Paid_programming \"Paid programming\"); the few entertainment shows seen on WADL's schedule consisted of [barter programming](/wiki/Broadcast_syndication%23Monetary_rates \"Broadcast syndication#Monetary rates\").",
"In May 1994, WJBK's then\\-owner, [New World Communications](/wiki/New_World_Pictures%23New_World_Communications \"New World Pictures#New World Communications\") signed a groupwide deal with Fox to switch the network affiliations of twelve of the company's 14 stations to Fox ([two of](/wiki/WBRC \"WBRC\") [which](/wiki/WGHP \"WGHP\") New World would sell to Fox outright as it could not keep them due to ownership conflicts).{{cite news\\|last\\=Carter\\|first\\=Bill\\|title\\=FOX WILL SIGN UP 12 NEW STATIONS; TAKES 8 FROM CBS\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/24/us/fox\\-will\\-sign\\-up\\-12\\-new\\-stations\\-takes\\-8\\-from\\-cbs.html?pagewanted\\=4\\|access\\-date\\=October 22, 2012\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=May 24, 1994}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Lowry\\|first\\=Brian\\|title\\=New World Vision : Murdoch's News Corp. to Buy Broadcast Group\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1996\\-07\\-18\\-fi\\-25271\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=June 22, 2012\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date\\=July 18, 1996}} One of the stations due to switch was WJBK. CBS approached three of Detroit's major stations—[WXYZ\\-TV](/wiki/WXYZ-TV \"WXYZ-TV\") (channel 7, which renewed its ABC affiliation), WKBD, and WXON—all of which turned CBS down; [WDIV\\-TV](/wiki/WDIV-TV \"WDIV-TV\") was eliminated as a possibility due to the station's long\\-term affiliation contract with NBC. Fearing it would be left without an affiliate in Detroit, CBS began talks with WADL. As a measure of how desperate CBS was at the time, it approached WADL even though most Detroit\\-area viewers didn't even know the station existed. However, Franklin Adell and CBS could not come to a mutual agreement, due to what CBS called unreasonable demands on Adell's part. CBS eventually bought Detroit's other low\\-profile independent, WGPR\\-TV (channel 62\\), changing its calls to [WWJ\\-TV](/wiki/WWJ-TV \"WWJ-TV\") and moved the network's programming there on December 11, 1994, months before its purchase was finalized.",
"On August 31, 1998, WADL began carrying children's programming from [Fox Kids](/wiki/Fox_Kids \"Fox Kids\") (later [FoxBox](/wiki/FoxBox \"FoxBox\") and [4KidsTV](/wiki/4KidsTV \"4KidsTV\")), after picking up the rights to the block from then\\-[UPN](/wiki/UPN \"UPN\") affiliate WKBD, which had continued to air the Fox Kids weekday and Saturday blocks even after losing its Fox affiliation to WJBK. The station also acquired several syndicated children's programs. After Fox discontinued the Fox Kids weekday block in 2002, WADL continued running the revamped Fox Box until the fall of 2003, when Fox's [4Kids TV](/wiki/4Kids_TV \"4Kids TV\") Saturday morning block moved to then\\-[WB](/wiki/The_WB \"The WB\") affiliate WDWB (later MyNetworkTV affiliate WMYD). During this time, until October 2007, WADL was the only other station besides WKBD and WMYD to continuously air children's programming. From the program's 1999 debut until 2002, WADL also broadcast the NBC [daytime](/wiki/NBC_Daytime \"NBC Daytime\") soap opera *[Passions](/wiki/Passions \"Passions\")*, which WDIV originally declined to broadcast, before adding the serial to its schedule in the fall of 2002\\.",
"### Breakthrough",
"In September 2007, WADL began to cement its standing as a major player among the Detroit market's television stations with the acquisition of popular syndicated shows, including older series such as *[The Nanny](/wiki/The_Nanny \"The Nanny\")*, *[Mad About You](/wiki/Mad_About_You \"Mad About You\")*, *[The Jeffersons](/wiki/The_Jeffersons \"The Jeffersons\")* and *[Good Times](/wiki/Good_Times \"Good Times\")*; the station also kept many religious programs and a few infomercials as well, and eliminated the remaining [animated shows](/wiki/Animated_cartoon \"Animated cartoon\"). Over the years, WADL began positioning itself as being a voice of Detroit's urban community, with local programs including a weekly feature with the [Mayor of Detroit](/wiki/Mayor_of_Detroit \"Mayor of Detroit\") and former player for the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons \"Detroit Pistons\"), [Dave Bing](/wiki/Dave_Bing \"Dave Bing\").",
"In the fall of 2007, WADL was relaunched as \"Detroit's Urban Station\" to appeal to the African\\-American community (much as the old WGPR\\-TV did) and acquired syndicated programs such as *[The Fresh Prince of Bel\\-Air](/wiki/The_Fresh_Prince_of_Bel-Air \"The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\")*, *[American Chopper](/wiki/American_Chopper \"American Chopper\")*, *[Reno 911!](/wiki/Reno_911%21 \"Reno 911!\")*, *[The Montel Williams Show](/wiki/The_Montel_Williams_Show \"The Montel Williams Show\")*, *[In the Heat of the Night](/wiki/In_the_Heat_of_the_Night_%28TV_series%29 \"In the Heat of the Night (TV series)\")*, *[Chappelle's Show](/wiki/Chappelle%27s_Show \"Chappelle's Show\")*, *[A Different World](/wiki/A_Different_World \"A Different World\")*, *[Magnum, P.I.](/wiki/Magnum%2C_P.I. \"Magnum, P.I.\")* and *[Sanford and Son](/wiki/Sanford_and_Son \"Sanford and Son\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.broadcastingcable.com/article/CA6579263\\.html?rssid\\=193\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120730225000/http://www.broadcastingcable.com/article/CA6579263\\.html?rssid\\=193\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 30, 2012\\|work\\=Broadcasting and Cable\\|title\\='Detroit's Urban Station' to Debut Chopper, Cribs\\|date\\=July 16, 2008}} In 2009, the station added classic television series such as *[The Brady Bunch](/wiki/The_Brady_Bunch \"The Brady Bunch\")*, *[I Love Lucy](/wiki/I_Love_Lucy \"I Love Lucy\")*, *[Happy Days](/wiki/Happy_Days \"Happy Days\")*, *[M\\*A\\*S\\*H](/wiki/M%2AA%2AS%2AH_%28TV_series%29 \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\")*, *The Jeffersons* and *[Laverne and Shirley](/wiki/Laverne_and_Shirley \"Laverne and Shirley\")* to its schedule. By this time, WADL began running a mix of both recent and older syndicated programs. WADL also increased its local [public affairs](/wiki/Public_affairs_%28broadcasting%29 \"Public affairs (broadcasting)\") programming with shows such as *Real Talk* (hosted by political activist Rev. [Horace Sheffield](/wiki/Horace_Sheffield \"Horace Sheffield\")). WADL has further cemented its presence in the community, broadcasting political debates with all candidates and inviting the community to attend.",
"On June 18, 2014, WADL named broadcasting veteran David Bangura as its new president; Bangura had formerly held a similar position at WMYD, which was later sold to the [E. W. Scripps Company](/wiki/E._W._Scripps_Company \"E. W. Scripps Company\"), owner of WXYZ\\-TV.[Scripps Buying Granite TVs in Buffalo, Detroit](http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/73998/scripps-buying-granite-tvs-in-buffalo-detroit), *TVNewsCheck*, Retrieved February 10, 2014{{cite web\\|title\\=WADL Detroit Names David Bangura GM\\|url\\=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/77119/wadl\\-detroit\\-names\\-david\\-bangura\\-gm\\|website\\=TVNewsCheck\\|date\\=June 18, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2014}}",
"On July 9, 2021, it was announced that WADL would become the new MyNetworkTV affiliate for the Detroit market beginning September 20, replacing WMYD.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/wadl\\-gets\\-detroits\\-mynetworktv\\-affiliation\\|title\\=WADL Gets Detroit's MyNetworkTV Affiliation\\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Future US, Inc.]]\\|date\\=July 9, 2021\\|accessdate\\=July 9, 2021}}",
"### Short\\-lived CW affiliation; canceled sale to Mission Broadcasting",
"[thumb\\|CW38 WADL Detroit logo, used in 2023\\.\\|175px](/wiki/File:CW_38_WADL_logo_2.png \"CW 38 WADL logo 2.png\")\nOn May 17, 2023, Adell Broadcasting announced it would sell WADL to [Mission Broadcasting](/wiki/Mission_Broadcasting \"Mission Broadcasting\") in a deal valued at $75 million.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Metro Detroit media mogul sells WADL\\-TV as feds pursue him for unpaid estate, gift taxes \\|url\\=https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2023/05/21/wadl\\-tv\\-sells\\-for\\-75m/70239987007/ \\|access\\-date\\=September 6, 2023 \\|website\\= freep.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/views/public/assignmentDraftCopy.html?displayType\\=html\\&appKey\\=25076ff387de8c4a0187e7ea3d64032c\\&id\\=25076ff387de8c4a0187e7ea3d64032c\\&goBack\\=N\\|title\\=Assignments\\|website\\=Licensing and Management System\\|date\\=May 17, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=May 17, 2023\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federal Communications Commission]]}} As is typical with Mission Broadcasting stations, [Nexstar Media Group](/wiki/Nexstar_Media_Group \"Nexstar Media Group\") would both finance the deal and completely operate WADL, through a [shared services agreement](/wiki/Shared_services_agreement \"Shared services agreement\") (SSA), if the deal closes.[Form of Station Services Agreement](https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/api/download/attachment/25076f9188269b2a01882af4389000c1) The deal faced a number of objections by various public interest groups,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keys \\|first\\=Matthew \\|date\\=June 20, 2023 \\|title\\=Group asks FCC to deny WADL acquisition by Mission \\|url\\=https://thedesk.net/news/atva\\-opposes\\-nexstar\\-mission\\-acqusition\\-wadl\\-detroit/ \\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2024 \\|website\\=The Desk \\|language\\=en\\-us}} who argue that allowing Mission to acquire WADL will allow Nexstar to demand higher fees for the station and permit Nexstar to operate stations above the federal ownership cap.",
"On August 23, 2023, WADL announced on its website that the station was joining [The CW](/wiki/The_CW \"The CW\") on a primary basis, with MyNetworkTV programming airing afterwards from 10 p.m. to midnight, effective September 1\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cw38wadl.com/\\|title\\=The CW38 WADL Detroit \\| CW38Detroit\\|website\\=The CW38 WADL}}",
"On October 30, 2023, the station posted a press release noting it had dropped The CW over a dispute with Nexstar, claiming the sale would not be approved in the near future, with MyNetworkTV programming reverting to its prime time berth. *[The Detroit News](/wiki/The_Detroit_News \"The Detroit News\")* reported the conflict was over Nexstar asking for a transitional affiliation agreement being signed by Adell before the station came under Mission ownership;{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/entertainment/television/2023/10/30/cw\\-network\\-yanked\\-from\\-detroit\\-airwaves\\-over\\-business\\-spat/71380700007/\\|title\\=CW Network yanked from Detroit airwaves over business spat\\|first\\=Adam\\|last\\=Graham\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Detroit News]]\\|date\\=October 30, 2023\\|accessdate\\=October 30, 2023}} owner Kevin Adell told a trade publication that WADL was running CW programming as an \"accommodation\", that he was seeking payments from Nexstar as part of any affiliation agreement, and that he had \"more options to put other programming\" on the station.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Malone \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=WMYD Detroit Will Become Market's The CW Station \\|url\\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/wmyd\\-detroit\\-will\\-become\\-markets\\-cw\\-station \\|access\\-date\\=November 8, 2023 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Broadcasting \\& Cable]] \\|date\\=November 6, 2023 \\|language\\=en}} Nexstar and The CW signed an affiliation agreement with the [E. W. Scripps Company](/wiki/E._W._Scripps_Company \"E. W. Scripps Company\")\\-owned [WMYD](/wiki/WMYD \"WMYD\"), which was announced on November 6 and took effect on November 13,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nexstar.tv/detroit\\-wmyd\\-to\\-become\\-cw\\-affiliate\\-nov\\-13/\\|title\\=Detroit's WMYD\\-TV To Become CW Affiliate On Monday, Nov. 13\\|website\\=\\[\\[Nexstar Media Group]]\\|date\\=November 6, 2023\\|accessdate\\=November 6, 2023}} leading Adell to send a [cease and desist](/wiki/Cease_and_desist \"Cease and desist\") letter to Scripps with the intention to stop The CW's agreement with Scripps from going into effect. Adell claimed Scripps conspired with Nexstar to harm WADL's business and to interfere with the Mission acquisition.{{cite web \\|last\\=Keys \\|first\\=Matthew\\|url\\=https://thedesk.net/2023/11/wadl\\-cease\\-and\\-desist\\-scripps\\-nexstar\\-detroit\\-cw/\\|title\\=WADL sends cease\\-and\\-desist to Scripps over CW in Detroit\\|website\\=TheDesk.net\\|date\\=November 7, 2023\\|accessdate\\=November 7, 2023}}",
"Despite several months of meeting with the FCC and support from groups like the Detroit chapter of the NAACP and the Rainbow Push Coalition, Adell Broadcasting owner Kevin Adell admitted the first week of April 2024 that his pending transaction with Mission and Nexstar was likely not going to get approved.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keys \\|first\\=Matthew \\|date\\=April 4, 2024 \\|title\\=Exclusive: WADL owner Kevin Adell says FCC unlikely to approve station's sale to Mission \\|url\\=https://thedesk.net/news/wadl\\-mission\\-sale\\-dead\\-kevin\\-adell\\-fcc/ \\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2024 \\|website\\=The Desk \\|language\\=en\\-us}} The affirmation came after the FCC levied a substantial fine against Mission and Nexstar over the latter's operational control of New York–based [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX \"WPIX\"), which was operated through a local marketing agreement similar to one that Mission would have engaged in shortly after the sale of WADL closed.{{Cite web \\|title\\=FCC Issues $1\\.8 Million Penalty Against Nexstar and Mission; Orders Station Divestiture \\|url\\=https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/fcc\\-issues\\-1\\-8\\-million\\-penalty\\-against\\-2488381/ \\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2024 \\|website\\=JD Supra \\|language\\=en}}",
"On April 23, 2024, however, Kevin Adell announced that FCC had given approval of Mission's application to purchase WADL, but the commission imposed conditions on the deal, namely that Nexstar cannot be involved in financing Mission's purchase of the station, and any SSA between Mission and Nexstar must provide limited performance bonuses and ad revenues to Nexstar, and that any SSA cannot include an option for Nexstar to purchase WADL outright. Though Kevin Adell indicated that Mission called the purchase conditions \"problematic\", he was optimistic that a sale to Mission would still go through.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://thedesk.net/news/fcc\\-approves\\-wadl\\-mission\\-sale\\-with\\-conditions/\\|title\\=FCC approves sale of WADL to Mission with conditions\\|website\\=TheDesk.net\\|date\\=April 23, 2024}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/problematic\\-fcc\\-conditions\\-on\\-station\\-sale\\-could\\-create\\-detroit\\-drama\\|title\\='Problematic' FCC Conditions On Station Sale Could Create Detroit Drama\\|website\\=Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|date\\=April 24, 2024}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/nexstar\\-dropping\\-scripps\\-owned\\-cw\\-affiliates\\-in\\-seven\\-markets\\|title\\=Nexstar Dropping Scripps\\-Owned The CW Affiliates in 7 Markets\\|website\\=Broadcasting \\& Cable\\|date\\=April 19, 2024}} The sale was called off on May 22, 2024, after Mission filed a non\\-consummation notice with the FCC.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/views/public/consummationDraftCopy?displayType\\=html\\&appKey\\=25076f918f97d380018fa194b220152a\\&id\\=25076f918f97d380018fa194b220152a\\&goBack\\=N\\|title\\=Non\\-Consummation Notification\\|work\\=Licensing and Management System\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federal Communications Commission]]\\|date\\=May 22, 2024\\|accessdate\\=May 22, 2024}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://thedesk.net/news/mission\\-terminates\\-deal\\-wadl\\-detroit/\\|title\\=Mission Broadcasting terminates deal to acquire Detroit's WADL\\|website\\=TheDesk.net\\|first\\=Matthew\\|last\\=Keys\\|date\\=May 22, 2024\\|accessdate\\=May 23, 2024}}",
""
] |
Programming
-----------
On June 24, 2013, WADL televised Game 6 of the [Stanley Cup Finals](/wiki/2013_Stanley_Cup_Finals "2013 Stanley Cup Finals") to allow Detroit's NBC station, WDIV\-TV, to televise the local annual Target Fireworks show.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.detroitnews.com/article/20130618/SPORTS0103/306180080/1128/sports0103/Channel\-4\-picks\-fireworks\-over\-Game\-6\-Stanley\-Cup\-Finals\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130628024532/http://www.detroitnews.com/article/20130618/SPORTS0103/306180080/1128/sports0103/Channel\-4\-picks\-fireworks\-over\-Game\-6\-Stanley\-Cup\-Finals\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=June 28, 2013\|title\=Channel 4 picks fireworks over Game 6 of Stanley Cup Finals \| The Detroit News\|access\-date\=June 24, 2013}} Through 2014, NBC established a relationship with WADL that provided airing programming that local TV station WDIV could not carry. This was an opportunity for WADL to air first\-run NBC programming such as *[Grimm](/wiki/Grimm_%28TV_series%29 "Grimm (TV series)")*, the *[Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade](/wiki/Macy%27s_Thanksgiving_Day_Parade "Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade")*, *[Growing Up Fisher](/wiki/Growing_Up_Fisher "Growing Up Fisher")*, *[Kathie Lee and Hoda](/wiki/Today_with_Hoda_%26_Jenna "Today with Hoda & Jenna")*, *[The Michael J. Fox Show](/wiki/The_Michael_J._Fox_Show "The Michael J. Fox Show")* and *[Revolution](/wiki/Revolution_%28TV_series%29 "Revolution (TV series)")*.
Beginning in August 2015, WADL was sub\-contracted by [Fox Television Stations](/wiki/Fox_Television_Stations "Fox Television Stations") to carry Fox prime time programming preempted by WJBK during their coverage of [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions") preseason football; in August 2016, by coincidence, the Lions displaced a [Major League Baseball](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball "Major League Baseball") game scheduled at the last minute by [Fox](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_on_Fox "Major League Baseball on Fox") between the [New York Yankees](/wiki/2016_New_York_Yankees_season "2016 New York Yankees season") and [Tampa Bay Rays](/wiki/2016_Tampa_Bay_Rays_season "2016 Tampa Bay Rays season"), as it was the last game [Alex Rodriguez](/wiki/Alex_Rodriguez "Alex Rodriguez") would play in.
### Newscasts
In 1992, WADL began airing a same\-night rebroadcast of WJBK's 6 p.m. newscast, typically airing in prime time at 8 p.m.; this continued until that station switched from CBS to Fox in December 1994\.
On January 5, 2012, WADL announced that it would debut half\-hour newscasts at noon and 9 p.m. on weekdays, which were produced by the [Journal Register Company](/wiki/Journal_Register_Company "Journal Register Company") (owners of *[The Macomb Daily](/wiki/The_Macomb_Daily "The Macomb Daily")*, *[Oakland Press](/wiki/Oakland_Press "Oakland Press")* and *[Southgate News\-Herald](/wiki/The_News-Herald_%28Southgate%2C_Michigan%29 "The News-Herald (Southgate, Michigan)")*),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20120105/FREE/120109961/wadl\-channel\-38\-to\-start\-9\-p\-m\-newscast\|title\=WADL\-Channel 38 to start 9 p.m. newscast\|date\=January 5, 2012\|access\-date\=November 30, 2016}} in association with the [Independent News Network](/wiki/Independent_News_Network "Independent News Network"). The station canceled the noon and 9 p.m. newscasts after only four months on May 23, 2012, filling the time slots with syndicated programming. In June 2012, WADL began producing daily five\-minute local news updates airing four times each day during the evening hours, with an hour\-long national news program supplied by [Newsmax TV](/wiki/Newsmax_TV "Newsmax TV"), at 9 p.m. on weekdays.
On January 17, 2020, WADL announced that [WJR](/wiki/WJR "WJR") fill\-in host and former WDIV\-TV reporter Kevin Dietz had joined the station to host a 10 p.m. news program, *News Now with Kevin Dietz*, to premiere on January 21\. Owner Kevin Adell stated that the program would feature longer, in\-depth segments focused on local and state politics, and would not directly compete with the newscasts on WJBK, WXYZ\-TV, WKBD\-TV, and WDIV;{{cite news \|last1\=Abdel\-Baqui \|first1\=Omar \|title\=Veteran Detroit reporter Kevin Dietz back on TV following WDIV controversy \|url\=https://www.freep.com/story/entertainment/television/2020/01/17/wdiv\-reporter\-kevin\-dietz\-news\-now/4498546002/ \|access\-date\=January 19, 2020 \|work\=\[\[Detroit Free Press]] \|date\=January 17, 2020 \|language\=en}} Dietz said that *News Now* would feature two\-to\-three stories per night and incorporate live interviews and [talk radio](/wiki/Talk_radio "Talk radio")\-style call\-ins,{{cite news \|last1\=Rubin \|first1\=Neal \|title\=Kevin Dietz back as two local TV stations add newscasts \|url\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/detroit\-city/2020/01/17/kevin\-dietz\-back\-two\-local\-stations\-add\-newscasts/4506762002/ \|access\-date\=January 19, 2020 \|work\=\[\[The Detroit News]] \|date\=January 17, 2020 \|language\=en}} including appearances by local print journalists. The launch of *News Now* coincided with the debut of a nightly newscast on WKBD\-TV the following night, along with the [2020 presidential election](/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election "2020 United States presidential election"); Adell noted that there were "a lot of political dollars", some of which he intended to collect with the new program.
|
[
"Programming\n-----------",
"On June 24, 2013, WADL televised Game 6 of the [Stanley Cup Finals](/wiki/2013_Stanley_Cup_Finals \"2013 Stanley Cup Finals\") to allow Detroit's NBC station, WDIV\\-TV, to televise the local annual Target Fireworks show.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.detroitnews.com/article/20130618/SPORTS0103/306180080/1128/sports0103/Channel\\-4\\-picks\\-fireworks\\-over\\-Game\\-6\\-Stanley\\-Cup\\-Finals\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130628024532/http://www.detroitnews.com/article/20130618/SPORTS0103/306180080/1128/sports0103/Channel\\-4\\-picks\\-fireworks\\-over\\-Game\\-6\\-Stanley\\-Cup\\-Finals\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=June 28, 2013\\|title\\=Channel 4 picks fireworks over Game 6 of Stanley Cup Finals \\| The Detroit News\\|access\\-date\\=June 24, 2013}} Through 2014, NBC established a relationship with WADL that provided airing programming that local TV station WDIV could not carry. This was an opportunity for WADL to air first\\-run NBC programming such as *[Grimm](/wiki/Grimm_%28TV_series%29 \"Grimm (TV series)\")*, the *[Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade](/wiki/Macy%27s_Thanksgiving_Day_Parade \"Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade\")*, *[Growing Up Fisher](/wiki/Growing_Up_Fisher \"Growing Up Fisher\")*, *[Kathie Lee and Hoda](/wiki/Today_with_Hoda_%26_Jenna \"Today with Hoda & Jenna\")*, *[The Michael J. Fox Show](/wiki/The_Michael_J._Fox_Show \"The Michael J. Fox Show\")* and *[Revolution](/wiki/Revolution_%28TV_series%29 \"Revolution (TV series)\")*.",
"Beginning in August 2015, WADL was sub\\-contracted by [Fox Television Stations](/wiki/Fox_Television_Stations \"Fox Television Stations\") to carry Fox prime time programming preempted by WJBK during their coverage of [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\") preseason football; in August 2016, by coincidence, the Lions displaced a [Major League Baseball](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball \"Major League Baseball\") game scheduled at the last minute by [Fox](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_on_Fox \"Major League Baseball on Fox\") between the [New York Yankees](/wiki/2016_New_York_Yankees_season \"2016 New York Yankees season\") and [Tampa Bay Rays](/wiki/2016_Tampa_Bay_Rays_season \"2016 Tampa Bay Rays season\"), as it was the last game [Alex Rodriguez](/wiki/Alex_Rodriguez \"Alex Rodriguez\") would play in.",
"### Newscasts",
"In 1992, WADL began airing a same\\-night rebroadcast of WJBK's 6 p.m. newscast, typically airing in prime time at 8 p.m.; this continued until that station switched from CBS to Fox in December 1994\\.",
"On January 5, 2012, WADL announced that it would debut half\\-hour newscasts at noon and 9 p.m. on weekdays, which were produced by the [Journal Register Company](/wiki/Journal_Register_Company \"Journal Register Company\") (owners of *[The Macomb Daily](/wiki/The_Macomb_Daily \"The Macomb Daily\")*, *[Oakland Press](/wiki/Oakland_Press \"Oakland Press\")* and *[Southgate News\\-Herald](/wiki/The_News-Herald_%28Southgate%2C_Michigan%29 \"The News-Herald (Southgate, Michigan)\")*),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20120105/FREE/120109961/wadl\\-channel\\-38\\-to\\-start\\-9\\-p\\-m\\-newscast\\|title\\=WADL\\-Channel 38 to start 9 p.m. newscast\\|date\\=January 5, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=November 30, 2016}} in association with the [Independent News Network](/wiki/Independent_News_Network \"Independent News Network\"). The station canceled the noon and 9 p.m. newscasts after only four months on May 23, 2012, filling the time slots with syndicated programming. In June 2012, WADL began producing daily five\\-minute local news updates airing four times each day during the evening hours, with an hour\\-long national news program supplied by [Newsmax TV](/wiki/Newsmax_TV \"Newsmax TV\"), at 9 p.m. on weekdays.",
"On January 17, 2020, WADL announced that [WJR](/wiki/WJR \"WJR\") fill\\-in host and former WDIV\\-TV reporter Kevin Dietz had joined the station to host a 10 p.m. news program, *News Now with Kevin Dietz*, to premiere on January 21\\. Owner Kevin Adell stated that the program would feature longer, in\\-depth segments focused on local and state politics, and would not directly compete with the newscasts on WJBK, WXYZ\\-TV, WKBD\\-TV, and WDIV;{{cite news \\|last1\\=Abdel\\-Baqui \\|first1\\=Omar \\|title\\=Veteran Detroit reporter Kevin Dietz back on TV following WDIV controversy \\|url\\=https://www.freep.com/story/entertainment/television/2020/01/17/wdiv\\-reporter\\-kevin\\-dietz\\-news\\-now/4498546002/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 19, 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Detroit Free Press]] \\|date\\=January 17, 2020 \\|language\\=en}} Dietz said that *News Now* would feature two\\-to\\-three stories per night and incorporate live interviews and [talk radio](/wiki/Talk_radio \"Talk radio\")\\-style call\\-ins,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Rubin \\|first1\\=Neal \\|title\\=Kevin Dietz back as two local TV stations add newscasts \\|url\\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/detroit\\-city/2020/01/17/kevin\\-dietz\\-back\\-two\\-local\\-stations\\-add\\-newscasts/4506762002/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 19, 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Detroit News]] \\|date\\=January 17, 2020 \\|language\\=en}} including appearances by local print journalists. The launch of *News Now* coincided with the debut of a nightly newscast on WKBD\\-TV the following night, along with the [2020 presidential election](/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election \"2020 United States presidential election\"); Adell noted that there were \"a lot of political dollars\", some of which he intended to collect with the new program.",
""
] |
Research projects driving DPWS adoption
---------------------------------------
Within the [SIRENA](https://itea4.org/project/sirena.html) project, under the auspices of the European research initiative ITEA, Schneider Electric produced an early DPWS implementation targeted at embedded devices. This implementation was open\-sourced through the SOA4D.org (SOA for Devices) Website, from which the DPWS stack (both C and Java versions) and its add\-ons (like WS\-Management and WS\-Security implementations) can be freely downloaded.
Also stemming from the SIRENA project, the "Web Services for Devices" (WS4D.org) website provides information, downloads and news about three DPWS implementations: one C implementation integrating gSOAP, one Java implementation using Axis, and another Java implementation that can use different Java editions, including Java ME.
Following the SIRENA project, a new European research project from ITEA, named SODA (Service Oriented Device and Delivery Architecture), went further into the development and implementation of an embedded DPWS stack for devices and associated tools.
The EU Research Project [SOCRADES](http://www.socrades.net) composed by heavyweights like ABB, SAP, Schneider Electric, and Siemens, are focusing on implementing, testing and piloting prototypes of DPWS\-enabled devices in the industrial automation domain. Further extending this work is the [EU AESOP](http://www.imc-aesop.eu) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407042920/http://imc\-aesop.eu/ \|date\=2013\-04\-07 }} project.
There are several proposals and/or projects having worked on an integration of DPWS with [OSGi](/wiki/OSGi "OSGi"), i.e. mainly providing an implementation for this [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 "Java (programming language)") framework.
|
[
"Research projects driving DPWS adoption\n---------------------------------------",
"Within the [SIRENA](https://itea4.org/project/sirena.html) project, under the auspices of the European research initiative ITEA, Schneider Electric produced an early DPWS implementation targeted at embedded devices. This implementation was open\\-sourced through the SOA4D.org (SOA for Devices) Website, from which the DPWS stack (both C and Java versions) and its add\\-ons (like WS\\-Management and WS\\-Security implementations) can be freely downloaded.",
"Also stemming from the SIRENA project, the \"Web Services for Devices\" (WS4D.org) website provides information, downloads and news about three DPWS implementations: one C implementation integrating gSOAP, one Java implementation using Axis, and another Java implementation that can use different Java editions, including Java ME.",
"Following the SIRENA project, a new European research project from ITEA, named SODA (Service Oriented Device and Delivery Architecture), went further into the development and implementation of an embedded DPWS stack for devices and associated tools.",
"The EU Research Project [SOCRADES](http://www.socrades.net) composed by heavyweights like ABB, SAP, Schneider Electric, and Siemens, are focusing on implementing, testing and piloting prototypes of DPWS\\-enabled devices in the industrial automation domain. Further extending this work is the [EU AESOP](http://www.imc-aesop.eu) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407042920/http://imc\\-aesop.eu/ \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-07 }} project.",
"There are several proposals and/or projects having worked on an integration of DPWS with [OSGi](/wiki/OSGi \"OSGi\"), i.e. mainly providing an implementation for this [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\") framework.",
""
] |
Service history
---------------
### World War II
After [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise "Shakedown cruise") off [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth%2C_New_Hampshire "Portsmouth, New Hampshire"), [New Hampshire](/wiki/New_Hampshire "New Hampshire"), in [Narragansett Bay](/wiki/Narragansett_Bay "Narragansett Bay"), and en route to the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal"), *Sawfish* arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii"), on 21 January 1943\. Ten days later, she got underway for the first of her 10 war patrols.
#### First and second war patrols, January–June 1943
*Sawfish* proceeded to waters off southwestern [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") where she attacked several targets and concluded that she had sunk or damaged some. However, it turned out that she had mistakenly sunk two neutral [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") cargo ships on the [Pacific Route](/wiki/Pacific_Route "Pacific Route"), *Kola* on 16 February 1943 and *Ilmen* on 17 February.Hinman \& Campbell, Appendix B, unpaginated. A careful study of Japanese and American records after the war did not confirm any other sinkings on *Sawfish*{{'}}s first war patrol, which ended when she reached [Midway Atoll](/wiki/Midway_Atoll "Midway Atoll") in the [Northwestern Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands "Northwestern Hawaiian Islands") on 25 March 1943\.
The submarine departed Midway on 15 April and headed for Japan. On 5 May off the coast of [Honshū](/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB "Honshū"), she sank the converted [gunboat](/wiki/Gunboat "Gunboat"), *Hakkai Maru*. A fortnight later, she stalked an enemy task force but lost her quarry in heavy swells. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 6 June.
#### Third war patrol, June–August 1943
Underway again on the last day of the month, *Sawfish* set course for the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea "East China Sea"). On the night of 21 July, she attacked [convoy Hi\-3](/wiki/Hi_convoys "Hi convoys") of nine ships and concluded that she had scored several hits. However, postwar assessment of records was unable to confirm any kills during this attack or during her operations for the next five days.
Finally, early on the morning of 27 July, her luck changed when she attacked a convoy escorted by a 720\-ton minelayer. Comdr. Sands fired a spread of four [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") from a range of only {{convert\|750\|yd\|m}}. He went deep as soon as the “fish” were clear and, in less than half a minute, the submarine was jolted by a violent explosion. Fearing that the detonation had been premature, Sands remained deep for over an hour. When he ascended to [periscope depth](/wiki/Periscope_depth "Periscope depth"), the convoy had escaped, but the escort, coastal minelayer, *Hirashima*, was sinking. *Sawfish* returned to Pearl Harbor on 10 August.
#### Fourth and fifth war patrols, September–December 1943
During her fourth patrol, 10 September to 16 October, defective torpedoes frustrated the seven attacks which she made in the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan "Sea of Japan") before she returned to Midway. She got underway for the [Bonins](/wiki/Bonin_Islands "Bonin Islands") and her fifth patrol on 1 November. On 8 December, she sank 3,267\-ton passenger\-cargo ship, *Sansei Maru*, and returned to Midway on 19 December. She soon proceeded to [Hunter's Point Navy Yard](/wiki/Hunter%27s_Point_Naval_Shipyard "Hunter's Point Naval Shipyard"), [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"), for overhaul.
#### Sixth and seventh war patrols, April–August 1944
Back in top trim, the submarine returned to Pearl Harbor early in the spring. On 8 April 1944, she got underway for Japanese waters and her sixth war patrol. However, she only encountered two targets: a cargo ship which she attacked on 25 April and a second vessel which she sighted four days later—too fast and too far away for the submarine to attack. Although the submarine reported scoring two hits on the cargo ship, Japanese records contain no evidence of any sinking in the vicinity of the attack.
During her seventh war patrol, *Sawfish* joined {{USS\|Rock\|SS\-274\|2}} and {{USS\|Tilefish\|SS\-307\|2}} for [wolfpack](/wiki/Wolf_pack_%28submarines%29 "Wolf pack (submarines)") operations. The submarines sortied from [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro "Majuro") on 22 June and headed for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"). On 18 July, she damaged a [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 "Tanker (ship)") and, on 26 July, fired a spread of four torpedoes at surfaced Japanese submarine {{Jsub\|I\-29\|\|2}} (one of only six [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers") submarines to attempt trans\-oceanic [Yanagi missions](/wiki/Yanagi_missions "Yanagi missions")), which exploded and sank. After a fruitless chase of a large Japanese convoy, the wolfpack ended the patrol at Pearl Harbor on 15 August.
#### Eighth war patrol, September–November 1944
During *Sawfish'''s eighth war patrol, her commanding officer, Comdr. [Alan B. Banister](/wiki/Alan_B._Banister "Alan B. Banister"), led a wolfpack which included {{USS\|Drum\|SS\-228\|2}}, {{USS\|Icefish\|SS\-367\|2}} and from time to time other submarines. The pack departed Pearl Harbor on 9 September and headed for waters south of [Formosa](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") where the submarines took a heavy toll on enemy shipping.* Sawfish*, herself, accounted for a 6,521\-ton tanker,* Tachibana Maru*, on 9 October and a 6,838\-ton [seaplane tender](/wiki/Seaplane_tender "Seaplane tender"), {{ship\|Japanese seaplane tender\|Kimikawa Maru\|\|2}}, on 23 October.*
During the patrol, Sawfish *also served on lifeguard station off Formosa in support of [carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier") raids. On 16 October, she rescued a pilot from [VF\-15](/wiki/VF-15 "VF-15") of {{USS\|Essex\|CV\-9\|6}}) who had survived four and one\-half days at sea in a small rubber boat without food, water, or sunshade. The wolfpack returned to [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro "Majuro") on 8 November.*
#### Ninth and tenth war patrols, December 1944–April 1945
Sawfish *got underway on 17 December 1944 and returned to waters off Formosa where she spent her entire ninth war patrol on lifeguard station. She rescued a pilot on 21 January 1945 before heading toward [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam"). She reached [Apra Harbor](/wiki/Apra_Harbor "Apra Harbor") on 4 February for refit.*
Sawfish *sailed on 10 March for her 10th and last war patrol, which she spent on lifeguard station off [Nansei Shoto](/wiki/Nansei_Shoto "Nansei Shoto") supporting air strikes preparing for and covering the [conquest of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa "Battle of Okinawa"). She returned to Pearl Harbor on 26 April and soon proceeded to San Francisco for overhaul in the [Bethlehem Steel Company](/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel_Company "Bethlehem Steel Company") yard there.*
### Post\-World War II
Sawfish *was heading toward Hawaii on 15 August 1945 when hostilities ended. She reached Pearl Harbor on 22 August but soon headed back to the west coast for duty as a training ship for the West Coast Fleet Sound School. She returned to Hawaii early in 1946 but was back at San Francisco on 22 March for inactivation. She was decommissioned on 26 June 1946 and remained in reserve at [Mare Island Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Mare_Island_Naval_Shipyard "Mare Island Naval Shipyard") until May 1947 when she proceeded to [San Pedro](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_California "San Pedro, California") for duty as a Naval Reserve training ship. On 1 April 1960,* Sawfish *was stricken from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") and scrapped.*
Honors and awards
-----------------
Sawfish *received eight [battle stars](/wiki/Battle_star "Battle star") for service during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").*
{{clear}}
In popular culture
------------------
USS * Sawfish *is credited in the 1957–58 television series* The Silent Service *as the platform for the film sequences.
The name "USS*
* Sawfish*" is used for a fictional nuclear\-powered submarine in the 1959 film [*On the Beach*](/wiki/On_the_Beach_%281959_film%29 "On the Beach (1959 film)"), where it is portrayed by {{HMS\|Andrew\|P423\|6}}, a [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") [diesel\-electric](/wiki/Diesel-electric "Diesel-electric") submarine.
USS*
* Sawfish *portrayed the fictional submarine USS* Moray'' in the Season 3 Episode 23 episode of [*Perry Mason*](/wiki/Perry_Mason_%281957_TV_series%29 "Perry Mason (1957 TV series)"), "The Case of the Slandered Submarine" (1960\).
|
[
"Service history\n---------------",
"### World War II",
"After [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise \"Shakedown cruise\") off [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth%2C_New_Hampshire \"Portsmouth, New Hampshire\"), [New Hampshire](/wiki/New_Hampshire \"New Hampshire\"), in [Narragansett Bay](/wiki/Narragansett_Bay \"Narragansett Bay\"), and en route to the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\"), *Sawfish* arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"), on 21 January 1943\\. Ten days later, she got underway for the first of her 10 war patrols.",
"#### First and second war patrols, January–June 1943",
"*Sawfish* proceeded to waters off southwestern [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") where she attacked several targets and concluded that she had sunk or damaged some. However, it turned out that she had mistakenly sunk two neutral [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") cargo ships on the [Pacific Route](/wiki/Pacific_Route \"Pacific Route\"), *Kola* on 16 February 1943 and *Ilmen* on 17 February.Hinman \\& Campbell, Appendix B, unpaginated. A careful study of Japanese and American records after the war did not confirm any other sinkings on *Sawfish*{{'}}s first war patrol, which ended when she reached [Midway Atoll](/wiki/Midway_Atoll \"Midway Atoll\") in the [Northwestern Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands \"Northwestern Hawaiian Islands\") on 25 March 1943\\.",
"The submarine departed Midway on 15 April and headed for Japan. On 5 May off the coast of [Honshū](/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB \"Honshū\"), she sank the converted [gunboat](/wiki/Gunboat \"Gunboat\"), *Hakkai Maru*. A fortnight later, she stalked an enemy task force but lost her quarry in heavy swells. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 6 June.",
"#### Third war patrol, June–August 1943",
"Underway again on the last day of the month, *Sawfish* set course for the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea \"East China Sea\"). On the night of 21 July, she attacked [convoy Hi\\-3](/wiki/Hi_convoys \"Hi convoys\") of nine ships and concluded that she had scored several hits. However, postwar assessment of records was unable to confirm any kills during this attack or during her operations for the next five days.",
"Finally, early on the morning of 27 July, her luck changed when she attacked a convoy escorted by a 720\\-ton minelayer. Comdr. Sands fired a spread of four [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") from a range of only {{convert\\|750\\|yd\\|m}}. He went deep as soon as the “fish” were clear and, in less than half a minute, the submarine was jolted by a violent explosion. Fearing that the detonation had been premature, Sands remained deep for over an hour. When he ascended to [periscope depth](/wiki/Periscope_depth \"Periscope depth\"), the convoy had escaped, but the escort, coastal minelayer, *Hirashima*, was sinking. *Sawfish* returned to Pearl Harbor on 10 August.",
"#### Fourth and fifth war patrols, September–December 1943",
"During her fourth patrol, 10 September to 16 October, defective torpedoes frustrated the seven attacks which she made in the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan \"Sea of Japan\") before she returned to Midway. She got underway for the [Bonins](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\") and her fifth patrol on 1 November. On 8 December, she sank 3,267\\-ton passenger\\-cargo ship, *Sansei Maru*, and returned to Midway on 19 December. She soon proceeded to [Hunter's Point Navy Yard](/wiki/Hunter%27s_Point_Naval_Shipyard \"Hunter's Point Naval Shipyard\"), [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"), for overhaul.",
"#### Sixth and seventh war patrols, April–August 1944",
"Back in top trim, the submarine returned to Pearl Harbor early in the spring. On 8 April 1944, she got underway for Japanese waters and her sixth war patrol. However, she only encountered two targets: a cargo ship which she attacked on 25 April and a second vessel which she sighted four days later—too fast and too far away for the submarine to attack. Although the submarine reported scoring two hits on the cargo ship, Japanese records contain no evidence of any sinking in the vicinity of the attack.",
"During her seventh war patrol, *Sawfish* joined {{USS\\|Rock\\|SS\\-274\\|2}} and {{USS\\|Tilefish\\|SS\\-307\\|2}} for [wolfpack](/wiki/Wolf_pack_%28submarines%29 \"Wolf pack (submarines)\") operations. The submarines sortied from [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\") on 22 June and headed for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"). On 18 July, she damaged a [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 \"Tanker (ship)\") and, on 26 July, fired a spread of four torpedoes at surfaced Japanese submarine {{Jsub\\|I\\-29\\|\\|2}} (one of only six [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\") submarines to attempt trans\\-oceanic [Yanagi missions](/wiki/Yanagi_missions \"Yanagi missions\")), which exploded and sank. After a fruitless chase of a large Japanese convoy, the wolfpack ended the patrol at Pearl Harbor on 15 August.",
"#### Eighth war patrol, September–November 1944",
"During *Sawfish'''s eighth war patrol, her commanding officer, Comdr. [Alan B. Banister](/wiki/Alan_B._Banister \"Alan B. Banister\"), led a wolfpack which included {{USS\\|Drum\\|SS\\-228\\|2}}, {{USS\\|Icefish\\|SS\\-367\\|2}} and from time to time other submarines. The pack departed Pearl Harbor on 9 September and headed for waters south of [Formosa](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") where the submarines took a heavy toll on enemy shipping.* Sawfish*, herself, accounted for a 6,521\\-ton tanker,* Tachibana Maru*, on 9 October and a 6,838\\-ton [seaplane tender](/wiki/Seaplane_tender \"Seaplane tender\"), {{ship\\|Japanese seaplane tender\\|Kimikawa Maru\\|\\|2}}, on 23 October.*",
"During the patrol, Sawfish *also served on lifeguard station off Formosa in support of [carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\") raids. On 16 October, she rescued a pilot from [VF\\-15](/wiki/VF-15 \"VF-15\") of {{USS\\|Essex\\|CV\\-9\\|6}}) who had survived four and one\\-half days at sea in a small rubber boat without food, water, or sunshade. The wolfpack returned to [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\") on 8 November.*",
"#### Ninth and tenth war patrols, December 1944–April 1945",
"Sawfish *got underway on 17 December 1944 and returned to waters off Formosa where she spent her entire ninth war patrol on lifeguard station. She rescued a pilot on 21 January 1945 before heading toward [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\"). She reached [Apra Harbor](/wiki/Apra_Harbor \"Apra Harbor\") on 4 February for refit.*",
"Sawfish *sailed on 10 March for her 10th and last war patrol, which she spent on lifeguard station off [Nansei Shoto](/wiki/Nansei_Shoto \"Nansei Shoto\") supporting air strikes preparing for and covering the [conquest of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa \"Battle of Okinawa\"). She returned to Pearl Harbor on 26 April and soon proceeded to San Francisco for overhaul in the [Bethlehem Steel Company](/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel_Company \"Bethlehem Steel Company\") yard there.*",
"### Post\\-World War II",
"Sawfish *was heading toward Hawaii on 15 August 1945 when hostilities ended. She reached Pearl Harbor on 22 August but soon headed back to the west coast for duty as a training ship for the West Coast Fleet Sound School. She returned to Hawaii early in 1946 but was back at San Francisco on 22 March for inactivation. She was decommissioned on 26 June 1946 and remained in reserve at [Mare Island Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Mare_Island_Naval_Shipyard \"Mare Island Naval Shipyard\") until May 1947 when she proceeded to [San Pedro](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_California \"San Pedro, California\") for duty as a Naval Reserve training ship. On 1 April 1960,* Sawfish *was stricken from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") and scrapped.*",
"Honors and awards\n-----------------",
"Sawfish *received eight [battle stars](/wiki/Battle_star \"Battle star\") for service during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").*",
"{{clear}}\nIn popular culture\n------------------",
"USS * Sawfish *is credited in the 1957–58 television series* The Silent Service *as the platform for the film sequences.\n The name \"USS*\n* Sawfish*\" is used for a fictional nuclear\\-powered submarine in the 1959 film [*On the Beach*](/wiki/On_the_Beach_%281959_film%29 \"On the Beach (1959 film)\"), where it is portrayed by {{HMS\\|Andrew\\|P423\\|6}}, a [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") [diesel\\-electric](/wiki/Diesel-electric \"Diesel-electric\") submarine.\n USS*\n* Sawfish *portrayed the fictional submarine USS* Moray'' in the Season 3 Episode 23 episode of [*Perry Mason*](/wiki/Perry_Mason_%281957_TV_series%29 \"Perry Mason (1957 TV series)\"), \"The Case of the Slandered Submarine\" (1960\\)."
] |
### World War II
After [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise "Shakedown cruise") off [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth%2C_New_Hampshire "Portsmouth, New Hampshire"), [New Hampshire](/wiki/New_Hampshire "New Hampshire"), in [Narragansett Bay](/wiki/Narragansett_Bay "Narragansett Bay"), and en route to the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal"), *Sawfish* arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii"), on 21 January 1943\. Ten days later, she got underway for the first of her 10 war patrols.
#### First and second war patrols, January–June 1943
*Sawfish* proceeded to waters off southwestern [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") where she attacked several targets and concluded that she had sunk or damaged some. However, it turned out that she had mistakenly sunk two neutral [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") cargo ships on the [Pacific Route](/wiki/Pacific_Route "Pacific Route"), *Kola* on 16 February 1943 and *Ilmen* on 17 February.Hinman \& Campbell, Appendix B, unpaginated. A careful study of Japanese and American records after the war did not confirm any other sinkings on *Sawfish*{{'}}s first war patrol, which ended when she reached [Midway Atoll](/wiki/Midway_Atoll "Midway Atoll") in the [Northwestern Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands "Northwestern Hawaiian Islands") on 25 March 1943\.
The submarine departed Midway on 15 April and headed for Japan. On 5 May off the coast of [Honshū](/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB "Honshū"), she sank the converted [gunboat](/wiki/Gunboat "Gunboat"), *Hakkai Maru*. A fortnight later, she stalked an enemy task force but lost her quarry in heavy swells. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 6 June.
#### Third war patrol, June–August 1943
Underway again on the last day of the month, *Sawfish* set course for the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea "East China Sea"). On the night of 21 July, she attacked [convoy Hi\-3](/wiki/Hi_convoys "Hi convoys") of nine ships and concluded that she had scored several hits. However, postwar assessment of records was unable to confirm any kills during this attack or during her operations for the next five days.
Finally, early on the morning of 27 July, her luck changed when she attacked a convoy escorted by a 720\-ton minelayer. Comdr. Sands fired a spread of four [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") from a range of only {{convert\|750\|yd\|m}}. He went deep as soon as the “fish” were clear and, in less than half a minute, the submarine was jolted by a violent explosion. Fearing that the detonation had been premature, Sands remained deep for over an hour. When he ascended to [periscope depth](/wiki/Periscope_depth "Periscope depth"), the convoy had escaped, but the escort, coastal minelayer, *Hirashima*, was sinking. *Sawfish* returned to Pearl Harbor on 10 August.
#### Fourth and fifth war patrols, September–December 1943
During her fourth patrol, 10 September to 16 October, defective torpedoes frustrated the seven attacks which she made in the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan "Sea of Japan") before she returned to Midway. She got underway for the [Bonins](/wiki/Bonin_Islands "Bonin Islands") and her fifth patrol on 1 November. On 8 December, she sank 3,267\-ton passenger\-cargo ship, *Sansei Maru*, and returned to Midway on 19 December. She soon proceeded to [Hunter's Point Navy Yard](/wiki/Hunter%27s_Point_Naval_Shipyard "Hunter's Point Naval Shipyard"), [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"), for overhaul.
#### Sixth and seventh war patrols, April–August 1944
Back in top trim, the submarine returned to Pearl Harbor early in the spring. On 8 April 1944, she got underway for Japanese waters and her sixth war patrol. However, she only encountered two targets: a cargo ship which she attacked on 25 April and a second vessel which she sighted four days later—too fast and too far away for the submarine to attack. Although the submarine reported scoring two hits on the cargo ship, Japanese records contain no evidence of any sinking in the vicinity of the attack.
During her seventh war patrol, *Sawfish* joined {{USS\|Rock\|SS\-274\|2}} and {{USS\|Tilefish\|SS\-307\|2}} for [wolfpack](/wiki/Wolf_pack_%28submarines%29 "Wolf pack (submarines)") operations. The submarines sortied from [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro "Majuro") on 22 June and headed for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"). On 18 July, she damaged a [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 "Tanker (ship)") and, on 26 July, fired a spread of four torpedoes at surfaced Japanese submarine {{Jsub\|I\-29\|\|2}} (one of only six [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers") submarines to attempt trans\-oceanic [Yanagi missions](/wiki/Yanagi_missions "Yanagi missions")), which exploded and sank. After a fruitless chase of a large Japanese convoy, the wolfpack ended the patrol at Pearl Harbor on 15 August.
#### Eighth war patrol, September–November 1944
During *Sawfish'''s eighth war patrol, her commanding officer, Comdr. [Alan B. Banister](/wiki/Alan_B._Banister "Alan B. Banister"), led a wolfpack which included {{USS\|Drum\|SS\-228\|2}}, {{USS\|Icefish\|SS\-367\|2}} and from time to time other submarines. The pack departed Pearl Harbor on 9 September and headed for waters south of [Formosa](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") where the submarines took a heavy toll on enemy shipping.* Sawfish*, herself, accounted for a 6,521\-ton tanker,* Tachibana Maru*, on 9 October and a 6,838\-ton [seaplane tender](/wiki/Seaplane_tender "Seaplane tender"), {{ship\|Japanese seaplane tender\|Kimikawa Maru\|\|2}}, on 23 October.*
During the patrol, Sawfish *also served on lifeguard station off Formosa in support of [carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier") raids. On 16 October, she rescued a pilot from [VF\-15](/wiki/VF-15 "VF-15") of {{USS\|Essex\|CV\-9\|6}}) who had survived four and one\-half days at sea in a small rubber boat without food, water, or sunshade. The wolfpack returned to [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro "Majuro") on 8 November.*
#### Ninth and tenth war patrols, December 1944–April 1945
Sawfish *got underway on 17 December 1944 and returned to waters off Formosa where she spent her entire ninth war patrol on lifeguard station. She rescued a pilot on 21 January 1945 before heading toward [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam"). She reached [Apra Harbor](/wiki/Apra_Harbor "Apra Harbor") on 4 February for refit.*
Sawfish *sailed on 10 March for her 10th and last war patrol, which she spent on lifeguard station off [Nansei Shoto](/wiki/Nansei_Shoto "Nansei Shoto") supporting air strikes preparing for and covering the [conquest of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa "Battle of Okinawa"). She returned to Pearl Harbor on 26 April and soon proceeded to San Francisco for overhaul in the [Bethlehem Steel Company](/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel_Company "Bethlehem Steel Company") yard there.*
### Post\-World War II
Sawfish *was heading toward Hawaii on 15 August 1945 when hostilities ended. She reached Pearl Harbor on 22 August but soon headed back to the west coast for duty as a training ship for the West Coast Fleet Sound School. She returned to Hawaii early in 1946 but was back at San Francisco on 22 March for inactivation. She was decommissioned on 26 June 1946 and remained in reserve at [Mare Island Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Mare_Island_Naval_Shipyard "Mare Island Naval Shipyard") until May 1947 when she proceeded to [San Pedro](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_California "San Pedro, California") for duty as a Naval Reserve training ship. On 1 April 1960,* Sawfish *was stricken from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") and scrapped.*
Honors and awards
-----------------
Sawfish *received eight [battle stars](/wiki/Battle_star "Battle star") for service during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").*
{{clear}}
In popular culture
------------------
USS * Sawfish *is credited in the 1957–58 television series* The Silent Service *as the platform for the film sequences.
The name "USS*
* Sawfish*" is used for a fictional nuclear\-powered submarine in the 1959 film [*On the Beach*](/wiki/On_the_Beach_%281959_film%29 "On the Beach (1959 film)"), where it is portrayed by {{HMS\|Andrew\|P423\|6}}, a [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") [diesel\-electric](/wiki/Diesel-electric "Diesel-electric") submarine.
USS*
* Sawfish *portrayed the fictional submarine USS* Moray'' in the Season 3 Episode 23 episode of [*Perry Mason*](/wiki/Perry_Mason_%281957_TV_series%29 "Perry Mason (1957 TV series)"), "The Case of the Slandered Submarine" (1960\).
|
[
"### World War II",
"After [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise \"Shakedown cruise\") off [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth%2C_New_Hampshire \"Portsmouth, New Hampshire\"), [New Hampshire](/wiki/New_Hampshire \"New Hampshire\"), in [Narragansett Bay](/wiki/Narragansett_Bay \"Narragansett Bay\"), and en route to the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\"), *Sawfish* arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"), on 21 January 1943\\. Ten days later, she got underway for the first of her 10 war patrols.",
"#### First and second war patrols, January–June 1943",
"*Sawfish* proceeded to waters off southwestern [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") where she attacked several targets and concluded that she had sunk or damaged some. However, it turned out that she had mistakenly sunk two neutral [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") cargo ships on the [Pacific Route](/wiki/Pacific_Route \"Pacific Route\"), *Kola* on 16 February 1943 and *Ilmen* on 17 February.Hinman \\& Campbell, Appendix B, unpaginated. A careful study of Japanese and American records after the war did not confirm any other sinkings on *Sawfish*{{'}}s first war patrol, which ended when she reached [Midway Atoll](/wiki/Midway_Atoll \"Midway Atoll\") in the [Northwestern Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands \"Northwestern Hawaiian Islands\") on 25 March 1943\\.",
"The submarine departed Midway on 15 April and headed for Japan. On 5 May off the coast of [Honshū](/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB \"Honshū\"), she sank the converted [gunboat](/wiki/Gunboat \"Gunboat\"), *Hakkai Maru*. A fortnight later, she stalked an enemy task force but lost her quarry in heavy swells. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 6 June.",
"#### Third war patrol, June–August 1943",
"Underway again on the last day of the month, *Sawfish* set course for the [East China Sea](/wiki/East_China_Sea \"East China Sea\"). On the night of 21 July, she attacked [convoy Hi\\-3](/wiki/Hi_convoys \"Hi convoys\") of nine ships and concluded that she had scored several hits. However, postwar assessment of records was unable to confirm any kills during this attack or during her operations for the next five days.",
"Finally, early on the morning of 27 July, her luck changed when she attacked a convoy escorted by a 720\\-ton minelayer. Comdr. Sands fired a spread of four [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") from a range of only {{convert\\|750\\|yd\\|m}}. He went deep as soon as the “fish” were clear and, in less than half a minute, the submarine was jolted by a violent explosion. Fearing that the detonation had been premature, Sands remained deep for over an hour. When he ascended to [periscope depth](/wiki/Periscope_depth \"Periscope depth\"), the convoy had escaped, but the escort, coastal minelayer, *Hirashima*, was sinking. *Sawfish* returned to Pearl Harbor on 10 August.",
"#### Fourth and fifth war patrols, September–December 1943",
"During her fourth patrol, 10 September to 16 October, defective torpedoes frustrated the seven attacks which she made in the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan \"Sea of Japan\") before she returned to Midway. She got underway for the [Bonins](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\") and her fifth patrol on 1 November. On 8 December, she sank 3,267\\-ton passenger\\-cargo ship, *Sansei Maru*, and returned to Midway on 19 December. She soon proceeded to [Hunter's Point Navy Yard](/wiki/Hunter%27s_Point_Naval_Shipyard \"Hunter's Point Naval Shipyard\"), [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"), for overhaul.",
"#### Sixth and seventh war patrols, April–August 1944",
"Back in top trim, the submarine returned to Pearl Harbor early in the spring. On 8 April 1944, she got underway for Japanese waters and her sixth war patrol. However, she only encountered two targets: a cargo ship which she attacked on 25 April and a second vessel which she sighted four days later—too fast and too far away for the submarine to attack. Although the submarine reported scoring two hits on the cargo ship, Japanese records contain no evidence of any sinking in the vicinity of the attack.",
"During her seventh war patrol, *Sawfish* joined {{USS\\|Rock\\|SS\\-274\\|2}} and {{USS\\|Tilefish\\|SS\\-307\\|2}} for [wolfpack](/wiki/Wolf_pack_%28submarines%29 \"Wolf pack (submarines)\") operations. The submarines sortied from [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\") on 22 June and headed for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"). On 18 July, she damaged a [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 \"Tanker (ship)\") and, on 26 July, fired a spread of four torpedoes at surfaced Japanese submarine {{Jsub\\|I\\-29\\|\\|2}} (one of only six [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\") submarines to attempt trans\\-oceanic [Yanagi missions](/wiki/Yanagi_missions \"Yanagi missions\")), which exploded and sank. After a fruitless chase of a large Japanese convoy, the wolfpack ended the patrol at Pearl Harbor on 15 August.",
"#### Eighth war patrol, September–November 1944",
"During *Sawfish'''s eighth war patrol, her commanding officer, Comdr. [Alan B. Banister](/wiki/Alan_B._Banister \"Alan B. Banister\"), led a wolfpack which included {{USS\\|Drum\\|SS\\-228\\|2}}, {{USS\\|Icefish\\|SS\\-367\\|2}} and from time to time other submarines. The pack departed Pearl Harbor on 9 September and headed for waters south of [Formosa](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") where the submarines took a heavy toll on enemy shipping.* Sawfish*, herself, accounted for a 6,521\\-ton tanker,* Tachibana Maru*, on 9 October and a 6,838\\-ton [seaplane tender](/wiki/Seaplane_tender \"Seaplane tender\"), {{ship\\|Japanese seaplane tender\\|Kimikawa Maru\\|\\|2}}, on 23 October.*",
"During the patrol, Sawfish *also served on lifeguard station off Formosa in support of [carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\") raids. On 16 October, she rescued a pilot from [VF\\-15](/wiki/VF-15 \"VF-15\") of {{USS\\|Essex\\|CV\\-9\\|6}}) who had survived four and one\\-half days at sea in a small rubber boat without food, water, or sunshade. The wolfpack returned to [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\") on 8 November.*",
"#### Ninth and tenth war patrols, December 1944–April 1945",
"Sawfish *got underway on 17 December 1944 and returned to waters off Formosa where she spent her entire ninth war patrol on lifeguard station. She rescued a pilot on 21 January 1945 before heading toward [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\"). She reached [Apra Harbor](/wiki/Apra_Harbor \"Apra Harbor\") on 4 February for refit.*",
"Sawfish *sailed on 10 March for her 10th and last war patrol, which she spent on lifeguard station off [Nansei Shoto](/wiki/Nansei_Shoto \"Nansei Shoto\") supporting air strikes preparing for and covering the [conquest of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa \"Battle of Okinawa\"). She returned to Pearl Harbor on 26 April and soon proceeded to San Francisco for overhaul in the [Bethlehem Steel Company](/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel_Company \"Bethlehem Steel Company\") yard there.*",
"### Post\\-World War II",
"Sawfish *was heading toward Hawaii on 15 August 1945 when hostilities ended. She reached Pearl Harbor on 22 August but soon headed back to the west coast for duty as a training ship for the West Coast Fleet Sound School. She returned to Hawaii early in 1946 but was back at San Francisco on 22 March for inactivation. She was decommissioned on 26 June 1946 and remained in reserve at [Mare Island Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Mare_Island_Naval_Shipyard \"Mare Island Naval Shipyard\") until May 1947 when she proceeded to [San Pedro](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_California \"San Pedro, California\") for duty as a Naval Reserve training ship. On 1 April 1960,* Sawfish *was stricken from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") and scrapped.*",
"Honors and awards\n-----------------",
"Sawfish *received eight [battle stars](/wiki/Battle_star \"Battle star\") for service during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").*",
"{{clear}}\nIn popular culture\n------------------",
"USS * Sawfish *is credited in the 1957–58 television series* The Silent Service *as the platform for the film sequences.\n The name \"USS*\n* Sawfish*\" is used for a fictional nuclear\\-powered submarine in the 1959 film [*On the Beach*](/wiki/On_the_Beach_%281959_film%29 \"On the Beach (1959 film)\"), where it is portrayed by {{HMS\\|Andrew\\|P423\\|6}}, a [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") [diesel\\-electric](/wiki/Diesel-electric \"Diesel-electric\") submarine.\n USS*\n* Sawfish *portrayed the fictional submarine USS* Moray'' in the Season 3 Episode 23 episode of [*Perry Mason*](/wiki/Perry_Mason_%281957_TV_series%29 \"Perry Mason (1957 TV series)\"), \"The Case of the Slandered Submarine\" (1960\\)."
] |
Pests of grape
--------------
For [insect pests](/wiki/Insect_crop_pest "Insect crop pest") see {{section link\|\|Glassy\-winged sharpshooter}} (GWSS){{cite journal \|title \= The Biology of Xylem Fluid\-Feeding Insect Vectors of ''Xylella fastidiosa'' and Their Relation to Disease Epidemiology \|date \= 2004 \|doi \= 10\.1146/annurev.ento.49\.061802\.123403 \|pages \= 243–70 \|volume \= 49 \|first1 \= Richard A. \|last1 \= Redak \|first2 \= Alexander H. \|last2 \= Purcell \|first3 \= João R.S. \|last3 \= Lopes \|first4 \= Matthew J. \|last4 \= Blua \|first5 \= Russell F. \|last5 \= Mizell III \|first6 \= Peter C. \|last6 \= Andersen \|journal \= \[\[Annual Review of Entomology]] \|publisher \= \[\[Annual Reviews (publisher)\|Annual Reviews]] \|pmid \= 14651464 }} and {{section link\|\|Blue\-Green Sharpshooter}} (BGSS).
The arrival of the European Grapevine Moth (EGVM) in [Napa County](/wiki/Napa_County "Napa County") in 2009 brought together local, state and federal agricultural officials, scientists in California universities, and the wine, table and raisin industries. Together they brought about an eradication by 2015 and the effort was declared a success in August 2016\.{{cite book\|year\=2021\|edition\=1\|publisher\=\[\[CRC Press]]\|pages\=1028\|first3\=Marc\|first2\=Rui\|first1\=Jorge\|last3\=Vreysen\|last2\=Pereira\|last1\=Hendrichs\|title\=Area\-wide Integrated Pest Management\|isbn\=9781003169239\|id\={{isbn\|9781000393460}}}}{{rp\|582}}
{{Unbulleted list citebundle
\|{{\*}} {{cite journal \|last1 \= Gilligan \|first1 \= Todd M. \|last2 \= Epstein \|first2 \= Marc E. \|last3 \= Passoa \|first3 \= Steven C. \|last4 \= Powell \|first4 \= Jerry A. \|last5 \= Sage \|first5 \= Obediah C. \|last6 \= Brown \|first6 \= John W. \|title \= Discovery of ''Lobesia botrana'' (\[Denis \& Schiffermüller]) in California: An Invasive Species New to North America (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) \|journal \= \[\[Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington]] \|publisher \= \[\[Entomological Society of Washington]] \|volume \= 113 \|issue \= 1 \|year \= 2011 \|issn \= 0013\-8797 \|doi \= 10\.4289/0013\-8797\.113\.1\.14 \|pages \= 14–30 \|s2cid \= 84709211 }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite journal \|last1 \= Schartel \|first1 \= Tyler E \|last2 \= Bayles \|first2 \= Brett R \|last3 \= Cooper \|first3 \= Monica L \|last4 \= Simmons \|first4 \= Gregory S \|last5 \= Thomas \|first5 \= Shyam M \|last6 \= Varela \|first6 \= Lucia G \|last7 \= Daugherty \|first7 \= Matthew P \|title \= Reconstructing the European Grapevine Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Invasion in California: Insights From a Successful Eradication \|journal \= \[\[Annals of the Entomological Society of America]] \|publisher \= \[\[Oxford University Press]] \|volume \= 112 \|issue \= 2 \|date \= January 4, 2019 \|issn \= 0013\-8746 \|doi \= 10\.1093/aesa/say056 \|pages \= 107–117 \|id\= \[\[Entomological Society of America]] }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite web \|title \= European Grapevine Moth \|website \= USDA \[\[Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service]] \|url \= http://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests\-diseases/hungry\-pests/the\-threat/hp\-egvm \|access\-date \= July 3, 2022 }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite web \|url \= http://ipm.ucanr.edu/Invasive\-and\-Exotic\-Pests/European\-grapevine\-moth/ \|title \= European Grapevine Moth \|date \= November 2009 \|website \= \[\[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] \|first1 \= Frank G. \|last1 \= Zalom \|first2 \= Lucia G. \|last2 \= Varela \|first3 \= Monica \|last3 \= Cooper }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite web \|first1 \= Barrett \|last1 \= Gruber \|first2 \= Matt \|last2 \= Daugherty \|title \= European Grapevine Moth \|website \= \[\[Center for Invasive Species Research]] \|publisher \= University of California Riverside \|date \= December 26, 2019 \|url \= http://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive\-species/european\-grapevine\-moth \|access\-date \= July 3, 2022 }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite web \|title \= Plant Health \- European Grapevine Moth Pest Profile \|website \= \[\[Plant Health and Pest Prevention Services Division]], \[\[California Department of Food and Agriculture\|CDFA]] \|date \= January 10, 2017 \|url \= http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/pdep/target\_pest\_disease\_profiles/EGVM\_PestProfile.html \|access\-date \= July 3, 2022 }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite web \|title \= European Grapevine Moth (EGVM) \|website \= \[\[County of Sonoma]] \|date \= August 18, 2016 \|url \= http://sonomacounty.ca.gov/natural\-resources/agricultural\-weights\-and\-measures/programs\-and\-services/european\-grapevine\-moth \|access\-date \= July 3, 2022 }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite web \|title \= European Grapevine Moth \|website \= \[\[National Invasive Species Information Center]] \|date \= March 8, 2019 \|url \= http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/terrestrial/invertebrates/european\-grapevine\-moth \|access\-date \= July 3, 2022 }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite web \|title \= European Grapevine Moth Cooperative Eradication Program: A Model for Fighting Future Invasive Species Threats \|website \= \[\[United States Department of Agriculture]] \|date \= November 2, 2016 \|url \= http://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2016/11/02/european\-grapevine\-moth\-cooperative\-eradication\-program\-model\-fighting\-future \|access\-date \= July 3, 2022 }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite web \|title \= European Grapevine Moth \|website \= \[\[Napa County, CA]] \|date \= August 18, 2016 \|url \= http://www.countyofnapa.org/1274/European\-Grapevine\-Moth \|access\-date \= July 3, 2022 }}
\|{{\*}} {{cite magazine \|title \= An Invasive\-Species Success Story: The Eradication of the European Grapevine Moth in California \|magazine \= \[\[Entomology Today]] \|date \= March 8, 2019 \|url \= http://entomologytoday.org/2019/03/08/invasive\-species\-success\-story\-eradication\-european\-grapevine\-moth\-california/ \|publisher \= Entomological Society of America \|access\-date \= July 3, 2022 }}
}}
There is ongoing concern that it will invade again. Gutierrez *et al.*, 2012 finds that [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change "Climate change") has increased its potential [invasive range](/wiki/Invasive_range "Invasive range") on this crop in the time since its [eradication](/wiki/Invasive_pest_eradication "Invasive pest eradication"), and will continue to do so.{{cite book\|year\=2022\|edition\=1\|publisher\=\[\[Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.]]\|first7\=V.\|first6\=S.\|first5\=V.\|first4\=M.\|first3\=Y.\|first2\=M.
\|first1\=M.\|last7\=Singh\|last6\=Vennila\|last5\=Sridhar\|last4\=Prabhakar\|last3\=Prasad\|last2\=Mani\|last1\=Rao\|id\={{isbn\|978\-981\-19\-0342\-7}}\|isbn\=978\-981\-19\-0343\-4\|title\=Trends in Horticultural Entomology}}{{rp\|81–122}} See {{section link\|\|European Grapevine Moth}}.
Some [vertebrate pests](/wiki/Vertebrate_pest "Vertebrate pest") are also significant and UC IPM has management recommendations{{cite web \|website \= \[\[University of California Integrated Pest Management\|UC Integrated Pest Management]] \|publisher \= UC Agriculture \|url \= http://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/ \|title \= Grape / Agriculture: Pest Management }} for them:
* Birds
* California Ground Squirrels (*[Otospermophilus beecheyi](/wiki/Otospermophilus_beecheyi "Otospermophilus beecheyi")*)
* [Deer](/wiki/Deer "Deer")
* [Pocket Gophers](/wiki/Pocket_Gopher "Pocket Gopher")
* [Rabbits](/wiki/Rabbit "Rabbit")
* Voles,
+ especially the {{visible anchor\|California Vole}} (*[Microtus californicus](/wiki/Microtus_californicus "Microtus californicus")*)
+ Meadow Voles (*[Microtus drummondii](/wiki/Microtus_drummondii "Microtus drummondii")*)
+ Meadow Mice (*[Microtus pennsylvanicus](/wiki/Microtus_pennsylvanicus "Microtus pennsylvanicus")*)
[Delayed\-dormancy](/wiki/Delayed-dormancy "Delayed-dormancy") in [table grape](/wiki/Table_grape "Table grape") varieties is February in the [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley "San Joaquin Valley") and December to January in the [Coachella Valley](/wiki/Coachella_Valley "Coachella Valley"). UC IPM provides sampling techniques{{cite web \|access\-date \= November 5, 2022 \|id \= 3448 \|date \= July 2015 \|title \= Delayed\-Dormant And Budbreak Monitoring \|publisher \= University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources \|website \= \[\[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] \|url \= https://www2\.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/Delayed\-Dormant\-And\-Budbreak\-Monitoring\-Table\-Grapes/ }} and management information{{cite web \|access\-date \= November 5, 2022 \|id \= 3448 \|date \= July 2015 \|title \= Delayed\-Dormancy \|publisher \= University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources \|website \= \[\[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] \|url \= https://www2\.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table\-grapes\-delayed\-dormancy/ }} for delayed\-dormancy in table grape.
[Budbreak](/wiki/Budbreak "Budbreak") is in March in the SJV and January to February in the Coachella Valley for common table varieties. UC IPM provides monitoring and treatment information for budbreak.{{cite web \|access\-date \= November 5, 2022 \|id \= 3448 \|date \= July 2015 \|title \= Budbreak \|publisher \= University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources \|website \= \[\[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] \|url \= https://www2\.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table\-grapes\-budbreak/ }}
The rapid [shoot](/wiki/Shoot_%28botany%29 "Shoot (botany)") growth phase is March to May in the [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley "San Joaquin Valley") and February to May in the [Coachella Valley](/wiki/Coachella_Valley "Coachella Valley"). [UC IPM](/wiki/UC_IPM "UC IPM") recommends looking for spider mites and their natural enemies at this time.{{cite web \|url \= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table\-grapes\-rapid\-shoot\-growth/ \|title \= Rapid Shoot Growth \|publisher \= \[\[UC IPM]] }} See {{section link\|\|Spider mites}}.
During [postharvest](/wiki/Postharvest "Postharvest") in the SJV, table grape growers should monitor for {{visible anchor\|European Fruit Lecanium Scale\|Parthenolecanium corni}} (*Parthenolecanium corni*). UC IPM provides information on this and other pests of postharvest in table grape.{{cite web \|access\-date \= November 15, 2022 \|date \= July 2015 \|id \= 3448 \|publisher \= \[\[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] \|url \= https://www2\.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table\-grapes\-postharvest \|title \= Agriculture: Grape Pest Management Guidelines: Postharvest }} They recommend some [parasitoids](/wiki/Parasitoid "Parasitoid") for [biological control](/wiki/Biological_control "Biological control") including *[Aphytis](/wiki/Aphytis "Aphytis")* spp., *[Coccophagus](/wiki/Coccophagus "Coccophagus")* spp., *[Encarsia](/wiki/Encarsia "Encarsia")* spp., and *[Metaphycus](/wiki/Metaphycus "Metaphycus") [luteolus](/wiki/Metaphycus_luteolus "Metaphycus luteolus")*.{{cite web \|url \= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/european\-fruit\-lecanium\-scale \|title \= European Fruit Lecanium Scale \|website \= \[\[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California }}
Its anticipated damage to this crop was one of the major reasons for the passage of the LBAM Act of 2007\.{{cite journal \|year \= 2022 \|first4 \= Nan \|first3 \= Frank \|first2 \= Daniel \|first1 \= James \|last4 \= Wishner \|last3 \= Zalom \|last2 \= Harder \|last1 \= Carey \|publisher \= \[\[John Wiley \& Sons Inc.]] \|title \= Failure by Design: Lessons from the recently rescinded light brown apple moth (''Epiphyas postvittana'') eradication program in California \|journal \= \[\[Pest Management Science]] \|volume \= 79 \|issue \= 3 \|pages \= 915–921 \|doi \= 10\.1002/ps.7246 \|pmid \= 36268596 \|pmc \= 10100390 \|s2cid \= 253044874}} Despite expectations, this crop was not sufficiently impacted to justify the cost and controversy involved and the action is regarded as a failure. See {{section link\|\|Light Brown Apple Moth}}.
The {{visible anchor\|Western Grapeleaf Skeletonizer\|Harrisina metallica\|Harrisina brillians}} (*[Harrisina metallica](/wiki/Harrisina_metallica "Harrisina metallica")*, syn. *H. brillians*) is a native pest of this crop. The parasitoids *{{visible anchor\|Ametadoria misella\|text\=\[\[Ametadoria]] \[\[Ametadoria misella\|misella]]}}* and *{{visible anchor\|Apanteles harrisinae\|text\=\[\[Apanteles]] \[\[Apanteles harrisinae\|harrisinae]]}}* were imported in the 1950s but without success. However *A. misella* was found in the 1990s to be a [vector](/wiki/Vector_%28epidemiology%29 "Vector (epidemiology)") of a [granulovirus](/wiki/Granulovirus "Granulovirus") of this pest.{{cite journal \|year \= 2022 \|issue \= 5 \|volume \= 42 \|issn \= 1742\-7592 \|journal \= \[\[International Journal of Tropical Insect Science]] \|first12 \= Zubeda \|first11 \= Mudassar\|first10\=Ghulam \|first9 \= Khalid \|first8 \= Muhammad \|first7 \= Niaz \|first6 \= Sohail \|first5 \= Muhammad \|first4 \= Muhammad \|first3 \= Dilbar \|first2 \= Muhammad \|first1 \= Muneer \|last12 \= Parveen \|last11 \= Khaliq\|last10\=Ghouse \|last9 \= Hussain \|last8 \= Irshad \|last7 \= Hussain \|last6 \= Abbas \|last5 \= Jawad \|last4 \= Ramzan \|last3 \= Hussain \|last2 \= Saleem \|last1 \= Abbas \|publisher \= \[\[Springer Nature Switzerland AG]] \|pages \= 3235–3243 \|title \= Review on integrated disease and pest management of field crops \|doi \= 10\.1007/s42690\-022\-00872\-w \|bibcode \= 2022IJTIS..42\.3235A \|s2cid \= 252056222 \|id\= \[\[African Association of Insect Scientists]] }} cites {{cite journal \|year \= 2005 \|issue \= 1 \|volume \= 59 \|first2 \= Kent \|first1 \= Nicholas \|last2 \= Daane \|last1 \= Mills \|pages \= 23–28 \|publisher \= \[\[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] \|title \= Biological and cultural controls … Nonpesticide alternatives can suppress crop pests \|journal \= \[\[California Agriculture]] \|doi \= 10\.3733/ca.v059n01p23 \|doi\-access \= free }} WGS is [multivoline](/wiki/Multivoline "Multivoline"), trivoltine in the [Central Valley](/wiki/Central_Valley_%28California%29 "Central Valley (California)") and bivoltine on the coasts because temperatures are lower.{{cite web \|url \= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/western\-grapeleaf\-skeletonizer \|title \= Western Grapeleaf Skeletonizer \|website \= \[\[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California }}
The {{visible anchor\|Vine Mealybug\|Planococcus ficus}} (*[Planococcus ficus](/wiki/Planococcus_ficus "Planococcus ficus")*) (Signoret (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)) is a [pest introduced](/wiki/Introduced_pest "Introduced pest") in the early 1990s.{{cite book\|year\=2016\|publisher\=\[\[Springer India]]\|first2\=C.\|first1\=M.\|last2\=Shivaraju\|last1\=Mani\|title\=Mealybugs and their Management in Agricultural and Horticultural Crops\|isbn\=978\-81\-322\-2675\-8\|id\={{isbn\|978\-81\-322\-2677\-2}}\|lccn\=2016930104}}{{rp\|115}} It has spread quickly, impacting vine culture due to its [phloem](/wiki/Phloem "Phloem")\-feeding habit and because it is a [vector](/wiki/Vector_%28epidemiology%29 "Vector (epidemiology)") of GLRaV.{{cite journal \|year \= 2016 \|first2 \= D. \|first1 \= A. \|publisher \= \[\[Springer Science\+Business Media]] \|last2 \= Thiéry \|last1 \= Reineke \|url \= https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s10340\-016\-0761\-8 \|journal \= \[\[Journal of Pest Science]] \|title \= Grapevine insect pests and their natural enemies in the age of global warming \|volume \= 89 \|issue \= 2 \|pages \= 313–328 \|doi \= 10\.1007/s10340\-016\-0761\-8 \|bibcode \= 2016JPesS..89\..313R \|s2cid \= 254194375 }} See also {{section link\|\|GLRaV}}.
Thrips are a minor concern in wine and raisin but are significant pests in table varieties. This includes {{visible anchor\|Grape Thrips\|Drepanothrips reuteri}} (*[Drepanothrips reuteri](/wiki/Drepanothrips_reuteri "Drepanothrips reuteri")*) and Western Flower Thrips. The scarring that they cause defaces the appearance of table grapes. Grape Thrips in [Salvador](/wiki/Salvador_%28variety%29 "Salvador (variety)") is especially problematic.{{cite web \|access\-date \= January 1, 2023 \|url \= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/thrips/ \|title \= Thrips \|publisher \= University of California, Statewide IPM Program, Agriculture and Natural Resources }} See {{section link\|\|Western Flower Thrips}}.
Five species of {{visible anchor\|Ant\|Ants\|text\=ant}} are significant in this crop: {{visible anchor\|Argentine Ant\|}}s (*[Linepithema humile](/wiki/Linepithema_humile "Linepithema humile")*), {{visible anchor\|Gray Ant\|Formica aerata\|Formica perpilosa}}s (*[Formica aerata](/wiki/Formica_aerata "Formica aerata")*, *[Formica perpilosa](/wiki/Formica_perpilosa "Formica perpilosa")*), {{visible anchor\|Pavement Ant\|Tetramorium caespitum}} (*[Tetramorium caespitum](/wiki/Tetramorium_caespitum "Tetramorium caespitum")*), {{visible anchor\|Southern Fire Ant\|Solenopsis xyloni}} (*[Solenopsis xyloni](/wiki/Solenopsis_xyloni "Solenopsis xyloni")*) and {{visible anchor\|Thief Ant\|Solenopsis molesta}} (*[Solenopsis molesta](/wiki/Solenopsis_molesta "Solenopsis molesta")*).{{cite web \|access\-date \= January 2, 2023 \|date \= 2019 \|website \= \[\[UC Statewide IPM Program]] \|title \= Ants / Grape / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines / UC Statewide IPM Program \|url \= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/ants }}
The Black Vine Weevil is mostly a pest of the [Central Coast AVA](/wiki/Central_Coast_AVA "Central Coast AVA") but does rarely occur elsewhere.{{cite web \|date \= 2015 \|url \= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/black\-vine\-weevil \|title \= Black Vine Weevil \|publisher \= \[\[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California }} Treatment is possible but is usually not employed. See {{section link\|\|Black Vine Weevil}}.
{{visible anchor\|Orange Tortrix\|Argyrotaenia franciscana}} (*[Argyrotaenia franciscana](/wiki/Argyrotaenia_franciscana "Argyrotaenia franciscana")*) is a [native pest](/wiki/Native_pest "Native pest") of this crop. It is [endemic](/wiki/Endemic "Endemic") to this state and [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon") and [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"). UC IPM recommends restricting use of insecticides to control Orange Tortrix because many [natural biological controls](/wiki/Natural_biological_control "Natural biological control") are present in the state.{{cite web \|url \= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/orange\-tortrix \|title \= Orange Tortrix \|website \= \[\[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California }}
*{{visible anchor\|Pseudococcus\|text\=\[\[Pseudococcus]]}}* mealybugs are common pests in California's vineyards. They have become an increasing problem in the first half of the 2010s. Three species are present: {{visible anchor\|Grape Mealybug\|Pseudococcus maritimus}} (*[P. maritimus](/wiki/Pseudococcus_maritimus "Pseudococcus maritimus")*), {{visible anchor\|Longtailed Mealybug\|Pseudococcus longispinus}} (*[P. longispinus](/wiki/Pseudococcus_longispinus "Pseudococcus longispinus")*) and {{visible anchor\|Obscure Mealybug\|Pseudococcus viburni}} (*[P. viburni](/wiki/Pseudococcus_viburni "Pseudococcus viburni")*).{{cite web \|url \= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/mealybugs\-pseudococcus/ \|title \= Mealybugs (''Pseudococcus'') \|publisher \= University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, \[\[Statewide IPM Program]] }}
Phylloxera of Grape is a common aphid in California with multiple subpopulations derived from multiple foreign points of origin producing multiple invasions. The rootstock AxR\#1 was formerly used due to its resistance but this has since collapsed and been replaced by other rootstocks. This phylloxera has since that time [adapted](/wiki/Adaptation "Adaptation") to these various rootstocks. Corrie et al., 2002, Lin et al., 2006, Vorwerk \& Forneck, 2006 develop [microsatellite markers](/wiki/Microsatellite_marker "Microsatellite marker") to track these multiple invasions and their adaptation. See {{section link\|\|Phylloxera of Grape}} and {{section link\|\|AxR\#1}}.
[thumb\|[Thomcord](/wiki/Thomcord "Thomcord") breeding, [Parlier](/wiki/Parlier%2C_California "Parlier, California")](/wiki/File:Thomcord_grape_-_USDA_photo_01.jpg "Thomcord grape - USDA photo 01.jpg")
|
[
"Pests of grape\n--------------",
"For [insect pests](/wiki/Insect_crop_pest \"Insect crop pest\") see {{section link\\|\\|Glassy\\-winged sharpshooter}} (GWSS){{cite journal \\|title \\= The Biology of Xylem Fluid\\-Feeding Insect Vectors of ''Xylella fastidiosa'' and Their Relation to Disease Epidemiology \\|date \\= 2004 \\|doi \\= 10\\.1146/annurev.ento.49\\.061802\\.123403 \\|pages \\= 243–70 \\|volume \\= 49 \\|first1 \\= Richard A. \\|last1 \\= Redak \\|first2 \\= Alexander H. \\|last2 \\= Purcell \\|first3 \\= João R.S. \\|last3 \\= Lopes \\|first4 \\= Matthew J. \\|last4 \\= Blua \\|first5 \\= Russell F. \\|last5 \\= Mizell III \\|first6 \\= Peter C. \\|last6 \\= Andersen \\|journal \\= \\[\\[Annual Review of Entomology]] \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Annual Reviews (publisher)\\|Annual Reviews]] \\|pmid \\= 14651464 }} and {{section link\\|\\|Blue\\-Green Sharpshooter}} (BGSS).",
"The arrival of the European Grapevine Moth (EGVM) in [Napa County](/wiki/Napa_County \"Napa County\") in 2009 brought together local, state and federal agricultural officials, scientists in California universities, and the wine, table and raisin industries. Together they brought about an eradication by 2015 and the effort was declared a success in August 2016\\.{{cite book\\|year\\=2021\\|edition\\=1\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CRC Press]]\\|pages\\=1028\\|first3\\=Marc\\|first2\\=Rui\\|first1\\=Jorge\\|last3\\=Vreysen\\|last2\\=Pereira\\|last1\\=Hendrichs\\|title\\=Area\\-wide Integrated Pest Management\\|isbn\\=9781003169239\\|id\\={{isbn\\|9781000393460}}}}{{rp\\|582}}\n {{Unbulleted list citebundle\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite journal \\|last1 \\= Gilligan \\|first1 \\= Todd M. \\|last2 \\= Epstein \\|first2 \\= Marc E. \\|last3 \\= Passoa \\|first3 \\= Steven C. \\|last4 \\= Powell \\|first4 \\= Jerry A. \\|last5 \\= Sage \\|first5 \\= Obediah C. \\|last6 \\= Brown \\|first6 \\= John W. \\|title \\= Discovery of ''Lobesia botrana'' (\\[Denis \\& Schiffermüller]) in California: An Invasive Species New to North America (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) \\|journal \\= \\[\\[Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington]] \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Entomological Society of Washington]] \\|volume \\= 113 \\|issue \\= 1 \\|year \\= 2011 \\|issn \\= 0013\\-8797 \\|doi \\= 10\\.4289/0013\\-8797\\.113\\.1\\.14 \\|pages \\= 14–30 \\|s2cid \\= 84709211 }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite journal \\|last1 \\= Schartel \\|first1 \\= Tyler E \\|last2 \\= Bayles \\|first2 \\= Brett R \\|last3 \\= Cooper \\|first3 \\= Monica L \\|last4 \\= Simmons \\|first4 \\= Gregory S \\|last5 \\= Thomas \\|first5 \\= Shyam M \\|last6 \\= Varela \\|first6 \\= Lucia G \\|last7 \\= Daugherty \\|first7 \\= Matthew P \\|title \\= Reconstructing the European Grapevine Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Invasion in California: Insights From a Successful Eradication \\|journal \\= \\[\\[Annals of the Entomological Society of America]] \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Oxford University Press]] \\|volume \\= 112 \\|issue \\= 2 \\|date \\= January 4, 2019 \\|issn \\= 0013\\-8746 \\|doi \\= 10\\.1093/aesa/say056 \\|pages \\= 107–117 \\|id\\= \\[\\[Entomological Society of America]] }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite web \\|title \\= European Grapevine Moth \\|website \\= USDA \\[\\[Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service]] \\|url \\= http://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests\\-diseases/hungry\\-pests/the\\-threat/hp\\-egvm \\|access\\-date \\= July 3, 2022 }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite web \\|url \\= http://ipm.ucanr.edu/Invasive\\-and\\-Exotic\\-Pests/European\\-grapevine\\-moth/ \\|title \\= European Grapevine Moth \\|date \\= November 2009 \\|website \\= \\[\\[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] \\|first1 \\= Frank G. \\|last1 \\= Zalom \\|first2 \\= Lucia G. \\|last2 \\= Varela \\|first3 \\= Monica \\|last3 \\= Cooper }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite web \\|first1 \\= Barrett \\|last1 \\= Gruber \\|first2 \\= Matt \\|last2 \\= Daugherty \\|title \\= European Grapevine Moth \\|website \\= \\[\\[Center for Invasive Species Research]] \\|publisher \\= University of California Riverside \\|date \\= December 26, 2019 \\|url \\= http://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive\\-species/european\\-grapevine\\-moth \\|access\\-date \\= July 3, 2022 }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite web \\|title \\= Plant Health \\- European Grapevine Moth Pest Profile \\|website \\= \\[\\[Plant Health and Pest Prevention Services Division]], \\[\\[California Department of Food and Agriculture\\|CDFA]] \\|date \\= January 10, 2017 \\|url \\= http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/pdep/target\\_pest\\_disease\\_profiles/EGVM\\_PestProfile.html \\|access\\-date \\= July 3, 2022 }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite web \\|title \\= European Grapevine Moth (EGVM) \\|website \\= \\[\\[County of Sonoma]] \\|date \\= August 18, 2016 \\|url \\= http://sonomacounty.ca.gov/natural\\-resources/agricultural\\-weights\\-and\\-measures/programs\\-and\\-services/european\\-grapevine\\-moth \\|access\\-date \\= July 3, 2022 }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite web \\|title \\= European Grapevine Moth \\|website \\= \\[\\[National Invasive Species Information Center]] \\|date \\= March 8, 2019 \\|url \\= http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/terrestrial/invertebrates/european\\-grapevine\\-moth \\|access\\-date \\= July 3, 2022 }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite web \\|title \\= European Grapevine Moth Cooperative Eradication Program: A Model for Fighting Future Invasive Species Threats \\|website \\= \\[\\[United States Department of Agriculture]] \\|date \\= November 2, 2016 \\|url \\= http://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2016/11/02/european\\-grapevine\\-moth\\-cooperative\\-eradication\\-program\\-model\\-fighting\\-future \\|access\\-date \\= July 3, 2022 }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite web \\|title \\= European Grapevine Moth \\|website \\= \\[\\[Napa County, CA]] \\|date \\= August 18, 2016 \\|url \\= http://www.countyofnapa.org/1274/European\\-Grapevine\\-Moth \\|access\\-date \\= July 3, 2022 }}\n \\|{{\\*}} {{cite magazine \\|title \\= An Invasive\\-Species Success Story: The Eradication of the European Grapevine Moth in California \\|magazine \\= \\[\\[Entomology Today]] \\|date \\= March 8, 2019 \\|url \\= http://entomologytoday.org/2019/03/08/invasive\\-species\\-success\\-story\\-eradication\\-european\\-grapevine\\-moth\\-california/ \\|publisher \\= Entomological Society of America \\|access\\-date \\= July 3, 2022 }}\n }}\n There is ongoing concern that it will invade again. Gutierrez *et al.*, 2012 finds that [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change \"Climate change\") has increased its potential [invasive range](/wiki/Invasive_range \"Invasive range\") on this crop in the time since its [eradication](/wiki/Invasive_pest_eradication \"Invasive pest eradication\"), and will continue to do so.{{cite book\\|year\\=2022\\|edition\\=1\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.]]\\|first7\\=V.\\|first6\\=S.\\|first5\\=V.\\|first4\\=M.\\|first3\\=Y.\\|first2\\=M.\n\\|first1\\=M.\\|last7\\=Singh\\|last6\\=Vennila\\|last5\\=Sridhar\\|last4\\=Prabhakar\\|last3\\=Prasad\\|last2\\=Mani\\|last1\\=Rao\\|id\\={{isbn\\|978\\-981\\-19\\-0342\\-7}}\\|isbn\\=978\\-981\\-19\\-0343\\-4\\|title\\=Trends in Horticultural Entomology}}{{rp\\|81–122}} See {{section link\\|\\|European Grapevine Moth}}.",
"Some [vertebrate pests](/wiki/Vertebrate_pest \"Vertebrate pest\") are also significant and UC IPM has management recommendations{{cite web \\|website \\= \\[\\[University of California Integrated Pest Management\\|UC Integrated Pest Management]] \\|publisher \\= UC Agriculture \\|url \\= http://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/ \\|title \\= Grape / Agriculture: Pest Management }} for them:\n* Birds\n* California Ground Squirrels (*[Otospermophilus beecheyi](/wiki/Otospermophilus_beecheyi \"Otospermophilus beecheyi\")*)\n* [Deer](/wiki/Deer \"Deer\")\n* [Pocket Gophers](/wiki/Pocket_Gopher \"Pocket Gopher\")\n* [Rabbits](/wiki/Rabbit \"Rabbit\")\n* Voles,\n\t+ especially the {{visible anchor\\|California Vole}} (*[Microtus californicus](/wiki/Microtus_californicus \"Microtus californicus\")*)\n\t+ Meadow Voles (*[Microtus drummondii](/wiki/Microtus_drummondii \"Microtus drummondii\")*)\n\t+ Meadow Mice (*[Microtus pennsylvanicus](/wiki/Microtus_pennsylvanicus \"Microtus pennsylvanicus\")*)",
"[Delayed\\-dormancy](/wiki/Delayed-dormancy \"Delayed-dormancy\") in [table grape](/wiki/Table_grape \"Table grape\") varieties is February in the [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley \"San Joaquin Valley\") and December to January in the [Coachella Valley](/wiki/Coachella_Valley \"Coachella Valley\"). UC IPM provides sampling techniques{{cite web \\|access\\-date \\= November 5, 2022 \\|id \\= 3448 \\|date \\= July 2015 \\|title \\= Delayed\\-Dormant And Budbreak Monitoring \\|publisher \\= University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources \\|website \\= \\[\\[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] \\|url \\= https://www2\\.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/Delayed\\-Dormant\\-And\\-Budbreak\\-Monitoring\\-Table\\-Grapes/ }} and management information{{cite web \\|access\\-date \\= November 5, 2022 \\|id \\= 3448 \\|date \\= July 2015 \\|title \\= Delayed\\-Dormancy \\|publisher \\= University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources \\|website \\= \\[\\[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] \\|url \\= https://www2\\.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table\\-grapes\\-delayed\\-dormancy/ }} for delayed\\-dormancy in table grape.",
"[Budbreak](/wiki/Budbreak \"Budbreak\") is in March in the SJV and January to February in the Coachella Valley for common table varieties. UC IPM provides monitoring and treatment information for budbreak.{{cite web \\|access\\-date \\= November 5, 2022 \\|id \\= 3448 \\|date \\= July 2015 \\|title \\= Budbreak \\|publisher \\= University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources \\|website \\= \\[\\[University of California Integrated Pest Management]] \\|url \\= https://www2\\.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table\\-grapes\\-budbreak/ }}",
"The rapid [shoot](/wiki/Shoot_%28botany%29 \"Shoot (botany)\") growth phase is March to May in the [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley \"San Joaquin Valley\") and February to May in the [Coachella Valley](/wiki/Coachella_Valley \"Coachella Valley\"). [UC IPM](/wiki/UC_IPM \"UC IPM\") recommends looking for spider mites and their natural enemies at this time.{{cite web \\|url \\= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table\\-grapes\\-rapid\\-shoot\\-growth/ \\|title \\= Rapid Shoot Growth \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[UC IPM]] }} See {{section link\\|\\|Spider mites}}.",
"During [postharvest](/wiki/Postharvest \"Postharvest\") in the SJV, table grape growers should monitor for {{visible anchor\\|European Fruit Lecanium Scale\\|Parthenolecanium corni}} (*Parthenolecanium corni*). UC IPM provides information on this and other pests of postharvest in table grape.{{cite web \\|access\\-date \\= November 15, 2022 \\|date \\= July 2015 \\|id \\= 3448 \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources]] \\|url \\= https://www2\\.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/table\\-grapes\\-postharvest \\|title \\= Agriculture: Grape Pest Management Guidelines: Postharvest }} They recommend some [parasitoids](/wiki/Parasitoid \"Parasitoid\") for [biological control](/wiki/Biological_control \"Biological control\") including *[Aphytis](/wiki/Aphytis \"Aphytis\")* spp., *[Coccophagus](/wiki/Coccophagus \"Coccophagus\")* spp., *[Encarsia](/wiki/Encarsia \"Encarsia\")* spp., and *[Metaphycus](/wiki/Metaphycus \"Metaphycus\") [luteolus](/wiki/Metaphycus_luteolus \"Metaphycus luteolus\")*.{{cite web \\|url \\= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/european\\-fruit\\-lecanium\\-scale \\|title \\= European Fruit Lecanium Scale \\|website \\= \\[\\[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California }}",
"Its anticipated damage to this crop was one of the major reasons for the passage of the LBAM Act of 2007\\.{{cite journal \\|year \\= 2022 \\|first4 \\= Nan \\|first3 \\= Frank \\|first2 \\= Daniel \\|first1 \\= James \\|last4 \\= Wishner \\|last3 \\= Zalom \\|last2 \\= Harder \\|last1 \\= Carey \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[John Wiley \\& Sons Inc.]] \\|title \\= Failure by Design: Lessons from the recently rescinded light brown apple moth (''Epiphyas postvittana'') eradication program in California \\|journal \\= \\[\\[Pest Management Science]] \\|volume \\= 79 \\|issue \\= 3 \\|pages \\= 915–921 \\|doi \\= 10\\.1002/ps.7246 \\|pmid \\= 36268596 \\|pmc \\= 10100390 \\|s2cid \\= 253044874}} Despite expectations, this crop was not sufficiently impacted to justify the cost and controversy involved and the action is regarded as a failure. See {{section link\\|\\|Light Brown Apple Moth}}.",
"The {{visible anchor\\|Western Grapeleaf Skeletonizer\\|Harrisina metallica\\|Harrisina brillians}} (*[Harrisina metallica](/wiki/Harrisina_metallica \"Harrisina metallica\")*, syn. *H. brillians*) is a native pest of this crop. The parasitoids *{{visible anchor\\|Ametadoria misella\\|text\\=\\[\\[Ametadoria]] \\[\\[Ametadoria misella\\|misella]]}}* and *{{visible anchor\\|Apanteles harrisinae\\|text\\=\\[\\[Apanteles]] \\[\\[Apanteles harrisinae\\|harrisinae]]}}* were imported in the 1950s but without success. However *A. misella* was found in the 1990s to be a [vector](/wiki/Vector_%28epidemiology%29 \"Vector (epidemiology)\") of a [granulovirus](/wiki/Granulovirus \"Granulovirus\") of this pest.{{cite journal \\|year \\= 2022 \\|issue \\= 5 \\|volume \\= 42 \\|issn \\= 1742\\-7592 \\|journal \\= \\[\\[International Journal of Tropical Insect Science]] \\|first12 \\= Zubeda \\|first11 \\= Mudassar\\|first10\\=Ghulam \\|first9 \\= Khalid \\|first8 \\= Muhammad \\|first7 \\= Niaz \\|first6 \\= Sohail \\|first5 \\= Muhammad \\|first4 \\= Muhammad \\|first3 \\= Dilbar \\|first2 \\= Muhammad \\|first1 \\= Muneer \\|last12 \\= Parveen \\|last11 \\= Khaliq\\|last10\\=Ghouse \\|last9 \\= Hussain \\|last8 \\= Irshad \\|last7 \\= Hussain \\|last6 \\= Abbas \\|last5 \\= Jawad \\|last4 \\= Ramzan \\|last3 \\= Hussain \\|last2 \\= Saleem \\|last1 \\= Abbas \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Springer Nature Switzerland AG]] \\|pages \\= 3235–3243 \\|title \\= Review on integrated disease and pest management of field crops \\|doi \\= 10\\.1007/s42690\\-022\\-00872\\-w \\|bibcode \\= 2022IJTIS..42\\.3235A \\|s2cid \\= 252056222 \\|id\\= \\[\\[African Association of Insect Scientists]] }} cites {{cite journal \\|year \\= 2005 \\|issue \\= 1 \\|volume \\= 59 \\|first2 \\= Kent \\|first1 \\= Nicholas \\|last2 \\= Daane \\|last1 \\= Mills \\|pages \\= 23–28 \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources]] \\|title \\= Biological and cultural controls … Nonpesticide alternatives can suppress crop pests \\|journal \\= \\[\\[California Agriculture]] \\|doi \\= 10\\.3733/ca.v059n01p23 \\|doi\\-access \\= free }} WGS is [multivoline](/wiki/Multivoline \"Multivoline\"), trivoltine in the [Central Valley](/wiki/Central_Valley_%28California%29 \"Central Valley (California)\") and bivoltine on the coasts because temperatures are lower.{{cite web \\|url \\= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/western\\-grapeleaf\\-skeletonizer \\|title \\= Western Grapeleaf Skeletonizer \\|website \\= \\[\\[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California }}",
"The {{visible anchor\\|Vine Mealybug\\|Planococcus ficus}} (*[Planococcus ficus](/wiki/Planococcus_ficus \"Planococcus ficus\")*) (Signoret (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)) is a [pest introduced](/wiki/Introduced_pest \"Introduced pest\") in the early 1990s.{{cite book\\|year\\=2016\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer India]]\\|first2\\=C.\\|first1\\=M.\\|last2\\=Shivaraju\\|last1\\=Mani\\|title\\=Mealybugs and their Management in Agricultural and Horticultural Crops\\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-322\\-2675\\-8\\|id\\={{isbn\\|978\\-81\\-322\\-2677\\-2}}\\|lccn\\=2016930104}}{{rp\\|115}} It has spread quickly, impacting vine culture due to its [phloem](/wiki/Phloem \"Phloem\")\\-feeding habit and because it is a [vector](/wiki/Vector_%28epidemiology%29 \"Vector (epidemiology)\") of GLRaV.{{cite journal \\|year \\= 2016 \\|first2 \\= D. \\|first1 \\= A. \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media]] \\|last2 \\= Thiéry \\|last1 \\= Reineke \\|url \\= https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s10340\\-016\\-0761\\-8 \\|journal \\= \\[\\[Journal of Pest Science]] \\|title \\= Grapevine insect pests and their natural enemies in the age of global warming \\|volume \\= 89 \\|issue \\= 2 \\|pages \\= 313–328 \\|doi \\= 10\\.1007/s10340\\-016\\-0761\\-8 \\|bibcode \\= 2016JPesS..89\\..313R \\|s2cid \\= 254194375 }} See also {{section link\\|\\|GLRaV}}.",
"Thrips are a minor concern in wine and raisin but are significant pests in table varieties. This includes {{visible anchor\\|Grape Thrips\\|Drepanothrips reuteri}} (*[Drepanothrips reuteri](/wiki/Drepanothrips_reuteri \"Drepanothrips reuteri\")*) and Western Flower Thrips. The scarring that they cause defaces the appearance of table grapes. Grape Thrips in [Salvador](/wiki/Salvador_%28variety%29 \"Salvador (variety)\") is especially problematic.{{cite web \\|access\\-date \\= January 1, 2023 \\|url \\= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/thrips/ \\|title \\= Thrips \\|publisher \\= University of California, Statewide IPM Program, Agriculture and Natural Resources }} See {{section link\\|\\|Western Flower Thrips}}.",
"Five species of {{visible anchor\\|Ant\\|Ants\\|text\\=ant}} are significant in this crop: {{visible anchor\\|Argentine Ant\\|}}s (*[Linepithema humile](/wiki/Linepithema_humile \"Linepithema humile\")*), {{visible anchor\\|Gray Ant\\|Formica aerata\\|Formica perpilosa}}s (*[Formica aerata](/wiki/Formica_aerata \"Formica aerata\")*, *[Formica perpilosa](/wiki/Formica_perpilosa \"Formica perpilosa\")*), {{visible anchor\\|Pavement Ant\\|Tetramorium caespitum}} (*[Tetramorium caespitum](/wiki/Tetramorium_caespitum \"Tetramorium caespitum\")*), {{visible anchor\\|Southern Fire Ant\\|Solenopsis xyloni}} (*[Solenopsis xyloni](/wiki/Solenopsis_xyloni \"Solenopsis xyloni\")*) and {{visible anchor\\|Thief Ant\\|Solenopsis molesta}} (*[Solenopsis molesta](/wiki/Solenopsis_molesta \"Solenopsis molesta\")*).{{cite web \\|access\\-date \\= January 2, 2023 \\|date \\= 2019 \\|website \\= \\[\\[UC Statewide IPM Program]] \\|title \\= Ants / Grape / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines / UC Statewide IPM Program \\|url \\= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/ants }}",
"The Black Vine Weevil is mostly a pest of the [Central Coast AVA](/wiki/Central_Coast_AVA \"Central Coast AVA\") but does rarely occur elsewhere.{{cite web \\|date \\= 2015 \\|url \\= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/black\\-vine\\-weevil \\|title \\= Black Vine Weevil \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California }} Treatment is possible but is usually not employed. See {{section link\\|\\|Black Vine Weevil}}.",
"{{visible anchor\\|Orange Tortrix\\|Argyrotaenia franciscana}} (*[Argyrotaenia franciscana](/wiki/Argyrotaenia_franciscana \"Argyrotaenia franciscana\")*) is a [native pest](/wiki/Native_pest \"Native pest\") of this crop. It is [endemic](/wiki/Endemic \"Endemic\") to this state and [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\") and [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"). UC IPM recommends restricting use of insecticides to control Orange Tortrix because many [natural biological controls](/wiki/Natural_biological_control \"Natural biological control\") are present in the state.{{cite web \\|url \\= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/orange\\-tortrix \\|title \\= Orange Tortrix \\|website \\= \\[\\[Statewide IPM Program]], Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California }}",
"*{{visible anchor\\|Pseudococcus\\|text\\=\\[\\[Pseudococcus]]}}* mealybugs are common pests in California's vineyards. They have become an increasing problem in the first half of the 2010s. Three species are present: {{visible anchor\\|Grape Mealybug\\|Pseudococcus maritimus}} (*[P. maritimus](/wiki/Pseudococcus_maritimus \"Pseudococcus maritimus\")*), {{visible anchor\\|Longtailed Mealybug\\|Pseudococcus longispinus}} (*[P. longispinus](/wiki/Pseudococcus_longispinus \"Pseudococcus longispinus\")*) and {{visible anchor\\|Obscure Mealybug\\|Pseudococcus viburni}} (*[P. viburni](/wiki/Pseudococcus_viburni \"Pseudococcus viburni\")*).{{cite web \\|url \\= https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/grape/mealybugs\\-pseudococcus/ \\|title \\= Mealybugs (''Pseudococcus'') \\|publisher \\= University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, \\[\\[Statewide IPM Program]] }}",
"Phylloxera of Grape is a common aphid in California with multiple subpopulations derived from multiple foreign points of origin producing multiple invasions. The rootstock AxR\\#1 was formerly used due to its resistance but this has since collapsed and been replaced by other rootstocks. This phylloxera has since that time [adapted](/wiki/Adaptation \"Adaptation\") to these various rootstocks. Corrie et al., 2002, Lin et al., 2006, Vorwerk \\& Forneck, 2006 develop [microsatellite markers](/wiki/Microsatellite_marker \"Microsatellite marker\") to track these multiple invasions and their adaptation. See {{section link\\|\\|Phylloxera of Grape}} and {{section link\\|\\|AxR\\#1}}.",
"[thumb\\|[Thomcord](/wiki/Thomcord \"Thomcord\") breeding, [Parlier](/wiki/Parlier%2C_California \"Parlier, California\")](/wiki/File:Thomcord_grape_-_USDA_photo_01.jpg \"Thomcord grape - USDA photo 01.jpg\")",
""
] |
Settlement
----------
When the Vikings first visited the Faroe Islands in 795, they found monks from Ireland living as hermits. They, in turn, had found no native population to convert, so they bred sheep and planted oats, among other things, which now allows them to date their arrival to around 625\.
### First settlement wave
[thumb\|Schematic representation of the settlement using an old map. The arrow pointing from the Faroe Islands towards the British Isles is somewhat misleading. The settlement took place in exactly the opposite direction. Also, the Faroese were not conquerors of other countries. Faroese stamp from 1982\.](/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_064_europe_%28viking_route%29.jpg "Faroe stamp 064 europe (viking route).jpg")
It is not entirely clear whether the often\-claimed expulsion of the [Irish monks](/wiki/Irish_monks "Irish monks") by the Vikings around 795 took place, or whether only some of them went to [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland"). In any case, they are considered to be the first settlers there. At this time, the Faroe Islands may have been uninhabited for 30 years, as Scandinavians had not yet settled on the Faroe Islands.Arge, S. V. (1991\). *The Landnám in the Faroes*. *Arctic Anthropology*, 28(2\), 101\-120\. University of Wisconsin Press. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40316279 According to this hypothesis, which is based on the account in the book *Liber de Mensura Orbis Terræ* by the Irish chronicler [Dicuil](/wiki/Dicuil "Dicuil") (825\), [Grímur Kamban](/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmur_Kamban "Grímur Kamban") entered a land around 825 where there were only the sheep and seabirds left by the monks.
The name Kamban itself suggests a [Celtic](/wiki/Celts "Celts") origin. Grímur Kamban may have come from the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles "British Isles"), where the Scandinavians had already established their rule, or he may have been a baptized Norwegian given the nickname by Irish missionaries. In any case, the first people to settle the Faroe Islands around this time were people from the surrounding Scandinavian dominions to the south and east \- mostly Scandinavians themselves, but certainly with Celtic slaves and women in their luggage.Curtin, L., D’Andrea, W.J., Balascio, N.L. et al. *Sedimentary DNA and molecular evidence for early human occupation of the Faroe Islands.* Commun Earth Environ 2, 2021, 253\. {{doi\|10\.1038/s43247\-021\-00318\-0}}
[thumb\|Grave of Havgrimur](/wiki/File:Grave_of_havgrimur%2C_faroe_islands.jpg "Grave of havgrimur, faroe islands.jpg")
Grímur's settlement is said to have been in [Funningur](/wiki/Funningur "Funningur") on [Eysturoy](/wiki/Eysturoy "Eysturoy"). Excavations have revealed other Viking settlements in the neighborhood and on the other islands.
The Norwegian emigrant [Naddoddur](/wiki/Naddodd "Naddodd") also arrived in the Faroe Islands during this period. According to tradition, he discovered Iceland around 850 and named it *Snowland*. According to a more recent theory, his (presumed) daughter [Ann Naddodsdóttir](/wiki/Ann_Naddodsd%C3%B3ttir "Ann Naddodsdóttir") is the mother of [Brestir](/wiki/Brestir_Sigmundsson "Brestir Sigmundsson") and [Beinir](/wiki/Beinir_Sigmundsson "Beinir Sigmundsson"), who will be discussed below.
### Second settlement wave
The great immigration to the Faroe Islands took place around 880–900\. This wave of land occupation is precisely dated to 885–890\. It was the time of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair "Harald Fairhair") of [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway") (r. 870–933\). The Faroese saga tells us that many people fled from his rule. One of the reasons is the tax burden. As in the first land conquest, the immigrants came from Norway and probably also from the parts of the British Isles controlled by Norway.
[left\|thumb\|300x300px\|The Vikings were excellent sailors. Their navigational skills are honored on this 2002 Faroe Islands stamp block.](/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg "Faroe stamp sheet 406-408 viking voyages.jpg")
The fact that the majority of these Vikings on the Faroe Islands came from Norway can be determined by a linguistic peculiarity (in addition to other similarities with the dialects of western Norway): In [Faroese](/wiki/Faroese_language "Faroese language"), [northeast](/wiki/Points_of_the_compass "Points of the compass") is called *landnyrðingur* ("land north"), [southeast](/wiki/Points_of_the_compass "Points of the compass") *landsynningur* ("land south"), [northwest](/wiki/Points_of_the_compass "Points of the compass") *útnyrðingur* ("out north") and [southwest](/wiki/Points_of_the_compass "Points of the compass") *útsynningur* ("out south"). These terms can only be coined by people who live on a continental west coast, such as [Bergen](/wiki/Bergen "Bergen"). From a Faroese perspective, such a neologism would make no sense, as there is land to the northwest in the form of [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland") and [Shetland](/wiki/Shetland "Shetland") to the southeast, while the shores of [Spitsbergen](/wiki/Svalbard "Svalbard") and [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_%28island%29 "Newfoundland (island)") are located to the northeast and southwest \- *[terra incognita](/wiki/Terra_incognita "Terra incognita")* (unknown land) at the time. And: from a Faroese point of view, every direction is *out to sea*.
It is said that people from the Faroe Islands and Bergen can still communicate in their respective local dialects without much difficulty. The relationship between this Norwegian trading metropolis and later [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League "Hanseatic League") and the Faroe Islands has always played a special role throughout the centuries. See also: [Monopoly trade via the Faroe Islands](/wiki/Monopoly_trade_via_the_Faroe_Islands "Monopoly trade via the Faroe Islands") (period 1529–1856\)
#### First Thing
[left\|thumb\|[Tinganes](/wiki/Tinganes "Tinganes"), the ancient site of the Faroe Islands, is still the political center of the country today.](/wiki/File:Tinganes%2C_T%C3%B3rshavn_2004.1.jpg "Tinganes, Tórshavn 2004.1.jpg")
Around 900, the [Faroese](/wiki/Faroe_Islanders "Faroe Islanders") already had their [Thing](/wiki/Thing_%28assembly%29 "Thing (assembly)") on the peninsula named after him, [Tinganes](/wiki/Tinganes "Tinganes"). [Tórshavn](/wiki/T%C3%B3rshavn "Tórshavn") thus became the capital of the islands early on. The thing at that time was called the *Althing* (as is still the case in Iceland today). Since around 1400, it has borne its current name [Løgting](/wiki/L%C3%B8gting "Løgting"). It is one of the oldest parliaments in the world (see there). In addition to the central Thing, there were local Thing sites called Várting.
Even if it is not entirely clear what the political order of the Faroe Islands was like at this time, it is no exaggeration to speak of a [Republic](/wiki/Republic "Republic"), as the king in Norway, 500 kilometers away, had no power on the archipelago during the Viking Age, and the thing was an assembly of the local *free men*, i.e. the large farmers. This was also where jurisdiction was exercised.
#### Settlement and population development
At that time, all the islands of the [Faroe Islands](/wiki/Faroe_Islands "Faroe Islands") were already inhabited, except for [Lítla Dímun](/wiki/L%C3%ADtla_D%C3%ADmun "Lítla Dímun"). This has not changed until today. The population of the Faroe Islands after the second wave of land grabbing was perhaps 3000 people. This number remained almost stable until the end of the 18th century and did not exceed 4000\. Agriculture in this very limited area did not allow for more.
The descendants of the two waves of settlements effectively formed the population for the next 450 years. It was not until the [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death "Black Death") in 1349 and 1350, with the loss of a third of the population, that dramatic changes occurred, creating space and demand for new immigrants.
|
[
"Settlement\n----------",
"When the Vikings first visited the Faroe Islands in 795, they found monks from Ireland living as hermits. They, in turn, had found no native population to convert, so they bred sheep and planted oats, among other things, which now allows them to date their arrival to around 625\\.",
"### First settlement wave",
"[thumb\\|Schematic representation of the settlement using an old map. The arrow pointing from the Faroe Islands towards the British Isles is somewhat misleading. The settlement took place in exactly the opposite direction. Also, the Faroese were not conquerors of other countries. Faroese stamp from 1982\\.](/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_064_europe_%28viking_route%29.jpg \"Faroe stamp 064 europe (viking route).jpg\")\nIt is not entirely clear whether the often\\-claimed expulsion of the [Irish monks](/wiki/Irish_monks \"Irish monks\") by the Vikings around 795 took place, or whether only some of them went to [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\"). In any case, they are considered to be the first settlers there. At this time, the Faroe Islands may have been uninhabited for 30 years, as Scandinavians had not yet settled on the Faroe Islands.Arge, S. V. (1991\\). *The Landnám in the Faroes*. *Arctic Anthropology*, 28(2\\), 101\\-120\\. University of Wisconsin Press. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40316279 According to this hypothesis, which is based on the account in the book *Liber de Mensura Orbis Terræ* by the Irish chronicler [Dicuil](/wiki/Dicuil \"Dicuil\") (825\\), [Grímur Kamban](/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmur_Kamban \"Grímur Kamban\") entered a land around 825 where there were only the sheep and seabirds left by the monks.",
"The name Kamban itself suggests a [Celtic](/wiki/Celts \"Celts\") origin. Grímur Kamban may have come from the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles \"British Isles\"), where the Scandinavians had already established their rule, or he may have been a baptized Norwegian given the nickname by Irish missionaries. In any case, the first people to settle the Faroe Islands around this time were people from the surrounding Scandinavian dominions to the south and east \\- mostly Scandinavians themselves, but certainly with Celtic slaves and women in their luggage.Curtin, L., D’Andrea, W.J., Balascio, N.L. et al. *Sedimentary DNA and molecular evidence for early human occupation of the Faroe Islands.* Commun Earth Environ 2, 2021, 253\\. {{doi\\|10\\.1038/s43247\\-021\\-00318\\-0}}\n[thumb\\|Grave of Havgrimur](/wiki/File:Grave_of_havgrimur%2C_faroe_islands.jpg \"Grave of havgrimur, faroe islands.jpg\")\nGrímur's settlement is said to have been in [Funningur](/wiki/Funningur \"Funningur\") on [Eysturoy](/wiki/Eysturoy \"Eysturoy\"). Excavations have revealed other Viking settlements in the neighborhood and on the other islands.",
"The Norwegian emigrant [Naddoddur](/wiki/Naddodd \"Naddodd\") also arrived in the Faroe Islands during this period. According to tradition, he discovered Iceland around 850 and named it *Snowland*. According to a more recent theory, his (presumed) daughter [Ann Naddodsdóttir](/wiki/Ann_Naddodsd%C3%B3ttir \"Ann Naddodsdóttir\") is the mother of [Brestir](/wiki/Brestir_Sigmundsson \"Brestir Sigmundsson\") and [Beinir](/wiki/Beinir_Sigmundsson \"Beinir Sigmundsson\"), who will be discussed below.",
"### Second settlement wave",
"The great immigration to the Faroe Islands took place around 880–900\\. This wave of land occupation is precisely dated to 885–890\\. It was the time of [Harald Fairhair](/wiki/Harald_Fairhair \"Harald Fairhair\") of [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") (r. 870–933\\). The Faroese saga tells us that many people fled from his rule. One of the reasons is the tax burden. As in the first land conquest, the immigrants came from Norway and probably also from the parts of the British Isles controlled by Norway.\n[left\\|thumb\\|300x300px\\|The Vikings were excellent sailors. Their navigational skills are honored on this 2002 Faroe Islands stamp block.](/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_sheet_406-408_viking_voyages.jpg \"Faroe stamp sheet 406-408 viking voyages.jpg\")\nThe fact that the majority of these Vikings on the Faroe Islands came from Norway can be determined by a linguistic peculiarity (in addition to other similarities with the dialects of western Norway): In [Faroese](/wiki/Faroese_language \"Faroese language\"), [northeast](/wiki/Points_of_the_compass \"Points of the compass\") is called *landnyrðingur* (\"land north\"), [southeast](/wiki/Points_of_the_compass \"Points of the compass\") *landsynningur* (\"land south\"), [northwest](/wiki/Points_of_the_compass \"Points of the compass\") *útnyrðingur* (\"out north\") and [southwest](/wiki/Points_of_the_compass \"Points of the compass\") *útsynningur* (\"out south\"). These terms can only be coined by people who live on a continental west coast, such as [Bergen](/wiki/Bergen \"Bergen\"). From a Faroese perspective, such a neologism would make no sense, as there is land to the northwest in the form of [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\") and [Shetland](/wiki/Shetland \"Shetland\") to the southeast, while the shores of [Spitsbergen](/wiki/Svalbard \"Svalbard\") and [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_%28island%29 \"Newfoundland (island)\") are located to the northeast and southwest \\- *[terra incognita](/wiki/Terra_incognita \"Terra incognita\")* (unknown land) at the time. And: from a Faroese point of view, every direction is *out to sea*.\nIt is said that people from the Faroe Islands and Bergen can still communicate in their respective local dialects without much difficulty. The relationship between this Norwegian trading metropolis and later [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League \"Hanseatic League\") and the Faroe Islands has always played a special role throughout the centuries. See also: [Monopoly trade via the Faroe Islands](/wiki/Monopoly_trade_via_the_Faroe_Islands \"Monopoly trade via the Faroe Islands\") (period 1529–1856\\)",
"#### First Thing",
"[left\\|thumb\\|[Tinganes](/wiki/Tinganes \"Tinganes\"), the ancient site of the Faroe Islands, is still the political center of the country today.](/wiki/File:Tinganes%2C_T%C3%B3rshavn_2004.1.jpg \"Tinganes, Tórshavn 2004.1.jpg\")\nAround 900, the [Faroese](/wiki/Faroe_Islanders \"Faroe Islanders\") already had their [Thing](/wiki/Thing_%28assembly%29 \"Thing (assembly)\") on the peninsula named after him, [Tinganes](/wiki/Tinganes \"Tinganes\"). [Tórshavn](/wiki/T%C3%B3rshavn \"Tórshavn\") thus became the capital of the islands early on. The thing at that time was called the *Althing* (as is still the case in Iceland today). Since around 1400, it has borne its current name [Løgting](/wiki/L%C3%B8gting \"Løgting\"). It is one of the oldest parliaments in the world (see there). In addition to the central Thing, there were local Thing sites called Várting.",
"Even if it is not entirely clear what the political order of the Faroe Islands was like at this time, it is no exaggeration to speak of a [Republic](/wiki/Republic \"Republic\"), as the king in Norway, 500 kilometers away, had no power on the archipelago during the Viking Age, and the thing was an assembly of the local *free men*, i.e. the large farmers. This was also where jurisdiction was exercised.",
"#### Settlement and population development",
"At that time, all the islands of the [Faroe Islands](/wiki/Faroe_Islands \"Faroe Islands\") were already inhabited, except for [Lítla Dímun](/wiki/L%C3%ADtla_D%C3%ADmun \"Lítla Dímun\"). This has not changed until today. The population of the Faroe Islands after the second wave of land grabbing was perhaps 3000 people. This number remained almost stable until the end of the 18th century and did not exceed 4000\\. Agriculture in this very limited area did not allow for more.",
"The descendants of the two waves of settlements effectively formed the population for the next 450 years. It was not until the [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death \"Black Death\") in 1349 and 1350, with the loss of a third of the population, that dramatic changes occurred, creating space and demand for new immigrants.",
""
] |
Sigmundur and Tróndur
---------------------
The two protagonists of the [Faroese saga](/wiki/F%C3%A6reyinga_saga "Færeyinga saga") are [Sigmundur Brestisson](/wiki/Sigmundur_Brestisson "Sigmundur Brestisson") and [Tróndur í Gøtu](/wiki/Tr%C3%B3ndur_%C3%AD_G%C3%B8tu "Tróndur í Gøtu"), who each represented the opposing camps in a feud that lasted 65 years on the Faroe Islands. This story begins around 970 and forms the main plot line of the saga.
*Despite reservations about the objectivity and accuracy of the Faroese saga, the following picture emerges, which is generally accepted as the chronicle of the time.*
### Murder of Brestir and Beinir
Around 969 the situation on the Faroe Islands was as follows: There were two Norwegian fiefdoms, one belonging to Havgrímur of Hov, the other to the brothers [Brestir](/wiki/Brestir_Sigmundsson "Brestir Sigmundsson") and [Beinir](/wiki/Beinir_Sigmundsson "Beinir Sigmundsson") of [Skúvoy](/wiki/Sk%C3%BAvoy "Skúvoy"). There were simmering conflicts between these two parties, which came to light with the dispute between Einar and Eldjarn (one of Brestir and Beinir's followers, the other of Havgrímur). Havgrímur refused Brestir's attempt at mediation, and so there was a trial before the [Althing on Tinganes](/wiki/L%C3%B8gting "Løgting"), where Havgrímur's party lost. He vowed revenge and sought the support of his father\-in\-law [Snæúlvur](/wiki/Sn%C3%A6%C3%BAlvur "Snæúlvur") of [Sandoy](/wiki/Sandoy "Sandoy"), but he would not play along, unlike [Tróndur í Gøtu](/wiki/Tr%C3%B3ndur_%C3%AD_G%C3%B8tu "Tróndur í Gøtu") and his uncle Svínoyar\-Bjarni, who plotted with Havgrímur to kill the brothers.
The murder of Brestir and Beinir on [Stóra Dímun](/wiki/St%C3%B3ra_D%C3%ADmun "Stóra Dímun") in 970 did not end with the death of the two brothers. They also managed to kill Havgrímur and five of his men in battle. [Sigmundur Brestisson](/wiki/Sigmundur_Brestisson "Sigmundur Brestisson") was 9 years old when he witnessed the death of his father Brestir, in which Tróndur í Gøtu was not actively involved, but was in the background. After the bloody deed, Tróndur suggested killing Sigmundur and his cousin Tóri Beinirsson (Beinir's then 11\-year\-old son), but Svínoyar\-Bjarni refused. Instead, Sigmundur and Tóri came under the guardianship of Tróndur, who had no children of his own and was unmarried.
Tróndur was 25 years old at the time. He tried to get rid of the two young boys quickly by offering them as slaves to the Norwegian merchant [Ravnur Hólmgarðsfari](/wiki/Ravnur_H%C3%B3lmgar%C3%B0sfari "Ravnur Hólmgarðsfari") that summer. However, he knew the background and demanded money to take them to Norway. Incidentally, the trade routes from the Faroe Islands to [Novgorod](/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod "Veliky Novgorod") in [Kievan Rus'](/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27 "Kievan Rus'") at that time are testimony to this episode. In any case, Ravnur brought the two to Norway and thus to safety (not only from Trónd's point of view, who had to fear revenge for the murder).
Tróndur took another boy into his care: [Øssur Havgrímsson](/wiki/%C3%98ssur_Havgr%C3%ADmsson "Øssur Havgrímsson"), the then 10\-year\-old son of Havgrím (i.e. the possible heir to Sigmundur and Tóri). This made him the sole ruler of the Faroe Islands: Sigmundur and Tóri were in Norway, and Øssur was his foster child. The Faroese saga tells us that Tróndur gave him the estates of [Brestir](/wiki/Brestir_Sigmundsson "Brestir Sigmundsson") and [Beinir](/wiki/Beinir_Sigmundsson "Beinir Sigmundsson") when he was growing up, as well as the part of the Faroe Islands that his father had ruled. This could have been from 980\. However, Tróndur was probably the real and only lord of the archipelago.
### Sigmund's return
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Wooden crosses from [Toftanes](/wiki/Toftanes "Toftanes") dating to 860–970, indicating that Christianity existed in the Faroes before official Christianization](/wiki/File:Wooden_crosses_from_Toftanes.jpg "Wooden crosses from Toftanes.jpg")
Sigmundur Brestisson and his cousin Tóri Beinirsson returned to the Faroes for the first time in 983\. They were traveling on behalf of King [Håkon Jarl](/wiki/Haakon_Sigurdsson "Haakon Sigurdsson") of Norway. They wanted their stolen property back and were now old enough to avenge the death of their fathers. According to the Faroese saga, they first encountered [Svínoyar\-Bjarni](/wiki/Sv%C3%ADnoyar-Bjarni "Svínoyar-Bjarni"), who was surprised at home. Bjarni was able to explain that it was he who had fought for the lives of the young men in 970, and so he came to an agreement with Sigmundur by revealing the whereabouts of [Øssur Havgrímsson](/wiki/%C3%98ssur_Havgr%C3%ADmsson "Øssur Havgrímsson") on [Skúvoy](/wiki/Sk%C3%BAvoy "Skúvoy"). Sigmundur is said to have gone there with 50 of Bjarni's men and killed Øssur in a duel, probably after he requested mercy and a settlement. After this battle, there was a truce between Sigmundur's and Tróndur's parties. However, while Tróndur wanted the matter to be settled before the [Althing in Tinganes](/wiki/L%C3%B8gting "Løgting"), Sigmundur demanded a verdict from Håkon Jarl in Norway. Around 984 Sigmundur and Tóri traveled back to Norway, where the king found Tróndur guilty of all four charges \- the murder of [Brestir](/wiki/Brestir_Sigmundsson "Brestir Sigmundsson") and [Beinir](/wiki/Beinir_Sigmundsson "Beinir Sigmundsson"), the attempt to kill Sigmundur and Tóri, and the enslavement of the two boys \- and ordered him to pay man\-money to Sigmundur and Tóri. In addition, the king allowed Tróndur í Gøtu to remain on the Faroe Islands as long as he submitted to Norwegian rule, which in turn was to be represented by Sigmundur, who was thus \- theoretically \- promised the entire Faroe Islands as a fiefdom.
At the Althing in 985, Tróndur reluctantly accepted these terms and demanded payment in installments over three years. In the same year, Tróndur took [Leivur Øssurson](/wiki/Leivur_%C3%98ssursson "Leivur Øssursson") (Øssur Havgrímsson's son) for himself \- probably also to take revenge on Sigmundur by repeatedly demanding man\-money from Sigmundur.
It was probably around 986 that Sigmundur brought his family (wife [Turið Torkilsdóttir](/wiki/%C3%9Euri%C3%B0_%C3%9Eorkilsd%C3%B3ttir "Þurið Þorkilsdóttir") and daughter [Tóra Sigmundsdóttir](/wiki/T%C3%B3ra_Sigmundsd%C3%B3ttir "Tóra Sigmundsdóttir")) from Norway to the Faroe Islands, where they would remain for the rest of their lives. The two are considered the first great women in Faroese history.[thumb\|[Tróndur í Gøtu](/wiki/Tr%C3%B3ndur_%C3%AD_G%C3%B8tu "Tróndur í Gøtu") defends himself with the [Mjölnir](/wiki/Mj%C3%B6lnir "Mjölnir") against the arrival of Christianity. Allegorical depiction on a [Faroese stamp](/wiki/Posta_%28company%29 "Posta (company)") by [Anker Eli Petersen](/wiki/Anker_Eli_Petersen "Anker Eli Petersen") 2000\.](/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_360_arrival_of_christianity.jpg "Faroe stamp 360 arrival of christianity.jpg")
### Christianization of the Faroe Islands
After [Olav I Tryggvason](/wiki/Olaf_Tryggvason "Olaf Tryggvason") converted to Christianity in 994 and became [King of Norway](/wiki/King_of_Norway "King of Norway") in 995, he invited Sigmundur Brestisson to join him in 997\. The two became friends, Sigmundur was baptized and sailed back to the Faroe Islands in 998 to announce at the [Althing on Tinganes](/wiki/L%C3%B8gting "Løgting") not only that Olav had appointed him sole ruler of the Faroe Islands, but also that all inhabitants should now convert to Christianity. This was met with violent protests led by [Tróndur í Gøtu](/wiki/Tr%C3%B3ndur_%C3%AD_G%C3%B8tu "Tróndur í Gøtu"), forcing Sigmundur to retreat to [Skúvoy](/wiki/Sk%C3%BAvoy "Skúvoy") until he attacked Tróndur at his home in 999 and forced him to convert to Christianity by force. However, this baptism was more formal and powerful politically, and Tróndur subsequently prepared the murder of Sigmundur Brestisson, which took place in 1005\.
|
[
"Sigmundur and Tróndur\n---------------------",
"The two protagonists of the [Faroese saga](/wiki/F%C3%A6reyinga_saga \"Færeyinga saga\") are [Sigmundur Brestisson](/wiki/Sigmundur_Brestisson \"Sigmundur Brestisson\") and [Tróndur í Gøtu](/wiki/Tr%C3%B3ndur_%C3%AD_G%C3%B8tu \"Tróndur í Gøtu\"), who each represented the opposing camps in a feud that lasted 65 years on the Faroe Islands. This story begins around 970 and forms the main plot line of the saga.",
"*Despite reservations about the objectivity and accuracy of the Faroese saga, the following picture emerges, which is generally accepted as the chronicle of the time.*",
"### Murder of Brestir and Beinir",
"Around 969 the situation on the Faroe Islands was as follows: There were two Norwegian fiefdoms, one belonging to Havgrímur of Hov, the other to the brothers [Brestir](/wiki/Brestir_Sigmundsson \"Brestir Sigmundsson\") and [Beinir](/wiki/Beinir_Sigmundsson \"Beinir Sigmundsson\") of [Skúvoy](/wiki/Sk%C3%BAvoy \"Skúvoy\"). There were simmering conflicts between these two parties, which came to light with the dispute between Einar and Eldjarn (one of Brestir and Beinir's followers, the other of Havgrímur). Havgrímur refused Brestir's attempt at mediation, and so there was a trial before the [Althing on Tinganes](/wiki/L%C3%B8gting \"Løgting\"), where Havgrímur's party lost. He vowed revenge and sought the support of his father\\-in\\-law [Snæúlvur](/wiki/Sn%C3%A6%C3%BAlvur \"Snæúlvur\") of [Sandoy](/wiki/Sandoy \"Sandoy\"), but he would not play along, unlike [Tróndur í Gøtu](/wiki/Tr%C3%B3ndur_%C3%AD_G%C3%B8tu \"Tróndur í Gøtu\") and his uncle Svínoyar\\-Bjarni, who plotted with Havgrímur to kill the brothers.",
"The murder of Brestir and Beinir on [Stóra Dímun](/wiki/St%C3%B3ra_D%C3%ADmun \"Stóra Dímun\") in 970 did not end with the death of the two brothers. They also managed to kill Havgrímur and five of his men in battle. [Sigmundur Brestisson](/wiki/Sigmundur_Brestisson \"Sigmundur Brestisson\") was 9 years old when he witnessed the death of his father Brestir, in which Tróndur í Gøtu was not actively involved, but was in the background. After the bloody deed, Tróndur suggested killing Sigmundur and his cousin Tóri Beinirsson (Beinir's then 11\\-year\\-old son), but Svínoyar\\-Bjarni refused. Instead, Sigmundur and Tóri came under the guardianship of Tróndur, who had no children of his own and was unmarried.",
"Tróndur was 25 years old at the time. He tried to get rid of the two young boys quickly by offering them as slaves to the Norwegian merchant [Ravnur Hólmgarðsfari](/wiki/Ravnur_H%C3%B3lmgar%C3%B0sfari \"Ravnur Hólmgarðsfari\") that summer. However, he knew the background and demanded money to take them to Norway. Incidentally, the trade routes from the Faroe Islands to [Novgorod](/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod \"Veliky Novgorod\") in [Kievan Rus'](/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27 \"Kievan Rus'\") at that time are testimony to this episode. In any case, Ravnur brought the two to Norway and thus to safety (not only from Trónd's point of view, who had to fear revenge for the murder).",
"Tróndur took another boy into his care: [Øssur Havgrímsson](/wiki/%C3%98ssur_Havgr%C3%ADmsson \"Øssur Havgrímsson\"), the then 10\\-year\\-old son of Havgrím (i.e. the possible heir to Sigmundur and Tóri). This made him the sole ruler of the Faroe Islands: Sigmundur and Tóri were in Norway, and Øssur was his foster child. The Faroese saga tells us that Tróndur gave him the estates of [Brestir](/wiki/Brestir_Sigmundsson \"Brestir Sigmundsson\") and [Beinir](/wiki/Beinir_Sigmundsson \"Beinir Sigmundsson\") when he was growing up, as well as the part of the Faroe Islands that his father had ruled. This could have been from 980\\. However, Tróndur was probably the real and only lord of the archipelago.",
"### Sigmund's return",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Wooden crosses from [Toftanes](/wiki/Toftanes \"Toftanes\") dating to 860–970, indicating that Christianity existed in the Faroes before official Christianization](/wiki/File:Wooden_crosses_from_Toftanes.jpg \"Wooden crosses from Toftanes.jpg\") \nSigmundur Brestisson and his cousin Tóri Beinirsson returned to the Faroes for the first time in 983\\. They were traveling on behalf of King [Håkon Jarl](/wiki/Haakon_Sigurdsson \"Haakon Sigurdsson\") of Norway. They wanted their stolen property back and were now old enough to avenge the death of their fathers. According to the Faroese saga, they first encountered [Svínoyar\\-Bjarni](/wiki/Sv%C3%ADnoyar-Bjarni \"Svínoyar-Bjarni\"), who was surprised at home. Bjarni was able to explain that it was he who had fought for the lives of the young men in 970, and so he came to an agreement with Sigmundur by revealing the whereabouts of [Øssur Havgrímsson](/wiki/%C3%98ssur_Havgr%C3%ADmsson \"Øssur Havgrímsson\") on [Skúvoy](/wiki/Sk%C3%BAvoy \"Skúvoy\"). Sigmundur is said to have gone there with 50 of Bjarni's men and killed Øssur in a duel, probably after he requested mercy and a settlement. After this battle, there was a truce between Sigmundur's and Tróndur's parties. However, while Tróndur wanted the matter to be settled before the [Althing in Tinganes](/wiki/L%C3%B8gting \"Løgting\"), Sigmundur demanded a verdict from Håkon Jarl in Norway. Around 984 Sigmundur and Tóri traveled back to Norway, where the king found Tróndur guilty of all four charges \\- the murder of [Brestir](/wiki/Brestir_Sigmundsson \"Brestir Sigmundsson\") and [Beinir](/wiki/Beinir_Sigmundsson \"Beinir Sigmundsson\"), the attempt to kill Sigmundur and Tóri, and the enslavement of the two boys \\- and ordered him to pay man\\-money to Sigmundur and Tóri. In addition, the king allowed Tróndur í Gøtu to remain on the Faroe Islands as long as he submitted to Norwegian rule, which in turn was to be represented by Sigmundur, who was thus \\- theoretically \\- promised the entire Faroe Islands as a fiefdom.",
"At the Althing in 985, Tróndur reluctantly accepted these terms and demanded payment in installments over three years. In the same year, Tróndur took [Leivur Øssurson](/wiki/Leivur_%C3%98ssursson \"Leivur Øssursson\") (Øssur Havgrímsson's son) for himself \\- probably also to take revenge on Sigmundur by repeatedly demanding man\\-money from Sigmundur.",
"It was probably around 986 that Sigmundur brought his family (wife [Turið Torkilsdóttir](/wiki/%C3%9Euri%C3%B0_%C3%9Eorkilsd%C3%B3ttir \"Þurið Þorkilsdóttir\") and daughter [Tóra Sigmundsdóttir](/wiki/T%C3%B3ra_Sigmundsd%C3%B3ttir \"Tóra Sigmundsdóttir\")) from Norway to the Faroe Islands, where they would remain for the rest of their lives. The two are considered the first great women in Faroese history.[thumb\\|[Tróndur í Gøtu](/wiki/Tr%C3%B3ndur_%C3%AD_G%C3%B8tu \"Tróndur í Gøtu\") defends himself with the [Mjölnir](/wiki/Mj%C3%B6lnir \"Mjölnir\") against the arrival of Christianity. Allegorical depiction on a [Faroese stamp](/wiki/Posta_%28company%29 \"Posta (company)\") by [Anker Eli Petersen](/wiki/Anker_Eli_Petersen \"Anker Eli Petersen\") 2000\\.](/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_360_arrival_of_christianity.jpg \"Faroe stamp 360 arrival of christianity.jpg\")",
"### Christianization of the Faroe Islands",
"After [Olav I Tryggvason](/wiki/Olaf_Tryggvason \"Olaf Tryggvason\") converted to Christianity in 994 and became [King of Norway](/wiki/King_of_Norway \"King of Norway\") in 995, he invited Sigmundur Brestisson to join him in 997\\. The two became friends, Sigmundur was baptized and sailed back to the Faroe Islands in 998 to announce at the [Althing on Tinganes](/wiki/L%C3%B8gting \"Løgting\") not only that Olav had appointed him sole ruler of the Faroe Islands, but also that all inhabitants should now convert to Christianity. This was met with violent protests led by [Tróndur í Gøtu](/wiki/Tr%C3%B3ndur_%C3%AD_G%C3%B8tu \"Tróndur í Gøtu\"), forcing Sigmundur to retreat to [Skúvoy](/wiki/Sk%C3%BAvoy \"Skúvoy\") until he attacked Tróndur at his home in 999 and forced him to convert to Christianity by force. However, this baptism was more formal and powerful politically, and Tróndur subsequently prepared the murder of Sigmundur Brestisson, which took place in 1005\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
One of the earliest puzzle contests was held about 1910\. The publisher of the *[New York Herald](/wiki/New_York_Herald "New York Herald")* offered a $5 gold piece to the reader who could form the most words using the letters from the [shortest verse](/wiki/Jesus_wept "Jesus wept") in the [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible"). More than 400 readers submitted identical solutions listing 2505 words, and the publisher was obliged to pay $5 to each of them, since no provision had been made for ties.
Puzzle contests started to gain widespread popularity in the 1920s, and in 1927 the [tabloid](/wiki/Tabloid_%28newspaper_format%29 "Tabloid (newspaper format)") newspaper the *[New York Evening Graphic](/wiki/New_York_Evening_Graphic "New York Evening Graphic")* offered $50,000 in a contest.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,731127,00\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930062826/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,731127,00\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=September 30, 2007\|title\=Puzzle Trust\|publisher\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|TIME]]\|date\=1927\-10\-31\|accessdate\=July 17, 2007}} By the 1940s and 1950s millions of players tried to solve puzzles published in a wide range of newspapers and magazines. The first puzzle contests in that era were designed primarily to boost the circulation of the magazine or newspaper. These contests were usually free to play.
The most popular contest of this era was the [Tangle Towns](/wiki/Tangle_Towns "Tangle Towns") contest.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,861081,00\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215072015/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,861081,00\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=December 15, 2008\|title\=Tangle Towns Tangle\|publisher\=TIME.com\|date\=1955\-01\-10\|accessdate\=July 17, 2007}} Shortly after the *[New York Herald Tribune](/wiki/New_York_Herald_Tribune "New York Herald Tribune")* started publishing Tangle Towns in September 1954, the number of readers went up 72,000 to over 400,000\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821033\-2,00\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018220655/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821033\-2,00\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=October 18, 2012\|title\=Trouble in New York\|publisher\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|TIME]]\|date\=1954\-12\-20\|accessdate\=July 17, 2007}} It was believed the puzzle was directly responsible for this increase.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866212,00\.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215035923/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866212,00\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=December 15, 2008\|title\=Brown \& White at the Trib\|publisher\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|TIME]]\|date\=1955\-04\-18\|accessdate\=July 17, 2007}} These contests ran in newspapers in major cities. In this contest the names of local cities would be scrambled, such as WONKERY for NEW YORK. The player had to unscramble the name. As the contest progressed, two city names, and then three city names would all be scrambled together. The final tiebreaker would consist of several hundred letters from which the player would have to form 20 or 25 city names, with various scores assigned to different letters and letter combinations.
The largest prize ever paid in a puzzle contest is still the $190,000 prize offered in a 1947 contest sponsored by [Unicorn Press](/wiki/Unicorn_Press "Unicorn Press"). The final puzzle consisted of several dozen pictures which had to be identified. Then the resulting words had to be anagrammed in the style of a Word Rebus, with points added for each word used, and points deducted for individual letters that were included in the rebus. The puzzle was designed by [William Sunners](/wiki/William_Sunners "William Sunners"), a [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn") schoolteacher for a fee of $15,000 (roughly 4 years salary in that era).
In the 1950s the focus of puzzle contests became fund\-raising. Organizations such as the [Boy Scouts](/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America "Boy Scouts of America") and the [Salvation Army](/wiki/Salvation_Army "Salvation Army") would advertise their contests in large\-circulation magazines. These contests either had an entry fee to play, or required a donation to the sponsoring organization. The most popular format for these contests was a picture composed of digits. The player had to correctly add all of the digits. The final tiebreaker would require the player to draw a path through a grid of several hundred numbers to obtain the highest possible total.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"One of the earliest puzzle contests was held about 1910\\. The publisher of the *[New York Herald](/wiki/New_York_Herald \"New York Herald\")* offered a $5 gold piece to the reader who could form the most words using the letters from the [shortest verse](/wiki/Jesus_wept \"Jesus wept\") in the [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\"). More than 400 readers submitted identical solutions listing 2505 words, and the publisher was obliged to pay $5 to each of them, since no provision had been made for ties.",
"Puzzle contests started to gain widespread popularity in the 1920s, and in 1927 the [tabloid](/wiki/Tabloid_%28newspaper_format%29 \"Tabloid (newspaper format)\") newspaper the *[New York Evening Graphic](/wiki/New_York_Evening_Graphic \"New York Evening Graphic\")* offered $50,000 in a contest.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,731127,00\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930062826/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,731127,00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=September 30, 2007\\|title\\=Puzzle Trust\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|TIME]]\\|date\\=1927\\-10\\-31\\|accessdate\\=July 17, 2007}} By the 1940s and 1950s millions of players tried to solve puzzles published in a wide range of newspapers and magazines. The first puzzle contests in that era were designed primarily to boost the circulation of the magazine or newspaper. These contests were usually free to play.",
"The most popular contest of this era was the [Tangle Towns](/wiki/Tangle_Towns \"Tangle Towns\") contest.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,861081,00\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215072015/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,861081,00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=December 15, 2008\\|title\\=Tangle Towns Tangle\\|publisher\\=TIME.com\\|date\\=1955\\-01\\-10\\|accessdate\\=July 17, 2007}} Shortly after the *[New York Herald Tribune](/wiki/New_York_Herald_Tribune \"New York Herald Tribune\")* started publishing Tangle Towns in September 1954, the number of readers went up 72,000 to over 400,000\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821033\\-2,00\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018220655/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821033\\-2,00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=October 18, 2012\\|title\\=Trouble in New York\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|TIME]]\\|date\\=1954\\-12\\-20\\|accessdate\\=July 17, 2007}} It was believed the puzzle was directly responsible for this increase.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866212,00\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215035923/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866212,00\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=December 15, 2008\\|title\\=Brown \\& White at the Trib\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|TIME]]\\|date\\=1955\\-04\\-18\\|accessdate\\=July 17, 2007}} These contests ran in newspapers in major cities. In this contest the names of local cities would be scrambled, such as WONKERY for NEW YORK. The player had to unscramble the name. As the contest progressed, two city names, and then three city names would all be scrambled together. The final tiebreaker would consist of several hundred letters from which the player would have to form 20 or 25 city names, with various scores assigned to different letters and letter combinations.",
"The largest prize ever paid in a puzzle contest is still the $190,000 prize offered in a 1947 contest sponsored by [Unicorn Press](/wiki/Unicorn_Press \"Unicorn Press\"). The final puzzle consisted of several dozen pictures which had to be identified. Then the resulting words had to be anagrammed in the style of a Word Rebus, with points added for each word used, and points deducted for individual letters that were included in the rebus. The puzzle was designed by [William Sunners](/wiki/William_Sunners \"William Sunners\"), a [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\") schoolteacher for a fee of $15,000 (roughly 4 years salary in that era).",
"In the 1950s the focus of puzzle contests became fund\\-raising. Organizations such as the [Boy Scouts](/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America \"Boy Scouts of America\") and the [Salvation Army](/wiki/Salvation_Army \"Salvation Army\") would advertise their contests in large\\-circulation magazines. These contests either had an entry fee to play, or required a donation to the sponsoring organization. The most popular format for these contests was a picture composed of digits. The player had to correctly add all of the digits. The final tiebreaker would require the player to draw a path through a grid of several hundred numbers to obtain the highest possible total.",
""
] |
History
-------
In the mid\-19th century the body of water that is now the Lake Worth Lagoon was a freshwater lake. This had been named *Lake Worth* in honor of [William J. Worth](/wiki/William_J._Worth "William J. Worth"), commander of the Eighth Infantry Regiment in the [Second Seminole War](/wiki/Second_Seminole_War "Second Seminole War"). There were no rivers or streams flowing into the lake; all of the flow into the lake was by ground seepage from the [Everglades](/wiki/Everglades "Everglades") to the west. The only outflow from the lake was through a [swamp](/wiki/Swamp "Swamp") that became the Lake Worth Creek as it approached the [Loxahatchee River](/wiki/Loxahatchee_River "Loxahatchee River") and [Jupiter Inlet](/wiki/Jupiter_Inlet "Jupiter Inlet").
In 1866 travelers reported that fresh water was pouring out of the lake into the ocean at a point about ten miles south of the Jupiter Inlet. One report is that a settler named Lang had dug the channel to open an inlet, and it was known as *Lang's Inlet* for a while. This cut drained the lake down to sea level. The limited inflow of ocean water through the inlet and continued seepage of fresh water from the Everglades kept the lake from becoming more than mildly [brackish](/wiki/Brackish_water "Brackish water").
The inlet tended to silt up, and had to be dug out again every few months. In 1877 the settlers around the lake decided to dig a new inlet at a point about a mile north of Lang's Inlet where a rock formation called the *Black Rocks* would provide some protection for the inlet. The point chosen on the barrier island was only about 300 feet wide, but the beach [dune](/wiki/Dune "Dune") ridge was 20 feet high and covered by heavy growth. All of the work was done with axes, shovels, hoes and wheelbarrows. It took 20 men several weeks to dig the new inlet.
The new inlet served its intended purpose well. The inlet tended to migrate south, however, with the current wearing away at the southern bank and depositing sand on the northern bank. By 1886 the inlet had migrated about a mile south of the Black Rocks, and closed up during a storm. An inlet was again dug through just south of the Black Rocks.
[thumb\|Tropic Lissette sailing out of Palm Beach Inlet to [The Bahamas](/wiki/The_Bahamas "The Bahamas").](/wiki/File:Tropic_Lissette_passing_through_Lake_Worth_Inlet.jpg "Tropic Lissette passing through Lake Worth Inlet.jpg")
In 1893 [Henry Flagler](/wiki/Henry_Flagler "Henry Flagler"), who would complete construction of his [Florida East Coast Railway](/wiki/Florida_East_Coast_Railway "Florida East Coast Railway") to [West Palm Beach](/wiki/West_Palm_Beach%2C_Florida "West Palm Beach, Florida") in 1894, had the inlet enlarged. The [federal](/wiki/United_States "United States") government turned down a request to improve the inlet in 1912\. In 1915 the [Florida Legislature](/wiki/Florida_Legislature "Florida Legislature") chartered the Lake Worth Inlet District (which later became the Port of Palm Beach District). The site of the original Lang's Inlet was chosen for the new inlet, which was completed in 1917\.
The *old* inlet at the Black Rocks was still open. A community of fishermen from the [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas "Bahamas") had settled on the barrier island just north of the Black Rocks, and they periodically cleared the channel when it silted up. A storm closed the inlet at the Black Rocks in 1919, and the fishermen, who were squatting on the island, were forced off by its owners and moved to Riviera (now [Riviera Beach](/wiki/Riviera_Beach%2C_Florida "Riviera Beach, Florida")).
The *new* Lake Worth Inlet was improved several times over the next decade. The federal government assumed responsibility for the inlet in 1935, and continued to widen and deepen it and build up the [jetties](/wiki/Jetty "Jetty"). In 1967 the inlet was dredged to a depth of 35 feet, which has been maintained since then. A sand transfer plant pumps sand from the north side of the inlet to the south side in order to maintain the natural flow of sand southward along the coast.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In the mid\\-19th century the body of water that is now the Lake Worth Lagoon was a freshwater lake. This had been named *Lake Worth* in honor of [William J. Worth](/wiki/William_J._Worth \"William J. Worth\"), commander of the Eighth Infantry Regiment in the [Second Seminole War](/wiki/Second_Seminole_War \"Second Seminole War\"). There were no rivers or streams flowing into the lake; all of the flow into the lake was by ground seepage from the [Everglades](/wiki/Everglades \"Everglades\") to the west. The only outflow from the lake was through a [swamp](/wiki/Swamp \"Swamp\") that became the Lake Worth Creek as it approached the [Loxahatchee River](/wiki/Loxahatchee_River \"Loxahatchee River\") and [Jupiter Inlet](/wiki/Jupiter_Inlet \"Jupiter Inlet\").",
"In 1866 travelers reported that fresh water was pouring out of the lake into the ocean at a point about ten miles south of the Jupiter Inlet. One report is that a settler named Lang had dug the channel to open an inlet, and it was known as *Lang's Inlet* for a while. This cut drained the lake down to sea level. The limited inflow of ocean water through the inlet and continued seepage of fresh water from the Everglades kept the lake from becoming more than mildly [brackish](/wiki/Brackish_water \"Brackish water\").",
"The inlet tended to silt up, and had to be dug out again every few months. In 1877 the settlers around the lake decided to dig a new inlet at a point about a mile north of Lang's Inlet where a rock formation called the *Black Rocks* would provide some protection for the inlet. The point chosen on the barrier island was only about 300 feet wide, but the beach [dune](/wiki/Dune \"Dune\") ridge was 20 feet high and covered by heavy growth. All of the work was done with axes, shovels, hoes and wheelbarrows. It took 20 men several weeks to dig the new inlet.",
"The new inlet served its intended purpose well. The inlet tended to migrate south, however, with the current wearing away at the southern bank and depositing sand on the northern bank. By 1886 the inlet had migrated about a mile south of the Black Rocks, and closed up during a storm. An inlet was again dug through just south of the Black Rocks.\n[thumb\\|Tropic Lissette sailing out of Palm Beach Inlet to [The Bahamas](/wiki/The_Bahamas \"The Bahamas\").](/wiki/File:Tropic_Lissette_passing_through_Lake_Worth_Inlet.jpg \"Tropic Lissette passing through Lake Worth Inlet.jpg\")",
"In 1893 [Henry Flagler](/wiki/Henry_Flagler \"Henry Flagler\"), who would complete construction of his [Florida East Coast Railway](/wiki/Florida_East_Coast_Railway \"Florida East Coast Railway\") to [West Palm Beach](/wiki/West_Palm_Beach%2C_Florida \"West Palm Beach, Florida\") in 1894, had the inlet enlarged. The [federal](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") government turned down a request to improve the inlet in 1912\\. In 1915 the [Florida Legislature](/wiki/Florida_Legislature \"Florida Legislature\") chartered the Lake Worth Inlet District (which later became the Port of Palm Beach District). The site of the original Lang's Inlet was chosen for the new inlet, which was completed in 1917\\.",
"The *old* inlet at the Black Rocks was still open. A community of fishermen from the [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas \"Bahamas\") had settled on the barrier island just north of the Black Rocks, and they periodically cleared the channel when it silted up. A storm closed the inlet at the Black Rocks in 1919, and the fishermen, who were squatting on the island, were forced off by its owners and moved to Riviera (now [Riviera Beach](/wiki/Riviera_Beach%2C_Florida \"Riviera Beach, Florida\")).",
"The *new* Lake Worth Inlet was improved several times over the next decade. The federal government assumed responsibility for the inlet in 1935, and continued to widen and deepen it and build up the [jetties](/wiki/Jetty \"Jetty\"). In 1967 the inlet was dredged to a depth of 35 feet, which has been maintained since then. A sand transfer plant pumps sand from the north side of the inlet to the south side in order to maintain the natural flow of sand southward along the coast.",
""
] |
Military career
---------------
After the events of 20 July 1810, Obando subsequently abandoned his studies and enlisted in the Patriot army, where he was part of the "Militias of Cundinamarca" Battalion reaching the rank of lieutenant by 1812, his unit was part of the troops of General [Antonio Nariño](/wiki/Antonio_Nari%C3%B1o "Antonio Nariño"), and participated in the [Southern Campaign (1813–1814\)](/wiki/Nari%C3%B1o%27s_Southern_Campaign "Nariño's Southern Campaign").Baraya, José María (1874\) *Biografías Militares o Historia Militar del País*. Bogotá. Imprenta de Gaitan. p. 237\. He fought in the battles of the Alto Palacé and Calibío where he was promoted to captain, as well as Juanambú and Tacines.
After the Patriot defeat the Battle of Ejidos de Pasto in December 1814, which led to the capture of General Nariño, Colonel [José María Cabal](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Cabal "José María Cabal") took what was left of the battered Patriot army and retreated to [Popayán](/wiki/Popay%C3%A1n "Popayán") and fearing a royalist counteroffensive eventually fell back towards [Cali](/wiki/Cali "Cali") in the [Cauca Valley](/wiki/Valle_del_Cauca_Department "Valle del Cauca Department"). On 15 April 1815, Obando was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and 3 months later took part in the [Battle of the Palo River](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Palo_River "Battle of the Palo River"), his cavalry squadron was placed on the Patriot right flank, he participated in the decisive bayonet charge that decided the battle and defeated the Spanish offensive that aimed to capture the Cauca valley and forced them to retreat back to [Pasto](/wiki/Pasto%2C_Colombia "Pasto, Colombia") allowing the patriots to recapture Popayán. However by August 1815 General [Pablo Morillo](/wiki/Pablo_Morillo "Pablo Morillo") and the Spanish expeditionary army arrived on the Caribbean coast of New Granada and laid siege to [Cartagena de Indias](/wiki/Cartagena%2C_Colombia "Cartagena, Colombia") while also deploying forces to invade the interior of the country, the government in Santa Fe transferred many of the battalions of the army of the south which weakened the army.
By 1816 Obando was still in the army of the south and garrisoned in Popayán, with the Spanish reconquest in full swing now with Spanish forces bearing down from the north and renewed offensive led by Brigadier [Juan de Sámano](/wiki/Juan_de_S%C3%A1mano "Juan de Sámano") marching from Pasto. The small patriot army in Popayán now under Colonel Liborio Mejia attempted to do battle with them meeting Sámano's forces west of Popayán but were defeated at the [Battle of Cuchilla del Tambo](/wiki/Battle_of_Cuchilla_del_Tambo "Battle of Cuchilla del Tambo"), Obando along with some other officers managed to escape capture and skirmished with the Spanish at [La Plata](/wiki/La_Plata%2C_Huila "La Plata, Huila") in July 1816 but were captured.
Despite being an officer (which usually meant summary execution by the Spanish) Obando was spared execution and was subsequently forced to serve in the [Spanish Army](/wiki/Spanish_Army "Spanish Army") as part of the 3rd Battalion of Numancia which were deployed to [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") to fight against [Simón Bolívar's](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar "Simón Bolívar") forces in 1817\. When his battalion was stationed in [Merida](/wiki/M%C3%A9rida%2C_M%C3%A9rida "Mérida, Mérida"), Obando successfully deserted his unit and joined the Patriot forces in the [llanos](/wiki/Llanos "Llanos") of Venezuela that were under the command of [José Antonio Páez](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_P%C3%A1ez "José Antonio Páez").
### New Granada Campaign of 1819
By mid\-1818, Bolívar sought a shift in his strategy after his last two campaigns had failed to liberate Venezuela from Spanish control and began to devise a military operation to [liberate New Granada](/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada "Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada"). However a new army would need be to raised as his forces had been weakened as a result of the last two campaigns, thus he appointed then Colonel [Francisco de Paula Santander](/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Santander "Francisco de Paula Santander") as commander of the vanguard of the Liberator Army and promoted him to [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general "Brigadier general") tasking him with raising forces in the province of [Casanare](/wiki/Casanare_Department "Casanare Department") and provided him with 1,200 muskets, Obando along with Lt. Colonel [Jacinto Lara](/wiki/Jacinto_Lara "Jacinto Lara"), Sgt. Major [Joaquín París](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Par%C3%ADs_Ricaurte "Joaquín París Ricaurte"), and Captain Vicente González were selected to accompany and help Santander in his task.Riaño, Camilo (1969\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819\.* Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 28\. After a few months by February 1819 Santander had managed to impose his authority over the [caudillos](/wiki/Caudillo "Caudillo") of the Casanare province and was able to transform the old guerrillas of the area into a force of about 1,200 regular men divided into 2 infantry battalions and a cavalry squadron. One of these battalions would be the line infantry battalion "First of the Line of New Granada" with Obando placed as its commander. In addition to being commander of the First of the Line of New Granada, Obando was also a member of the permanent war council established by General Santander on 24 February 1819 to maintain order and discipline within his forces cantoned in Casanare.Riaño, Camilo (1969\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 38\.
While preparations for the campaign were still continuing, at the end of March and the beginning of April, Colonel [José María Barreiro](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Barreiro_Manj%C3%B3n "José María Barreiro Manjón"), commander of the III division of the royalist army garrisoned in the highlands of the [Altiplano Cundiboyacense](/wiki/Altiplano_Cundiboyacense "Altiplano Cundiboyacense"), invaded the Casanare provinces under orders by General Morillo in an attempt to destroy Santander's forces. This campaign would be a resounding failure for the Spanish who, due to desertion and lack of supplies, could not continue the campaign as Santander intelligently withdrew to the vast interior of the plains avoiding combat with the Spanish. With the coming arrival of the rainy season, by late April Barreiro decided to withdraw his army back across the Andes, however he left some detachments to protect the mountain passages of the [Cordillera Oriental](/wiki/Cordillera_Oriental_%28Colombia%29 "Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)") such as the one placed in [Salina de Chita](/wiki/Chita%2C_Boyac%C3%A1 "Chita, Boyacá") which were composed of two companies from the "King's 1st" infantry battalion.Riaño, Camilo (1969\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 60\. Obando was ordered by Santander to harass and attack these forces, thus Obando set out with two companies, one from his battalion and the other from the "Cazadores" battalion and managed to take the town on 23 April, capturing the garrison there and its war material. The royalist prisoners were incorporated into the Patriot army.Riaño, Camilo (1969\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. pp. 61\-62\. Among the captured material that was found were muskets, ammunition, rations, as well as uniforms among which was an officer's jacket lined with fur cloth that Obando decided to donate to General Santander, Santander would use this jacket during the entirety of the campaign and would also wear it in his entrance to Bogotá on 10 August 1819\.
By late May with Barreiro's forces retreated back across the Andes, Santander informed Bolívar of the favorability of starting the campaign. Bolívar agreed, and began his march from the town of [Mantecal](/wiki/Apure "Apure") in the *Llanos* of Venezuela in late May and arrived in [Tame](/wiki/Tame%2C_Arauca "Tame, Arauca") on 12 June where his army joined up with Santander's army, the following days would see Bolívar organize the army. Whilst in Tame, Santander submitted a number of requests for promotions of his officers to Bolívar, which were denied, something that caused animosity from Obando towards Bolívar.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 36\. {{ISBN\|978\-958\-5154\-69\-8}}. The "Liberator army of New Granada and Venezuela" soon departed Tame for the Andes, Obando took part in the Battle of Paya on 27 June when the vanguard encountered a 300\-strong Spanish garrison at Paya, after a few hours of combat the Spanish retreated clearing the way for the army to begin their crossing of the Andes.
Obando was also one of the officers that expressed their desire to continue the campaign when Bolívar considered cancelling the operation when his Venezuelan soldiers were on the verge of mutiny. In his autobiography he stated
> From the top of Moscote I got off my mule, I laid on my back on the green weed, and with my feet I made the cross to the Llanos and swore not to return to them out of my own liking, but tied up. That if General Bolívar withdraws, I am determined to go with my Battalion, disperse it into guerrillas and thus make war on the Spaniards.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 123\. {{ISBN\|978\-958\-5154\-69\-8}}.
With the backing of these officers Bolívar was able to continue the campaign, and was inspired by the dedication and the will of his officers to continue. In early July the army crossed the Andes through the Parámo de Pisba, an extremely difficult crossing which saw the army lose many men. After crossing the Andes the army entered into combat between the days July 10–11 engaging the Spanish at [Corrales](/wiki/Corrales%2C_Boyac%C3%A1 "Corrales, Boyacá") and [Gámeza](/wiki/G%C3%A1meza "Gámeza"). At the Battle of Gámeza on 11 July, Obando was wounded when his battalion along with the *Cazadores* battalion attempted to take the Gámeza bridge but were rebuffed by the Spanish firepower, the battle ended indecisively for both sides, for his actions Obando was finally given his promotion to full colonel.
Obando and the First of the Line battalion would again see action on 25 July at the [Battle of Vargas Swamp](/wiki/Battle_of_Vargas_Swamp "Battle of Vargas Swamp") near the town of [Paipa](/wiki/Paipa "Paipa"). Obando's battalion were initially kept in the reserve but were deployed to support the assault in the center on Cangrejo hill. Obando would write that their victory at Vargas Swamp was hard fought and contributed to the decisive defeat of the Spanish at the [Battle of Boyacá](/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1 "Battle of Boyacá"). On 7 August at the Battle of Boyacá, Obando and his battalion played a decisive role in pinning down the Spanish vanguard at the bridge and eventually bayonet charged across it to conclude the Patriot victory.
### Southern Campaign 1820\-24
After the victory at Boyacá most of central and eastern New Granada was liberated from Spanish control. Obando along with all those who participated in the campaign received the [cross of Boyacá](/wiki/Order_of_Boyac%C3%A1 "Order of Boyacá"). Obando was then named military governor of the [Province of Mariquita](/wiki/Province_of_Mariquita "Province of Mariquita"), where he based in the provincial capital of [Honda](/wiki/Honda%2C_Tolima "Honda, Tolima"). Obando would hold this position for only 2 months as he was then named military governor of the Province of Popayán in the south of New Granada, arriving there in January 1820\.
Obando would be governor for merely a few days, with the only forces at his disposal being the 300 to 400 troops of the "Tiradores" battalion that were garrisoned in the city, he was attacked on 24 January 1820 by Colonel Sebastián de la Calzada's 2,500\-strong royalist army that had launched a counteroffensive on the [Gran Colombian](/wiki/Gran_Colombia "Gran Colombia") forces in Popayán leading to the loss of the city.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 40\. {{ISBN\|978\-958\-5154\-69\-8}}. The loss of Popayán was harshly criticized by President Bolívar and Obando was ordered to Bogotá to face a [military tribunal](/wiki/Court-martial "Court-martial") for his perceived incompetence as well as various other accusations such as having not carried out intelligence through the use of spies and having ignored warnings by locals. He faced his trial in May 1820, during the trial he was supported by the Vice President Santander as well as other officers who testified in his defense, leading to the military tribunal absolving him of any blame,Pita Pico, Roger (2023\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 42\. {{ISBN\|978\-958\-5154\-69\-8}}. however Bolívar upon receiving news of the trial's outcome was displeased by its result.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 43\. {{ISBN\|978\-958\-5154\-69\-8}}. Obando returned to the south and was in charge of the defense of the Cauca Valley, Popayán would later be recovered after the Gran Colombian victory at the Battle of Pitayó on 16 July 1820\.
Obando would remain in the south for next few years conducting operations against royalist regulars and guerrillas. He was placed as second in command of the army staff during the bloody [Battle of Bomboná](/wiki/Pasto_Campaign "Pasto Campaign") on 7 April 1822 which eventually saw the fall of Pasto under Gran Colombian control. On 12 June, Bolívar placed Obando as military governor of the Province of Pasto, Pasto had been fervent royalist bastion and even after the Battle of Bomboná support for the royalist cause had not dissipated leading to hostile environment against the Gran Colombian army in the city, which led Obando to instead place his headquarters in the town of [Túquerres](/wiki/T%C3%BAquerres "Túquerres").
On 28 October, the royalists under the command of Captain Benito Boves once again took control of Pasto. Due to a lack of troops Obando requested reinforcements from Bolivar and General [Antonio José de Sucre](/wiki/Antonio_Jos%C3%A9_de_Sucre "Antonio José de Sucre") in [Quito](/wiki/Quito "Quito") which had recently been liberated from Spanish control. Obando however was forced to battle against Boves and gathered 40 veteran troops and 300 militia to face Boves's 700 troops but was defeated when the two fought on the banks of [Guáitara River](/wiki/Gu%C3%A1itara_River "Guáitara River"). Bolívar blamed Obando for the defeat, and had to personally come with General Sucre to pacify the province leading to the massacre committed by the Gran Colombian army in Pasto in December 1822, known as the *Black Christmas* (*Navidad Negra*).
|
[
"Military career\n---------------",
"After the events of 20 July 1810, Obando subsequently abandoned his studies and enlisted in the Patriot army, where he was part of the \"Militias of Cundinamarca\" Battalion reaching the rank of lieutenant by 1812, his unit was part of the troops of General [Antonio Nariño](/wiki/Antonio_Nari%C3%B1o \"Antonio Nariño\"), and participated in the [Southern Campaign (1813–1814\\)](/wiki/Nari%C3%B1o%27s_Southern_Campaign \"Nariño's Southern Campaign\").Baraya, José María (1874\\) *Biografías Militares o Historia Militar del País*. Bogotá. Imprenta de Gaitan. p. 237\\. He fought in the battles of the Alto Palacé and Calibío where he was promoted to captain, as well as Juanambú and Tacines.",
"After the Patriot defeat the Battle of Ejidos de Pasto in December 1814, which led to the capture of General Nariño, Colonel [José María Cabal](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Cabal \"José María Cabal\") took what was left of the battered Patriot army and retreated to [Popayán](/wiki/Popay%C3%A1n \"Popayán\") and fearing a royalist counteroffensive eventually fell back towards [Cali](/wiki/Cali \"Cali\") in the [Cauca Valley](/wiki/Valle_del_Cauca_Department \"Valle del Cauca Department\"). On 15 April 1815, Obando was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and 3 months later took part in the [Battle of the Palo River](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Palo_River \"Battle of the Palo River\"), his cavalry squadron was placed on the Patriot right flank, he participated in the decisive bayonet charge that decided the battle and defeated the Spanish offensive that aimed to capture the Cauca valley and forced them to retreat back to [Pasto](/wiki/Pasto%2C_Colombia \"Pasto, Colombia\") allowing the patriots to recapture Popayán. However by August 1815 General [Pablo Morillo](/wiki/Pablo_Morillo \"Pablo Morillo\") and the Spanish expeditionary army arrived on the Caribbean coast of New Granada and laid siege to [Cartagena de Indias](/wiki/Cartagena%2C_Colombia \"Cartagena, Colombia\") while also deploying forces to invade the interior of the country, the government in Santa Fe transferred many of the battalions of the army of the south which weakened the army.",
"By 1816 Obando was still in the army of the south and garrisoned in Popayán, with the Spanish reconquest in full swing now with Spanish forces bearing down from the north and renewed offensive led by Brigadier [Juan de Sámano](/wiki/Juan_de_S%C3%A1mano \"Juan de Sámano\") marching from Pasto. The small patriot army in Popayán now under Colonel Liborio Mejia attempted to do battle with them meeting Sámano's forces west of Popayán but were defeated at the [Battle of Cuchilla del Tambo](/wiki/Battle_of_Cuchilla_del_Tambo \"Battle of Cuchilla del Tambo\"), Obando along with some other officers managed to escape capture and skirmished with the Spanish at [La Plata](/wiki/La_Plata%2C_Huila \"La Plata, Huila\") in July 1816 but were captured.",
"Despite being an officer (which usually meant summary execution by the Spanish) Obando was spared execution and was subsequently forced to serve in the [Spanish Army](/wiki/Spanish_Army \"Spanish Army\") as part of the 3rd Battalion of Numancia which were deployed to [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\") to fight against [Simón Bolívar's](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Simón Bolívar\") forces in 1817\\. When his battalion was stationed in [Merida](/wiki/M%C3%A9rida%2C_M%C3%A9rida \"Mérida, Mérida\"), Obando successfully deserted his unit and joined the Patriot forces in the [llanos](/wiki/Llanos \"Llanos\") of Venezuela that were under the command of [José Antonio Páez](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_P%C3%A1ez \"José Antonio Páez\").",
"### New Granada Campaign of 1819",
"By mid\\-1818, Bolívar sought a shift in his strategy after his last two campaigns had failed to liberate Venezuela from Spanish control and began to devise a military operation to [liberate New Granada](/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada \"Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada\"). However a new army would need be to raised as his forces had been weakened as a result of the last two campaigns, thus he appointed then Colonel [Francisco de Paula Santander](/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Santander \"Francisco de Paula Santander\") as commander of the vanguard of the Liberator Army and promoted him to [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general \"Brigadier general\") tasking him with raising forces in the province of [Casanare](/wiki/Casanare_Department \"Casanare Department\") and provided him with 1,200 muskets, Obando along with Lt. Colonel [Jacinto Lara](/wiki/Jacinto_Lara \"Jacinto Lara\"), Sgt. Major [Joaquín París](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Par%C3%ADs_Ricaurte \"Joaquín París Ricaurte\"), and Captain Vicente González were selected to accompany and help Santander in his task.Riaño, Camilo (1969\\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819\\.* Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 28\\. After a few months by February 1819 Santander had managed to impose his authority over the [caudillos](/wiki/Caudillo \"Caudillo\") of the Casanare province and was able to transform the old guerrillas of the area into a force of about 1,200 regular men divided into 2 infantry battalions and a cavalry squadron. One of these battalions would be the line infantry battalion \"First of the Line of New Granada\" with Obando placed as its commander. In addition to being commander of the First of the Line of New Granada, Obando was also a member of the permanent war council established by General Santander on 24 February 1819 to maintain order and discipline within his forces cantoned in Casanare.Riaño, Camilo (1969\\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 38\\.",
"While preparations for the campaign were still continuing, at the end of March and the beginning of April, Colonel [José María Barreiro](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Barreiro_Manj%C3%B3n \"José María Barreiro Manjón\"), commander of the III division of the royalist army garrisoned in the highlands of the [Altiplano Cundiboyacense](/wiki/Altiplano_Cundiboyacense \"Altiplano Cundiboyacense\"), invaded the Casanare provinces under orders by General Morillo in an attempt to destroy Santander's forces. This campaign would be a resounding failure for the Spanish who, due to desertion and lack of supplies, could not continue the campaign as Santander intelligently withdrew to the vast interior of the plains avoiding combat with the Spanish. With the coming arrival of the rainy season, by late April Barreiro decided to withdraw his army back across the Andes, however he left some detachments to protect the mountain passages of the [Cordillera Oriental](/wiki/Cordillera_Oriental_%28Colombia%29 \"Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)\") such as the one placed in [Salina de Chita](/wiki/Chita%2C_Boyac%C3%A1 \"Chita, Boyacá\") which were composed of two companies from the \"King's 1st\" infantry battalion.Riaño, Camilo (1969\\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 60\\. Obando was ordered by Santander to harass and attack these forces, thus Obando set out with two companies, one from his battalion and the other from the \"Cazadores\" battalion and managed to take the town on 23 April, capturing the garrison there and its war material. The royalist prisoners were incorporated into the Patriot army.Riaño, Camilo (1969\\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. pp. 61\\-62\\. Among the captured material that was found were muskets, ammunition, rations, as well as uniforms among which was an officer's jacket lined with fur cloth that Obando decided to donate to General Santander, Santander would use this jacket during the entirety of the campaign and would also wear it in his entrance to Bogotá on 10 August 1819\\.",
"By late May with Barreiro's forces retreated back across the Andes, Santander informed Bolívar of the favorability of starting the campaign. Bolívar agreed, and began his march from the town of [Mantecal](/wiki/Apure \"Apure\") in the *Llanos* of Venezuela in late May and arrived in [Tame](/wiki/Tame%2C_Arauca \"Tame, Arauca\") on 12 June where his army joined up with Santander's army, the following days would see Bolívar organize the army. Whilst in Tame, Santander submitted a number of requests for promotions of his officers to Bolívar, which were denied, something that caused animosity from Obando towards Bolívar.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 36\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-958\\-5154\\-69\\-8}}. The \"Liberator army of New Granada and Venezuela\" soon departed Tame for the Andes, Obando took part in the Battle of Paya on 27 June when the vanguard encountered a 300\\-strong Spanish garrison at Paya, after a few hours of combat the Spanish retreated clearing the way for the army to begin their crossing of the Andes.",
"Obando was also one of the officers that expressed their desire to continue the campaign when Bolívar considered cancelling the operation when his Venezuelan soldiers were on the verge of mutiny. In his autobiography he stated \n> From the top of Moscote I got off my mule, I laid on my back on the green weed, and with my feet I made the cross to the Llanos and swore not to return to them out of my own liking, but tied up. That if General Bolívar withdraws, I am determined to go with my Battalion, disperse it into guerrillas and thus make war on the Spaniards.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 123\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-958\\-5154\\-69\\-8}}.",
"With the backing of these officers Bolívar was able to continue the campaign, and was inspired by the dedication and the will of his officers to continue. In early July the army crossed the Andes through the Parámo de Pisba, an extremely difficult crossing which saw the army lose many men. After crossing the Andes the army entered into combat between the days July 10–11 engaging the Spanish at [Corrales](/wiki/Corrales%2C_Boyac%C3%A1 \"Corrales, Boyacá\") and [Gámeza](/wiki/G%C3%A1meza \"Gámeza\"). At the Battle of Gámeza on 11 July, Obando was wounded when his battalion along with the *Cazadores* battalion attempted to take the Gámeza bridge but were rebuffed by the Spanish firepower, the battle ended indecisively for both sides, for his actions Obando was finally given his promotion to full colonel.",
"Obando and the First of the Line battalion would again see action on 25 July at the [Battle of Vargas Swamp](/wiki/Battle_of_Vargas_Swamp \"Battle of Vargas Swamp\") near the town of [Paipa](/wiki/Paipa \"Paipa\"). Obando's battalion were initially kept in the reserve but were deployed to support the assault in the center on Cangrejo hill. Obando would write that their victory at Vargas Swamp was hard fought and contributed to the decisive defeat of the Spanish at the [Battle of Boyacá](/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1 \"Battle of Boyacá\"). On 7 August at the Battle of Boyacá, Obando and his battalion played a decisive role in pinning down the Spanish vanguard at the bridge and eventually bayonet charged across it to conclude the Patriot victory.",
"### Southern Campaign 1820\\-24",
"After the victory at Boyacá most of central and eastern New Granada was liberated from Spanish control. Obando along with all those who participated in the campaign received the [cross of Boyacá](/wiki/Order_of_Boyac%C3%A1 \"Order of Boyacá\"). Obando was then named military governor of the [Province of Mariquita](/wiki/Province_of_Mariquita \"Province of Mariquita\"), where he based in the provincial capital of [Honda](/wiki/Honda%2C_Tolima \"Honda, Tolima\"). Obando would hold this position for only 2 months as he was then named military governor of the Province of Popayán in the south of New Granada, arriving there in January 1820\\.",
"Obando would be governor for merely a few days, with the only forces at his disposal being the 300 to 400 troops of the \"Tiradores\" battalion that were garrisoned in the city, he was attacked on 24 January 1820 by Colonel Sebastián de la Calzada's 2,500\\-strong royalist army that had launched a counteroffensive on the [Gran Colombian](/wiki/Gran_Colombia \"Gran Colombia\") forces in Popayán leading to the loss of the city.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 40\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-958\\-5154\\-69\\-8}}. The loss of Popayán was harshly criticized by President Bolívar and Obando was ordered to Bogotá to face a [military tribunal](/wiki/Court-martial \"Court-martial\") for his perceived incompetence as well as various other accusations such as having not carried out intelligence through the use of spies and having ignored warnings by locals. He faced his trial in May 1820, during the trial he was supported by the Vice President Santander as well as other officers who testified in his defense, leading to the military tribunal absolving him of any blame,Pita Pico, Roger (2023\\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 42\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-958\\-5154\\-69\\-8}}. however Bolívar upon receiving news of the trial's outcome was displeased by its result.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 43\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-958\\-5154\\-69\\-8}}. Obando returned to the south and was in charge of the defense of the Cauca Valley, Popayán would later be recovered after the Gran Colombian victory at the Battle of Pitayó on 16 July 1820\\.",
"Obando would remain in the south for next few years conducting operations against royalist regulars and guerrillas. He was placed as second in command of the army staff during the bloody [Battle of Bomboná](/wiki/Pasto_Campaign \"Pasto Campaign\") on 7 April 1822 which eventually saw the fall of Pasto under Gran Colombian control. On 12 June, Bolívar placed Obando as military governor of the Province of Pasto, Pasto had been fervent royalist bastion and even after the Battle of Bomboná support for the royalist cause had not dissipated leading to hostile environment against the Gran Colombian army in the city, which led Obando to instead place his headquarters in the town of [Túquerres](/wiki/T%C3%BAquerres \"Túquerres\").",
"On 28 October, the royalists under the command of Captain Benito Boves once again took control of Pasto. Due to a lack of troops Obando requested reinforcements from Bolivar and General [Antonio José de Sucre](/wiki/Antonio_Jos%C3%A9_de_Sucre \"Antonio José de Sucre\") in [Quito](/wiki/Quito \"Quito\") which had recently been liberated from Spanish control. Obando however was forced to battle against Boves and gathered 40 veteran troops and 300 militia to face Boves's 700 troops but was defeated when the two fought on the banks of [Guáitara River](/wiki/Gu%C3%A1itara_River \"Guáitara River\"). Bolívar blamed Obando for the defeat, and had to personally come with General Sucre to pacify the province leading to the massacre committed by the Gran Colombian army in Pasto in December 1822, known as the *Black Christmas* (*Navidad Negra*).",
""
] |
### New Granada Campaign of 1819
By mid\-1818, Bolívar sought a shift in his strategy after his last two campaigns had failed to liberate Venezuela from Spanish control and began to devise a military operation to [liberate New Granada](/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada "Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada"). However a new army would need be to raised as his forces had been weakened as a result of the last two campaigns, thus he appointed then Colonel [Francisco de Paula Santander](/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Santander "Francisco de Paula Santander") as commander of the vanguard of the Liberator Army and promoted him to [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general "Brigadier general") tasking him with raising forces in the province of [Casanare](/wiki/Casanare_Department "Casanare Department") and provided him with 1,200 muskets, Obando along with Lt. Colonel [Jacinto Lara](/wiki/Jacinto_Lara "Jacinto Lara"), Sgt. Major [Joaquín París](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Par%C3%ADs_Ricaurte "Joaquín París Ricaurte"), and Captain Vicente González were selected to accompany and help Santander in his task.Riaño, Camilo (1969\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819\.* Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 28\. After a few months by February 1819 Santander had managed to impose his authority over the [caudillos](/wiki/Caudillo "Caudillo") of the Casanare province and was able to transform the old guerrillas of the area into a force of about 1,200 regular men divided into 2 infantry battalions and a cavalry squadron. One of these battalions would be the line infantry battalion "First of the Line of New Granada" with Obando placed as its commander. In addition to being commander of the First of the Line of New Granada, Obando was also a member of the permanent war council established by General Santander on 24 February 1819 to maintain order and discipline within his forces cantoned in Casanare.Riaño, Camilo (1969\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 38\.
While preparations for the campaign were still continuing, at the end of March and the beginning of April, Colonel [José María Barreiro](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Barreiro_Manj%C3%B3n "José María Barreiro Manjón"), commander of the III division of the royalist army garrisoned in the highlands of the [Altiplano Cundiboyacense](/wiki/Altiplano_Cundiboyacense "Altiplano Cundiboyacense"), invaded the Casanare provinces under orders by General Morillo in an attempt to destroy Santander's forces. This campaign would be a resounding failure for the Spanish who, due to desertion and lack of supplies, could not continue the campaign as Santander intelligently withdrew to the vast interior of the plains avoiding combat with the Spanish. With the coming arrival of the rainy season, by late April Barreiro decided to withdraw his army back across the Andes, however he left some detachments to protect the mountain passages of the [Cordillera Oriental](/wiki/Cordillera_Oriental_%28Colombia%29 "Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)") such as the one placed in [Salina de Chita](/wiki/Chita%2C_Boyac%C3%A1 "Chita, Boyacá") which were composed of two companies from the "King's 1st" infantry battalion.Riaño, Camilo (1969\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 60\. Obando was ordered by Santander to harass and attack these forces, thus Obando set out with two companies, one from his battalion and the other from the "Cazadores" battalion and managed to take the town on 23 April, capturing the garrison there and its war material. The royalist prisoners were incorporated into the Patriot army.Riaño, Camilo (1969\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. pp. 61\-62\. Among the captured material that was found were muskets, ammunition, rations, as well as uniforms among which was an officer's jacket lined with fur cloth that Obando decided to donate to General Santander, Santander would use this jacket during the entirety of the campaign and would also wear it in his entrance to Bogotá on 10 August 1819\.
By late May with Barreiro's forces retreated back across the Andes, Santander informed Bolívar of the favorability of starting the campaign. Bolívar agreed, and began his march from the town of [Mantecal](/wiki/Apure "Apure") in the *Llanos* of Venezuela in late May and arrived in [Tame](/wiki/Tame%2C_Arauca "Tame, Arauca") on 12 June where his army joined up with Santander's army, the following days would see Bolívar organize the army. Whilst in Tame, Santander submitted a number of requests for promotions of his officers to Bolívar, which were denied, something that caused animosity from Obando towards Bolívar.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 36\. {{ISBN\|978\-958\-5154\-69\-8}}. The "Liberator army of New Granada and Venezuela" soon departed Tame for the Andes, Obando took part in the Battle of Paya on 27 June when the vanguard encountered a 300\-strong Spanish garrison at Paya, after a few hours of combat the Spanish retreated clearing the way for the army to begin their crossing of the Andes.
Obando was also one of the officers that expressed their desire to continue the campaign when Bolívar considered cancelling the operation when his Venezuelan soldiers were on the verge of mutiny. In his autobiography he stated
> From the top of Moscote I got off my mule, I laid on my back on the green weed, and with my feet I made the cross to the Llanos and swore not to return to them out of my own liking, but tied up. That if General Bolívar withdraws, I am determined to go with my Battalion, disperse it into guerrillas and thus make war on the Spaniards.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 123\. {{ISBN\|978\-958\-5154\-69\-8}}.
With the backing of these officers Bolívar was able to continue the campaign, and was inspired by the dedication and the will of his officers to continue. In early July the army crossed the Andes through the Parámo de Pisba, an extremely difficult crossing which saw the army lose many men. After crossing the Andes the army entered into combat between the days July 10–11 engaging the Spanish at [Corrales](/wiki/Corrales%2C_Boyac%C3%A1 "Corrales, Boyacá") and [Gámeza](/wiki/G%C3%A1meza "Gámeza"). At the Battle of Gámeza on 11 July, Obando was wounded when his battalion along with the *Cazadores* battalion attempted to take the Gámeza bridge but were rebuffed by the Spanish firepower, the battle ended indecisively for both sides, for his actions Obando was finally given his promotion to full colonel.
Obando and the First of the Line battalion would again see action on 25 July at the [Battle of Vargas Swamp](/wiki/Battle_of_Vargas_Swamp "Battle of Vargas Swamp") near the town of [Paipa](/wiki/Paipa "Paipa"). Obando's battalion were initially kept in the reserve but were deployed to support the assault in the center on Cangrejo hill. Obando would write that their victory at Vargas Swamp was hard fought and contributed to the decisive defeat of the Spanish at the [Battle of Boyacá](/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1 "Battle of Boyacá"). On 7 August at the Battle of Boyacá, Obando and his battalion played a decisive role in pinning down the Spanish vanguard at the bridge and eventually bayonet charged across it to conclude the Patriot victory.
|
[
"### New Granada Campaign of 1819",
"By mid\\-1818, Bolívar sought a shift in his strategy after his last two campaigns had failed to liberate Venezuela from Spanish control and began to devise a military operation to [liberate New Granada](/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada \"Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada\"). However a new army would need be to raised as his forces had been weakened as a result of the last two campaigns, thus he appointed then Colonel [Francisco de Paula Santander](/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Santander \"Francisco de Paula Santander\") as commander of the vanguard of the Liberator Army and promoted him to [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general \"Brigadier general\") tasking him with raising forces in the province of [Casanare](/wiki/Casanare_Department \"Casanare Department\") and provided him with 1,200 muskets, Obando along with Lt. Colonel [Jacinto Lara](/wiki/Jacinto_Lara \"Jacinto Lara\"), Sgt. Major [Joaquín París](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Par%C3%ADs_Ricaurte \"Joaquín París Ricaurte\"), and Captain Vicente González were selected to accompany and help Santander in his task.Riaño, Camilo (1969\\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819\\.* Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 28\\. After a few months by February 1819 Santander had managed to impose his authority over the [caudillos](/wiki/Caudillo \"Caudillo\") of the Casanare province and was able to transform the old guerrillas of the area into a force of about 1,200 regular men divided into 2 infantry battalions and a cavalry squadron. One of these battalions would be the line infantry battalion \"First of the Line of New Granada\" with Obando placed as its commander. In addition to being commander of the First of the Line of New Granada, Obando was also a member of the permanent war council established by General Santander on 24 February 1819 to maintain order and discipline within his forces cantoned in Casanare.Riaño, Camilo (1969\\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 38\\.",
"While preparations for the campaign were still continuing, at the end of March and the beginning of April, Colonel [José María Barreiro](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Barreiro_Manj%C3%B3n \"José María Barreiro Manjón\"), commander of the III division of the royalist army garrisoned in the highlands of the [Altiplano Cundiboyacense](/wiki/Altiplano_Cundiboyacense \"Altiplano Cundiboyacense\"), invaded the Casanare provinces under orders by General Morillo in an attempt to destroy Santander's forces. This campaign would be a resounding failure for the Spanish who, due to desertion and lack of supplies, could not continue the campaign as Santander intelligently withdrew to the vast interior of the plains avoiding combat with the Spanish. With the coming arrival of the rainy season, by late April Barreiro decided to withdraw his army back across the Andes, however he left some detachments to protect the mountain passages of the [Cordillera Oriental](/wiki/Cordillera_Oriental_%28Colombia%29 \"Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)\") such as the one placed in [Salina de Chita](/wiki/Chita%2C_Boyac%C3%A1 \"Chita, Boyacá\") which were composed of two companies from the \"King's 1st\" infantry battalion.Riaño, Camilo (1969\\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. p. 60\\. Obando was ordered by Santander to harass and attack these forces, thus Obando set out with two companies, one from his battalion and the other from the \"Cazadores\" battalion and managed to take the town on 23 April, capturing the garrison there and its war material. The royalist prisoners were incorporated into the Patriot army.Riaño, Camilo (1969\\) *La Campaña Libertadora de 1819*. Bogotá. Editorial Andes. pp. 61\\-62\\. Among the captured material that was found were muskets, ammunition, rations, as well as uniforms among which was an officer's jacket lined with fur cloth that Obando decided to donate to General Santander, Santander would use this jacket during the entirety of the campaign and would also wear it in his entrance to Bogotá on 10 August 1819\\.",
"By late May with Barreiro's forces retreated back across the Andes, Santander informed Bolívar of the favorability of starting the campaign. Bolívar agreed, and began his march from the town of [Mantecal](/wiki/Apure \"Apure\") in the *Llanos* of Venezuela in late May and arrived in [Tame](/wiki/Tame%2C_Arauca \"Tame, Arauca\") on 12 June where his army joined up with Santander's army, the following days would see Bolívar organize the army. Whilst in Tame, Santander submitted a number of requests for promotions of his officers to Bolívar, which were denied, something that caused animosity from Obando towards Bolívar.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 36\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-958\\-5154\\-69\\-8}}. The \"Liberator army of New Granada and Venezuela\" soon departed Tame for the Andes, Obando took part in the Battle of Paya on 27 June when the vanguard encountered a 300\\-strong Spanish garrison at Paya, after a few hours of combat the Spanish retreated clearing the way for the army to begin their crossing of the Andes.",
"Obando was also one of the officers that expressed their desire to continue the campaign when Bolívar considered cancelling the operation when his Venezuelan soldiers were on the verge of mutiny. In his autobiography he stated \n> From the top of Moscote I got off my mule, I laid on my back on the green weed, and with my feet I made the cross to the Llanos and swore not to return to them out of my own liking, but tied up. That if General Bolívar withdraws, I am determined to go with my Battalion, disperse it into guerrillas and thus make war on the Spaniards.Pita Pico, Roger (2023\\) *Un Patriota Antiguo: autobiografía y recopilación documental sobre el general Antonio Obando*. Bogotá. Academia Colombiana de Historia. p. 123\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-958\\-5154\\-69\\-8}}.",
"With the backing of these officers Bolívar was able to continue the campaign, and was inspired by the dedication and the will of his officers to continue. In early July the army crossed the Andes through the Parámo de Pisba, an extremely difficult crossing which saw the army lose many men. After crossing the Andes the army entered into combat between the days July 10–11 engaging the Spanish at [Corrales](/wiki/Corrales%2C_Boyac%C3%A1 \"Corrales, Boyacá\") and [Gámeza](/wiki/G%C3%A1meza \"Gámeza\"). At the Battle of Gámeza on 11 July, Obando was wounded when his battalion along with the *Cazadores* battalion attempted to take the Gámeza bridge but were rebuffed by the Spanish firepower, the battle ended indecisively for both sides, for his actions Obando was finally given his promotion to full colonel.",
"Obando and the First of the Line battalion would again see action on 25 July at the [Battle of Vargas Swamp](/wiki/Battle_of_Vargas_Swamp \"Battle of Vargas Swamp\") near the town of [Paipa](/wiki/Paipa \"Paipa\"). Obando's battalion were initially kept in the reserve but were deployed to support the assault in the center on Cangrejo hill. Obando would write that their victory at Vargas Swamp was hard fought and contributed to the decisive defeat of the Spanish at the [Battle of Boyacá](/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1 \"Battle of Boyacá\"). On 7 August at the Battle of Boyacá, Obando and his battalion played a decisive role in pinning down the Spanish vanguard at the bridge and eventually bayonet charged across it to conclude the Patriot victory.",
""
] |
Later life and death
--------------------
In 1837, with the election of [José Ignacio de Márquez](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ignacio_de_M%C3%A1rquez "José Ignacio de Márquez") as President of New Granada,
Obando was replaced as Secretary of War and Navy and was made commander\-in\-chief of the New Granadan army. Obando would only be commander for little more than year as he resigned his post after a series of disagreements with President Márquez.
After he resigned from the army he retired from public life. [thumb \| right \| *The death of General Francisco de Paula Santander* by [Luis García Hevia](/wiki/Luis_Garc%C3%ADa_Hevia "Luis García Hevia"). Obando is first on the left standing. \|316x316pxHe](/wiki/File:Muerte_de_Francisco_de_Paula_Santander.webp "Muerte de Francisco de Paula Santander.webp") dedicated his time to his farm near [Tocaima](/wiki/Tocaima "Tocaima"), in 1840 when General Santander fell gravely ill Obando was by his bedside along with Santander's other friends and political allies and was in the room at the time of his death. The two had been lifelong friends since the time they had spent together in the Llanos in 1818, in his final testament Santander stated that Obando owed him 500 pesos, he also gifted Obando a wooden chest that had been made in England that Santander had acquired when he lived in exile in Europe. During the funeral procession Obando was one of the few that carried his casket.
Obando died in Tocaima, Cundinamarca, on 30 December 1849\. He was married to Eulalia Almeida, they had two daughters: Carlota and Josefa.
In gratitude for his services to the Republic, the then President of the Republic, [José Hilario López](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Hilario_L%C3%B3pez "José Hilario López") issued a posthumous decree on 5 January 1850, honoring the deceased general and ordered that the first column of the National Army mourn for eight days.
20 years later during the presidency of [Eustorgio Salgar](/wiki/Eustorgio_Salgar "Eustorgio Salgar"), the Congress of the Republic decreed on 29 April 1870 that a portrait of the deceased general was to be placed in the room of patriotic monuments and that a mausoleum be created in the [Central Cemetery of Bogotá](/wiki/Central_Cemetery_of_Bogot%C3%A1 "Central Cemetery of Bogotá") to deposit the heart of General Obando.
### Legacy
In 1969 in his hometown of Simacota, a public school was founded that bears his name. There is also a bust of him in the same town.
|
[
"Later life and death\n--------------------",
"In 1837, with the election of [José Ignacio de Márquez](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ignacio_de_M%C3%A1rquez \"José Ignacio de Márquez\") as President of New Granada, \nObando was replaced as Secretary of War and Navy and was made commander\\-in\\-chief of the New Granadan army. Obando would only be commander for little more than year as he resigned his post after a series of disagreements with President Márquez.",
"After he resigned from the army he retired from public life. [thumb \\| right \\| *The death of General Francisco de Paula Santander* by [Luis García Hevia](/wiki/Luis_Garc%C3%ADa_Hevia \"Luis García Hevia\"). Obando is first on the left standing. \\|316x316pxHe](/wiki/File:Muerte_de_Francisco_de_Paula_Santander.webp \"Muerte de Francisco de Paula Santander.webp\") dedicated his time to his farm near [Tocaima](/wiki/Tocaima \"Tocaima\"), in 1840 when General Santander fell gravely ill Obando was by his bedside along with Santander's other friends and political allies and was in the room at the time of his death. The two had been lifelong friends since the time they had spent together in the Llanos in 1818, in his final testament Santander stated that Obando owed him 500 pesos, he also gifted Obando a wooden chest that had been made in England that Santander had acquired when he lived in exile in Europe. During the funeral procession Obando was one of the few that carried his casket.",
"Obando died in Tocaima, Cundinamarca, on 30 December 1849\\. He was married to Eulalia Almeida, they had two daughters: Carlota and Josefa.",
"In gratitude for his services to the Republic, the then President of the Republic, [José Hilario López](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Hilario_L%C3%B3pez \"José Hilario López\") issued a posthumous decree on 5 January 1850, honoring the deceased general and ordered that the first column of the National Army mourn for eight days.",
"20 years later during the presidency of [Eustorgio Salgar](/wiki/Eustorgio_Salgar \"Eustorgio Salgar\"), the Congress of the Republic decreed on 29 April 1870 that a portrait of the deceased general was to be placed in the room of patriotic monuments and that a mausoleum be created in the [Central Cemetery of Bogotá](/wiki/Central_Cemetery_of_Bogot%C3%A1 \"Central Cemetery of Bogotá\") to deposit the heart of General Obando.",
"### Legacy",
"In 1969 in his hometown of Simacota, a public school was founded that bears his name. There is also a bust of him in the same town.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Franca (1998–2002\)
From 1998 to 2002, Varejão played for [Franca Basquetebol Clube](/wiki/Franca_Basquetebol_Clube "Franca Basquetebol Clube") in the city of [Franca, São Paulo](/wiki/Franca "Franca"). After averaging 17\.7 points, 9\.7 rebounds, and 3\.0 blocks per game in the first half of the 2001–02 season with them, he signed with [FC Barcelona Bàsquet](/wiki/FC_Barcelona_B%C3%A0squet "FC Barcelona Bàsquet") of the [Liga ACB](/wiki/Liga_ACB "Liga ACB") in January 2002\.
### Barcelona (2002–2004\)
In nine [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague "EuroLeague") games, Varejão averaged 4\.7 points, 4\.0 rebounds, 2\.0 assists, and 1\.1 blocks per game. In two regular season Liga ACB games, he averaged 4\.0 points, 5\.5 rebounds, 1\.0 assist, and 1\.0 steal per game.{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejao Stats, Video, Bio, Profile \|url\=http://www.nba.com/playerfile/anderson\_varejao/bio/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407113635/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/anderson\_varejao/bio/ \|archive\-date\=April 7, 2015 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2014 \|work\=NBA.com}}
In 2002–03, Varejão appeared in four regular season Liga ACB games for Barcelona, averaging 8\.2 points and 6\.0 rebounds per game. While he did not play in the 2003 Liga ACB playoffs, Barcelona, led by [Juan Carlos Navarro](/wiki/Juan_Carlos_Navarro_%28basketball%29 "Juan Carlos Navarro (basketball)"), [Šarūnas Jasikevičius](/wiki/%C5%A0ar%C5%ABnas_Jasikevi%C4%8Dius "Šarūnas Jasikevičius") and [Dejan Bodiroga](/wiki/Dejan_Bodiroga "Dejan Bodiroga"), won the Liga ACB championship. Varejão also played in 22 EuroLeague games (starting in one), helping Barcelona to their first ever EuroLeague championship. He averaged 4\.1 points and 3\.2 rebounds per game. Varejão later scored one point in the EuroLeague championship game against Benetton Treviso.
In 2003–04, Varejão appeared in 27 regular season Liga ACB games for Barcelona, averaging 7\.5 points and 4\.4 rebounds per game. He once again did not play in the playoffs, but Barcelona won its second straight Liga ACB championship, led by Navarro and Bodiroga. Varejão also played in 18 EuroLeague games, averaging 7\.7 points and 5\.0 rebounds per game.
### Cleveland Cavaliers (2004–2016\)
#### 2004–06: Early years
Varejão was selected by the [Orlando Magic](/wiki/Orlando_Magic "Orlando Magic") in the second round (30th overall) of the [2004 NBA draft](/wiki/2004_NBA_draft "2004 NBA draft").{{Cite web \|last\=Bielik \|first\=Tim \|date\=2019\-06\-18 \|title\=Anderson Varejao still calls Cleveland his home 15 years after post\-draft trade sent him to Cavaliers \|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/sports/g66l\-2019/06/cb5f19f3de1677/anderson\-varejao\-still\-calls\-cleveland\-his\-home\-15\-years\-after\-postdraft\-trade\-sent\-him\-to\-cavaliers\-.html \|access\-date\=July 15, 2019 \|website\=cleveland \|language\=en}} On July 23, 2004, Varejão, along with [Drew Gooden](/wiki/Drew_Gooden "Drew Gooden") and [Steven Hunter](/wiki/Steven_Hunter "Steven Hunter"), were traded to the [Cleveland Cavaliers](/wiki/Cleveland_Cavaliers "Cleveland Cavaliers") in exchange for [Tony Battie](/wiki/Tony_Battie "Tony Battie") and two future second\-round picks.{{cite web \|date\=July 24, 2004 \|title\=Cavs also get Varejao, Hunter \|url\=https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?id\=1845337 \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|publisher\=ESPN}}
During his rookie season, Varejão came off the bench in 54 games and averaged 4\.9 points, 4\.8 rebounds, 0\.5 assists, and 0\.8 steals in 16 minutes played per game.{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2005\-06 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2006 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com}} He had a season\-high 14 rebounds in a 84–71 victory over the [Utah Jazz](/wiki/Utah_Jazz "Utah Jazz") on January 15, 2005, and a season\-high 14 points on March 26 in a 117–86 loss to the [Dallas Mavericks](/wiki/Dallas_Mavericks "Dallas Mavericks").{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejao 2004–2005 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/fc/pgl.cgi?player\=varejan01\&year\=2005 \|access\-date\=January 22, 2012 \|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com}} Varejão ranked first in the NBA in steals per turnover (1\.58\), fourth in the NBA in offensive rebounds per 48 minutes (6\.1\), second among rookies in offensive rebounds per 48 minutes (6\.1\), and fourth in total rebounds per 48 minutes (14\.3\).
After missing the first 32 games of the 2005–06 season with a dislocated right shoulder, Varejão played in 48 games, starting four and averaging 4\.8 points, 4\.6 rebounds, 0\.4 assists, and 0\.6 steals in 15\.9 minutes per game.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2005\-06 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2006/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} Varejão had a season\-high 14 points on two occasions and a career\-high 18 rebounds in a narrow 100–99 victory over the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks "Atlanta Hawks") on April 19, 2006\.{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejao 2005–2006 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/fc/pgl.cgi?player\=varejan01\&year\=2006 \|access\-date\=January 22, 2012 \|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com}}
On February 21, 2006, fans at [Quicken Loans Arena](/wiki/Quicken_Loans_Arena "Quicken Loans Arena") attempted to break the [Guinness World Record](/wiki/Guinness_World_Record "Guinness World Record") for "most people wearing wigs in a single venue" when 20,562 fans wore [wigs](/wiki/Wig_%28hair%29 "Wig (hair)") given away before the game in celebration of Varejão's unique hairstyle.{{cite web \|date\=February 17, 2006 \|title\=Cavs Fans Ready to Break the World "Wig\-Wearing" Record \|url\=http://www.nba.com/cavaliers/news/cavs\_wigrecord\_060217\.html \|access\-date\=January 22, 2012 \|publisher\=NBA.com}} All fans in attendance were instructed to put the wigs on during a timeout. However, it does not appear that the fans were successful, as the [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers "Philadelphia Flyers") now claim to have the wig wearing record with 9,315\.{{cite web \|date\=October 30, 2006 \|title\=Flyers Unofficially Break Wig Record \|url\=http://flyers.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\=435468 \|access\-date\=March 2, 2016 \|publisher\=NHL.com}}
As a major contributor during the Cavaliers' 2006 playoff run, Varejão averaged 6\.8 points and 4\.5 rebounds (equating to 13\.3 points and 8\.8 rebounds per 36 minutes played) to go along with 0\.2 assists and 0\.7 steals in 18\.3 minutes per game. During the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons "Detroit Pistons"), the career 63% foul shooter uncharacteristically shot over 80% from the free throw line and played a big part in the Cavaliers' victories in Game 3 (16 points) and Game 4 (drawing a charge from [Chauncey Billups](/wiki/Chauncey_Billups "Chauncey Billups") with 29 seconds left to play and by preventing [Richard Hamilton](/wiki/Richard_Hamilton_%28basketball%29 "Richard Hamilton (basketball)") from making a potentially game\-winning shot).{{cite web \|date\=May 15, 2006 \|title\=Cavaliers Silence Wallace, Even Series With Pistons \|url\=http://www.nba.com/games/20060515/DETCLE/recap.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625221613/http://www.nba.com/games/20060515/DETCLE/recap.html \|archive\-date\=June 25, 2008 \|access\-date\=January 22, 2012 \|publisher\=NBA.com}}
#### 2006–08: Playoff upsets
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Varejão in 2006](/wiki/File:Anderson_Varejao_2.jpg "Anderson Varejao 2.jpg")
In the 2006–07 season, Varejão received increased minutes from head coach [Mike Brown](/wiki/Mike_Brown_%28basketball%2C_born_1970%29 "Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)"). In 81 games played (six starts), Varejão averaged 6\.8 points, 6\.7 rebounds, 0\.9 assists, and 0\.9 steals per game.{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2005\-06 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2006 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com}} He was a staple on defense as Varejão took 99 charges in the season, which was the most in the NBA.{{cite web \|title\=Taking the Charge – NBA offensive fouls drawn from \|url\=http://www.82games.com/charges0607\.htm \|access\-date\=January 22, 2012 \|publisher\=82games.com}} He was also tied with [Al Harrington](/wiki/Al_Harrington "Al Harrington") for eighth in the NBA in personal fouls (269\) and was eighth in the NBA's Defensive Rating.{{cite web \|title\=2006–2007 NBA Leaders \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\_2007\_leaders.html \|access\-date\=January 22, 2012 \|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com}}
On December 11, 2006, Varejão had a then career\-high 17 points in a 95–89 loss to the [New Orleans Hornets](/wiki/New_Orleans_Hornets "New Orleans Hornets") and a season\-high 17 rebounds (including a career high nine offensive rebounds) in a narrow 99–98 loss to the [Utah Jazz](/wiki/Utah_Jazz "Utah Jazz") on February 14, 2007\.{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejao 2006–2007 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/fc/pgl.cgi?player\=varejan01\&year\=2007 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com}} Varejão played in all 20 of the Cavaliers' playoff games, averaging 6\.0 points, 6\.0 rebounds, 0\.6 assists, and 1\.0 steals in 22\.4 minutes per game.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2006\-07 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2007/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} He had a playoff high 14 points and a career playoff high 14 rebounds in a Game 2 79–76 loss to the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons "Detroit Pistons") during the Eastern Conference Finals. Varejão helped the Cavaliers reach the [2007 NBA Finals](/wiki/2007_NBA_Finals "2007 NBA Finals"), where they lost to the [San Antonio Spurs](/wiki/San_Antonio_Spurs "San Antonio Spurs") in a four\-game sweep.{{Cite news \|last\=Robbins \|first\=Liz \|date\=2007\-06\-15 \|title\=With Sweep of Cavs, Spurs Are Champions Again \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/15/sports/basketball/15nba.html \|access\-date\=June 9, 2010 \|work\=The New York Times \|language\=en\-US \|issn\=0362\-4331}}
In the 2007 offseason, Varejão became a [restricted free agent](/wiki/Restricted_free_agent "Restricted free agent"), and he did not sign a contract with the Cavaliers at the start of the [2007–08 NBA season](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_NBA_season "2007–08 NBA season"). On December 4, 2007, Varejão signed a two\-year $11\.1 million offer sheet (with a player option for a third year at $6\.2 million) with the [Charlotte Bobcats](/wiki/Charlotte_Bobcats "Charlotte Bobcats"). Under the NBA's collective bargaining rules, the Cavaliers had a week to match the offer sheet,{{cite news \|last\=Cranston \|first\=Mike \|date\=December 4, 2007 \|title\=Bobcats sign Cavaliers holdout Varejao to offer sheet \|url\=http://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/basketball/2007\-12\-04\-216658063\_x.htm \|access\-date\=December 4, 2007 \|work\=USAToday.com}} which they did on December 5\.{{cite news \|date\=December 5, 2007 \|title\=Cavaliers match offer by Bobcats, Varejao to stay with Cleveland \|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\=nba\&id\=3142483 \|access\-date\=December 6, 2007 \|publisher\=ESPN}}
In 48 regular season games (13 starts), Varejão averaged career highs in minutes (27\.5\), rebounds (8\.3\), offensive rebounds (2\.8\), and assists (1\.1\).{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2007\-08 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2008 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com}} On January 11, 2008, he had a season\-high and career\-high tying 18 rebounds on January 11 in a 113–106 victory over the Charlotte Bobcats, a career high six assists on March 8 in a 103–95 victory over the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers "Indiana Pacers"), and a season\-high 17 points (tying his career\-high) in a 118–114 victory over the Bobcats on April 2\. In his 13 starts, Varejão averaged 7\.9 points and 10\.1 rebounds.{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejao 2007–2008 Splits \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/fc/psplit.cgi?player\=varejan01\&year\=2008 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com}}
In 13 playoff games, Varejão averaged 4\.1 points, 5\.2 rebounds, 0\.6 steals, and a then career playoff high 0\.7 assists in 18\.5 minutes. During Game 2 of the Eastern Conference against the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics "Boston Celtics"), he had 10 rebounds in the 89–73 loss. Four days later in Game 4, Varejão scored 12 points in the 88–77 victory.
#### 2008–13: All\-Defensive honors and injury\-plagued seasons
On November 7, 2008, Varejão scored a then career\-high 18 points in a 111–107 victory over the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers "Indiana Pacers"). On January 2, 2009, he eclipsed his personal best by scoring a career\-high 26 points in a 117–92 victory over the [Chicago Bulls](/wiki/Chicago_Bulls "Chicago Bulls").{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2005\-06 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2006 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|publisher\=Basketball\-Reference.com}} Varejão finished the 2008–09 season playing in 28\.5 minutes per game and averaged 8\.6 points, 7\.2 rebounds, 1\.0 assists, and 0\.9 steals in 81 games and 42 starts.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2008\-09 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2009/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com}}
On July 9, 2009, Varejão reached an agreement with the Cavaliers to sign a six\-year contract worth $42\.5 million.{{cite web \|last\=Ford \|first\=Chad \|date\=July 9, 2009 \|title\=Varejao agrees to multiyear deal \|url\=https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?id\=4315370 \|access\-date\=January 22, 2012 \|work\=ESPN.com}} On December 30, he recorded 14 points, nine rebounds, and three blocks while also making the game\-winning three\-pointer in a 106–101 victory over the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks "Atlanta Hawks").{{Cite web \|last\=Withers \|first\=Tom \|date\=December 30, 2009 \|title\=LeBron scores 48, Varejao hits winning 3 for Cavs \|url\=https://www.cantonrep.com/story/news/2009/12/31/lebron\-scores\-48\-varejao\-hits/42616967007/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2010 \|website\=Canton Repository \|language\=en\-US}} Despite only starting in seven games during the 2009–10 season, Varejão still averaged 8\.6 points, 7\.6 rebounds, 1\.1 assists, and 0\.9 steals playing 28\.5 minutes per game in 76 games.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2009\-10 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2010/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} The Cavaliers once again made the playoffs, where they eventually lost to the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics "Boston Celtics") in the Eastern Conference Semifinals.{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejao Stats, Video, Bio, Profile \|url\=http://www.nba.com/playerfile/anderson\_varejao/career\_stats.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128085628/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/anderson\_varejao/career\_stats.html \|archive\-date\=January 28, 2015 \|access\-date\=January 22, 2012 \|publisher\=NBA.com \|df\=mdy\-all}} Varejão was named to the NBA All\-Defensive Second Team at the end of the season.
Varejão became the Cavaliers' starting center in the 2010–11 season. In 31 games and starts, he played in 32\.1 minutes per game, averaging 9\.1 points, 9\.7 rebounds, 1\.5 assists, and 0\.9 steals per game, but was forced to miss the rest of the season due to a torn tendon in his foot, which Varejão suffered during a 120–105 loss to the [Toronto Raptors](/wiki/Toronto_Raptors "Toronto Raptors") on January 5, 2011\.{{cite web \|last\=Schmitt Boyer \|first\=Mary \|date\=January 9, 2011 \|title\=Anderson Varejao will miss rest of season with torn tendon in right foot that requires surgery \|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/cavs/index.ssf/2011/01/anderson\_varejao\_will\_miss\_res.html \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|work\=Cleveland.com}}{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2010\-11 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2011/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com \|language\=en}}
In the 2011–12 season, Varejão was the starting center again. On January 31 against the Celtics, he set his then career high with 20 rebounds on while also adding 20 points in the 93–90 loss.{{Cite web \|last\=Flack \|first\=Benjamin \|date\=February 2, 2012 \|title\=Cleveland Cavaliers: Anderson Varejao Is a Keeper for the Cavs \|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1049954\-anderson\-varejao\-is\-a\-keeper\-for\-the\-cleveland\-cavaliers \|access\-date\=February 29, 2012 \|website\=Bleacher Report \|language\=en}} However, Varejão suffered a broken wrist in a narrow 113–112 loss to the [Milwaukee Bucks](/wiki/Milwaukee_Bucks "Milwaukee Bucks") 10 days later, causing him to miss the rest of the season.{{cite web \|last\=Schmitt Boyer \|first\=Mary \|date\=April 20, 2012 \|title\=Anderson Varejao shut down for rest of season: Cleveland Cavaliers Insider \|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/cavs/index.ssf/2012/04/cavaliers\_shut\_down\_varejao\_fo.html \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|work\=Cleveland.com}} In 25 games and starts, Varejão averaged 10\.8 points, 11\.5 rebounds, 1\.7 assists, and 1\.4 steals in 31\.4 minutes per game.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2011\-12 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2012/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com \|language\=en}}[thumb\|right\|175px\|Varejão in 2012](/wiki/File:Anderson_Varejao_2012.jpg "Anderson Varejao 2012.jpg")
During the 2012–13 season opener, a 94–84 victory over the [Washington Wizards](/wiki/Washington_Wizards "Washington Wizards") on October 30, 2012, Varejão nearly acquired a [triple\-double](/wiki/Triple-double "Triple-double"), recording nine points, a career high nine assists, and a then career high 23 rebounds.{{cite web \|title\=Washington Wizards at Cleveland Cavaliers Box Score, October 30, 2012 \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/boxscores/201210300CLE.html \|accessdate\=3 May 2021 \|website\=\[\[Basketball Reference]]}} Two weeks later against the [Brooklyn Nets](/wiki/Brooklyn_Nets "Brooklyn Nets") on November 13, he scored a career\-high 35 points while also recording 18 rebounds, three assists, and two steals in the 114–101 loss.{{Cite web \|date\=September 24, 2013 \|title\=Reliving Anderson Varejao's Career\-High 35 Points \|url\=https://www.nba.com/cavaliers/photogallery/varejao\-35\-points\-130925 \|access\-date\=2021\-01\-01 \|website\=www.nba.com \|language\=en}} However, on January 21, 2013, it was announced that Varejão would miss the rest of the season after being hospitalized due to a blood clot in his lung.{{cite web \|date\=January 21, 2013 \|title\=Cavs' Varejao out rest of season with blood clot \|url\=http://www.nba.com/2013/news/01/21/cavaliers\-varejao\-out.ap/index.html \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|work\=NBA.com}} Over 25 games and starts in the 2012–13 season, Varejão had career\-highs, averaging 14\.1 points, 14\.4 rebounds, 3\.4 assists, and 1\.5 steals in 31\.4 minutes.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2012\-13 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2013/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com \|language\=en}}
#### 2013–16: Final years in Cleveland
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Varejão in 2013](/wiki/File:Anderson_Varejao_2013.jpg "Anderson Varejao 2013.jpg")
In the 2013–14 season, Varejão started in only 29 games for the Cavaliers as the team had [Andrew Bynum](/wiki/Andrew_Bynum "Andrew Bynum") in the first half of the season and [Spencer Hawes](/wiki/Spencer_Hawes "Spencer Hawes") in the second half. After starting early on in the season, Varejão lost his spot in mid\-November to Bynum before reclaiming it in late December after Bynum was suspended indefinitely by the team. On January 2 against the [Orlando Magic](/wiki/Orlando_Magic "Orlando Magic"), Varejão had 18 points and a career\-high 25 rebounds in the 87–81 overtime victory.{{Cite web \|date\=January 2, 2014 \|title\=Infographic: Varejao's Franchise\-Tying 25 Rebounds \|url\=https://www.nba.com/cavaliers/news/breaking\-down\-varejao\-25\-boards\-140103 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=www.nba.com \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=January 2, 2014 \|title\=Anderson Varejao keys Cavaliers' OT win against Magic \|url\=https://www.espn.com/nba/recap?gameId\=400489346 \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=ESPN \|language\=en}} In January, Bynum was traded to the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers "Indiana Pacers") and the Cavaliers acquired Hawes from the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers "Philadelphia 76ers") in February. Around this time, Varejão was sidelined for a month with back soreness.{{cite web \|last\=Finnan \|first\=Bob \|date\=February 20, 2014 \|title\=Cleveland Cavaliers: Anderson Varejao injury didn't influence Spencer Hawes trade \|url\=http://www.morningjournal.com/sports/20140220/cleveland\-cavaliers\-anderson\-varejao\-injury\-didnt\-influence\-spencer\-hawes\-trade \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|publisher\=MorningJournal.com}} He returned in March and came off the bench for the rest of the season. Varejão played in 65 games and finished the season averaging 8\.4 points, 9\.7 rebounds, 2\.2 assists, and 1\.1 steals in 27\.7 minutes per game.{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2013\-14 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2014/ \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|work\=Basketball\-Reference.com}}
[thumb\|Varejão in 2014\|277x277px](/wiki/File:Varejao_2014.jpg "Varejao 2014.jpg")
On October 31, 2014, Varejão signed a three\-year, $30 million contract extension with the Cavaliers.{{cite web \|date\=October 31, 2014 \|title\=Cavs and Varejao Sign Contract Extension \|url\=http://www.nba.com/cavaliers/releases/varejao\-extension\-141031 \|access\-date\=November 10, 2014 \|work\=NBA.com}}{{cite web \|date\=October 31, 2014 \|title\=Anderson Varejao signs multi\-year extension with Cavaliers \|url\=https://www.si.com/nba/2014/10/31/cleveland\-cavaliers\-anderson\-varejao\-contract\-extension \|access\-date\=May 2, 2021 \|work\=SI.com}} He had been having a good offensive season as [LeBron James](/wiki/LeBron_James "LeBron James")' favorite pick\-and\-roll partner, shooting 55 percent from the field and averaging 10 points and 6\.6 rebounds.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2014\-15 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2015/ \|access\-date\=January 1, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} However, during a 125–104 victory over the [Minnesota Timberwolves](/wiki/Minnesota_Timberwolves "Minnesota Timberwolves") on December 23, Varejão tore his Achilles and was subsequently ruled out for the rest of the 2014–15 season.{{cite web \|last\=Windhorst \|first\=Brian \|date\=December 24, 2014 \|title\=Tests show torn Achilles for Varejao \|url\=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/\_/id/12076383/anderson\-varejao\-cleveland\-cavaliers\-torn\-achilles \|access\-date\=December 24, 2014 \|publisher\=ESPN}} Varejão finished the season playing in 24\.5 minutes per game and averaged 9\.8 points, 6\.5 rebounds, 1\.3 assists, and 0\.7 steals in 26 games and starts.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2014\-15 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2015/ \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016}} The Cavaliers reached the [2015 NBA Finals](/wiki/2015_NBA_Finals "2015 NBA Finals"), where they lost to the [Golden State Warriors](/wiki/Golden_State_Warriors "Golden State Warriors") in six games despite a 2–1 lead.{{Cite web \|last\=Fahey \|first\=Andy \|date\=June 16, 2015 \|title\=Warriors Defeat Cavs in Game 6 to Win NBA Championship \|url\=https://www.nba.com/warriors/gameday/20150616/recap \|access\-date\=July 18, 2015 \|website\=www.nba.com \|language\=en}}
Varejão returned from his injury in time for the narrow season\-opening 97–95 loss to the [Chicago Bulls](/wiki/Chicago_Bulls "Chicago Bulls") on October 27, 2015\.{{cite web \|date\=October 27, 2015 \|title\=With Obama watching, Bulls hold off Cavaliers 97\-95 \|url\=http://www.nba.com/games/20151027/CLECHI/gameinfo.html \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|work\=NBA.com}} After averaging 2\.6 points, 2\.9 rebounds, 0\.6 assists, and 0\.4 steals in 10 minutes per game over 31 games and no starts, Varejão and a future first\-round draft pick were traded to the [Portland Trail Blazers](/wiki/Portland_Trail_Blazers "Portland Trail Blazers") in exchange for a future second\-round pick on February 18, 2016\.{{cite web \|date\=February 18, 2016 \|title\=Trail Blazers Acquire Future First\-Round Draft Pick, Anderson Varejao From Cleveland \|url\=http://www.nba.com/blazers/trail\-blazers\-acquire\-future\-first\-round\-draft\-pick\-anderson\-varejao\-cleveland \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|work\=NBA.com}} However, Varejão was waived by the Blazers immediately upon being acquired.{{cite web \|date\=February 18, 2016 \|title\=The Trail Blazers have placed F Anderson... \|url\=https://twitter.com/TrailBlazersPR/status/700453911136612352 \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|work\=Twitter}}
### Golden State Warriors (2016–2017\)
On February 22, 2016, Varejão signed with the [Golden State Warriors](/wiki/Golden_State_Warriors "Golden State Warriors").{{cite web \|date\=February 22, 2016 \|title\=Warriors Sign Free Agent Center Anderson Varejao \|url\=http://www.nba.com/warriors/news/varejao\-signing\-20160222 \|access\-date\=February 22, 2016 \|work\=NBA.com}} He made his Warriors debut two days later{{cite web \|date\=February 24, 2016 \|title\=Curry, Thompson come through late, Warriors top Heat 118\-112 \|url\=http://www.nba.com/games/20160224/GSWMIA/gameinfo.html \|access\-date\=February 24, 2016 \|work\=NBA.com}} and played averaged 2\.6 points, 2\.3 rebounds, 0\.7 assists, and 0\.2 steals in 8\.5 minutes per game over 22 games and no starts to finish the regular season.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2015\-16 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2016 \|access\-date\=February 5, 2017 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com}} The [2015–16 Warriors](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Golden_State_Warriors_season "2015–16 Golden State Warriors season") won an NBA\-record 73 games to eclipse the 72 wins set by the [1995–96 Chicago Bulls](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_Chicago_Bulls_season "1995–96 Chicago Bulls season"). They also reached the [2016 NBA Finals](/wiki/2016_NBA_Finals "2016 NBA Finals") after overcoming a 3–1 deficit in the Western Conference Finals when they defeated the [Oklahoma City Thunder](/wiki/Oklahoma_City_Thunder "Oklahoma City Thunder") in seven games. During the NBA Finals, the Warriors faced Varejão's former team, the [Cleveland Cavaliers](/wiki/Cleveland_Cavaliers "Cleveland Cavaliers"). According to the [Elias Sports Bureau](/wiki/Elias_Sports_Bureau "Elias Sports Bureau"), Varejão became the first player in NBA history to play for both NBA Finals teams in the same season.{{cite web \|last\=Rogers \|first\=Jon \|date\=May 30, 2016 \|title\=Cavaliers\-Warriors NBA Finals means Anderson Varejao will get a ring \|url\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nba/news/cavaliers\-warriors\-nba\-finals\-anderson\-varejao\-gets\-a\-ring/1x3mtk237h7191jl35ludnmxty \|access\-date\=May 31, 2016 \|work\=SportingNews.com}} The Warriors lost to the Cavaliers in seven games despite a 3–1 lead.{{cite news \|date\=June 19, 2016 \|title\=James and Cavaliers win thrilling NBA Finals Game 7, 93–89 \|url\=http://www.nba.com/games/20160619/CLEGSW/gameinfo.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619134342/http://www.nba.com/games/20160619/CLEGSW/gameinfo.html \|archive\-date\=June 19, 2016 \|access\-date\=June 19, 2016 \|work\=NBA.com}} Varejão was offered a [championship ring](/wiki/Championship_ring "Championship ring"), but he declined as Varejão played for the opposition.{{Cite web \|last\=Rodgers \|first\=Joe \|date\=2016\-07\-18 \|title\=Anderson Varejao won't take Cavaliers championship ring, report says {{!}} Sporting News \|url\=https://www.sportingnews.com/us/nba/news/cavaliers\-championship\-ring\-anderson\-varejao\-warriors/1jqdtq6zoxjdx1llrsf7y9wugi \|access\-date\=July 21, 2016 \|website\=www.sportingnews.com \|language\=en\-us}}{{Cite web \|last\=Harper \|first\=Zach \|date\=2016\-07\-18 \|title\=Anderson Varejao won't accept a championship ring from Cavs if offered \|url\=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/anderson\-varejao\-wont\-accept\-a\-championship\-ring\-from\-cavs\-if\-offered/ \|access\-date\=July 21, 2016 \|website\=CBSSports.com \|language\=en}}
In July 2016, Varejão re\-signed with the Warriors on a one\-year deal.{{Cite web \|last\=Stein \|first\=Marc \|date\=2016\-07\-14 \|title\=Sources: Varejao, Warriors agree to 1\-year deal \|url\=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/\_/id/17078831/anderson\-varejao\-headed\-back\-golden\-state\-warriors \|access\-date\=July 15, 2016 \|website\=ESPN.com \|language\=en}}{{cite web \|date\=July 17, 2016 \|title\=Warriors Re\-sign Free Agent Center Anderson Varejao \|url\=http://www.nba.com/warriors/warriors\-re\-sign\-free\-agent\-center\-anderson\-varejao \|access\-date\=July 21, 2016 \|work\=NBA.com}} On February 3, 2017, he was waived after playing in 6\.6 minutes per game and averaging 1\.3 points, 1\.9 rebounds, 0\.7 assists, and 0\.2 steals in 14 games and one start.{{cite web \|date\=February 3, 2017 \|title\=Warriors Waive Anderson Varejao \|url\=http://www.nba.com/warriors/news/varejao\-waived\-20170203 \|access\-date\=February 5, 2017 \|work\=NBA.com}}{{cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2016\-17 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2017/ \|access\-date\=February 5, 2017 \|work\=Basketball\-Reference.com}}{{Cite web \|date\=February 4, 2017 \|title\=Video: Steve Kerr explains why Warriors waived Anderson Varejao \|url\=https://247sports.com/nba/golden\-state\-warriors/article/video\-steve\-kerr\-explains\-why\-warriors\-waived\-anderson\-varejao\-51109604/ \|access\-date\=February 5, 2017 \|website\=247Sports \|language\=en}} The Warriors went on to win the NBA Finals in 2017, and Varejão was offered a championship ring as a result, which he accepted.{{cite web \|last1\=Helin \|first1\=Kurt \|date\=October 8, 2017 \|title\=Warriors offer Anderson Varejao championship ring for last season, he accepts \|url\=https://nba.nbcsports.com/2017/10/08/warriors\-offer\-anderson\-varejao\-championship\-ring\-for\-last\-season\-he\-accepts/ \|access\-date\=October 20, 2017 \|website\=ProBasketballTalk}}{{Cite web \|last\=Ward\-Henninger \|first\=Colin \|date\=2017\-10\-08 \|title\=Anderson Varejao will get Warriors title ring after playing 14 games with team \|url\=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/anderson\-varejao\-will\-get\-warriors\-title\-ring\-after\-playing\-14\-games\-with\-team/ \|access\-date\=October 20, 2017 \|website\=CBSSports.com \|language\=en}}
### Flamengo (2018–2019\)
On January 17, 2018, Varejão signed a 20\-month contract with [Flamengo](/wiki/Flamengo_Basketball "Flamengo Basketball").{{cite news \|date\=January 17, 2018 \|title\=Flamengo officially signs Anderson Varejao to a 20\-month contract \|url\=http://archive.sportando.basketball/en/america/brazil/261588/flamengo\-officially\-signs\-anderson\-varejao\-to\-a\-20\-month\-contract.html \|access\-date\=May 2, 2021 \|work\=Sportando}} He played the second half of the 2017–18 season and then continued on with Flamengo for the 2018–19 season.
### Return to Cleveland (2021\)
On May 4, 2021, Varejão signed a 10\-day contract to return to the [Cleveland Cavaliers](/wiki/Cleveland_Cavaliers "Cleveland Cavaliers"). The team was granted a hardship exception to acquire him.{{cite web \|date\=May 4, 2021 \|title\=Cavaliers Sign Anderson Varejão to 10\-Day Contract \|url\=https://www.nba.com/cavaliers/releases/varejao\-signing\-210504 \|access\-date\=May 10, 2021 \|work\=NBA.com}} Ten days later, Varejão signed another 10\-day contract.{{cite web \|date\=May 14, 2021 \|title\=Cavaliers' Anderson Varejao: Inks second 10\-day deal \|url\=https://www.cbssports.com/fantasy/basketball/news/cavaliers\-anderson\-varejao\-inks\-second\-10\-day\-deal/ \|access\-date\=May 21, 2021 \|work\=CBSSports.com}} He finished the season playing in 7\.2 minutes per game and averaged 2\.6 points, 4\.0 rebounds, and 0\.6 assists in five games and no starts.{{Cite web \|title\=Anderson Varejão 2020\-21 Game Log \|url\=https://www.basketball\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2021/ \|access\-date\=August 23, 2021 \|website\=Basketball\-Reference.com}}
### Retirement
Following the 2020–21 season, Varejão announced his retirement from professional basketball.{{cite web \|last\=Fedor \|first\=Chris \|date\=May 16, 2022 \|title\=Anderson Varejao to represent Cleveland Cavaliers at 2022 NBA Draft Lottery \|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/cavs/2022/05/anderson\-varejao\-to\-represent\-cleveland\-cavaliers\-at\-2022\-nba\-draft\-lottery.html \|access\-date\=October 25, 2022 \|work\=cleveland.com \|quote\=At the end of the 2020\-21 season, Varejao signed a ceremonial 10\-day contract, playing his final five NBA games in the wine and gold before officially announcing his retirement.}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Franca (1998–2002\\)",
"From 1998 to 2002, Varejão played for [Franca Basquetebol Clube](/wiki/Franca_Basquetebol_Clube \"Franca Basquetebol Clube\") in the city of [Franca, São Paulo](/wiki/Franca \"Franca\"). After averaging 17\\.7 points, 9\\.7 rebounds, and 3\\.0 blocks per game in the first half of the 2001–02 season with them, he signed with [FC Barcelona Bàsquet](/wiki/FC_Barcelona_B%C3%A0squet \"FC Barcelona Bàsquet\") of the [Liga ACB](/wiki/Liga_ACB \"Liga ACB\") in January 2002\\.",
"### Barcelona (2002–2004\\)",
"In nine [EuroLeague](/wiki/EuroLeague \"EuroLeague\") games, Varejão averaged 4\\.7 points, 4\\.0 rebounds, 2\\.0 assists, and 1\\.1 blocks per game. In two regular season Liga ACB games, he averaged 4\\.0 points, 5\\.5 rebounds, 1\\.0 assist, and 1\\.0 steal per game.{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao Stats, Video, Bio, Profile \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/playerfile/anderson\\_varejao/bio/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407113635/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/anderson\\_varejao/bio/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 7, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2014 \\|work\\=NBA.com}}",
"In 2002–03, Varejão appeared in four regular season Liga ACB games for Barcelona, averaging 8\\.2 points and 6\\.0 rebounds per game. While he did not play in the 2003 Liga ACB playoffs, Barcelona, led by [Juan Carlos Navarro](/wiki/Juan_Carlos_Navarro_%28basketball%29 \"Juan Carlos Navarro (basketball)\"), [Šarūnas Jasikevičius](/wiki/%C5%A0ar%C5%ABnas_Jasikevi%C4%8Dius \"Šarūnas Jasikevičius\") and [Dejan Bodiroga](/wiki/Dejan_Bodiroga \"Dejan Bodiroga\"), won the Liga ACB championship. Varejão also played in 22 EuroLeague games (starting in one), helping Barcelona to their first ever EuroLeague championship. He averaged 4\\.1 points and 3\\.2 rebounds per game. Varejão later scored one point in the EuroLeague championship game against Benetton Treviso.",
"In 2003–04, Varejão appeared in 27 regular season Liga ACB games for Barcelona, averaging 7\\.5 points and 4\\.4 rebounds per game. He once again did not play in the playoffs, but Barcelona won its second straight Liga ACB championship, led by Navarro and Bodiroga. Varejão also played in 18 EuroLeague games, averaging 7\\.7 points and 5\\.0 rebounds per game.",
"### Cleveland Cavaliers (2004–2016\\)",
"#### 2004–06: Early years",
"Varejão was selected by the [Orlando Magic](/wiki/Orlando_Magic \"Orlando Magic\") in the second round (30th overall) of the [2004 NBA draft](/wiki/2004_NBA_draft \"2004 NBA draft\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bielik \\|first\\=Tim \\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-18 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao still calls Cleveland his home 15 years after post\\-draft trade sent him to Cavaliers \\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/sports/g66l\\-2019/06/cb5f19f3de1677/anderson\\-varejao\\-still\\-calls\\-cleveland\\-his\\-home\\-15\\-years\\-after\\-postdraft\\-trade\\-sent\\-him\\-to\\-cavaliers\\-.html \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2019 \\|website\\=cleveland \\|language\\=en}} On July 23, 2004, Varejão, along with [Drew Gooden](/wiki/Drew_Gooden \"Drew Gooden\") and [Steven Hunter](/wiki/Steven_Hunter \"Steven Hunter\"), were traded to the [Cleveland Cavaliers](/wiki/Cleveland_Cavaliers \"Cleveland Cavaliers\") in exchange for [Tony Battie](/wiki/Tony_Battie \"Tony Battie\") and two future second\\-round picks.{{cite web \\|date\\=July 24, 2004 \\|title\\=Cavs also get Varejao, Hunter \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?id\\=1845337 \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|publisher\\=ESPN}}",
"During his rookie season, Varejão came off the bench in 54 games and averaged 4\\.9 points, 4\\.8 rebounds, 0\\.5 assists, and 0\\.8 steals in 16 minutes played per game.{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2005\\-06 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2006 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}} He had a season\\-high 14 rebounds in a 84–71 victory over the [Utah Jazz](/wiki/Utah_Jazz \"Utah Jazz\") on January 15, 2005, and a season\\-high 14 points on March 26 in a 117–86 loss to the [Dallas Mavericks](/wiki/Dallas_Mavericks \"Dallas Mavericks\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao 2004–2005 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/fc/pgl.cgi?player\\=varejan01\\&year\\=2005 \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2012 \\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}} Varejão ranked first in the NBA in steals per turnover (1\\.58\\), fourth in the NBA in offensive rebounds per 48 minutes (6\\.1\\), second among rookies in offensive rebounds per 48 minutes (6\\.1\\), and fourth in total rebounds per 48 minutes (14\\.3\\).",
"After missing the first 32 games of the 2005–06 season with a dislocated right shoulder, Varejão played in 48 games, starting four and averaging 4\\.8 points, 4\\.6 rebounds, 0\\.4 assists, and 0\\.6 steals in 15\\.9 minutes per game.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2005\\-06 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2006/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} Varejão had a season\\-high 14 points on two occasions and a career\\-high 18 rebounds in a narrow 100–99 victory over the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks \"Atlanta Hawks\") on April 19, 2006\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao 2005–2006 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/fc/pgl.cgi?player\\=varejan01\\&year\\=2006 \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2012 \\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}}",
"On February 21, 2006, fans at [Quicken Loans Arena](/wiki/Quicken_Loans_Arena \"Quicken Loans Arena\") attempted to break the [Guinness World Record](/wiki/Guinness_World_Record \"Guinness World Record\") for \"most people wearing wigs in a single venue\" when 20,562 fans wore [wigs](/wiki/Wig_%28hair%29 \"Wig (hair)\") given away before the game in celebration of Varejão's unique hairstyle.{{cite web \\|date\\=February 17, 2006 \\|title\\=Cavs Fans Ready to Break the World \"Wig\\-Wearing\" Record \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/cavaliers/news/cavs\\_wigrecord\\_060217\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2012 \\|publisher\\=NBA.com}} All fans in attendance were instructed to put the wigs on during a timeout. However, it does not appear that the fans were successful, as the [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers \"Philadelphia Flyers\") now claim to have the wig wearing record with 9,315\\.{{cite web \\|date\\=October 30, 2006 \\|title\\=Flyers Unofficially Break Wig Record \\|url\\=http://flyers.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\\=435468 \\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2016 \\|publisher\\=NHL.com}}",
"As a major contributor during the Cavaliers' 2006 playoff run, Varejão averaged 6\\.8 points and 4\\.5 rebounds (equating to 13\\.3 points and 8\\.8 rebounds per 36 minutes played) to go along with 0\\.2 assists and 0\\.7 steals in 18\\.3 minutes per game. During the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons \"Detroit Pistons\"), the career 63% foul shooter uncharacteristically shot over 80% from the free throw line and played a big part in the Cavaliers' victories in Game 3 (16 points) and Game 4 (drawing a charge from [Chauncey Billups](/wiki/Chauncey_Billups \"Chauncey Billups\") with 29 seconds left to play and by preventing [Richard Hamilton](/wiki/Richard_Hamilton_%28basketball%29 \"Richard Hamilton (basketball)\") from making a potentially game\\-winning shot).{{cite web \\|date\\=May 15, 2006 \\|title\\=Cavaliers Silence Wallace, Even Series With Pistons \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/games/20060515/DETCLE/recap.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625221613/http://www.nba.com/games/20060515/DETCLE/recap.html \\|archive\\-date\\=June 25, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2012 \\|publisher\\=NBA.com}}",
"#### 2006–08: Playoff upsets",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Varejão in 2006](/wiki/File:Anderson_Varejao_2.jpg \"Anderson Varejao 2.jpg\")\nIn the 2006–07 season, Varejão received increased minutes from head coach [Mike Brown](/wiki/Mike_Brown_%28basketball%2C_born_1970%29 \"Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)\"). In 81 games played (six starts), Varejão averaged 6\\.8 points, 6\\.7 rebounds, 0\\.9 assists, and 0\\.9 steals per game.{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2005\\-06 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2006 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}} He was a staple on defense as Varejão took 99 charges in the season, which was the most in the NBA.{{cite web \\|title\\=Taking the Charge – NBA offensive fouls drawn from \\|url\\=http://www.82games.com/charges0607\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2012 \\|publisher\\=82games.com}} He was also tied with [Al Harrington](/wiki/Al_Harrington \"Al Harrington\") for eighth in the NBA in personal fouls (269\\) and was eighth in the NBA's Defensive Rating.{{cite web \\|title\\=2006–2007 NBA Leaders \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/leagues/NBA\\_2007\\_leaders.html \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2012 \\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}}",
"On December 11, 2006, Varejão had a then career\\-high 17 points in a 95–89 loss to the [New Orleans Hornets](/wiki/New_Orleans_Hornets \"New Orleans Hornets\") and a season\\-high 17 rebounds (including a career high nine offensive rebounds) in a narrow 99–98 loss to the [Utah Jazz](/wiki/Utah_Jazz \"Utah Jazz\") on February 14, 2007\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao 2006–2007 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/fc/pgl.cgi?player\\=varejan01\\&year\\=2007 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}} Varejão played in all 20 of the Cavaliers' playoff games, averaging 6\\.0 points, 6\\.0 rebounds, 0\\.6 assists, and 1\\.0 steals in 22\\.4 minutes per game.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2006\\-07 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2007/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} He had a playoff high 14 points and a career playoff high 14 rebounds in a Game 2 79–76 loss to the [Detroit Pistons](/wiki/Detroit_Pistons \"Detroit Pistons\") during the Eastern Conference Finals. Varejão helped the Cavaliers reach the [2007 NBA Finals](/wiki/2007_NBA_Finals \"2007 NBA Finals\"), where they lost to the [San Antonio Spurs](/wiki/San_Antonio_Spurs \"San Antonio Spurs\") in a four\\-game sweep.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Robbins \\|first\\=Liz \\|date\\=2007\\-06\\-15 \\|title\\=With Sweep of Cavs, Spurs Are Champions Again \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/15/sports/basketball/15nba.html \\|access\\-date\\=June 9, 2010 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"In the 2007 offseason, Varejão became a [restricted free agent](/wiki/Restricted_free_agent \"Restricted free agent\"), and he did not sign a contract with the Cavaliers at the start of the [2007–08 NBA season](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_NBA_season \"2007–08 NBA season\"). On December 4, 2007, Varejão signed a two\\-year $11\\.1 million offer sheet (with a player option for a third year at $6\\.2 million) with the [Charlotte Bobcats](/wiki/Charlotte_Bobcats \"Charlotte Bobcats\"). Under the NBA's collective bargaining rules, the Cavaliers had a week to match the offer sheet,{{cite news \\|last\\=Cranston \\|first\\=Mike \\|date\\=December 4, 2007 \\|title\\=Bobcats sign Cavaliers holdout Varejao to offer sheet \\|url\\=http://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/basketball/2007\\-12\\-04\\-216658063\\_x.htm \\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2007 \\|work\\=USAToday.com}} which they did on December 5\\.{{cite news \\|date\\=December 5, 2007 \\|title\\=Cavaliers match offer by Bobcats, Varejao to stay with Cleveland \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\\=nba\\&id\\=3142483 \\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2007 \\|publisher\\=ESPN}}",
"In 48 regular season games (13 starts), Varejão averaged career highs in minutes (27\\.5\\), rebounds (8\\.3\\), offensive rebounds (2\\.8\\), and assists (1\\.1\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2007\\-08 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2008 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}} On January 11, 2008, he had a season\\-high and career\\-high tying 18 rebounds on January 11 in a 113–106 victory over the Charlotte Bobcats, a career high six assists on March 8 in a 103–95 victory over the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers \"Indiana Pacers\"), and a season\\-high 17 points (tying his career\\-high) in a 118–114 victory over the Bobcats on April 2\\. In his 13 starts, Varejão averaged 7\\.9 points and 10\\.1 rebounds.{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao 2007–2008 Splits \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/fc/psplit.cgi?player\\=varejan01\\&year\\=2008 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}}",
"In 13 playoff games, Varejão averaged 4\\.1 points, 5\\.2 rebounds, 0\\.6 steals, and a then career playoff high 0\\.7 assists in 18\\.5 minutes. During Game 2 of the Eastern Conference against the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics \"Boston Celtics\"), he had 10 rebounds in the 89–73 loss. Four days later in Game 4, Varejão scored 12 points in the 88–77 victory.",
"#### 2008–13: All\\-Defensive honors and injury\\-plagued seasons",
"On November 7, 2008, Varejão scored a then career\\-high 18 points in a 111–107 victory over the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers \"Indiana Pacers\"). On January 2, 2009, he eclipsed his personal best by scoring a career\\-high 26 points in a 117–92 victory over the [Chicago Bulls](/wiki/Chicago_Bulls \"Chicago Bulls\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2005\\-06 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2006 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|publisher\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}} Varejão finished the 2008–09 season playing in 28\\.5 minutes per game and averaged 8\\.6 points, 7\\.2 rebounds, 1\\.0 assists, and 0\\.9 steals in 81 games and 42 starts.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2008\\-09 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2009/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}}",
"On July 9, 2009, Varejão reached an agreement with the Cavaliers to sign a six\\-year contract worth $42\\.5 million.{{cite web \\|last\\=Ford \\|first\\=Chad \\|date\\=July 9, 2009 \\|title\\=Varejao agrees to multiyear deal \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?id\\=4315370 \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2012 \\|work\\=ESPN.com}} On December 30, he recorded 14 points, nine rebounds, and three blocks while also making the game\\-winning three\\-pointer in a 106–101 victory over the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks \"Atlanta Hawks\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Withers \\|first\\=Tom \\|date\\=December 30, 2009 \\|title\\=LeBron scores 48, Varejao hits winning 3 for Cavs \\|url\\=https://www.cantonrep.com/story/news/2009/12/31/lebron\\-scores\\-48\\-varejao\\-hits/42616967007/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2010 \\|website\\=Canton Repository \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Despite only starting in seven games during the 2009–10 season, Varejão still averaged 8\\.6 points, 7\\.6 rebounds, 1\\.1 assists, and 0\\.9 steals playing 28\\.5 minutes per game in 76 games.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2009\\-10 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2010/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} The Cavaliers once again made the playoffs, where they eventually lost to the [Boston Celtics](/wiki/Boston_Celtics \"Boston Celtics\") in the Eastern Conference Semifinals.{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao Stats, Video, Bio, Profile \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/playerfile/anderson\\_varejao/career\\_stats.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128085628/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/anderson\\_varejao/career\\_stats.html \\|archive\\-date\\=January 28, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2012 \\|publisher\\=NBA.com \\|df\\=mdy\\-all}} Varejão was named to the NBA All\\-Defensive Second Team at the end of the season.",
"Varejão became the Cavaliers' starting center in the 2010–11 season. In 31 games and starts, he played in 32\\.1 minutes per game, averaging 9\\.1 points, 9\\.7 rebounds, 1\\.5 assists, and 0\\.9 steals per game, but was forced to miss the rest of the season due to a torn tendon in his foot, which Varejão suffered during a 120–105 loss to the [Toronto Raptors](/wiki/Toronto_Raptors \"Toronto Raptors\") on January 5, 2011\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Schmitt Boyer \\|first\\=Mary \\|date\\=January 9, 2011 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao will miss rest of season with torn tendon in right foot that requires surgery \\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/cavs/index.ssf/2011/01/anderson\\_varejao\\_will\\_miss\\_res.html \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|work\\=Cleveland.com}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2010\\-11 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2011/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"In the 2011–12 season, Varejão was the starting center again. On January 31 against the Celtics, he set his then career high with 20 rebounds on while also adding 20 points in the 93–90 loss.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Flack \\|first\\=Benjamin \\|date\\=February 2, 2012 \\|title\\=Cleveland Cavaliers: Anderson Varejao Is a Keeper for the Cavs \\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1049954\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-is\\-a\\-keeper\\-for\\-the\\-cleveland\\-cavaliers \\|access\\-date\\=February 29, 2012 \\|website\\=Bleacher Report \\|language\\=en}} However, Varejão suffered a broken wrist in a narrow 113–112 loss to the [Milwaukee Bucks](/wiki/Milwaukee_Bucks \"Milwaukee Bucks\") 10 days later, causing him to miss the rest of the season.{{cite web \\|last\\=Schmitt Boyer \\|first\\=Mary \\|date\\=April 20, 2012 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao shut down for rest of season: Cleveland Cavaliers Insider \\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/cavs/index.ssf/2012/04/cavaliers\\_shut\\_down\\_varejao\\_fo.html \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|work\\=Cleveland.com}} In 25 games and starts, Varejão averaged 10\\.8 points, 11\\.5 rebounds, 1\\.7 assists, and 1\\.4 steals in 31\\.4 minutes per game.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2011\\-12 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2012/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}}[thumb\\|right\\|175px\\|Varejão in 2012](/wiki/File:Anderson_Varejao_2012.jpg \"Anderson Varejao 2012.jpg\")\nDuring the 2012–13 season opener, a 94–84 victory over the [Washington Wizards](/wiki/Washington_Wizards \"Washington Wizards\") on October 30, 2012, Varejão nearly acquired a [triple\\-double](/wiki/Triple-double \"Triple-double\"), recording nine points, a career high nine assists, and a then career high 23 rebounds.{{cite web \\|title\\=Washington Wizards at Cleveland Cavaliers Box Score, October 30, 2012 \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/boxscores/201210300CLE.html \\|accessdate\\=3 May 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Basketball Reference]]}} Two weeks later against the [Brooklyn Nets](/wiki/Brooklyn_Nets \"Brooklyn Nets\") on November 13, he scored a career\\-high 35 points while also recording 18 rebounds, three assists, and two steals in the 114–101 loss.{{Cite web \\|date\\=September 24, 2013 \\|title\\=Reliving Anderson Varejao's Career\\-High 35 Points \\|url\\=https://www.nba.com/cavaliers/photogallery/varejao\\-35\\-points\\-130925 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-01 \\|website\\=www.nba.com \\|language\\=en}} However, on January 21, 2013, it was announced that Varejão would miss the rest of the season after being hospitalized due to a blood clot in his lung.{{cite web \\|date\\=January 21, 2013 \\|title\\=Cavs' Varejao out rest of season with blood clot \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/2013/news/01/21/cavaliers\\-varejao\\-out.ap/index.html \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|work\\=NBA.com}} Over 25 games and starts in the 2012–13 season, Varejão had career\\-highs, averaging 14\\.1 points, 14\\.4 rebounds, 3\\.4 assists, and 1\\.5 steals in 31\\.4 minutes.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2012\\-13 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2013/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### 2013–16: Final years in Cleveland",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Varejão in 2013](/wiki/File:Anderson_Varejao_2013.jpg \"Anderson Varejao 2013.jpg\")\nIn the 2013–14 season, Varejão started in only 29 games for the Cavaliers as the team had [Andrew Bynum](/wiki/Andrew_Bynum \"Andrew Bynum\") in the first half of the season and [Spencer Hawes](/wiki/Spencer_Hawes \"Spencer Hawes\") in the second half. After starting early on in the season, Varejão lost his spot in mid\\-November to Bynum before reclaiming it in late December after Bynum was suspended indefinitely by the team. On January 2 against the [Orlando Magic](/wiki/Orlando_Magic \"Orlando Magic\"), Varejão had 18 points and a career\\-high 25 rebounds in the 87–81 overtime victory.{{Cite web \\|date\\=January 2, 2014 \\|title\\=Infographic: Varejao's Franchise\\-Tying 25 Rebounds \\|url\\=https://www.nba.com/cavaliers/news/breaking\\-down\\-varejao\\-25\\-boards\\-140103 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=www.nba.com \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=January 2, 2014 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao keys Cavaliers' OT win against Magic \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nba/recap?gameId\\=400489346 \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=ESPN \\|language\\=en}} In January, Bynum was traded to the [Indiana Pacers](/wiki/Indiana_Pacers \"Indiana Pacers\") and the Cavaliers acquired Hawes from the [Philadelphia 76ers](/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers \"Philadelphia 76ers\") in February. Around this time, Varejão was sidelined for a month with back soreness.{{cite web \\|last\\=Finnan \\|first\\=Bob \\|date\\=February 20, 2014 \\|title\\=Cleveland Cavaliers: Anderson Varejao injury didn't influence Spencer Hawes trade \\|url\\=http://www.morningjournal.com/sports/20140220/cleveland\\-cavaliers\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-injury\\-didnt\\-influence\\-spencer\\-hawes\\-trade \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|publisher\\=MorningJournal.com}} He returned in March and came off the bench for the rest of the season. Varejão played in 65 games and finished the season averaging 8\\.4 points, 9\\.7 rebounds, 2\\.2 assists, and 1\\.1 steals in 27\\.7 minutes per game.{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2013\\-14 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2014/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|work\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}}",
"[thumb\\|Varejão in 2014\\|277x277px](/wiki/File:Varejao_2014.jpg \"Varejao 2014.jpg\")\nOn October 31, 2014, Varejão signed a three\\-year, $30 million contract extension with the Cavaliers.{{cite web \\|date\\=October 31, 2014 \\|title\\=Cavs and Varejao Sign Contract Extension \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/cavaliers/releases/varejao\\-extension\\-141031 \\|access\\-date\\=November 10, 2014 \\|work\\=NBA.com}}{{cite web \\|date\\=October 31, 2014 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao signs multi\\-year extension with Cavaliers \\|url\\=https://www.si.com/nba/2014/10/31/cleveland\\-cavaliers\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-contract\\-extension \\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2021 \\|work\\=SI.com}} He had been having a good offensive season as [LeBron James](/wiki/LeBron_James \"LeBron James\")' favorite pick\\-and\\-roll partner, shooting 55 percent from the field and averaging 10 points and 6\\.6 rebounds.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2014\\-15 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2015/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 1, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} However, during a 125–104 victory over the [Minnesota Timberwolves](/wiki/Minnesota_Timberwolves \"Minnesota Timberwolves\") on December 23, Varejão tore his Achilles and was subsequently ruled out for the rest of the 2014–15 season.{{cite web \\|last\\=Windhorst \\|first\\=Brian \\|date\\=December 24, 2014 \\|title\\=Tests show torn Achilles for Varejao \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/\\_/id/12076383/anderson\\-varejao\\-cleveland\\-cavaliers\\-torn\\-achilles \\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2014 \\|publisher\\=ESPN}} Varejão finished the season playing in 24\\.5 minutes per game and averaged 9\\.8 points, 6\\.5 rebounds, 1\\.3 assists, and 0\\.7 steals in 26 games and starts.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2014\\-15 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2015/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016}} The Cavaliers reached the [2015 NBA Finals](/wiki/2015_NBA_Finals \"2015 NBA Finals\"), where they lost to the [Golden State Warriors](/wiki/Golden_State_Warriors \"Golden State Warriors\") in six games despite a 2–1 lead.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fahey \\|first\\=Andy \\|date\\=June 16, 2015 \\|title\\=Warriors Defeat Cavs in Game 6 to Win NBA Championship \\|url\\=https://www.nba.com/warriors/gameday/20150616/recap \\|access\\-date\\=July 18, 2015 \\|website\\=www.nba.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"Varejão returned from his injury in time for the narrow season\\-opening 97–95 loss to the [Chicago Bulls](/wiki/Chicago_Bulls \"Chicago Bulls\") on October 27, 2015\\.{{cite web \\|date\\=October 27, 2015 \\|title\\=With Obama watching, Bulls hold off Cavaliers 97\\-95 \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/games/20151027/CLECHI/gameinfo.html \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|work\\=NBA.com}} After averaging 2\\.6 points, 2\\.9 rebounds, 0\\.6 assists, and 0\\.4 steals in 10 minutes per game over 31 games and no starts, Varejão and a future first\\-round draft pick were traded to the [Portland Trail Blazers](/wiki/Portland_Trail_Blazers \"Portland Trail Blazers\") in exchange for a future second\\-round pick on February 18, 2016\\.{{cite web \\|date\\=February 18, 2016 \\|title\\=Trail Blazers Acquire Future First\\-Round Draft Pick, Anderson Varejao From Cleveland \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/blazers/trail\\-blazers\\-acquire\\-future\\-first\\-round\\-draft\\-pick\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-cleveland \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|work\\=NBA.com}} However, Varejão was waived by the Blazers immediately upon being acquired.{{cite web \\|date\\=February 18, 2016 \\|title\\=The Trail Blazers have placed F Anderson... \\|url\\=https://twitter.com/TrailBlazersPR/status/700453911136612352 \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|work\\=Twitter}}",
"### Golden State Warriors (2016–2017\\)",
"On February 22, 2016, Varejão signed with the [Golden State Warriors](/wiki/Golden_State_Warriors \"Golden State Warriors\").{{cite web \\|date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|title\\=Warriors Sign Free Agent Center Anderson Varejao \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/warriors/news/varejao\\-signing\\-20160222 \\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|work\\=NBA.com}} He made his Warriors debut two days later{{cite web \\|date\\=February 24, 2016 \\|title\\=Curry, Thompson come through late, Warriors top Heat 118\\-112 \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/games/20160224/GSWMIA/gameinfo.html \\|access\\-date\\=February 24, 2016 \\|work\\=NBA.com}} and played averaged 2\\.6 points, 2\\.3 rebounds, 0\\.7 assists, and 0\\.2 steals in 8\\.5 minutes per game over 22 games and no starts to finish the regular season.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2015\\-16 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2016 \\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2017 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}} The [2015–16 Warriors](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Golden_State_Warriors_season \"2015–16 Golden State Warriors season\") won an NBA\\-record 73 games to eclipse the 72 wins set by the [1995–96 Chicago Bulls](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_Chicago_Bulls_season \"1995–96 Chicago Bulls season\"). They also reached the [2016 NBA Finals](/wiki/2016_NBA_Finals \"2016 NBA Finals\") after overcoming a 3–1 deficit in the Western Conference Finals when they defeated the [Oklahoma City Thunder](/wiki/Oklahoma_City_Thunder \"Oklahoma City Thunder\") in seven games. During the NBA Finals, the Warriors faced Varejão's former team, the [Cleveland Cavaliers](/wiki/Cleveland_Cavaliers \"Cleveland Cavaliers\"). According to the [Elias Sports Bureau](/wiki/Elias_Sports_Bureau \"Elias Sports Bureau\"), Varejão became the first player in NBA history to play for both NBA Finals teams in the same season.{{cite web \\|last\\=Rogers \\|first\\=Jon \\|date\\=May 30, 2016 \\|title\\=Cavaliers\\-Warriors NBA Finals means Anderson Varejao will get a ring \\|url\\=http://www.sportingnews.com/nba/news/cavaliers\\-warriors\\-nba\\-finals\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-gets\\-a\\-ring/1x3mtk237h7191jl35ludnmxty \\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2016 \\|work\\=SportingNews.com}} The Warriors lost to the Cavaliers in seven games despite a 3–1 lead.{{cite news \\|date\\=June 19, 2016 \\|title\\=James and Cavaliers win thrilling NBA Finals Game 7, 93–89 \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/games/20160619/CLEGSW/gameinfo.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619134342/http://www.nba.com/games/20160619/CLEGSW/gameinfo.html \\|archive\\-date\\=June 19, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2016 \\|work\\=NBA.com}} Varejão was offered a [championship ring](/wiki/Championship_ring \"Championship ring\"), but he declined as Varejão played for the opposition.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rodgers \\|first\\=Joe \\|date\\=2016\\-07\\-18 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao won't take Cavaliers championship ring, report says {{!}} Sporting News \\|url\\=https://www.sportingnews.com/us/nba/news/cavaliers\\-championship\\-ring\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-warriors/1jqdtq6zoxjdx1llrsf7y9wugi \\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2016 \\|website\\=www.sportingnews.com \\|language\\=en\\-us}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Harper \\|first\\=Zach \\|date\\=2016\\-07\\-18 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao won't accept a championship ring from Cavs if offered \\|url\\=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/anderson\\-varejao\\-wont\\-accept\\-a\\-championship\\-ring\\-from\\-cavs\\-if\\-offered/ \\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2016 \\|website\\=CBSSports.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"In July 2016, Varejão re\\-signed with the Warriors on a one\\-year deal.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Stein \\|first\\=Marc \\|date\\=2016\\-07\\-14 \\|title\\=Sources: Varejao, Warriors agree to 1\\-year deal \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/\\_/id/17078831/anderson\\-varejao\\-headed\\-back\\-golden\\-state\\-warriors \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2016 \\|website\\=ESPN.com \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web \\|date\\=July 17, 2016 \\|title\\=Warriors Re\\-sign Free Agent Center Anderson Varejao \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/warriors/warriors\\-re\\-sign\\-free\\-agent\\-center\\-anderson\\-varejao \\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2016 \\|work\\=NBA.com}} On February 3, 2017, he was waived after playing in 6\\.6 minutes per game and averaging 1\\.3 points, 1\\.9 rebounds, 0\\.7 assists, and 0\\.2 steals in 14 games and one start.{{cite web \\|date\\=February 3, 2017 \\|title\\=Warriors Waive Anderson Varejao \\|url\\=http://www.nba.com/warriors/news/varejao\\-waived\\-20170203 \\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2017 \\|work\\=NBA.com}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2016\\-17 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2017/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2017 \\|work\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=February 4, 2017 \\|title\\=Video: Steve Kerr explains why Warriors waived Anderson Varejao \\|url\\=https://247sports.com/nba/golden\\-state\\-warriors/article/video\\-steve\\-kerr\\-explains\\-why\\-warriors\\-waived\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-51109604/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2017 \\|website\\=247Sports \\|language\\=en}} The Warriors went on to win the NBA Finals in 2017, and Varejão was offered a championship ring as a result, which he accepted.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Helin \\|first1\\=Kurt \\|date\\=October 8, 2017 \\|title\\=Warriors offer Anderson Varejao championship ring for last season, he accepts \\|url\\=https://nba.nbcsports.com/2017/10/08/warriors\\-offer\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-championship\\-ring\\-for\\-last\\-season\\-he\\-accepts/ \\|access\\-date\\=October 20, 2017 \\|website\\=ProBasketballTalk}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ward\\-Henninger \\|first\\=Colin \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-08 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao will get Warriors title ring after playing 14 games with team \\|url\\=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/anderson\\-varejao\\-will\\-get\\-warriors\\-title\\-ring\\-after\\-playing\\-14\\-games\\-with\\-team/ \\|access\\-date\\=October 20, 2017 \\|website\\=CBSSports.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Flamengo (2018–2019\\)",
"On January 17, 2018, Varejão signed a 20\\-month contract with [Flamengo](/wiki/Flamengo_Basketball \"Flamengo Basketball\").{{cite news \\|date\\=January 17, 2018 \\|title\\=Flamengo officially signs Anderson Varejao to a 20\\-month contract \\|url\\=http://archive.sportando.basketball/en/america/brazil/261588/flamengo\\-officially\\-signs\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-to\\-a\\-20\\-month\\-contract.html \\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2021 \\|work\\=Sportando}} He played the second half of the 2017–18 season and then continued on with Flamengo for the 2018–19 season.",
"### Return to Cleveland (2021\\)",
"On May 4, 2021, Varejão signed a 10\\-day contract to return to the [Cleveland Cavaliers](/wiki/Cleveland_Cavaliers \"Cleveland Cavaliers\"). The team was granted a hardship exception to acquire him.{{cite web \\|date\\=May 4, 2021 \\|title\\=Cavaliers Sign Anderson Varejão to 10\\-Day Contract \\|url\\=https://www.nba.com/cavaliers/releases/varejao\\-signing\\-210504 \\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2021 \\|work\\=NBA.com}} Ten days later, Varejão signed another 10\\-day contract.{{cite web \\|date\\=May 14, 2021 \\|title\\=Cavaliers' Anderson Varejao: Inks second 10\\-day deal \\|url\\=https://www.cbssports.com/fantasy/basketball/news/cavaliers\\-anderson\\-varejao\\-inks\\-second\\-10\\-day\\-deal/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2021 \\|work\\=CBSSports.com}} He finished the season playing in 7\\.2 minutes per game and averaged 2\\.6 points, 4\\.0 rebounds, and 0\\.6 assists in five games and no starts.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anderson Varejão 2020\\-21 Game Log \\|url\\=https://www.basketball\\-reference.com/players/v/varejan01/gamelog/2021/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2021 \\|website\\=Basketball\\-Reference.com}}",
"### Retirement",
"Following the 2020–21 season, Varejão announced his retirement from professional basketball.{{cite web \\|last\\=Fedor \\|first\\=Chris \\|date\\=May 16, 2022 \\|title\\=Anderson Varejao to represent Cleveland Cavaliers at 2022 NBA Draft Lottery \\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/cavs/2022/05/anderson\\-varejao\\-to\\-represent\\-cleveland\\-cavaliers\\-at\\-2022\\-nba\\-draft\\-lottery.html \\|access\\-date\\=October 25, 2022 \\|work\\=cleveland.com \\|quote\\=At the end of the 2020\\-21 season, Varejao signed a ceremonial 10\\-day contract, playing his final five NBA games in the wine and gold before officially announcing his retirement.}}",
""
] |
History
-------
In January 1941 the Independence Chamber of Commerce, resolved to sell the citizens of the Kansas community the idea of a municipal airport. On 26 June 1941, after six months of effective "selling", the city commission decided to ask the voters to approve a $100,000 bond issue for financing work on the airport. The citizens approved by a vote of 1,219 to 173 on 1 August 1941\. A short time later the city commission entered into contract with Paulette and White, consulting engineers from [Topeka](/wiki/Topeka "Topeka"), to survey potential sites for the field. Several locations were considered before any selection was made. The site chosen was in Montgomery county, six miles southwest of Independence.
Early in 1942 the government indicated it was interested in acquiring the site for a United States Army Air Forces airfield. During April and May civic leaders met with government officials in a series of conferences. Army Engineers made surveys from 8 to 11 April. About six weeks later, on 23 May 1942, the Army officially notified Independence City Government that it would purchase approximately 1,433 acres.
The contract for planning and supervising the construction of the airfield was awarded to Black and Veatch, architectural engineers from [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri "Kansas City, Missouri"). Work began on 6 June 1942, when Ottinger Brothers of Oklahoma City moved in with a labor crew and began grading operations. Shortly thereafter, work began on the drainage and sewerage systems. During the summer the [Missouri Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Missouri_Pacific_Railroad "Missouri Pacific Railroad") constructed a spur to the site. In August work began on runways and buildings. Three concrete runways were constructed, aligned 5500x150(N/S), 5500x150(NE/SW), 5500x150(NW/SW). Each runway had a ten\-inch gravel base placed in layers on a six\-inch compacted earth subbase, and surfaced with one and one\-half\-inch asphalt cement; the service strip (80 feet wide) was a six\-inch concrete slab, thickened to nine inches at the expansion and construction joints. three taxiways, 50 feet wide, completed the runway system. Fronting on the field, three squadron hangars, 120 by 80 feet, were built with a parking apron a mile long and 450 feet wide.
During the fall of 1942 clearing and grading operations began at four locations that had been selected for auxiliary fields. The four sites were located 8 to 20 miles from the main field. The auxiliaries were located at:
* Mound City Army Air Force Auxiliary Field \#3 {{Coord\|37\|07\|38\|N\|96\|20\|53\|W\|name\=Mound City AAFAF \#3}}
* Elk City Army Air Force Auxiliary Field \#4 {{Coord\|37\|18\|27\|N\|95\|51\|04\|W\|name\=Elk City AAFAF \#4}}
* Independence Army Air Force Auxiliary Field \#7 {{Coord\|37\|11\|19\|N\|95\|52\|46\|W\|name\=Independence AAFAF \#7}}
* Cherryvale Army Air Force Auxiliary Field \#9 {{Coord\|37\|19\|59\|N\|95\|30\|28\|W\|name\= Cherryvale AAFAF \#9}}
Work progressed satisfactorily throughout the winter despite interruptions caused by heavy rains and sub\-zero temperatures. By January 1943 three concrete runways 5,000 feet in length had been constructed. Electric, gas and water lines also had been completed and sufficient troop housing was available. Most of the buildings were Theater of Operations construction while some were of the Mobilization type. The Mobilization type buildings included the station hospital, theater, chapel, and Link training buildings. Where before there had been only open farm land, this new city now contained about 200 buildings, with pot\-bellied coal stoves for heating. The major construction work, which cost more than $8,000,000, ended in May 1943\.
### Basic Flying School
[thumb\|[North American BT\-14](/wiki/North_American_BT-14 "North American BT-14") trainer](/wiki/File:North_American_BT-14_%28NA-58%29.jpg "North American BT-14 (NA-58).jpg")
**Independence Army Airfield** was activated as a Basic Flying School on 12 October 1942, under the 32d Flying Training Wing (Basic), [Perrin Army Airfield](/wiki/Perrin_Army_Airfield "Perrin Army Airfield"), Texas. However, the personnel to operate the base did not begin arriving until December 1942\.
Basic flying training began when 152 cadets arrived for the first class on 26 January 1943\. The trainer used at Independence AAF was the [North American BT\-14](/wiki/North_American_BT-14 "North American BT-14"), with some [Vultee BT\-13 Valiants](/wiki/Vultee_BT-13_Valiant "Vultee BT-13 Valiant") as well. Some of the classes that arrived later had as many as 345 students. The cadets, who had completed primary flying training, received a nine\-week course that was divided into flying training and classroom instruction. Flight training consisted of several subjects that included, takeoffs and landings, aerobatics, cross\-country navigation, and night flying. Ground school involved navigation, meteorology, radio communications, and aircraft recognition. Normally ground school was given between flying lessons. Sometimes it was done in the very early AM or after the evening meal.
Typically the day would start with Reveille at 6:15 AM, followed by breakfast at 6:30\. Flying would begin at 7:45 AM. If a student was not scheduled to fly he would be in ground school, drill, or involved in required athletics. Sometimes it was necessary to schedule Sunday flying when inclement weather prevented flying during the week. Normal flying periods were one hour, except cross\-country flights. Usually cross\-country flights took place between Independence and Claremore, Oklahoma, and Neosho, Joplin, and Nevada, Missouri. Others were flown between Independence, Chanute, and Fort Scott, Kansas.
In May 1944, flying training ended at nearby [Coffeyville Army Airfield](/wiki/Coffeyville_Army_Airfield "Coffeyville Army Airfield"), and students in training who had not yet graduated were moved to Independence. Most were in Basic flying training, but some advanced twin\-engine [Cessna UC\-78](/wiki/Cessna_UC-78 "Cessna UC-78") Bobcats were also flown up from Coffeyville along with some [AT\-6 Texans](/wiki/AT-6_Texan "AT-6 Texan"). Basic flying training at Independence continued until January 1945\. Nineteen classes, totaling 4,933 students, graduated from the school. The last class completed training on 29 January 1945\.
### Aircraft storage base
The termination of flying training at Independence resulted in the reassignment of personnel and equipment. Flying personnel were reassigned to airfields in [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas") and [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas") during February and March. The BT\-13's and BT\-14's were moved to airfields in Georgia, Oklahoma, and Missouri. On 15 March Independence Army Airfield was placed on a standby basis.
On 11 April 1945, however, the Army announced that the airfield would be used to store aircraft not needed in the war effort as a Class II storage depot. This classification was for aircraft being placed in an operational reserve state that could be flown out within 7 days. Jurisdiction was transferred to [Air Technical Service Command](/wiki/Air_Technical_Service_Command "Air Technical Service Command"), and during the next two months civilian employment on the field jumped from 44 to 505 and military personnel increased from 2 to 272\. Aircraft began arriving on 13 April 1945\. At first, bomber aircraft ([B\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress "B-17 Flying Fortress"); [B\-24 Liberator](/wiki/B-24_Liberator "B-24 Liberator") heavy bombers and [B\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/B-25_Mitchell "B-25 Mitchell") medium bombers) were prepared for storage and kept at Independence. These were primarily older training aircraft used in the United States.
With the war ended in October 1945, however, all of the B\-24 and B\-17 aircraft were re\-classified as class IV (surplus) and moved to [Kingman AAF](/wiki/Kingman_AAF "Kingman AAF"), Arizona for recycling. At the same time [P\-47 Thunderbolts](/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt "P-47 Thunderbolt") and [AT\-6 Texan](/wiki/AT-6_Texan "AT-6 Texan") trainers began arriving for long\-term Type C extended storage. During a period of two and a half years the aircraft stored at Independence included 1,542 P\-47's, 1,118 AT\-6's, 72 B\-25's, 401 B\-24's, and 260 B\-17's.
### Closure
In the fall of 1947 [Air Technical Service Command](/wiki/Air_Technical_Service_Command "Air Technical Service Command") consolidated its storage depots and all of the stored aircraft were moved from Independence to [RFC Walnut Ridge](/wiki/RFC_Walnut_Ridge "RFC Walnut Ridge"), Arkansas for sale or recycling. Military personnel were transferred to other bases effective 11 December 1947\.
Four days later Independence Army Airfield, which had been listed as surplus, was turned over to the Army's [District Engineer](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers "United States Army Corps of Engineers"), [Seventh Service Command](/wiki/Army_Service_Forces "Army Service Forces") at [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska "Omaha, Nebraska") who assumed jurisdiction over the field, pending disposition. Excess buildings and demilitarized equipment were sold or transferred to other bases. Some were torn down and sales were held for scrap lumber of torn down buildings, fence posts, barbed wire and other items which no longer had a useful need.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In January 1941 the Independence Chamber of Commerce, resolved to sell the citizens of the Kansas community the idea of a municipal airport. On 26 June 1941, after six months of effective \"selling\", the city commission decided to ask the voters to approve a $100,000 bond issue for financing work on the airport. The citizens approved by a vote of 1,219 to 173 on 1 August 1941\\. A short time later the city commission entered into contract with Paulette and White, consulting engineers from [Topeka](/wiki/Topeka \"Topeka\"), to survey potential sites for the field. Several locations were considered before any selection was made. The site chosen was in Montgomery county, six miles southwest of Independence.",
"Early in 1942 the government indicated it was interested in acquiring the site for a United States Army Air Forces airfield. During April and May civic leaders met with government officials in a series of conferences. Army Engineers made surveys from 8 to 11 April. About six weeks later, on 23 May 1942, the Army officially notified Independence City Government that it would purchase approximately 1,433 acres.",
"The contract for planning and supervising the construction of the airfield was awarded to Black and Veatch, architectural engineers from [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\"). Work began on 6 June 1942, when Ottinger Brothers of Oklahoma City moved in with a labor crew and began grading operations. Shortly thereafter, work began on the drainage and sewerage systems. During the summer the [Missouri Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Missouri_Pacific_Railroad \"Missouri Pacific Railroad\") constructed a spur to the site. In August work began on runways and buildings. Three concrete runways were constructed, aligned 5500x150(N/S), 5500x150(NE/SW), 5500x150(NW/SW). Each runway had a ten\\-inch gravel base placed in layers on a six\\-inch compacted earth subbase, and surfaced with one and one\\-half\\-inch asphalt cement; the service strip (80 feet wide) was a six\\-inch concrete slab, thickened to nine inches at the expansion and construction joints. three taxiways, 50 feet wide, completed the runway system. Fronting on the field, three squadron hangars, 120 by 80 feet, were built with a parking apron a mile long and 450 feet wide.",
"During the fall of 1942 clearing and grading operations began at four locations that had been selected for auxiliary fields. The four sites were located 8 to 20 miles from the main field. The auxiliaries were located at:\n* Mound City Army Air Force Auxiliary Field \\#3 {{Coord\\|37\\|07\\|38\\|N\\|96\\|20\\|53\\|W\\|name\\=Mound City AAFAF \\#3}}\n* Elk City Army Air Force Auxiliary Field \\#4 {{Coord\\|37\\|18\\|27\\|N\\|95\\|51\\|04\\|W\\|name\\=Elk City AAFAF \\#4}}\n* Independence Army Air Force Auxiliary Field \\#7 {{Coord\\|37\\|11\\|19\\|N\\|95\\|52\\|46\\|W\\|name\\=Independence AAFAF \\#7}}\n* Cherryvale Army Air Force Auxiliary Field \\#9 {{Coord\\|37\\|19\\|59\\|N\\|95\\|30\\|28\\|W\\|name\\= Cherryvale AAFAF \\#9}}",
"Work progressed satisfactorily throughout the winter despite interruptions caused by heavy rains and sub\\-zero temperatures. By January 1943 three concrete runways 5,000 feet in length had been constructed. Electric, gas and water lines also had been completed and sufficient troop housing was available. Most of the buildings were Theater of Operations construction while some were of the Mobilization type. The Mobilization type buildings included the station hospital, theater, chapel, and Link training buildings. Where before there had been only open farm land, this new city now contained about 200 buildings, with pot\\-bellied coal stoves for heating. The major construction work, which cost more than $8,000,000, ended in May 1943\\.",
"### Basic Flying School",
"[thumb\\|[North American BT\\-14](/wiki/North_American_BT-14 \"North American BT-14\") trainer](/wiki/File:North_American_BT-14_%28NA-58%29.jpg \"North American BT-14 (NA-58).jpg\")\n**Independence Army Airfield** was activated as a Basic Flying School on 12 October 1942, under the 32d Flying Training Wing (Basic), [Perrin Army Airfield](/wiki/Perrin_Army_Airfield \"Perrin Army Airfield\"), Texas. However, the personnel to operate the base did not begin arriving until December 1942\\.",
"Basic flying training began when 152 cadets arrived for the first class on 26 January 1943\\. The trainer used at Independence AAF was the [North American BT\\-14](/wiki/North_American_BT-14 \"North American BT-14\"), with some [Vultee BT\\-13 Valiants](/wiki/Vultee_BT-13_Valiant \"Vultee BT-13 Valiant\") as well. Some of the classes that arrived later had as many as 345 students. The cadets, who had completed primary flying training, received a nine\\-week course that was divided into flying training and classroom instruction. Flight training consisted of several subjects that included, takeoffs and landings, aerobatics, cross\\-country navigation, and night flying. Ground school involved navigation, meteorology, radio communications, and aircraft recognition. Normally ground school was given between flying lessons. Sometimes it was done in the very early AM or after the evening meal.",
"Typically the day would start with Reveille at 6:15 AM, followed by breakfast at 6:30\\. Flying would begin at 7:45 AM. If a student was not scheduled to fly he would be in ground school, drill, or involved in required athletics. Sometimes it was necessary to schedule Sunday flying when inclement weather prevented flying during the week. Normal flying periods were one hour, except cross\\-country flights. Usually cross\\-country flights took place between Independence and Claremore, Oklahoma, and Neosho, Joplin, and Nevada, Missouri. Others were flown between Independence, Chanute, and Fort Scott, Kansas.",
"In May 1944, flying training ended at nearby [Coffeyville Army Airfield](/wiki/Coffeyville_Army_Airfield \"Coffeyville Army Airfield\"), and students in training who had not yet graduated were moved to Independence. Most were in Basic flying training, but some advanced twin\\-engine [Cessna UC\\-78](/wiki/Cessna_UC-78 \"Cessna UC-78\") Bobcats were also flown up from Coffeyville along with some [AT\\-6 Texans](/wiki/AT-6_Texan \"AT-6 Texan\"). Basic flying training at Independence continued until January 1945\\. Nineteen classes, totaling 4,933 students, graduated from the school. The last class completed training on 29 January 1945\\.",
"### Aircraft storage base",
"The termination of flying training at Independence resulted in the reassignment of personnel and equipment. Flying personnel were reassigned to airfields in [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\") and [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\") during February and March. The BT\\-13's and BT\\-14's were moved to airfields in Georgia, Oklahoma, and Missouri. On 15 March Independence Army Airfield was placed on a standby basis.",
"On 11 April 1945, however, the Army announced that the airfield would be used to store aircraft not needed in the war effort as a Class II storage depot. This classification was for aircraft being placed in an operational reserve state that could be flown out within 7 days. Jurisdiction was transferred to [Air Technical Service Command](/wiki/Air_Technical_Service_Command \"Air Technical Service Command\"), and during the next two months civilian employment on the field jumped from 44 to 505 and military personnel increased from 2 to 272\\. Aircraft began arriving on 13 April 1945\\. At first, bomber aircraft ([B\\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress \"B-17 Flying Fortress\"); [B\\-24 Liberator](/wiki/B-24_Liberator \"B-24 Liberator\") heavy bombers and [B\\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/B-25_Mitchell \"B-25 Mitchell\") medium bombers) were prepared for storage and kept at Independence. These were primarily older training aircraft used in the United States.",
"With the war ended in October 1945, however, all of the B\\-24 and B\\-17 aircraft were re\\-classified as class IV (surplus) and moved to [Kingman AAF](/wiki/Kingman_AAF \"Kingman AAF\"), Arizona for recycling. At the same time [P\\-47 Thunderbolts](/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt \"P-47 Thunderbolt\") and [AT\\-6 Texan](/wiki/AT-6_Texan \"AT-6 Texan\") trainers began arriving for long\\-term Type C extended storage. During a period of two and a half years the aircraft stored at Independence included 1,542 P\\-47's, 1,118 AT\\-6's, 72 B\\-25's, 401 B\\-24's, and 260 B\\-17's.",
"### Closure",
"In the fall of 1947 [Air Technical Service Command](/wiki/Air_Technical_Service_Command \"Air Technical Service Command\") consolidated its storage depots and all of the stored aircraft were moved from Independence to [RFC Walnut Ridge](/wiki/RFC_Walnut_Ridge \"RFC Walnut Ridge\"), Arkansas for sale or recycling. Military personnel were transferred to other bases effective 11 December 1947\\.",
"Four days later Independence Army Airfield, which had been listed as surplus, was turned over to the Army's [District Engineer](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers \"United States Army Corps of Engineers\"), [Seventh Service Command](/wiki/Army_Service_Forces \"Army Service Forces\") at [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska \"Omaha, Nebraska\") who assumed jurisdiction over the field, pending disposition. Excess buildings and demilitarized equipment were sold or transferred to other bases. Some were torn down and sales were held for scrap lumber of torn down buildings, fence posts, barbed wire and other items which no longer had a useful need.",
""
] |
Biography and military career
-----------------------------
Beck was born to 1st Lt. William Henry Beck and Rachel Wyatt Elizabeth Tongate on 1 December 1876 at [Fort McKavett, Texas](/wiki/Fort_McKavett_State_Historic_Site "Fort McKavett State Historic Site"), a frontier outpost of the U.S. Army. His father, a one\-time quartermaster sergeant in the [6th Illinois Volunteer Cavalry Regiment](/wiki/6th_Regiment_Illinois_Volunteer_Cavalry "6th Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry") during the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), gained a commission in the [Regular Army](/wiki/Regular_Army "Regular Army") following the war as a troop officer with the [10th Cavalry Regiment](/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)") and retired as a [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general "Brigadier general") before his death in 1911\.
Beck married Ruth Evelyn Everett of [Lyons, Nebraska](/wiki/Lyons%2C_Nebraska "Lyons, Nebraska") on 12 January 1896,{{cite news\|title\=Death of Mrs. Paul Beck\|url\=https://s3\-us\-west\-2\.amazonaws.com/find\-a\-grave\-prod/photos/2016/32/57196460\_1454466128\.jpg\|access\-date\=10 November 2016\|work\=Lyons Mirror\-Sun\|date\=28 July 1921\|location\=Lyons, Nebraska\|page\=1\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510081640/https://s3\-us\-west\-2\.amazonaws.com/find\-a\-grave\-prod/photos/2016/32/57196460\_1454466128\.jpg\|archive\-date\=10 May 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} and they had a son, Paul Ward Beck, Jr., born 27 February 1897\. Mrs. Beck, an 1893 graduate of the [Fremont Normal School](/wiki/Midland_Lutheran_College "Midland Lutheran College") in [Fremont, Nebraska](/wiki/Fremont%2C_Nebraska "Fremont, Nebraska"), (a [teacher's college](/wiki/Normal_school "Normal school")), was at the time a noted author of short stories and works on [American Indians](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States"). Paul Beck, Jr. also became an army officer.\* {{cite book\| chapter \=Addenda and Corrections\| title \=Woman's Who's Who of America 1914–1915 \| year \= 1915\| publisher \= wikisource\| url \= http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Woman%27s\_who%27s\_who\_of\_America,\_1914\-15\.djvu/17}}
Paul Beck was commissioned a [second lieutenant](/wiki/Second_lieutenant "Second lieutenant") in the [5th Infantry](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "5th Infantry Regiment (United States)") on 1 September 1899\. During his service in the Philippines between 1900 and 1902 in the [Philippine–American War](/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War "Philippine–American War"), Beck served with Company C, 5th Infantry, and was promoted to [first lieutenant](/wiki/First_lieutenant "First lieutenant") on 25 March 1902 while stationed at [Vigan](/wiki/Vigan "Vigan"), [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon "Luzon").*Official Army Register*, p. 1106 He engaged in several actions, including a small battle at Parparia, [Narvacan, Ilocos Sur](/wiki/Narvacan%2C_Ilocos_Sur "Narvacan, Ilocos Sur"), on 15 February 1901 in which he commanded the detachment. He also was responsible for the construction of a road near Vigan, and the building of Camp Gregg at [Bayambang, Pangasinan](/wiki/Bayambang%2C_Pangasinan "Bayambang, Pangasinan") on the central Luzon plain.
He subsequently attended the [Infantry and Cavalry School](/wiki/Command_and_General_Staff_College "Command and General Staff College") in 1905 and the Army Signal School in 1906\. On 4 February 1907 he was commissioned in the [Signal Corps](/wiki/U.S._Signal_Corps "U.S. Signal Corps") and stationed at [Benicia Barracks, California](/wiki/Benicia%2C_California "Benicia, California"). His Signal Corps commission was discharged on 4 February 1911, just after he began instruction in flying in San Diego. On 11 March 1911, now on orders to the Aeronautical Division of the Signal Corps to become an instructor, Beck was promoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28U.S._Army%29 "Captain (U.S. Army)"), 18th Infantry. (*See "Pioneer Aviator" in separate section below for a more detailed account.*)
Beck was recalled from his aviation assignment to the Infantry on 1 May 1912 under requirements of the so\-called "Manchu Law"The "Detached Service Law," familiarly known in the Army as the "Manchu Law," was a provision of the Army appropriations act passed by Congress on 24 August 1912 that required a *Detached Officers List* be kept by the Army to enforce its regulation limiting the amount of time an officer could spend away from the organization in which he was commissioned. Prior to passage of the act, detached service was limited by policy, using a regulation created and enforced by General Order No. 68 (26 May 1911\), issued by the War Department in response to criticism of the Army for creating a General Staff in 1903, which many in Congress philosophically opposed in a standing army. The regulation was also intended to curb favoritism shown in embassy and other "soft living" assignments perceived as "homesteading," i.e. "permanent residence" in an assignment. The regulation affected many Army agencies and all aviation officers except those permanently assigned to the Signal Corps. It varied in wording from year to year but all variations stressed that at least one\-third of an officer's time in service be spent with a "troop unit." Regulations in succeeding years tended to be more complex and legalistic as challenges to the policy grew in the officer ranks, and after 1914, included all officers in the grade of colonel or lower. The regulation required an officer to serve troop duty in his "arm of the service" (branch) for at least two years in any six\-year period. Leave, illness, and travel time did not count towards the two required years. The Manchu Law was rigorously enforced by the General Staff and was much hated by the field forces. It was suspended during World War I and repealed by the [National Defense Act of 1920](/wiki/National_Defense_Act_of_1920 "National Defense Act of 1920"). The term arose in usage comparing staff officers sent back to their regiments to bureaucrats of the [Manchu dynasty](/wiki/Manchu_dynasty "Manchu dynasty") ousted by [revolution in China](/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution "Xinhai Revolution") at the same time. In Beck's case, the applicable regulation was Article VI 'Details', Paragraph 40, *Regulations for the army of the United States, 1910*.
and assigned to the [17th Infantry](/wiki/17th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "17th Infantry Regiment (United States)") at [Fort McPherson](/wiki/Fort_McPherson "Fort McPherson"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"), with temporary duty on the Mexican border at [Eagle Pass, Texas](/wiki/Eagle_Pass%2C_Texas "Eagle Pass, Texas"). Eighteen months later, on 1 October 1914, he transferred to the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East") as a company commander with the [15th Infantry](/wiki/15th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "15th Infantry Regiment (United States)").The 15th Infantry had its 1st and 3rd Battalions stationed in China and its 2nd Battalion in the Philippines. It seems likely Beck was with the 2nd Battalion since that was routinely an accompanied tour (dependents permitted) and he obtained his lieutenant colonelcy in the new 31st Infantry, which was raised and organized in the Philippines. After the United States entered [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), Beck received temporary promotions to [major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 "Major (rank)") and to [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel "Lieutenant colonel") on 5 August 1917, the latter with the [31st Infantry](/wiki/31st_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "31st Infantry Regiment (United States)"). On 28 August 1917 Beck received permanent establishment promotion to major, Infantry.
Beck transferred to [Camp Fremont](/wiki/Camp_Fremont "Camp Fremont"), California, and on 9 April 1918 became the lieutenant colonel of the [12th Infantry](/wiki/12th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "12th Infantry Regiment (United States)"), training for combat in Europe as part of the [8th Division](/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "8th Infantry Division (United States)"). On 5 October 1918 Beck accepted his highest career rank, that of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") (temporary, Infantry), to become [military attaché at the U.S. embassy in Havana, Cuba](/wiki/Cuba%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Cuba–United States relations"), 1918–1920\.*Official Congressional Directory*, p. 382 On 20 April 1920 the temporary commission to colonel was honorably discharged and Beck reverted to his permanent grade of major.
Beck's permanent promotion to lieutenant colonel, Infantry, came on 1 July 1920, the effective date of the National Defense Act of 1920 (also known as the Army Reorganization Act), which also made the [Air Service](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Service "United States Army Air Service") a [combatant arm of the line](/wiki/Combat_arm "Combat arm"), thus enabling him to transfer directly into it. Beck was assigned to Air Service duty on 9 August and took additional pilot training at [Carlstrom Field](/wiki/Arcadia%2C_Florida "Arcadia, Florida"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida") between 30 September 1920 and 31 March 1921 to re\-qualify for his [Airplane Pilot rating](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force_Aeronautical_Ratings%23World_War_I_and_Air_Service_revisions "U.S. Air Force Aeronautical Ratings#World War I and Air Service revisions"). He became commandant of the Air Service Observation School and assistant post commander at [Henry Post Field](/wiki/Henry_Post_Army_Airfield "Henry Post Army Airfield"), [Fort Sill](/wiki/Fort_Sill "Fort Sill"), [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma"), on 11 June 1921, and on 25 November officially transferred in grade to the Air Service, with a date of rank of 1 July 1920, making him fourth in Air Service seniority.Beck was junior only to Billy Mitchell, Col. Chalmers G. Hall, and Col. Theodore A. Baldwin, Jr. Hall was an 1897 graduate of West Point, a cavalryman, and organizer of the four "motor mechanics" regiments of the Air Service after being recalled to active duty from a disability retirement in 1917\. He also commanded the 4th Regiment Air Service Mechanics, as they were finally designated. He obtained an airship rating in 1922\. Baldwin was an infantry officer who first became a balloonist in 1907 and during World War I commanded the Air Service airfield at [Orly](/wiki/Orly "Orly"), France. He received a balloon observer rating in 1921\. Both found themselves marginalized by the airplane\-dominated Air Service but did retire as members of the [Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps "United States Army Air Corps").
|
[
"Biography and military career\n-----------------------------",
"Beck was born to 1st Lt. William Henry Beck and Rachel Wyatt Elizabeth Tongate on 1 December 1876 at [Fort McKavett, Texas](/wiki/Fort_McKavett_State_Historic_Site \"Fort McKavett State Historic Site\"), a frontier outpost of the U.S. Army. His father, a one\\-time quartermaster sergeant in the [6th Illinois Volunteer Cavalry Regiment](/wiki/6th_Regiment_Illinois_Volunteer_Cavalry \"6th Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry\") during the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), gained a commission in the [Regular Army](/wiki/Regular_Army \"Regular Army\") following the war as a troop officer with the [10th Cavalry Regiment](/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)\") and retired as a [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general \"Brigadier general\") before his death in 1911\\.",
"Beck married Ruth Evelyn Everett of [Lyons, Nebraska](/wiki/Lyons%2C_Nebraska \"Lyons, Nebraska\") on 12 January 1896,{{cite news\\|title\\=Death of Mrs. Paul Beck\\|url\\=https://s3\\-us\\-west\\-2\\.amazonaws.com/find\\-a\\-grave\\-prod/photos/2016/32/57196460\\_1454466128\\.jpg\\|access\\-date\\=10 November 2016\\|work\\=Lyons Mirror\\-Sun\\|date\\=28 July 1921\\|location\\=Lyons, Nebraska\\|page\\=1\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510081640/https://s3\\-us\\-west\\-2\\.amazonaws.com/find\\-a\\-grave\\-prod/photos/2016/32/57196460\\_1454466128\\.jpg\\|archive\\-date\\=10 May 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and they had a son, Paul Ward Beck, Jr., born 27 February 1897\\. Mrs. Beck, an 1893 graduate of the [Fremont Normal School](/wiki/Midland_Lutheran_College \"Midland Lutheran College\") in [Fremont, Nebraska](/wiki/Fremont%2C_Nebraska \"Fremont, Nebraska\"), (a [teacher's college](/wiki/Normal_school \"Normal school\")), was at the time a noted author of short stories and works on [American Indians](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\"). Paul Beck, Jr. also became an army officer.\\* {{cite book\\| chapter \\=Addenda and Corrections\\| title \\=Woman's Who's Who of America 1914–1915 \\| year \\= 1915\\| publisher \\= wikisource\\| url \\= http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Woman%27s\\_who%27s\\_who\\_of\\_America,\\_1914\\-15\\.djvu/17}}",
"Paul Beck was commissioned a [second lieutenant](/wiki/Second_lieutenant \"Second lieutenant\") in the [5th Infantry](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"5th Infantry Regiment (United States)\") on 1 September 1899\\. During his service in the Philippines between 1900 and 1902 in the [Philippine–American War](/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War \"Philippine–American War\"), Beck served with Company C, 5th Infantry, and was promoted to [first lieutenant](/wiki/First_lieutenant \"First lieutenant\") on 25 March 1902 while stationed at [Vigan](/wiki/Vigan \"Vigan\"), [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon \"Luzon\").*Official Army Register*, p. 1106 He engaged in several actions, including a small battle at Parparia, [Narvacan, Ilocos Sur](/wiki/Narvacan%2C_Ilocos_Sur \"Narvacan, Ilocos Sur\"), on 15 February 1901 in which he commanded the detachment. He also was responsible for the construction of a road near Vigan, and the building of Camp Gregg at [Bayambang, Pangasinan](/wiki/Bayambang%2C_Pangasinan \"Bayambang, Pangasinan\") on the central Luzon plain.",
"He subsequently attended the [Infantry and Cavalry School](/wiki/Command_and_General_Staff_College \"Command and General Staff College\") in 1905 and the Army Signal School in 1906\\. On 4 February 1907 he was commissioned in the [Signal Corps](/wiki/U.S._Signal_Corps \"U.S. Signal Corps\") and stationed at [Benicia Barracks, California](/wiki/Benicia%2C_California \"Benicia, California\"). His Signal Corps commission was discharged on 4 February 1911, just after he began instruction in flying in San Diego. On 11 March 1911, now on orders to the Aeronautical Division of the Signal Corps to become an instructor, Beck was promoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28U.S._Army%29 \"Captain (U.S. Army)\"), 18th Infantry. (*See \"Pioneer Aviator\" in separate section below for a more detailed account.*)",
"Beck was recalled from his aviation assignment to the Infantry on 1 May 1912 under requirements of the so\\-called \"Manchu Law\"The \"Detached Service Law,\" familiarly known in the Army as the \"Manchu Law,\" was a provision of the Army appropriations act passed by Congress on 24 August 1912 that required a *Detached Officers List* be kept by the Army to enforce its regulation limiting the amount of time an officer could spend away from the organization in which he was commissioned. Prior to passage of the act, detached service was limited by policy, using a regulation created and enforced by General Order No. 68 (26 May 1911\\), issued by the War Department in response to criticism of the Army for creating a General Staff in 1903, which many in Congress philosophically opposed in a standing army. The regulation was also intended to curb favoritism shown in embassy and other \"soft living\" assignments perceived as \"homesteading,\" i.e. \"permanent residence\" in an assignment. The regulation affected many Army agencies and all aviation officers except those permanently assigned to the Signal Corps. It varied in wording from year to year but all variations stressed that at least one\\-third of an officer's time in service be spent with a \"troop unit.\" Regulations in succeeding years tended to be more complex and legalistic as challenges to the policy grew in the officer ranks, and after 1914, included all officers in the grade of colonel or lower. The regulation required an officer to serve troop duty in his \"arm of the service\" (branch) for at least two years in any six\\-year period. Leave, illness, and travel time did not count towards the two required years. The Manchu Law was rigorously enforced by the General Staff and was much hated by the field forces. It was suspended during World War I and repealed by the [National Defense Act of 1920](/wiki/National_Defense_Act_of_1920 \"National Defense Act of 1920\"). The term arose in usage comparing staff officers sent back to their regiments to bureaucrats of the [Manchu dynasty](/wiki/Manchu_dynasty \"Manchu dynasty\") ousted by [revolution in China](/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution \"Xinhai Revolution\") at the same time. In Beck's case, the applicable regulation was Article VI 'Details', Paragraph 40, *Regulations for the army of the United States, 1910*.\nand assigned to the [17th Infantry](/wiki/17th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"17th Infantry Regiment (United States)\") at [Fort McPherson](/wiki/Fort_McPherson \"Fort McPherson\"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"), with temporary duty on the Mexican border at [Eagle Pass, Texas](/wiki/Eagle_Pass%2C_Texas \"Eagle Pass, Texas\"). Eighteen months later, on 1 October 1914, he transferred to the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\") as a company commander with the [15th Infantry](/wiki/15th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"15th Infantry Regiment (United States)\").The 15th Infantry had its 1st and 3rd Battalions stationed in China and its 2nd Battalion in the Philippines. It seems likely Beck was with the 2nd Battalion since that was routinely an accompanied tour (dependents permitted) and he obtained his lieutenant colonelcy in the new 31st Infantry, which was raised and organized in the Philippines. After the United States entered [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), Beck received temporary promotions to [major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 \"Major (rank)\") and to [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel \"Lieutenant colonel\") on 5 August 1917, the latter with the [31st Infantry](/wiki/31st_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"31st Infantry Regiment (United States)\"). On 28 August 1917 Beck received permanent establishment promotion to major, Infantry.",
"Beck transferred to [Camp Fremont](/wiki/Camp_Fremont \"Camp Fremont\"), California, and on 9 April 1918 became the lieutenant colonel of the [12th Infantry](/wiki/12th_Infantry_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"12th Infantry Regiment (United States)\"), training for combat in Europe as part of the [8th Division](/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"8th Infantry Division (United States)\"). On 5 October 1918 Beck accepted his highest career rank, that of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") (temporary, Infantry), to become [military attaché at the U.S. embassy in Havana, Cuba](/wiki/Cuba%E2%80%93United_States_relations \"Cuba–United States relations\"), 1918–1920\\.*Official Congressional Directory*, p. 382 On 20 April 1920 the temporary commission to colonel was honorably discharged and Beck reverted to his permanent grade of major.",
"Beck's permanent promotion to lieutenant colonel, Infantry, came on 1 July 1920, the effective date of the National Defense Act of 1920 (also known as the Army Reorganization Act), which also made the [Air Service](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Service \"United States Army Air Service\") a [combatant arm of the line](/wiki/Combat_arm \"Combat arm\"), thus enabling him to transfer directly into it. Beck was assigned to Air Service duty on 9 August and took additional pilot training at [Carlstrom Field](/wiki/Arcadia%2C_Florida \"Arcadia, Florida\"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\") between 30 September 1920 and 31 March 1921 to re\\-qualify for his [Airplane Pilot rating](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force_Aeronautical_Ratings%23World_War_I_and_Air_Service_revisions \"U.S. Air Force Aeronautical Ratings#World War I and Air Service revisions\"). He became commandant of the Air Service Observation School and assistant post commander at [Henry Post Field](/wiki/Henry_Post_Army_Airfield \"Henry Post Army Airfield\"), [Fort Sill](/wiki/Fort_Sill \"Fort Sill\"), [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\"), on 11 June 1921, and on 25 November officially transferred in grade to the Air Service, with a date of rank of 1 July 1920, making him fourth in Air Service seniority.Beck was junior only to Billy Mitchell, Col. Chalmers G. Hall, and Col. Theodore A. Baldwin, Jr. Hall was an 1897 graduate of West Point, a cavalryman, and organizer of the four \"motor mechanics\" regiments of the Air Service after being recalled to active duty from a disability retirement in 1917\\. He also commanded the 4th Regiment Air Service Mechanics, as they were finally designated. He obtained an airship rating in 1922\\. Baldwin was an infantry officer who first became a balloonist in 1907 and during World War I commanded the Air Service airfield at [Orly](/wiki/Orly \"Orly\"), France. He received a balloon observer rating in 1921\\. Both found themselves marginalized by the airplane\\-dominated Air Service but did retire as members of the [Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps \"United States Army Air Corps\").",
""
] |
Pioneer aviator
---------------
After completing the Signal Corps School in 1906, Beck was detached on 2 February 1907 for commissioning and service in that branch with assignment to duty at the Benicia Barracks in California. Between 10 and 20 January 1910, he was assigned to observe the [1910 Los Angeles International Air Meet at Dominguez Field](/wiki/1910_Los_Angeles_International_Air_Meet_at_Dominguez_Field "1910 Los Angeles International Air Meet at Dominguez Field") in [California](/wiki/California "California") for the army.{{cite web \| url\= http://csudh.edu/1910airmeet/participants/paulhan.shtml\|title \= Louis Paulhan (1910 Los Angeles International Air Meet at Dominguez Field)\| publisher \= California State University, Dominguez Hills\| access\-date\= 2012\-05\-30}} On January 14, 1911, [Glenn Curtiss](/wiki/Glenn_Curtiss "Glenn Curtiss") made an unsuccessful attempt to take Lt. Beck on a bombing demonstration during this event. The plan was for Beck to drop a bag of ammunition from an altitude of 250 ft into a measured space to show that it was possible to use an airplane to drop bombs into gun pits during a time of war. Engine trouble precluded a successful demonstration that day, however.Paulhan Flies to San Pedro and Back. (January 15, 1911\). *The San Diego Union*, p. 1\. On 19 January he went up in a [Farman III](/wiki/Farman_III "Farman III") biplane flown by renowned French aviator [Louis Paulhan](/wiki/Louis_Paulhan "Louis Paulhan") to drop two\-pound sandbags in a demonstration of the feasibility of aerial bombing. Using an improvised bombsight of Beck's design, they made three drops from {{convert\|250\|ft\|m}} at 40 mph (64 km/h). The drops were highly inaccurate because the bombsight was adjusted for a much higher speed, but the concept was shown to be sound.{{harvnb\|Haulman \| 2003\|p\=5}}{{harvnb\|Hennessy\|1958\|p\=45}}
On 29 November 1910 two [second lieutenants](/wiki/Second_lieutenant "Second lieutenant"), [George E. M. Kelly](/wiki/George_E._M._Kelly "George E. M. Kelly") of the 30th Infantry at the [Presidio of San Francisco](/wiki/Presidio_of_San_Francisco "Presidio of San Francisco") and John C. Walker, Jr. of the 8th Infantry at [Fort Ord](/wiki/Fort_Ord "Fort Ord"), received orders to attend the [Curtiss Flying School](/wiki/Curtiss_Flying_School "Curtiss Flying School") expected to open in January 1911 on [North Island](/wiki/Rockwell_Field "Rockwell Field") at San Diego, to learn to fly and train to become instructors.{{harvnb\|Hennessy\|1958\|p\=86}} At the same time the commanding general of the Western Division assigned Beck to organize and act as secretary for the International Air Meet taking place at Selfridge Field on the grounds of the [Tanforan Racetrack](/wiki/Tanforan_Racetrack "Tanforan Racetrack") in San Francisco, where Kelly and Walker also participated.
Kelly's 30th Infantry provided a battalion to support military applications tested during the meet, building an encampment on the site as a subject for aerial photography, and maneuvering to avoid detection by aerial reconnaissance. On 15 January an officer in the [Coast Artillery Corps](/wiki/Coast_Artillery_Corps "Coast Artillery Corps"), 2nd Lt. Myron S. Crissy, dropped 36 pounds of small bombs of his own design by hand from a [Wright B](/wiki/Wright_B "Wright B") biplane flown by [Philip Parmalee](/wiki/Philip_Parmalee "Philip Parmalee") at an altitude of {{convert\|1,500\|ft\|m}}. Although Beck later claimed to have assisted him by the development of an improved bombsight, Crissy denied any collaboration between them and did not use a bombsight in his test. The same day Walker took photographs from {{convert\|1,200\|ft\|m}} of the encampment from the air, flown by [Walter Brookins](/wiki/Walter_Brookins "Walter Brookins"). On 21 January Beck was given a written message to send by [wireless transmitter](/wiki/Radio "Radio") to a receiver {{convert\|40\|mi\|km}} away, the first military use of aerial telegraphy.The message, composed by AP reporter Guy Moysten, stated: "Scotford is not the only birdman on the committee." (Demers) The next day Kelly and Brookins flew the aerial reconnaissance mission at {{convert\|2,000\|ft\|m}} to find a troop of cavalry and a battery of artillery from the Presidio approaching the 30th Infantry through the San Bruno Hills but were unable to locate them.{{harvnb\|Hennessy\|1958\|p\=47}}
Of his experiment, Beck wrote:
> The set used was a rough, makeshift affair, weighing thirty\-two pounds. It consisted of a small spark\-gap and interrupter, an ordinary telegraph\-key, a small storage cell and a by\-path or shunt to prevent overcharging the cell. All of these were combined in a wooden box which was carried on my lap. For aerial we used one hundred and twenty feet of phosphor\-bronze wire, stranded, dependent from the tail of the aeroplane and connected with the sending apparatus by a number sixteen copper insulated wire. For conductive ground we simply connected the other side of the sending apparatus to one of the stay wires of the aeroplane. It took us about ten minutes to fit the outfit to the aeroplane. The wave\-length measured by the wave\-meter at the receiving station was 575 meters in length. This is rather longer than we had thought it would be.{{cite journal \| last \= Larson\| first \= George C.\| year \= 2011\| title \= Moments and Milestones: Can You Hear Me Now? \| journal \= Air \& Space\| issue \=March\| url \= http://www.airspacemag.com/history\-of\-flight/Moments\-and\-Milestones\-Can\-You\-Hear\-Me\-Now.html\| access\-date \=2012\-06\-03}} Demers, in comments
[right\|thumb\|Curtiss Flying School at North Beach California in 1911](/wiki/image:Curtiss_flying_school_North_Island_1911_NAN12-77.jpg "Curtiss flying school North Island 1911 NAN12-77.jpg")
After the conclusion of the meet Beck also volunteered for pilot training, and was sent with Kelly and Walker to San Diego. Following a public exhibition of stunt flying on 26 and 27 January by instructors [Glenn H. Curtiss](/wiki/Glenn_Curtiss "Glenn Curtiss"), [Hugh A. Robinson](/wiki/Hugh_Robinson_%28aviator%29 "Hugh Robinson (aviator)"), and [Eugene B. Ely](/wiki/Eugene_B._Ely "Eugene B. Ely"), staged on adjacent [Coronado Island](/wiki/Coronado_Island "Coronado Island") by the San Diego Aero Club, the school began its course of instruction on 28 January for the three army officers, Lt. [Theodore G. Ellyson](/wiki/Theodore_G._Ellyson "Theodore G. Ellyson") of the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") and two civilians.Cameron places the date of the opening of the school as 21 January, before the San Diego Air Meet. (p. 35\) Preliminary ground instruction taught the mechanical aspects of airplanes and the theory of aerodynamics before the students learned to control an airplane by the tedious "grass cutting method," using a deliberately underpowered training aircraft nicknamed "Lizzy" made of bamboo, spruce, and cloth.
{{cite journal \| last \= Kurutz\| first \= Gary F.\| year \= 1979\| title \= The Only Safe and Sane Method ... The Curtiss School of Aviation \| journal \= San Diego Historical Society Quarterly\| volume \= 25\| issue \=Winter\| url \= http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/79winter/curtiss.htm\| access\-date \=2012\-05\-31}}Also known as the "short hop method," this system progressively taught candidates to steer, take off, land, and turn without actually flying. Students operated the airplane alone with an instructor shouting directions from nearby. They first learned to "get the feel for the machine" by attempting to steer a straight line. The foot throttle was tied back to permit only limited speed, gradually increased to 15 mph (24 km/hr), and at the end of the runway the student had to stop, get out, turn the plane around by lifting the front end, and return. Once they mastered this, the propellers were changed and the throttle adjusted to permit enough power to take off to a height of 10 feet in a series of short hops. When the student demonstrated an ability to take off and land smoothly, the power was further increased and he learned to make ⅛ and ¼ turns. ({{harvnb\|Hennessy\|1958\|p\=50}}) The students advanced to flying the more powerful eight\-cylinder [Antoinette monoplanes](/wiki/Antoinette_VII "Antoinette VII") and Curtiss biplanes, usually in the hours just after dawn when conditions were calm. The school ended its first course at the beginning of April and the three officers were sent to [Fort Sam Houston](/wiki/Fort_Sam_Houston "Fort Sam Houston"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"), where the "[Maneuver Division](/wiki/Divisions_of_the_United_States_Army%23Maneuver_Division_%281911%29 "Divisions of the United States Army#Maneuver Division (1911)")" had been assembled as a show of force against Mexican revolutionaries, to continue their training.The extent of training they received at San Diego is disputed. Kurutz asserts that they "graduated," but Hennessy states that they were ordered to Texas before they completed training (p. 42\), and that Kelly was killed "on his primary pilot qualification flight." (p. 45\)
In Texas the three joined 1st Lt. [Benjamin D. Foulois](/wiki/Benjamin_D._Foulois "Benjamin D. Foulois"), who like Beck was dual\-commissioned in the Signal Corps, to form a provisional "aero company" created on 5 April 1911 by the chief signal officer of the Maneuver Division in anticipation of training 18 more pilots. Beck was senior to FouloisBeck was senior to Foulois in rank and all other service aspects (commissioned time, Infantry seniority, Signal Corps seniority) except aviation experience. and took command of the company, an action that Foulois resented, having been the army's sole aviator since November 1909\. Foulois had also trained himself to fly on the army's first airplane, the [Wright Military Flyer](/wiki/Wright_Model_A "Wright Model A"), which was also a source of friction and rivalry with the Curtiss pilots.
The Army received two new airplanes at Fort Sam Houston on April 20, a [Curtiss](/wiki/Curtiss_Aircraft "Curtiss Aircraft") 1911 "Type IV military aeroplane" ([Curtiss Model D](/wiki/Curtiss_Model_D "Curtiss Model D")) that became Signal Corps No. 2, and a new Wright Model B designated S.C. No. 3\. The Curtiss machine was powered by an 8\-cylinder, {{convert\|60\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}} engine significantly more powerful than the {{convert\|40\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}} 4\-cylinder training engines that the student pilots were accustomed to. When he learned in San Diego that the Army intended to purchase the more powerful single\-seater as a trainer, Beck protested that its higher takeoff and landing speeds and greater weight made it too dangerous for novice students, but his recommendation for purchase of the four\-cylinder model instead was not taken up until after a fatal accident occurred.{{harvnb\|Cameron\|1999\|pp\=38–39}} After Army acceptance of the aircraft on April 27, two civilian pilots, [Frank Trenholm Coffyn](/wiki/Frank_Trenholm_Coffyn "Frank Trenholm Coffyn") of the Wright Company and [Eugene Ely](/wiki/Eugene_Ely "Eugene Ely") from Curtiss, undertook training the small group of pilot candidates on the Curtiss machine.Pool (1955\), p. 360\.
On 3 May 1911 Beck crashed S.C. No. 2 after its engine failed at 300 feet. Kelly, who had arrived in Texas a week after the others and was behind in his training, took the machine up a week later after its repair and was killed minutes into his qualification flight trying to land. Foulois blamed Beck for improper repairs to the craft, and also questioned his ability to command. However the investigating board, of which both Foulois and Beck were members, ruled that Kelly's death resulted from landing at too high a speed and striking the ground with a wingtip when he attempted a turn.{{cite journal\|last\=Correll \|first\=John T. \|year\=2007 \|title\=The First of the Force \|journal\=Air Force Magazine \|volume\=90 \|issue\=August \|url\=http://www.airforce\-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2007/August%202007/0807first.pdf \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-31 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303022400/http://www.airforce\-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2007/August%202007/0807first.pdf \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2012 }} In any event, the army shut down all aviation training at Fort Sam Houston and sent personnel and airplanes to [College Park, Maryland](/wiki/College_Park%2C_Maryland "College Park, Maryland"), where its first aviation school was about to commence. Beck was ordered there as the instructor on the Curtiss machine on 15 June 1911, but Foulois remained on duty with the Maneuver Division until 11 July, when he was reassigned to the Militia Bureau in Washington D.C.
Until that point the army had not set down any regulations or standards for qualifying as a pilot. In July 1911 it adopted the licensing requirements of the [Fédération Aéronautique Internationale](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_A%C3%A9ronautique_Internationale "Fédération Aéronautique Internationale") (F.A.I.), which Beck met on 3 August, earning FAI Certificate No. 39\. He immediately began training 2nd Lt. Frank M. Kennedy of the 10th Infantry to be an instructor on the Curtiss machine, with Kennedy's solo qualification coming on 23 October.{{harvnb\|Hennessy\|1958\|p\=50}}Kennedy crashlanded S.C. No 2, the single\-seater in which Kelly had been killed, on February 19, 1912\. The airplane flipped onto its top, ejecting Kennedy and breaking his back. He recovered but he was out of aeronautics until 1917, when he returned as a balloonist. After the army published its own pilot qualification standards on 20 April 1912, Beck became the fourth army pilot to be [rated a Military Aviator](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force_Aeronautical_Ratings%23Military_Aviator "U.S. Air Force Aeronautical Ratings#Military Aviator"), on 12 July.Foulois received the fifth rating. Together with 2nd Lt. [Henry H. Arnold](/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold "Henry H. Arnold"), 2nd Lt. [Thomas D. Milling](/wiki/Thomas_D._Milling "Thomas D. Milling"), and Capt. Charles DeForest Chandler they became the first five rated pilots in Air Force history. (Hennessy, p.229\) He also earned the sixth "Expert" certificate awarded by the [American Aero Club](/wiki/American_Aero_Club "American Aero Club").{{harvnb\|Hennessy\|1958\|p\=236}}
On November 28, 1911, the aviation school relocated from College Park to [Augusta, Georgia](/wiki/Augusta%2C_Georgia "Augusta, Georgia"), for the winter; Beck's father died two days before the move and he remained in Washington, D.C. until January. When he rejoined the school, he immediately began training in the Wright machines, with 2nd Lt. [Henry H. "Hap" Arnold](/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold "Henry H. Arnold") as his instructor. He experienced two accidents flying S.C. No. 6, a second Curtiss machine acquired on July 27, 1911\. On February 4, 1912, while taking off from Augusta, [wind shear](/wiki/Wind_shear "Wind shear") drove the airplane into a tree, shearing off the right wings. After the aircraft was repaired, he took it up on March 2 for a test flight and the engine failed at 300 feet, as had happened in Texas the year before. Attempting to glide back into the field, the bottom of the craft struck a treetop but he landed safely.{{harvnb\|Hennessy\|1958\|pp\=57–58}}
During his command of the provisional aero company, Beck came into conflict with superiors in the Signal Corps, which may have been a factor in the Army's decision to invoke the "Manchu Law" on 1 May 1912 and return him to his "arm of service," the Infantry.Apparently when the regulation was applied, the Army ruled that Beck's Signal Corps duty from February 1907 to February 1911 was "detached service" even though he held a Signal Corps commission and had apparently transferred to that branch. Since the subsequent 15 months of duty with aviation between 4 February 1911 and 1 May 1912 were therefore not "with his ... arm of service," he was ruled in violation of the regulation based on its wording of "when at any time ... within the preceding six years." Consequently Beck was "ordered to join \[his] arm of service." However a similar situation with Foulois was handled differently. His commission in the Signal Corps was discharged on 29 April 1912 (two days before the Manchu Law was invoked for Beck), making Infantry once again Foulois' "arm of service" too but he was not "ordered to join said ... arm of service." Foulois remained on detached service with the Militia Bureau for another six months and therefore the Army had officially ruled that Foulois had transferred to the Signal Corps between 1908 and 1912\. Were this not the case, he would also have been ineligible for further detached service for a period of two years after the discharge of his Signal Corps commission. Yet in November 1913 Foulois was detached a second time to the aviation service after just a year of infantry troop duty, re\-confirming that the Army had officially transferred him to the Signal Corps between 1908 and 1912\. This contradictory handling of nearly identical circumstances within the same frame of time suggests that the interpretation of the regulation in Beck's case was for the Army's convenience in squelching him.
|
[
"Pioneer aviator\n---------------",
"After completing the Signal Corps School in 1906, Beck was detached on 2 February 1907 for commissioning and service in that branch with assignment to duty at the Benicia Barracks in California. Between 10 and 20 January 1910, he was assigned to observe the [1910 Los Angeles International Air Meet at Dominguez Field](/wiki/1910_Los_Angeles_International_Air_Meet_at_Dominguez_Field \"1910 Los Angeles International Air Meet at Dominguez Field\") in [California](/wiki/California \"California\") for the army.{{cite web \\| url\\= http://csudh.edu/1910airmeet/participants/paulhan.shtml\\|title \\= Louis Paulhan (1910 Los Angeles International Air Meet at Dominguez Field)\\| publisher \\= California State University, Dominguez Hills\\| access\\-date\\= 2012\\-05\\-30}} On January 14, 1911, [Glenn Curtiss](/wiki/Glenn_Curtiss \"Glenn Curtiss\") made an unsuccessful attempt to take Lt. Beck on a bombing demonstration during this event. The plan was for Beck to drop a bag of ammunition from an altitude of 250 ft into a measured space to show that it was possible to use an airplane to drop bombs into gun pits during a time of war. Engine trouble precluded a successful demonstration that day, however.Paulhan Flies to San Pedro and Back. (January 15, 1911\\). *The San Diego Union*, p. 1\\. On 19 January he went up in a [Farman III](/wiki/Farman_III \"Farman III\") biplane flown by renowned French aviator [Louis Paulhan](/wiki/Louis_Paulhan \"Louis Paulhan\") to drop two\\-pound sandbags in a demonstration of the feasibility of aerial bombing. Using an improvised bombsight of Beck's design, they made three drops from {{convert\\|250\\|ft\\|m}} at 40 mph (64 km/h). The drops were highly inaccurate because the bombsight was adjusted for a much higher speed, but the concept was shown to be sound.{{harvnb\\|Haulman \\| 2003\\|p\\=5}}{{harvnb\\|Hennessy\\|1958\\|p\\=45}}",
"On 29 November 1910 two [second lieutenants](/wiki/Second_lieutenant \"Second lieutenant\"), [George E. M. Kelly](/wiki/George_E._M._Kelly \"George E. M. Kelly\") of the 30th Infantry at the [Presidio of San Francisco](/wiki/Presidio_of_San_Francisco \"Presidio of San Francisco\") and John C. Walker, Jr. of the 8th Infantry at [Fort Ord](/wiki/Fort_Ord \"Fort Ord\"), received orders to attend the [Curtiss Flying School](/wiki/Curtiss_Flying_School \"Curtiss Flying School\") expected to open in January 1911 on [North Island](/wiki/Rockwell_Field \"Rockwell Field\") at San Diego, to learn to fly and train to become instructors.{{harvnb\\|Hennessy\\|1958\\|p\\=86}} At the same time the commanding general of the Western Division assigned Beck to organize and act as secretary for the International Air Meet taking place at Selfridge Field on the grounds of the [Tanforan Racetrack](/wiki/Tanforan_Racetrack \"Tanforan Racetrack\") in San Francisco, where Kelly and Walker also participated.",
"Kelly's 30th Infantry provided a battalion to support military applications tested during the meet, building an encampment on the site as a subject for aerial photography, and maneuvering to avoid detection by aerial reconnaissance. On 15 January an officer in the [Coast Artillery Corps](/wiki/Coast_Artillery_Corps \"Coast Artillery Corps\"), 2nd Lt. Myron S. Crissy, dropped 36 pounds of small bombs of his own design by hand from a [Wright B](/wiki/Wright_B \"Wright B\") biplane flown by [Philip Parmalee](/wiki/Philip_Parmalee \"Philip Parmalee\") at an altitude of {{convert\\|1,500\\|ft\\|m}}. Although Beck later claimed to have assisted him by the development of an improved bombsight, Crissy denied any collaboration between them and did not use a bombsight in his test. The same day Walker took photographs from {{convert\\|1,200\\|ft\\|m}} of the encampment from the air, flown by [Walter Brookins](/wiki/Walter_Brookins \"Walter Brookins\"). On 21 January Beck was given a written message to send by [wireless transmitter](/wiki/Radio \"Radio\") to a receiver {{convert\\|40\\|mi\\|km}} away, the first military use of aerial telegraphy.The message, composed by AP reporter Guy Moysten, stated: \"Scotford is not the only birdman on the committee.\" (Demers) The next day Kelly and Brookins flew the aerial reconnaissance mission at {{convert\\|2,000\\|ft\\|m}} to find a troop of cavalry and a battery of artillery from the Presidio approaching the 30th Infantry through the San Bruno Hills but were unable to locate them.{{harvnb\\|Hennessy\\|1958\\|p\\=47}}",
"Of his experiment, Beck wrote:",
"> The set used was a rough, makeshift affair, weighing thirty\\-two pounds. It consisted of a small spark\\-gap and interrupter, an ordinary telegraph\\-key, a small storage cell and a by\\-path or shunt to prevent overcharging the cell. All of these were combined in a wooden box which was carried on my lap. For aerial we used one hundred and twenty feet of phosphor\\-bronze wire, stranded, dependent from the tail of the aeroplane and connected with the sending apparatus by a number sixteen copper insulated wire. For conductive ground we simply connected the other side of the sending apparatus to one of the stay wires of the aeroplane. It took us about ten minutes to fit the outfit to the aeroplane. The wave\\-length measured by the wave\\-meter at the receiving station was 575 meters in length. This is rather longer than we had thought it would be.{{cite journal \\| last \\= Larson\\| first \\= George C.\\| year \\= 2011\\| title \\= Moments and Milestones: Can You Hear Me Now? \\| journal \\= Air \\& Space\\| issue \\=March\\| url \\= http://www.airspacemag.com/history\\-of\\-flight/Moments\\-and\\-Milestones\\-Can\\-You\\-Hear\\-Me\\-Now.html\\| access\\-date \\=2012\\-06\\-03}} Demers, in comments",
"",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Curtiss Flying School at North Beach California in 1911](/wiki/image:Curtiss_flying_school_North_Island_1911_NAN12-77.jpg \"Curtiss flying school North Island 1911 NAN12-77.jpg\")",
"After the conclusion of the meet Beck also volunteered for pilot training, and was sent with Kelly and Walker to San Diego. Following a public exhibition of stunt flying on 26 and 27 January by instructors [Glenn H. Curtiss](/wiki/Glenn_Curtiss \"Glenn Curtiss\"), [Hugh A. Robinson](/wiki/Hugh_Robinson_%28aviator%29 \"Hugh Robinson (aviator)\"), and [Eugene B. Ely](/wiki/Eugene_B._Ely \"Eugene B. Ely\"), staged on adjacent [Coronado Island](/wiki/Coronado_Island \"Coronado Island\") by the San Diego Aero Club, the school began its course of instruction on 28 January for the three army officers, Lt. [Theodore G. Ellyson](/wiki/Theodore_G._Ellyson \"Theodore G. Ellyson\") of the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") and two civilians.Cameron places the date of the opening of the school as 21 January, before the San Diego Air Meet. (p. 35\\) Preliminary ground instruction taught the mechanical aspects of airplanes and the theory of aerodynamics before the students learned to control an airplane by the tedious \"grass cutting method,\" using a deliberately underpowered training aircraft nicknamed \"Lizzy\" made of bamboo, spruce, and cloth.\n{{cite journal \\| last \\= Kurutz\\| first \\= Gary F.\\| year \\= 1979\\| title \\= The Only Safe and Sane Method ... The Curtiss School of Aviation \\| journal \\= San Diego Historical Society Quarterly\\| volume \\= 25\\| issue \\=Winter\\| url \\= http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/79winter/curtiss.htm\\| access\\-date \\=2012\\-05\\-31}}Also known as the \"short hop method,\" this system progressively taught candidates to steer, take off, land, and turn without actually flying. Students operated the airplane alone with an instructor shouting directions from nearby. They first learned to \"get the feel for the machine\" by attempting to steer a straight line. The foot throttle was tied back to permit only limited speed, gradually increased to 15 mph (24 km/hr), and at the end of the runway the student had to stop, get out, turn the plane around by lifting the front end, and return. Once they mastered this, the propellers were changed and the throttle adjusted to permit enough power to take off to a height of 10 feet in a series of short hops. When the student demonstrated an ability to take off and land smoothly, the power was further increased and he learned to make ⅛ and ¼ turns. ({{harvnb\\|Hennessy\\|1958\\|p\\=50}}) The students advanced to flying the more powerful eight\\-cylinder [Antoinette monoplanes](/wiki/Antoinette_VII \"Antoinette VII\") and Curtiss biplanes, usually in the hours just after dawn when conditions were calm. The school ended its first course at the beginning of April and the three officers were sent to [Fort Sam Houston](/wiki/Fort_Sam_Houston \"Fort Sam Houston\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"), where the \"[Maneuver Division](/wiki/Divisions_of_the_United_States_Army%23Maneuver_Division_%281911%29 \"Divisions of the United States Army#Maneuver Division (1911)\")\" had been assembled as a show of force against Mexican revolutionaries, to continue their training.The extent of training they received at San Diego is disputed. Kurutz asserts that they \"graduated,\" but Hennessy states that they were ordered to Texas before they completed training (p. 42\\), and that Kelly was killed \"on his primary pilot qualification flight.\" (p. 45\\)",
"In Texas the three joined 1st Lt. [Benjamin D. Foulois](/wiki/Benjamin_D._Foulois \"Benjamin D. Foulois\"), who like Beck was dual\\-commissioned in the Signal Corps, to form a provisional \"aero company\" created on 5 April 1911 by the chief signal officer of the Maneuver Division in anticipation of training 18 more pilots. Beck was senior to FouloisBeck was senior to Foulois in rank and all other service aspects (commissioned time, Infantry seniority, Signal Corps seniority) except aviation experience. and took command of the company, an action that Foulois resented, having been the army's sole aviator since November 1909\\. Foulois had also trained himself to fly on the army's first airplane, the [Wright Military Flyer](/wiki/Wright_Model_A \"Wright Model A\"), which was also a source of friction and rivalry with the Curtiss pilots.",
"The Army received two new airplanes at Fort Sam Houston on April 20, a [Curtiss](/wiki/Curtiss_Aircraft \"Curtiss Aircraft\") 1911 \"Type IV military aeroplane\" ([Curtiss Model D](/wiki/Curtiss_Model_D \"Curtiss Model D\")) that became Signal Corps No. 2, and a new Wright Model B designated S.C. No. 3\\. The Curtiss machine was powered by an 8\\-cylinder, {{convert\\|60\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}} engine significantly more powerful than the {{convert\\|40\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}} 4\\-cylinder training engines that the student pilots were accustomed to. When he learned in San Diego that the Army intended to purchase the more powerful single\\-seater as a trainer, Beck protested that its higher takeoff and landing speeds and greater weight made it too dangerous for novice students, but his recommendation for purchase of the four\\-cylinder model instead was not taken up until after a fatal accident occurred.{{harvnb\\|Cameron\\|1999\\|pp\\=38–39}} After Army acceptance of the aircraft on April 27, two civilian pilots, [Frank Trenholm Coffyn](/wiki/Frank_Trenholm_Coffyn \"Frank Trenholm Coffyn\") of the Wright Company and [Eugene Ely](/wiki/Eugene_Ely \"Eugene Ely\") from Curtiss, undertook training the small group of pilot candidates on the Curtiss machine.Pool (1955\\), p. 360\\.",
"On 3 May 1911 Beck crashed S.C. No. 2 after its engine failed at 300 feet. Kelly, who had arrived in Texas a week after the others and was behind in his training, took the machine up a week later after its repair and was killed minutes into his qualification flight trying to land. Foulois blamed Beck for improper repairs to the craft, and also questioned his ability to command. However the investigating board, of which both Foulois and Beck were members, ruled that Kelly's death resulted from landing at too high a speed and striking the ground with a wingtip when he attempted a turn.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Correll \\|first\\=John T. \\|year\\=2007 \\|title\\=The First of the Force \\|journal\\=Air Force Magazine \\|volume\\=90 \\|issue\\=August \\|url\\=http://www.airforce\\-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2007/August%202007/0807first.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-31 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303022400/http://www.airforce\\-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2007/August%202007/0807first.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2012 }} In any event, the army shut down all aviation training at Fort Sam Houston and sent personnel and airplanes to [College Park, Maryland](/wiki/College_Park%2C_Maryland \"College Park, Maryland\"), where its first aviation school was about to commence. Beck was ordered there as the instructor on the Curtiss machine on 15 June 1911, but Foulois remained on duty with the Maneuver Division until 11 July, when he was reassigned to the Militia Bureau in Washington D.C.",
"Until that point the army had not set down any regulations or standards for qualifying as a pilot. In July 1911 it adopted the licensing requirements of the [Fédération Aéronautique Internationale](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_A%C3%A9ronautique_Internationale \"Fédération Aéronautique Internationale\") (F.A.I.), which Beck met on 3 August, earning FAI Certificate No. 39\\. He immediately began training 2nd Lt. Frank M. Kennedy of the 10th Infantry to be an instructor on the Curtiss machine, with Kennedy's solo qualification coming on 23 October.{{harvnb\\|Hennessy\\|1958\\|p\\=50}}Kennedy crashlanded S.C. No 2, the single\\-seater in which Kelly had been killed, on February 19, 1912\\. The airplane flipped onto its top, ejecting Kennedy and breaking his back. He recovered but he was out of aeronautics until 1917, when he returned as a balloonist. After the army published its own pilot qualification standards on 20 April 1912, Beck became the fourth army pilot to be [rated a Military Aviator](/wiki/U.S._Air_Force_Aeronautical_Ratings%23Military_Aviator \"U.S. Air Force Aeronautical Ratings#Military Aviator\"), on 12 July.Foulois received the fifth rating. Together with 2nd Lt. [Henry H. Arnold](/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold \"Henry H. Arnold\"), 2nd Lt. [Thomas D. Milling](/wiki/Thomas_D._Milling \"Thomas D. Milling\"), and Capt. Charles DeForest Chandler they became the first five rated pilots in Air Force history. (Hennessy, p.229\\) He also earned the sixth \"Expert\" certificate awarded by the [American Aero Club](/wiki/American_Aero_Club \"American Aero Club\").{{harvnb\\|Hennessy\\|1958\\|p\\=236}}",
"On November 28, 1911, the aviation school relocated from College Park to [Augusta, Georgia](/wiki/Augusta%2C_Georgia \"Augusta, Georgia\"), for the winter; Beck's father died two days before the move and he remained in Washington, D.C. until January. When he rejoined the school, he immediately began training in the Wright machines, with 2nd Lt. [Henry H. \"Hap\" Arnold](/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold \"Henry H. Arnold\") as his instructor. He experienced two accidents flying S.C. No. 6, a second Curtiss machine acquired on July 27, 1911\\. On February 4, 1912, while taking off from Augusta, [wind shear](/wiki/Wind_shear \"Wind shear\") drove the airplane into a tree, shearing off the right wings. After the aircraft was repaired, he took it up on March 2 for a test flight and the engine failed at 300 feet, as had happened in Texas the year before. Attempting to glide back into the field, the bottom of the craft struck a treetop but he landed safely.{{harvnb\\|Hennessy\\|1958\\|pp\\=57–58}}",
"During his command of the provisional aero company, Beck came into conflict with superiors in the Signal Corps, which may have been a factor in the Army's decision to invoke the \"Manchu Law\" on 1 May 1912 and return him to his \"arm of service,\" the Infantry.Apparently when the regulation was applied, the Army ruled that Beck's Signal Corps duty from February 1907 to February 1911 was \"detached service\" even though he held a Signal Corps commission and had apparently transferred to that branch. Since the subsequent 15 months of duty with aviation between 4 February 1911 and 1 May 1912 were therefore not \"with his ... arm of service,\" he was ruled in violation of the regulation based on its wording of \"when at any time ... within the preceding six years.\" Consequently Beck was \"ordered to join \\[his] arm of service.\" However a similar situation with Foulois was handled differently. His commission in the Signal Corps was discharged on 29 April 1912 (two days before the Manchu Law was invoked for Beck), making Infantry once again Foulois' \"arm of service\" too but he was not \"ordered to join said ... arm of service.\" Foulois remained on detached service with the Militia Bureau for another six months and therefore the Army had officially ruled that Foulois had transferred to the Signal Corps between 1908 and 1912\\. Were this not the case, he would also have been ineligible for further detached service for a period of two years after the discharge of his Signal Corps commission. Yet in November 1913 Foulois was detached a second time to the aviation service after just a year of infantry troop duty, re\\-confirming that the Army had officially transferred him to the Signal Corps between 1908 and 1912\\. This contradictory handling of nearly identical circumstances within the same frame of time suggests that the interpretation of the regulation in Beck's case was for the Army's convenience in squelching him.",
""
] |
Persia
------
### Travel to Persia (1705–1706\)
[thumb\|270px\|Safavid Persia](/wiki/File:The_maximum_extent_of_the_Safavid_Empire_under_Shah_Abbas_I.png "The maximum extent of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas I.png")
Petit and Fabre boarded the ship the *Tridan* in [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon "Toulon"), France, on March 2, 1705\. On their journey, they stopped in [Alexandretta](/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun "İskenderun") and [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo "Aleppo"). In Aleppo, there were creditors that Fabre owed money to but he was unable to pay them. Petit loaned him another two thousand livres.{{Cite book\|last\=Eydoux\|first\=Monsieur\|title\=Mémoire pour servir d'instruction au procès de Demoiselle Marie Petit.\|publisher\=Henri Brebion\|year\=1710\|pages\=490}} They faced more troubles as they tried to leave Aleppo when officials would not allow them to leave. They contacted Fabre’s wife, Anne Cataro in Constantinople, to obtain transit permission from the French ambassador there, [Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol "Charles de Ferriol"). Fabre and Petit eventually traveled to [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"), where they stayed for more than a month.
Finally, in June 1706, after traveling in disguise as merchants, they arrived in [Yerevan](/wiki/Yerevan "Yerevan") in what was then Persia. Suddenly, on August 16, 1706, just a few months after their arrival, Fabre died, likely from poisoning while on a hunting trip.{{Cite web\|title\=Chronology \- Marie Petit Extraordinary Ambassador\|url\=https://mariepetit.weebly.com/chronology.html\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-14\|website\=mariepetit.weebly.com}}
### Ambassadress (1706–1709\)
[thumb\|Shah [Sultan Husayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn "Sultan Husayn")](/wiki/File:Sultan_Husayn_by_Bruyn.jpg "Sultan Husayn by Bruyn.jpg")
When Fabre died, Petit took over the diplomatic tasks in the region. She met with the [Khan of Yerevan](/wiki/Erivan_Province_%28Safavid_Empire%29 "Erivan Province (Safavid Empire)"), the provincial governor of the region, to negotiate for her funds from Fabre to be returned to her, since Fabre's possessions were under the control of the [khan](/wiki/Khan_%28title%29 "Khan (title)") after his death Petit declared herself the French ambassadress as “a representative of the princesses of France.” Over the next three years she engaged in a variety of diplomatic endeavors and was welcomed warmly by Persian officials.
While in Yerevan, Petit pleaded on behalf of a condemned Jesuit who was sentenced to death, even offering to die by his side, so the khan released him. When the [Shah Soltan Hosayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn "Sultan Husayn"), the ruler of all of Persia, heard of this he requested an audience with Petit and she went to [Qazvin](/wiki/Qazvin "Qazvin") to meet with him in December 1706\. According to Petit, the shah viewed Petit’s diplomatic actions in place of Fabre as legitimate, welcomed her warmly, and considered her instrumental to the diplomatic mission.
[thumb\|[Vakhtang VI of Kartli](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli "Vakhtang VI of Kartli")](/wiki/File:Vakhtang_VI_%28miniature%2C_1700s%29.jpg "Vakhtang VI (miniature, 1700s).jpg")
After meeting with the shah, she arrived at the court of [Vakhtang VI](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli "Vakhtang VI of Kartli"), governor/king of [Kartli](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli "Kingdom of Kartli") in [Safavid Georgia](/wiki/Safavid_Georgia "Safavid Georgia"), in July 1707, and she was welcomed and stayed several months. The regent wrote to [King Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV"), describing Petit positively and affirming her Catholic faith and diplomacy skills. According to contemporary critics, Persia and Georgia provided the environment for Petit to perform diplomatic actions while being respected by the local governments.
When other French diplomats and missionaries heard of Petit’s actions they were angry. They accused Petit of being a prostitute or Fabre’s concubine, and claimed that she was only welcomed by the [Safavid](/wiki/Safavid_Iran "Safavid Iran") government through seduction.
Petit’s opponents accused her of many things and made unfounded claims. They labeled her as a prostitute, concubine, seductress, renegade, whore, murderer, thief, and traitor. Rumors spread about her diplomatic actions in Persia and Georgia, suggesting that she could only have had influence there through seduction. Many sources describe her experiences from the perspective of her opponents and portray her in a negative light. She was frequently accused of being not only the mistress of Fabre but also of Shah [Soltan Hosayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn "Sultan Husayn"), the khan of Yerevan, and [Vakhtang VI](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli "Vakhtang VI of Kartli").
Christian missionaries in Persia openly disapproved of her and worried about the reputation of Catholics in Persia, accusing her of sexual misconduct. Due to her association with her [dragoman](/wiki/Dragoman "Dragoman") Imām Qoli Beg, who opposed the Christian missionaries in the area, Petit was also seen as abandoning her Catholic faith.{{Cite book\|last\=Gulbenkian\|first\=Robert “Philippe de Zagly‚ Marchand Arménien de Julfa et l’établissement du commerce Persan en Courlande en 1696\.”\|title\=In Revue des études arméniennes 7\.\|publisher\=(1970\): 361–399\.}} [thumb\|[Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol "Charles de Ferriol") (1652–1722\) between 1703 and 1711\|357x357pxHer](/wiki/File:Charles_de_Ferriol_1699.jpg "Charles de Ferriol 1699.jpg") two major opponents in the political realm were [Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol "Charles de Ferriol"), the ambassador to France in Constantinople, and his secretary Pierre Victor Michel. When they first heard of Fabre’s death, Ferriol sent Michel to Persia to become the ambassador there, though Louis XIV had not appointed him at that time. Ferriol claimed that he sent Michel to bring legitimacy back to the diplomatic mission. The two men accused Petit of creating scandal in Persia and committing illicit sexual crimes. They also accused Petit of assassinating Fabre. Ferriol described her as, "a roaring lion who ravaged, the middle of Asia, the Catholic religion and the honor of the nation." Some scholars have suggested that there may have already been previous tension between Fabre and Ferriol, due to their connection in Constantinople, which may have increased Ferriol’s dislike of Petit.
Michel eventually found Petit after months of searching for her and she said that he tried to rape and kill her when he found her in [Tabriz](/wiki/Tabriz "Tabriz"). Michel was able to take Petit's place, claiming that he was saving the diplomatic mission from threats to Catholicism and recovering France's reputation in Persia, which he believed had been tainted by Petit. He argued that all of the disorders and scandals in the diplomatic mission were caused by her. However, while Petit was granted an audience with the shah after having only recently arrived in Persia, it took Michel another two years before he was granted an audience.
Michel sent Petit back to France. On her way home, Petit traveled to Constantinople, where she had to stay for several months with Ferriol while dealing with health issues such as kidney stones and tuberculosis before boarding a ship, *L’Entreprenant*, back to France.
|
[
"Persia\n------",
"### Travel to Persia (1705–1706\\)",
"[thumb\\|270px\\|Safavid Persia](/wiki/File:The_maximum_extent_of_the_Safavid_Empire_under_Shah_Abbas_I.png \"The maximum extent of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas I.png\")\nPetit and Fabre boarded the ship the *Tridan* in [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon \"Toulon\"), France, on March 2, 1705\\. On their journey, they stopped in [Alexandretta](/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun \"İskenderun\") and [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo \"Aleppo\"). In Aleppo, there were creditors that Fabre owed money to but he was unable to pay them. Petit loaned him another two thousand livres.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Eydoux\\|first\\=Monsieur\\|title\\=Mémoire pour servir d'instruction au procès de Demoiselle Marie Petit.\\|publisher\\=Henri Brebion\\|year\\=1710\\|pages\\=490}} They faced more troubles as they tried to leave Aleppo when officials would not allow them to leave. They contacted Fabre’s wife, Anne Cataro in Constantinople, to obtain transit permission from the French ambassador there, [Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol \"Charles de Ferriol\"). Fabre and Petit eventually traveled to [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"), where they stayed for more than a month.",
"Finally, in June 1706, after traveling in disguise as merchants, they arrived in [Yerevan](/wiki/Yerevan \"Yerevan\") in what was then Persia. Suddenly, on August 16, 1706, just a few months after their arrival, Fabre died, likely from poisoning while on a hunting trip.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Chronology \\- Marie Petit Extraordinary Ambassador\\|url\\=https://mariepetit.weebly.com/chronology.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-14\\|website\\=mariepetit.weebly.com}}",
"### Ambassadress (1706–1709\\)",
"[thumb\\|Shah [Sultan Husayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn \"Sultan Husayn\")](/wiki/File:Sultan_Husayn_by_Bruyn.jpg \"Sultan Husayn by Bruyn.jpg\")\nWhen Fabre died, Petit took over the diplomatic tasks in the region. She met with the [Khan of Yerevan](/wiki/Erivan_Province_%28Safavid_Empire%29 \"Erivan Province (Safavid Empire)\"), the provincial governor of the region, to negotiate for her funds from Fabre to be returned to her, since Fabre's possessions were under the control of the [khan](/wiki/Khan_%28title%29 \"Khan (title)\") after his death Petit declared herself the French ambassadress as “a representative of the princesses of France.” Over the next three years she engaged in a variety of diplomatic endeavors and was welcomed warmly by Persian officials.",
"While in Yerevan, Petit pleaded on behalf of a condemned Jesuit who was sentenced to death, even offering to die by his side, so the khan released him. When the [Shah Soltan Hosayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn \"Sultan Husayn\"), the ruler of all of Persia, heard of this he requested an audience with Petit and she went to [Qazvin](/wiki/Qazvin \"Qazvin\") to meet with him in December 1706\\. According to Petit, the shah viewed Petit’s diplomatic actions in place of Fabre as legitimate, welcomed her warmly, and considered her instrumental to the diplomatic mission.\n[thumb\\|[Vakhtang VI of Kartli](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli \"Vakhtang VI of Kartli\")](/wiki/File:Vakhtang_VI_%28miniature%2C_1700s%29.jpg \"Vakhtang VI (miniature, 1700s).jpg\")\nAfter meeting with the shah, she arrived at the court of [Vakhtang VI](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli \"Vakhtang VI of Kartli\"), governor/king of [Kartli](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli \"Kingdom of Kartli\") in [Safavid Georgia](/wiki/Safavid_Georgia \"Safavid Georgia\"), in July 1707, and she was welcomed and stayed several months. The regent wrote to [King Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\"), describing Petit positively and affirming her Catholic faith and diplomacy skills. According to contemporary critics, Persia and Georgia provided the environment for Petit to perform diplomatic actions while being respected by the local governments.",
"When other French diplomats and missionaries heard of Petit’s actions they were angry. They accused Petit of being a prostitute or Fabre’s concubine, and claimed that she was only welcomed by the [Safavid](/wiki/Safavid_Iran \"Safavid Iran\") government through seduction.",
"Petit’s opponents accused her of many things and made unfounded claims. They labeled her as a prostitute, concubine, seductress, renegade, whore, murderer, thief, and traitor. Rumors spread about her diplomatic actions in Persia and Georgia, suggesting that she could only have had influence there through seduction. Many sources describe her experiences from the perspective of her opponents and portray her in a negative light. She was frequently accused of being not only the mistress of Fabre but also of Shah [Soltan Hosayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn \"Sultan Husayn\"), the khan of Yerevan, and [Vakhtang VI](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli \"Vakhtang VI of Kartli\").",
"Christian missionaries in Persia openly disapproved of her and worried about the reputation of Catholics in Persia, accusing her of sexual misconduct. Due to her association with her [dragoman](/wiki/Dragoman \"Dragoman\") Imām Qoli Beg, who opposed the Christian missionaries in the area, Petit was also seen as abandoning her Catholic faith.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Gulbenkian\\|first\\=Robert “Philippe de Zagly‚ Marchand Arménien de Julfa et l’établissement du commerce Persan en Courlande en 1696\\.”\\|title\\=In Revue des études arméniennes 7\\.\\|publisher\\=(1970\\): 361–399\\.}} [thumb\\|[Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol \"Charles de Ferriol\") (1652–1722\\) between 1703 and 1711\\|357x357pxHer](/wiki/File:Charles_de_Ferriol_1699.jpg \"Charles de Ferriol 1699.jpg\") two major opponents in the political realm were [Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol \"Charles de Ferriol\"), the ambassador to France in Constantinople, and his secretary Pierre Victor Michel. When they first heard of Fabre’s death, Ferriol sent Michel to Persia to become the ambassador there, though Louis XIV had not appointed him at that time. Ferriol claimed that he sent Michel to bring legitimacy back to the diplomatic mission. The two men accused Petit of creating scandal in Persia and committing illicit sexual crimes. They also accused Petit of assassinating Fabre. Ferriol described her as, \"a roaring lion who ravaged, the middle of Asia, the Catholic religion and the honor of the nation.\" Some scholars have suggested that there may have already been previous tension between Fabre and Ferriol, due to their connection in Constantinople, which may have increased Ferriol’s dislike of Petit.",
"Michel eventually found Petit after months of searching for her and she said that he tried to rape and kill her when he found her in [Tabriz](/wiki/Tabriz \"Tabriz\"). Michel was able to take Petit's place, claiming that he was saving the diplomatic mission from threats to Catholicism and recovering France's reputation in Persia, which he believed had been tainted by Petit. He argued that all of the disorders and scandals in the diplomatic mission were caused by her. However, while Petit was granted an audience with the shah after having only recently arrived in Persia, it took Michel another two years before he was granted an audience.",
"Michel sent Petit back to France. On her way home, Petit traveled to Constantinople, where she had to stay for several months with Ferriol while dealing with health issues such as kidney stones and tuberculosis before boarding a ship, *L’Entreprenant*, back to France.",
""
] |
### Ambassadress (1706–1709\)
[thumb\|Shah [Sultan Husayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn "Sultan Husayn")](/wiki/File:Sultan_Husayn_by_Bruyn.jpg "Sultan Husayn by Bruyn.jpg")
When Fabre died, Petit took over the diplomatic tasks in the region. She met with the [Khan of Yerevan](/wiki/Erivan_Province_%28Safavid_Empire%29 "Erivan Province (Safavid Empire)"), the provincial governor of the region, to negotiate for her funds from Fabre to be returned to her, since Fabre's possessions were under the control of the [khan](/wiki/Khan_%28title%29 "Khan (title)") after his death Petit declared herself the French ambassadress as “a representative of the princesses of France.” Over the next three years she engaged in a variety of diplomatic endeavors and was welcomed warmly by Persian officials.
While in Yerevan, Petit pleaded on behalf of a condemned Jesuit who was sentenced to death, even offering to die by his side, so the khan released him. When the [Shah Soltan Hosayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn "Sultan Husayn"), the ruler of all of Persia, heard of this he requested an audience with Petit and she went to [Qazvin](/wiki/Qazvin "Qazvin") to meet with him in December 1706\. According to Petit, the shah viewed Petit’s diplomatic actions in place of Fabre as legitimate, welcomed her warmly, and considered her instrumental to the diplomatic mission.
[thumb\|[Vakhtang VI of Kartli](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli "Vakhtang VI of Kartli")](/wiki/File:Vakhtang_VI_%28miniature%2C_1700s%29.jpg "Vakhtang VI (miniature, 1700s).jpg")
After meeting with the shah, she arrived at the court of [Vakhtang VI](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli "Vakhtang VI of Kartli"), governor/king of [Kartli](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli "Kingdom of Kartli") in [Safavid Georgia](/wiki/Safavid_Georgia "Safavid Georgia"), in July 1707, and she was welcomed and stayed several months. The regent wrote to [King Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV"), describing Petit positively and affirming her Catholic faith and diplomacy skills. According to contemporary critics, Persia and Georgia provided the environment for Petit to perform diplomatic actions while being respected by the local governments.
When other French diplomats and missionaries heard of Petit’s actions they were angry. They accused Petit of being a prostitute or Fabre’s concubine, and claimed that she was only welcomed by the [Safavid](/wiki/Safavid_Iran "Safavid Iran") government through seduction.
Petit’s opponents accused her of many things and made unfounded claims. They labeled her as a prostitute, concubine, seductress, renegade, whore, murderer, thief, and traitor. Rumors spread about her diplomatic actions in Persia and Georgia, suggesting that she could only have had influence there through seduction. Many sources describe her experiences from the perspective of her opponents and portray her in a negative light. She was frequently accused of being not only the mistress of Fabre but also of Shah [Soltan Hosayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn "Sultan Husayn"), the khan of Yerevan, and [Vakhtang VI](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli "Vakhtang VI of Kartli").
Christian missionaries in Persia openly disapproved of her and worried about the reputation of Catholics in Persia, accusing her of sexual misconduct. Due to her association with her [dragoman](/wiki/Dragoman "Dragoman") Imām Qoli Beg, who opposed the Christian missionaries in the area, Petit was also seen as abandoning her Catholic faith.{{Cite book\|last\=Gulbenkian\|first\=Robert “Philippe de Zagly‚ Marchand Arménien de Julfa et l’établissement du commerce Persan en Courlande en 1696\.”\|title\=In Revue des études arméniennes 7\.\|publisher\=(1970\): 361–399\.}} [thumb\|[Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol "Charles de Ferriol") (1652–1722\) between 1703 and 1711\|357x357pxHer](/wiki/File:Charles_de_Ferriol_1699.jpg "Charles de Ferriol 1699.jpg") two major opponents in the political realm were [Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol "Charles de Ferriol"), the ambassador to France in Constantinople, and his secretary Pierre Victor Michel. When they first heard of Fabre’s death, Ferriol sent Michel to Persia to become the ambassador there, though Louis XIV had not appointed him at that time. Ferriol claimed that he sent Michel to bring legitimacy back to the diplomatic mission. The two men accused Petit of creating scandal in Persia and committing illicit sexual crimes. They also accused Petit of assassinating Fabre. Ferriol described her as, "a roaring lion who ravaged, the middle of Asia, the Catholic religion and the honor of the nation." Some scholars have suggested that there may have already been previous tension between Fabre and Ferriol, due to their connection in Constantinople, which may have increased Ferriol’s dislike of Petit.
Michel eventually found Petit after months of searching for her and she said that he tried to rape and kill her when he found her in [Tabriz](/wiki/Tabriz "Tabriz"). Michel was able to take Petit's place, claiming that he was saving the diplomatic mission from threats to Catholicism and recovering France's reputation in Persia, which he believed had been tainted by Petit. He argued that all of the disorders and scandals in the diplomatic mission were caused by her. However, while Petit was granted an audience with the shah after having only recently arrived in Persia, it took Michel another two years before he was granted an audience.
Michel sent Petit back to France. On her way home, Petit traveled to Constantinople, where she had to stay for several months with Ferriol while dealing with health issues such as kidney stones and tuberculosis before boarding a ship, *L’Entreprenant*, back to France.
|
[
"### Ambassadress (1706–1709\\)",
"[thumb\\|Shah [Sultan Husayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn \"Sultan Husayn\")](/wiki/File:Sultan_Husayn_by_Bruyn.jpg \"Sultan Husayn by Bruyn.jpg\")\nWhen Fabre died, Petit took over the diplomatic tasks in the region. She met with the [Khan of Yerevan](/wiki/Erivan_Province_%28Safavid_Empire%29 \"Erivan Province (Safavid Empire)\"), the provincial governor of the region, to negotiate for her funds from Fabre to be returned to her, since Fabre's possessions were under the control of the [khan](/wiki/Khan_%28title%29 \"Khan (title)\") after his death Petit declared herself the French ambassadress as “a representative of the princesses of France.” Over the next three years she engaged in a variety of diplomatic endeavors and was welcomed warmly by Persian officials.",
"While in Yerevan, Petit pleaded on behalf of a condemned Jesuit who was sentenced to death, even offering to die by his side, so the khan released him. When the [Shah Soltan Hosayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn \"Sultan Husayn\"), the ruler of all of Persia, heard of this he requested an audience with Petit and she went to [Qazvin](/wiki/Qazvin \"Qazvin\") to meet with him in December 1706\\. According to Petit, the shah viewed Petit’s diplomatic actions in place of Fabre as legitimate, welcomed her warmly, and considered her instrumental to the diplomatic mission.\n[thumb\\|[Vakhtang VI of Kartli](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli \"Vakhtang VI of Kartli\")](/wiki/File:Vakhtang_VI_%28miniature%2C_1700s%29.jpg \"Vakhtang VI (miniature, 1700s).jpg\")\nAfter meeting with the shah, she arrived at the court of [Vakhtang VI](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli \"Vakhtang VI of Kartli\"), governor/king of [Kartli](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli \"Kingdom of Kartli\") in [Safavid Georgia](/wiki/Safavid_Georgia \"Safavid Georgia\"), in July 1707, and she was welcomed and stayed several months. The regent wrote to [King Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\"), describing Petit positively and affirming her Catholic faith and diplomacy skills. According to contemporary critics, Persia and Georgia provided the environment for Petit to perform diplomatic actions while being respected by the local governments.",
"When other French diplomats and missionaries heard of Petit’s actions they were angry. They accused Petit of being a prostitute or Fabre’s concubine, and claimed that she was only welcomed by the [Safavid](/wiki/Safavid_Iran \"Safavid Iran\") government through seduction.",
"Petit’s opponents accused her of many things and made unfounded claims. They labeled her as a prostitute, concubine, seductress, renegade, whore, murderer, thief, and traitor. Rumors spread about her diplomatic actions in Persia and Georgia, suggesting that she could only have had influence there through seduction. Many sources describe her experiences from the perspective of her opponents and portray her in a negative light. She was frequently accused of being not only the mistress of Fabre but also of Shah [Soltan Hosayn](/wiki/Sultan_Husayn \"Sultan Husayn\"), the khan of Yerevan, and [Vakhtang VI](/wiki/Vakhtang_VI_of_Kartli \"Vakhtang VI of Kartli\").",
"Christian missionaries in Persia openly disapproved of her and worried about the reputation of Catholics in Persia, accusing her of sexual misconduct. Due to her association with her [dragoman](/wiki/Dragoman \"Dragoman\") Imām Qoli Beg, who opposed the Christian missionaries in the area, Petit was also seen as abandoning her Catholic faith.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Gulbenkian\\|first\\=Robert “Philippe de Zagly‚ Marchand Arménien de Julfa et l’établissement du commerce Persan en Courlande en 1696\\.”\\|title\\=In Revue des études arméniennes 7\\.\\|publisher\\=(1970\\): 361–399\\.}} [thumb\\|[Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol \"Charles de Ferriol\") (1652–1722\\) between 1703 and 1711\\|357x357pxHer](/wiki/File:Charles_de_Ferriol_1699.jpg \"Charles de Ferriol 1699.jpg\") two major opponents in the political realm were [Charles de Ferriol](/wiki/Charles_de_Ferriol \"Charles de Ferriol\"), the ambassador to France in Constantinople, and his secretary Pierre Victor Michel. When they first heard of Fabre’s death, Ferriol sent Michel to Persia to become the ambassador there, though Louis XIV had not appointed him at that time. Ferriol claimed that he sent Michel to bring legitimacy back to the diplomatic mission. The two men accused Petit of creating scandal in Persia and committing illicit sexual crimes. They also accused Petit of assassinating Fabre. Ferriol described her as, \"a roaring lion who ravaged, the middle of Asia, the Catholic religion and the honor of the nation.\" Some scholars have suggested that there may have already been previous tension between Fabre and Ferriol, due to their connection in Constantinople, which may have increased Ferriol’s dislike of Petit.",
"Michel eventually found Petit after months of searching for her and she said that he tried to rape and kill her when he found her in [Tabriz](/wiki/Tabriz \"Tabriz\"). Michel was able to take Petit's place, claiming that he was saving the diplomatic mission from threats to Catholicism and recovering France's reputation in Persia, which he believed had been tainted by Petit. He argued that all of the disorders and scandals in the diplomatic mission were caused by her. However, while Petit was granted an audience with the shah after having only recently arrived in Persia, it took Michel another two years before he was granted an audience.",
"Michel sent Petit back to France. On her way home, Petit traveled to Constantinople, where she had to stay for several months with Ferriol while dealing with health issues such as kidney stones and tuberculosis before boarding a ship, *L’Entreprenant*, back to France.",
""
] |
Imprisonment (1709–1713\)
-------------------------
After returning to France, Petit was served with a royal arrest warrant and taken to the Maison de Refuge in Marseille, a prison for women, particularly prostitutes, where she stayed from 1709–1713\. She was about 35 years old when she arrived. She was accused of poisoning Fabre, abandoning the Catholic faith, prostitution, and attempting to assassinate Michel. Petit fought these accusations through several trials and lawsuits, claiming that all of these accusations were baseless and made by Michel and Ferriol in an attempt to taint her reputation. In her trials, she showed letters from Vakhtang VI in her support and received letters on her behalf from Fabre’s widow, Anne Cataro.
Petit's lawyer argued that Petit was qualified as an ambassadress. He argued that her attempts to save the Frenchman who was sentenced to death reflected her skills as a negotiator. Petit herself wrote to Louis XIV to defend her reputation. She launched a countersuit against Michel for the debt she was owed from Fabre. She also accused Michel of attempting to murder and rape her on multiple occasions while they were still in Persia. She questioned the witnesses used in the trial, since many, she argued, were in Michel's pay. Throughout her trial she asked for justice, rather than a pardon.
Petit frequently wrote to [Louis de Pontchartain](/wiki/Louis_Ph%C3%A9lypeaux%2C_comte_de_Pontchartrain "Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain"), the French chancellor who had signed the warrant for her arrest, in an attempt to keep her case and situation fresh in his mind. She described herself as 'l'héroine de Perse' or the heroine of Persia, arguing wrongful imprisonment.
Petit dealt with harsh conditions in prison. The Refuge was overcrowded and food was in short supply.{{Cite journal\|last\=Cattelona\|first\=Georg'ann\|date\=1993\|title\=Control and Collaboration: The Role of Women in Regulating Female Sexual Behavior in Early Modern Marseille\|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/286949\|journal\=French Historical Studies\|volume\=18\|issue\=1\|pages\=13–33\|doi\=10\.2307/286949\|jstor\=286949}} Petit experienced health problems such as kidney stones while imprisoned. She may have also started a prison riot in 1709 when she demanded that the gatekeeper hand over the keys to her, and the police were called. She jumped on one officer, saying that she did not recognize his authority. She encouraged her fellow prisoners to join her and it was soon a full riot.
She was imprisoned for three years before she received a verdict of an additional year in prison. She was released in 1713\.
|
[
"Imprisonment (1709–1713\\)\n-------------------------",
"After returning to France, Petit was served with a royal arrest warrant and taken to the Maison de Refuge in Marseille, a prison for women, particularly prostitutes, where she stayed from 1709–1713\\. She was about 35 years old when she arrived. She was accused of poisoning Fabre, abandoning the Catholic faith, prostitution, and attempting to assassinate Michel. Petit fought these accusations through several trials and lawsuits, claiming that all of these accusations were baseless and made by Michel and Ferriol in an attempt to taint her reputation. In her trials, she showed letters from Vakhtang VI in her support and received letters on her behalf from Fabre’s widow, Anne Cataro.",
"Petit's lawyer argued that Petit was qualified as an ambassadress. He argued that her attempts to save the Frenchman who was sentenced to death reflected her skills as a negotiator. Petit herself wrote to Louis XIV to defend her reputation. She launched a countersuit against Michel for the debt she was owed from Fabre. She also accused Michel of attempting to murder and rape her on multiple occasions while they were still in Persia. She questioned the witnesses used in the trial, since many, she argued, were in Michel's pay. Throughout her trial she asked for justice, rather than a pardon.",
"Petit frequently wrote to [Louis de Pontchartain](/wiki/Louis_Ph%C3%A9lypeaux%2C_comte_de_Pontchartrain \"Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain\"), the French chancellor who had signed the warrant for her arrest, in an attempt to keep her case and situation fresh in his mind. She described herself as 'l'héroine de Perse' or the heroine of Persia, arguing wrongful imprisonment.",
"Petit dealt with harsh conditions in prison. The Refuge was overcrowded and food was in short supply.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Cattelona\\|first\\=Georg'ann\\|date\\=1993\\|title\\=Control and Collaboration: The Role of Women in Regulating Female Sexual Behavior in Early Modern Marseille\\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/286949\\|journal\\=French Historical Studies\\|volume\\=18\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=13–33\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/286949\\|jstor\\=286949}} Petit experienced health problems such as kidney stones while imprisoned. She may have also started a prison riot in 1709 when she demanded that the gatekeeper hand over the keys to her, and the police were called. She jumped on one officer, saying that she did not recognize his authority. She encouraged her fellow prisoners to join her and it was soon a full riot.",
"She was imprisoned for three years before she received a verdict of an additional year in prison. She was released in 1713\\.",
""
] |
Geography
---------
According to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau "U.S. Census Bureau"), the county has a total area of {{convert\|723\|sqmi}}, of which {{convert\|702\|sqmi}} is land and {{convert\|22\|sqmi}} (3\.0%) is water.{{Cite web \|date\=August 22, 2012 \|title\=2010 Census Gazetteer Files \|url\=https://www.census.gov/geo/maps\-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties\_list\_26\.txt \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113024015/http://www.census.gov/geo/maps\-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties\_list\_26\.txt \|archive\-date\=November 13, 2013 \|access\-date\=September 25, 2014 \|publisher\=United States Census Bureau}}
### Rivers
#### Grand River
The [Grand River](/wiki/Grand_River_%28Michigan%29 "Grand River (Michigan)") is Michigan's longest river. It starts in [Somerset Township](/wiki/Somerset_Township%2C_Hillsdale_County%2C_Michigan "Somerset Township, Hillsdale County, Michigan") in [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County "Hillsdale County") and [Liberty Township](/wiki/Liberty_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Liberty Township, Jackson County, Michigan") in Jackson County. It then flows through a small part of [Columbia Township](/wiki/Columbia_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Columbia Township, Jackson County, Michigan"), into [Summit township](/wiki/Summit_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Summit Township, Jackson County, Michigan"), and then right through the Jackson city limits. It then flows through [Blackman Charter Township](/wiki/Blackman_Charter_Township%2C_Michigan "Blackman Charter Township, Michigan") and then [Rives Township](/wiki/Rives_Township "Rives Township") and [Tompkins Township](/wiki/Tompkins_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Tompkins Township, Jackson County, Michigan") before entering [Ingham County](/wiki/Ingham_County "Ingham County"), [Eaton County](/wiki/Eaton_County "Eaton County"), [Clinton County](/wiki/Clinton_County%2C_Michigan "Clinton County, Michigan"), [Ionia County](/wiki/Ionia_County "Ionia County"), [Kent County](/wiki/Kent_County%2C_Michigan "Kent County, Michigan"), [Ottawa County](/wiki/Ottawa_County%2C_Michigan "Ottawa County, Michigan") and into the city of [Grand Haven](/wiki/Grand_Haven "Grand Haven") where it empties into [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan"). The river is {{convert\|260\|mi\|km}} long; its watershed drains an area of {{convert\|5572\|mi\|km}} including 18 counties and 158 townships.
#### Kalamazoo River
The [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River "Kalamazoo River") is made up of the north and south branches.
The north branch starts in Jackson County in [Hanover Township](/wiki/Hanover_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Hanover Township, Jackson County, Michigan"). It starts in Pine Hills Lake and Farewell Lake and flows through a small part of [Liberty Township](/wiki/Liberty_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Liberty Township, Jackson County, Michigan") and then back into Hanover Township. It then flows into [Spring Arbor Township](/wiki/Spring_Arbor_Township "Spring Arbor Township") and [Concord Township](/wiki/Concord_Township%2C_Michigan "Concord Township, Michigan"). It then flows out of Jackson County and into [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan "Calhoun County, Michigan") before it goes through the town of [Albion](/wiki/Albion%2C_Michigan "Albion, Michigan") where the north branch connects with the south branch and they form to be one river.
The south branch starts in the wetlands near the town [North Adams](/wiki/North_Adams%2C_Michigan "North Adams, Michigan") in [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County "Hillsdale County") and flows through the rest of Hillsdale County. It enters Jackson County and goes through a small part of Hanover Township before reentering Hillsdale County and then reentering Jackson County where it goes through Pulaski Township. It then enters Calhoun County and connects with the northern branch when it reaches the town of [Albion](/wiki/Albion "Albion").
When the south branch and north branch connect to form just the [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River "Kalamazoo River"), it then flows through the rest of [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan "Calhoun County, Michigan"). It then enters [Kalamazoo County](/wiki/Kalamazoo_County "Kalamazoo County") and then [Allegan County](/wiki/Allegan_County "Allegan County"). When it reaches the towns of [Saugatuck](/wiki/Saugatuck%2C_Michigan "Saugatuck, Michigan") and [Douglas](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Michigan "Douglas, Michigan") it stops and enters [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan"). In total the [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River "Kalamazoo River") is {{convert\|166\|mi\|km}} long, and its watershed drains a total of {{convert\|2020\|mi\|km}} and drains into eight counties.
### Adjacent counties
* [Livingston County](/wiki/Livingston_County%2C_Michigan "Livingston County, Michigan") (northeast)
* [Ingham County](/wiki/Ingham_County%2C_Michigan "Ingham County, Michigan") (north)
* [Eaton County](/wiki/Eaton_County%2C_Michigan "Eaton County, Michigan") (northwest)
* [Washtenaw County](/wiki/Washtenaw_County%2C_Michigan "Washtenaw County, Michigan") (east)
* [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan "Calhoun County, Michigan") (west)
* [Lenawee County](/wiki/Lenawee_County%2C_Michigan "Lenawee County, Michigan") (southeast)
* [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County%2C_Michigan "Hillsdale County, Michigan") (southwest)
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"According to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau \"U.S. Census Bureau\"), the county has a total area of {{convert\\|723\\|sqmi}}, of which {{convert\\|702\\|sqmi}} is land and {{convert\\|22\\|sqmi}} (3\\.0%) is water.{{Cite web \\|date\\=August 22, 2012 \\|title\\=2010 Census Gazetteer Files \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/geo/maps\\-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties\\_list\\_26\\.txt \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113024015/http://www.census.gov/geo/maps\\-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties\\_list\\_26\\.txt \\|archive\\-date\\=November 13, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2014 \\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau}}",
"### Rivers",
"#### Grand River",
"The [Grand River](/wiki/Grand_River_%28Michigan%29 \"Grand River (Michigan)\") is Michigan's longest river. It starts in [Somerset Township](/wiki/Somerset_Township%2C_Hillsdale_County%2C_Michigan \"Somerset Township, Hillsdale County, Michigan\") in [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County \"Hillsdale County\") and [Liberty Township](/wiki/Liberty_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Liberty Township, Jackson County, Michigan\") in Jackson County. It then flows through a small part of [Columbia Township](/wiki/Columbia_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Columbia Township, Jackson County, Michigan\"), into [Summit township](/wiki/Summit_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Summit Township, Jackson County, Michigan\"), and then right through the Jackson city limits. It then flows through [Blackman Charter Township](/wiki/Blackman_Charter_Township%2C_Michigan \"Blackman Charter Township, Michigan\") and then [Rives Township](/wiki/Rives_Township \"Rives Township\") and [Tompkins Township](/wiki/Tompkins_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Tompkins Township, Jackson County, Michigan\") before entering [Ingham County](/wiki/Ingham_County \"Ingham County\"), [Eaton County](/wiki/Eaton_County \"Eaton County\"), [Clinton County](/wiki/Clinton_County%2C_Michigan \"Clinton County, Michigan\"), [Ionia County](/wiki/Ionia_County \"Ionia County\"), [Kent County](/wiki/Kent_County%2C_Michigan \"Kent County, Michigan\"), [Ottawa County](/wiki/Ottawa_County%2C_Michigan \"Ottawa County, Michigan\") and into the city of [Grand Haven](/wiki/Grand_Haven \"Grand Haven\") where it empties into [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"). The river is {{convert\\|260\\|mi\\|km}} long; its watershed drains an area of {{convert\\|5572\\|mi\\|km}} including 18 counties and 158 townships.",
"#### Kalamazoo River",
"The [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River \"Kalamazoo River\") is made up of the north and south branches.",
"The north branch starts in Jackson County in [Hanover Township](/wiki/Hanover_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Hanover Township, Jackson County, Michigan\"). It starts in Pine Hills Lake and Farewell Lake and flows through a small part of [Liberty Township](/wiki/Liberty_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Liberty Township, Jackson County, Michigan\") and then back into Hanover Township. It then flows into [Spring Arbor Township](/wiki/Spring_Arbor_Township \"Spring Arbor Township\") and [Concord Township](/wiki/Concord_Township%2C_Michigan \"Concord Township, Michigan\"). It then flows out of Jackson County and into [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan \"Calhoun County, Michigan\") before it goes through the town of [Albion](/wiki/Albion%2C_Michigan \"Albion, Michigan\") where the north branch connects with the south branch and they form to be one river.",
"The south branch starts in the wetlands near the town [North Adams](/wiki/North_Adams%2C_Michigan \"North Adams, Michigan\") in [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County \"Hillsdale County\") and flows through the rest of Hillsdale County. It enters Jackson County and goes through a small part of Hanover Township before reentering Hillsdale County and then reentering Jackson County where it goes through Pulaski Township. It then enters Calhoun County and connects with the northern branch when it reaches the town of [Albion](/wiki/Albion \"Albion\").",
"When the south branch and north branch connect to form just the [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River \"Kalamazoo River\"), it then flows through the rest of [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan \"Calhoun County, Michigan\"). It then enters [Kalamazoo County](/wiki/Kalamazoo_County \"Kalamazoo County\") and then [Allegan County](/wiki/Allegan_County \"Allegan County\"). When it reaches the towns of [Saugatuck](/wiki/Saugatuck%2C_Michigan \"Saugatuck, Michigan\") and [Douglas](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Michigan \"Douglas, Michigan\") it stops and enters [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"). In total the [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River \"Kalamazoo River\") is {{convert\\|166\\|mi\\|km}} long, and its watershed drains a total of {{convert\\|2020\\|mi\\|km}} and drains into eight counties.",
"### Adjacent counties",
"* [Livingston County](/wiki/Livingston_County%2C_Michigan \"Livingston County, Michigan\") (northeast)\n* [Ingham County](/wiki/Ingham_County%2C_Michigan \"Ingham County, Michigan\") (north)\n* [Eaton County](/wiki/Eaton_County%2C_Michigan \"Eaton County, Michigan\") (northwest)\n* [Washtenaw County](/wiki/Washtenaw_County%2C_Michigan \"Washtenaw County, Michigan\") (east)\n* [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan \"Calhoun County, Michigan\") (west)\n* [Lenawee County](/wiki/Lenawee_County%2C_Michigan \"Lenawee County, Michigan\") (southeast)\n* [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County%2C_Michigan \"Hillsdale County, Michigan\") (southwest)"
] |
### Rivers
#### Grand River
The [Grand River](/wiki/Grand_River_%28Michigan%29 "Grand River (Michigan)") is Michigan's longest river. It starts in [Somerset Township](/wiki/Somerset_Township%2C_Hillsdale_County%2C_Michigan "Somerset Township, Hillsdale County, Michigan") in [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County "Hillsdale County") and [Liberty Township](/wiki/Liberty_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Liberty Township, Jackson County, Michigan") in Jackson County. It then flows through a small part of [Columbia Township](/wiki/Columbia_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Columbia Township, Jackson County, Michigan"), into [Summit township](/wiki/Summit_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Summit Township, Jackson County, Michigan"), and then right through the Jackson city limits. It then flows through [Blackman Charter Township](/wiki/Blackman_Charter_Township%2C_Michigan "Blackman Charter Township, Michigan") and then [Rives Township](/wiki/Rives_Township "Rives Township") and [Tompkins Township](/wiki/Tompkins_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Tompkins Township, Jackson County, Michigan") before entering [Ingham County](/wiki/Ingham_County "Ingham County"), [Eaton County](/wiki/Eaton_County "Eaton County"), [Clinton County](/wiki/Clinton_County%2C_Michigan "Clinton County, Michigan"), [Ionia County](/wiki/Ionia_County "Ionia County"), [Kent County](/wiki/Kent_County%2C_Michigan "Kent County, Michigan"), [Ottawa County](/wiki/Ottawa_County%2C_Michigan "Ottawa County, Michigan") and into the city of [Grand Haven](/wiki/Grand_Haven "Grand Haven") where it empties into [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan"). The river is {{convert\|260\|mi\|km}} long; its watershed drains an area of {{convert\|5572\|mi\|km}} including 18 counties and 158 townships.
#### Kalamazoo River
The [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River "Kalamazoo River") is made up of the north and south branches.
The north branch starts in Jackson County in [Hanover Township](/wiki/Hanover_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Hanover Township, Jackson County, Michigan"). It starts in Pine Hills Lake and Farewell Lake and flows through a small part of [Liberty Township](/wiki/Liberty_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan "Liberty Township, Jackson County, Michigan") and then back into Hanover Township. It then flows into [Spring Arbor Township](/wiki/Spring_Arbor_Township "Spring Arbor Township") and [Concord Township](/wiki/Concord_Township%2C_Michigan "Concord Township, Michigan"). It then flows out of Jackson County and into [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan "Calhoun County, Michigan") before it goes through the town of [Albion](/wiki/Albion%2C_Michigan "Albion, Michigan") where the north branch connects with the south branch and they form to be one river.
The south branch starts in the wetlands near the town [North Adams](/wiki/North_Adams%2C_Michigan "North Adams, Michigan") in [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County "Hillsdale County") and flows through the rest of Hillsdale County. It enters Jackson County and goes through a small part of Hanover Township before reentering Hillsdale County and then reentering Jackson County where it goes through Pulaski Township. It then enters Calhoun County and connects with the northern branch when it reaches the town of [Albion](/wiki/Albion "Albion").
When the south branch and north branch connect to form just the [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River "Kalamazoo River"), it then flows through the rest of [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan "Calhoun County, Michigan"). It then enters [Kalamazoo County](/wiki/Kalamazoo_County "Kalamazoo County") and then [Allegan County](/wiki/Allegan_County "Allegan County"). When it reaches the towns of [Saugatuck](/wiki/Saugatuck%2C_Michigan "Saugatuck, Michigan") and [Douglas](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Michigan "Douglas, Michigan") it stops and enters [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan "Lake Michigan"). In total the [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River "Kalamazoo River") is {{convert\|166\|mi\|km}} long, and its watershed drains a total of {{convert\|2020\|mi\|km}} and drains into eight counties.
|
[
"### Rivers",
"#### Grand River",
"The [Grand River](/wiki/Grand_River_%28Michigan%29 \"Grand River (Michigan)\") is Michigan's longest river. It starts in [Somerset Township](/wiki/Somerset_Township%2C_Hillsdale_County%2C_Michigan \"Somerset Township, Hillsdale County, Michigan\") in [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County \"Hillsdale County\") and [Liberty Township](/wiki/Liberty_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Liberty Township, Jackson County, Michigan\") in Jackson County. It then flows through a small part of [Columbia Township](/wiki/Columbia_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Columbia Township, Jackson County, Michigan\"), into [Summit township](/wiki/Summit_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Summit Township, Jackson County, Michigan\"), and then right through the Jackson city limits. It then flows through [Blackman Charter Township](/wiki/Blackman_Charter_Township%2C_Michigan \"Blackman Charter Township, Michigan\") and then [Rives Township](/wiki/Rives_Township \"Rives Township\") and [Tompkins Township](/wiki/Tompkins_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Tompkins Township, Jackson County, Michigan\") before entering [Ingham County](/wiki/Ingham_County \"Ingham County\"), [Eaton County](/wiki/Eaton_County \"Eaton County\"), [Clinton County](/wiki/Clinton_County%2C_Michigan \"Clinton County, Michigan\"), [Ionia County](/wiki/Ionia_County \"Ionia County\"), [Kent County](/wiki/Kent_County%2C_Michigan \"Kent County, Michigan\"), [Ottawa County](/wiki/Ottawa_County%2C_Michigan \"Ottawa County, Michigan\") and into the city of [Grand Haven](/wiki/Grand_Haven \"Grand Haven\") where it empties into [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"). The river is {{convert\\|260\\|mi\\|km}} long; its watershed drains an area of {{convert\\|5572\\|mi\\|km}} including 18 counties and 158 townships.",
"#### Kalamazoo River",
"The [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River \"Kalamazoo River\") is made up of the north and south branches.",
"The north branch starts in Jackson County in [Hanover Township](/wiki/Hanover_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Hanover Township, Jackson County, Michigan\"). It starts in Pine Hills Lake and Farewell Lake and flows through a small part of [Liberty Township](/wiki/Liberty_Township%2C_Jackson_County%2C_Michigan \"Liberty Township, Jackson County, Michigan\") and then back into Hanover Township. It then flows into [Spring Arbor Township](/wiki/Spring_Arbor_Township \"Spring Arbor Township\") and [Concord Township](/wiki/Concord_Township%2C_Michigan \"Concord Township, Michigan\"). It then flows out of Jackson County and into [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan \"Calhoun County, Michigan\") before it goes through the town of [Albion](/wiki/Albion%2C_Michigan \"Albion, Michigan\") where the north branch connects with the south branch and they form to be one river.",
"The south branch starts in the wetlands near the town [North Adams](/wiki/North_Adams%2C_Michigan \"North Adams, Michigan\") in [Hillsdale County](/wiki/Hillsdale_County \"Hillsdale County\") and flows through the rest of Hillsdale County. It enters Jackson County and goes through a small part of Hanover Township before reentering Hillsdale County and then reentering Jackson County where it goes through Pulaski Township. It then enters Calhoun County and connects with the northern branch when it reaches the town of [Albion](/wiki/Albion \"Albion\").",
"When the south branch and north branch connect to form just the [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River \"Kalamazoo River\"), it then flows through the rest of [Calhoun County](/wiki/Calhoun_County%2C_Michigan \"Calhoun County, Michigan\"). It then enters [Kalamazoo County](/wiki/Kalamazoo_County \"Kalamazoo County\") and then [Allegan County](/wiki/Allegan_County \"Allegan County\"). When it reaches the towns of [Saugatuck](/wiki/Saugatuck%2C_Michigan \"Saugatuck, Michigan\") and [Douglas](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Michigan \"Douglas, Michigan\") it stops and enters [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"). In total the [Kalamazoo River](/wiki/Kalamazoo_River \"Kalamazoo River\") is {{convert\\|166\\|mi\\|km}} long, and its watershed drains a total of {{convert\\|2020\\|mi\\|km}} and drains into eight counties.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Shinnojo, a low level [samurai](/wiki/Samurai "Samurai"), lives with his pretty and loyal wife Kayo. Bored with his position as a food\-taster for a feudal lord, he talks about opening a [kendo](/wiki/Kendo "Kendo") school open to boys of all castes. Before he can act, he becomes ill after tasting some [whelk](/wiki/Whelk "Whelk") [sashimi](/wiki/Sashimi "Sashimi") and falls into a coma. An investigation reveals that the poisoning was not a human conspiracy, but a poor choice of food out of season. After three days, he awakes but finds that the toxin has blinded him.
His uncle is asked by Shinnojo's family how the couple will survive. He laments that he no longer knows anybody with influence, and asks Kayo if she knows of anybody. She relates how Toya Shimada, the chief duty officer in the castle and a samurai of high rank, offered to help and they tell her to act upon his offer of assistance.
A message from the castle brings the good news that Shinnojo's stipend of rice will remain the same, and for life; but his interfering aunt tells him that Kayo was seen with another man. He has Tokuhei, his faithful servant, follow her. Kayo notices that she is being followed, and although Tokuhei offers to cover for her, she reveals to Shinnojo that Shimada offered to help but at a price, shown when he forced himself upon her. He then solicited additional trysts by threatening to tell Shinnojo about the first. An enraged Shinnojo divorces her and orders her out of his house.
When it is revealed to him that Shimada had nothing to do with maintaining his stipend, but that it came out of gratitude from the lord of the clan himself, Shinnojo seeks to renew his skill with the sword as a blind man to avenge the dishonor of Kayo. Through Tokuhei, he sends a message to Shimada to set up a duel, with the additional message to not underestimate him. The two samurai meet at the stables near the river to decide their destinies. In the subsequent fight Shinnojo cuts off Shimada's arm. He leaves Shimada to live a horribly disfigured life, telling Tokuhei that he has now avenged Kayo's dishonor. The next day Shinnojo is informed that the injured Shimada refused to tell anyone what had happened or who injured him in the duel. That night Shimada committed seppuku and killed himself, as a samurai cannot live with only one arm. He dies without anyone knowing of his sin against the Mimura family, his violation of Kayo, or his own dishonorable injury by a blinded man.
Tokuhei tells Shinnojo he has found a girl to work in the kitchen and cook for him. After one taste of the girl's food, Shinnojo recognizes his wife's cooking, and calls Kayo to come into the house. Shinnojo and Kayo reconcile, with an understanding that they will begin their life together anew.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Shinnojo, a low level [samurai](/wiki/Samurai \"Samurai\"), lives with his pretty and loyal wife Kayo. Bored with his position as a food\\-taster for a feudal lord, he talks about opening a [kendo](/wiki/Kendo \"Kendo\") school open to boys of all castes. Before he can act, he becomes ill after tasting some [whelk](/wiki/Whelk \"Whelk\") [sashimi](/wiki/Sashimi \"Sashimi\") and falls into a coma. An investigation reveals that the poisoning was not a human conspiracy, but a poor choice of food out of season. After three days, he awakes but finds that the toxin has blinded him.",
"His uncle is asked by Shinnojo's family how the couple will survive. He laments that he no longer knows anybody with influence, and asks Kayo if she knows of anybody. She relates how Toya Shimada, the chief duty officer in the castle and a samurai of high rank, offered to help and they tell her to act upon his offer of assistance.",
"A message from the castle brings the good news that Shinnojo's stipend of rice will remain the same, and for life; but his interfering aunt tells him that Kayo was seen with another man. He has Tokuhei, his faithful servant, follow her. Kayo notices that she is being followed, and although Tokuhei offers to cover for her, she reveals to Shinnojo that Shimada offered to help but at a price, shown when he forced himself upon her. He then solicited additional trysts by threatening to tell Shinnojo about the first. An enraged Shinnojo divorces her and orders her out of his house.",
"When it is revealed to him that Shimada had nothing to do with maintaining his stipend, but that it came out of gratitude from the lord of the clan himself, Shinnojo seeks to renew his skill with the sword as a blind man to avenge the dishonor of Kayo. Through Tokuhei, he sends a message to Shimada to set up a duel, with the additional message to not underestimate him. The two samurai meet at the stables near the river to decide their destinies. In the subsequent fight Shinnojo cuts off Shimada's arm. He leaves Shimada to live a horribly disfigured life, telling Tokuhei that he has now avenged Kayo's dishonor. The next day Shinnojo is informed that the injured Shimada refused to tell anyone what had happened or who injured him in the duel. That night Shimada committed seppuku and killed himself, as a samurai cannot live with only one arm. He dies without anyone knowing of his sin against the Mimura family, his violation of Kayo, or his own dishonorable injury by a blinded man.",
"Tokuhei tells Shinnojo he has found a girl to work in the kitchen and cook for him. After one taste of the girl's food, Shinnojo recognizes his wife's cooking, and calls Kayo to come into the house. Shinnojo and Kayo reconcile, with an understanding that they will begin their life together anew.",
""
] |
History
-------
The concept of a bank for veterans of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") was conceived in 1956, when a war reparations agreement was signed between Japan and the Philippines. The agreement provided for {{US$\|20 million\|link\=yes}} in cash, {{Philippine peso\|5 million\|link\=yes}} in capital and {{US$\|10 million}} in services. Under [Republic Act](/wiki/Republic_Acts_of_the_Philippines "Republic Acts of the Philippines") No. 1789,{{Cite PH act\|chamber\=RA\|number\=1789\|url\=http://www.chanrobles.com/republicacts/republicactno1789\.html\|title \= An Act Prescribing the National Policy in the Procurement and Utilization of Reparations and Development Loans from Japan, Creating a Reparations Commission to Implement the Policy, Providing Funds Therefor, and for Other Purposes\|date\=June 21, 1957}} better known as the Reparations Act, the cash reparations were set aside into a special trust fund for the use of World War II veterans and their families. There were plans to split the funds evenly among all veterans, but legislators say that it is in the higher interest that the funds be invested in a bank that would service their needs. If the fund were split at the time, each veteran would get only one hundred pesos at the then\-prevailing exchange rate of two pesos per U.S. dollar.
Through the stirring words of Senator [Camilo Osías](/wiki/Camilo_Os%C3%ADas "Camilo Osías"), as shown in the excerpt below, the Philippine Veterans Bank was born on June 18, 1963, through Republic Act No. 3518,{{Cite PH act\| chamber\=RA\| number\=3518\|url\=http://www.chanrobles.com/republicactno3518\.html\|title\=An Act Creating the Philippine Veterans Bank, and for Other Purposes\|date\=June 18, 1963 }} which would become its charter.
{{cquote\|True patriotism seeks no reward for services rendered to the State at great sacrifice even at the cost of life itself; but it is also the duty of the State to create the necessary atmosphere and incentives for her citizens.}}
Under the PVB charter, the bank's subscribed [capital](/wiki/Financial_capital "Financial capital") of {{Philippine peso\|100 million}} would be divided into 510,000 common shares and 490,000 preferred shares, all with a par value of one hundred pesos. All common shares were subscribed by the government on behalf of the veterans, their families and descendants, while the preferred shares were distributed for free among the veterans.
Unfortunately, the [presidency](/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_%281965%E2%80%931986%29 "History of the Philippines (1965–1986)") of [Ferdinand Marcos](/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos "Ferdinand Marcos") proved disastrous for the bank. Subsequent amendments to the PVB charter made through the use of presidential decrees enabled government control over the appointing of PVB's officers, even though the veterans would receive the right to elect their own board members five years after the organization of the bank through the transfer of PVB's common shares. That effectively curtailed the right of the veterans to choose their own board of directors even after all common shares were transferred to them. In essence, the veterans became PVB shareholders in name only. Due to capital deficiencies (and political excesses during the Marcos era), PVB was ordered closed by the [Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas](/wiki/Bangko_Sentral_ng_Pilipinas "Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas") on April 10, 1983, placed under [receivership](/wiki/Receivership "Receivership"), and subsequently [liquidated](/wiki/Liquidation "Liquidation") on June 17, 1985\.
By the closure of PVB, a common and a preferred PVB share, worth a combined {{Philippine peso\|200\|1985}}, was reduced to a worthless piece of paper. After twenty\-three years, each veteran only received {{Philippine peso\|28\|1986}} worth of [dividends](/wiki/Dividend "Dividend") as a return on their investment, or {{Philippine peso\|14\|1986}} per share.
With the [EDSA Revolution](/wiki/1986_EDSA_Revolution "1986 EDSA Revolution") and the subsequent ouster of Marcos, the new Philippine government passed Republic Act No. 7169,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.chanrobles.com/republicacts/republicactno7169\.html\|title \= Republic Act No. 7169 \- an Act to Rehabilitate the Philippine Veterans Bank Created Under Republic Act No. 3518, Providing the Mechanisms Therefor, and for Other Purposes}} which would rescind all amendments made during the Marcos era to the PVB charter. The law would revert the PVB charter back to its original state. Through the law, the veterans regained their rights as rightful shareholders of the bank, which were denied during the Marcos era. Since the law also understood that the veterans took no role in the failure of PVB, it allowed the restructuring of its locked government deposits, totaling {{Philippine peso\|1\.48 billion}} at the time, into a seven\-year loan. Unlike other banks of its classification, which were bailed out by the government, PVB had to rely on internal funds to keep its commercial banking license. Because of that, its authorized capital was raised to {{Philippine peso\|1 billion}} from the previous {{Philippine peso\|100 billion}}.
On May 6, 1992, the [Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas](/wiki/Bangko_Sentral_ng_Pilipinas "Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas") granted PVB the authority to operate as a private commercial bank, giving up all government control of the bank, and a month later, on June 3, was symbolically re\-opened by President [Fidel V. Ramos](/wiki/Fidel_V._Ramos "Fidel V. Ramos"), himself a veteran (although not of World War II). The bank re\-opened its doors for commercial operations a month after the symbolic re\-opening with the opening of its new headquarters in [Makati](/wiki/Makati "Makati").
Since its re\-opening, the bank grew rapidly, opening new branches in the countryside, even with a conservative investment stance. It arranged a conduit agreement with [Union Bank of the Philippines](/wiki/Union_Bank_of_the_Philippines "Union Bank of the Philippines") to serve veterans who receive their veterans benefits checks but live in areas where there are no Veterans Bank branches. With its recapitalization, the original two shares of each veteran grew to 64 common and ten preferred shares, with a combined value of {{Philippine peso\|6,400}}. PVB also embarked on goodwill programs for its veterans, such as free medical care. The bank also places preference to veterans in banking transactions, and places preference to their descendants when applying for PVB jobs. Even with a troubled history, the bank has not failed to only inspire, but also to stand strong in times of crisis.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The concept of a bank for veterans of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") was conceived in 1956, when a war reparations agreement was signed between Japan and the Philippines. The agreement provided for {{US$\\|20 million\\|link\\=yes}} in cash, {{Philippine peso\\|5 million\\|link\\=yes}} in capital and {{US$\\|10 million}} in services. Under [Republic Act](/wiki/Republic_Acts_of_the_Philippines \"Republic Acts of the Philippines\") No. 1789,{{Cite PH act\\|chamber\\=RA\\|number\\=1789\\|url\\=http://www.chanrobles.com/republicacts/republicactno1789\\.html\\|title \\= An Act Prescribing the National Policy in the Procurement and Utilization of Reparations and Development Loans from Japan, Creating a Reparations Commission to Implement the Policy, Providing Funds Therefor, and for Other Purposes\\|date\\=June 21, 1957}} better known as the Reparations Act, the cash reparations were set aside into a special trust fund for the use of World War II veterans and their families. There were plans to split the funds evenly among all veterans, but legislators say that it is in the higher interest that the funds be invested in a bank that would service their needs. If the fund were split at the time, each veteran would get only one hundred pesos at the then\\-prevailing exchange rate of two pesos per U.S. dollar.",
"Through the stirring words of Senator [Camilo Osías](/wiki/Camilo_Os%C3%ADas \"Camilo Osías\"), as shown in the excerpt below, the Philippine Veterans Bank was born on June 18, 1963, through Republic Act No. 3518,{{Cite PH act\\| chamber\\=RA\\| number\\=3518\\|url\\=http://www.chanrobles.com/republicactno3518\\.html\\|title\\=An Act Creating the Philippine Veterans Bank, and for Other Purposes\\|date\\=June 18, 1963 }} which would become its charter.",
"{{cquote\\|True patriotism seeks no reward for services rendered to the State at great sacrifice even at the cost of life itself; but it is also the duty of the State to create the necessary atmosphere and incentives for her citizens.}}",
"Under the PVB charter, the bank's subscribed [capital](/wiki/Financial_capital \"Financial capital\") of {{Philippine peso\\|100 million}} would be divided into 510,000 common shares and 490,000 preferred shares, all with a par value of one hundred pesos. All common shares were subscribed by the government on behalf of the veterans, their families and descendants, while the preferred shares were distributed for free among the veterans.",
"Unfortunately, the [presidency](/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_%281965%E2%80%931986%29 \"History of the Philippines (1965–1986)\") of [Ferdinand Marcos](/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos \"Ferdinand Marcos\") proved disastrous for the bank. Subsequent amendments to the PVB charter made through the use of presidential decrees enabled government control over the appointing of PVB's officers, even though the veterans would receive the right to elect their own board members five years after the organization of the bank through the transfer of PVB's common shares. That effectively curtailed the right of the veterans to choose their own board of directors even after all common shares were transferred to them. In essence, the veterans became PVB shareholders in name only. Due to capital deficiencies (and political excesses during the Marcos era), PVB was ordered closed by the [Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas](/wiki/Bangko_Sentral_ng_Pilipinas \"Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas\") on April 10, 1983, placed under [receivership](/wiki/Receivership \"Receivership\"), and subsequently [liquidated](/wiki/Liquidation \"Liquidation\") on June 17, 1985\\.",
"By the closure of PVB, a common and a preferred PVB share, worth a combined {{Philippine peso\\|200\\|1985}}, was reduced to a worthless piece of paper. After twenty\\-three years, each veteran only received {{Philippine peso\\|28\\|1986}} worth of [dividends](/wiki/Dividend \"Dividend\") as a return on their investment, or {{Philippine peso\\|14\\|1986}} per share.",
"With the [EDSA Revolution](/wiki/1986_EDSA_Revolution \"1986 EDSA Revolution\") and the subsequent ouster of Marcos, the new Philippine government passed Republic Act No. 7169,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chanrobles.com/republicacts/republicactno7169\\.html\\|title \\= Republic Act No. 7169 \\- an Act to Rehabilitate the Philippine Veterans Bank Created Under Republic Act No. 3518, Providing the Mechanisms Therefor, and for Other Purposes}} which would rescind all amendments made during the Marcos era to the PVB charter. The law would revert the PVB charter back to its original state. Through the law, the veterans regained their rights as rightful shareholders of the bank, which were denied during the Marcos era. Since the law also understood that the veterans took no role in the failure of PVB, it allowed the restructuring of its locked government deposits, totaling {{Philippine peso\\|1\\.48 billion}} at the time, into a seven\\-year loan. Unlike other banks of its classification, which were bailed out by the government, PVB had to rely on internal funds to keep its commercial banking license. Because of that, its authorized capital was raised to {{Philippine peso\\|1 billion}} from the previous {{Philippine peso\\|100 billion}}.",
"On May 6, 1992, the [Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas](/wiki/Bangko_Sentral_ng_Pilipinas \"Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas\") granted PVB the authority to operate as a private commercial bank, giving up all government control of the bank, and a month later, on June 3, was symbolically re\\-opened by President [Fidel V. Ramos](/wiki/Fidel_V._Ramos \"Fidel V. Ramos\"), himself a veteran (although not of World War II). The bank re\\-opened its doors for commercial operations a month after the symbolic re\\-opening with the opening of its new headquarters in [Makati](/wiki/Makati \"Makati\").",
"Since its re\\-opening, the bank grew rapidly, opening new branches in the countryside, even with a conservative investment stance. It arranged a conduit agreement with [Union Bank of the Philippines](/wiki/Union_Bank_of_the_Philippines \"Union Bank of the Philippines\") to serve veterans who receive their veterans benefits checks but live in areas where there are no Veterans Bank branches. With its recapitalization, the original two shares of each veteran grew to 64 common and ten preferred shares, with a combined value of {{Philippine peso\\|6,400}}. PVB also embarked on goodwill programs for its veterans, such as free medical care. The bank also places preference to veterans in banking transactions, and places preference to their descendants when applying for PVB jobs. Even with a troubled history, the bank has not failed to only inspire, but also to stand strong in times of crisis.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Ancient History
[thumb\|Ruins of Aegyssus](/wiki/File:Cetatea_Aegyssus2.JPG "Cetatea Aegyssus2.JPG")
Tulcea was founded in the 7th century BC under the name of *Aegyssus*, mentioned by [Procopius](/wiki/Procopius "Procopius").{{Cite web \|url\=https://topostext.org/work/239\#4\.7\.1 \|title\=Procopius, On Buildings, §4\.7\.1 \|access\-date\=March 23, 2020 \|archive\-date\=July 19, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719045122/https://topostext.org/work/239\#4\.7\.1 \|url\-status\=live }} [Ovid](/wiki/Ovid "Ovid") recorded a local tradition that ascribed its name to a mythical founder, Aegisos the Caspian.Ovid Ex Ponto 4\.9
Aegyssus was built on a high hill, a strategic location for guarding the Danube particularly under the Romans.
The amphorae discovered from 1st century BC to 1st century AD suggest the town was an important trading centre of the period.
After the [Getic](/wiki/Getic "Getic") raids from 12{{ndash}}15 ADOvid Ex Ponto 4\.9 the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_empire "Roman empire") conquered the town and soon after built a new city.
After [Trajan's Dacian Wars](/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars "Trajan's Dacian Wars") at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the city was included in the [Moesian Limes](/wiki/Moesian_Limes "Moesian Limes") defensive frontier system as a military fort and port for a detachment of the *[Classis Flavia Moesica](/wiki/Classis_Flavia_Moesica "Classis Flavia Moesica")*.
The baths were built at the end of the 1st century AD and used until the beginning of the 5th century after several reconstruction phases, in the third of which a large *[palaestra](/wiki/Palaestra "Palaestra")* was added on the north side.
In the second half of the 3rd century AD, the *cohors II Flavia Brittonum* (from Britain) was garrisoned here, and in the next century the *[vexillatio](/wiki/Vexillatio "Vexillatio") Aegyssensis* of *[Legio I Iovia](/wiki/Legio_I_Iovia "Legio I Iovia")*. During the 4th\-5th centuries, the city still preserved its military statute (headquarters of *cuneus equitum armigerorum, praefectus ripae legionis primae ariae cohortium quinque pedaturae inferioris*). It was destroyed during the [Hun](/wiki/Hun "Hun")'s invasions in the 5th century and rebuilt under [Justinian I](/wiki/Justinian_I "Justinian I") along with the monumental reconstruction of the Danubian limes.
### Middle Ages
The town was abandoned by the first half of the 7th century after the [Avars](/wiki/Avars_%28Caucasus%29 "Avars (Caucasus)")\-Slavs' attacks and the downfall of Danubian limes.{{cite journal \|last\=Stănică \|first\=Aurel \|title\=Tulcea. Un centru economic la Dunărea de Jos în secolul al XVI\-lea \|year\=2004 \|journal\=Peuce \|publisher\=Institutul de Cercetări Eco\-Muzeale \|volume\=II(XV) \|series\=S.N. \|issn\=0258\-8102 \|location\=Tulcea \|page\=199}} The town is mentioned in [Notitia Episcopatuum](/wiki/Notitia_Episcopatuum "Notitia Episcopatuum") and [De Thematibus](/wiki/De_Thematibus "De Thematibus") on the list of the bishoprics of Dobrudja.
Inhabitation was restored in the second half of the 10th century, as the Byzantines built a fort on the spot after reconquering the region. The fort was soon destroyed in 1064 by an attack of the [Uzes](/wiki/Oghuz_Turks "Oghuz Turks"), however some inhabitation continued. A settlement, larger than the one in the 11th century, is archaeologically attested beginning with the 14th century. The [Ottoman rule](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") was imposed around 1420, and would last for the following four centuries.
### Later history
The town was first documented under its modern name in 1506 in the Ottoman customs records, described as an "important centre for the transit trade".
Around 1848, it was still a small [shipyard](/wiki/Shipyard "Shipyard") city, being awarded city status in 1860, when it became a province capital. It became a sanjak centre in [Silistre Eyaleti](/wiki/Silistra_Province%2C_Ottoman_Empire "Silistra Province, Ottoman Empire") in 1860 and [Tuna Vilayeti](/wiki/Danube_Province%2C_Ottoman_Empire "Danube Province, Ottoman Empire") in 1864\.
In 1853, *The Times* of London noted that "Toultcha" was "the last fortified place held by the Turks on the Danube, and which has a garrison of 1,200 men."{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/viewArticle.arc?articleId\=ARCHIVE\-The\_Times\-1853\-12\-29\-08\-004\&pageId\=ARCHIVE\-The\_Times\-1853\-12\-29\-08 \|title\="The Seat of War on the Danube", ''The Times'', December 29, page 8 \|access\-date\=February 17, 2014 \|archive\-date\=January 16, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116061605/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ \|url\-status\=live }}
During the [Russo\-Turkish War of 1877–1878](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29 "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)"), Northern Dobruja and specially Tulcea would be the sites of massacres and conflicts between Muslim [Circassians](/wiki/Circassians "Circassians") and Christian Bulgarians, Russians, and Ukrainians. The [Circassians of Dobruja](/wiki/Circassians_in_Romania "Circassians in Romania") had settled there in 1864 after the [Circassian genocide](/wiki/Circassian_genocide "Circassian genocide"), and through their raids to other peoples of the region and handing over part of their gains to the Ottoman authorities, they would end up indirectly financing the construction of buildings that still stand in Tulcea today: the modern [Tulcea Art Museum](/wiki/Tulcea_Art_Museum "Tulcea Art Museum") and the [Azizyie Mosque](/wiki/Azizyie_Mosque "Azizyie Mosque"). The Dobrujan Circassians were expelled from the region after the end of the war.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/povestea\-dramatica\-a\-cerchezilor\-din\-dobrogea \|title\=Povestea dramatică a cerchezilor din Dobrogea \|first\=Diana \|last\=Tița \|magazine\=Historia \|date\=September 16, 2018 \|language\=ro \|access\-date\=August 12, 2021 \|archive\-date\=April 15, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415011025/https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/povestea\-dramatica\-a\-cerchezilor\-din\-dobrogea \|url\-status\=live }}
In 1878, after the end of the war, Tulcea was awarded to Romania, together with the rest of Northern Dobruja (see [Congress of Berlin](/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin "Congress of Berlin")). Tulcea was occupied by the [Central Powers](/wiki/Central_Powers "Central Powers") between 1916–1918 during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), and became part of their condominium following the [Treaty of Bucharest](/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_%281918%29 "Treaty of Bucharest (1918)") in May 1918 (until November 1918\). During that time, the statue of [Mircea the Elder](/wiki/Mircea_I_of_Wallachia "Mircea I of Wallachia") was taken down by [Bulgarian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria "Kingdom of Bulgaria") troops, since it was during his reign that [Dobruja](/wiki/Dobruja "Dobruja") was incorporated into [Wallachia](/wiki/Wallachia "Wallachia").{{cite news \|url\=https://romania.europalibera.org/a/stergerea\-memoriei\-sau\-rescrierea\-istoriei\-cand\-a\-daramat\-romania\-prima\-statuie/30665862\.html \|title\=Ștergerea memoriei sau rescrierea istoriei. Când a dărâmat România prima statuie \|language\=ro \|first\=Sabina \|last\=Fati \|newspaper\=Europa Liberă România \|publisher\=\[\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\|Radio Free Europe]] \|date\=June 11, 2020 \|access\-date\=July 3, 2020 \|archive\-date\=June 11, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611213109/https://romania.europalibera.org/a/stergerea\-memoriei\-sau\-rescrierea\-istoriei\-cand\-a\-daramat\-romania\-prima\-statuie/30665862\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Ancient History",
"[thumb\\|Ruins of Aegyssus](/wiki/File:Cetatea_Aegyssus2.JPG \"Cetatea Aegyssus2.JPG\")",
"Tulcea was founded in the 7th century BC under the name of *Aegyssus*, mentioned by [Procopius](/wiki/Procopius \"Procopius\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://topostext.org/work/239\\#4\\.7\\.1 \\|title\\=Procopius, On Buildings, §4\\.7\\.1 \\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 19, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719045122/https://topostext.org/work/239\\#4\\.7\\.1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Ovid](/wiki/Ovid \"Ovid\") recorded a local tradition that ascribed its name to a mythical founder, Aegisos the Caspian.Ovid Ex Ponto 4\\.9",
"Aegyssus was built on a high hill, a strategic location for guarding the Danube particularly under the Romans.\nThe amphorae discovered from 1st century BC to 1st century AD suggest the town was an important trading centre of the period.",
"After the [Getic](/wiki/Getic \"Getic\") raids from 12{{ndash}}15 ADOvid Ex Ponto 4\\.9 the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_empire \"Roman empire\") conquered the town and soon after built a new city.",
"After [Trajan's Dacian Wars](/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars \"Trajan's Dacian Wars\") at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the city was included in the [Moesian Limes](/wiki/Moesian_Limes \"Moesian Limes\") defensive frontier system as a military fort and port for a detachment of the *[Classis Flavia Moesica](/wiki/Classis_Flavia_Moesica \"Classis Flavia Moesica\")*.",
"The baths were built at the end of the 1st century AD and used until the beginning of the 5th century after several reconstruction phases, in the third of which a large *[palaestra](/wiki/Palaestra \"Palaestra\")* was added on the north side.",
"In the second half of the 3rd century AD, the *cohors II Flavia Brittonum* (from Britain) was garrisoned here, and in the next century the *[vexillatio](/wiki/Vexillatio \"Vexillatio\") Aegyssensis* of *[Legio I Iovia](/wiki/Legio_I_Iovia \"Legio I Iovia\")*. During the 4th\\-5th centuries, the city still preserved its military statute (headquarters of *cuneus equitum armigerorum, praefectus ripae legionis primae ariae cohortium quinque pedaturae inferioris*). It was destroyed during the [Hun](/wiki/Hun \"Hun\")'s invasions in the 5th century and rebuilt under [Justinian I](/wiki/Justinian_I \"Justinian I\") along with the monumental reconstruction of the Danubian limes.",
"### Middle Ages",
"The town was abandoned by the first half of the 7th century after the [Avars](/wiki/Avars_%28Caucasus%29 \"Avars (Caucasus)\")\\-Slavs' attacks and the downfall of Danubian limes.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Stănică \\|first\\=Aurel \\|title\\=Tulcea. Un centru economic la Dunărea de Jos în secolul al XVI\\-lea \\|year\\=2004 \\|journal\\=Peuce \\|publisher\\=Institutul de Cercetări Eco\\-Muzeale \\|volume\\=II(XV) \\|series\\=S.N. \\|issn\\=0258\\-8102 \\|location\\=Tulcea \\|page\\=199}} The town is mentioned in [Notitia Episcopatuum](/wiki/Notitia_Episcopatuum \"Notitia Episcopatuum\") and [De Thematibus](/wiki/De_Thematibus \"De Thematibus\") on the list of the bishoprics of Dobrudja.",
"Inhabitation was restored in the second half of the 10th century, as the Byzantines built a fort on the spot after reconquering the region. The fort was soon destroyed in 1064 by an attack of the [Uzes](/wiki/Oghuz_Turks \"Oghuz Turks\"), however some inhabitation continued. A settlement, larger than the one in the 11th century, is archaeologically attested beginning with the 14th century. The [Ottoman rule](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") was imposed around 1420, and would last for the following four centuries.",
"### Later history",
"The town was first documented under its modern name in 1506 in the Ottoman customs records, described as an \"important centre for the transit trade\".",
"Around 1848, it was still a small [shipyard](/wiki/Shipyard \"Shipyard\") city, being awarded city status in 1860, when it became a province capital. It became a sanjak centre in [Silistre Eyaleti](/wiki/Silistra_Province%2C_Ottoman_Empire \"Silistra Province, Ottoman Empire\") in 1860 and [Tuna Vilayeti](/wiki/Danube_Province%2C_Ottoman_Empire \"Danube Province, Ottoman Empire\") in 1864\\.",
"In 1853, *The Times* of London noted that \"Toultcha\" was \"the last fortified place held by the Turks on the Danube, and which has a garrison of 1,200 men.\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/viewArticle.arc?articleId\\=ARCHIVE\\-The\\_Times\\-1853\\-12\\-29\\-08\\-004\\&pageId\\=ARCHIVE\\-The\\_Times\\-1853\\-12\\-29\\-08 \\|title\\=\"The Seat of War on the Danube\", ''The Times'', December 29, page 8 \\|access\\-date\\=February 17, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 16, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116061605/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"During the [Russo\\-Turkish War of 1877–1878](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29 \"Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)\"), Northern Dobruja and specially Tulcea would be the sites of massacres and conflicts between Muslim [Circassians](/wiki/Circassians \"Circassians\") and Christian Bulgarians, Russians, and Ukrainians. The [Circassians of Dobruja](/wiki/Circassians_in_Romania \"Circassians in Romania\") had settled there in 1864 after the [Circassian genocide](/wiki/Circassian_genocide \"Circassian genocide\"), and through their raids to other peoples of the region and handing over part of their gains to the Ottoman authorities, they would end up indirectly financing the construction of buildings that still stand in Tulcea today: the modern [Tulcea Art Museum](/wiki/Tulcea_Art_Museum \"Tulcea Art Museum\") and the [Azizyie Mosque](/wiki/Azizyie_Mosque \"Azizyie Mosque\"). The Dobrujan Circassians were expelled from the region after the end of the war.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/povestea\\-dramatica\\-a\\-cerchezilor\\-din\\-dobrogea \\|title\\=Povestea dramatică a cerchezilor din Dobrogea \\|first\\=Diana \\|last\\=Tița \\|magazine\\=Historia \\|date\\=September 16, 2018 \\|language\\=ro \\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415011025/https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/povestea\\-dramatica\\-a\\-cerchezilor\\-din\\-dobrogea \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In 1878, after the end of the war, Tulcea was awarded to Romania, together with the rest of Northern Dobruja (see [Congress of Berlin](/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin \"Congress of Berlin\")). Tulcea was occupied by the [Central Powers](/wiki/Central_Powers \"Central Powers\") between 1916–1918 during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), and became part of their condominium following the [Treaty of Bucharest](/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_%281918%29 \"Treaty of Bucharest (1918)\") in May 1918 (until November 1918\\). During that time, the statue of [Mircea the Elder](/wiki/Mircea_I_of_Wallachia \"Mircea I of Wallachia\") was taken down by [Bulgarian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria \"Kingdom of Bulgaria\") troops, since it was during his reign that [Dobruja](/wiki/Dobruja \"Dobruja\") was incorporated into [Wallachia](/wiki/Wallachia \"Wallachia\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://romania.europalibera.org/a/stergerea\\-memoriei\\-sau\\-rescrierea\\-istoriei\\-cand\\-a\\-daramat\\-romania\\-prima\\-statuie/30665862\\.html \\|title\\=Ștergerea memoriei sau rescrierea istoriei. Când a dărâmat România prima statuie \\|language\\=ro \\|first\\=Sabina \\|last\\=Fati \\|newspaper\\=Europa Liberă România \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\\|Radio Free Europe]] \\|date\\=June 11, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=July 3, 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 11, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611213109/https://romania.europalibera.org/a/stergerea\\-memoriei\\-sau\\-rescrierea\\-istoriei\\-cand\\-a\\-daramat\\-romania\\-prima\\-statuie/30665862\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
### Ancient History
[thumb\|Ruins of Aegyssus](/wiki/File:Cetatea_Aegyssus2.JPG "Cetatea Aegyssus2.JPG")
Tulcea was founded in the 7th century BC under the name of *Aegyssus*, mentioned by [Procopius](/wiki/Procopius "Procopius").{{Cite web \|url\=https://topostext.org/work/239\#4\.7\.1 \|title\=Procopius, On Buildings, §4\.7\.1 \|access\-date\=March 23, 2020 \|archive\-date\=July 19, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719045122/https://topostext.org/work/239\#4\.7\.1 \|url\-status\=live }} [Ovid](/wiki/Ovid "Ovid") recorded a local tradition that ascribed its name to a mythical founder, Aegisos the Caspian.Ovid Ex Ponto 4\.9
Aegyssus was built on a high hill, a strategic location for guarding the Danube particularly under the Romans.
The amphorae discovered from 1st century BC to 1st century AD suggest the town was an important trading centre of the period.
After the [Getic](/wiki/Getic "Getic") raids from 12{{ndash}}15 ADOvid Ex Ponto 4\.9 the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_empire "Roman empire") conquered the town and soon after built a new city.
After [Trajan's Dacian Wars](/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars "Trajan's Dacian Wars") at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the city was included in the [Moesian Limes](/wiki/Moesian_Limes "Moesian Limes") defensive frontier system as a military fort and port for a detachment of the *[Classis Flavia Moesica](/wiki/Classis_Flavia_Moesica "Classis Flavia Moesica")*.
The baths were built at the end of the 1st century AD and used until the beginning of the 5th century after several reconstruction phases, in the third of which a large *[palaestra](/wiki/Palaestra "Palaestra")* was added on the north side.
In the second half of the 3rd century AD, the *cohors II Flavia Brittonum* (from Britain) was garrisoned here, and in the next century the *[vexillatio](/wiki/Vexillatio "Vexillatio") Aegyssensis* of *[Legio I Iovia](/wiki/Legio_I_Iovia "Legio I Iovia")*. During the 4th\-5th centuries, the city still preserved its military statute (headquarters of *cuneus equitum armigerorum, praefectus ripae legionis primae ariae cohortium quinque pedaturae inferioris*). It was destroyed during the [Hun](/wiki/Hun "Hun")'s invasions in the 5th century and rebuilt under [Justinian I](/wiki/Justinian_I "Justinian I") along with the monumental reconstruction of the Danubian limes.
|
[
"### Ancient History",
"[thumb\\|Ruins of Aegyssus](/wiki/File:Cetatea_Aegyssus2.JPG \"Cetatea Aegyssus2.JPG\")",
"Tulcea was founded in the 7th century BC under the name of *Aegyssus*, mentioned by [Procopius](/wiki/Procopius \"Procopius\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://topostext.org/work/239\\#4\\.7\\.1 \\|title\\=Procopius, On Buildings, §4\\.7\\.1 \\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 19, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719045122/https://topostext.org/work/239\\#4\\.7\\.1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Ovid](/wiki/Ovid \"Ovid\") recorded a local tradition that ascribed its name to a mythical founder, Aegisos the Caspian.Ovid Ex Ponto 4\\.9",
"Aegyssus was built on a high hill, a strategic location for guarding the Danube particularly under the Romans.\nThe amphorae discovered from 1st century BC to 1st century AD suggest the town was an important trading centre of the period.",
"After the [Getic](/wiki/Getic \"Getic\") raids from 12{{ndash}}15 ADOvid Ex Ponto 4\\.9 the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_empire \"Roman empire\") conquered the town and soon after built a new city.",
"After [Trajan's Dacian Wars](/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars \"Trajan's Dacian Wars\") at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the city was included in the [Moesian Limes](/wiki/Moesian_Limes \"Moesian Limes\") defensive frontier system as a military fort and port for a detachment of the *[Classis Flavia Moesica](/wiki/Classis_Flavia_Moesica \"Classis Flavia Moesica\")*.",
"The baths were built at the end of the 1st century AD and used until the beginning of the 5th century after several reconstruction phases, in the third of which a large *[palaestra](/wiki/Palaestra \"Palaestra\")* was added on the north side.",
"In the second half of the 3rd century AD, the *cohors II Flavia Brittonum* (from Britain) was garrisoned here, and in the next century the *[vexillatio](/wiki/Vexillatio \"Vexillatio\") Aegyssensis* of *[Legio I Iovia](/wiki/Legio_I_Iovia \"Legio I Iovia\")*. During the 4th\\-5th centuries, the city still preserved its military statute (headquarters of *cuneus equitum armigerorum, praefectus ripae legionis primae ariae cohortium quinque pedaturae inferioris*). It was destroyed during the [Hun](/wiki/Hun \"Hun\")'s invasions in the 5th century and rebuilt under [Justinian I](/wiki/Justinian_I \"Justinian I\") along with the monumental reconstruction of the Danubian limes.",
""
] |
History
-------
[240px\|thumb\|Overview of Enterprise Architecture Frameworks evolution (1987–2003\).[Jaap Schekkerman](/wiki/Jaap_Schekkerman "Jaap Schekkerman") (2004\) *How to Survive in the Jungle of Enterprise Architecture Frameworks*. p.89 gives a similar scheme. On the left: The [Zachman Framework](/wiki/Zachman_Framework "Zachman Framework") 1987, [NIST Enterprise Architecture](/wiki/NIST_Enterprise_Architecture_Model "NIST Enterprise Architecture Model") 1989, [EAP](/wiki/Enterprise_Architecture_Planning "Enterprise Architecture Planning") 1992, [TISAF](/wiki/TISAF "TISAF") 1997, [FEAF](/wiki/Federal_Enterprise_Architecture "Federal Enterprise Architecture") 1999 and [TEAF](/wiki/Treasury_Enterprise_Architecture_Framework "Treasury Enterprise Architecture Framework") 2000\. On the right: [TAFIM](/wiki/TAFIM "TAFIM") influenced by [POSIX](/wiki/POSIX "POSIX"), JTA, JTAA, [TOGAF](/wiki/TOGAF "TOGAF") 1995, DoD TRMUS Department of Defense (2001\) *[Department of Defense Technical Reference Model](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.196.5206&rep=rep1&type=pdf)*. Version 2\.0\. 9 April 2001\. p. 11, mentioned that also the DoD TRM is influenced by POSIX. and [C4ISR](/wiki/C4ISTAR "C4ISTAR") 1996, and [DoDAF](/wiki/DoDAF "DoDAF") 2003\.](/wiki/File:Evolution_of_Enterprise_Architecture_Frameworks.jpg "Evolution of Enterprise Architecture Frameworks.jpg")
The earliest rudiments of the step\-wise planning methodology currently advocated by [The Open Group Architecture Framework](/wiki/The_Open_Group_Architecture_Framework "The Open Group Architecture Framework") (TOGAF) and other EA frameworks can be traced back to the article of Marshall K. Evans and Lou R. Hague titled "Master Plan for Information Systems"Evans, M. K. and Hague, L. R. (1962\) *Master Plan for Information Systems*, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 92\-103\. published in 1962 in Harvard Business Review.Kotusev, Svyatoslav (2021\) *The Practice of Enterprise Architecture: A Modern Approach to Business and IT Alignment (2nd Edition)*. Melbourne, Australia: SK Publishing.
Since the 1970s people working in IS/IT have looked for ways to engage business people – to enable business roles and processes \- and to influence investment in business information systems and technologies – with a view to the wide and long term benefits of the enterprise. Many of the aims, principles, concepts and methods now employed in EA frameworks were established in the 1980s, and can be found in IS and IT architecture frameworks published in that decade and the next.Graham Berrisford (2008\-13\) "[A brief history of EA: what is in it and what is not](http://grahamberrisford.com/A%20brief%20history%20of%20EA.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918061630/http://grahamberrisford.com/A%20brief%20history%20of%20EA.htm \|date\=2013\-09\-18 }}" on *grahamberrisford.com*, last update 16/07/2013\. Accessed 16/07?2003
By 1980, IBM's [Business Systems Planning](/wiki/Business_Systems_Planning "Business Systems Planning") (BSP) was promoted as a method for analyzing and designing an organization's information architecture, with the following goals:
1. understand the issues and opportunities with the current applications and technical architecture;
2. develop a future state and migration path for the technology that supports the enterprise;
3. provide business executives with a direction and decision making framework for IT capital expenditures;
4. provide the information system (IS) with a blueprint for development.
In 1982, when working for IBM and with BSP, John Zachman outlined his framework for enterprise\-level "Information Systems Architecture". Then and in later papers, Zachman used the word enterprise as a synonym for business. "Although many popular information systems planning methodologies, design approaches, and various tools and techniques do not preclude or are not inconsistent with enterprise\-level analysis, few of them explicitly address or attempt to define enterprise architectures."[John Zachman](/wiki/John_Zachman "John Zachman") (1982\) *Business Systems Planning and Business Information Control Study: A comparison* in IBM Systems Journal 21(1\). p32\. However, in this article the term "Enterprise Architecture" was mentioned only once without any specific definition and all subsequent works of Zachman used the term "Information Systems Architecture".
In 1986, the [PRISM architecture framework](/wiki/PRISM_architecture_framework "PRISM architecture framework") was developed as a result of the research project sponsored by a group of companies, including IBM, which was seemingly the first published EA framework.Svyatoslav Kotusev (2016\). *The History of Enterprise Architecture: An Evidence\-Based Review*. In: Journal of Enterprise Architecture, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 29\-37\.
In 1987, John Zachman, who was a marketing specialist at IBM, published the paper, *A Framework for Information Systems Architecture*.[John A. Zachman](/wiki/John_A._Zachman "John A. Zachman") (1987\). *A Framework for Information Systems Architecture*. In: IBM Systems Journal, vol 26, no 3\. IBM Publication G321\-5298\. The paper provided a classification scheme for [artifacts](/wiki/Enterprise_architecture_artifacts "Enterprise architecture artifacts") that describe (at several levels of abstraction) the what, how, where, who, when and why of information systems. Given IBM already employed BSP, Zachman had no need to provide planning process. The paper did not mention enterprise architecture.
In 1989, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) published the [NIST Enterprise Architecture Model](/wiki/NIST_Enterprise_Architecture_Model "NIST Enterprise Architecture Model").W.B. Rigdon (1989\). *Architectures and Standards*. In Information Management Directions: The Integration Challenge (NIST Special Publication 500\-167\), E.N. Fong, A.H. Goldfine (Eds.), Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), pp.135\-150\. This was a five\-layer reference model that illustrates the interrelationship of business, information system, and technology domains. It was promoted within the U.S. federal government. It was not an EA framework as we see it now, but it helped to establish the notion of dividing EA into architecture domains or layers. The NIST Enterprise Architecture Model seemingly was the first publication that consistently used the term "Enterprise Architecture".
In 1990, the term "Enterprise Architecture" was formally defined for the first time as an architecture that "defines and interrelates data, hardware, software, and communications resources, as well as the supporting organization required to maintain the overall physical structure required by the architecture".{{cite journal \| last1 \= Richardson \| first1 \= G.L. \| last2 \= Jackson \| first2 \= B.M. \| last3 \= Dickson \| first3 \= G.W. \| year \= 1990 \| title \= A Principles\-Based Enterprise Architecture: Lessons from Texaco and Star Enterprise \| journal \= MIS Quarterly \| volume \= 14 \| issue \= 4\| pages \= 385–403 \| doi\=10\.2307/249787\| jstor \= 249787 }}
In 1992, a paper by Zachman and SowaZachman and Sowa (1992\) *Extending and formalising the framework of information systems architecture* IBM Systems Journal, Vol 31, No 3 started thus "John Zachman introduced a framework for information systems architecture (ISA) that has been widely adopted by systems analysts and database designers." The term enterprise architecture did not appear. The paper was about using the ISA framework to describe, “...the overall information system and how it relates to the enterprise and its surrounding environment.” The word enterprise was used as a synonym for business.
In 1993, Stephen Spewak's book [Enterprise Architecture Planning](/wiki/Enterprise_Architecture_Planning "Enterprise Architecture Planning") (EAP) defined a process for defining architectures for the use of information in support of the business and the plan for implementing those architectures. The business mission is the primary driver. Then the data required to satisfy the mission. Then the applications built to store and provide that data. Finally the technology to implement the applications. Enterprise Architecture Planning is a data\-centric approach to architecture planning. An aim is to improve data quality, access to data, adaptability to changing requirements, data interoperability and sharing, and cost containment. EAP has its roots in IBM's [Business Systems Planning](/wiki/Business_Systems_Planning "Business Systems Planning") (BSP).
In 1994, the Open Group selected [TAFIM](/wiki/TAFIM "TAFIM") from the US DoD as a basis for development of TOGAF, where architecture meant IT architecture. TOGAF started out taking a strategic and enterprise\-wide, but technology\-oriented, view. It emerged from the desire to rationalize a messy IT estate. Right up to version 7, TOGAF was still focused on defining and using a Technical Reference Model (or foundation architecture) to define the platform services required from the technologies that an entire enterprise uses to support business applications.
In 1996, the US *IT Management Reform Act*, more commonly known as the [Clinger\-Cohen Act](/wiki/Clinger-Cohen_Act "Clinger-Cohen Act"), repeatedly directed that a US federal government agency's investment in IT must be mapped to identifiable business benefits. In addition, it made the agency CIO responsible for, “...developing, maintaining and facilitating the implementation of a sound and integrated IT architecture for the executive agency.”
By 1997, Zachman had renamed and refocused his ISA framework as an EA framework; it remained a classification scheme for descriptive artifacts, not a process for planning systems or changes to systems.
In 1998, The Federal CIO Council began developing the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF) in accordance with the priorities enunciated in Clinger\-Cohen and issued it in 1999\. FEAF was a process much like TOGAF's ADM, in which “The architecture team generates a sequencing plan for the transition of systems, applications, and associated business practices predicated upon a detailed gap analysis \[between baseline and target architectures].”
In 2001, the US Chief CIO council published *A practical guide to Federal Enterprise Architecture*, which starts, “An enterprise architecture (EA) establishes the Agency\-wide roadmap to achieve an Agency's mission through optimal performance of its core business processes within an efficient information technology (IT) environment."
At that point, the processes in TOGAF, FEAF, EAP and BSP were clearly related.
In 2002/3, in its *Enterprise Edition*, TOGAF 8 shifted focus from the technology architecture layer to the higher business, data and application layers. It introduced structured analysis, after [information technology engineering](/wiki/Information_technology_engineering "Information technology engineering"), which features, for example, mappings of organization units to business functions and data entities to business functions. Today, business functions are often called business capabilities. And many enterprise architects regard their business function/capability hierarchy/map as the fundamental Enterprise Architecture artifact. They relate data entities, use cases, applications and technologies to the functions/capabilities.
In 2006, the popular book *Enterprise Architecture As Strategy*[Jeanne W. Ross](/wiki/Jeanne_W._Ross "Jeanne W. Ross"), [Peter Weill](/wiki/Peter_Weill "Peter Weill"), and [David C. Robertson](/wiki/David_C._Robertson "David C. Robertson") (2006\) *Enterprise Architecture As Strategy: Creating a Foundation for Business Execution*. Harvard Business Review Press reported the results of work by MIT's Center for Information System Research. This book emphasises the need for enterprise architects to focus on core business processes ("Companies excel because they've \[decided] which processes they must execute well, and have implemented the IT systems to digitise those processes.") and to engage business managers with the benefits that strategic cross\-organisational process integration and/or standardisation could provide.
A 2008 research project for the development of professional certificates in enterprise and solution architecture by the [British Computer Society](/wiki/British_Computer_Society "British Computer Society") (BCS) showed that enterprise architecture has always been inseparable from information system architecture, which is natural, since business people need information to make decisions and carry out business processes.
In 2011, the TOGAF 9\.1\. specification says: "Business planning at the strategy level provides the initial direction to enterprise architecture."The Open Group (2011\) *[TOGAF® 9\.1 \> Part II: Architecture Development Method (ADM) \> Preliminary Phase](http://pubs.opengroup.org/architecture/togaf9-doc/arch/chap05.html)*. Accessed July 16, 2013 Normally, the business principles, business goals, and strategic drivers of the organization are defined elsewhere. In other words, Enterprise Architecture is not a business strategy, planning or management methodology. Enterprise Architecture strives to align business information systems technology with given business strategy, goals and drivers. The TOGAF 9\.1 specification clarified, that, "A complete enterprise architecture description should contain all four architecture domains (business, data, application, technology), but the realities of resource and time constraints often mean there is not enough time, funding, or resources to build a top\-down, all\-inclusive architecture description encompassing all four architecture domains, even if the enterprise scope is \[...] less than the full extent of the overall enterprise."The Open Group (2011\) *[TOGAF® 9\.1 \> Part II: Architecture Development Method (ADM) \> Introduction to the ADM](http://pubs.opengroup.org/architecture/togaf9-doc/arch/chap05.html)*. Accessed July 16, 2013
In 2013, [TOGAF](/wiki/TOGAF "TOGAF")TOGAF 9\.1 White Paper An Introduction to TOGAF Version 9\.1 <http://www.opengroup.org/togaf/> is the most popular Architecture framework (judged by published certification numbers) that some assume it defines EA. However, some still use the term Enterprise Architecture as a synonym for Business Architecture, rather than covering all four architecture domains \- business, data, applications and technology.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[240px\\|thumb\\|Overview of Enterprise Architecture Frameworks evolution (1987–2003\\).[Jaap Schekkerman](/wiki/Jaap_Schekkerman \"Jaap Schekkerman\") (2004\\) *How to Survive in the Jungle of Enterprise Architecture Frameworks*. p.89 gives a similar scheme. On the left: The [Zachman Framework](/wiki/Zachman_Framework \"Zachman Framework\") 1987, [NIST Enterprise Architecture](/wiki/NIST_Enterprise_Architecture_Model \"NIST Enterprise Architecture Model\") 1989, [EAP](/wiki/Enterprise_Architecture_Planning \"Enterprise Architecture Planning\") 1992, [TISAF](/wiki/TISAF \"TISAF\") 1997, [FEAF](/wiki/Federal_Enterprise_Architecture \"Federal Enterprise Architecture\") 1999 and [TEAF](/wiki/Treasury_Enterprise_Architecture_Framework \"Treasury Enterprise Architecture Framework\") 2000\\. On the right: [TAFIM](/wiki/TAFIM \"TAFIM\") influenced by [POSIX](/wiki/POSIX \"POSIX\"), JTA, JTAA, [TOGAF](/wiki/TOGAF \"TOGAF\") 1995, DoD TRMUS Department of Defense (2001\\) *[Department of Defense Technical Reference Model](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.196.5206&rep=rep1&type=pdf)*. Version 2\\.0\\. 9 April 2001\\. p. 11, mentioned that also the DoD TRM is influenced by POSIX. and [C4ISR](/wiki/C4ISTAR \"C4ISTAR\") 1996, and [DoDAF](/wiki/DoDAF \"DoDAF\") 2003\\.](/wiki/File:Evolution_of_Enterprise_Architecture_Frameworks.jpg \"Evolution of Enterprise Architecture Frameworks.jpg\")",
"The earliest rudiments of the step\\-wise planning methodology currently advocated by [The Open Group Architecture Framework](/wiki/The_Open_Group_Architecture_Framework \"The Open Group Architecture Framework\") (TOGAF) and other EA frameworks can be traced back to the article of Marshall K. Evans and Lou R. Hague titled \"Master Plan for Information Systems\"Evans, M. K. and Hague, L. R. (1962\\) *Master Plan for Information Systems*, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 92\\-103\\. published in 1962 in Harvard Business Review.Kotusev, Svyatoslav (2021\\) *The Practice of Enterprise Architecture: A Modern Approach to Business and IT Alignment (2nd Edition)*. Melbourne, Australia: SK Publishing.",
"Since the 1970s people working in IS/IT have looked for ways to engage business people – to enable business roles and processes \\- and to influence investment in business information systems and technologies – with a view to the wide and long term benefits of the enterprise. Many of the aims, principles, concepts and methods now employed in EA frameworks were established in the 1980s, and can be found in IS and IT architecture frameworks published in that decade and the next.Graham Berrisford (2008\\-13\\) \"[A brief history of EA: what is in it and what is not](http://grahamberrisford.com/A%20brief%20history%20of%20EA.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918061630/http://grahamberrisford.com/A%20brief%20history%20of%20EA.htm \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-18 }}\" on *grahamberrisford.com*, last update 16/07/2013\\. Accessed 16/07?2003",
"By 1980, IBM's [Business Systems Planning](/wiki/Business_Systems_Planning \"Business Systems Planning\") (BSP) was promoted as a method for analyzing and designing an organization's information architecture, with the following goals:\n1. understand the issues and opportunities with the current applications and technical architecture;\n2. develop a future state and migration path for the technology that supports the enterprise;\n3. provide business executives with a direction and decision making framework for IT capital expenditures;\n4. provide the information system (IS) with a blueprint for development.",
"In 1982, when working for IBM and with BSP, John Zachman outlined his framework for enterprise\\-level \"Information Systems Architecture\". Then and in later papers, Zachman used the word enterprise as a synonym for business. \"Although many popular information systems planning methodologies, design approaches, and various tools and techniques do not preclude or are not inconsistent with enterprise\\-level analysis, few of them explicitly address or attempt to define enterprise architectures.\"[John Zachman](/wiki/John_Zachman \"John Zachman\") (1982\\) *Business Systems Planning and Business Information Control Study: A comparison* in IBM Systems Journal 21(1\\). p32\\. However, in this article the term \"Enterprise Architecture\" was mentioned only once without any specific definition and all subsequent works of Zachman used the term \"Information Systems Architecture\".",
"In 1986, the [PRISM architecture framework](/wiki/PRISM_architecture_framework \"PRISM architecture framework\") was developed as a result of the research project sponsored by a group of companies, including IBM, which was seemingly the first published EA framework.Svyatoslav Kotusev (2016\\). *The History of Enterprise Architecture: An Evidence\\-Based Review*. In: Journal of Enterprise Architecture, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 29\\-37\\.",
"In 1987, John Zachman, who was a marketing specialist at IBM, published the paper, *A Framework for Information Systems Architecture*.[John A. Zachman](/wiki/John_A._Zachman \"John A. Zachman\") (1987\\). *A Framework for Information Systems Architecture*. In: IBM Systems Journal, vol 26, no 3\\. IBM Publication G321\\-5298\\. The paper provided a classification scheme for [artifacts](/wiki/Enterprise_architecture_artifacts \"Enterprise architecture artifacts\") that describe (at several levels of abstraction) the what, how, where, who, when and why of information systems. Given IBM already employed BSP, Zachman had no need to provide planning process. The paper did not mention enterprise architecture.",
"In 1989, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) published the [NIST Enterprise Architecture Model](/wiki/NIST_Enterprise_Architecture_Model \"NIST Enterprise Architecture Model\").W.B. Rigdon (1989\\). *Architectures and Standards*. In Information Management Directions: The Integration Challenge (NIST Special Publication 500\\-167\\), E.N. Fong, A.H. Goldfine (Eds.), Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), pp.135\\-150\\. This was a five\\-layer reference model that illustrates the interrelationship of business, information system, and technology domains. It was promoted within the U.S. federal government. It was not an EA framework as we see it now, but it helped to establish the notion of dividing EA into architecture domains or layers. The NIST Enterprise Architecture Model seemingly was the first publication that consistently used the term \"Enterprise Architecture\".",
"In 1990, the term \"Enterprise Architecture\" was formally defined for the first time as an architecture that \"defines and interrelates data, hardware, software, and communications resources, as well as the supporting organization required to maintain the overall physical structure required by the architecture\".{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Richardson \\| first1 \\= G.L. \\| last2 \\= Jackson \\| first2 \\= B.M. \\| last3 \\= Dickson \\| first3 \\= G.W. \\| year \\= 1990 \\| title \\= A Principles\\-Based Enterprise Architecture: Lessons from Texaco and Star Enterprise \\| journal \\= MIS Quarterly \\| volume \\= 14 \\| issue \\= 4\\| pages \\= 385–403 \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/249787\\| jstor \\= 249787 }}",
"In 1992, a paper by Zachman and SowaZachman and Sowa (1992\\) *Extending and formalising the framework of information systems architecture* IBM Systems Journal, Vol 31, No 3 started thus \"John Zachman introduced a framework for information systems architecture (ISA) that has been widely adopted by systems analysts and database designers.\" The term enterprise architecture did not appear. The paper was about using the ISA framework to describe, “...the overall information system and how it relates to the enterprise and its surrounding environment.” The word enterprise was used as a synonym for business.",
"In 1993, Stephen Spewak's book [Enterprise Architecture Planning](/wiki/Enterprise_Architecture_Planning \"Enterprise Architecture Planning\") (EAP) defined a process for defining architectures for the use of information in support of the business and the plan for implementing those architectures. The business mission is the primary driver. Then the data required to satisfy the mission. Then the applications built to store and provide that data. Finally the technology to implement the applications. Enterprise Architecture Planning is a data\\-centric approach to architecture planning. An aim is to improve data quality, access to data, adaptability to changing requirements, data interoperability and sharing, and cost containment. EAP has its roots in IBM's [Business Systems Planning](/wiki/Business_Systems_Planning \"Business Systems Planning\") (BSP).",
"In 1994, the Open Group selected [TAFIM](/wiki/TAFIM \"TAFIM\") from the US DoD as a basis for development of TOGAF, where architecture meant IT architecture. TOGAF started out taking a strategic and enterprise\\-wide, but technology\\-oriented, view. It emerged from the desire to rationalize a messy IT estate. Right up to version 7, TOGAF was still focused on defining and using a Technical Reference Model (or foundation architecture) to define the platform services required from the technologies that an entire enterprise uses to support business applications.",
"In 1996, the US *IT Management Reform Act*, more commonly known as the [Clinger\\-Cohen Act](/wiki/Clinger-Cohen_Act \"Clinger-Cohen Act\"), repeatedly directed that a US federal government agency's investment in IT must be mapped to identifiable business benefits. In addition, it made the agency CIO responsible for, “...developing, maintaining and facilitating the implementation of a sound and integrated IT architecture for the executive agency.”",
"By 1997, Zachman had renamed and refocused his ISA framework as an EA framework; it remained a classification scheme for descriptive artifacts, not a process for planning systems or changes to systems.",
"In 1998, The Federal CIO Council began developing the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF) in accordance with the priorities enunciated in Clinger\\-Cohen and issued it in 1999\\. FEAF was a process much like TOGAF's ADM, in which “The architecture team generates a sequencing plan for the transition of systems, applications, and associated business practices predicated upon a detailed gap analysis \\[between baseline and target architectures].”",
"In 2001, the US Chief CIO council published *A practical guide to Federal Enterprise Architecture*, which starts, “An enterprise architecture (EA) establishes the Agency\\-wide roadmap to achieve an Agency's mission through optimal performance of its core business processes within an efficient information technology (IT) environment.\"\nAt that point, the processes in TOGAF, FEAF, EAP and BSP were clearly related.",
"In 2002/3, in its *Enterprise Edition*, TOGAF 8 shifted focus from the technology architecture layer to the higher business, data and application layers. It introduced structured analysis, after [information technology engineering](/wiki/Information_technology_engineering \"Information technology engineering\"), which features, for example, mappings of organization units to business functions and data entities to business functions. Today, business functions are often called business capabilities. And many enterprise architects regard their business function/capability hierarchy/map as the fundamental Enterprise Architecture artifact. They relate data entities, use cases, applications and technologies to the functions/capabilities.",
"In 2006, the popular book *Enterprise Architecture As Strategy*[Jeanne W. Ross](/wiki/Jeanne_W._Ross \"Jeanne W. Ross\"), [Peter Weill](/wiki/Peter_Weill \"Peter Weill\"), and [David C. Robertson](/wiki/David_C._Robertson \"David C. Robertson\") (2006\\) *Enterprise Architecture As Strategy: Creating a Foundation for Business Execution*. Harvard Business Review Press reported the results of work by MIT's Center for Information System Research. This book emphasises the need for enterprise architects to focus on core business processes (\"Companies excel because they've \\[decided] which processes they must execute well, and have implemented the IT systems to digitise those processes.\") and to engage business managers with the benefits that strategic cross\\-organisational process integration and/or standardisation could provide.",
"A 2008 research project for the development of professional certificates in enterprise and solution architecture by the [British Computer Society](/wiki/British_Computer_Society \"British Computer Society\") (BCS) showed that enterprise architecture has always been inseparable from information system architecture, which is natural, since business people need information to make decisions and carry out business processes.",
"In 2011, the TOGAF 9\\.1\\. specification says: \"Business planning at the strategy level provides the initial direction to enterprise architecture.\"The Open Group (2011\\) *[TOGAF® 9\\.1 \\> Part II: Architecture Development Method (ADM) \\> Preliminary Phase](http://pubs.opengroup.org/architecture/togaf9-doc/arch/chap05.html)*. Accessed July 16, 2013 Normally, the business principles, business goals, and strategic drivers of the organization are defined elsewhere. In other words, Enterprise Architecture is not a business strategy, planning or management methodology. Enterprise Architecture strives to align business information systems technology with given business strategy, goals and drivers. The TOGAF 9\\.1 specification clarified, that, \"A complete enterprise architecture description should contain all four architecture domains (business, data, application, technology), but the realities of resource and time constraints often mean there is not enough time, funding, or resources to build a top\\-down, all\\-inclusive architecture description encompassing all four architecture domains, even if the enterprise scope is \\[...] less than the full extent of the overall enterprise.\"The Open Group (2011\\) *[TOGAF® 9\\.1 \\> Part II: Architecture Development Method (ADM) \\> Introduction to the ADM](http://pubs.opengroup.org/architecture/togaf9-doc/arch/chap05.html)*. Accessed July 16, 2013",
"In 2013, [TOGAF](/wiki/TOGAF \"TOGAF\")TOGAF 9\\.1 White Paper An Introduction to TOGAF Version 9\\.1 <http://www.opengroup.org/togaf/> is the most popular Architecture framework (judged by published certification numbers) that some assume it defines EA. However, some still use the term Enterprise Architecture as a synonym for Business Architecture, rather than covering all four architecture domains \\- business, data, applications and technology.",
""
] |
Components of enterprise architecture framework
-----------------------------------------------
In addition to three major framework components discussed above.
1. Description advice: some kind of Architecture Artifacts Map or Viewpoint Library
2. Process advice: some kind of Architecture Development Method, with supporting guidance.
3. Organization advice: including an EA Governance Model
An ideal EA framework should feature:
1. Business value measurement metrics
2. EA initiative model
3. EA maturity model
4. Enterprise communication model
Most modern EA frameworks (e.g. TOGAF, ASSIMPLER, EAF) include most of the above. Zachman has always focused on architecture description advice.
### Enterprise architecture domains and subdomains
[thumb\|320px\|Enterprise architecture reference architecture with sub domains](/wiki/File:Enterprise_Architecture_Domain_Reference_Architecture.JPG "Enterprise Architecture Domain Reference Architecture.JPG")
The application and technology domains (not to be confused with business domains) are characterized by domain capabilities and domain services. The capabilities are supported by the services. The application services are also referred to in [service\-oriented architecture](/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture "Service-oriented architecture") (SOA). The technical services are typically supported by software products.
The data view starts with the data classes which can be decomposed into data subjects which can be further decomposed into data entities. The basic data model type which is most commonly used is called merda (master entity relationship diagrams assessment, see [entity\-relationship model](/wiki/Entity-relationship_model "Entity-relationship model")). The Class, subject and entity forms a hierarchical view of data. Enterprises may have millions of instances of data entities.
The Enterprise Architecture Reference Traditional Model offers a clear distinction between the architecture domains (business, information/data, application/integration and technical/infrastructure). These domains can be further divided into Sub domain disciplines. An example of the EA domain and subdomains is in the image on the right.
Many enterprise architecture teams consist of Individuals with Skills aligned with the Enterprise Architecture Domains and sub\-domain disciplines. Here are some examples: enterprise business architect, enterprise documentational architect, enterprise application architect, enterprise infrastructure architect, enterprise information architect, etc.
An example of the list of reference architecture patterns in the application and information architecture domains are available at [Architectural pattern (computer science)](/wiki/Architectural_pattern_%28computer_science%29 "Architectural pattern (computer science)").
### View model
[thumb\|354px\|Illustration of the [4\+1 view model of architecture](/wiki/4%2B1 "4+1").](/wiki/File:4%2B1_Architectural_View_Model.svg "4+1 Architectural View Model.svg")
A [view model](/wiki/View_model "View model") is a framework that defines the set of views or approaches used in [systems analysis](/wiki/Systems_analysis "Systems analysis"), [systems design](/wiki/Systems_design "Systems design"), or the construction of an [enterprise architecture](/wiki/Enterprise_architecture "Enterprise architecture").
Since the early 1990s, there have been a number of efforts to define standard approaches for describing and analyzing system architectures. Many of the recent Enterprise Architecture frameworks have some kind of set of views defined, but these sets are not always called *view models*.
### Standardization
Perhaps the best\-known standard in the field of [software architecture](/wiki/Software_architecture "Software architecture") and [system architecture](/wiki/System_architecture "System architecture") started life as [IEEE 1471](/wiki/IEEE_1471 "IEEE 1471"), an [IEEE Standard](/wiki/IEEE_Standard "IEEE Standard") for describing the *architecture of a software\-intensive system* approved in 2000\.
In its latest version, the standard is published as [ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010:2011](/wiki/ISO/IEC_42010 "ISO/IEC 42010"). The standard defines an architecture framework as *conventions, principles and practices for the description of architectures established within a specific domain of application and/or community of stakeholders*, and proposes an architecture framework is specified by:
1. the relevant stakeholders in the domain,
2. the types of concerns arising in that domain,
3. architecture viewpoints framing those concerns and
4. correspondence rules integrating those viewpoints cited before.
Architecture frameworks conforming to the standard can include additional methods, tools, definitions, and practices beyond those specified.
|
[
"Components of enterprise architecture framework\n-----------------------------------------------",
"In addition to three major framework components discussed above. \n1. Description advice: some kind of Architecture Artifacts Map or Viewpoint Library\n2. Process advice: some kind of Architecture Development Method, with supporting guidance.\n3. Organization advice: including an EA Governance Model",
"An ideal EA framework should feature:\n1. Business value measurement metrics\n2. EA initiative model\n3. EA maturity model\n4. Enterprise communication model",
"Most modern EA frameworks (e.g. TOGAF, ASSIMPLER, EAF) include most of the above. Zachman has always focused on architecture description advice.",
"### Enterprise architecture domains and subdomains",
"[thumb\\|320px\\|Enterprise architecture reference architecture with sub domains](/wiki/File:Enterprise_Architecture_Domain_Reference_Architecture.JPG \"Enterprise Architecture Domain Reference Architecture.JPG\")\nThe application and technology domains (not to be confused with business domains) are characterized by domain capabilities and domain services. The capabilities are supported by the services. The application services are also referred to in [service\\-oriented architecture](/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture \"Service-oriented architecture\") (SOA). The technical services are typically supported by software products.",
"The data view starts with the data classes which can be decomposed into data subjects which can be further decomposed into data entities. The basic data model type which is most commonly used is called merda (master entity relationship diagrams assessment, see [entity\\-relationship model](/wiki/Entity-relationship_model \"Entity-relationship model\")). The Class, subject and entity forms a hierarchical view of data. Enterprises may have millions of instances of data entities.",
"The Enterprise Architecture Reference Traditional Model offers a clear distinction between the architecture domains (business, information/data, application/integration and technical/infrastructure). These domains can be further divided into Sub domain disciplines. An example of the EA domain and subdomains is in the image on the right.",
"Many enterprise architecture teams consist of Individuals with Skills aligned with the Enterprise Architecture Domains and sub\\-domain disciplines. Here are some examples: enterprise business architect, enterprise documentational architect, enterprise application architect, enterprise infrastructure architect, enterprise information architect, etc.",
"An example of the list of reference architecture patterns in the application and information architecture domains are available at [Architectural pattern (computer science)](/wiki/Architectural_pattern_%28computer_science%29 \"Architectural pattern (computer science)\").",
"### View model",
"[thumb\\|354px\\|Illustration of the [4\\+1 view model of architecture](/wiki/4%2B1 \"4+1\").](/wiki/File:4%2B1_Architectural_View_Model.svg \"4+1 Architectural View Model.svg\")\nA [view model](/wiki/View_model \"View model\") is a framework that defines the set of views or approaches used in [systems analysis](/wiki/Systems_analysis \"Systems analysis\"), [systems design](/wiki/Systems_design \"Systems design\"), or the construction of an [enterprise architecture](/wiki/Enterprise_architecture \"Enterprise architecture\").",
"Since the early 1990s, there have been a number of efforts to define standard approaches for describing and analyzing system architectures. Many of the recent Enterprise Architecture frameworks have some kind of set of views defined, but these sets are not always called *view models*.",
"### Standardization",
"Perhaps the best\\-known standard in the field of [software architecture](/wiki/Software_architecture \"Software architecture\") and [system architecture](/wiki/System_architecture \"System architecture\") started life as [IEEE 1471](/wiki/IEEE_1471 \"IEEE 1471\"), an [IEEE Standard](/wiki/IEEE_Standard \"IEEE Standard\") for describing the *architecture of a software\\-intensive system* approved in 2000\\.",
"In its latest version, the standard is published as [ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010:2011](/wiki/ISO/IEC_42010 \"ISO/IEC 42010\"). The standard defines an architecture framework as *conventions, principles and practices for the description of architectures established within a specific domain of application and/or community of stakeholders*, and proposes an architecture framework is specified by:",
"1. the relevant stakeholders in the domain,\n2. the types of concerns arising in that domain,\n3. architecture viewpoints framing those concerns and\n4. correspondence rules integrating those viewpoints cited before.",
"Architecture frameworks conforming to the standard can include additional methods, tools, definitions, and practices beyond those specified.",
""
] |
Service history
---------------
### Early service, 1889–1898
{{stack\|\[\[File:SS City of Paris (1889 ship) by Jacobsen, painted 1889\.webp\|thumb\|''City of Paris'' in 1889\. Oil\-on\-canvas painting by \[\[Antonio Jacobsen]]]]}}
*City of Paris* was launched seven months after *City of New York* and began her maiden voyage on 3 April 1889\. A month later, she won the Blue Riband with an average speed of 19\.95 knots on the first westbound voyage under six days. On March 25, 1890 *City of Paris* was steaming towards Liverpool when her starboard propeller shaft broke, causing the starboard engine to race and then disintegrate. Fragments pierced the hull and the bulkhead causing both engine rooms to flood. Fortunately, the ship's extensive subdivision proved successful and she was not in danger of sinking. However, *City of Paris* was dead in the water and was towed to [Queenstown](/wiki/Cobh "Cobh") by the tramp steamer *Aldersgate*, commanded by Captain \- and Master Mariner \- George Humphrey James Chesshire. It was ultimately determined that the accident was caused by failure to synchronize the engines, a common problem with early twin screw express liners. *City of Paris* was out of service for a year undergoing repairs. In July 1891, her westbound speed record was broken by White Star's {{SS\|Majestic\|1890\|2}} and then {{SS\|Teutonic\|1889\|2}}. *City of Paris* regained the Blue Riband in 1892 and held it until 1893 when Cunard's {{RMS\|Campania\|3\=2}} entered service.
International Navigation did not register most of its ships in the United States because of high American wage rates. Even before *City of Paris* was completed, the British Government responded to Inman's ownership change by revoking the line's mail contract. International Navigation lobbied the US Congress to replace the subsidy. Under US law, only US built ships could be registered there. After considerable controversy, Congress waived this requirement for Inman's two record breakers and enacted the subsidy. Under this legislation, International Navigation was required to build two similar ships in the US and make all four twin screw liners available to the government in the event of a crisis. On February 22, 1893, the Inman Line was officially merged into International Navigation's American Line and *New York*{{'}}s American flag was raised by President [Benjamin Harrison](/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison "Benjamin Harrison"). As *Paris* was in the UK preparing to depart from Liverpool, her American flag was raised two weeks later by Clement Griscom's 13\-year\-old daughter when the ship arrived in New York. As a part of the change, the former Inman liners used [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton "Southampton") as their UK destination.
### Spanish–American War, April–September 1898
During the mid\-1890s, the Navy stored guns at the [Brooklyn Navy Yard](/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard "Brooklyn Navy Yard") to speed the conversion of *Paris* and her running mates in case of war. On April 14, 1898, ten days before the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Spanish–American War") was declared, the Navy requisitioned the big four as auxiliary cruisers. The [U.S. Navy](/wiki/U.S._Navy "U.S. Navy") chartered her on 27 April 1898 from the [International Navigation Co.](/wiki/International_Navigation_Co. "International Navigation Co.") *Paris* was approaching Southampton and did not arrive in New York until April 28\. In just three days, the Navy installed her 12 six\-inch main guns, 20 six\-pounders and numerous secondary weapons. Under the command of Captain William Wise USN, the renamed *Yale*, commissioned on 2 May 1898, was dispatched to Puerto Rico to look for the Spanish fleet.
On the day of her commissioning into the Navy, *Yale* put to sea from New York, bound for [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico") to patrol and help locate Admiral [Cervera](/wiki/Pascual_Cervera_y_Topete "Pascual Cervera y Topete")'s Spanish fleet.
[thumb\|left\|USS *Yale* in Cuba](/wiki/File:USS_Yale.jpg "USS Yale.jpg")
Off of [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico "San Juan, Puerto Rico"), Captain Wise realized that he must pass the Spanish guns at [Morro Castle](/wiki/Castillo_San_Felipe_del_Morro "Castillo San Felipe del Morro") and sail into the harbor to determine if the Spanish fleet was anchored there. Because *Yale* had not been painted gray, she still looked like a passenger liner. Wise knew that the Spanish government was trying to acquire passenger ships and that one of the vessels potentially available was the Anchor (former Inman) *City of Rome*, which was almost identical to the *Yale*. In fact, *City of Rome* was later chartered by the Spanish. The Captain ordered the Union Jack raised along with *City of Rome's* recognition signals as *Yale* passed the fort. After determining that the Spanish fleet was not in the harbor, *Yale* dipped her flag in salute as she returned to sea. The Spanish returned the compliment, not realizing that an American auxiliary cruiser was directly under the fort's guns. When out of range, *Yale* captured (2 May 1898\) the Spanish Steamer *Rita* and put a prize crew aboard to sail her to [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina "Charleston, South Carolina").
The following day she had another brief encounter with the enemy off San Juan when a Spanish armed transport came out and fired a few shots. *Yale* was far more weakly armed than her opponent and retired from the scene. She returned to San Juan the following day, where a shore battery at [Castillo San Cristóbal](/wiki/Castillo_San_Crist%C3%B3bal_%28San_Juan%29 "Castillo San Cristóbal (San Juan)"), under the orders of [Captain Angel Rivero Mendez](/wiki/Angel_Rivero_Mendez "Angel Rivero Mendez"), fired two poorly aimed shots at her with its [Ordóñez guns](/wiki/Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez_guns "Ordóñez guns"); both shots fell far short.
Pursuant to her orders, *Yale* patrolled off Puerto Rico until 13 May, at which time she left for [St. Thomas](/wiki/Saint_Thomas%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands "Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands") in the [Danish West Indies](/wiki/Danish_West_Indies "Danish West Indies") ([Virgin Islands](/wiki/Virgin_Islands "Virgin Islands")) to telegraph her report to [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."). She returned briefly to Puerto Rico on 16 and 17 May, then headed for [Cap\-Haïtien](/wiki/Cap-Ha%C3%AFtien "Cap-Haïtien"), Haiti, in company with *St. Paul*. She remained at Cap\-Haïtien until 21 May, then headed for waters off [Santiago de Cuba](/wiki/Santiago_de_Cuba "Santiago de Cuba") where the Spanish fleet had been discovered. *Yale* remained there while the United States fleet assembled off Santiago to blockade Cervera's ships in that port. On the 28th, she quit the area; stopped briefly at [Port Antonio](/wiki/Port_Antonio "Port Antonio"), Jamaica; and then set a course for [Newport News, Virginia](/wiki/Newport_News%2C_Virginia "Newport News, Virginia"). The ship spent 20 days at Newport News, heading back to Cuba on 23 June. She arrived off Santiago on 27 June but remained there only two days. On the 29th, she got underway for [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida "Key West, Florida"), stopping there overnight on 3 and 4 July before continuing on to Charleston. *Yale* returned to Santiago on 11 July and remained in Cuban waters until the 17th. On July 22, *Yale* left Cuba as the command ship on the Puerto Rico expedition under General [Miles](/wiki/Nelson_A._Miles "Nelson A. Miles"). After participating in the invasion of Puerto Rico at [Guánica, Puerto Rico](/wiki/Gu%C3%A1nica%2C_Puerto_Rico "Guánica, Puerto Rico"), she set a course for New York on 26 July. She spent most of the first two weeks of August in New York and returned to Cuba on the 15th. Remaining only briefly, she embarked troops for the return voyage to New York. *Yale* arrived back in New York on 23 August and remained there until decommissioned on 2 September 1898\. Though returned to her owners after decommissioning, *Yale* was not struck from the Navy List until 3 July 1899\. She returned to merchant service—first under the name SS *City of Paris*.
### Return to commercial service, 1898–1913
{{multiple image
\| align \= left
\| width \= 165
\| image1 \= Officers of the sunken steamship Vindobala.jpg
\| image2 \= Seamen of the sunken steamship Vindobala.jpg
\| footer \= Rescued officers (left) and seamen of ''Vindobala'' aboard ''Paris''
}}
*Paris* returned to her regular trade and in December 1898 rescued 22 of 23 seamen aboard the British *Vindobala* before the tanker sank during a bad winter storm.
[thumb\|*Paris* beached on The Manacles Reef in 1899](/wiki/File:1899_-_SS_Paris_beached_at_Manacles%2C_Cornwall.jpg "1899 - SS Paris beached at Manacles, Cornwall.jpg")
While westbound on 21 May 1899, *Paris* ran aground in fog on [The Manacles](/wiki/The_Manacles "The Manacles") off the coast of [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall "Cornwall").{{cite web \|title\=Paris \|url\=https://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?14509 \|website\=Wrecksite \|publisher\=Adelante EBVBA \|access\-date\=16 July 2022 \|location\=Affligem, Belgium}}
The supervising salvage engineer was Matthew Wheldon Aisbitt (Superintendent, Cardiff Docks) and the scanned image is taken from his 1900 photograph album, which includes his original notes.
The *Paris* ran aground mere metres from another steamer, {{SS\|Mohegan\|\|2}}, which had sunk 9 months earlier with a loss of 106 of 197 onboard; in fact, she almost struck the sunken ship. Captain Watkins was held by the New York Board of Inspectors of Steam Vessels to have been wholly responsible for the negligent navigation of his ship and had his master's certificate suspended for two years.{{cite news \|title\=Our American Letter \- The Loss of the Paris \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000081/18990711/013/0007 \|access\-date\=16 July 2022 \|work\=Liverpool Mercury \|issue\=16079 \|date\=11 July 1899 \|page\=7\|via\=British Newspaper Archive}} At first, *Paris* appeared to be a total loss and was not refloated until 11 July.{{cite news \|title\=The Liner Paris \- Floated off the Rocks last Night \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000329/18990712/104/0005 \|access\-date\=16 July 2022 \|work\=Western Morning News \|issue\=12,300 \|date\=12 July 1899 \|location\=Plymouth \|page\=5\|via\=British Newspaper Archive}} After she was pulled from the rocks, the badly damaged ship was rebuilt at [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), Ireland, receiving new engines and having her triple smokestacks replaced by a pair of taller ones.
[thumb\|SS *Philadelphia*](/wiki/File:City_of_paris.jpg "City of paris.jpg")
Renamed *Philadelphia*, she finally resumed North Atlantic passenger service in August 1901\.
Early in 1902 [Guglielmo Marconi](/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi "Guglielmo Marconi"), while aboard *Philadelphia* off New York, sent and received radio signals over a distance of 1,800 miles. In 1908 the British family of [Bob Hope](/wiki/Bob_Hope "Bob Hope") emigrated to New York on the *Philadelphia*, and were processed at [Ellis Island](/wiki/Ellis_Island "Ellis Island"). "Ellis Island's Famous Immigrants", Barry Moreno, 2008, Arcadia, Charleston, SC, {{isbn\|978\-0\-7385\-5533\-1}}, p. 207
In 1913, *Philadelphia* was downgraded to a second\- and third\-class\-only liner. At the beginning of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the American Line reverted to Liverpool for their UK terminal. As a neutral flagged liner, *Philadelphia* was very profitable until the United States entered the war.
### World War I
In 1918 she was recommissioned as **USS *Harrisburg*** (ID \# 1663\) in late May, as a troop transport under the command of Commander Wallace Bertholf. For the remainder of the conflict she continued to take troops to Europe, making four voyages to England and France before the November 1918 Armistice brought an end to the fighting. She then reversed the flow, making six more trips to transport servicemen home from the former war zone. USS *Harrisburg* was decommissioned in September 1919\.
### Postwar service and fate, 1919–1923
Returned to her owners in September 1919 and again named *Philadelphia*, she resumed sailings on the New York–Southampton route for nine months until the American Line suspended that service. In 1922 the ship was purchased by newly\-formed New York\-Naples Steamship Company, which planned to use her on the Mediterranean service.
In August 1922, during her first eastbound voyage's stopover at Naples, the crew of *Philadelphia* mutinied. The ship was in arrears from repairs received in the [Bay of Naples](/wiki/Bay_of_Naples "Bay of Naples") and Italian customs officials refused her permission to depart. Contemporaneous news outlets described the crew as [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks") and members of the [Industrial Workers of the World](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World "Industrial Workers of the World"). True or not, they ransacked and burned the ship, and she was beached on 26 August 1922,{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=Casualty reports \|date\=28 August 1922 \|page\=17 \|issue\=43121 \|column\=D\-E }} leading the Italian authorities to arrest them.{{Cite news\|newspaper\=\[\[The Advocate (Tasmania)]]\|title\=Naples Mutiny\|date\=1922\-08\-25\|page\=1\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article66729073}}{{Cite news\|title\=Booze, Brawls and Blaze on Terror Voyage\|newspaper\=\[\[New\-York Tribune]]\|date\=1922\-09\-08\|page\=6\|url\=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1922\-09\-08/ed\-1/seq\-6/}} *Philadelphia* was scrapped in 1923\.{{Cite news\|title\=Crew of Philadelphia Tell of Mutiny in Naples Harbor\|newspaper\=\[\[The Telegram (Herkimer)\|The Evening Telegram]]\|date\=1922\-09\-07\|pages\=1, 4\|url\=http://fultonhistory.com/Newspapers%206/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram%201922%20Sep%20\-%20Oct%20%20Grayscale/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram%201922%20Sep%20\-%20Oct%20%20Grayscale%20\-%200117\.pdf}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=tvE\-IU8EpWEC\&pg\=PA95\|page\=95\|title\=No Monkey Business in This House!\|author\-first\=John\|author\-last\=Urrutia\|publisher\=\[\[iUniverse]]\|year\=2012\|isbn\=9781475932287}}{{Cite journal\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=yn09AQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA302\|page\=302\|date\=1922\-09\-02\|title\=Sidelights\|journal\=\[\[The Nautical Gazette]]\|volume\=103\|issue\=10\|editor\-last\=Villard\|editor\-first\=Harold G.}}
|
[
"Service history\n---------------",
"### Early service, 1889–1898",
"{{stack\\|\\[\\[File:SS City of Paris (1889 ship) by Jacobsen, painted 1889\\.webp\\|thumb\\|''City of Paris'' in 1889\\. Oil\\-on\\-canvas painting by \\[\\[Antonio Jacobsen]]]]}}\n*City of Paris* was launched seven months after *City of New York* and began her maiden voyage on 3 April 1889\\. A month later, she won the Blue Riband with an average speed of 19\\.95 knots on the first westbound voyage under six days. On March 25, 1890 *City of Paris* was steaming towards Liverpool when her starboard propeller shaft broke, causing the starboard engine to race and then disintegrate. Fragments pierced the hull and the bulkhead causing both engine rooms to flood. Fortunately, the ship's extensive subdivision proved successful and she was not in danger of sinking. However, *City of Paris* was dead in the water and was towed to [Queenstown](/wiki/Cobh \"Cobh\") by the tramp steamer *Aldersgate*, commanded by Captain \\- and Master Mariner \\- George Humphrey James Chesshire. It was ultimately determined that the accident was caused by failure to synchronize the engines, a common problem with early twin screw express liners. *City of Paris* was out of service for a year undergoing repairs. In July 1891, her westbound speed record was broken by White Star's {{SS\\|Majestic\\|1890\\|2}} and then {{SS\\|Teutonic\\|1889\\|2}}. *City of Paris* regained the Blue Riband in 1892 and held it until 1893 when Cunard's {{RMS\\|Campania\\|3\\=2}} entered service.",
"International Navigation did not register most of its ships in the United States because of high American wage rates. Even before *City of Paris* was completed, the British Government responded to Inman's ownership change by revoking the line's mail contract. International Navigation lobbied the US Congress to replace the subsidy. Under US law, only US built ships could be registered there. After considerable controversy, Congress waived this requirement for Inman's two record breakers and enacted the subsidy. Under this legislation, International Navigation was required to build two similar ships in the US and make all four twin screw liners available to the government in the event of a crisis. On February 22, 1893, the Inman Line was officially merged into International Navigation's American Line and *New York*{{'}}s American flag was raised by President [Benjamin Harrison](/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison \"Benjamin Harrison\"). As *Paris* was in the UK preparing to depart from Liverpool, her American flag was raised two weeks later by Clement Griscom's 13\\-year\\-old daughter when the ship arrived in New York. As a part of the change, the former Inman liners used [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\") as their UK destination.",
"### Spanish–American War, April–September 1898",
"",
"During the mid\\-1890s, the Navy stored guns at the [Brooklyn Navy Yard](/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard \"Brooklyn Navy Yard\") to speed the conversion of *Paris* and her running mates in case of war. On April 14, 1898, ten days before the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\") was declared, the Navy requisitioned the big four as auxiliary cruisers. The [U.S. Navy](/wiki/U.S._Navy \"U.S. Navy\") chartered her on 27 April 1898 from the [International Navigation Co.](/wiki/International_Navigation_Co. \"International Navigation Co.\") *Paris* was approaching Southampton and did not arrive in New York until April 28\\. In just three days, the Navy installed her 12 six\\-inch main guns, 20 six\\-pounders and numerous secondary weapons. Under the command of Captain William Wise USN, the renamed *Yale*, commissioned on 2 May 1898, was dispatched to Puerto Rico to look for the Spanish fleet.",
"On the day of her commissioning into the Navy, *Yale* put to sea from New York, bound for [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") to patrol and help locate Admiral [Cervera](/wiki/Pascual_Cervera_y_Topete \"Pascual Cervera y Topete\")'s Spanish fleet.\n[thumb\\|left\\|USS *Yale* in Cuba](/wiki/File:USS_Yale.jpg \"USS Yale.jpg\")\nOff of [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\"), Captain Wise realized that he must pass the Spanish guns at [Morro Castle](/wiki/Castillo_San_Felipe_del_Morro \"Castillo San Felipe del Morro\") and sail into the harbor to determine if the Spanish fleet was anchored there. Because *Yale* had not been painted gray, she still looked like a passenger liner. Wise knew that the Spanish government was trying to acquire passenger ships and that one of the vessels potentially available was the Anchor (former Inman) *City of Rome*, which was almost identical to the *Yale*. In fact, *City of Rome* was later chartered by the Spanish. The Captain ordered the Union Jack raised along with *City of Rome's* recognition signals as *Yale* passed the fort. After determining that the Spanish fleet was not in the harbor, *Yale* dipped her flag in salute as she returned to sea. The Spanish returned the compliment, not realizing that an American auxiliary cruiser was directly under the fort's guns. When out of range, *Yale* captured (2 May 1898\\) the Spanish Steamer *Rita* and put a prize crew aboard to sail her to [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston, South Carolina\").",
"The following day she had another brief encounter with the enemy off San Juan when a Spanish armed transport came out and fired a few shots. *Yale* was far more weakly armed than her opponent and retired from the scene. She returned to San Juan the following day, where a shore battery at [Castillo San Cristóbal](/wiki/Castillo_San_Crist%C3%B3bal_%28San_Juan%29 \"Castillo San Cristóbal (San Juan)\"), under the orders of [Captain Angel Rivero Mendez](/wiki/Angel_Rivero_Mendez \"Angel Rivero Mendez\"), fired two poorly aimed shots at her with its [Ordóñez guns](/wiki/Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez_guns \"Ordóñez guns\"); both shots fell far short.",
"Pursuant to her orders, *Yale* patrolled off Puerto Rico until 13 May, at which time she left for [St. Thomas](/wiki/Saint_Thomas%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands \"Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands\") in the [Danish West Indies](/wiki/Danish_West_Indies \"Danish West Indies\") ([Virgin Islands](/wiki/Virgin_Islands \"Virgin Islands\")) to telegraph her report to [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"). She returned briefly to Puerto Rico on 16 and 17 May, then headed for [Cap\\-Haïtien](/wiki/Cap-Ha%C3%AFtien \"Cap-Haïtien\"), Haiti, in company with *St. Paul*. She remained at Cap\\-Haïtien until 21 May, then headed for waters off [Santiago de Cuba](/wiki/Santiago_de_Cuba \"Santiago de Cuba\") where the Spanish fleet had been discovered. *Yale* remained there while the United States fleet assembled off Santiago to blockade Cervera's ships in that port. On the 28th, she quit the area; stopped briefly at [Port Antonio](/wiki/Port_Antonio \"Port Antonio\"), Jamaica; and then set a course for [Newport News, Virginia](/wiki/Newport_News%2C_Virginia \"Newport News, Virginia\"). The ship spent 20 days at Newport News, heading back to Cuba on 23 June. She arrived off Santiago on 27 June but remained there only two days. On the 29th, she got underway for [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida \"Key West, Florida\"), stopping there overnight on 3 and 4 July before continuing on to Charleston. *Yale* returned to Santiago on 11 July and remained in Cuban waters until the 17th. On July 22, *Yale* left Cuba as the command ship on the Puerto Rico expedition under General [Miles](/wiki/Nelson_A._Miles \"Nelson A. Miles\"). After participating in the invasion of Puerto Rico at [Guánica, Puerto Rico](/wiki/Gu%C3%A1nica%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Guánica, Puerto Rico\"), she set a course for New York on 26 July. She spent most of the first two weeks of August in New York and returned to Cuba on the 15th. Remaining only briefly, she embarked troops for the return voyage to New York. *Yale* arrived back in New York on 23 August and remained there until decommissioned on 2 September 1898\\. Though returned to her owners after decommissioning, *Yale* was not struck from the Navy List until 3 July 1899\\. She returned to merchant service—first under the name SS *City of Paris*.",
"### Return to commercial service, 1898–1913",
"{{multiple image\n \\| align \\= left\n \\| width \\= 165\n \\| image1 \\= Officers of the sunken steamship Vindobala.jpg\n \\| image2 \\= Seamen of the sunken steamship Vindobala.jpg\n \\| footer \\= Rescued officers (left) and seamen of ''Vindobala'' aboard ''Paris''\n}}\n*Paris* returned to her regular trade and in December 1898 rescued 22 of 23 seamen aboard the British *Vindobala* before the tanker sank during a bad winter storm.",
"[thumb\\|*Paris* beached on The Manacles Reef in 1899](/wiki/File:1899_-_SS_Paris_beached_at_Manacles%2C_Cornwall.jpg \"1899 - SS Paris beached at Manacles, Cornwall.jpg\")\nWhile westbound on 21 May 1899, *Paris* ran aground in fog on [The Manacles](/wiki/The_Manacles \"The Manacles\") off the coast of [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall \"Cornwall\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Paris \\|url\\=https://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?14509 \\|website\\=Wrecksite \\|publisher\\=Adelante EBVBA \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2022 \\|location\\=Affligem, Belgium}} \nThe supervising salvage engineer was Matthew Wheldon Aisbitt (Superintendent, Cardiff Docks) and the scanned image is taken from his 1900 photograph album, which includes his original notes.",
"The *Paris* ran aground mere metres from another steamer, {{SS\\|Mohegan\\|\\|2}}, which had sunk 9 months earlier with a loss of 106 of 197 onboard; in fact, she almost struck the sunken ship. Captain Watkins was held by the New York Board of Inspectors of Steam Vessels to have been wholly responsible for the negligent navigation of his ship and had his master's certificate suspended for two years.{{cite news \\|title\\=Our American Letter \\- The Loss of the Paris \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000081/18990711/013/0007 \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2022 \\|work\\=Liverpool Mercury \\|issue\\=16079 \\|date\\=11 July 1899 \\|page\\=7\\|via\\=British Newspaper Archive}} At first, *Paris* appeared to be a total loss and was not refloated until 11 July.{{cite news \\|title\\=The Liner Paris \\- Floated off the Rocks last Night \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000329/18990712/104/0005 \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2022 \\|work\\=Western Morning News \\|issue\\=12,300 \\|date\\=12 July 1899 \\|location\\=Plymouth \\|page\\=5\\|via\\=British Newspaper Archive}} After she was pulled from the rocks, the badly damaged ship was rebuilt at [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), Ireland, receiving new engines and having her triple smokestacks replaced by a pair of taller ones.",
"[thumb\\|SS *Philadelphia*](/wiki/File:City_of_paris.jpg \"City of paris.jpg\")\nRenamed *Philadelphia*, she finally resumed North Atlantic passenger service in August 1901\\.",
"Early in 1902 [Guglielmo Marconi](/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi \"Guglielmo Marconi\"), while aboard *Philadelphia* off New York, sent and received radio signals over a distance of 1,800 miles. In 1908 the British family of [Bob Hope](/wiki/Bob_Hope \"Bob Hope\") emigrated to New York on the *Philadelphia*, and were processed at [Ellis Island](/wiki/Ellis_Island \"Ellis Island\"). \"Ellis Island's Famous Immigrants\", Barry Moreno, 2008, Arcadia, Charleston, SC, {{isbn\\|978\\-0\\-7385\\-5533\\-1}}, p. 207",
"In 1913, *Philadelphia* was downgraded to a second\\- and third\\-class\\-only liner. At the beginning of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), the American Line reverted to Liverpool for their UK terminal. As a neutral flagged liner, *Philadelphia* was very profitable until the United States entered the war.",
"### World War I",
"In 1918 she was recommissioned as **USS *Harrisburg*** (ID \\# 1663\\) in late May, as a troop transport under the command of Commander Wallace Bertholf. For the remainder of the conflict she continued to take troops to Europe, making four voyages to England and France before the November 1918 Armistice brought an end to the fighting. She then reversed the flow, making six more trips to transport servicemen home from the former war zone. USS *Harrisburg* was decommissioned in September 1919\\.",
"### Postwar service and fate, 1919–1923",
"Returned to her owners in September 1919 and again named *Philadelphia*, she resumed sailings on the New York–Southampton route for nine months until the American Line suspended that service. In 1922 the ship was purchased by newly\\-formed New York\\-Naples Steamship Company, which planned to use her on the Mediterranean service.",
"In August 1922, during her first eastbound voyage's stopover at Naples, the crew of *Philadelphia* mutinied. The ship was in arrears from repairs received in the [Bay of Naples](/wiki/Bay_of_Naples \"Bay of Naples\") and Italian customs officials refused her permission to depart. Contemporaneous news outlets described the crew as [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\") and members of the [Industrial Workers of the World](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World \"Industrial Workers of the World\"). True or not, they ransacked and burned the ship, and she was beached on 26 August 1922,{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=Casualty reports \\|date\\=28 August 1922 \\|page\\=17 \\|issue\\=43121 \\|column\\=D\\-E }} leading the Italian authorities to arrest them.{{Cite news\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Advocate (Tasmania)]]\\|title\\=Naples Mutiny\\|date\\=1922\\-08\\-25\\|page\\=1\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article66729073}}{{Cite news\\|title\\=Booze, Brawls and Blaze on Terror Voyage\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[New\\-York Tribune]]\\|date\\=1922\\-09\\-08\\|page\\=6\\|url\\=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1922\\-09\\-08/ed\\-1/seq\\-6/}} *Philadelphia* was scrapped in 1923\\.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Crew of Philadelphia Tell of Mutiny in Naples Harbor\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Telegram (Herkimer)\\|The Evening Telegram]]\\|date\\=1922\\-09\\-07\\|pages\\=1, 4\\|url\\=http://fultonhistory.com/Newspapers%206/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram%201922%20Sep%20\\-%20Oct%20%20Grayscale/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram%201922%20Sep%20\\-%20Oct%20%20Grayscale%20\\-%200117\\.pdf}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tvE\\-IU8EpWEC\\&pg\\=PA95\\|page\\=95\\|title\\=No Monkey Business in This House!\\|author\\-first\\=John\\|author\\-last\\=Urrutia\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[iUniverse]]\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=9781475932287}}{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yn09AQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA302\\|page\\=302\\|date\\=1922\\-09\\-02\\|title\\=Sidelights\\|journal\\=\\[\\[The Nautical Gazette]]\\|volume\\=103\\|issue\\=10\\|editor\\-last\\=Villard\\|editor\\-first\\=Harold G.}}",
""
] |
Broadcast history
-----------------
WLVX was originally a locally focused voice for the communities of [Greenville, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Greenville%2C_Pennsylvania "Greenville, Pennsylvania"), [The Shenango Valley](/wiki/The_Shenango_Valley "The Shenango Valley"), and [Youngstown, Ohio](/wiki/Youngstown%2C_Ohio "Youngstown, Ohio"). The 107\.1 frequency was first registered as WGRP\-FM, a sister signal to the then co\-owned [WGRP](/wiki/WGRP "WGRP") 940\-AM. The WEXC calls were first registered for 107\.1 on May 16, 1985\.
The first DJ hired on WEXC FM was J. Robert Irvine, (Bob James) until 1986 when he moved to Television at WYTV, WTAE and KDKA until 1992 when he started at WKBN TV Production and News until 1999\. Later he returned as manager for Beacon Broadcasting between 2000 and 2003\. On January 7, 2011, soon after the FCC approved the sale of the station to EMF, WLVX became the new call letters for the station.{{cite news\| title \=WLVX Call Sign History\| url \=http://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi\-bin/ws.exe/prod/cdbs/pubacc/prod/call\_hist.pl?Facility\_id\=25225\&Callsign\=WLVX\| access\-date \=January 25, 2011}}
The station's final incarnation under Beacon Broadcasting ownership was C\-107\.1, featuring an adult contemporary format. Before adopting the C\-107\.1 and the Christian rock formats of Freq 107 and Indie 107, the station was known as "Goodtime Oldies WEX\-C 107" from 2001 to 2003\. Prior to this oldies format, it broadcast Christian adult contemporary, and before Beacon Broadcasting's acquisition, it aired mainstream adult contemporary. WEXC was an affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates Baseball Network. The baseball broadcasts have since been moved to [WLLF](/wiki/WLLF "WLLF") ESPN 96\.7 [Mercer, PA](/wiki/Mercer%2C_PA "Mercer, PA").
In 1998, WEXC and WGRP were sold to Youngstown\-based Beacon Broadcasting. Beacon's principal owner, Harold Glunt was a steel supply company owner from the surrounding Warren, Ohio area. He purchased the stations to further Christian communications in the valley, concurrently, WEXC dropped the oldies format to assume a Christian rock format known as *Freq 107* (which was later renamed *Indie 107*).
Before the sale to EMF, WEXC changed formats to the "Today's Hits and Yesterday's Favorites" [Hot AC](/wiki/Hot_AC "Hot AC") genre as *C\-107\.1*, boosting their listenership greatly.
[thumb\|right\|WEXC logo, during the "C\-107\.1" era.](/wiki/Image:WEXC1071.png "WEXC1071.png")"C\-107\.1" had been getting more involved in the community under the direction of G.M. Richard Esbenshade and air talent Gregg "Allen" Robison and John "The Madman" Madden. In addition to carrying syndicated talk hosts [Glenn Beck](/wiki/Glenn_Beck "Glenn Beck") and [Jason Lewis](/wiki/Jason_Lewis_%28congressman%29 "Jason Lewis (congressman)"), WEXC also started to air [Donny Osmond](/wiki/Donny_Osmond "Donny Osmond")'s syndicated morning show. Most recently, the station was involved in one of several "Tea Parties" being held all across the country. C\-107 also sponsored live concert events and giveaways for Kennywood and Waldameer Amusement Parks.
Harold Glunt died on January 22, 2010; his son subsequently put all of the Beacon stations up for sale. As of Friday, September 10, 2010, a sale of WEXC, WGRP and WLOA to [Educational Media Foundation](/wiki/Educational_Media_Foundation "Educational Media Foundation") for $225,000 was announced, with an intent to spin off WGRP and WLOA to separate owners. The Hot AC format was dropped to relay the "K\-LOVE" Christian music network following the conclusion of a high school football game that evening.
|
[
"Broadcast history\n-----------------",
"WLVX was originally a locally focused voice for the communities of [Greenville, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Greenville%2C_Pennsylvania \"Greenville, Pennsylvania\"), [The Shenango Valley](/wiki/The_Shenango_Valley \"The Shenango Valley\"), and [Youngstown, Ohio](/wiki/Youngstown%2C_Ohio \"Youngstown, Ohio\"). The 107\\.1 frequency was first registered as WGRP\\-FM, a sister signal to the then co\\-owned [WGRP](/wiki/WGRP \"WGRP\") 940\\-AM. The WEXC calls were first registered for 107\\.1 on May 16, 1985\\.",
"The first DJ hired on WEXC FM was J. Robert Irvine, (Bob James) until 1986 when he moved to Television at WYTV, WTAE and KDKA until 1992 when he started at WKBN TV Production and News until 1999\\. Later he returned as manager for Beacon Broadcasting between 2000 and 2003\\. On January 7, 2011, soon after the FCC approved the sale of the station to EMF, WLVX became the new call letters for the station.{{cite news\\| title \\=WLVX Call Sign History\\| url \\=http://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi\\-bin/ws.exe/prod/cdbs/pubacc/prod/call\\_hist.pl?Facility\\_id\\=25225\\&Callsign\\=WLVX\\| access\\-date \\=January 25, 2011}}",
"The station's final incarnation under Beacon Broadcasting ownership was C\\-107\\.1, featuring an adult contemporary format. Before adopting the C\\-107\\.1 and the Christian rock formats of Freq 107 and Indie 107, the station was known as \"Goodtime Oldies WEX\\-C 107\" from 2001 to 2003\\. Prior to this oldies format, it broadcast Christian adult contemporary, and before Beacon Broadcasting's acquisition, it aired mainstream adult contemporary. WEXC was an affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates Baseball Network. The baseball broadcasts have since been moved to [WLLF](/wiki/WLLF \"WLLF\") ESPN 96\\.7 [Mercer, PA](/wiki/Mercer%2C_PA \"Mercer, PA\").",
"In 1998, WEXC and WGRP were sold to Youngstown\\-based Beacon Broadcasting. Beacon's principal owner, Harold Glunt was a steel supply company owner from the surrounding Warren, Ohio area. He purchased the stations to further Christian communications in the valley, concurrently, WEXC dropped the oldies format to assume a Christian rock format known as *Freq 107* (which was later renamed *Indie 107*).",
"Before the sale to EMF, WEXC changed formats to the \"Today's Hits and Yesterday's Favorites\" [Hot AC](/wiki/Hot_AC \"Hot AC\") genre as *C\\-107\\.1*, boosting their listenership greatly.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|WEXC logo, during the \"C\\-107\\.1\" era.](/wiki/Image:WEXC1071.png \"WEXC1071.png\")\"C\\-107\\.1\" had been getting more involved in the community under the direction of G.M. Richard Esbenshade and air talent Gregg \"Allen\" Robison and John \"The Madman\" Madden. In addition to carrying syndicated talk hosts [Glenn Beck](/wiki/Glenn_Beck \"Glenn Beck\") and [Jason Lewis](/wiki/Jason_Lewis_%28congressman%29 \"Jason Lewis (congressman)\"), WEXC also started to air [Donny Osmond](/wiki/Donny_Osmond \"Donny Osmond\")'s syndicated morning show. Most recently, the station was involved in one of several \"Tea Parties\" being held all across the country. C\\-107 also sponsored live concert events and giveaways for Kennywood and Waldameer Amusement Parks.",
"Harold Glunt died on January 22, 2010; his son subsequently put all of the Beacon stations up for sale. As of Friday, September 10, 2010, a sale of WEXC, WGRP and WLOA to [Educational Media Foundation](/wiki/Educational_Media_Foundation \"Educational Media Foundation\") for $225,000 was announced, with an intent to spin off WGRP and WLOA to separate owners. The Hot AC format was dropped to relay the \"K\\-LOVE\" Christian music network following the conclusion of a high school football game that evening.",
""
] |
Appearances
-----------
### *Space Jam*
Lola first appeared in the 1996 film *[Space Jam](/wiki/Space_Jam "Space Jam").* She is shown with tan fur, blonde bangs, and wears a cropped white tank top, purple/blue shorts and a matching rubber band on both ears like a ponytail. She has light blue eyes and a curvy figure. Lola is voiced by [Kath Soucie](/wiki/Kath_Soucie "Kath Soucie") in the film.
Lola was created to serve as a [romantic interest](/wiki/Romantic_interest "Romantic interest") for Bugs. As soon as she appears, Bugs is instantly smitten and several other male characters ogle her.{{Sfn\|Sandler\|1998\|p\=8\-9}} Throughout the film, there is a sub\-plot of Bugs attempting to win her affection. Lola reciprocates Bugs' feelings when she is nearly injured by one of the opponents in the basketball game, and Bugs saves her.
According to author Kevin Sandler, Lola's personality is a combination of the [Hawksian woman](/wiki/Hawksian_woman "Hawksian woman"), [tomboy](/wiki/Tomboy "Tomboy"), and [femme fatale](/wiki/Femme_fatale "Femme fatale") archetypes.{{Sfn\|Sandler\|1998\|p\=188}} She is a straight\-talking, no\-nonsense woman who is extremely independent and confident. She is both highly athletic and extremely seductive in her behavior. Her catchphrase is "Don't ever call me 'Doll'".{{Sfn\|Sandler\|1998\|p\=8}} As animation director [Tony Cervone](/wiki/Tony_Cervone "Tony Cervone") explained, Lola was originally intended to be more of a "[tomboy](/wiki/Tomboy "Tomboy")", but the production team feared that she would appear "too masculine" and chose to emphasize her "feminine attributes" instead.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2023}}
Following *Space Jam*, Lola has regularly appeared in solo stories in the monthly *Looney Tunes* comic published by [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics").
### *The Looney Tunes Show*
Lola also appears in *[The Looney Tunes Show](/wiki/The_Looney_Tunes_Show "The Looney Tunes Show")*, where she is voiced by [Kristen Wiig](/wiki/Kristen_Wiig "Kristen Wiig"). As opposed to her personality in *Space Jam*, she is portrayed as an eccentric, scatterbrained, endearing, and cheerful young rabbit who tends to obsess over Bugs, whom she refers to as "Bun\-Bun".*Vanguardia* (Mexico) (15 August 2011\). ["Regresan a la tv Bugs y Lola Bunny"](http://www.vanguardia.com.mx/regresanalatvbugsylolabunny-1069167.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929172918/https://vanguardia.com.mx/regresanalatvbugsylolabunny\-1069167\.html \|date\=2019\-09\-29}} {{in lang\|es}} She is very dedicated to achieving goals, but oftentimes tends to forget what she was doing. Lola is mostly involved in bizarre situations, either created by herself or when accompanied by her friend [Daffy](/wiki/Daffy_Duck "Daffy Duck").
Bugs nevertheless appears to enjoy having her around, even surprising himself when declaring himself her boyfriend in "[Double Date](/wiki/List_of_The_Looney_Tunes_Show_episodes%23Season_1:2011%E2%80%932012 "2011–2012")" where she helped Daffy get the courage to ask [Tina Russo](/wiki/Tina_Russo "Tina Russo") out on a date. Later in the series, Bugs and Lola are seen in multiple episodes spending time with each other.
Lola's wealthy parents Walter (voiced by [John O'Hurley](/wiki/John_O%27Hurley "John O'Hurley")) and Patricia (voiced by [Grey DeLisle](/wiki/Grey_DeLisle "Grey DeLisle") in season 1, [Wendi McLendon\-Covey](/wiki/Wendi_McLendon-Covey "Wendi McLendon-Covey") in season 2\) appear in the show as well.
Lola is the titular lead character in the straight\-to\-video spin\-off film *[Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run](/wiki/Looney_Tunes:Rabbits_Run "Rabbits Run")*.{{Cite web\|date\=2015\-05\-05\|title\=Bugs Bunny to Return in Direct\-to\-Video 'Rabbits Run'\|url\=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/dvd/bugs\-bunny\-to\-return\-in\-direct\-to\-video\-rabbits\-run\-112739\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-12\|website\=Cartoon Brew\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=2020\-10\-21\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021232050/https://www.cartoonbrew.com/dvd/bugs\-bunny\-to\-return\-in\-direct\-to\-video\-rabbits\-run\-112739\.html\|url\-status\=live}} In this film, however, here she is voiced by [Rachel Ramras](/wiki/Rachel_Ramras "Rachel Ramras") but still retains her *Looney Tunes Show* personality and appearance.{{cite web\|last\=Chitwood\|first\=Adam\|date\=2015\-04\-30\|title\=Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run Trailer Teases New Animated Movie\|url\=http://collider.com/looney\-runes\-rabbits\-run\-trailer\-teases\-new\-animated\-movie/\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-28\|website\=Collider.com\|archive\-date\=2015\-05\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502221628/http://collider.com/looney\-runes\-rabbits\-run\-trailer\-teases\-new\-animated\-movie/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Other appearances
Lola appears as a news reporter twice, both in the [direct\-to\-video](/wiki/Direct-to-video "Direct-to-video") film *[Tweety's High\-Flying Adventure](/wiki/Tweety%27s_High-Flying_Adventure "Tweety's High-Flying Adventure")* and the games *[Looney Tunes Racing](/wiki/Looney_Tunes_Racing "Looney Tunes Racing")* and *[Looney Tunes: Space Race](/wiki/Looney_Tunes:Space_Race "Space Race")*. Kath Soucie reprises her voice in both.
In the series *[Baby Looney Tunes](/wiki/Baby_Looney_Tunes "Baby Looney Tunes")*, as well as in its direct\-to\-video film *[Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs\-traordinary Adventure](/wiki/Baby_Looney_Tunes%27_Eggs-traordinary_Adventure "Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs-traordinary Adventure")*, she is like her older counterpart in *Space Jam*, having tomboyish traits and an affinity for basketball.Erickson, Hal (ed.) (2005\). *Television Cartoon Shows An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1949 through 2003*, 2nd edition, p. 105\. McFarland \& Co. {{ISBN\|0786422556}} She is voiced by [Britt McKillip](/wiki/Britt_McKillip "Britt McKillip").
In the post\-apocalyptic action\-comedy *[Loonatics Unleashed](/wiki/Loonatics_Unleashed "Loonatics Unleashed")*, her descendant [Lexi Bunny](/wiki/Lexi_Bunny "Lexi Bunny") is one of the main characters.*[Dallas Morning News](/wiki/Dallas_Morning_News "Dallas Morning News")* (17 September 2005\). ["'Beep\-beep' gives way to yawn\-yawn"](http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10CB2343A1DAABF8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM){{subscription required}} {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224115031/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\-search/we/Archives?p\_product\=DM\&p\_theme\=dm\&p\_action\=search\&p\_maxdocs\=200\&p\_topdoc\=1\&p\_text\_direct\-0\=10CB2343A1DAABF8\&p\_field\_direct\-0\=document\_id\&p\_perpage\=10\&p\_sort\=YMD\_date:D\&s\_trackval\=GooglePM \|date\=2013\-12\-24}}
The series *[New Looney Tunes](/wiki/New_Looney_Tunes "New Looney Tunes")* portrays Lola as a happy and friendly character but with a more serious personality almost like her original character from her debut. She appears in the segments "Hare to the Throne", "Lola Rider" and "Rhoda Derby". Her appearance is similar to *The Looney Tunes Show*, although she wears a different outfit. She always shows eccentricity and maintains her carefree attitude but very clever and outwits her opponents similar to Bugs. Her intrepid and adventurous side appears within some episodes, where she performs various sports.
Lola returned in *[Space Jam: A New Legacy](/wiki/Space_Jam:A_New_Legacy "A New Legacy")* with an updated character redesign, voiced by [Zendaya](/wiki/Zendaya "Zendaya") although Soucie was initially announced to be reprising the role.
Lola appeared in the preschool series *[Bugs Bunny Builders](/wiki/Bugs_Bunny_Builders "Bugs Bunny Builders")*, this time being voiced by Chandni Parekh, once again having a different voice. This version gained the most positive reception for her personality and her defying gender stereotypes by working hard on projects with her friends and acting as a true leader for a construction team.{{cite news \|last1\=Milligan \|first1\=Mercedes \|title\=WarnerMedia Upfronts: Cartoonito Launches on HBO Max with 20 Series \|url\=https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/warnermedia\-upfronts\-cartoonito\-launches\-on\-hbo\-max\-with\-20\-series/ \|access\-date\=March 9, 2021 \|work\=Animation Magazine \|date\=February 17, 2021 \|archive\-date\=March 10, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310112336/https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/warnermedia\-upfronts\-cartoonito\-launches\-on\-hbo\-max\-with\-20\-series/ \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.wishtv.com/lifestylelive/first\-looney\-toons\-preschool\-show\-bugs\-bunny\-builders\-in\-over\-20\-years\-premieres\-tonight/ \|title\=First Looney Toons preschool show 'Bugs Bunny Builders' in over 20 years premieres tonight \|date\=25 July 2022 \|access\-date\=25 July 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725222321/https://www.wishtv.com/lifestylelive/first\-looney\-toons\-preschool\-show\-bugs\-bunny\-builders\-in\-over\-20\-years\-premieres\-tonight/ \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.romper.com/entertainment/bugs\-bunny\-builders\-exclusive \|title\=Exclusive: Looney Tunes' First Educational Show Debuts a New Lola Bunny for Preschoolers \|date\=18 July 2022 \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-25 \|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725200001/https://www.romper.com/entertainment/bugs\-bunny\-builders\-exclusive \|url\-status\=live}}
Lola appears in *[Tiny Toons Looniversity](/wiki/Tiny_Toons_Looniversity "Tiny Toons Looniversity")*, a reboot of *[Tiny Toon Adventures](/wiki/Tiny_Toon_Adventures "Tiny Toon Adventures")*, this time voiced by [Kari Wahlgren](/wiki/Kari_Wahlgren "Kari Wahlgren"). She is seen with [Babs Bunny](/wiki/Babs_Bunny "Babs Bunny") and the other tiny toons together onscreen for the first time; her occupation within Acme Looniversity is implied to be sports coach, including other roles such as the head chef.
|
[
"Appearances\n-----------",
"### *Space Jam*",
"Lola first appeared in the 1996 film *[Space Jam](/wiki/Space_Jam \"Space Jam\").* She is shown with tan fur, blonde bangs, and wears a cropped white tank top, purple/blue shorts and a matching rubber band on both ears like a ponytail. She has light blue eyes and a curvy figure. Lola is voiced by [Kath Soucie](/wiki/Kath_Soucie \"Kath Soucie\") in the film.",
"Lola was created to serve as a [romantic interest](/wiki/Romantic_interest \"Romantic interest\") for Bugs. As soon as she appears, Bugs is instantly smitten and several other male characters ogle her.{{Sfn\\|Sandler\\|1998\\|p\\=8\\-9}} Throughout the film, there is a sub\\-plot of Bugs attempting to win her affection. Lola reciprocates Bugs' feelings when she is nearly injured by one of the opponents in the basketball game, and Bugs saves her.",
"According to author Kevin Sandler, Lola's personality is a combination of the [Hawksian woman](/wiki/Hawksian_woman \"Hawksian woman\"), [tomboy](/wiki/Tomboy \"Tomboy\"), and [femme fatale](/wiki/Femme_fatale \"Femme fatale\") archetypes.{{Sfn\\|Sandler\\|1998\\|p\\=188}} She is a straight\\-talking, no\\-nonsense woman who is extremely independent and confident. She is both highly athletic and extremely seductive in her behavior. Her catchphrase is \"Don't ever call me 'Doll'\".{{Sfn\\|Sandler\\|1998\\|p\\=8}} As animation director [Tony Cervone](/wiki/Tony_Cervone \"Tony Cervone\") explained, Lola was originally intended to be more of a \"[tomboy](/wiki/Tomboy \"Tomboy\")\", but the production team feared that she would appear \"too masculine\" and chose to emphasize her \"feminine attributes\" instead.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2023}}",
"Following *Space Jam*, Lola has regularly appeared in solo stories in the monthly *Looney Tunes* comic published by [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\").",
"### *The Looney Tunes Show*",
"Lola also appears in *[The Looney Tunes Show](/wiki/The_Looney_Tunes_Show \"The Looney Tunes Show\")*, where she is voiced by [Kristen Wiig](/wiki/Kristen_Wiig \"Kristen Wiig\"). As opposed to her personality in *Space Jam*, she is portrayed as an eccentric, scatterbrained, endearing, and cheerful young rabbit who tends to obsess over Bugs, whom she refers to as \"Bun\\-Bun\".*Vanguardia* (Mexico) (15 August 2011\\). [\"Regresan a la tv Bugs y Lola Bunny\"](http://www.vanguardia.com.mx/regresanalatvbugsylolabunny-1069167.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929172918/https://vanguardia.com.mx/regresanalatvbugsylolabunny\\-1069167\\.html \\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-29}} {{in lang\\|es}} She is very dedicated to achieving goals, but oftentimes tends to forget what she was doing. Lola is mostly involved in bizarre situations, either created by herself or when accompanied by her friend [Daffy](/wiki/Daffy_Duck \"Daffy Duck\").",
"Bugs nevertheless appears to enjoy having her around, even surprising himself when declaring himself her boyfriend in \"[Double Date](/wiki/List_of_The_Looney_Tunes_Show_episodes%23Season_1:2011%E2%80%932012 \"2011–2012\")\" where she helped Daffy get the courage to ask [Tina Russo](/wiki/Tina_Russo \"Tina Russo\") out on a date. Later in the series, Bugs and Lola are seen in multiple episodes spending time with each other.",
"Lola's wealthy parents Walter (voiced by [John O'Hurley](/wiki/John_O%27Hurley \"John O'Hurley\")) and Patricia (voiced by [Grey DeLisle](/wiki/Grey_DeLisle \"Grey DeLisle\") in season 1, [Wendi McLendon\\-Covey](/wiki/Wendi_McLendon-Covey \"Wendi McLendon-Covey\") in season 2\\) appear in the show as well.",
"Lola is the titular lead character in the straight\\-to\\-video spin\\-off film *[Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run](/wiki/Looney_Tunes:Rabbits_Run \"Rabbits Run\")*.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2015\\-05\\-05\\|title\\=Bugs Bunny to Return in Direct\\-to\\-Video 'Rabbits Run'\\|url\\=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/dvd/bugs\\-bunny\\-to\\-return\\-in\\-direct\\-to\\-video\\-rabbits\\-run\\-112739\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-12\\|website\\=Cartoon Brew\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-21\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021232050/https://www.cartoonbrew.com/dvd/bugs\\-bunny\\-to\\-return\\-in\\-direct\\-to\\-video\\-rabbits\\-run\\-112739\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In this film, however, here she is voiced by [Rachel Ramras](/wiki/Rachel_Ramras \"Rachel Ramras\") but still retains her *Looney Tunes Show* personality and appearance.{{cite web\\|last\\=Chitwood\\|first\\=Adam\\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-30\\|title\\=Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run Trailer Teases New Animated Movie\\|url\\=http://collider.com/looney\\-runes\\-rabbits\\-run\\-trailer\\-teases\\-new\\-animated\\-movie/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-28\\|website\\=Collider.com\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502221628/http://collider.com/looney\\-runes\\-rabbits\\-run\\-trailer\\-teases\\-new\\-animated\\-movie/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Other appearances",
"Lola appears as a news reporter twice, both in the [direct\\-to\\-video](/wiki/Direct-to-video \"Direct-to-video\") film *[Tweety's High\\-Flying Adventure](/wiki/Tweety%27s_High-Flying_Adventure \"Tweety's High-Flying Adventure\")* and the games *[Looney Tunes Racing](/wiki/Looney_Tunes_Racing \"Looney Tunes Racing\")* and *[Looney Tunes: Space Race](/wiki/Looney_Tunes:Space_Race \"Space Race\")*. Kath Soucie reprises her voice in both.",
"In the series *[Baby Looney Tunes](/wiki/Baby_Looney_Tunes \"Baby Looney Tunes\")*, as well as in its direct\\-to\\-video film *[Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs\\-traordinary Adventure](/wiki/Baby_Looney_Tunes%27_Eggs-traordinary_Adventure \"Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs-traordinary Adventure\")*, she is like her older counterpart in *Space Jam*, having tomboyish traits and an affinity for basketball.Erickson, Hal (ed.) (2005\\). *Television Cartoon Shows An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1949 through 2003*, 2nd edition, p. 105\\. McFarland \\& Co. {{ISBN\\|0786422556}} She is voiced by [Britt McKillip](/wiki/Britt_McKillip \"Britt McKillip\").",
"In the post\\-apocalyptic action\\-comedy *[Loonatics Unleashed](/wiki/Loonatics_Unleashed \"Loonatics Unleashed\")*, her descendant [Lexi Bunny](/wiki/Lexi_Bunny \"Lexi Bunny\") is one of the main characters.*[Dallas Morning News](/wiki/Dallas_Morning_News \"Dallas Morning News\")* (17 September 2005\\). [\"'Beep\\-beep' gives way to yawn\\-yawn\"](http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10CB2343A1DAABF8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM){{subscription required}} {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224115031/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\\-search/we/Archives?p\\_product\\=DM\\&p\\_theme\\=dm\\&p\\_action\\=search\\&p\\_maxdocs\\=200\\&p\\_topdoc\\=1\\&p\\_text\\_direct\\-0\\=10CB2343A1DAABF8\\&p\\_field\\_direct\\-0\\=document\\_id\\&p\\_perpage\\=10\\&p\\_sort\\=YMD\\_date:D\\&s\\_trackval\\=GooglePM \\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-24}}",
"The series *[New Looney Tunes](/wiki/New_Looney_Tunes \"New Looney Tunes\")* portrays Lola as a happy and friendly character but with a more serious personality almost like her original character from her debut. She appears in the segments \"Hare to the Throne\", \"Lola Rider\" and \"Rhoda Derby\". Her appearance is similar to *The Looney Tunes Show*, although she wears a different outfit. She always shows eccentricity and maintains her carefree attitude but very clever and outwits her opponents similar to Bugs. Her intrepid and adventurous side appears within some episodes, where she performs various sports.",
"Lola returned in *[Space Jam: A New Legacy](/wiki/Space_Jam:A_New_Legacy \"A New Legacy\")* with an updated character redesign, voiced by [Zendaya](/wiki/Zendaya \"Zendaya\") although Soucie was initially announced to be reprising the role.",
"Lola appeared in the preschool series *[Bugs Bunny Builders](/wiki/Bugs_Bunny_Builders \"Bugs Bunny Builders\")*, this time being voiced by Chandni Parekh, once again having a different voice. This version gained the most positive reception for her personality and her defying gender stereotypes by working hard on projects with her friends and acting as a true leader for a construction team.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Milligan \\|first1\\=Mercedes \\|title\\=WarnerMedia Upfronts: Cartoonito Launches on HBO Max with 20 Series \\|url\\=https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/warnermedia\\-upfronts\\-cartoonito\\-launches\\-on\\-hbo\\-max\\-with\\-20\\-series/ \\|access\\-date\\=March 9, 2021 \\|work\\=Animation Magazine \\|date\\=February 17, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310112336/https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/warnermedia\\-upfronts\\-cartoonito\\-launches\\-on\\-hbo\\-max\\-with\\-20\\-series/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.wishtv.com/lifestylelive/first\\-looney\\-toons\\-preschool\\-show\\-bugs\\-bunny\\-builders\\-in\\-over\\-20\\-years\\-premieres\\-tonight/ \\|title\\=First Looney Toons preschool show 'Bugs Bunny Builders' in over 20 years premieres tonight \\|date\\=25 July 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=25 July 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725222321/https://www.wishtv.com/lifestylelive/first\\-looney\\-toons\\-preschool\\-show\\-bugs\\-bunny\\-builders\\-in\\-over\\-20\\-years\\-premieres\\-tonight/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.romper.com/entertainment/bugs\\-bunny\\-builders\\-exclusive \\|title\\=Exclusive: Looney Tunes' First Educational Show Debuts a New Lola Bunny for Preschoolers \\|date\\=18 July 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725200001/https://www.romper.com/entertainment/bugs\\-bunny\\-builders\\-exclusive \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Lola appears in *[Tiny Toons Looniversity](/wiki/Tiny_Toons_Looniversity \"Tiny Toons Looniversity\")*, a reboot of *[Tiny Toon Adventures](/wiki/Tiny_Toon_Adventures \"Tiny Toon Adventures\")*, this time voiced by [Kari Wahlgren](/wiki/Kari_Wahlgren \"Kari Wahlgren\"). She is seen with [Babs Bunny](/wiki/Babs_Bunny \"Babs Bunny\") and the other tiny toons together onscreen for the first time; her occupation within Acme Looniversity is implied to be sports coach, including other roles such as the head chef.",
""
] |
### Other appearances
Lola appears as a news reporter twice, both in the [direct\-to\-video](/wiki/Direct-to-video "Direct-to-video") film *[Tweety's High\-Flying Adventure](/wiki/Tweety%27s_High-Flying_Adventure "Tweety's High-Flying Adventure")* and the games *[Looney Tunes Racing](/wiki/Looney_Tunes_Racing "Looney Tunes Racing")* and *[Looney Tunes: Space Race](/wiki/Looney_Tunes:Space_Race "Space Race")*. Kath Soucie reprises her voice in both.
In the series *[Baby Looney Tunes](/wiki/Baby_Looney_Tunes "Baby Looney Tunes")*, as well as in its direct\-to\-video film *[Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs\-traordinary Adventure](/wiki/Baby_Looney_Tunes%27_Eggs-traordinary_Adventure "Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs-traordinary Adventure")*, she is like her older counterpart in *Space Jam*, having tomboyish traits and an affinity for basketball.Erickson, Hal (ed.) (2005\). *Television Cartoon Shows An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1949 through 2003*, 2nd edition, p. 105\. McFarland \& Co. {{ISBN\|0786422556}} She is voiced by [Britt McKillip](/wiki/Britt_McKillip "Britt McKillip").
In the post\-apocalyptic action\-comedy *[Loonatics Unleashed](/wiki/Loonatics_Unleashed "Loonatics Unleashed")*, her descendant [Lexi Bunny](/wiki/Lexi_Bunny "Lexi Bunny") is one of the main characters.*[Dallas Morning News](/wiki/Dallas_Morning_News "Dallas Morning News")* (17 September 2005\). ["'Beep\-beep' gives way to yawn\-yawn"](http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10CB2343A1DAABF8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM){{subscription required}} {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224115031/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\-search/we/Archives?p\_product\=DM\&p\_theme\=dm\&p\_action\=search\&p\_maxdocs\=200\&p\_topdoc\=1\&p\_text\_direct\-0\=10CB2343A1DAABF8\&p\_field\_direct\-0\=document\_id\&p\_perpage\=10\&p\_sort\=YMD\_date:D\&s\_trackval\=GooglePM \|date\=2013\-12\-24}}
The series *[New Looney Tunes](/wiki/New_Looney_Tunes "New Looney Tunes")* portrays Lola as a happy and friendly character but with a more serious personality almost like her original character from her debut. She appears in the segments "Hare to the Throne", "Lola Rider" and "Rhoda Derby". Her appearance is similar to *The Looney Tunes Show*, although she wears a different outfit. She always shows eccentricity and maintains her carefree attitude but very clever and outwits her opponents similar to Bugs. Her intrepid and adventurous side appears within some episodes, where she performs various sports.
Lola returned in *[Space Jam: A New Legacy](/wiki/Space_Jam:A_New_Legacy "A New Legacy")* with an updated character redesign, voiced by [Zendaya](/wiki/Zendaya "Zendaya") although Soucie was initially announced to be reprising the role.
Lola appeared in the preschool series *[Bugs Bunny Builders](/wiki/Bugs_Bunny_Builders "Bugs Bunny Builders")*, this time being voiced by Chandni Parekh, once again having a different voice. This version gained the most positive reception for her personality and her defying gender stereotypes by working hard on projects with her friends and acting as a true leader for a construction team.{{cite news \|last1\=Milligan \|first1\=Mercedes \|title\=WarnerMedia Upfronts: Cartoonito Launches on HBO Max with 20 Series \|url\=https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/warnermedia\-upfronts\-cartoonito\-launches\-on\-hbo\-max\-with\-20\-series/ \|access\-date\=March 9, 2021 \|work\=Animation Magazine \|date\=February 17, 2021 \|archive\-date\=March 10, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310112336/https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/warnermedia\-upfronts\-cartoonito\-launches\-on\-hbo\-max\-with\-20\-series/ \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.wishtv.com/lifestylelive/first\-looney\-toons\-preschool\-show\-bugs\-bunny\-builders\-in\-over\-20\-years\-premieres\-tonight/ \|title\=First Looney Toons preschool show 'Bugs Bunny Builders' in over 20 years premieres tonight \|date\=25 July 2022 \|access\-date\=25 July 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725222321/https://www.wishtv.com/lifestylelive/first\-looney\-toons\-preschool\-show\-bugs\-bunny\-builders\-in\-over\-20\-years\-premieres\-tonight/ \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.romper.com/entertainment/bugs\-bunny\-builders\-exclusive \|title\=Exclusive: Looney Tunes' First Educational Show Debuts a New Lola Bunny for Preschoolers \|date\=18 July 2022 \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-25 \|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725200001/https://www.romper.com/entertainment/bugs\-bunny\-builders\-exclusive \|url\-status\=live}}
Lola appears in *[Tiny Toons Looniversity](/wiki/Tiny_Toons_Looniversity "Tiny Toons Looniversity")*, a reboot of *[Tiny Toon Adventures](/wiki/Tiny_Toon_Adventures "Tiny Toon Adventures")*, this time voiced by [Kari Wahlgren](/wiki/Kari_Wahlgren "Kari Wahlgren"). She is seen with [Babs Bunny](/wiki/Babs_Bunny "Babs Bunny") and the other tiny toons together onscreen for the first time; her occupation within Acme Looniversity is implied to be sports coach, including other roles such as the head chef.
|
[
"### Other appearances",
"Lola appears as a news reporter twice, both in the [direct\\-to\\-video](/wiki/Direct-to-video \"Direct-to-video\") film *[Tweety's High\\-Flying Adventure](/wiki/Tweety%27s_High-Flying_Adventure \"Tweety's High-Flying Adventure\")* and the games *[Looney Tunes Racing](/wiki/Looney_Tunes_Racing \"Looney Tunes Racing\")* and *[Looney Tunes: Space Race](/wiki/Looney_Tunes:Space_Race \"Space Race\")*. Kath Soucie reprises her voice in both.",
"In the series *[Baby Looney Tunes](/wiki/Baby_Looney_Tunes \"Baby Looney Tunes\")*, as well as in its direct\\-to\\-video film *[Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs\\-traordinary Adventure](/wiki/Baby_Looney_Tunes%27_Eggs-traordinary_Adventure \"Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs-traordinary Adventure\")*, she is like her older counterpart in *Space Jam*, having tomboyish traits and an affinity for basketball.Erickson, Hal (ed.) (2005\\). *Television Cartoon Shows An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1949 through 2003*, 2nd edition, p. 105\\. McFarland \\& Co. {{ISBN\\|0786422556}} She is voiced by [Britt McKillip](/wiki/Britt_McKillip \"Britt McKillip\").",
"In the post\\-apocalyptic action\\-comedy *[Loonatics Unleashed](/wiki/Loonatics_Unleashed \"Loonatics Unleashed\")*, her descendant [Lexi Bunny](/wiki/Lexi_Bunny \"Lexi Bunny\") is one of the main characters.*[Dallas Morning News](/wiki/Dallas_Morning_News \"Dallas Morning News\")* (17 September 2005\\). [\"'Beep\\-beep' gives way to yawn\\-yawn\"](http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10CB2343A1DAABF8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM){{subscription required}} {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224115031/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl\\-search/we/Archives?p\\_product\\=DM\\&p\\_theme\\=dm\\&p\\_action\\=search\\&p\\_maxdocs\\=200\\&p\\_topdoc\\=1\\&p\\_text\\_direct\\-0\\=10CB2343A1DAABF8\\&p\\_field\\_direct\\-0\\=document\\_id\\&p\\_perpage\\=10\\&p\\_sort\\=YMD\\_date:D\\&s\\_trackval\\=GooglePM \\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-24}}",
"The series *[New Looney Tunes](/wiki/New_Looney_Tunes \"New Looney Tunes\")* portrays Lola as a happy and friendly character but with a more serious personality almost like her original character from her debut. She appears in the segments \"Hare to the Throne\", \"Lola Rider\" and \"Rhoda Derby\". Her appearance is similar to *The Looney Tunes Show*, although she wears a different outfit. She always shows eccentricity and maintains her carefree attitude but very clever and outwits her opponents similar to Bugs. Her intrepid and adventurous side appears within some episodes, where she performs various sports.",
"Lola returned in *[Space Jam: A New Legacy](/wiki/Space_Jam:A_New_Legacy \"A New Legacy\")* with an updated character redesign, voiced by [Zendaya](/wiki/Zendaya \"Zendaya\") although Soucie was initially announced to be reprising the role.",
"Lola appeared in the preschool series *[Bugs Bunny Builders](/wiki/Bugs_Bunny_Builders \"Bugs Bunny Builders\")*, this time being voiced by Chandni Parekh, once again having a different voice. This version gained the most positive reception for her personality and her defying gender stereotypes by working hard on projects with her friends and acting as a true leader for a construction team.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Milligan \\|first1\\=Mercedes \\|title\\=WarnerMedia Upfronts: Cartoonito Launches on HBO Max with 20 Series \\|url\\=https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/warnermedia\\-upfronts\\-cartoonito\\-launches\\-on\\-hbo\\-max\\-with\\-20\\-series/ \\|access\\-date\\=March 9, 2021 \\|work\\=Animation Magazine \\|date\\=February 17, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310112336/https://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/warnermedia\\-upfronts\\-cartoonito\\-launches\\-on\\-hbo\\-max\\-with\\-20\\-series/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.wishtv.com/lifestylelive/first\\-looney\\-toons\\-preschool\\-show\\-bugs\\-bunny\\-builders\\-in\\-over\\-20\\-years\\-premieres\\-tonight/ \\|title\\=First Looney Toons preschool show 'Bugs Bunny Builders' in over 20 years premieres tonight \\|date\\=25 July 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=25 July 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725222321/https://www.wishtv.com/lifestylelive/first\\-looney\\-toons\\-preschool\\-show\\-bugs\\-bunny\\-builders\\-in\\-over\\-20\\-years\\-premieres\\-tonight/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.romper.com/entertainment/bugs\\-bunny\\-builders\\-exclusive \\|title\\=Exclusive: Looney Tunes' First Educational Show Debuts a New Lola Bunny for Preschoolers \\|date\\=18 July 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725200001/https://www.romper.com/entertainment/bugs\\-bunny\\-builders\\-exclusive \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Lola appears in *[Tiny Toons Looniversity](/wiki/Tiny_Toons_Looniversity \"Tiny Toons Looniversity\")*, a reboot of *[Tiny Toon Adventures](/wiki/Tiny_Toon_Adventures \"Tiny Toon Adventures\")*, this time voiced by [Kari Wahlgren](/wiki/Kari_Wahlgren \"Kari Wahlgren\"). She is seen with [Babs Bunny](/wiki/Babs_Bunny \"Babs Bunny\") and the other tiny toons together onscreen for the first time; her occupation within Acme Looniversity is implied to be sports coach, including other roles such as the head chef.",
""
] |
History
-------
Construction on The Holy Trinity Church in Fortitude Valley began in 1876 and was completed in 1877 by the Anglican Church. It was the second Anglican church on this site and the third in Fortitude Valley.
Fortitude Valley was established in 1849 and the first rector, The Rev. E.K. Yeatman, of "our mother church in this portion of Australia" was appointed in 1856\. The Holy Trinity Parish included [Sandgate](/wiki/Sandgate%2C_Queensland "Sandgate, Queensland"), [New Farm](/wiki/New_Farm%2C_Queensland "New Farm, Queensland"), [Enoggera](/wiki/Enoggera%2C_Queensland "Enoggera, Queensland") and [Bowen Hills](/wiki/Bowen_Hills%2C_Queensland "Bowen Hills, Queensland"), and as [St Johns](/wiki/St_Johns_Pro-Cathedral%2C_Brisbane "St Johns Pro-Cathedral, Brisbane") was situated on the site of what is now [Queens Gardens](/wiki/Queens_Gardens%2C_Brisbane "Queens Gardens, Brisbane"), parishioners had difficulty attending services as the [Ann Street](/wiki/Ann_Street%2C_Brisbane "Ann Street, Brisbane") cutting had not been started. There was no Wickham Street, only a row of ponds and brickyards on the site. By 1856, it was apparent that St Johns was not large enough for the growing parish, and a new church was established in a rented cottage at the corner of Ann and Ballow Streets, across from the [Fortitude Valley Post Office](/wiki/Fortitude_Valley_Post_Office "Fortitude Valley Post Office"). Divine services were held on Sunday, and a day school was conducted during the week.
In 1857 the parish was granted two acres of land for church purposes by the [New South Wales government](/wiki/New_South_Wales_government "New South Wales government") (the [separation of Queensland](/wiki/Separation_of_Queensland "Separation of Queensland") did not occur until December 1859\) This is the same site that the current church is now located on. The first building was constructed as a temporary church at a cost of {{A£\|495}}, and was described as *"a long, plain building of rough stone and cut facings"*. It was later enlarged at a further cost of {{A£\|300}}.
The first rectory was built for The Reverend John Mosely who was appointed in 1861\. It cost {{A£\|650}} and was situated in Leichhardt Street on land which extended to Water Street. This land was a Crown grant to the Church of England.
When the Rev. James Love was appointed in 1875, it was decided that a new church was required. *"From the acorn – as represented by the first cottage room – the oak of the present Trinity Church was bursting".* Church wardens [John Bramston](/wiki/John_Bramston_%28Australian_politician%29 "John Bramston (Australian politician)"), Henry Whyborn and the [Attorney General of Queensland](/wiki/Attorney-General_of_Queensland "Attorney-General of Queensland") began a fund raising appeal. The architect for the church was [Francis Drummond Greville Stanley](/wiki/Francis_Drummond_Greville_Stanley "Francis Drummond Greville Stanley"). Although he was employed as the [Queensland Colonial Architect](/wiki/Queensland_Colonial_Architect "Queensland Colonial Architect") at the time, the Holy Trinity church was one of his many private projects.
His initial drawings were for a stone building, but the tenders must have been too high as new plans were produced for a stone or brick building of smaller scale with options for the building to be built with or without a [chancel](/wiki/Chancel "Chancel") and for the [copings](/wiki/Coping_%28architecture%29 "Coping (architecture)"), window dressings and [string courses](/wiki/String_courses "String courses") to be of stone or cement.
He also designed a number of other churches of both brick and stone that were of a similar style and scale to the Holy Trinity. These included [St Pauls Anglican Church, Maryborough](/wiki/St_Pauls_Anglican_Church%2C_Maryborough "St Pauls Anglican Church, Maryborough") and the [Holy Trinity Church, Mackay](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Mackay "Holy Trinity Church, Mackay").
[thumb\|left\|Holy Trinity Church, 1886](/wiki/File:StateLibQld_2_233526_Holy_Trinity_Church_in_Fortitude_Valley%2C_Brisbane.jpg "StateLibQld 2 233526 Holy Trinity Church in Fortitude Valley, Brisbane.jpg")
The corner stone of the Holy Trinity, Fortitude Valley was laid on Saturday 29 April 1876 and the building was formally opened by [Bishop](/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Brisbane "Anglican Diocese of Brisbane") [Matthew Hale](/wiki/Matthew_Hale_%28bishop%29 "Matthew Hale (bishop)") on Saturday 21 July 1877\. It was constructed without a chancel and with cement dressings by James Robinson, bricklayer and builder, at a cost of approximately {{A£\|3000}}.
It was now apparent that the old [rectory](/wiki/Rectory "Rectory") was too far away from the church and in 1891 it was sold. A new rectory, also designed by F.D.G. Stanley and constructed by James Robinson, was erected next to the church. In January 1892, the old church which was being used as a school was demolished and replaced with a new building to be used as a hall. This building was designed by diocesan architect [John Hingeston Buckeridge](/wiki/John_Hingeston_Buckeridge "John Hingeston Buckeridge").
In 1919 the Rev. Samuel Watkin went to Maryborough to inspect the chancel of St Pauls Church of England which had also been designed by F.D.G. Stanley. Upon his return he was instructed to begin interviewing architects to ascertain the cost of a new chancel.
Church records mention Mr Addison, architect in connection with the chancel. This could be [George Henry Male Addison](/wiki/George_Henry_Male_Addison "George Henry Male Addison") or his son [George Frederick Addison](/wiki/George_Frederick_Addison "George Frederick Addison"). Tenders were received by the church in April 1920 and ranged from {{A£\|1,775}} to {{A£\|2,268}}. The new chancel and [sanctuary](/wiki/Sanctuary "Sanctuary") were dedicated on Sunday, 4 September 1921 by Archbishop [St Clair Donaldson](/wiki/St_Clair_Donaldson "St Clair Donaldson").
Mr Addison was once again consulted when the rector received a cheque from a donor for the remodelling of the [clerestory windows](/wiki/Clerestory_windows "Clerestory windows") in 1925\. He presented several designs, one of which was selected. It was estimated that it would cost between {{A£\|500}} and {{A£\|600}}, and the donor instructed that specifications should proceed, saying *"it was possible that the design might be carried out. If so it would remove an ugly blot and substitute a thing of beauty"*. The new clerestory windows were dedicated on 14 June 1925 by Archbishop [Gerald Sharp](/wiki/Gerald_Sharp "Gerald Sharp").
On Sunday, 10 November 1929 the last major addition to the church, the new reredos was dedicated. It was designed by [Lange Leopold Powell](/wiki/Lange_Leopold_Powell "Lange Leopold Powell") of [Atkinson, Powell and Conrad](/wiki/Atkinson%2C_Powell_and_Conrad "Atkinson, Powell and Conrad"), and was carved by [Andrew Lang Petrie](/wiki/Andrew_Lang_Petrie "Andrew Lang Petrie").
Apart from a brick retaining wall that was erected in 1956 as a memorial to those who died in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the grounds and buildings have remained relatively intact from this date.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Construction on The Holy Trinity Church in Fortitude Valley began in 1876 and was completed in 1877 by the Anglican Church. It was the second Anglican church on this site and the third in Fortitude Valley.",
"Fortitude Valley was established in 1849 and the first rector, The Rev. E.K. Yeatman, of \"our mother church in this portion of Australia\" was appointed in 1856\\. The Holy Trinity Parish included [Sandgate](/wiki/Sandgate%2C_Queensland \"Sandgate, Queensland\"), [New Farm](/wiki/New_Farm%2C_Queensland \"New Farm, Queensland\"), [Enoggera](/wiki/Enoggera%2C_Queensland \"Enoggera, Queensland\") and [Bowen Hills](/wiki/Bowen_Hills%2C_Queensland \"Bowen Hills, Queensland\"), and as [St Johns](/wiki/St_Johns_Pro-Cathedral%2C_Brisbane \"St Johns Pro-Cathedral, Brisbane\") was situated on the site of what is now [Queens Gardens](/wiki/Queens_Gardens%2C_Brisbane \"Queens Gardens, Brisbane\"), parishioners had difficulty attending services as the [Ann Street](/wiki/Ann_Street%2C_Brisbane \"Ann Street, Brisbane\") cutting had not been started. There was no Wickham Street, only a row of ponds and brickyards on the site. By 1856, it was apparent that St Johns was not large enough for the growing parish, and a new church was established in a rented cottage at the corner of Ann and Ballow Streets, across from the [Fortitude Valley Post Office](/wiki/Fortitude_Valley_Post_Office \"Fortitude Valley Post Office\"). Divine services were held on Sunday, and a day school was conducted during the week.",
"In 1857 the parish was granted two acres of land for church purposes by the [New South Wales government](/wiki/New_South_Wales_government \"New South Wales government\") (the [separation of Queensland](/wiki/Separation_of_Queensland \"Separation of Queensland\") did not occur until December 1859\\) This is the same site that the current church is now located on. The first building was constructed as a temporary church at a cost of {{A£\\|495}}, and was described as *\"a long, plain building of rough stone and cut facings\"*. It was later enlarged at a further cost of {{A£\\|300}}.",
"The first rectory was built for The Reverend John Mosely who was appointed in 1861\\. It cost {{A£\\|650}} and was situated in Leichhardt Street on land which extended to Water Street. This land was a Crown grant to the Church of England.",
"When the Rev. James Love was appointed in 1875, it was decided that a new church was required. *\"From the acorn – as represented by the first cottage room – the oak of the present Trinity Church was bursting\".* Church wardens [John Bramston](/wiki/John_Bramston_%28Australian_politician%29 \"John Bramston (Australian politician)\"), Henry Whyborn and the [Attorney General of Queensland](/wiki/Attorney-General_of_Queensland \"Attorney-General of Queensland\") began a fund raising appeal. The architect for the church was [Francis Drummond Greville Stanley](/wiki/Francis_Drummond_Greville_Stanley \"Francis Drummond Greville Stanley\"). Although he was employed as the [Queensland Colonial Architect](/wiki/Queensland_Colonial_Architect \"Queensland Colonial Architect\") at the time, the Holy Trinity church was one of his many private projects.",
"His initial drawings were for a stone building, but the tenders must have been too high as new plans were produced for a stone or brick building of smaller scale with options for the building to be built with or without a [chancel](/wiki/Chancel \"Chancel\") and for the [copings](/wiki/Coping_%28architecture%29 \"Coping (architecture)\"), window dressings and [string courses](/wiki/String_courses \"String courses\") to be of stone or cement.",
"He also designed a number of other churches of both brick and stone that were of a similar style and scale to the Holy Trinity. These included [St Pauls Anglican Church, Maryborough](/wiki/St_Pauls_Anglican_Church%2C_Maryborough \"St Pauls Anglican Church, Maryborough\") and the [Holy Trinity Church, Mackay](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Mackay \"Holy Trinity Church, Mackay\").",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Holy Trinity Church, 1886](/wiki/File:StateLibQld_2_233526_Holy_Trinity_Church_in_Fortitude_Valley%2C_Brisbane.jpg \"StateLibQld 2 233526 Holy Trinity Church in Fortitude Valley, Brisbane.jpg\")\nThe corner stone of the Holy Trinity, Fortitude Valley was laid on Saturday 29 April 1876 and the building was formally opened by [Bishop](/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Brisbane \"Anglican Diocese of Brisbane\") [Matthew Hale](/wiki/Matthew_Hale_%28bishop%29 \"Matthew Hale (bishop)\") on Saturday 21 July 1877\\. It was constructed without a chancel and with cement dressings by James Robinson, bricklayer and builder, at a cost of approximately {{A£\\|3000}}.",
"It was now apparent that the old [rectory](/wiki/Rectory \"Rectory\") was too far away from the church and in 1891 it was sold. A new rectory, also designed by F.D.G. Stanley and constructed by James Robinson, was erected next to the church. In January 1892, the old church which was being used as a school was demolished and replaced with a new building to be used as a hall. This building was designed by diocesan architect [John Hingeston Buckeridge](/wiki/John_Hingeston_Buckeridge \"John Hingeston Buckeridge\").",
"In 1919 the Rev. Samuel Watkin went to Maryborough to inspect the chancel of St Pauls Church of England which had also been designed by F.D.G. Stanley. Upon his return he was instructed to begin interviewing architects to ascertain the cost of a new chancel.",
"Church records mention Mr Addison, architect in connection with the chancel. This could be [George Henry Male Addison](/wiki/George_Henry_Male_Addison \"George Henry Male Addison\") or his son [George Frederick Addison](/wiki/George_Frederick_Addison \"George Frederick Addison\"). Tenders were received by the church in April 1920 and ranged from {{A£\\|1,775}} to {{A£\\|2,268}}. The new chancel and [sanctuary](/wiki/Sanctuary \"Sanctuary\") were dedicated on Sunday, 4 September 1921 by Archbishop [St Clair Donaldson](/wiki/St_Clair_Donaldson \"St Clair Donaldson\").",
"Mr Addison was once again consulted when the rector received a cheque from a donor for the remodelling of the [clerestory windows](/wiki/Clerestory_windows \"Clerestory windows\") in 1925\\. He presented several designs, one of which was selected. It was estimated that it would cost between {{A£\\|500}} and {{A£\\|600}}, and the donor instructed that specifications should proceed, saying *\"it was possible that the design might be carried out. If so it would remove an ugly blot and substitute a thing of beauty\"*. The new clerestory windows were dedicated on 14 June 1925 by Archbishop [Gerald Sharp](/wiki/Gerald_Sharp \"Gerald Sharp\").",
"On Sunday, 10 November 1929 the last major addition to the church, the new reredos was dedicated. It was designed by [Lange Leopold Powell](/wiki/Lange_Leopold_Powell \"Lange Leopold Powell\") of [Atkinson, Powell and Conrad](/wiki/Atkinson%2C_Powell_and_Conrad \"Atkinson, Powell and Conrad\"), and was carved by [Andrew Lang Petrie](/wiki/Andrew_Lang_Petrie \"Andrew Lang Petrie\").",
"Apart from a brick retaining wall that was erected in 1956 as a memorial to those who died in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the grounds and buildings have remained relatively intact from this date.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
Holy Trinity Church is a substantial brick and stone building located on a site bound by Church, Wickham and Brookes Streets, Fortitude Valley. The church precinct includes the [Holy Trinity Parish Hall](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Parish_Hall%2C_Fortitude_Valley "Holy Trinity Parish Hall, Fortitude Valley"), and the [Holy Trinity Rectory](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Rectory%2C_Fortitude_Valley "Holy Trinity Rectory, Fortitude Valley"), both of which are also heritage\-listed.
The church has a central [clerestoried](/wiki/Clerestory "Clerestory") [nave](/wiki/Nave "Nave") which is flanked by [aisles](/wiki/Aisle "Aisle") and intercepted by [transepts](/wiki/Transepts "Transepts") midway. It sits on a stone base and is mainly constructed of dark brick laid in the [English bond](/wiki/English_bond "English bond") method, with the window surrounds, [string courses](/wiki/String_courses "String courses") and [copings](/wiki/Coping_%28architecture%29 "Coping (architecture)") finished in cement render. The roof is of rolled metal which replaced the original [Welsh slate](/wiki/Welsh_slate_industry "Welsh slate industry") roof of Duchess size tiles, and has [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") cresting running along the ridge of the body and transepts of the church. A stone cross sits on the point of each [gable](/wiki/Gable "Gable") end.
A pair of [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture "Gothic Revival architecture") arched doors are centrally located in the symmetrically arranged south face of the building. They are set into a portal entrance of cement render and brick which features a hood moulding. An early pointed arched [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass "Stained glass") and [tracery](/wiki/Tracery "Tracery") window is centred above the portal entrance, above which is a small rectangular window. The remainder of the south face consists of two smaller [lancet windows](/wiki/Lancet_window "Lancet window") on either side of the doors, and a gable end which is flanked by towers topped with [pinnacles](/wiki/Pinnacle "Pinnacle") on either side. All of the brickwork to this face, apart from the portal entrance is bagged and painted.
The east and west faces of the church are similar, both having centrally located transepts flanked by four equal [bays](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 "Bay (architecture)") of windows, two on either side of the transept gables. These bays of windows are made up of three lancet windows of stained glass and surrounded by lighter brickwork and cement render. The bays are divided by [buttresses](/wiki/Buttresses "Buttresses") of dark brick which have cement rendered copings. The transept gables have double doors located centrally between two small windows and have been bagged and painted to match the front face of the church. Above the doorway is a circular window with stone tracery and stained glass panels. This is also surrounded by lighter brickwork. The colours of the stained glass in these windows differs on each side of the building. There are eight [clerestory](/wiki/Clerestory "Clerestory") windows on either side of the transept gables. These are replacements of the originals and are round arched with each window divided into three smaller arches. Centrally located in the roof line above these windows are two ventilation [gablets](/wiki/Gablet_roof "Gablet roof"), one on either side of the transept gables.
The north face or rear of the building is an addition to the original building, and was built in 1921\. This addition had been included in the original design for the church and it was always intended that it be built as the parish grew. It is constructed in the same style and of the same materials as the remainder of the building and houses the [chancel](/wiki/Chancel "Chancel") and [vestry](/wiki/Vestry_%28architecture%29 "Vestry (architecture)"). The rear face is dominated by a large grouped lancet stained glass window which sits above the [reredos](/wiki/Reredos "Reredos") internally. On the eastern side of the chancel is a small rectangular room which houses the vestry, and on the western side is a small polygonal room. The walls to these rooms are lower than the rest of the building and are capped with a concrete [parapet](/wiki/Parapet "Parapet") punctuated with a [quatrefoil](/wiki/Quatrefoil "Quatrefoil") design. These rooms are accessed externally by timber double doors which have a leadlight window above them. Both the doors and the window are set into a Gothic arch similar in style to those in the original part of the building.
Internally the walls are rendered masonry and scored to represent stone in places. The floor is concrete with two bands of [encaustic tiles](/wiki/Encaustic_tile "Encaustic tile") running the length of the nave and a feature pattern of encaustic and [tessellated](/wiki/Tessellation "Tessellation") tiles at the entry. To the right of the entry doors is a semi\-circular staircase leading to the gallery which houses seating and an early organ. The seats to the [gallery](/wiki/Gallery_%28theatre%29 "Gallery (theatre)") are of cedar and pine and appear to have a ventilation system located in the floor underneath them.
The nave [arcade](/wiki/Arcade_%28architecture%29 "Arcade (architecture)") is made up of six [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") [pillars](/wiki/Pillars "Pillars") on either side. These are of complex section cast to resemble clustered pillars used in [Early English churches](/wiki/Early_English_architecture "Early English architecture") and sit on octagonal rendered masonry bases. They are linked by a cast iron framework decorated with a punched quatrefoil motif, forming pointed arched openings. The [spandrels](/wiki/Spandrels "Spandrels") are fitted with timber panels featuring alternating cutout patterns.
The roof construction of the body of the church has [hammer beam](/wiki/Hammerbeam_roof "Hammerbeam roof") roof [trusses](/wiki/Truss "Truss") and is lined with timber boards which are laid diagonally. All timber work, including the [pews](/wiki/Pew "Pew") is either natural [teak](/wiki/Teak_furniture "Teak furniture") or timber stained to a teak colour. Many pieces of liturgical furniture are retained in the church.
A high, pointed arch divides the nave from the chancel. This is dominated by the altar and the reredos which is carved of [Yangan](/wiki/Yangan%2C_Queensland "Yangan, Queensland") [freestone](/wiki/Freestone_%28masonry%29 "Freestone (masonry)"). The [sanctuary](/wiki/Sanctuary "Sanctuary") is defined by the [altar rails](/wiki/Altar_rails "Altar rails") which are timber carved and stained to match the rest of the timber work.
Situated in front of the chancel are the [lectern](/wiki/Lectern "Lectern") and [pulpit](/wiki/Pulpit "Pulpit"). The pulpit is also of carved freestone with detailing in pink marble. The lectern is brass and is in the shape of an eagle with outstretched wings.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"Holy Trinity Church is a substantial brick and stone building located on a site bound by Church, Wickham and Brookes Streets, Fortitude Valley. The church precinct includes the [Holy Trinity Parish Hall](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Parish_Hall%2C_Fortitude_Valley \"Holy Trinity Parish Hall, Fortitude Valley\"), and the [Holy Trinity Rectory](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Rectory%2C_Fortitude_Valley \"Holy Trinity Rectory, Fortitude Valley\"), both of which are also heritage\\-listed.",
"The church has a central [clerestoried](/wiki/Clerestory \"Clerestory\") [nave](/wiki/Nave \"Nave\") which is flanked by [aisles](/wiki/Aisle \"Aisle\") and intercepted by [transepts](/wiki/Transepts \"Transepts\") midway. It sits on a stone base and is mainly constructed of dark brick laid in the [English bond](/wiki/English_bond \"English bond\") method, with the window surrounds, [string courses](/wiki/String_courses \"String courses\") and [copings](/wiki/Coping_%28architecture%29 \"Coping (architecture)\") finished in cement render. The roof is of rolled metal which replaced the original [Welsh slate](/wiki/Welsh_slate_industry \"Welsh slate industry\") roof of Duchess size tiles, and has [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") cresting running along the ridge of the body and transepts of the church. A stone cross sits on the point of each [gable](/wiki/Gable \"Gable\") end.",
"A pair of [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture \"Gothic Revival architecture\") arched doors are centrally located in the symmetrically arranged south face of the building. They are set into a portal entrance of cement render and brick which features a hood moulding. An early pointed arched [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass \"Stained glass\") and [tracery](/wiki/Tracery \"Tracery\") window is centred above the portal entrance, above which is a small rectangular window. The remainder of the south face consists of two smaller [lancet windows](/wiki/Lancet_window \"Lancet window\") on either side of the doors, and a gable end which is flanked by towers topped with [pinnacles](/wiki/Pinnacle \"Pinnacle\") on either side. All of the brickwork to this face, apart from the portal entrance is bagged and painted.",
"The east and west faces of the church are similar, both having centrally located transepts flanked by four equal [bays](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 \"Bay (architecture)\") of windows, two on either side of the transept gables. These bays of windows are made up of three lancet windows of stained glass and surrounded by lighter brickwork and cement render. The bays are divided by [buttresses](/wiki/Buttresses \"Buttresses\") of dark brick which have cement rendered copings. The transept gables have double doors located centrally between two small windows and have been bagged and painted to match the front face of the church. Above the doorway is a circular window with stone tracery and stained glass panels. This is also surrounded by lighter brickwork. The colours of the stained glass in these windows differs on each side of the building. There are eight [clerestory](/wiki/Clerestory \"Clerestory\") windows on either side of the transept gables. These are replacements of the originals and are round arched with each window divided into three smaller arches. Centrally located in the roof line above these windows are two ventilation [gablets](/wiki/Gablet_roof \"Gablet roof\"), one on either side of the transept gables.",
"The north face or rear of the building is an addition to the original building, and was built in 1921\\. This addition had been included in the original design for the church and it was always intended that it be built as the parish grew. It is constructed in the same style and of the same materials as the remainder of the building and houses the [chancel](/wiki/Chancel \"Chancel\") and [vestry](/wiki/Vestry_%28architecture%29 \"Vestry (architecture)\"). The rear face is dominated by a large grouped lancet stained glass window which sits above the [reredos](/wiki/Reredos \"Reredos\") internally. On the eastern side of the chancel is a small rectangular room which houses the vestry, and on the western side is a small polygonal room. The walls to these rooms are lower than the rest of the building and are capped with a concrete [parapet](/wiki/Parapet \"Parapet\") punctuated with a [quatrefoil](/wiki/Quatrefoil \"Quatrefoil\") design. These rooms are accessed externally by timber double doors which have a leadlight window above them. Both the doors and the window are set into a Gothic arch similar in style to those in the original part of the building.",
"Internally the walls are rendered masonry and scored to represent stone in places. The floor is concrete with two bands of [encaustic tiles](/wiki/Encaustic_tile \"Encaustic tile\") running the length of the nave and a feature pattern of encaustic and [tessellated](/wiki/Tessellation \"Tessellation\") tiles at the entry. To the right of the entry doors is a semi\\-circular staircase leading to the gallery which houses seating and an early organ. The seats to the [gallery](/wiki/Gallery_%28theatre%29 \"Gallery (theatre)\") are of cedar and pine and appear to have a ventilation system located in the floor underneath them.",
"The nave [arcade](/wiki/Arcade_%28architecture%29 \"Arcade (architecture)\") is made up of six [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") [pillars](/wiki/Pillars \"Pillars\") on either side. These are of complex section cast to resemble clustered pillars used in [Early English churches](/wiki/Early_English_architecture \"Early English architecture\") and sit on octagonal rendered masonry bases. They are linked by a cast iron framework decorated with a punched quatrefoil motif, forming pointed arched openings. The [spandrels](/wiki/Spandrels \"Spandrels\") are fitted with timber panels featuring alternating cutout patterns.",
"The roof construction of the body of the church has [hammer beam](/wiki/Hammerbeam_roof \"Hammerbeam roof\") roof [trusses](/wiki/Truss \"Truss\") and is lined with timber boards which are laid diagonally. All timber work, including the [pews](/wiki/Pew \"Pew\") is either natural [teak](/wiki/Teak_furniture \"Teak furniture\") or timber stained to a teak colour. Many pieces of liturgical furniture are retained in the church.",
"A high, pointed arch divides the nave from the chancel. This is dominated by the altar and the reredos which is carved of [Yangan](/wiki/Yangan%2C_Queensland \"Yangan, Queensland\") [freestone](/wiki/Freestone_%28masonry%29 \"Freestone (masonry)\"). The [sanctuary](/wiki/Sanctuary \"Sanctuary\") is defined by the [altar rails](/wiki/Altar_rails \"Altar rails\") which are timber carved and stained to match the rest of the timber work.",
"Situated in front of the chancel are the [lectern](/wiki/Lectern \"Lectern\") and [pulpit](/wiki/Pulpit \"Pulpit\"). The pulpit is also of carved freestone with detailing in pink marble. The lectern is brass and is in the shape of an eagle with outstretched wings.",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
Holy Trinity Church was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register "Queensland Heritage Register") on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.
**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**
The Holy Trinity Church demonstrates the rapid growth of the Anglican community not only in Fortitude Valley but also in communities further to the North and East of Fortitude Valley.
**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**
The building demonstrates the principal characteristics of a mid \- Victorian interpretation of Early English Gothic architecture, and also an example of the ecclesiastical work of prominent Brisbane architect F.D.G. Stanley. It has a number of intact elements typical to this style, including the plan form and detailing which includes the gallery and organ, joinery and stained glass windows.
**The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.**
As a substantial church in a prominent location, Holy Trinity Church is of considerable aesthetic value.
**The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.**
The design uses particularly innovative building techniques for the period in which it was built. These include the cement flooring and the use of cast iron columns in the nave arcade.
**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**
It was only seven years after the first settlers arrived in The Valley that the need arose for a new church. From that time, the church has had a strong association with the Anglican community. The church contains many items of furniture of special value to the parish community.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"Holy Trinity Church was listed on the [Queensland Heritage Register](/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register \"Queensland Heritage Register\") on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**",
"The Holy Trinity Church demonstrates the rapid growth of the Anglican community not only in Fortitude Valley but also in communities further to the North and East of Fortitude Valley.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**",
"The building demonstrates the principal characteristics of a mid \\- Victorian interpretation of Early English Gothic architecture, and also an example of the ecclesiastical work of prominent Brisbane architect F.D.G. Stanley. It has a number of intact elements typical to this style, including the plan form and detailing which includes the gallery and organ, joinery and stained glass windows.",
"**The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.**",
"As a substantial church in a prominent location, Holy Trinity Church is of considerable aesthetic value.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.**",
"The design uses particularly innovative building techniques for the period in which it was built. These include the cement flooring and the use of cast iron columns in the nave arcade.",
"**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**",
"It was only seven years after the first settlers arrived in The Valley that the need arose for a new church. From that time, the church has had a strong association with the Anglican community. The church contains many items of furniture of special value to the parish community.",
""
] |
Career
------
Kelly served 6 years on the Marion County School Board. He was elected to the [Florida House of Representatives](/wiki/Florida_House_of_Representatives "Florida House of Representatives") from District 24 on June 26, 2007, in a special election and has subsequently been re\-elected.
Kelly serves on several leadership boards such as Children's Alliance, Success by Six, Ocala Kiwanis, [Central Florida Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Central_Florida_Symphony_Orchestra "Central Florida Symphony Orchestra"), and Child Evangelism Fellowship of Marion County.
During his first [Legislative Session](/wiki/Legislative_session "Legislative session"), Representative Kelly spearheaded legislation that supported victims of dating violence called the **Barwick/Rucshak Act**, strengthened early childhood learning, called to the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") to fund Alzheimer research and services, and encouraged the building of "green" schools. Kelly also worked with a state agency to develop statewide plan on drinking water.
During the 2009 Legislative Session, Kelly focused on improving Florida's economy, creating jobs, and protecting and strengthening Florida's public education. He was placed by leadership to be on the House Full Appropriations Council on Education and Economic Development. He is also a member of the Economic Development Policy Committee; Energy and Utilities Policy Committee; State and Community Colleges and Workforce Policy Committee; PreK\-12 Appropriations; and State and Community Colleges and Workforce Appropriations. Kelly is the Chair of the [Digital Divide Select Council](https://archive.today/20121202041747/http://www.fldoe.org/bii/instruct_tech/doc/DigitalDivideCouncil-Bylaws3-4-08.doc)and the Vision Caucus. He has transformed the Vision Caucus into the largest Caucus in the Florida Legislature.
Kelly was recognized as the 2008 Freshman Legislator of the Year by the Florida Association of Counties, the Florida Water Conservation Champion of 2008, the Central Florida Community Arts\-Spirit of International Art Award for 2008, and the 2007\-2008 PACE Marion County Champion for Girls award.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Kelly served 6 years on the Marion County School Board. He was elected to the [Florida House of Representatives](/wiki/Florida_House_of_Representatives \"Florida House of Representatives\") from District 24 on June 26, 2007, in a special election and has subsequently been re\\-elected.",
"Kelly serves on several leadership boards such as Children's Alliance, Success by Six, Ocala Kiwanis, [Central Florida Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Central_Florida_Symphony_Orchestra \"Central Florida Symphony Orchestra\"), and Child Evangelism Fellowship of Marion County.",
"During his first [Legislative Session](/wiki/Legislative_session \"Legislative session\"), Representative Kelly spearheaded legislation that supported victims of dating violence called the **Barwick/Rucshak Act**, strengthened early childhood learning, called to the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") to fund Alzheimer research and services, and encouraged the building of \"green\" schools. Kelly also worked with a state agency to develop statewide plan on drinking water.",
"During the 2009 Legislative Session, Kelly focused on improving Florida's economy, creating jobs, and protecting and strengthening Florida's public education. He was placed by leadership to be on the House Full Appropriations Council on Education and Economic Development. He is also a member of the Economic Development Policy Committee; Energy and Utilities Policy Committee; State and Community Colleges and Workforce Policy Committee; PreK\\-12 Appropriations; and State and Community Colleges and Workforce Appropriations. Kelly is the Chair of the [Digital Divide Select Council](https://archive.today/20121202041747/http://www.fldoe.org/bii/instruct_tech/doc/DigitalDivideCouncil-Bylaws3-4-08.doc)and the Vision Caucus. He has transformed the Vision Caucus into the largest Caucus in the Florida Legislature.",
"Kelly was recognized as the 2008 Freshman Legislator of the Year by the Florida Association of Counties, the Florida Water Conservation Champion of 2008, the Central Florida Community Arts\\-Spirit of International Art Award for 2008, and the 2007\\-2008 PACE Marion County Champion for Girls award.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early years
Records show that football has been played in Prestatyn since the early 1890s with games being played on an undeveloped field on Marine Road. Other pitches around the town were also utilised but by the 1930s when the club settled on Bastion Road ground behind what is now the Central Beach Club.
The early history of Prestatyn Football Club is somewhat sketchy as there were many teams who lasted just a couple of seasons before folding. Prestatyn Town played their first game on 20 October 1910 when they travelled to Rhyl Amateurs, winning 3–2\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.seasidersattic.co.uk/pre\-war.php?page\=2 \|title\=Pre War \- Seasiders Attic \|access\-date\=25 August 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323154905/http://www.seasidersattic.co.uk/pre\-war.php?page\=2 \|archive\-date\=23 March 2012 \|df\=dmy\-all }} One Prestatyn side did enjoy some form of longevity, winning the North Wales Coast FA Junior Cup in 1928–29\. At the time Sam Bennett, who was manager, carried out training, acted as club linesman, headed up the committee and also supplied match reports to the local press.
Although never one of North Wales' football's leading lights in the pre and inter\-war era, Prestatyn attracted their share of noted players including left back Alf Smith never disclosed his age to anyone but had a long and distinguished career with the club before hanging up his boots after a spell with Penmaenmawr. Other names included George Drummond, an old\-fashioned wing\-half, winger\-cum\-centre forward Roger Jones, who had also played for Rhyl in the Birmingham League. Also there were the Roberts brothers, Alf and George and 'Cunnie' Jones who left Prestatyn to become a centre\-half with Rhyl.
For a time in the late 1940s the club adopted the name Chandypore FC (the original name of the above\-mentioned Central Beach Club) when they operated in the Dyserth Area League but quickly reverted to Prestatyn Town and, apart from sponsor's names (Prestatyn Town Nova in 1990\) have remained so ever since. Success in these early days was in short supply, the only triumph of any note being the capture of the North Wales Coast FA Junior Cup in 1928–29\.
### 1960s to 1980s
In the late 1960s the old Bastion Road ground was swallowed up by housing and after considering using a pitch in the middle of the old Prestatyn Raceway, now the site of Pontin's Holiday Village, the club moved to their present headquarters off Bastion Gardens in 1970–71 season. For most of this period the club were members of either the Dyserth Area League or the [Welsh League North](/wiki/Welsh_League_North "Welsh League North"). After becoming founder members of the [Clwyd Football League](/wiki/Clwyd_Football_League "Clwyd Football League") in 1974–75 Prestatyn enjoyed immediate success under the charge of manager Eaton Woodfine, winning the inaugural and subsequent titles and a host of cups along the way until, after finishing runners\-up to St Asaph City in 1992–93, they decided to join the [Welsh Alliance League](/wiki/Welsh_Alliance_League "Welsh Alliance League").
### 1990s
During the 1993–94 season, under the management of former Queen of the South professional Eddie Garrett, the club finished in eighth place but won the Alves Cup for the first time, beating St Asaph in the final at Connahs Quay. Prestatyn's captain Martin Trigg was the goalscorer. The following season saw the club set up an end\-of\-season run of 14 straight wins to finish just four points behind champions Rhydymwyn. They also reached the semi\-final of the Alves Cup while the reserve team won the Clwyd League's Clwyd Cup.
The 1995–96 season saw the club chasing eventual champions Denbigh Town all the way, finishing in second place but this time only three points behind. In this season Town completed work on their clubhouse which meant they now had their own entirely self\-contained base.
There was an acrimonious split at the club in 1998–99 which led to the formation of Prestatyn Nova and Town resigning from the Welsh Alliance to re\-join the Clwyd League. This move was not the backward step many detractors feared, under the leadership of Tony Thackeray and Gwyn Jones, the club completed a Clwyd League treble of championship, Premier Cup and President's Cup while the reserves reached the final of the Coast FA Junior Cup, losing on penalties to Abergele Celts.
The club re\-joined the Welsh Alliance the next year, finishing seventh and again winning the Alves Cup while the reserves won the Clwyd League's REM Jones Cup.
2001–02 saw Prestatyn appoint Graham Hunter as manager and Tony Thackeray became club chairman. They were runners\-up in the Alves Cup and the reserves retained the REM Jones Cup. 2002–03 saw managerial changes again when Paul Thomas and James Ainsworth took over the reins.
### 2000s
There was change again for 2003–04 season when Jim Hackett and Steve Jones took over and the transformation was immediate, the club finished third and just missed promotion to the [Cymru Alliance](/wiki/Cymru_Alliance "Cymru Alliance").
Hackett left for a job at Chester City after a year and 2004–05 was a season of mixed fortune under the management of Lennie Dunster and Martyn Jones. The team eventually finished sixth but did reach the final of the NWCFA Challenge Cup for the first time, losing 3–0 to [Bangor City](/wiki/Bangor_City_F.C. "Bangor City F.C.") at Llandudno.
2005–06 was the season that really marked an upturn in Prestatyn's fortunes when, under the chairmanship of Steven Jones, Town appointed Dave Fuller as player\-manager and retained Martyn Jones as assistant. The policy to concentrate on the league title paid off with the team winning the Welsh Alliance title for the first time and remaining unbeaten all season and ending up nine points clear of runners\-up Denbigh Town.
There was also a rewarding run in the [Welsh Cup](/wiki/Welsh_Cup "Welsh Cup") which ended in a narrow 2–1 defeat to Welsh Premier club Carmarthen Town in front of 268 people at Bastion Road. The season also saw the reserves, under manager Sean Pritchard, finish third in the Clwyd League's Premier Division and winning the President's Cup by beating Llandyrnog 5–2 at Halkyn United.
Off the field the new clubhouse extension was completed along with a new seated stand and hard standing around the pitch to comply with the requirements of the Cymru Alliance and in their first season, Fuller – now assisted by [Neil Gibson](/wiki/Neil_Gibson_%28footballer%2C_born_1979%29 "Neil Gibson (footballer, born 1979)") – finished fourth and reached the final of the CAL League Cup and the NWCFA Challenge Cup. Fuller stood down in the close season with Gibson taking over as player\-manager for 2007–08 and with the majority of the squad staying, the push for Welsh Premier football was successful with the team finishing as runaway champions.
Following the granting of planning permission in late April, the club erected floodlights and carried out further stadium improvements to meet the [Welsh Premier League](/wiki/Welsh_Premier_League "Welsh Premier League")'s ground grading deadline on 1 May.
### Promotion to the Welsh Premier League
After winning the league title in 2007–08, the club was promoted to the [Welsh Premier League](/wiki/Welsh_Premier_League "Welsh Premier League") for the 2008–09 season. Their promotion was dependent on their ground, Bastion Road, meeting certain criteria, meaning that stadium had to be upgraded by 1 May 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://icnorthwales.icnetwork.co.uk/visitor/tm\_headline\=football\-prestatyn\-town\-fc\-are\-cymru\-alliance\-champions\&method\=full\&objectid\=20735957\&siteid\=50142\-name\_page.html\|title\=Daily Post: Latest North Wales news, sport, what's on and business\|website\=icnorthwales.icnetwork.co.uk}} The club installed floodlights{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rhyljournal.co.uk/news/Football\-club39s\-floodlightplan\-given\-go.4006439\.jp\|title\=Football club's floodlight plan given go ahead\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929152409/http://www.rhyljournal.co.uk/news/Football\-club39s\-floodlightplan\-given\-go.4006439\.jp\|archive\-date\=29 September 2008\|df\=dmy\-all}} and their promotion to the Welsh Premier League was ratified. The club maintained Premier League status for a second season with a 15th\-place finish in 2008–09\.
### Welsh Cup winners and European football
Under the guidance of chairman Phil Merrick and CEO Leigh Williams, the club had its most successful season in 2012–13\. This was down to manager Neil Gibson's ability to attract and coach ex\-professional players such as [Andy Parkinson](/wiki/Andy_Parkinson "Andy Parkinson") and [Jason Price](/wiki/Jason_Price "Jason Price"). They beat champions [The New Saints](/wiki/The_New_Saints "The New Saints") for the first time and it was also the first time they had ever been top of the Welsh Premier League. They won the NWCFA Challenge Cup and beat local rivals Bangor City 3\-1 after extra\-time to win the [Welsh Cup Final](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Welsh_Cup%23Final "2012–13 Welsh Cup#Final") at the Racecourse, Wrexham. They then went on to make Welsh football history by being the first Welsh club to reach the second qualifying round of the [UEFA Europa League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League "UEFA Europa League") at the first attempt. In the first qualifying round they beat Latvian side Liepajas Metalurgs to then go on and play HNK Rijeka at Kantrida Stadium. Captain Dave Hayes led out the team in front of 10,000 fans.
### Stagnation and relegation from the top tier
As the 2013–14 season began, there were multiple players leaving the club to pastures new and as a result, the performance of the club for the next couple of years started to deteriorate, but at the end of the season they survived relegation with an 11th\-place finish. In the 2014–15 season the club were ultimately relegated with a 12th\-place finish and no mathematical chance of surviving, their relegation was confirmed as [Llandudno](/wiki/Llandudno_F.C. "Llandudno F.C.") were promoted from the Cymru Alliance, ending a seven\-year stint in Wales's top division.
### Promotion followed by immediate relegation
The 2016–17 season saw the club gain promotion back to the Welsh Premier League. The club's return to the top tier did not however go as planned with the team struggling to pick up results after November. Neil Gibson departed mid\-season to take up a coaching role with Connah's Quay Nomads, and caretaker manager Gareth Wilson was unable to help the club avoid relegation.
### Back in the second tier
The summer of 2018 began in crisis. A mass exodus of the playing staff due to off\-the\-field issues saw the club not only in need of a manager, but an entire squad of players. In stepped the management duo of Leon Field and Ryan Turner from lower league side Kinmel Bay. The duo had their work cut out, and their first action was to promote a number of the club's youth prospects from Prestatyn's title\-winning reserve side. A number of promising signings followed. Dave Fuller returned as director of football, and following a successful pre\-season \- former captain Dave Hayes came out of retirement to help steady things on the field. Alex Jones was named club captain, and former striker Ian Griffiths returned to bring experience and goals.
Long\-serving chairman Chris Tipping sold the club to an investment consortium two months into the 2018–19 season, and a change in management followed as Neil Gibson returned to manage the club in October \- with Ryan Turner assuming the role of assistant manager. Results in the league steadily improved thanks to Gibson's influence helping secure the return of a few key players from the last title\-winning squad. A run of six games unbeaten with five wins \- including a Boxing Day demolishing of fierce rivals Rhyl FC \- all but secured their Cymru Alliance status, with the club eyeing a promotion push the following season.
### Cymru North champions but no promotion
The 2019–20 season saw the Cymru Alliance rebranded as the [Cymru North](/wiki/Cymru_North "Cymru North") (along with the WPL as the [Cymru Premier](/wiki/Cymru_Premier "Cymru Premier") in a mass rebrand) and this also saw the club record their best season in the Cymru North with 3 separate 7\-0 wins against Bangor City, [Llanfair United](/wiki/Llanfair_United_F.C. "Llanfair United F.C.") and away at [Conwy Borough](/wiki/Conwy_Borough_F.C. "Conwy Borough F.C."), unfortunately the season was cut short in March due to the outbreak of the [COVID\-19 Worldwide Pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") (which later stopped that season's Welsh Cup which the club had progressed to a semi final game against The New Saints), despite Prestatyn Town winning the Cymru North on the PPG (Points\-Per\-Game) System implemented by the [FAW](/wiki/Football_Association_of_Wales "Football Association of Wales") across the Welsh football pyramid, they weren't granted promotion due to their TV Gantry being up to FAW standards. As a result, Flint Town United took their spot in the Cymru Premier for the 2020–21 season with the club taking on another season in the Cymru North as league champions.
During the off\-season, Neal Colakoglu that led the consortium to buy club from Tipping, announced he was selling the club to investor Jamie Welsh. Changes were made as a result in the board with the additions of Leigh Williams as the club's CEO (who would later step down) and Mike Mainwaring as the Club Secretary.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early years",
"Records show that football has been played in Prestatyn since the early 1890s with games being played on an undeveloped field on Marine Road. Other pitches around the town were also utilised but by the 1930s when the club settled on Bastion Road ground behind what is now the Central Beach Club.",
"The early history of Prestatyn Football Club is somewhat sketchy as there were many teams who lasted just a couple of seasons before folding. Prestatyn Town played their first game on 20 October 1910 when they travelled to Rhyl Amateurs, winning 3–2\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.seasidersattic.co.uk/pre\\-war.php?page\\=2 \\|title\\=Pre War \\- Seasiders Attic \\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323154905/http://www.seasidersattic.co.uk/pre\\-war.php?page\\=2 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2012 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} One Prestatyn side did enjoy some form of longevity, winning the North Wales Coast FA Junior Cup in 1928–29\\. At the time Sam Bennett, who was manager, carried out training, acted as club linesman, headed up the committee and also supplied match reports to the local press.",
"Although never one of North Wales' football's leading lights in the pre and inter\\-war era, Prestatyn attracted their share of noted players including left back Alf Smith never disclosed his age to anyone but had a long and distinguished career with the club before hanging up his boots after a spell with Penmaenmawr. Other names included George Drummond, an old\\-fashioned wing\\-half, winger\\-cum\\-centre forward Roger Jones, who had also played for Rhyl in the Birmingham League. Also there were the Roberts brothers, Alf and George and 'Cunnie' Jones who left Prestatyn to become a centre\\-half with Rhyl.",
"For a time in the late 1940s the club adopted the name Chandypore FC (the original name of the above\\-mentioned Central Beach Club) when they operated in the Dyserth Area League but quickly reverted to Prestatyn Town and, apart from sponsor's names (Prestatyn Town Nova in 1990\\) have remained so ever since. Success in these early days was in short supply, the only triumph of any note being the capture of the North Wales Coast FA Junior Cup in 1928–29\\.",
"### 1960s to 1980s",
"In the late 1960s the old Bastion Road ground was swallowed up by housing and after considering using a pitch in the middle of the old Prestatyn Raceway, now the site of Pontin's Holiday Village, the club moved to their present headquarters off Bastion Gardens in 1970–71 season. For most of this period the club were members of either the Dyserth Area League or the [Welsh League North](/wiki/Welsh_League_North \"Welsh League North\"). After becoming founder members of the [Clwyd Football League](/wiki/Clwyd_Football_League \"Clwyd Football League\") in 1974–75 Prestatyn enjoyed immediate success under the charge of manager Eaton Woodfine, winning the inaugural and subsequent titles and a host of cups along the way until, after finishing runners\\-up to St Asaph City in 1992–93, they decided to join the [Welsh Alliance League](/wiki/Welsh_Alliance_League \"Welsh Alliance League\").",
"### 1990s",
"During the 1993–94 season, under the management of former Queen of the South professional Eddie Garrett, the club finished in eighth place but won the Alves Cup for the first time, beating St Asaph in the final at Connahs Quay. Prestatyn's captain Martin Trigg was the goalscorer. The following season saw the club set up an end\\-of\\-season run of 14 straight wins to finish just four points behind champions Rhydymwyn. They also reached the semi\\-final of the Alves Cup while the reserve team won the Clwyd League's Clwyd Cup.",
"The 1995–96 season saw the club chasing eventual champions Denbigh Town all the way, finishing in second place but this time only three points behind. In this season Town completed work on their clubhouse which meant they now had their own entirely self\\-contained base.",
"There was an acrimonious split at the club in 1998–99 which led to the formation of Prestatyn Nova and Town resigning from the Welsh Alliance to re\\-join the Clwyd League. This move was not the backward step many detractors feared, under the leadership of Tony Thackeray and Gwyn Jones, the club completed a Clwyd League treble of championship, Premier Cup and President's Cup while the reserves reached the final of the Coast FA Junior Cup, losing on penalties to Abergele Celts.",
"The club re\\-joined the Welsh Alliance the next year, finishing seventh and again winning the Alves Cup while the reserves won the Clwyd League's REM Jones Cup.\n2001–02 saw Prestatyn appoint Graham Hunter as manager and Tony Thackeray became club chairman. They were runners\\-up in the Alves Cup and the reserves retained the REM Jones Cup. 2002–03 saw managerial changes again when Paul Thomas and James Ainsworth took over the reins.",
"### 2000s",
"There was change again for 2003–04 season when Jim Hackett and Steve Jones took over and the transformation was immediate, the club finished third and just missed promotion to the [Cymru Alliance](/wiki/Cymru_Alliance \"Cymru Alliance\").",
"Hackett left for a job at Chester City after a year and 2004–05 was a season of mixed fortune under the management of Lennie Dunster and Martyn Jones. The team eventually finished sixth but did reach the final of the NWCFA Challenge Cup for the first time, losing 3–0 to [Bangor City](/wiki/Bangor_City_F.C. \"Bangor City F.C.\") at Llandudno.",
"2005–06 was the season that really marked an upturn in Prestatyn's fortunes when, under the chairmanship of Steven Jones, Town appointed Dave Fuller as player\\-manager and retained Martyn Jones as assistant. The policy to concentrate on the league title paid off with the team winning the Welsh Alliance title for the first time and remaining unbeaten all season and ending up nine points clear of runners\\-up Denbigh Town.",
"There was also a rewarding run in the [Welsh Cup](/wiki/Welsh_Cup \"Welsh Cup\") which ended in a narrow 2–1 defeat to Welsh Premier club Carmarthen Town in front of 268 people at Bastion Road. The season also saw the reserves, under manager Sean Pritchard, finish third in the Clwyd League's Premier Division and winning the President's Cup by beating Llandyrnog 5–2 at Halkyn United.",
"Off the field the new clubhouse extension was completed along with a new seated stand and hard standing around the pitch to comply with the requirements of the Cymru Alliance and in their first season, Fuller – now assisted by [Neil Gibson](/wiki/Neil_Gibson_%28footballer%2C_born_1979%29 \"Neil Gibson (footballer, born 1979)\") – finished fourth and reached the final of the CAL League Cup and the NWCFA Challenge Cup. Fuller stood down in the close season with Gibson taking over as player\\-manager for 2007–08 and with the majority of the squad staying, the push for Welsh Premier football was successful with the team finishing as runaway champions.",
"Following the granting of planning permission in late April, the club erected floodlights and carried out further stadium improvements to meet the [Welsh Premier League](/wiki/Welsh_Premier_League \"Welsh Premier League\")'s ground grading deadline on 1 May.",
"### Promotion to the Welsh Premier League",
"After winning the league title in 2007–08, the club was promoted to the [Welsh Premier League](/wiki/Welsh_Premier_League \"Welsh Premier League\") for the 2008–09 season. Their promotion was dependent on their ground, Bastion Road, meeting certain criteria, meaning that stadium had to be upgraded by 1 May 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://icnorthwales.icnetwork.co.uk/visitor/tm\\_headline\\=football\\-prestatyn\\-town\\-fc\\-are\\-cymru\\-alliance\\-champions\\&method\\=full\\&objectid\\=20735957\\&siteid\\=50142\\-name\\_page.html\\|title\\=Daily Post: Latest North Wales news, sport, what's on and business\\|website\\=icnorthwales.icnetwork.co.uk}} The club installed floodlights{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rhyljournal.co.uk/news/Football\\-club39s\\-floodlightplan\\-given\\-go.4006439\\.jp\\|title\\=Football club's floodlight plan given go ahead\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929152409/http://www.rhyljournal.co.uk/news/Football\\-club39s\\-floodlightplan\\-given\\-go.4006439\\.jp\\|archive\\-date\\=29 September 2008\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} and their promotion to the Welsh Premier League was ratified. The club maintained Premier League status for a second season with a 15th\\-place finish in 2008–09\\.",
"### Welsh Cup winners and European football",
"Under the guidance of chairman Phil Merrick and CEO Leigh Williams, the club had its most successful season in 2012–13\\. This was down to manager Neil Gibson's ability to attract and coach ex\\-professional players such as [Andy Parkinson](/wiki/Andy_Parkinson \"Andy Parkinson\") and [Jason Price](/wiki/Jason_Price \"Jason Price\"). They beat champions [The New Saints](/wiki/The_New_Saints \"The New Saints\") for the first time and it was also the first time they had ever been top of the Welsh Premier League. They won the NWCFA Challenge Cup and beat local rivals Bangor City 3\\-1 after extra\\-time to win the [Welsh Cup Final](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Welsh_Cup%23Final \"2012–13 Welsh Cup#Final\") at the Racecourse, Wrexham. They then went on to make Welsh football history by being the first Welsh club to reach the second qualifying round of the [UEFA Europa League](/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League \"UEFA Europa League\") at the first attempt. In the first qualifying round they beat Latvian side Liepajas Metalurgs to then go on and play HNK Rijeka at Kantrida Stadium. Captain Dave Hayes led out the team in front of 10,000 fans.",
"### Stagnation and relegation from the top tier",
"As the 2013–14 season began, there were multiple players leaving the club to pastures new and as a result, the performance of the club for the next couple of years started to deteriorate, but at the end of the season they survived relegation with an 11th\\-place finish. In the 2014–15 season the club were ultimately relegated with a 12th\\-place finish and no mathematical chance of surviving, their relegation was confirmed as [Llandudno](/wiki/Llandudno_F.C. \"Llandudno F.C.\") were promoted from the Cymru Alliance, ending a seven\\-year stint in Wales's top division.",
"### Promotion followed by immediate relegation",
"The 2016–17 season saw the club gain promotion back to the Welsh Premier League. The club's return to the top tier did not however go as planned with the team struggling to pick up results after November. Neil Gibson departed mid\\-season to take up a coaching role with Connah's Quay Nomads, and caretaker manager Gareth Wilson was unable to help the club avoid relegation.",
"### Back in the second tier",
"The summer of 2018 began in crisis. A mass exodus of the playing staff due to off\\-the\\-field issues saw the club not only in need of a manager, but an entire squad of players. In stepped the management duo of Leon Field and Ryan Turner from lower league side Kinmel Bay. The duo had their work cut out, and their first action was to promote a number of the club's youth prospects from Prestatyn's title\\-winning reserve side. A number of promising signings followed. Dave Fuller returned as director of football, and following a successful pre\\-season \\- former captain Dave Hayes came out of retirement to help steady things on the field. Alex Jones was named club captain, and former striker Ian Griffiths returned to bring experience and goals.",
"Long\\-serving chairman Chris Tipping sold the club to an investment consortium two months into the 2018–19 season, and a change in management followed as Neil Gibson returned to manage the club in October \\- with Ryan Turner assuming the role of assistant manager. Results in the league steadily improved thanks to Gibson's influence helping secure the return of a few key players from the last title\\-winning squad. A run of six games unbeaten with five wins \\- including a Boxing Day demolishing of fierce rivals Rhyl FC \\- all but secured their Cymru Alliance status, with the club eyeing a promotion push the following season.",
"### Cymru North champions but no promotion",
"The 2019–20 season saw the Cymru Alliance rebranded as the [Cymru North](/wiki/Cymru_North \"Cymru North\") (along with the WPL as the [Cymru Premier](/wiki/Cymru_Premier \"Cymru Premier\") in a mass rebrand) and this also saw the club record their best season in the Cymru North with 3 separate 7\\-0 wins against Bangor City, [Llanfair United](/wiki/Llanfair_United_F.C. \"Llanfair United F.C.\") and away at [Conwy Borough](/wiki/Conwy_Borough_F.C. \"Conwy Borough F.C.\"), unfortunately the season was cut short in March due to the outbreak of the [COVID\\-19 Worldwide Pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\") (which later stopped that season's Welsh Cup which the club had progressed to a semi final game against The New Saints), despite Prestatyn Town winning the Cymru North on the PPG (Points\\-Per\\-Game) System implemented by the [FAW](/wiki/Football_Association_of_Wales \"Football Association of Wales\") across the Welsh football pyramid, they weren't granted promotion due to their TV Gantry being up to FAW standards. As a result, Flint Town United took their spot in the Cymru Premier for the 2020–21 season with the club taking on another season in the Cymru North as league champions.",
"During the off\\-season, Neal Colakoglu that led the consortium to buy club from Tipping, announced he was selling the club to investor Jamie Welsh. Changes were made as a result in the board with the additions of Leigh Williams as the club's CEO (who would later step down) and Mike Mainwaring as the Club Secretary.",
""
] |
### 2000s
There was change again for 2003–04 season when Jim Hackett and Steve Jones took over and the transformation was immediate, the club finished third and just missed promotion to the [Cymru Alliance](/wiki/Cymru_Alliance "Cymru Alliance").
Hackett left for a job at Chester City after a year and 2004–05 was a season of mixed fortune under the management of Lennie Dunster and Martyn Jones. The team eventually finished sixth but did reach the final of the NWCFA Challenge Cup for the first time, losing 3–0 to [Bangor City](/wiki/Bangor_City_F.C. "Bangor City F.C.") at Llandudno.
2005–06 was the season that really marked an upturn in Prestatyn's fortunes when, under the chairmanship of Steven Jones, Town appointed Dave Fuller as player\-manager and retained Martyn Jones as assistant. The policy to concentrate on the league title paid off with the team winning the Welsh Alliance title for the first time and remaining unbeaten all season and ending up nine points clear of runners\-up Denbigh Town.
There was also a rewarding run in the [Welsh Cup](/wiki/Welsh_Cup "Welsh Cup") which ended in a narrow 2–1 defeat to Welsh Premier club Carmarthen Town in front of 268 people at Bastion Road. The season also saw the reserves, under manager Sean Pritchard, finish third in the Clwyd League's Premier Division and winning the President's Cup by beating Llandyrnog 5–2 at Halkyn United.
Off the field the new clubhouse extension was completed along with a new seated stand and hard standing around the pitch to comply with the requirements of the Cymru Alliance and in their first season, Fuller – now assisted by [Neil Gibson](/wiki/Neil_Gibson_%28footballer%2C_born_1979%29 "Neil Gibson (footballer, born 1979)") – finished fourth and reached the final of the CAL League Cup and the NWCFA Challenge Cup. Fuller stood down in the close season with Gibson taking over as player\-manager for 2007–08 and with the majority of the squad staying, the push for Welsh Premier football was successful with the team finishing as runaway champions.
Following the granting of planning permission in late April, the club erected floodlights and carried out further stadium improvements to meet the [Welsh Premier League](/wiki/Welsh_Premier_League "Welsh Premier League")'s ground grading deadline on 1 May.
|
[
"### 2000s",
"There was change again for 2003–04 season when Jim Hackett and Steve Jones took over and the transformation was immediate, the club finished third and just missed promotion to the [Cymru Alliance](/wiki/Cymru_Alliance \"Cymru Alliance\").",
"Hackett left for a job at Chester City after a year and 2004–05 was a season of mixed fortune under the management of Lennie Dunster and Martyn Jones. The team eventually finished sixth but did reach the final of the NWCFA Challenge Cup for the first time, losing 3–0 to [Bangor City](/wiki/Bangor_City_F.C. \"Bangor City F.C.\") at Llandudno.",
"2005–06 was the season that really marked an upturn in Prestatyn's fortunes when, under the chairmanship of Steven Jones, Town appointed Dave Fuller as player\\-manager and retained Martyn Jones as assistant. The policy to concentrate on the league title paid off with the team winning the Welsh Alliance title for the first time and remaining unbeaten all season and ending up nine points clear of runners\\-up Denbigh Town.",
"There was also a rewarding run in the [Welsh Cup](/wiki/Welsh_Cup \"Welsh Cup\") which ended in a narrow 2–1 defeat to Welsh Premier club Carmarthen Town in front of 268 people at Bastion Road. The season also saw the reserves, under manager Sean Pritchard, finish third in the Clwyd League's Premier Division and winning the President's Cup by beating Llandyrnog 5–2 at Halkyn United.",
"Off the field the new clubhouse extension was completed along with a new seated stand and hard standing around the pitch to comply with the requirements of the Cymru Alliance and in their first season, Fuller – now assisted by [Neil Gibson](/wiki/Neil_Gibson_%28footballer%2C_born_1979%29 \"Neil Gibson (footballer, born 1979)\") – finished fourth and reached the final of the CAL League Cup and the NWCFA Challenge Cup. Fuller stood down in the close season with Gibson taking over as player\\-manager for 2007–08 and with the majority of the squad staying, the push for Welsh Premier football was successful with the team finishing as runaway champions.",
"Following the granting of planning permission in late April, the club erected floodlights and carried out further stadium improvements to meet the [Welsh Premier League](/wiki/Welsh_Premier_League \"Welsh Premier League\")'s ground grading deadline on 1 May.",
""
] |
History
-------
Legend associates the Monte Cristo Gold Mine with the "Lost Padre" gold mine of mission days. Scholars question that such a mine existed, but the story has nevertheless persisted for over a century. The *Pasadena Union* on October 29, 1887 made reference to the Lost Padre gold mine and its wealth. It is said that the Indians who manned the mine revolted against the padres and removed all traces of the mine's existence.
The first record of the discovery of gold in Los Angeles county was in 1834\. From 1834 to 1838 the [San Francisquito Canyon](/wiki/San_Francisquito_Canyon "San Francisquito Canyon"), [Placerita Caceta](/wiki/Placerita_Caceta "Placerita Caceta") and [Santa Feliciana](/wiki/Santa_Feliciana "Santa Feliciana") [placers](/wiki/Placer_mining "Placer mining") were worked by priests from the [San Fernando](/wiki/San_Fernando_Mission "San Fernando Mission") and [San Buenaventura](/wiki/Mission_San_Buenaventura "Mission San Buenaventura") missions. The placers of San Gabriel canyon were worked by priests and native Californians until 1848 when gold was discovered at [Sutter's Mill](/wiki/Sutter%27s_Mill "Sutter's Mill") by [James W. Marshall](/wiki/James_W._Marshall "James W. Marshall"). Reports of work on gold quartz veins in the [Mount Gleason](/wiki/Mount_Gleason "Mount Gleason") area indicate that the Monte Cristo mine was probably discovered very early.
The Monte Cristo Gold Mine as it is known today first came to light during the Big Tujunga gold excitement of the late 1880s. Just who the prospectors were who located the gold\-bearing veins and began the mine is not known. Delos Colby, an owner of the Colby ranch on Coldwater Creek, reconstructed the story as he knew it:
> When I first came to these mountains about 24 years ago (1891\), the Monte Cristo was being worked by Spanish people. They carried the ore up to a crusher driven by a large water wheel. When they left, I tore the water wheel down and carried some of the timber to my ranch.
{{Citation needed\|date \= August 2008}}
Colby's story of the large water wheel gains in interest when compared with an article that appeared in the Los Angeles *Semi\-Weekly News* for January 4, 1867:
> A new mining district north of the Tehungo (probably referring to Tujunga) and east of the Soledad district has been formed. Gold bearing quartz of great richness has been discovered. ... Four large arrastres will be in operation in a few days. A water wheel {{convert\|60\|ft\|m}} in diameter is being erected for the purpose of drawing a twenty\-stamp mill.
According to some of the old timers, the paper was describing the beginnings of the Monte Cristo Gold Mine.{{Citation needed\|date \= August 2008}}
### Baker era
Around 1893, the property passed into the hands of a Colonel Baker. A company was organized and some $85,000 spent in building a rough wagon road from [Acton](/wiki/Acton%2C_California "Acton, California") up Aliso Canyon, over Mill Creek Summit, and down to the Monte Cristo Gold Mine. Heavy mining machinery was transported in and assembled, and buildings were erected.
The first account of any extensive work in the Monte Cristo Gold Mine appeared in 1895\. Development at that time included several {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} to {{convert\|30\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} [adits](/wiki/Adit "Adit"), and three shafts, {{convert\|10\|ft\|m}} to {{convert\|40\|ft\|m}} deep. The rock was crushed in a [four\-stamp mill](/wiki/Stamp_mill "Stamp mill") with 600\-pound stamps, and a {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} Huntington mill. Two of the above\-mentioned mines were free milling and two produced sulfide ore. Five men were engaged on the property at the time, mainly on development work. The owner in 1895 was R.E. Hudson.
### Fuller era
A few years later, J. J. Haish, owner of a store in Acton, grubstaked Captain Elbridge Fuller who, with a succession of partners, ruled the Monte Cristo Gold Mine for some 20 years of stormy personal controversy and marginal mining success. It seems that Fuller could never get along with his partners, and one by one they either sold out, were driven away, or met with foul play.
Colby related an incident that appears typical of the Fuller era:
> Fuller entered another partnership with two brothers, Hudson by name, but seems to have taken into his confidence another party named Hutchinson. The latter quarreled with the Hudson's who threatened him and drove him off. Fuller and Hutchinson then turned against the Hudson's. On a trip to Los Angeles and [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California "Pasadena, California"), they plotted to kill or drive the Hudson's from Monte Cristo Gold Mine. After a drinking spree, they arrived at the mouth of the [Arroyo Seco](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_%28Los_Angeles_County%29 "Arroyo Seco (Los Angeles County)") where, finding themselves in need of more liquor to bolster their courage, they stopped. Fuller returned to the city to replenish the liquor supply. Upon returning to the Arroyo, he found Hutchinson dead, his head blown off with a gun.
{{Citation needed\|date \= August 2008}}
A short while later, the Hudson's withdrew from the partnership, leaving Fuller sole possessor of the Monte Cristo Gold Mine. In 1897, carefree as he was, he suddenly departed for the [Yukon](/wiki/Yukon "Yukon") to join the [Klondike Gold Rush](/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush "Klondike Gold Rush"). Upon his empty\-handed return two years later, he induced a man by the name of Hauser to supply $1,500 in order to start work once again at the Monte Cristo Gold Mine. The property was then recorded in Hauser's name. When the money was expended, Fuller turned on his partner and went to Los Angeles to swear that the improvement work required by mining law had not been completed. Hauser therefore lost his lease, and the conniving Fuller once again "jumped" the claim to become sole owner.
Fuller's last years at the Monte Cristo Gold Mine were trying ones. Mining proved unprofitable, so he bought a string of mules and did hauling work for his mountain neighbors, Captain Loomis on Alder Creek and Delos Colby in Coldwater Canyon. Around 1915, Fuller finally left for good.
### Carlisle era
Fred W. Carlisle then "jumped" the claim, and remained in control of the Monte Cristo Gold Mine until he died in 1946\. Carlisle had been [assayer](/wiki/Metallurgical_assay "Metallurgical assay") in the Randsburg Mining District, where he had reportedly suffered financial losses, and came to Mill Creek seeking to revive his expiring fortunes. Under Carlisle, the Monte Cristo Gold Mine reached the zenith of its activity, during the years from 1923 to 1928\. Gold\-bearing ore was recovered from two groups of quartz veins about a thousand feet apart. To tap these six tunnels were bored, two of them reaching back {{convert\|425\|ft\|m}} into the mountainside. New machinery, including a Blaker Crusher and a portable compressor, was laboriously hauled in. According to the California State Mine Bureau, a total yield of $70,000 was recovered from the Monte Cristo Gold Mine in 1927, its peak year. Old\-timers, however, insist the figure was more like $200,000, and that the difference was stolen by "high graders."
In 1927 the Monte Cristo Gold Mine property consisted of ten claims, The development work consisted of two adits and a shaft {{convert\|133\|ft\|m}} deep. The upper adit was {{convert\|275\|ft\|m}} long. Four [ore shoots](/wiki/Ore_shoot "Ore shoot"), {{convert\|35\|ft\|m}} by {{convert\|3\|ft\|m}}, were found and stopped to the surface with a reported recovery of $70,000\. At that time gold was selling around $20 an ounce. The values on the lower adit were reported to be $10\.00 per ton or 1/2 ounce of gold per ton. The equipment used at that time was a {{convert\|6\|in\|mm\|adj\=on}} by {{convert\|12\|in\|mm\|adj\=on}} Blake crusher and a {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} Huntington mill. In the late 1920s, Mr. Carlisle installed a small roasting and cyanide plant to process the ore, but later the ore was shipped to Acton for processing. The Huntington mill was scrapped at this time.
In 1937 Carlisle divided the property into two parts and leased to separate parties. The eastern part, consisting of seventeen claims, was leased to W. W. Hartman. Of four parallel veins on the lease the only one developed was the Monte Cristo Gold Mine vein. The upper adit extended north {{convert\|425\|ft\|m}}. At {{convert\|87\|ft\|m}} from the portal a winze was sunk {{convert\|50\|ft\|m}}. A drift went {{convert\|60\|ft\|m}} north with a raise to the adit level. The lower adit extended {{convert\|425\|ft\|m}} north with a {{convert\|25\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} crosscut west at the face.
A portable compressor was in operation and five men were working. The west vein area, leased to W. W. Gilkey and Crouse L. Elgin, is situated {{convert\|1200\|ft\|m}} west of the 17\-Monte Cristo Gold Mine vein. The upper level on this vein consisted of an adit extending north {{convert\|130\|ft\|m}}. At {{convert\|40\|ft\|m}} a winze was sunk {{convert\|30\|ft\|m}} and a small underhand stope, {{convert\|16\|ft\|m}} by {{convert\|21\|ft\|m}}, produced ore valued from $18\.00 to $40\.00 per ton. Fifty feet below, a crosscut was driven to the vein, and a drift along the vein extended north {{convert\|50\|ft\|m}}. The last {{convert\|15\|ft\|m}} showed a vein {{convert\|4\|ft\|m}} to {{convert\|6\|ft\|m}} wide with {{convert\|3\|ft\|m}} of quartz and sulfides. In 1937 four men were employed in the lower tunnel.
After that, the Monte Cristo Gold Mine reverted to its familiar pattern of promise followed by frustration. Several promising "pay streaks" were hit, only to fizzle out just as they appeared to spell "bonanza." Carlisle, hard\-pressed to make ends meet, was obliged to suspend operations for several years at a time. During the mid\-1930s, he leased the east and west veins to different operators, the only time the Monte Cristo Gold Mine was not worked as a single unit. From 1935 to 1942, the mine was worked only intermittently, and in the latter year it ceased operations from the old mill site.
### Kerstein era
In the 1940s the Monte Cristo Gold Mine was sold to the family of the present owners, Bob and Susana Kerstein. The property was acquired by their family in the early 1940s. They own {{convert\|25\.66\|acre\|m2}} of private property in addition to the {{convert\|525\|acre\|km2}} of contiguous mining claims which surround the famous mining property. All of the mining claims have been registered and kept current with the [Bureau of Land Management](/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management "Bureau of Land Management") and the County Recorder's office for almost 100 years. The Monte Cristo Gold Mine has a strict no trespassing policy. There are property managers on duty who maintain the structures and the mining claims, as well as warding off trespassers and possible claim jumpers. If and when gold reaches a high enough price, the famous mine could one day be up and operational again.
### Mohler era
In the fall of 2018, the Monte Cristo and its associated claims were acquired by Lars Mohler and Adria Mohler, husband and wife. Plans are under way to restore some of the historic features and artifacts to a state of arrested decay. Preservation of the mine site and conservation of the land and native species are the goals. Deer, bear, mountain lion, bobcat, fox, frog and rattlesnake make their home in the surrounding area. Although the Monte Cristo was once a gold producing mine, recent testing has shown it to be lacking in any retrievable riches. Assay shows \<0\.125 oz/ton. This means you would have to mine, crush and process 8 tons of rock to get one ounce of gold. The Monte Cristo Mine is private property. The gate on the road is a clear boundary line and the public is asked to respect the privacy of the owners and caretakers.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Legend associates the Monte Cristo Gold Mine with the \"Lost Padre\" gold mine of mission days. Scholars question that such a mine existed, but the story has nevertheless persisted for over a century. The *Pasadena Union* on October 29, 1887 made reference to the Lost Padre gold mine and its wealth. It is said that the Indians who manned the mine revolted against the padres and removed all traces of the mine's existence.",
"The first record of the discovery of gold in Los Angeles county was in 1834\\. From 1834 to 1838 the [San Francisquito Canyon](/wiki/San_Francisquito_Canyon \"San Francisquito Canyon\"), [Placerita Caceta](/wiki/Placerita_Caceta \"Placerita Caceta\") and [Santa Feliciana](/wiki/Santa_Feliciana \"Santa Feliciana\") [placers](/wiki/Placer_mining \"Placer mining\") were worked by priests from the [San Fernando](/wiki/San_Fernando_Mission \"San Fernando Mission\") and [San Buenaventura](/wiki/Mission_San_Buenaventura \"Mission San Buenaventura\") missions. The placers of San Gabriel canyon were worked by priests and native Californians until 1848 when gold was discovered at [Sutter's Mill](/wiki/Sutter%27s_Mill \"Sutter's Mill\") by [James W. Marshall](/wiki/James_W._Marshall \"James W. Marshall\"). Reports of work on gold quartz veins in the [Mount Gleason](/wiki/Mount_Gleason \"Mount Gleason\") area indicate that the Monte Cristo mine was probably discovered very early.",
"The Monte Cristo Gold Mine as it is known today first came to light during the Big Tujunga gold excitement of the late 1880s. Just who the prospectors were who located the gold\\-bearing veins and began the mine is not known. Delos Colby, an owner of the Colby ranch on Coldwater Creek, reconstructed the story as he knew it:",
"",
"> When I first came to these mountains about 24 years ago (1891\\), the Monte Cristo was being worked by Spanish people. They carried the ore up to a crusher driven by a large water wheel. When they left, I tore the water wheel down and carried some of the timber to my ranch.",
"{{Citation needed\\|date \\= August 2008}}",
"Colby's story of the large water wheel gains in interest when compared with an article that appeared in the Los Angeles *Semi\\-Weekly News* for January 4, 1867:",
"",
"> A new mining district north of the Tehungo (probably referring to Tujunga) and east of the Soledad district has been formed. Gold bearing quartz of great richness has been discovered. ... Four large arrastres will be in operation in a few days. A water wheel {{convert\\|60\\|ft\\|m}} in diameter is being erected for the purpose of drawing a twenty\\-stamp mill.",
"According to some of the old timers, the paper was describing the beginnings of the Monte Cristo Gold Mine.{{Citation needed\\|date \\= August 2008}}",
"### Baker era",
"Around 1893, the property passed into the hands of a Colonel Baker. A company was organized and some $85,000 spent in building a rough wagon road from [Acton](/wiki/Acton%2C_California \"Acton, California\") up Aliso Canyon, over Mill Creek Summit, and down to the Monte Cristo Gold Mine. Heavy mining machinery was transported in and assembled, and buildings were erected.",
"The first account of any extensive work in the Monte Cristo Gold Mine appeared in 1895\\. Development at that time included several {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} to {{convert\\|30\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} [adits](/wiki/Adit \"Adit\"), and three shafts, {{convert\\|10\\|ft\\|m}} to {{convert\\|40\\|ft\\|m}} deep. The rock was crushed in a [four\\-stamp mill](/wiki/Stamp_mill \"Stamp mill\") with 600\\-pound stamps, and a {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} Huntington mill. Two of the above\\-mentioned mines were free milling and two produced sulfide ore. Five men were engaged on the property at the time, mainly on development work. The owner in 1895 was R.E. Hudson.",
"### Fuller era",
"A few years later, J. J. Haish, owner of a store in Acton, grubstaked Captain Elbridge Fuller who, with a succession of partners, ruled the Monte Cristo Gold Mine for some 20 years of stormy personal controversy and marginal mining success. It seems that Fuller could never get along with his partners, and one by one they either sold out, were driven away, or met with foul play.",
"Colby related an incident that appears typical of the Fuller era:",
"",
"> Fuller entered another partnership with two brothers, Hudson by name, but seems to have taken into his confidence another party named Hutchinson. The latter quarreled with the Hudson's who threatened him and drove him off. Fuller and Hutchinson then turned against the Hudson's. On a trip to Los Angeles and [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California \"Pasadena, California\"), they plotted to kill or drive the Hudson's from Monte Cristo Gold Mine. After a drinking spree, they arrived at the mouth of the [Arroyo Seco](/wiki/Arroyo_Seco_%28Los_Angeles_County%29 \"Arroyo Seco (Los Angeles County)\") where, finding themselves in need of more liquor to bolster their courage, they stopped. Fuller returned to the city to replenish the liquor supply. Upon returning to the Arroyo, he found Hutchinson dead, his head blown off with a gun.",
"{{Citation needed\\|date \\= August 2008}}",
"A short while later, the Hudson's withdrew from the partnership, leaving Fuller sole possessor of the Monte Cristo Gold Mine. In 1897, carefree as he was, he suddenly departed for the [Yukon](/wiki/Yukon \"Yukon\") to join the [Klondike Gold Rush](/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush \"Klondike Gold Rush\"). Upon his empty\\-handed return two years later, he induced a man by the name of Hauser to supply $1,500 in order to start work once again at the Monte Cristo Gold Mine. The property was then recorded in Hauser's name. When the money was expended, Fuller turned on his partner and went to Los Angeles to swear that the improvement work required by mining law had not been completed. Hauser therefore lost his lease, and the conniving Fuller once again \"jumped\" the claim to become sole owner.",
"Fuller's last years at the Monte Cristo Gold Mine were trying ones. Mining proved unprofitable, so he bought a string of mules and did hauling work for his mountain neighbors, Captain Loomis on Alder Creek and Delos Colby in Coldwater Canyon. Around 1915, Fuller finally left for good.",
"### Carlisle era",
"Fred W. Carlisle then \"jumped\" the claim, and remained in control of the Monte Cristo Gold Mine until he died in 1946\\. Carlisle had been [assayer](/wiki/Metallurgical_assay \"Metallurgical assay\") in the Randsburg Mining District, where he had reportedly suffered financial losses, and came to Mill Creek seeking to revive his expiring fortunes. Under Carlisle, the Monte Cristo Gold Mine reached the zenith of its activity, during the years from 1923 to 1928\\. Gold\\-bearing ore was recovered from two groups of quartz veins about a thousand feet apart. To tap these six tunnels were bored, two of them reaching back {{convert\\|425\\|ft\\|m}} into the mountainside. New machinery, including a Blaker Crusher and a portable compressor, was laboriously hauled in. According to the California State Mine Bureau, a total yield of $70,000 was recovered from the Monte Cristo Gold Mine in 1927, its peak year. Old\\-timers, however, insist the figure was more like $200,000, and that the difference was stolen by \"high graders.\"",
"In 1927 the Monte Cristo Gold Mine property consisted of ten claims, The development work consisted of two adits and a shaft {{convert\\|133\\|ft\\|m}} deep. The upper adit was {{convert\\|275\\|ft\\|m}} long. Four [ore shoots](/wiki/Ore_shoot \"Ore shoot\"), {{convert\\|35\\|ft\\|m}} by {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m}}, were found and stopped to the surface with a reported recovery of $70,000\\. At that time gold was selling around $20 an ounce. The values on the lower adit were reported to be $10\\.00 per ton or 1/2 ounce of gold per ton. The equipment used at that time was a {{convert\\|6\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\\=on}} by {{convert\\|12\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\\=on}} Blake crusher and a {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} Huntington mill. In the late 1920s, Mr. Carlisle installed a small roasting and cyanide plant to process the ore, but later the ore was shipped to Acton for processing. The Huntington mill was scrapped at this time.",
"In 1937 Carlisle divided the property into two parts and leased to separate parties. The eastern part, consisting of seventeen claims, was leased to W. W. Hartman. Of four parallel veins on the lease the only one developed was the Monte Cristo Gold Mine vein. The upper adit extended north {{convert\\|425\\|ft\\|m}}. At {{convert\\|87\\|ft\\|m}} from the portal a winze was sunk {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|m}}. A drift went {{convert\\|60\\|ft\\|m}} north with a raise to the adit level. The lower adit extended {{convert\\|425\\|ft\\|m}} north with a {{convert\\|25\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} crosscut west at the face.",
"A portable compressor was in operation and five men were working. The west vein area, leased to W. W. Gilkey and Crouse L. Elgin, is situated {{convert\\|1200\\|ft\\|m}} west of the 17\\-Monte Cristo Gold Mine vein. The upper level on this vein consisted of an adit extending north {{convert\\|130\\|ft\\|m}}. At {{convert\\|40\\|ft\\|m}} a winze was sunk {{convert\\|30\\|ft\\|m}} and a small underhand stope, {{convert\\|16\\|ft\\|m}} by {{convert\\|21\\|ft\\|m}}, produced ore valued from $18\\.00 to $40\\.00 per ton. Fifty feet below, a crosscut was driven to the vein, and a drift along the vein extended north {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|m}}. The last {{convert\\|15\\|ft\\|m}} showed a vein {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|m}} to {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|m}} wide with {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m}} of quartz and sulfides. In 1937 four men were employed in the lower tunnel.",
"After that, the Monte Cristo Gold Mine reverted to its familiar pattern of promise followed by frustration. Several promising \"pay streaks\" were hit, only to fizzle out just as they appeared to spell \"bonanza.\" Carlisle, hard\\-pressed to make ends meet, was obliged to suspend operations for several years at a time. During the mid\\-1930s, he leased the east and west veins to different operators, the only time the Monte Cristo Gold Mine was not worked as a single unit. From 1935 to 1942, the mine was worked only intermittently, and in the latter year it ceased operations from the old mill site.",
"### Kerstein era",
"In the 1940s the Monte Cristo Gold Mine was sold to the family of the present owners, Bob and Susana Kerstein. The property was acquired by their family in the early 1940s. They own {{convert\\|25\\.66\\|acre\\|m2}} of private property in addition to the {{convert\\|525\\|acre\\|km2}} of contiguous mining claims which surround the famous mining property. All of the mining claims have been registered and kept current with the [Bureau of Land Management](/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management \"Bureau of Land Management\") and the County Recorder's office for almost 100 years. The Monte Cristo Gold Mine has a strict no trespassing policy. There are property managers on duty who maintain the structures and the mining claims, as well as warding off trespassers and possible claim jumpers. If and when gold reaches a high enough price, the famous mine could one day be up and operational again.",
"### Mohler era",
"In the fall of 2018, the Monte Cristo and its associated claims were acquired by Lars Mohler and Adria Mohler, husband and wife. Plans are under way to restore some of the historic features and artifacts to a state of arrested decay. Preservation of the mine site and conservation of the land and native species are the goals. Deer, bear, mountain lion, bobcat, fox, frog and rattlesnake make their home in the surrounding area. Although the Monte Cristo was once a gold producing mine, recent testing has shown it to be lacking in any retrievable riches. Assay shows \\<0\\.125 oz/ton. This means you would have to mine, crush and process 8 tons of rock to get one ounce of gold. The Monte Cristo Mine is private property. The gate on the road is a clear boundary line and the public is asked to respect the privacy of the owners and caretakers.",
""
] |
Background
----------
During the years of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") the American military saw a rapid expansion of its system of [military bases](/wiki/Military_base "Military base") as the number of young men skyrocketed through [enlistment](/wiki/Military_service "Military service") and [conscription](/wiki/Conscription "Conscription"). Many of these included former collegiate and professional stars of the football gridiron. Some 19 active or former players of the [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") would ultimately die in the American war effort,["Football and America: World War II,"](http://www.profootballhof.com/history/general/war/worldwar2/page2.aspx) Professional Football Hall of Fame, page 2\. Retrieved July 28, 2012\. in addition to an uncounted number of former collegians.
Early in the war effort one football writer said about the applicability of the formation of football teams with military training:
> Football is a body\-toughener. Football lights the fighting spark in fighting men. It develops aggressiveness, teamwork, stamina, physical and mental coordination under active stress, and therefore it holds a foremost place in our national wartime training program. Teams by the hundreds are in formation at various Army camps and posts and Navy bases. The greatest participation in the history of the sport will be entered in the records of 1942\.Eddie Dooley, "The Service Teams," *1942 Football Illustrated Annual.* New York: Fiction House, Inc., 1942; page 21\.
Beginning in the fall of 1942, the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War "United States Department of War") began to promote organized football exhibitions involving select teams from its military bases that played full schedules against the depleted squads of regional universities.Jack Byrne, "The Service Teams USA," *1943 Football Illustrated Annual.* New York: Fiction House, Inc., 1943; pg. 16\. These elite teams are included in the following list.
These were further distilled into military All\-Star Teams which played against collegiate and professional opponents. In 1942, the U.S. Army named two "All\-Army teams" of approximately 60 players per unit, located in the East and West.Dooley, "The Service Teams," pg. 22\. These were informally known as the "Million Dollar teams" — their purpose being to raise upwards of $1 million for the [Army Emergency Relief](/wiki/Army_Emergency_Relief "Army Emergency Relief") fund through a series of exhibition clashes with the professional teams of the National Football League. The Eastern Army All\-Star team was led by Lt. Col. [Robert R. Neyland](/wiki/Robert_R._Neyland "Robert R. Neyland"), and played September 1942 games against the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants "New York Giants"), [Brooklyn Dodgers](/wiki/Brooklyn_Dodgers_%28NFL%29 "Brooklyn Dodgers (NFL)"), and [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears "Chicago Bears"). The Western All\-Stars, coached by Major [Wallace Wade](/wiki/Wallace_Wade "Wallace Wade") of [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University"), played a slate including games beginning late in August 1942 against the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins "Washington Redskins"), [Chicago Cardinals](/wiki/Chicago_Cardinals "Chicago Cardinals"), [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions"), [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers"), and Giants.{{cite news\|last\=Turkin\|first\=Hy\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32136662/army\_gridders\_aim\_at\_million\_goal/\|title\=Army Gridders Aim At Million $ Goal\|newspaper\=\[\[New York Daily News]]\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=July 16, 1942\|accessdate\=June 4, 2019}} By the end of the exhibition games, it had raised $241,392\.29 for the fund.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32234903/army\_gets\_grid\_check/\|title\=Army Gets Grid Check\|agency\=\[\[Associated Press\|AP]]\|newspaper\=\[\[Arizona Republic]]\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]\|date\=November 8, 1942\|accessdate\=June 4, 2019}}
By the time that the war had ended, various service teams had been coached by such legends as [Bernie Bierman](/wiki/Bernie_Bierman "Bernie Bierman") ([Iowa Pre\-Flight Seahawks](/wiki/Iowa_Pre-Flight_Seahawks_football "Iowa Pre-Flight Seahawks football")), [Paul Brown](/wiki/Paul_Brown "Paul Brown") ([Great Lakes Navy Bluejackets](/wiki/Great_Lakes_Navy_Bluejackets_football "Great Lakes Navy Bluejackets football")), [Don Faurot](/wiki/Don_Faurot "Don Faurot") (Iowa Pre\-Flight Seahawks and Jacksonville Naval Air Station Fliers), [Tony Hinkle](/wiki/Tony_Hinkle "Tony Hinkle") (Great Lakes Navy Bluejackets), [Jack Meagher](/wiki/Jack_Meagher "Jack Meagher") (Iowa Pre\-Flight Seahawks), and [Joe Verducci](/wiki/Joe_Verducci "Joe Verducci") ([Alameda Coast Guard](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Island "Coast Guard Island") Sea Lions){{cite web\|title\=Alameda Coast Guard Sea Lions School History\|url\=https://www.sports\-reference.com/cfb/schools/alameda\-coast\-guard/\|work\=sports\-reference.com\|accessdate\=February 24, 2018}}—as well as the aforementioned Neyland and Wade.
Even with the [surrender of Japan](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan") on September 2, 1945, however, the times still remained uncertain to an extent with the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") occupation forces facing possible pacification campaigns in the defeated [Axis](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers") countries, not to mention increasingly strained relations with the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"). As a result, much of the American war apparatus remained intact, at least initially, during peacetime—including many service football teams.
The [State Fair](/wiki/State_fair "State fair") of [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"), which normally sponsored a series of college football games as part of its annual [State Fair Classic](/wiki/Red_River_State_Fair_Classic "Red River State Fair Classic"), found itself without its regular host schools at times during the war when they were forced to drop their football programs. The locally based [Barksdale Field](/wiki/Barksdale_Air_Force_Base "Barksdale Air Force Base") Sky Raiders were invited to play in two of the classic's October games, one against the [Selman Army Airfield](/wiki/Monroe_Regional_Airport_%28Louisiana%29 "Monroe Regional Airport (Louisiana)") Cyclones{{cite web\|title\=College Football\|url\=http://idnc.library.illinois.edu/cgi\-bin/illinois?a\=d\&d\=DIL19451021\.2\.85\|work\=Daily Illini (p. 6\)\|date\=October 21, 1945}}{{cite news\|author\=Joe E. Carter\|date\=October 21, 1945\|title\=Sky Raiders In Close Battle: Sandberg, Former Star of Gophers, Features Win for Cyclones\|work\=Shreveport Times (p. 18\)}} and another against the [Lake Charles Army Airfield](/wiki/Chennault_Air_Force_Base "Chennault Air Force Base") Flying Tigers;{{cite web\|title\=State Fair Premium Lists Are Distributed\|url\=http://infoweb.newsbank.com/resources/doc/nb/image/v2%3A138FFE8785E79426%40EANX\-NB\-13D7E8EBCC823B7F%402431711\-13D3FF38DE1F6B3F%407\-143C0E8F77A6A4A0%40?p\=EANX\-NB\|work\=Baton Rouge State\-Times (sec. A, p. 8\)\|date\=September 12, 1945}} the [Camp Swift](/wiki/Camp_Swift%2C_Texas "Camp Swift, Texas") Dragons ended up filling in for Lake Charles Army Airfield.{{cite news\|author\=Joe E. Carter\|date\=October 28, 1945\|title\=Soldiers From 'Buldge' Lose to Barksdale: Camp Swift Team, Recently Back From Europe, Beaten by Raiders\|work\=Shreveport Times (p. 18\)}} The fair's "Negro Day" game featured [Wiley College](/wiki/Wiley_College "Wiley College") paired against the [Randolph Field](/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base "Randolph Air Force Base") Brown Bombers (the [African American](/wiki/African_American "African American") counterpart to the Randolph Field Ramblers).{{cite web\|title\=Louisiana State Fair (ad)\|url\=http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth336090/m1/5/\|work\=Atlanta, Tex. Citizens Journal (p. 5\)\|date\=October 18, 1945}}{{cite web\|title\=Last Day Today: La. State Fair (ad)\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/600622697/?terms\=%22Last%20Day%20Today%22\&match\=1\|work\=\[\[Shreveport Journal]] (p. 11\)\|date\=October 29, 1945}} Barksdale Field had also previously competed in the 1934 classic, against [Texas Military College](/wiki/Texas_Military_College "Texas Military College").{{cite web\|title\=Louisiana State Fair (ad)\|url\=http://infoweb.newsbank.com/resources/doc/nb/image/v2%3A138F0D9908AC8D5F%40EANX\-NB\-13AA04B548501D96%402427730\-13A82FA8A79452C7%4014\-13ABECA8A654AEE0%40?p\=EANX\-NB\|work\=Baton Rouge Morning Advocate (p. 15\)\|date\=October 19, 1934}}
Even the [service academies](/wiki/Military_academy "Military academy") remained strong through 1945, with [Army](/wiki/Army_Black_Knights_football "Army Black Knights football") and [Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football "Navy Midshipmen football")'s [annual game](/wiki/Army%E2%80%93Navy_Game "Army–Navy Game") featuring the two top teams of the [1945 AP Poll](/wiki/1945_NCAA_football_rankings "1945 NCAA football rankings") and the game being declared the "[Game of the Century](/wiki/Game_of_the_Century_%28college_football%29 "Game of the Century (college football)")," with [Pres.](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman "Harry S. Truman") himself attending. Army's [Doc Blanchard](/wiki/Doc_Blanchard "Doc Blanchard") even won the [Heisman Trophy](/wiki/Heisman_Trophy "Heisman Trophy") that year.
After encountering no significant resistance in the occupied countries over the subsequent year (save for a few, isolated efforts at sabotage by [Edelweiss Pirates](/wiki/Edelweiss_Pirates "Edelweiss Pirates") or [Japanese holdouts](/wiki/Japanese_holdout "Japanese holdout")), most American servicemen were then quickly [discharged](/wiki/Demobilization_of_United_States_armed_forces_after_World_War_II "Demobilization of United States armed forces after World War II"), and the service football teams essentially left with them. Truman issued [Proclamation 2714](/wiki/Proclamation_2714 "Proclamation 2714") formally ending the war on December 31, 1946\.
One noteworthy post\-war game (which may have typified just how far the few remaining service teams had fallen since [Iowa Pre\-Flight’s magical run](/wiki/1943_Iowa_Pre-Flight_Seahawks_football_team "1943 Iowa Pre-Flight Seahawks football team") at [\#2 in the 1943 AP Poll](/wiki/1943_NCAA_football_rankings "1943 NCAA football rankings")) pitted [Central State University](/wiki/Central_State_University "Central State University") of [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio") against the [Wright Field](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base "Wright-Patterson Air Force Base") Kittyhawks; despite it being CSU’s first season as a [new four\-year institution in 1947](/wiki/1947_Wilberforce_State_Green_Wave_football_team "1947 Wilberforce State Green Wave football team"), CSU still won the game by an astonishing score of 101–0\.{{cite web\|title\=Gaston (Country) Lewis\|url\=http://ehbcsports.com/1\.%20Pub.filesBios/Coaches/Football/web.folder.cfb/Lewis,%20Gaston,%20Wilberforce.htm\|work\=ehbcsports.com\|accessdate\=March 19, 2021}}
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"During the years of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") the American military saw a rapid expansion of its system of [military bases](/wiki/Military_base \"Military base\") as the number of young men skyrocketed through [enlistment](/wiki/Military_service \"Military service\") and [conscription](/wiki/Conscription \"Conscription\"). Many of these included former collegiate and professional stars of the football gridiron. Some 19 active or former players of the [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") would ultimately die in the American war effort,[\"Football and America: World War II,\"](http://www.profootballhof.com/history/general/war/worldwar2/page2.aspx) Professional Football Hall of Fame, page 2\\. Retrieved July 28, 2012\\. in addition to an uncounted number of former collegians.",
"Early in the war effort one football writer said about the applicability of the formation of football teams with military training:",
"",
"> Football is a body\\-toughener. Football lights the fighting spark in fighting men. It develops aggressiveness, teamwork, stamina, physical and mental coordination under active stress, and therefore it holds a foremost place in our national wartime training program. Teams by the hundreds are in formation at various Army camps and posts and Navy bases. The greatest participation in the history of the sport will be entered in the records of 1942\\.Eddie Dooley, \"The Service Teams,\" *1942 Football Illustrated Annual.* New York: Fiction House, Inc., 1942; page 21\\.",
"Beginning in the fall of 1942, the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War \"United States Department of War\") began to promote organized football exhibitions involving select teams from its military bases that played full schedules against the depleted squads of regional universities.Jack Byrne, \"The Service Teams USA,\" *1943 Football Illustrated Annual.* New York: Fiction House, Inc., 1943; pg. 16\\. These elite teams are included in the following list.",
"These were further distilled into military All\\-Star Teams which played against collegiate and professional opponents. In 1942, the U.S. Army named two \"All\\-Army teams\" of approximately 60 players per unit, located in the East and West.Dooley, \"The Service Teams,\" pg. 22\\. These were informally known as the \"Million Dollar teams\" — their purpose being to raise upwards of $1 million for the [Army Emergency Relief](/wiki/Army_Emergency_Relief \"Army Emergency Relief\") fund through a series of exhibition clashes with the professional teams of the National Football League. The Eastern Army All\\-Star team was led by Lt. Col. [Robert R. Neyland](/wiki/Robert_R._Neyland \"Robert R. Neyland\"), and played September 1942 games against the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants \"New York Giants\"), [Brooklyn Dodgers](/wiki/Brooklyn_Dodgers_%28NFL%29 \"Brooklyn Dodgers (NFL)\"), and [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears \"Chicago Bears\"). The Western All\\-Stars, coached by Major [Wallace Wade](/wiki/Wallace_Wade \"Wallace Wade\") of [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University \"Duke University\"), played a slate including games beginning late in August 1942 against the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins \"Washington Redskins\"), [Chicago Cardinals](/wiki/Chicago_Cardinals \"Chicago Cardinals\"), [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\"), [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\"), and Giants.{{cite news\\|last\\=Turkin\\|first\\=Hy\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32136662/army\\_gridders\\_aim\\_at\\_million\\_goal/\\|title\\=Army Gridders Aim At Million $ Goal\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[New York Daily News]]\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=July 16, 1942\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2019}} By the end of the exhibition games, it had raised $241,392\\.29 for the fund.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32234903/army\\_gets\\_grid\\_check/\\|title\\=Army Gets Grid Check\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press\\|AP]]\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Arizona Republic]]\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\|date\\=November 8, 1942\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2019}}",
"By the time that the war had ended, various service teams had been coached by such legends as [Bernie Bierman](/wiki/Bernie_Bierman \"Bernie Bierman\") ([Iowa Pre\\-Flight Seahawks](/wiki/Iowa_Pre-Flight_Seahawks_football \"Iowa Pre-Flight Seahawks football\")), [Paul Brown](/wiki/Paul_Brown \"Paul Brown\") ([Great Lakes Navy Bluejackets](/wiki/Great_Lakes_Navy_Bluejackets_football \"Great Lakes Navy Bluejackets football\")), [Don Faurot](/wiki/Don_Faurot \"Don Faurot\") (Iowa Pre\\-Flight Seahawks and Jacksonville Naval Air Station Fliers), [Tony Hinkle](/wiki/Tony_Hinkle \"Tony Hinkle\") (Great Lakes Navy Bluejackets), [Jack Meagher](/wiki/Jack_Meagher \"Jack Meagher\") (Iowa Pre\\-Flight Seahawks), and [Joe Verducci](/wiki/Joe_Verducci \"Joe Verducci\") ([Alameda Coast Guard](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Island \"Coast Guard Island\") Sea Lions){{cite web\\|title\\=Alameda Coast Guard Sea Lions School History\\|url\\=https://www.sports\\-reference.com/cfb/schools/alameda\\-coast\\-guard/\\|work\\=sports\\-reference.com\\|accessdate\\=February 24, 2018}}—as well as the aforementioned Neyland and Wade.",
"Even with the [surrender of Japan](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\") on September 2, 1945, however, the times still remained uncertain to an extent with the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") occupation forces facing possible pacification campaigns in the defeated [Axis](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\") countries, not to mention increasingly strained relations with the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). As a result, much of the American war apparatus remained intact, at least initially, during peacetime—including many service football teams.",
"The [State Fair](/wiki/State_fair \"State fair\") of [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"), which normally sponsored a series of college football games as part of its annual [State Fair Classic](/wiki/Red_River_State_Fair_Classic \"Red River State Fair Classic\"), found itself without its regular host schools at times during the war when they were forced to drop their football programs. The locally based [Barksdale Field](/wiki/Barksdale_Air_Force_Base \"Barksdale Air Force Base\") Sky Raiders were invited to play in two of the classic's October games, one against the [Selman Army Airfield](/wiki/Monroe_Regional_Airport_%28Louisiana%29 \"Monroe Regional Airport (Louisiana)\") Cyclones{{cite web\\|title\\=College Football\\|url\\=http://idnc.library.illinois.edu/cgi\\-bin/illinois?a\\=d\\&d\\=DIL19451021\\.2\\.85\\|work\\=Daily Illini (p. 6\\)\\|date\\=October 21, 1945}}{{cite news\\|author\\=Joe E. Carter\\|date\\=October 21, 1945\\|title\\=Sky Raiders In Close Battle: Sandberg, Former Star of Gophers, Features Win for Cyclones\\|work\\=Shreveport Times (p. 18\\)}} and another against the [Lake Charles Army Airfield](/wiki/Chennault_Air_Force_Base \"Chennault Air Force Base\") Flying Tigers;{{cite web\\|title\\=State Fair Premium Lists Are Distributed\\|url\\=http://infoweb.newsbank.com/resources/doc/nb/image/v2%3A138FFE8785E79426%40EANX\\-NB\\-13D7E8EBCC823B7F%402431711\\-13D3FF38DE1F6B3F%407\\-143C0E8F77A6A4A0%40?p\\=EANX\\-NB\\|work\\=Baton Rouge State\\-Times (sec. A, p. 8\\)\\|date\\=September 12, 1945}} the [Camp Swift](/wiki/Camp_Swift%2C_Texas \"Camp Swift, Texas\") Dragons ended up filling in for Lake Charles Army Airfield.{{cite news\\|author\\=Joe E. Carter\\|date\\=October 28, 1945\\|title\\=Soldiers From 'Buldge' Lose to Barksdale: Camp Swift Team, Recently Back From Europe, Beaten by Raiders\\|work\\=Shreveport Times (p. 18\\)}} The fair's \"Negro Day\" game featured [Wiley College](/wiki/Wiley_College \"Wiley College\") paired against the [Randolph Field](/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base \"Randolph Air Force Base\") Brown Bombers (the [African American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") counterpart to the Randolph Field Ramblers).{{cite web\\|title\\=Louisiana State Fair (ad)\\|url\\=http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth336090/m1/5/\\|work\\=Atlanta, Tex. Citizens Journal (p. 5\\)\\|date\\=October 18, 1945}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Last Day Today: La. State Fair (ad)\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/600622697/?terms\\=%22Last%20Day%20Today%22\\&match\\=1\\|work\\=\\[\\[Shreveport Journal]] (p. 11\\)\\|date\\=October 29, 1945}} Barksdale Field had also previously competed in the 1934 classic, against [Texas Military College](/wiki/Texas_Military_College \"Texas Military College\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Louisiana State Fair (ad)\\|url\\=http://infoweb.newsbank.com/resources/doc/nb/image/v2%3A138F0D9908AC8D5F%40EANX\\-NB\\-13AA04B548501D96%402427730\\-13A82FA8A79452C7%4014\\-13ABECA8A654AEE0%40?p\\=EANX\\-NB\\|work\\=Baton Rouge Morning Advocate (p. 15\\)\\|date\\=October 19, 1934}}",
"Even the [service academies](/wiki/Military_academy \"Military academy\") remained strong through 1945, with [Army](/wiki/Army_Black_Knights_football \"Army Black Knights football\") and [Navy](/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football \"Navy Midshipmen football\")'s [annual game](/wiki/Army%E2%80%93Navy_Game \"Army–Navy Game\") featuring the two top teams of the [1945 AP Poll](/wiki/1945_NCAA_football_rankings \"1945 NCAA football rankings\") and the game being declared the \"[Game of the Century](/wiki/Game_of_the_Century_%28college_football%29 \"Game of the Century (college football)\"),\" with [Pres.](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman \"Harry S. Truman\") himself attending. Army's [Doc Blanchard](/wiki/Doc_Blanchard \"Doc Blanchard\") even won the [Heisman Trophy](/wiki/Heisman_Trophy \"Heisman Trophy\") that year.",
"After encountering no significant resistance in the occupied countries over the subsequent year (save for a few, isolated efforts at sabotage by [Edelweiss Pirates](/wiki/Edelweiss_Pirates \"Edelweiss Pirates\") or [Japanese holdouts](/wiki/Japanese_holdout \"Japanese holdout\")), most American servicemen were then quickly [discharged](/wiki/Demobilization_of_United_States_armed_forces_after_World_War_II \"Demobilization of United States armed forces after World War II\"), and the service football teams essentially left with them. Truman issued [Proclamation 2714](/wiki/Proclamation_2714 \"Proclamation 2714\") formally ending the war on December 31, 1946\\.",
"One noteworthy post\\-war game (which may have typified just how far the few remaining service teams had fallen since [Iowa Pre\\-Flight’s magical run](/wiki/1943_Iowa_Pre-Flight_Seahawks_football_team \"1943 Iowa Pre-Flight Seahawks football team\") at [\\#2 in the 1943 AP Poll](/wiki/1943_NCAA_football_rankings \"1943 NCAA football rankings\")) pitted [Central State University](/wiki/Central_State_University \"Central State University\") of [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\") against the [Wright Field](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base \"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base\") Kittyhawks; despite it being CSU’s first season as a [new four\\-year institution in 1947](/wiki/1947_Wilberforce_State_Green_Wave_football_team \"1947 Wilberforce State Green Wave football team\"), CSU still won the game by an astonishing score of 101–0\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Gaston (Country) Lewis\\|url\\=http://ehbcsports.com/1\\.%20Pub.filesBios/Coaches/Football/web.folder.cfb/Lewis,%20Gaston,%20Wilberforce.htm\\|work\\=ehbcsports.com\\|accessdate\\=March 19, 2021}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The town was the capital of the former [Imperial State](/wiki/Imperial_State "Imperial State") of [Palatine Zweibrücken](/wiki/Palatine_Zweibr%C3%BCcken "Palatine Zweibrücken") owned by the [House of Wittelsbach](/wiki/House_of_Wittelsbach "House of Wittelsbach"). The ducal castle is now occupied by the high court of the Palatinate (*Oberlandesgericht*). There is a fine [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture "Gothic architecture") Protestant church, Alexander's church, founded in 1493 and rebuilt in 1955\.
From the end of the 12th century, Zweibrücken was the seat of the [County of Zweibrücken](/wiki/County_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken "County of Zweibrücken"), the counts being descended from Henry I, youngest son of [Simon I, Count of Saarbrücken](/wiki/Simon_I%2C_Count_of_Saarbr%C3%BCcken "Simon I, Count of Saarbrücken") (d. 1182\). The line became extinct on the death of Count Eberhard II (1394\), who in 1385 had sold half his territory to the Count Palatine of the Rhine, and held the other half as his feudal domain. [Louis](/wiki/Louis_I%2C_Count_Palatine_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken "Louis I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken") (d. 1489\), son of [Stephen](/wiki/Stephen%2C_Count_Palatine_of_Simmern-Zweibr%C3%BCcken "Stephen, Count Palatine of Simmern-Zweibrücken"), founded the line of the [House of Palatinate\-Zweibrücken](/wiki/House_of_Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken "House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken"). In 1533, [Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken](/wiki/Wolfgang%2C_Count_Palatine_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken "Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken") converted Palatine Zweibrücken to the new [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") faith. In 1559, Wolfgang founded the earliest grammar school in the town (Herzog\-Wolfgang\-[Gymnasium](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28Germany%29 "Gymnasium (Germany)")), which lasted until 1987\.
When [Charles X Gustav](/wiki/Charles_X_Gustav_of_Sweden "Charles X Gustav of Sweden"), the son of [John Casimir, Count Palatine of Kleeburg](/wiki/John_Casimir%2C_Count_Palatine_of_Kleeburg "John Casimir, Count Palatine of Kleeburg"), succeeded his cousin, Queen [Christina of Sweden](/wiki/Christina_of_Sweden "Christina of Sweden"), on the [Swedish throne](/wiki/Kings_of_Sweden "Kings of Sweden"), Palatinate\-Zweibrücken was in [personal union](/wiki/Political_unions_involving_Sweden "Political unions involving Sweden") with Sweden, a situation that lasted until 1718\.
Starting in 1680, [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV")'s [Chambers of Reunion](/wiki/Chambers_of_Reunion "Chambers of Reunion") awarded Zweibruecken and other localities to France, but under the 1697 [Treaty of Rijswijk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Ryswick "Treaty of Ryswick"), "The Duchy of Zweibruecken was restored to the King of Sweden, as Count Palatine of the Rhine."[Crane Brinton](/wiki/Crane_Brinton "Crane Brinton"), "France", in [William L. Langer](/wiki/William_L._Langer "William L. Langer"), ed., (1948\), *An Encyclopedia of World History*, Rev. Edition, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 443\-445\.
In 1731, Palatinate\-Zweibrücken passed to the [Palatinate\-Birkenfeld\-Zweibrücken](/wiki/Palatinate-Birkenfeld-Zweibr%C3%BCcken "Palatinate-Birkenfeld-Zweibrücken") branch of the counts palatine, from where it came under the sway of [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria") in 1799\. It was occupied by [France](/wiki/France "France") in 1793 and on 4 November 1797, Zweibrücken became a canton centre in department of [Mont Tonnerre](/wiki/Mont_Tonnerre "Mont Tonnerre"). At the [Peace of Lunéville](/wiki/Peace_of_Lun%C3%A9ville "Peace of Lunéville") in 1801, the French annexation of Zweibrücken was confirmed; on its reunion with Germany in 1814 the greater part of the territory was given to Bavaria, the remainder to [Oldenburg](/wiki/Duchy_of_Oldenburg "Duchy of Oldenburg") and [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia"). The town of Zweibrücken became part of the [Palatine](/wiki/Palatinate_%28region%29 "Palatinate (region)") region of the [Kingdom of Bavaria](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria "Kingdom of Bavaria").
At the ducal printing office at Zweibrücken the fine series of the classical editions known as the Bipontine Editions was published (1779 sqq.).
The last prominent social event before the First World War was the inauguration of the *Rosengarten* (rose garden) by Princess Hildegard of Bavaria in June 1914\. As a consequence of the First World War, Zweibrücken was occupied by French troops between 1918 and 1930\. In the course of the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht")* in 1938, Zweibrücken's synagogue was destroyed. On the outbreak of the Second World War the town was evacuated in 1939–1940, as it lay in the ‘Red Zone’ on the fortified [Siegfried Line](/wiki/Siegfried_Line "Siegfried Line"). Shortly before the end of the war, on 14 March 1945, the town was nearly completely destroyed in an air raid by the Royal Canadian Air Force, with the loss of more than 200 lives. On 20 March, American ground troops reached Zweibrücken. The town became part of the new state of [Rhineland\-Palatinate](/wiki/Rhineland-Palatinate "Rhineland-Palatinate") after the war.
In 1993, the town underwent a major change. With the departure of the Americans, the military area became free, which corresponded altogether to a third of the entire urban area. Unemployment increased to approximately 21%, leading to a decrease in demand in the retail trade of approximately 25%.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The town was the capital of the former [Imperial State](/wiki/Imperial_State \"Imperial State\") of [Palatine Zweibrücken](/wiki/Palatine_Zweibr%C3%BCcken \"Palatine Zweibrücken\") owned by the [House of Wittelsbach](/wiki/House_of_Wittelsbach \"House of Wittelsbach\"). The ducal castle is now occupied by the high court of the Palatinate (*Oberlandesgericht*). There is a fine [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") Protestant church, Alexander's church, founded in 1493 and rebuilt in 1955\\.",
"From the end of the 12th century, Zweibrücken was the seat of the [County of Zweibrücken](/wiki/County_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken \"County of Zweibrücken\"), the counts being descended from Henry I, youngest son of [Simon I, Count of Saarbrücken](/wiki/Simon_I%2C_Count_of_Saarbr%C3%BCcken \"Simon I, Count of Saarbrücken\") (d. 1182\\). The line became extinct on the death of Count Eberhard II (1394\\), who in 1385 had sold half his territory to the Count Palatine of the Rhine, and held the other half as his feudal domain. [Louis](/wiki/Louis_I%2C_Count_Palatine_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken \"Louis I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken\") (d. 1489\\), son of [Stephen](/wiki/Stephen%2C_Count_Palatine_of_Simmern-Zweibr%C3%BCcken \"Stephen, Count Palatine of Simmern-Zweibrücken\"), founded the line of the [House of Palatinate\\-Zweibrücken](/wiki/House_of_Palatinate-Zweibr%C3%BCcken \"House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken\"). In 1533, [Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken](/wiki/Wolfgang%2C_Count_Palatine_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken \"Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken\") converted Palatine Zweibrücken to the new [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") faith. In 1559, Wolfgang founded the earliest grammar school in the town (Herzog\\-Wolfgang\\-[Gymnasium](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28Germany%29 \"Gymnasium (Germany)\")), which lasted until 1987\\.",
"When [Charles X Gustav](/wiki/Charles_X_Gustav_of_Sweden \"Charles X Gustav of Sweden\"), the son of [John Casimir, Count Palatine of Kleeburg](/wiki/John_Casimir%2C_Count_Palatine_of_Kleeburg \"John Casimir, Count Palatine of Kleeburg\"), succeeded his cousin, Queen [Christina of Sweden](/wiki/Christina_of_Sweden \"Christina of Sweden\"), on the [Swedish throne](/wiki/Kings_of_Sweden \"Kings of Sweden\"), Palatinate\\-Zweibrücken was in [personal union](/wiki/Political_unions_involving_Sweden \"Political unions involving Sweden\") with Sweden, a situation that lasted until 1718\\.",
"Starting in 1680, [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\")'s [Chambers of Reunion](/wiki/Chambers_of_Reunion \"Chambers of Reunion\") awarded Zweibruecken and other localities to France, but under the 1697 [Treaty of Rijswijk](/wiki/Treaty_of_Ryswick \"Treaty of Ryswick\"), \"The Duchy of Zweibruecken was restored to the King of Sweden, as Count Palatine of the Rhine.\"[Crane Brinton](/wiki/Crane_Brinton \"Crane Brinton\"), \"France\", in [William L. Langer](/wiki/William_L._Langer \"William L. Langer\"), ed., (1948\\), *An Encyclopedia of World History*, Rev. Edition, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 443\\-445\\.",
"In 1731, Palatinate\\-Zweibrücken passed to the [Palatinate\\-Birkenfeld\\-Zweibrücken](/wiki/Palatinate-Birkenfeld-Zweibr%C3%BCcken \"Palatinate-Birkenfeld-Zweibrücken\") branch of the counts palatine, from where it came under the sway of [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\") in 1799\\. It was occupied by [France](/wiki/France \"France\") in 1793 and on 4 November 1797, Zweibrücken became a canton centre in department of [Mont Tonnerre](/wiki/Mont_Tonnerre \"Mont Tonnerre\"). At the [Peace of Lunéville](/wiki/Peace_of_Lun%C3%A9ville \"Peace of Lunéville\") in 1801, the French annexation of Zweibrücken was confirmed; on its reunion with Germany in 1814 the greater part of the territory was given to Bavaria, the remainder to [Oldenburg](/wiki/Duchy_of_Oldenburg \"Duchy of Oldenburg\") and [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\"). The town of Zweibrücken became part of the [Palatine](/wiki/Palatinate_%28region%29 \"Palatinate (region)\") region of the [Kingdom of Bavaria](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria \"Kingdom of Bavaria\").",
"At the ducal printing office at Zweibrücken the fine series of the classical editions known as the Bipontine Editions was published (1779 sqq.).",
"The last prominent social event before the First World War was the inauguration of the *Rosengarten* (rose garden) by Princess Hildegard of Bavaria in June 1914\\. As a consequence of the First World War, Zweibrücken was occupied by French troops between 1918 and 1930\\. In the course of the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\")* in 1938, Zweibrücken's synagogue was destroyed. On the outbreak of the Second World War the town was evacuated in 1939–1940, as it lay in the ‘Red Zone’ on the fortified [Siegfried Line](/wiki/Siegfried_Line \"Siegfried Line\"). Shortly before the end of the war, on 14 March 1945, the town was nearly completely destroyed in an air raid by the Royal Canadian Air Force, with the loss of more than 200 lives. On 20 March, American ground troops reached Zweibrücken. The town became part of the new state of [Rhineland\\-Palatinate](/wiki/Rhineland-Palatinate \"Rhineland-Palatinate\") after the war.",
"In 1993, the town underwent a major change. With the departure of the Americans, the military area became free, which corresponded altogether to a third of the entire urban area. Unemployment increased to approximately 21%, leading to a decrease in demand in the retail trade of approximately 25%.",
""
] |
Gameplay
--------
Train motion is simulated according to train type and loading,
{{cite web
\|url\=http://railfest2004\.co.uk/simsig.php
\|title\=Simsig — Signal box simulation software — railfest 2004 \- National Railway Museum, York
\|accessdate\=2009\-01\-14
\|last\=
\|first\=
\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041211174934/http://railfest2004\.co.uk/simsig.php \|archivedate\=2004\-12\-11}}
and is controlled via the use of [timetables](/wiki/Working_timetable "Working timetable"). With a keyboard and mouse, the player sets routes and operates [level crossings](/wiki/Level_crossing "Level crossing") as necessary as well as simulations/timetable specific tasks such as operating [ground frames](/wiki/Lever_frame%23Ground_frames "Lever frame#Ground frames"). [Solid State Interlockings](/wiki/Solid_State_Interlocking "Solid State Interlocking") (SSIs), the main electronic technology in use at present on British railways, along with approach locking, swinging overlaps, shunt routes, warner routes and call\-on routes are all available. The simulations may be played in real time or sped up. The aim of play is to achieve a good score by overcoming problems and ensuring on\-time train running. Points are accumulated for good operation and deducted for errors or late running.
Sounds can be enabled for phone messages, warnings, failures, and Train Ready To Start indicators. Automatic Route Setting, Automatic [Headcode](/wiki/Train_reporting_number "Train reporting number") Insertion and [token systems](/wiki/Token_%28railway_signalling%29 "Token (railway signalling)") for [single line](/wiki/Single_track_%28rail%29 "Single track (rail)") working{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rgsonline.co.uk/Rule\_Book/Rule%20Book%20Modules/TW%20\-%20Train%20Working/GERT8000\-TW1%20Iss%209\.pdf\|title\=Online Rulebook Section TW1 Subsection 32 \- Single lines worked with a token\|publisher\=RSSB\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-01\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219030226/http://www.rgsonline.co.uk/Rule\_Book/Rule%20Book%20Modules/TW%20\-%20Train%20Working/GERT8000\-TW1%20Iss%209\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-19}} are functional in some of the available simulations. Most simulations have various levels of difficulty, ranging from beginner to difficult scenarios{{cite web\|url\=http://www.trainweb.org/districtdave/html/signalling\_simulations.html\|title\=Signalling Simulations\|publisher\=District Dave\|accessdate\=2008\-12\-27}} with engineering possessions of tracks; train delays; bad weather; or [points](/wiki/Railroad_switch "Railroad switch"), [signal](/wiki/Railway_signal "Railway signal") and [track circuit](/wiki/Track_circuit "Track circuit") failures.
Although produced by railway software engineers to ensure a high degree of realism,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.transportsim.co.uk/sundrystrat.html\|title\=Sundry Strategy Titles\|publisher\=TRANSPORT SIMULATION UK\|accessdate\=2008\-12\-27}}
{{cite web
\| url \= http://signalbox.org/links.shtml
\| title \= Games and Simulations\| author \= John Hinson
\| publisher \= The Signal Box
\| quote \= SimSig is a remarkable and highly realistic IECC simulation by Geoff Mayo
\| accessdate\=2009\-01\-01}} the simulations are usable by those without any in\-depth or professional knowledge of signalling systems. Most simulations can be joined over the Internet to share the workload. Some simulations can be linked to form a chain of signal boxes for extended operation.
A total of 40 simulations are currently available covering England, Wales and Scotland.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.simsig.co.uk/dokuwiki/doku.php?id\=usertrack:mans:manuals \|title\=Simulations Manuals \|publisher\=SimSig \|accessdate\=2014\-01\-27 }} Beta versions are no longer publicly available.
[thumb\|250px\|left\|Screenshot of the Exeter version of *Simsig*](/wiki/Image:Exetersimsig.png "Exetersimsig.png")
Many of the older simulations are based on the real life IECC screen layout with multiple pages or *panels* to display different parts of the simulation whereas the newer simulations have one scrollable panel which covers the entire simulation.
As of July 2013, a new method of installing, running and updating compatible simulations, the *SimSig Loader*, was introduced.
The SimSig loader allows for the opening and updating of *most* recent simulations via a single program as opposed to the individual [.exe](/wiki/EXE "EXE") files of previous simulations. In September 2018, support for using operating systems prior to Windows 7 to find updates was discontinued. This includes both the loader and licence manager.
### User content
User\-created timetables simulating modern, historical, and fictional scenarios are available through simulation forums and other web sites. Timetables may be created with the built\-in editor or an imported text file. Sources for timetabling information include official Working Timetables (WTT) and historic published timetables such as [Bradshaws](/wiki/George_Bradshaw "George Bradshaw").
A timetable file converter allowing easy conversion between timetables and text files is available from a third\-party site.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.davros.org/rail/simsig/\|title\=SimSig\|publisher\=Clive Feather\|accessdate\=2008\-12\-26}}
|
[
"Gameplay\n--------",
"Train motion is simulated according to train type and loading,\n{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://railfest2004\\.co.uk/simsig.php\n\\|title\\=Simsig — Signal box simulation software — railfest 2004 \\- National Railway Museum, York\n\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-01\\-14\n\\|last\\=\n\\|first\\=\n\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041211174934/http://railfest2004\\.co.uk/simsig.php \\|archivedate\\=2004\\-12\\-11}}\n and is controlled via the use of [timetables](/wiki/Working_timetable \"Working timetable\"). With a keyboard and mouse, the player sets routes and operates [level crossings](/wiki/Level_crossing \"Level crossing\") as necessary as well as simulations/timetable specific tasks such as operating [ground frames](/wiki/Lever_frame%23Ground_frames \"Lever frame#Ground frames\"). [Solid State Interlockings](/wiki/Solid_State_Interlocking \"Solid State Interlocking\") (SSIs), the main electronic technology in use at present on British railways, along with approach locking, swinging overlaps, shunt routes, warner routes and call\\-on routes are all available. The simulations may be played in real time or sped up. The aim of play is to achieve a good score by overcoming problems and ensuring on\\-time train running. Points are accumulated for good operation and deducted for errors or late running.",
"Sounds can be enabled for phone messages, warnings, failures, and Train Ready To Start indicators. Automatic Route Setting, Automatic [Headcode](/wiki/Train_reporting_number \"Train reporting number\") Insertion and [token systems](/wiki/Token_%28railway_signalling%29 \"Token (railway signalling)\") for [single line](/wiki/Single_track_%28rail%29 \"Single track (rail)\") working{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rgsonline.co.uk/Rule\\_Book/Rule%20Book%20Modules/TW%20\\-%20Train%20Working/GERT8000\\-TW1%20Iss%209\\.pdf\\|title\\=Online Rulebook Section TW1 Subsection 32 \\- Single lines worked with a token\\|publisher\\=RSSB\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-01\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219030226/http://www.rgsonline.co.uk/Rule\\_Book/Rule%20Book%20Modules/TW%20\\-%20Train%20Working/GERT8000\\-TW1%20Iss%209\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-19}} are functional in some of the available simulations. Most simulations have various levels of difficulty, ranging from beginner to difficult scenarios{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.trainweb.org/districtdave/html/signalling\\_simulations.html\\|title\\=Signalling Simulations\\|publisher\\=District Dave\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-12\\-27}} with engineering possessions of tracks; train delays; bad weather; or [points](/wiki/Railroad_switch \"Railroad switch\"), [signal](/wiki/Railway_signal \"Railway signal\") and [track circuit](/wiki/Track_circuit \"Track circuit\") failures.",
"Although produced by railway software engineers to ensure a high degree of realism,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.transportsim.co.uk/sundrystrat.html\\|title\\=Sundry Strategy Titles\\|publisher\\=TRANSPORT SIMULATION UK\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-12\\-27}}\n{{cite web\n\\| url \\= http://signalbox.org/links.shtml\n\\| title \\= Games and Simulations\\| author \\= John Hinson\n\\| publisher \\= The Signal Box\n\\| quote \\= SimSig is a remarkable and highly realistic IECC simulation by Geoff Mayo\n\\| accessdate\\=2009\\-01\\-01}} the simulations are usable by those without any in\\-depth or professional knowledge of signalling systems. Most simulations can be joined over the Internet to share the workload. Some simulations can be linked to form a chain of signal boxes for extended operation.",
"A total of 40 simulations are currently available covering England, Wales and Scotland.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.simsig.co.uk/dokuwiki/doku.php?id\\=usertrack:mans:manuals \\|title\\=Simulations Manuals \\|publisher\\=SimSig \\|accessdate\\=2014\\-01\\-27 }} Beta versions are no longer publicly available.",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|left\\|Screenshot of the Exeter version of *Simsig*](/wiki/Image:Exetersimsig.png \"Exetersimsig.png\")",
"Many of the older simulations are based on the real life IECC screen layout with multiple pages or *panels* to display different parts of the simulation whereas the newer simulations have one scrollable panel which covers the entire simulation.",
"As of July 2013, a new method of installing, running and updating compatible simulations, the *SimSig Loader*, was introduced.",
"The SimSig loader allows for the opening and updating of *most* recent simulations via a single program as opposed to the individual [.exe](/wiki/EXE \"EXE\") files of previous simulations. In September 2018, support for using operating systems prior to Windows 7 to find updates was discontinued. This includes both the loader and licence manager.",
"### User content",
"User\\-created timetables simulating modern, historical, and fictional scenarios are available through simulation forums and other web sites. Timetables may be created with the built\\-in editor or an imported text file. Sources for timetabling information include official Working Timetables (WTT) and historic published timetables such as [Bradshaws](/wiki/George_Bradshaw \"George Bradshaw\").",
"A timetable file converter allowing easy conversion between timetables and text files is available from a third\\-party site.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.davros.org/rail/simsig/\\|title\\=SimSig\\|publisher\\=Clive Feather\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-12\\-26}}",
""
] |
Readings
--------
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or {{Script/Hebrew\|עליות}}, *[aliyot](/wiki/Aliyah_%28Torah%29 "Aliyah (Torah)")*.See, e.g., *The Schottenstein Edition Interlinear Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus*. Edited by Menachem Davis, pages 129–46\. Brooklyn: [Mesorah Publications](/wiki/ArtScroll "ArtScroll"), 2008\.
### First reading—Leviticus 19:1–14
In the first reading, [God](/wiki/God_in_Judaism "God in Judaism") told [Moses](/wiki/Moses "Moses") to tell the [Israelites](/wiki/Israelite "Israelite") to be [holy](/wiki/Sacred "Sacred"), for God is holy.{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:1–2\|HE}}. God then explained (in what scholars call "the [Holiness Code](/wiki/Holiness_code "Holiness code")") how people can be holy. God instructed the Israelites:
* To revere their [mothers](/wiki/Motherhood "Motherhood") and [fathers](/wiki/Father "Father"){{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:3\|HE}}.
* To keep the Sabbath
* Not to turn to [idols](/wiki/Idolatry "Idolatry"){{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:4\|HE}}.
* To eat the [sacrifice](/wiki/Korban "Korban") of well\-being in the first two days and burn all of the leftovers on the third day{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:5–8\|HE}}.
* Not to reap all the way to the edges of a field, but to leave some for the poor and the stranger{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:9–10\|HE}}.
* Not to [steal](/wiki/Theft "Theft"), [deceive](/wiki/Lie "Lie"), [swear](/wiki/Oath "Oath") falsely, or defraud{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:11–13\|HE}}.
* To pay laborers their [wages](/wiki/Wage "Wage") promptly{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:13\|HE}}.
* Not to insult the [deaf](/wiki/Deaf "Deaf") or impede the [blind](/wiki/Blindness "Blindness"){{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:14\|HE}}.
### Second reading—Leviticus 19:15–22
In the second reading, God instructed the Israelites:
* To judge fairly{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:15\|HE}}.
* Not to deal basely with their countrymen, profit by their blood, or hate them in their hearts{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:16–17\|HE}}.
* To reprove kinsmen but incur no guilt because of them{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:17\|HE}}.
* Not to take vengeance or bear a grudge{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:18\|HE}}.
* To love others as oneself
* I am the Lord.{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:19\|HE}}.
* Not to interbreed different species or sow fields with two kinds of seed
* Not to wear [cloth](/wiki/Cloth "Cloth") from a mixture of two kinds of material
* A man who had sexual relations with a [slave](/wiki/Slavery "Slavery") woman designated for another man had to offer a [ram](/wiki/Sheep "Sheep") of guilt [offering](/wiki/Korban "Korban").{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:20–22\|HE}}.
### Third reading—Leviticus 19:23–32
In the third reading, God instructed the Israelites:
* To regard the [fruit](/wiki/Fruit "Fruit") of a newly planted [tree](/wiki/Tree "Tree") as forbidden for three years, set aside for God in the fourth year, and available to use in the fifth year{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:23–25\|HE}}.
* Not to eat anything with its [blood](/wiki/Blood "Blood"){{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:26\|HE}}.
* Not to practice [divination](/wiki/Divination "Divination") or soothsaying
* Not to round off the side\-growth on their heads or destroy the side\-growth of their [beards](/wiki/Beard "Beard"){{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:27\|HE}}.
* Not to gash their flesh for the dead{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:28\|HE}}.
* Not to degrade their daughters or make them [harlots](/wiki/Harlot "Harlot"){{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:29\|HE}}.
* To venerate God's sanctuary{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:30\|HE}}.
* Not to turn to [ghosts](/wiki/Ghost "Ghost") or inquire of spirits{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:31\|HE}}.
* To rise before the aged and show deference to the old{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:32\|HE}}.
### Fourth reading—Leviticus 19:33–37
In the fourth reading, God instructed the Israelites:
* Not to wrong strangers who reside in the land, but to love them as oneself{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:33–34\|HE}}.
* Not to falsify weights or measures{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:35–36\|HE}}.
[150px\|thumb\|one imagining of Molech](/wiki/File:Molok.jpg "Molok.jpg")
### Fifth reading—Leviticus 20:1–7
In the fifth reading, God then told Moses to instruct the Israelites of the following penalties for transgressions.
The following were to be put to death:
* One who gave a child to [Molech](/wiki/Moloch "Moloch"){{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:1–2\|HE}}.
The following were to be cut off from their people ({{Script/Hebrew\|כרת}}, *[karet](/wiki/Kareth "Kareth")*):
* One who turned to ghosts or familiar spirits{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:6\|HE}}.
### Sixth reading—Leviticus 20:8–22
In the sixth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites of the following penalties for transgressions.
The following were to be put to death:
* One who insulted his father or mother{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:9\|HE}}.
* A man who committed adultery with a married woman, and the married woman with whom he committed it{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:10\|HE}}.
* A man who lay with his father's wife, and his father wife with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:11\|HE}}.
* A man who lay with his daughter\-in\-law, and his daughter\-in\-law with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:12\|HE}}.
* A man who lay with a male as one lies with a woman, and the male with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:13\|HE}}.
* A man who married a woman and her mother, and the woman and mother whom he married{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:14\|HE}}.
* A man who had carnal relations with a beast, and the beast with whom he had relations{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:15\|HE}}.
* A woman who approached any beast to mate with it, and the beast that she approached{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:16\|HE}}.
* One who had a ghost or a familiar spirit{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:27\|HE}}.
The following were to be cut off from their people ({{Script/Hebrew\|כרת}}, *karet*):
* A man who married his sister, and the sister whom he married{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:17\|HE}}.
* A man who lay with a woman in her infirmity, and the woman with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:18\|HE}}.
The following were to die childless:
* A man who uncovered the nakedness of his aunt, and the aunt whose nakedness he uncovered{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:19–20\|HE}}.
* A man who married his brother's wife, and the brother's wife whom he married{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:21\|HE}}.
God then enjoined the Israelites faithfully to observe all God's laws, lest the Promised Land spew them out.{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:22\|HE}}.
### Seventh reading—Leviticus 20:23–27
In the seventh reading, God made clear that it was because the land's former inhabitants did all these things that God dispossessed them.{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:23\|HE}}. God designated the Israelites as holy to God, for God is holy, and God had set the Israelites apart from other peoples to be God's.{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:26\|HE}}.
### Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the [triennial cycle](/wiki/Triennial_cycle "Triennial cycle") of Torah reading read the parashah according to a different schedule.See, e.g., Richard Eisenberg, ["A Complete Triennial Cycle for Reading the Torah,"](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19861990/eisenberg_triennial.pdf) in *Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement: 1986–1990* ([New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Rabbinical Assembly](/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly "Rabbinical Assembly"), 2001\), pages 383–418\.
|
[
"Readings\n--------",
"In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or {{Script/Hebrew\\|עליות}}, *[aliyot](/wiki/Aliyah_%28Torah%29 \"Aliyah (Torah)\")*.See, e.g., *The Schottenstein Edition Interlinear Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus*. Edited by Menachem Davis, pages 129–46\\. Brooklyn: [Mesorah Publications](/wiki/ArtScroll \"ArtScroll\"), 2008\\.",
"### First reading—Leviticus 19:1–14",
"In the first reading, [God](/wiki/God_in_Judaism \"God in Judaism\") told [Moses](/wiki/Moses \"Moses\") to tell the [Israelites](/wiki/Israelite \"Israelite\") to be [holy](/wiki/Sacred \"Sacred\"), for God is holy.{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:1–2\\|HE}}. God then explained (in what scholars call \"the [Holiness Code](/wiki/Holiness_code \"Holiness code\")\") how people can be holy. God instructed the Israelites:\n* To revere their [mothers](/wiki/Motherhood \"Motherhood\") and [fathers](/wiki/Father \"Father\"){{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:3\\|HE}}.\n* To keep the Sabbath\n* Not to turn to [idols](/wiki/Idolatry \"Idolatry\"){{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:4\\|HE}}.\n* To eat the [sacrifice](/wiki/Korban \"Korban\") of well\\-being in the first two days and burn all of the leftovers on the third day{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:5–8\\|HE}}.\n* Not to reap all the way to the edges of a field, but to leave some for the poor and the stranger{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:9–10\\|HE}}.\n* Not to [steal](/wiki/Theft \"Theft\"), [deceive](/wiki/Lie \"Lie\"), [swear](/wiki/Oath \"Oath\") falsely, or defraud{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:11–13\\|HE}}.\n* To pay laborers their [wages](/wiki/Wage \"Wage\") promptly{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:13\\|HE}}.\n* Not to insult the [deaf](/wiki/Deaf \"Deaf\") or impede the [blind](/wiki/Blindness \"Blindness\"){{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:14\\|HE}}.",
"### Second reading—Leviticus 19:15–22",
"In the second reading, God instructed the Israelites:\n* To judge fairly{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:15\\|HE}}.\n* Not to deal basely with their countrymen, profit by their blood, or hate them in their hearts{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:16–17\\|HE}}.\n* To reprove kinsmen but incur no guilt because of them{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:17\\|HE}}.\n* Not to take vengeance or bear a grudge{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:18\\|HE}}.\n* To love others as oneself\n* I am the Lord.{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:19\\|HE}}.\n* Not to interbreed different species or sow fields with two kinds of seed\n* Not to wear [cloth](/wiki/Cloth \"Cloth\") from a mixture of two kinds of material\n* A man who had sexual relations with a [slave](/wiki/Slavery \"Slavery\") woman designated for another man had to offer a [ram](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\") of guilt [offering](/wiki/Korban \"Korban\").{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:20–22\\|HE}}.",
"### Third reading—Leviticus 19:23–32",
"In the third reading, God instructed the Israelites:\n* To regard the [fruit](/wiki/Fruit \"Fruit\") of a newly planted [tree](/wiki/Tree \"Tree\") as forbidden for three years, set aside for God in the fourth year, and available to use in the fifth year{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:23–25\\|HE}}.\n* Not to eat anything with its [blood](/wiki/Blood \"Blood\"){{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:26\\|HE}}.\n* Not to practice [divination](/wiki/Divination \"Divination\") or soothsaying\n* Not to round off the side\\-growth on their heads or destroy the side\\-growth of their [beards](/wiki/Beard \"Beard\"){{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:27\\|HE}}.\n* Not to gash their flesh for the dead{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:28\\|HE}}.\n* Not to degrade their daughters or make them [harlots](/wiki/Harlot \"Harlot\"){{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:29\\|HE}}.\n* To venerate God's sanctuary{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:30\\|HE}}.\n* Not to turn to [ghosts](/wiki/Ghost \"Ghost\") or inquire of spirits{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:31\\|HE}}.\n* To rise before the aged and show deference to the old{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:32\\|HE}}.",
"### Fourth reading—Leviticus 19:33–37",
"In the fourth reading, God instructed the Israelites:\n* Not to wrong strangers who reside in the land, but to love them as oneself{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:33–34\\|HE}}.\n* Not to falsify weights or measures{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:35–36\\|HE}}.",
"[150px\\|thumb\\|one imagining of Molech](/wiki/File:Molok.jpg \"Molok.jpg\")",
"### Fifth reading—Leviticus 20:1–7",
"In the fifth reading, God then told Moses to instruct the Israelites of the following penalties for transgressions.",
"The following were to be put to death:\n* One who gave a child to [Molech](/wiki/Moloch \"Moloch\"){{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:1–2\\|HE}}.",
"The following were to be cut off from their people ({{Script/Hebrew\\|כרת}}, *[karet](/wiki/Kareth \"Kareth\")*):\n* One who turned to ghosts or familiar spirits{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:6\\|HE}}.",
"### Sixth reading—Leviticus 20:8–22",
"In the sixth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites of the following penalties for transgressions.",
"The following were to be put to death:\n* One who insulted his father or mother{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:9\\|HE}}.\n* A man who committed adultery with a married woman, and the married woman with whom he committed it{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:10\\|HE}}.\n* A man who lay with his father's wife, and his father wife with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:11\\|HE}}.\n* A man who lay with his daughter\\-in\\-law, and his daughter\\-in\\-law with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:12\\|HE}}.\n* A man who lay with a male as one lies with a woman, and the male with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:13\\|HE}}.\n* A man who married a woman and her mother, and the woman and mother whom he married{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:14\\|HE}}.\n* A man who had carnal relations with a beast, and the beast with whom he had relations{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:15\\|HE}}.\n* A woman who approached any beast to mate with it, and the beast that she approached{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:16\\|HE}}.\n* One who had a ghost or a familiar spirit{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:27\\|HE}}.",
"The following were to be cut off from their people ({{Script/Hebrew\\|כרת}}, *karet*):\n* A man who married his sister, and the sister whom he married{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:17\\|HE}}.\n* A man who lay with a woman in her infirmity, and the woman with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:18\\|HE}}.",
"The following were to die childless:\n* A man who uncovered the nakedness of his aunt, and the aunt whose nakedness he uncovered{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:19–20\\|HE}}.\n* A man who married his brother's wife, and the brother's wife whom he married{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:21\\|HE}}.",
"God then enjoined the Israelites faithfully to observe all God's laws, lest the Promised Land spew them out.{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:22\\|HE}}.",
"### Seventh reading—Leviticus 20:23–27",
"In the seventh reading, God made clear that it was because the land's former inhabitants did all these things that God dispossessed them.{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:23\\|HE}}. God designated the Israelites as holy to God, for God is holy, and God had set the Israelites apart from other peoples to be God's.{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:26\\|HE}}.",
"### Readings according to the triennial cycle",
"Jews who read the Torah according to the [triennial cycle](/wiki/Triennial_cycle \"Triennial cycle\") of Torah reading read the parashah according to a different schedule.See, e.g., Richard Eisenberg, [\"A Complete Triennial Cycle for Reading the Torah,\"](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19861990/eisenberg_triennial.pdf) in *Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement: 1986–1990* ([New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"): [Rabbinical Assembly](/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly \"Rabbinical Assembly\"), 2001\\), pages 383–418\\.",
""
] |
### Sixth reading—Leviticus 20:8–22
In the sixth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites of the following penalties for transgressions.
The following were to be put to death:
* One who insulted his father or mother{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:9\|HE}}.
* A man who committed adultery with a married woman, and the married woman with whom he committed it{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:10\|HE}}.
* A man who lay with his father's wife, and his father wife with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:11\|HE}}.
* A man who lay with his daughter\-in\-law, and his daughter\-in\-law with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:12\|HE}}.
* A man who lay with a male as one lies with a woman, and the male with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:13\|HE}}.
* A man who married a woman and her mother, and the woman and mother whom he married{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:14\|HE}}.
* A man who had carnal relations with a beast, and the beast with whom he had relations{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:15\|HE}}.
* A woman who approached any beast to mate with it, and the beast that she approached{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:16\|HE}}.
* One who had a ghost or a familiar spirit{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:27\|HE}}.
The following were to be cut off from their people ({{Script/Hebrew\|כרת}}, *karet*):
* A man who married his sister, and the sister whom he married{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:17\|HE}}.
* A man who lay with a woman in her infirmity, and the woman with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:18\|HE}}.
The following were to die childless:
* A man who uncovered the nakedness of his aunt, and the aunt whose nakedness he uncovered{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:19–20\|HE}}.
* A man who married his brother's wife, and the brother's wife whom he married{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:21\|HE}}.
God then enjoined the Israelites faithfully to observe all God's laws, lest the Promised Land spew them out.{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|20:22\|HE}}.
|
[
"### Sixth reading—Leviticus 20:8–22",
"In the sixth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites of the following penalties for transgressions.",
"The following were to be put to death:\n* One who insulted his father or mother{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:9\\|HE}}.\n* A man who committed adultery with a married woman, and the married woman with whom he committed it{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:10\\|HE}}.\n* A man who lay with his father's wife, and his father wife with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:11\\|HE}}.\n* A man who lay with his daughter\\-in\\-law, and his daughter\\-in\\-law with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:12\\|HE}}.\n* A man who lay with a male as one lies with a woman, and the male with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:13\\|HE}}.\n* A man who married a woman and her mother, and the woman and mother whom he married{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:14\\|HE}}.\n* A man who had carnal relations with a beast, and the beast with whom he had relations{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:15\\|HE}}.\n* A woman who approached any beast to mate with it, and the beast that she approached{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:16\\|HE}}.\n* One who had a ghost or a familiar spirit{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:27\\|HE}}.",
"The following were to be cut off from their people ({{Script/Hebrew\\|כרת}}, *karet*):\n* A man who married his sister, and the sister whom he married{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:17\\|HE}}.\n* A man who lay with a woman in her infirmity, and the woman with whom he lay{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:18\\|HE}}.",
"The following were to die childless:\n* A man who uncovered the nakedness of his aunt, and the aunt whose nakedness he uncovered{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:19–20\\|HE}}.\n* A man who married his brother's wife, and the brother's wife whom he married{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:21\\|HE}}.",
"God then enjoined the Israelites faithfully to observe all God's laws, lest the Promised Land spew them out.{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|20:22\\|HE}}.",
""
] |
In inner\-biblical interpretation
---------------------------------
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:For more on inner\-Biblical interpretation, see, e.g., Benjamin D. Sommer, "Inner\-biblical Interpretation," in [Adele Berlin](/wiki/Adele_Berlin "Adele Berlin") and [Marc Zvi Brettler](/wiki/Marc_Zvi_Brettler "Marc Zvi Brettler"), editors, *The Jewish Study Bible*, 2nd edition (New York: [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"), 2014\), pages 1835–41\.
### Leviticus chapter 19
In Leviticus 19:2, God told Moses to tell the Israelites, “You shall be holy; for I the Lord your God am holy.” Professor David P. Wright of [Brandeis University](/wiki/Brandeis_University "Brandeis University") counted more than 850 instances of the three\-letter Hebrew root denoting holiness ({{Script/Hebrew\|קדש}}, *kdsh*) as a verb, noun, or adjective in the [Hebrew Bible](/wiki/Hebrew_Bible "Hebrew Bible") ({{Script/Hebrew\|תנך}}, *[Tanakh](/wiki/Tanakh "Tanakh")*).David P. Wright. “Holiness.” *[Anchor Bible Dictionary](/wiki/Anchor_Bible_Series "Anchor Bible Series")*. Edited by [David Noel Freedman](/wiki/David_Noel_Freedman "David Noel Freedman"), volume 3, page 237\. New York: Doubleday, 1992\. Professor Larry A. Mitchel, formerly of [Pacific Union College](/wiki/Pacific_Union_College "Pacific Union College"), counted 430 instances of “holy” ({{Script/Hebrew\|קֹדֶשׁ}}, *kodesh*) as an adjective or noun, 172 instances of the verb “be holy” or “consecrate” (*kadash*), 115 instances of “holy” ({{Script/Hebrew\|קָדוֹשׁ}}, *kadosh*) as an adjective, and 11 instances of the adjective “consecrated” or noun “cult prostitute” ({{Script/Hebrew\|קָדֵשׁ}}, *kadesh*).Larry A. Mitchel. *A Student's Vocabulary for Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic*, pages 4, 9, 12, 49, 78\. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1984\. Wright noted that the Hebrew Bible describes as “holy” God, lesser divine beings, [Priests](/wiki/Kohen "Kohen"), the Israelite people, [Nazirites](/wiki/Nazirite "Nazirite"), [Levites](/wiki/Levite "Levite"), [firstborn](/wiki/Firstborn_%28Judaism%29 "Firstborn (Judaism)") people, [prophets](/wiki/Prophet "Prophet"), the [Sanctuary](/wiki/Tabernacle "Tabernacle"), offerings, Sanctuary furnishings, Priestly clothing, property dedicated to the Priests, [anointing oil](/wiki/Holy_anointing_oil "Holy anointing oil"), [incense](/wiki/Incense "Incense"), certain water, the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel "Land of Israel"), [Heaven](/wiki/Heaven "Heaven"), the Sabbath, [Festivals](/wiki/Jewish_holidays "Jewish holidays"), the [Jubilee](/wiki/Jubilee_%28biblical%29 "Jubilee (biblical)") year, certain wars, and the [Covenant](/wiki/Covenant_%28biblical%29 "Covenant (biblical)").David P. Wright. “Holiness.” *Anchor Bible Dictionary*. Edited by David Noel Freedman, volume 3, page 237–44\.
Leviticus 19:33–34 admonishes the Israelites not to wrong the stranger, “for you were strangers in the land of Egypt.” (See also Exodus 22:20; 23:9; Deuteronomy 1:16; 10:17–19; 24:14–15 and 17–22; and 27:19\.) Similarly, in [Amos](/wiki/Book_of_Amos "Book of Amos") 3:1, the 8th century BCE [prophet](/wiki/Prophet "Prophet") [Amos](/wiki/Amos_%28prophet%29 "Amos (prophet)") anchored his pronouncements in the covenant community's [Exodus](/wiki/The_Exodus "The Exodus") history, saying, “Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you, O children of Israel, against the whole family that I brought up out of the land of Egypt.”Professor [Amy\-Jill Levine](/wiki/Amy-Jill_Levine "Amy-Jill Levine") of [Vanderbilt University Divinity School](/wiki/Vanderbilt_University_Divinity_School "Vanderbilt University Divinity School") suggested that Amos used freedom from slavery as the paradigm and template against which he expressed concerns about the covenant community, casting the community in the role of [Pharaoh](/wiki/Pharaoh "Pharaoh") when they transgressed. See Amy\-Jill Levine. “The Prophets and the Fall of the North.” In *The Old Testament: Part II*. Springfield, Virginia: The Teaching Company, 2001\.
Professors [Tamara Cohn Eskenazi](/wiki/Tamara_Cohn_Eskenazi "Tamara Cohn Eskenazi") of the [Hebrew Union College\-Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion "Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion") and [Tikva Frymer\-Kensky](/wiki/Tikva_Frymer-Kensky "Tikva Frymer-Kensky") of the [University of Chicago Divinity School](/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Divinity_School "University of Chicago Divinity School") argued that [Ruth](/wiki/Ruth_%28biblical_figure%29 "Ruth (biblical figure)") enacted the love due to the stranger in Leviticus 19:34 when in [Moab](/wiki/Moab "Moab"), Ruth devoted herself to [Naomi](/wiki/Naomi_%28biblical_figure%29 "Naomi (biblical figure)"), a stranger in Moab. Then [Boaz](/wiki/Boaz "Boaz") provided her counterpart by making possible the inclusion of Ruth the Moabite in the community at [Bethlehem](/wiki/Bethlehem "Bethlehem").Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Tikva Frymer\-Kensky. *The JPS Bible Commentary: Ruth* (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2011\), page xxiii.
### Leviticus chapter 20
Leviticus 20:20 addresses God's role in the creation of children. While Leviticus 12:6–8 required a new mother to bring a burnt\-offering and a sin\-offering, Leviticus 26:9, [Deuteronomy](/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy "Book of Deuteronomy") 28:11, and [Psalm](/wiki/Psalms "Psalms") 127:3–5 make clear that having children is a blessing from God; [Genesis](/wiki/Book_of_Genesis "Book of Genesis") 15:2 and [1 Samuel](/wiki/Books_of_Samuel "Books of Samuel") 1:5–11 characterize childlessness as a misfortune; and Leviticus 20:20 and Deuteronomy 28:18 threaten childlessness as a punishment.
Leviticus 20:3 announced the judgment that those who gave their children to Molech [profaned God's Name](/wiki/Chillul_Hashem "Chillul Hashem"). In Amos 2:7, Amos similarly condemned as profaning God's Name fathers and sons who had sex with the same woman—likely exploiting a household servant woman.Gary V. Smith. Hosea, Amos, Micah: The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2001\. Amos grouped these sinners in the same verse along with those who trample the heads of the poor into the dust and those who make the humble walk a twisted course, thereby suggesting more generally that those who take advantage of people in lower social stations profane God's Name.
[thumb\|right\|150px\|A Damascus Document Scroll found at Qumran](/wiki/File:The_Damascus_Document_Scroll.jpg "The Damascus Document Scroll.jpg")
|
[
"In inner\\-biblical interpretation\n---------------------------------",
"The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:For more on inner\\-Biblical interpretation, see, e.g., Benjamin D. Sommer, \"Inner\\-biblical Interpretation,\" in [Adele Berlin](/wiki/Adele_Berlin \"Adele Berlin\") and [Marc Zvi Brettler](/wiki/Marc_Zvi_Brettler \"Marc Zvi Brettler\"), editors, *The Jewish Study Bible*, 2nd edition (New York: [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press \"Oxford University Press\"), 2014\\), pages 1835–41\\.",
"### Leviticus chapter 19",
"In Leviticus 19:2, God told Moses to tell the Israelites, “You shall be holy; for I the Lord your God am holy.” Professor David P. Wright of [Brandeis University](/wiki/Brandeis_University \"Brandeis University\") counted more than 850 instances of the three\\-letter Hebrew root denoting holiness ({{Script/Hebrew\\|קדש}}, *kdsh*) as a verb, noun, or adjective in the [Hebrew Bible](/wiki/Hebrew_Bible \"Hebrew Bible\") ({{Script/Hebrew\\|תנך}}, *[Tanakh](/wiki/Tanakh \"Tanakh\")*).David P. Wright. “Holiness.” *[Anchor Bible Dictionary](/wiki/Anchor_Bible_Series \"Anchor Bible Series\")*. Edited by [David Noel Freedman](/wiki/David_Noel_Freedman \"David Noel Freedman\"), volume 3, page 237\\. New York: Doubleday, 1992\\. Professor Larry A. Mitchel, formerly of [Pacific Union College](/wiki/Pacific_Union_College \"Pacific Union College\"), counted 430 instances of “holy” ({{Script/Hebrew\\|קֹדֶשׁ}}, *kodesh*) as an adjective or noun, 172 instances of the verb “be holy” or “consecrate” (*kadash*), 115 instances of “holy” ({{Script/Hebrew\\|קָדוֹשׁ}}, *kadosh*) as an adjective, and 11 instances of the adjective “consecrated” or noun “cult prostitute” ({{Script/Hebrew\\|קָדֵשׁ}}, *kadesh*).Larry A. Mitchel. *A Student's Vocabulary for Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic*, pages 4, 9, 12, 49, 78\\. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1984\\. Wright noted that the Hebrew Bible describes as “holy” God, lesser divine beings, [Priests](/wiki/Kohen \"Kohen\"), the Israelite people, [Nazirites](/wiki/Nazirite \"Nazirite\"), [Levites](/wiki/Levite \"Levite\"), [firstborn](/wiki/Firstborn_%28Judaism%29 \"Firstborn (Judaism)\") people, [prophets](/wiki/Prophet \"Prophet\"), the [Sanctuary](/wiki/Tabernacle \"Tabernacle\"), offerings, Sanctuary furnishings, Priestly clothing, property dedicated to the Priests, [anointing oil](/wiki/Holy_anointing_oil \"Holy anointing oil\"), [incense](/wiki/Incense \"Incense\"), certain water, the [Land of Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel \"Land of Israel\"), [Heaven](/wiki/Heaven \"Heaven\"), the Sabbath, [Festivals](/wiki/Jewish_holidays \"Jewish holidays\"), the [Jubilee](/wiki/Jubilee_%28biblical%29 \"Jubilee (biblical)\") year, certain wars, and the [Covenant](/wiki/Covenant_%28biblical%29 \"Covenant (biblical)\").David P. Wright. “Holiness.” *Anchor Bible Dictionary*. Edited by David Noel Freedman, volume 3, page 237–44\\.",
"Leviticus 19:33–34 admonishes the Israelites not to wrong the stranger, “for you were strangers in the land of Egypt.” (See also Exodus 22:20; 23:9; Deuteronomy 1:16; 10:17–19; 24:14–15 and 17–22; and 27:19\\.) Similarly, in [Amos](/wiki/Book_of_Amos \"Book of Amos\") 3:1, the 8th century BCE [prophet](/wiki/Prophet \"Prophet\") [Amos](/wiki/Amos_%28prophet%29 \"Amos (prophet)\") anchored his pronouncements in the covenant community's [Exodus](/wiki/The_Exodus \"The Exodus\") history, saying, “Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you, O children of Israel, against the whole family that I brought up out of the land of Egypt.”Professor [Amy\\-Jill Levine](/wiki/Amy-Jill_Levine \"Amy-Jill Levine\") of [Vanderbilt University Divinity School](/wiki/Vanderbilt_University_Divinity_School \"Vanderbilt University Divinity School\") suggested that Amos used freedom from slavery as the paradigm and template against which he expressed concerns about the covenant community, casting the community in the role of [Pharaoh](/wiki/Pharaoh \"Pharaoh\") when they transgressed. See Amy\\-Jill Levine. “The Prophets and the Fall of the North.” In *The Old Testament: Part II*. Springfield, Virginia: The Teaching Company, 2001\\.",
"Professors [Tamara Cohn Eskenazi](/wiki/Tamara_Cohn_Eskenazi \"Tamara Cohn Eskenazi\") of the [Hebrew Union College\\-Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion \"Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion\") and [Tikva Frymer\\-Kensky](/wiki/Tikva_Frymer-Kensky \"Tikva Frymer-Kensky\") of the [University of Chicago Divinity School](/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Divinity_School \"University of Chicago Divinity School\") argued that [Ruth](/wiki/Ruth_%28biblical_figure%29 \"Ruth (biblical figure)\") enacted the love due to the stranger in Leviticus 19:34 when in [Moab](/wiki/Moab \"Moab\"), Ruth devoted herself to [Naomi](/wiki/Naomi_%28biblical_figure%29 \"Naomi (biblical figure)\"), a stranger in Moab. Then [Boaz](/wiki/Boaz \"Boaz\") provided her counterpart by making possible the inclusion of Ruth the Moabite in the community at [Bethlehem](/wiki/Bethlehem \"Bethlehem\").Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Tikva Frymer\\-Kensky. *The JPS Bible Commentary: Ruth* (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2011\\), page xxiii.",
"### Leviticus chapter 20",
"Leviticus 20:20 addresses God's role in the creation of children. While Leviticus 12:6–8 required a new mother to bring a burnt\\-offering and a sin\\-offering, Leviticus 26:9, [Deuteronomy](/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy \"Book of Deuteronomy\") 28:11, and [Psalm](/wiki/Psalms \"Psalms\") 127:3–5 make clear that having children is a blessing from God; [Genesis](/wiki/Book_of_Genesis \"Book of Genesis\") 15:2 and [1 Samuel](/wiki/Books_of_Samuel \"Books of Samuel\") 1:5–11 characterize childlessness as a misfortune; and Leviticus 20:20 and Deuteronomy 28:18 threaten childlessness as a punishment.",
"Leviticus 20:3 announced the judgment that those who gave their children to Molech [profaned God's Name](/wiki/Chillul_Hashem \"Chillul Hashem\"). In Amos 2:7, Amos similarly condemned as profaning God's Name fathers and sons who had sex with the same woman—likely exploiting a household servant woman.Gary V. Smith. Hosea, Amos, Micah: The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2001\\. Amos grouped these sinners in the same verse along with those who trample the heads of the poor into the dust and those who make the humble walk a twisted course, thereby suggesting more generally that those who take advantage of people in lower social stations profane God's Name.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|A Damascus Document Scroll found at Qumran](/wiki/File:The_Damascus_Document_Scroll.jpg \"The Damascus Document Scroll.jpg\")",
""
] |
In classical rabbinic interpretation
------------------------------------
The parashah is discussed in these [rabbinic](/wiki/Rabbi "Rabbi") sources from the era of the [Mishnah](/wiki/Mishnah "Mishnah") and the [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud "Talmud"):For more on classical rabbinic interpretation, see, e.g., [Yaakov Elman](/wiki/Yaakov_Elman "Yaakov Elman"). "Classical Rabbinic Interpretation." In *The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition*. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 1859–78\.
### Leviticus chapter 19
Rabbi Judah ben Pazzi deduced from the juxtaposition of the sexual prohibitions of Leviticus 18 and the exhortation to holiness in Leviticus 19:2 that those who fence themselves against sexual immorality are called holy, and Rabbi [Joshua ben Levi](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Levi "Joshua ben Levi") taught that wherever one finds a fence against sexual immorality, one will also find sanctity.[Leviticus Rabbah](/wiki/Leviticus_Rabbah "Leviticus Rabbah") 24:6\.
A [Midrash](/wiki/Midrash "Midrash") interpreted God's message to Israel in Leviticus 19:1–2 to mean: "My children, as I am separate, so you be separate; as I am holy, so you be holy."Leviticus Rabbah 24:4\.
Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness in Leviticus 19:1–2 and 20:7 to the case of a king who rewarded his drunkard watchmen twice as much as his sober watchmen. Similarly, God twice exhorted the Israelites to holiness because the Evil Inclination sways people like drunkards, whereas the Evil Inclination does not exist among celestial beings. Similarly, Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness to the case of the citizens who made three crowns for the king, and the king placed one on his own head and two on the heads of his sons. Similarly, every day the celestial beings crown God with three sanctities, calling him, in the words of [Isaiah](/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah "Book of Isaiah") 6:3, "Holy, holy, holy." God then places one crown of holiness on God's own head and two crowns of holiness on the head of Israel.Leviticus Rabbah 24:8\.
[Rabbi Ḥiyya](/wiki/Rabbi_Hiyya "Rabbi Hiyya") taught that the section beginning at Leviticus 19:1 was spoken in the presence of the whole Israelite people, because it includes most of the essential principles of the Torah. And Rabbi Levi said it was because it includes each of the [Ten Commandments](/wiki/Ten_Commandments "Ten Commandments"), noting that: (1\) Exodus 20:2 says, "I am the Lord your God," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "I am the Lord your God"; (2\) Exodus 20:2–3 says, "You shall have no other gods," and Leviticus 19:4 says, "Nor make to yourselves molten gods"; (3\) Exodus 20:7 says, "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain," and Leviticus 19:12 says, "And you shall not swear by My name falsely"; (4\) Exodus 20:8 says, "Remember the Sabbath day," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "And you shall keep My Sabbaths"; (5\) Exodus 20:12 says, "Honor your father and your mother," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "You shall fear every man his mother, and his father"; (6\) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not murder," and Leviticus 19:16 says, "Neither shall you stand idly by the blood of your neighbor"; (7\) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not commit adultery," and Leviticus 20:10 says, "Both the adulterer and the adulteress shall surely be put to death; (8\) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not steal," and Leviticus 19:11 says, "You shall not steal"; (9\) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not bear false witness," and Leviticus 19:16 says, "You shall not go up and down as a talebearer"; and (10\) Exodus 20:14 says, "You shall not covet . . . anything that is your neighbor's," and Leviticus 19:18 says, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself."Leviticus Rabbah 24:5\.
A [Baraita](/wiki/Baraita "Baraita") cited the words of Leviticus 19:3, "You shall fear every man his mother and his father, and you shall keep My Sabbaths," to teach that one's duty to honor one's parent does not supersede one's duty to keep the Sabbath.[Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 5b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yevamot.5b).
[Rabbi Shimon](/wiki/Shimon_bar_Yochai "Shimon bar Yochai") noted that everywhere else, Scripture mentions a father's honor before the mother's honor.E.g., {{Bibleverse\|\|Exodus\|20:11\|HE}} (20:12 in NJSP) {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Exodus\|21:15\|HE}}, and {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Exodus\|21:17\|HE}}, and {{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|5:16 and {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Deuteronomy\|27:16\|HE}}. But Leviticus 19:3 mentions the mother first to teach that one should honor both parents equally.[Mishnah Keritot 6:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Kodashim/Tractate_Keritot/Chapter_6/9 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Keritot/Chapter 6/9"); [Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a](https://www.sefaria.org/Keritot.28a); see also [Genesis Rabbah](/wiki/Genesis_Rabbah "Genesis Rabbah") [1:15](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n60/mode/1up). The Sages, however, said that the father comes before the mother in all places, because both the son and the mother are bound to honor the father.[Mishnah Keritot 6:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Kodashim/Tractate_Keritot/Chapter_6/9 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Keritot/Chapter 6/9"); [Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a](https://www.sefaria.org/Keritot.28a).
It was taught in a Baraita that [Rabbi](/wiki/Judah_the_Prince "Judah the Prince") said that God knows that a son honors his mother more than his father, because the mother wins him over with words. Therefore, (in Exodus 20:12\) God put the honor of the father before that of the mother. God knows that a son fears his father more than his mother, because the father teaches him Torah. Therefore, (in Leviticus 19:3\) God put the fear of the mother before that of the father.[Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 30b–31a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.30b).
Noting that as Leviticus 19:3 commands, "You shall fear your father and mother," and Deuteronomy 6:13 commands, "The Lord your God you shall fear and you shall serve," the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Scripture likens the fear of parents to the fear of God. As Exodus 20:12 commands, "Honor your father and your mother," and [Proverbs](/wiki/Proverbs "Proverbs") 3:9 directs, "Honor the Lord with your substance," Scripture likens the honor due to parents to that due to God. And as Exodus 21:17 commands, "He that curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death," and Leviticus 24:15 commands, "Whoever curses his God shall bear his sin," Scripture likens cursing parents to cursing God. But the Baraita conceded that with respect to striking (which Exodus 21:15 addresses regarding parents) that it is certainly impossible (with respect to God). The Baraita concluded that these comparisons between parents and God are only logical, since the three (God, the mother, and the father) are partners in creation of the child. For the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are three partners in the creation of a person—God, the father, and the mother. When one honors one's father and mother, God considers it as if God had dwelt among them and they had honored God. And a [Tanna](/wiki/Tannaim "Tannaim") taught before [Rav Nachman](/wiki/Rav_Nachman "Rav Nachman") that when one vexes one's father and mother, God considers it right not to dwell among them, for had God dwelt among them, they would have vexed God.
Tractate [Shabbat](/wiki/Shabbat_%28Talmud%29 "Shabbat (Talmud)") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, [Jerusalem Talmud](/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud "Jerusalem Talmud"), and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbath in Exodus 16:23 and 29; 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:13–17; 35:2–3; Leviticus 19:3; 23:3; Numbers 15:32–36; and Deuteronomy 5:12\.[Mishnah Shabbat 1:1–24:5](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Moed/Tractate_Shabbat "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Moed/Tractate Shabbat"); Tosefta Shabbat 1:1–17:29; [Jerusalem Talmud Shabbat 1a–113b](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shabbat); [Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 2a–157b](https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat).
A Midrash asked to which commandment Deuteronomy 11:22 refers when it says, "For if you shall diligently keep all *this commandment* that I command you, to do it, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all His ways, and to cleave to Him, then will the Lord drive out all these nations from before you, and you shall dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourselves." Rabbi Levi said that "this commandment" refers to the recitation of the *Shema* (Deuteronomy 6:4–9\), but the Rabbis said that it refers to the Sabbath, which is equal to all the precepts of the Torah.Deuteronomy Rabbah 4:4\.
The [Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva](/wiki/Alphabet_of_Rabbi_Akiva "Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva") taught that when God was giving Israel the Torah, God told them that if they accepted the Torah and observed God's commandments, then God would give them for eternity a most precious thing that God possessed—the [World To Come](/wiki/Jewish_eschatology "Jewish eschatology"). When Israel asked to see in this world an example of the World To Come, God replied that the Sabbath is an example of the World To Come.Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva. Circa 700\. Quoted in [Abraham Joshua Heschel](/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel "Abraham Joshua Heschel"). *The Sabbath*, page 73\. New York: [Farrar, Straus and Giroux](/wiki/Farrar%2C_Straus_and_Giroux "Farrar, Straus and Giroux"), 1951\.
[thumb\|left\|300px\|*[Gleaners](/wiki/Gleaning "Gleaning")* (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by [James Tissot](/wiki/James_Tissot "James Tissot"))](/wiki/File:Tissot_Gleaners.jpg "Tissot Gleaners.jpg")
Tractate [Peah](/wiki/Pe%27ah "Pe'ah") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the harvest of the corner of the field and gleanings to be given to the poor in Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–22\.[Mishnah Peah 1:1–8:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah"); [Tosefta Peah 1:1–4:21](https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Peah); [Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a–73b](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Peah).
The Mishnah and the Tosefta taught that the Torah sets no upper limit for the donation of the corners of one's field to the poor.[Mishnah Peah 1:1](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_1/1 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 1/1"); [Tosefta Peah 1:1](https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Peah.1.1); [Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Peah.1.1.1). And the Mishnah also taught that one should not make the amount left to the poor less than one\-sixtieth of the entire crop. And even though no definite amount is given, the amount given should accord with the size of the field, the number of poor people, and the extent of the yield.[Mishnah Peah 1:2](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_1/2 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 1/2").
[thumb\|right\|250px\|*The Gleaners* (engraving by [Gustave Doré](/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9 "Gustave Doré") from the 1865 *La Sainte Bible*)](/wiki/File:Dore_Bible_The_Gleaners.jpg "Dore Bible The Gleaners.jpg")
Rabbi Eliezer taught that one who cultivates land in which one can plant a quarter *[kav](/wiki/Hebrew_measurements%23Dry_measure "Hebrew measurements#Dry measure")* of seed is obligated to give a corner to the poor. [Rabbi Joshua](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah "Joshua ben Hananiah") said land that yields two *[seah](/wiki/Seah_%28volume%29 "Seah (volume)")* of grain. [Rabbi Tarfon](/wiki/Rabbi_Tarfon "Rabbi Tarfon") said land of at least six handbreadths by six handbreadths. Rabbi Judah ben Betera said land that requires two strokes of a sickle to harvest, and the law is as he spoke. [Rabbi Akiva](/wiki/Rabbi_Akiva "Rabbi Akiva") said that one who cultivates land of any size is obligated to give a corner to the poor and the [first fruits](/wiki/First_Fruits "First Fruits").[Mishnah Peah 3:6](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_3 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 3").
The Mishnah taught that the poor could enter a field to collect three times a day—in the morning, at midday, and in the afternoon. Rabban [Gamliel](/wiki/Gamaliel "Gamaliel") taught that they said this only so that landowners should not reduce the number of times that the poor could enter. Rabbi Akiva taught that they said this only so that landowners should not increase the number of times that the poor had to enter. The landowners of Beit Namer used to harvest along a rope and allowed the poor to collect a corner from every row.[Mishnah Peah 4:5](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_4 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 4").
The Mishnah taught that one who does not allow the poor to glean, or who allows one and not another, or who helps only one, is stealing from the poor. The Mishnah taught that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not encroach upon the border of those who go up.”[Mishnah Peah 5:6](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.5.6).
The Gemara noted that Leviticus 19:9 includes a superfluous term “by reaping” and reasoned that this must teach that the obligation to leave for the poor applies to crops that the owner uproots as well as to crops that the owner cuts. And the Gemara reasoned that the superfluous words “When you reap” in Leviticus 23:22 teach that the obligation also extends to one who picks a crop by hand.[Babylonian Talmud Chullin 137a](https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.137a.14).
Noting that the discussion of gifts to the poor in Leviticus 23:22 appears between discussions of the festivals—Passover and Shavuot on one side, and Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur on the other—Rabbi Avardimos ben Rabbi Yossi said that this teaches that people who give immature clusters of grapes (as in Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21\), the forgotten sheaf (as in Deuteronomy 24:19\), the corner of the field (as in Leviticus 19:9 and 23:22\), and the poor tithe (as in Deuteronomy 14:28 and 26:12\) is accounted as if the Temple existed and they offered up their sacrifices in it. And for those who do not give to the poor, it is accounted to them as if the Temple existed and they did not offer up their sacrifices in it.[Sifra Emor chapter 13 (233:2\)](https://www.sefaria.org/Sifra%2C_Emor%2C_Chapter_13.11).
The Mishnah taught that even if a landowner said, “I am harvesting on the condition that whatever I forget I will take,” the landowner was still subject to the law of the forgotten sheaf in Leviticus 19:9–10 (and anything the landowner forgot belonged to the poor).[Mishnah Peah 6:11](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.6.11).
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Grapes](/wiki/File:Wine_grapes07.jpg "Wine grapes07.jpg")
The Mishnah defined “fallen fruit ({{Script/Hebrew\|פֶרֶט}}, *peret*)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 to mean that which falls at the time of the grape harvest. The Mishnah taught that one who left a basket under the vine when harvesting grapes was stealing from the poor. The Mishnah said that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not withdraw the border of those who go up.”[Mishnah Peah 7:3](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.7.3).
The Mishnah defined “a defective cluster ({{Script/Hebrew\|עוֹלֶלֶת}}, *olelet*)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21 to mean any cluster that had neither a shoulder nor a dangling portion (but rather was entirely attached to the main stem). If the cluster had a shoulder or a dangling portion, it belonged to the property owner, but if there was a doubt, it belonged to the poor. A cluster that was attached to the joint between branches or the stem and the trunk, if it was plucked with the grape cluster, it belonged to the property owner; if not, it belonged to the poor. Rabbi Judah said that a single\-grape cluster was a cluster, but the Sages said that it was a defective cluster (and thus belonged to the poor).[Mishnah Peah 7:4](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.7.4).
The Mishnah taught that after the weakest of the poor had come and gone, everyone (regardless of poverty or wealth) was permitted to take individual stalks that fell during harvest ({{Script/Hebrew\|לֶקֶט}}, *leket*—which had to be left for the poor to glean).[Mishnah Peah 8:1](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.8.1).
The Mishnah taught that if a wife foreswore all benefit from other people, her husband could not annul his wife's vow, but she could still benefit from the gleanings, forgotten sheaves, and the corner of the field that Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–21 commanded farmers to leave for the poor.[Mishnah Nedarim 11:3](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Nedarim/Chapter_11/3 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Nedarim/Chapter 11/3").
[Rabbi Josiah](/wiki/Rabbi_Josiah "Rabbi Josiah") taught that we learn the formal prohibition against [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping") from the words "You shall not steal" in Exodus 20:13 (since Deuteronomy 22:7 and Exodus 21:16 merely state the *punishment* for abduction). [Rabbi Johanan](/wiki/Yochanan_bar_Nafcha "Yochanan bar Nafcha") taught that we learn it from Leviticus 25:42, "They shall not be sold as bondsmen." The [Gemara](/wiki/Gemara "Gemara") harmonized the two positions by concluding that Rabbi Josiah referred to the prohibition for abduction, while Rabbi Johanan referred to the prohibition for selling a kidnapped person. Similarly, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Exodus 20:13, "You shall not steal," refers to the stealing of human beings. To the potential objection that Exodus 20:13 refers to property [theft](/wiki/Theft "Theft"), the Baraita responded that one of the thirteen principles by which we interpret the Torah is that a law is interpreted by its general context, and the Ten Commandments speak of capital crimes (like murder and adultery). (Thus "You shall not steal" must refer to a capital crime and thus to kidnapping.) Another Baraita taught that the words "You shall not steal" in Leviticus 19:11 refer to theft of property. To the potential objection that Leviticus 19:11 refers to the theft of human beings, the Baraita responded that the general context of Leviticus 19:10–15 speaks of money matters; therefore Leviticus 19:11 must refer to monetary theft.[Babylonian Talmud Talmud Sanhedrin 86a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_86.html); see also [Mekhilta](/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Ishmael "Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael") Bahodesh 8\.
Tractates [Nedarim](/wiki/Nedarim "Nedarim") and [Shevuot](/wiki/Shevu%27ot "Shevu'ot") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of vows and oaths in [Exodus](/wiki/Book_of_Exodus "Book of Exodus") 20:7, 5:1–10 and 19:12, Numbers 30:2–17, and [Deuteronomy](/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy "Book of Deuteronomy") 23:24\.[Mishnah Nedarim 1:1–11:11](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Nedarim "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Nedarim"); Tosefta Nedarim 1:1–7:8; [Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 1a–](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Nedarim); [Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 2a–91b](https://www.sefaria.org/Nedarim); [Mishnah Shevuot 1:1–8:6](/wiki/s:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Shevuot "Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Shevuot"); Tosefta Shevuot 1:1–6:7; [Jerusalem Talmud Shevuot 1a–](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shevuot); [Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 2a–49b](https://www.sefaria.org/Shevuot.2a).
The Mishnah interpreted Leviticus 19:13 and Deuteronomy 24:14–15 to teach that a worker engaged by the day could collect the worker's wages all the following night. If engaged by the night, the worker could collect the wages all the following day. If engaged by the hour, the worker could collect the wages all that day and night. If engaged by the week, month, year, or 7\-year period, if the worker's time expired during the day, the worker could collect the wages all that day. If the worker's time expired during the night, the worker could collect the wages all that night and the following day.[Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:11](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Bava_Metzia/Chapter_9/11 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Bava Metzia/Chapter 9/11"); [Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 110b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_110.html#PARTb).
The Mishnah taught that the hire of persons, animals, or utensils were all subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that "in the same day you shall give him his hire" and the law of Leviticus 19:13 that "the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning." The employer became liable only when the worker or vendor demanded payment from the employer. Otherwise, the employer did not infringe the law. If the employer gave the worker or vendor a draft on a shopkeeper or a money changer, the employer complied with the law. A worker who claimed the wages within the set time could collect payment if the worker merely swore that the employer had not yet paid. But if the set time had passed, the worker's oath was insufficient to collect payment. Yet if the worker had witnesses that the worker had demanded payment (within the set time), the worker could still swear and receive payment.[Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:12](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Bava_Metzia/Chapter_9/12 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Bava Metzia/Chapter 9/12"); [Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 111a](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_111.html).
The Mishnah taught that the employer of a resident alien was subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that "in the same day you shall give him his hire" (as Deuteronomy 24:14 refers to the stranger), but not to the law of Leviticus 19:13 that "the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning."
[Abaye](/wiki/Abaye "Abaye") taught that the rule that a community should mark graves may be derived from Leviticus 19:14, "And put not a stumbling\-block before the blind."[Babylonian Talmud Moed Katan 5a](https://www.sefaria.org/Moed_Katan.5a).
The Mishnah taught that one who pursues a neighbor with intent to kill must be saved from sin even at the cost of the pursuer's life.[Mishnah Sanhedrin 8:7](http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sanhedrin.8.7); [Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.73a.2). The Gemara taught that it is from Leviticus 19:16, “You shall not stand idly by the blood of another,” that the Sages in a Baraita derived that where one person is pursuing another with intent to kill, the pursued person should be saved even at the cost of the pursuer's life. The Gemara also cited Leviticus 19:16 for a Baraita that taught that one is obligated to try to save another whom one sees drowning in a river, or being dragged away by a wild animal, or being attacked by bandits. The Gemara further taught that the verse “Do not stand by the blood of another” teaches that one must even hire others to help rescue a person one sees to be jeopardy, and one transgresses a prohibition if one does not do so.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.73a.2).
In a Baraita, the Rabbis reasoned that had Leviticus 19:17 said simply, "You shall not hate your brother," one might have believed that one should simply not smite, slap, or curse him; therefore Leviticus 19:17 states "in your heart" to cover intentions as well as actions. Scripture speaks of hatred in the heart.[Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b](https://www.sefaria.org/Arakhin.16b); see also [Sifra](/wiki/Sifra "Sifra"), Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3\.
Thus, in Leviticus 19:17, the heart hates. A Midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible.[Ecclesiastes Rabbah](/wiki/Ecclesiastes_Rabbah "Ecclesiastes Rabbah") 1:16\. The heart speaks,[Ecclesiastes](/wiki/Ecclesiastes "Ecclesiastes") {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Ecclesiastes\|1:16\|HE}}. sees, hears,[1 Kings](/wiki/Books_of_Kings "Books of Kings") {{Bibleverse\-nb\|1\|Kings\|3:9\|HE}}. walks,{{Bibleverse\|2\|Kings\|5:26\|HE}}. falls,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Samuel\|17:32\|HE}}. stands,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Ezekiel\|22:14\|HE}}. rejoices,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|16:9\|HE}}. cries,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Lamentations\|2:18\|HE}}. is comforted,{{Bibleverse\|\|Isaiah\|40:2\|HE}}. is troubled,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|15:10\|HE}}. becomes hardened,{{Bibleverse\|\|Exodus\|9:12\|HE}}. grows faint,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|20:3\|HE}}. grieves,{{Bibleverse\|\|Genesis\|6:6\|HE}}. fears,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|28:67\|HE}}. can be broken,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|51:19\|HE}}. becomes proud,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|8:14\|HE}}. rebels,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Jeremiah\|5:23\|HE}}. invents,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Kings\|12:33\|HE}}. cavils,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|29:18\|HE}}. overflows,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|45:2\|HE}}. devises,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|19:21\|HE}}. desires,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|21:3\|HE}}. goes astray,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|7:25\|HE}}. lusts,{{Bibleverse\|\|Numbers\|15:39\|HE}}. is refreshed,{{Bibleverse\|\|Genesis\|18:5\|HE}}. can be stolen,{{Bibleverse\|\|Genesis\|31:20\|HE}}. is humbled,{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|26:41\|HE}}. is enticed,{{Bibleverse\|\|Genesis\|34:3\|HE}}. errs,{{Bibleverse\|\|Isaiah\|21:4\|HE}}. trembles,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Samuel\|4:13\|HE}}. is awakened,[Song of Songs](/wiki/Song_of_Songs "Song of Songs") {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Song\|5:2\|HE}}. loves,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|6:5\|HE}}. envies,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|23:17\|HE}}. is searched,{{Bibleverse\|\|Jeremiah\|17:10\|HE}}. is rent,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Joel\|2:13\|HE}}. meditates,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|49:4\|HE}}. is like a fire,{{Bibleverse\|\|Jeremiah\|20:9\|HE}}. is like a stone,{{Bibleverse\|\|Ezekiel\|36:26\|HE}}. turns in repentance,{{Bibleverse\|2\|Kings\|23:25\|HE}}. becomes hot,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|19:6\|HE}}. dies,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Samuel\|25:37\|HE}}. melts,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Joshua\|7:5\|HE}}. takes in words,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|6:6\|HE}}. is susceptible to fear,{{Bibleverse\|\|Jeremiah\|32:40\|HE}}. gives thanks,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|111:1\|HE}}. covets,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|6:25\|HE}}. becomes hard,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|28:14\|HE}}. makes merry,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Judges\|16:25\|HE}}. acts deceitfully,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|12:20\|HE}}. speaks from out of itself,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Samuel\|1:13\|HE}}. loves bribes,{{Bibleverse\|\|Jeremiah\|22:17\|HE}}. writes words,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|3:3\|HE}}. plans,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|6:18\|HE}}. receives commandments,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|10:8\|HE}}. acts with pride,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Obadiah\|1:3\|HE}}. makes arrangements,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|16:1\|HE}}. and aggrandizes itself.[2 Chronicles](/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles "Books of Chronicles") {{Bibleverse\-nb\|2\|Chronicles\|25:19\|HE}}.
Rabbi [Samuel bar Rav Isaac](/wiki/Samuel_bar_Isaac "Samuel bar Isaac") said that [Rav](/wiki/Abba_Arika "Abba Arika") said that one is permitted to hate another whom one sees committing a sin, as Exodus 23:5 states: "If you see the donkey of he who hates you lying under its load." But the Gemara asked whether one is permitted to hate one's fellow, as Leviticus 19:17 says, “You shall not hate your brother in your heart,” which prohibits hating one's fellow. The Gemara concluded that one is permitted to hate another for evil behavior one sees, whereas others who are unaware of these actions may not hate the other. Rav [Naḥman bar Isaac](/wiki/Rav_Nachman_bar_Yitzchak "Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak") said: Not only is this permitted, it is even a commandment to hate this other person, as Proverbs 8:13 states: "The fear of God is to hate evil."[Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 113b](https://www.sefaria.org/Pesachim.113b.4).
In a Baraita, the Rabbis deduced from the command in Leviticus 19:17 that "you shall surely rebuke your neighbor" that one is obliged to reprove a neighbor whom one observes doing something wrong. And they deduced from the emphatic words "you shall surely rebuke" that if one has rebuked one's neighbor and the neighbor does not accept the rebuke, then one must rebuke the neighbor again. But the Rabbis deduced that Leviticus 19:17 continues to say "you shall not bear sin because of him" to teach that one should not rebuke a neighbor to the neighbor's embarrassment.
Reading the report of Genesis 21:25, "And [Abraham](/wiki/Abraham "Abraham") reproved [Abimelech](/wiki/Abimelech "Abimelech")," Rabbi [Jose ben Rabbi Hanina](/wiki/Jose_b._Hanina "Jose b. Hanina") taught that reproof leads to love, as Proverbs 9:8 says, "Reprove a wise man, and he will love you." Rabbi Jose ben Hanina said that love unaccompanied by reproof is not love. And [Resh Lakish](/wiki/Shimon_ben_Lakish "Shimon ben Lakish") taught that reproof leads to peace, and thus (as Genesis 21:25 reports) "Abraham reproved Abimelech." Resh Lakish said that peace unaccompanied by reproof is not peace.[Genesis Rabbah 54:3](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n524/mode/1up).
The Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, "And they shall stumble one upon another," to mean that one will stumble through the sin of another. The Gemara concluded that all everyone is held responsible for each another.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 27b](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_27.html#PARTb). Similarly, elsewhere, the Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, "And they shall stumble one upon another," to mean that for all transgressions of the Torah, the whole world is punished. Thus the Gemara taught that all Jews stand as guarantors for one another.[Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 39a](https://www.sefaria.org/Shevuot.39a). And reading [Song of Songs](/wiki/Song_of_Songs "Song of Songs") 6:11, "I went down into the garden of nuts," to apply to Israel, a Midrash taught that just as when one takes a nut from a stack of nuts, all the rest come toppling over, so if a single Jew is smitten, all Jews feel it, as Numbers 16:22 says, "Shall one man sin, and will You be angry with all the congregation?"[Song of Songs Rabbah](/wiki/Shir_ha-Shirim_Rabbah "Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah") 6:11 \[6:26].
Rabbi [Tarfon](/wiki/Tarfon "Tarfon") wondered whether anyone in his generation could accept reproof, for if one told another, "Remove the mote from between your eyes," the other would answer, "Remove the beam from between your eyes!" Rabbi [Eleazar ben Azariah](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Azariah "Eleazar ben Azariah") wondered whether anyone in his generation knew how to *reprove*. Rabbi [Johanan ben Nuri](/wiki/Yochanan_ben_Nuri "Yochanan ben Nuri") said that he would often complain about Akiva to Rabban Gamaliel Beribbi, causing Akiva to be punished as a result, but Akiva all the more showered love upon Rabbi Johanan ben Nuri, bearing out what Proverbs 9:8 says: "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you."
Rabbi Judah the son of Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi asked his father whether it was preferable to reprove honestly or to forgo reproof out of false modesty. Rabbi Simeon answered that restraint out of true modesty is better still, for a Master said modesty is greatest of all. Thus, false modesty is also preferable, he reasoned, for [Rav Judah](/wiki/Judah_ben_Ezekiel "Judah ben Ezekiel") said in the name of Rav that one should engage in Torah study and good deeds, even if not for their own sake, because through doing good for an ulterior motive one will come to do good for its own sake. To illustrate honest reproof and forbearance out of false modesty, the Gemara told how [Rav Huna](/wiki/Rav_Huna "Rav Huna") and Ḥiyya bar Rav were sitting before Samuel, when Ḥiyya bar Rav complained about how Rav Huna was bothering him. Rav Huna undertook not to bother Ḥiyya bar Rav anymore. After Ḥiyya bar Rav left, Rav Huna told Samuel how Ḥiyya bar Rav had done this and that wrong thing. So Samuel asked Rav Huna why he had not told Ḥiyya bar Rav to his face. Rav Huna replied that he did not want to put the son of Rav to shame (and thus chose insincere forbearance over honest rebuke).[Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b](https://www.sefaria.org/Arakhin.16b).
The Gemara discussed how far one should reprove another. Rav said that one should reprove until the one reproved strikes the reprover. Samuel said that one should reprove until the one reproved *curses* the reprover. Rabbi Johanan said that one should reprove only until the one reproved *rebukes* the reprover. The Gemara noted a similar dispute among [Tannaim](/wiki/Tannaim "Tannaim"). [Rabbi Eliezer](/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus "Eliezer ben Hurcanus") said until the one reproved strikes the reprover. [Rabbi Joshua](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah "Joshua ben Hananiah") said until the one reproved curses the reprove. [Ben Azzai](/wiki/Simeon_ben_Azzai "Simeon ben Azzai") said until the one reproved rebukes the reprover. Rav Naḥman bar Isaac said that all three cited 1 Samuel 20:30 to support their positions. 1 Samuel 20:30 says: "Then [Saul](/wiki/Saul "Saul")'s anger was kindled against [Jonathan](/wiki/David_and_Jonathan "David and Jonathan") and he said to him: ‘You son of perverse rebellion, do not I know that you have chosen the son of [Jesse](/wiki/Jesse_%28biblical_figure%29 "Jesse (biblical figure)") ([David](/wiki/David "David")) to your own shame, and to the shame of your mother's nakedness?'" And shortly thereafter, 1 Samuel 20:33 says: "And Saul cast his spear at him to smite him." Rabbi Eliezer said, "until the one reproved strikes" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says "to smite him." Rabbi Joshua said, "until the one reproved curses" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says: "to your own shame and to the shame of your mother's nakedness." Ben Azzai said, "until the one reproved rebukes" because 1 Samuel 20:30 says: "Then Saul's anger was kindled." The Gemara asked how Ben Azzai, who said "until the one reproved rebukes," explained how 1 Samuel 20:33 also mentions beating and cursing. The Gemara reasoned that Jonathan risked his life even further (and rebuked even more than required) because of his great love of David.
[Rabbi Nathan](/wiki/Nathan_the_Babylonian "Nathan the Babylonian") cautioned, however, that one should not reprove another about a fault that one has oneself. Thus the proverb runs: If there is a case of hanging in a person's family record, one should not even ask that person to hang up a fish.[Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_59.html#PARTb).
And Rabbi Il'a said in the name of Rabbi Eleazar son of Rabbi Simeon that just as one is obliged to say words of reproof that will be accepted, so one is obliged *not* to say words of reproof that will *not* be accepted. Rabbi Abba said that it is a duty to forgo reproof that will not be accepted, as Proverbs 9:8 says: "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you."[Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 65b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yevamot.65b).
Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not take vengeance," the [Sifra](/wiki/Sifra "Sifra") defined the extent of the term "vengeance." The Sifra taught that the term "vengeance" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's sickle, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's spade, and the first declines to lend it because the second did not lend the second's sickle. And reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not . . . bear any grudge," the Sifra defined the extent of the term "grudge." The Sifra taught that the term "grudge" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's spade, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's sickle, and the first consents to lend the sickle but taunts, "I am not like you, for you did not lend me your spade, but here, take the sickle!"Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶¶ 200:3:4–5; see also [Babylonian Talmud Yoma 23a](https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.23a.1).
Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not take vengeance or bear any grudge against the sons of your own people," the Jerusalem Talmud asked what a practical illustration would be. The Gemara answered: If one was cutting meat, and the knife in one hand cut the other hand, would the person then go and cut the hand that held the knife?Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4\.
[thumb\|150px\|right\|Hillel (sculpture at the [Knesset](/wiki/Knesset "Knesset") Menorah, Jerusalem)](/wiki/File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG "Knesset Menorah P5200009 Hilel.JPG")
Once a [gentile](/wiki/Gentile "Gentile") came before [Shammai](/wiki/Shammai "Shammai") and said, "I will [convert to Judaism](/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism "Conversion to Judaism"), on the condition that you teach me the whole Torah while I stand on one foot." Shammai pushed him away with a builder's ruler. When the gentile repeated his challenge before [Hillel](/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder "Hillel the Elder"), Hillel said to him (paraphrasing Leviticus 19:18\), "What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah, and the rest is the explanation—go and learn it."[Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 31a](https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat.31a).
The Sifra reported that Rabbi Akiva taught that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "you shall love your neighbor as yourself," state the encompassing principle of the Torah. But Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the generations of Adam," state a still more encompassing principle.Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3:7; see also Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4\. Similarly, a Midrash reported that Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the descendants of Adam," teach a great principle of the Torah. But Rabbi Akiva replied that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "you shall love your neighbor as yourself," teach an even greater principle. Hence, one must not say, "Since I have been put to shame, let my neighbor be put to shame." And [Rabbi Tanhuma](/wiki/Tanhuma_bar_Abba "Tanhuma bar Abba") taught that those who do so must know Whom they put to shame, for Genesis 1:27 reports of humankind, "In the likeness of God made He him."[Genesis Rabbah 24:7](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n251/mode/1up).
The Gemara reported that a dilemma was raised before the Sages: Could a child operate on his parent? Would the child thus be liable for wounding the parent? Rav Mattana quoted Leviticus 19:18, "And you shall love your neighbor as yourself," and reasoned that just as people would want others to heal them when the need arises, they must heal others when the need arises. It is prohibited for one to do to others only those actions that one would not want done to oneself. Therefore, it is permitted for one to heal a parent even if the procedure entails wounding the parent.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 84b](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.84b.13).
Rav Naḥman said in the name of Rabbah bar Abbuha that Leviticus 19:18 requires that even when executing a person, one must choose for the condemned an easy death.[Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 37b](http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_37.html#PARTb), [Sanhedrin 45a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_45.html).
And other Rabbis counseled that Leviticus 19:18 prohibits taking actions that would make one's spouse unattractive. Thus Rav Judah said in the name of Rav that Leviticus 19:18 requires a man not to become engaged to a woman before he sees her, lest he subsequently see something in her that might make her repulsive to him.[Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 41a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.41a). Similarly, [Rav Hisda](/wiki/Rav_Chisda "Rav Chisda") taught that Leviticus 19:18 prohibited one from engaging in marital relations during the daytime, and Abaye explained that this was because one might observe something that should make one's spouse repulsive.[Babylonian Talmud Niddah 17a](http://www.halakhah.com/niddah/niddah_17.html).
Tractate [Kilayim](/wiki/Kil%27ayim_%28tractate%29 "Kil'ayim (tractate)") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of mixing plants, cloth, and animals in Leviticus 19:19\.[Mishnah Kilayim 1:1–9:10](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Kilayim.1).
Reading Leviticus 18:4, "My ordinances ({{Script/Hebrew\|מִשְׁפָּטַי}}, *mishpatai*) shall you do, and My statutes ({{Script/Hebrew\|חֻקֹּתַי}}, *chukotai*) shall you keep," the Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the "ordinances" ({{Script/Hebrew\|מִשְׁפָּטִים}}, *mishpatim*) were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And "statutes" ({{Script/Hebrew\|חֻקִּים}}, *chukim*) were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to wool\-linen mixtures ({{Script/Hebrew\|שַׁעַטְנֵז}}, *[shatnez](/wiki/Shatnez "Shatnez")*, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\), release from levirate marriage ({{Script/Hebrew\|חליצה}}, *[chalitzah](/wiki/Halizah "Halizah")*, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10\), purification of the person with *[tzaraat](/wiki/Tzaraath "Tzaraath")* (in Leviticus 14\), and the [scapegoat](/wiki/Scapegoat "Scapegoat") (in Leviticus 16\). So that people do not think these "ordinances" ({{Script/Hebrew\|מִשְׁפָּטִים}}, *mishpatim*) to be empty acts, in Leviticus 18:4, God says, "I am the Lord," indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.[Babylonian Talmud Yoma 67b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.67b). The Sifra reported the same discussion, and added eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8\) and purification of a person affected by skin disease ({{Script/Hebrew\|מְּצֹרָע}}, *[metzora](/wiki/Tzaraath "Tzaraath")*, regulated in Leviticus 13–14\).Sifra, Aharei Mot, pereq 13, ¶ 194:2:11\. Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Evil Inclination criticizes four laws as without logical basis, and Scripture uses the expression "statute" (*chuk*) in connection with each: the laws of (1\) a [brother's wife](/wiki/Levirate_marriage "Levirate marriage") (in Deuteronomy 25:5–10\), (2\) mingled kinds (in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\), (3\) the [scapegoat](/wiki/Scapegoat "Scapegoat") (in Leviticus 16\), and (4\) the [red cow](/wiki/Red_heifer "Red heifer") (in Numbers 19\).[Numbers Rabbah](/wiki/Numbers_Rabbah "Numbers Rabbah") 19:5\.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool\-linen mixture ({{Script/Hebrew\|שַׁעַטְנֵז}}, *shatnez*, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\), eat pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8\), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by Leviticus 18 and 20\), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in Leviticus 20:26, God says, "I have separated you from the nations to be mine." So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 9, ¶ 207:2:13\.
[Hanina ben Hakinai](/wiki/Hanina_ben_Hakinai "Hanina ben Hakinai") employed the prohibition of Leviticus 19:19 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1\) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10\) (2 and 3\) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4\) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9\), (5\) during a [Sabbatical year](/wiki/Shmita "Shmita") (in violation of Leviticus 25:4\), (6\) on a Festival\-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7\), (7\) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1\) and (8\) a Nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6\) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.[Mishnah Makkot 3:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Makkot/Chapter_3/9 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Makkot/Chapter 3/9"); [Babylonian Talmud Makkot 21b](https://www.sefaria.org/Makkot.21b).
Tractate [Orlah](/wiki/Orlah_%28Talmud%29 "Orlah (Talmud)") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the prohibition in Leviticus 19:23–25 against using the fruits of a tree in its first three years.[Mishnah Orlah 1:1–3:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Orlah "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Orlah"); Tosefta Orlah 1:1–8; [Jerusalem Talmud Orlah 1a–42a](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Orlah).
[Rav Zeira](/wiki/Rav_Zeira "Rav Zeira") counted five kinds of *[orlah](/wiki/Orlah "Orlah")* (things uncircumcised) in the world: (1\) uncircumcised ears (as in Jeremiah 6:10\), (2\) uncircumcised lips (as in Exodus 6:12\), (3\) uncircumcised hearts (as in Deuteronomy 10:16 and Jeremiah 9:26\), (4\) uncircumcised flesh (as in Genesis 17:14\), and (5\) uncircumcised trees (as in Leviticus 19:23\). Rav Zeira taught that all the nations are uncircumcised in each of the first four ways, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart, in that their hearts do not allow them to do God's will. And Rav Zeira taught that in the future, God will take away from Israel the uncircumcision of their hearts, and they will not harden their stubborn hearts anymore before their Creator, as Ezekiel 36:26 says, "And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you an heart of flesh," and Genesis 17:11 says, "And you shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin."[Pirke De\-Rabbi Eliezer](/wiki/Pirke_De-Rabbi_Eliezer "Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer"), chapter 29; see also [Genesis Rabbah 46:5](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n439/mode/2up) (Rabbi Akiva counted four kinds of *orlah*).
Judah ben Padiah noted [Adam's](/wiki/Adam_%28Bible%29 "Adam (Bible)") frailty, for he could not remain loyal even for a single hour to God's charge that he not eat from the [Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil](/wiki/Tree_of_Knowledge_of_Good_and_Evil "Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil"), yet in accordance with Leviticus 19:23, Adam's descendants the Israelites waited three years for the fruits of a tree.[Genesis Rabbah 21:7](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n223/mode/2up).
The Mishnah taught that the commandments of Leviticus 19:27 not to round off the side\-growth of one's head and not to destroy the corners of one's beard are two of only three exceptions to the general rule that every commandment that is a prohibition (whether time\-dependent or not) governs both men and women. The other exception is the commandment of Leviticus 21:1 for [Kohanim](/wiki/Kohen "Kohen") not to become ritually impure for the dead.[Mishnah Kiddushin 1:7](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Kiddushin/Chapter_1/7 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Kiddushin/Chapter 1/7"); [Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 29a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.29a).
[Rabbi Eliezer the Great](/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus "Eliezer ben Hurcanus") taught that the Torah warns against wronging a stranger in 36, or others say 46, places (including Leviticus 19:33–34\).See, e.g., {{Bibleverse\|\|Exodus\|22:20\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Exodus\|23:9\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:33–34\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|1:16\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Deuteronomy\|10:17–19\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Deuteronomy\|24:14–15\|HE}} and [17–22](http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0524.htm#17); and {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Deuteronomy\|27:19\|HE}}. The Gemara went on to cite Rabbi Nathan's interpretation of Exodus 22:20, "You shall neither wrong a stranger, nor oppress him; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt," to teach that one must not taunt another about a flaw that one has oneself.[Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_59.html#PARTb).
Rabbi [Ḥiyya](/wiki/Hiyya_the_Great "Hiyya the Great") taught that the words of Leviticus 19:35, "You shall do no unrighteousness in judgment," apply to judgment in law. But a Midrash noted that Leviticus 19:15 already mentioned judgment in law and questioned why Leviticus 19:35 would state the same proposition again and why Leviticus 19:35 uses the words, "in judgment, in measures." The Midrash deduced that Leviticus 19:35 teaches that a person who measures is called a judge, and one who falsifies measurements is called by the five names "unrighteous," "hated," "repulsive," "accursed," and an "abomination," and is the cause of these five evils. Rabbi Banya said in the name of [Rav Huna](/wiki/Rav_Huna "Rav Huna") that the government comes and attacks that generation whose measures are false. The Midrash found support for this from [Proverbs](/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs "Book of Proverbs") 11:1, "A false balance is an abomination to the Lord," which is followed by Proverbs 11:2, "When presumption comes, then comes shame." Reading [Micah](/wiki/Book_of_Micah "Book of Micah") 6:11, "Shall I be pure with wicked balances?" [Rabbi Berekiah](/wiki/Rabbi_Berekiah "Rabbi Berekiah") said in the name of Rabbi Abba that it is impossible for a generation whose measures are false to be meritorious, for Micah 6:11 continues, "And with a bag of deceitful weights" (showing that their holdings would be merely illusory). Rabbi Levi taught that Moses also hinted to Israel that a generation with false measures would be attacked. Deuteronomy 25:13–14 warns, "You shall not have in your bag diverse weights . . . you shall not have in your house diverse measures." But if one does, one will be attacked, as Deuteronomy 25:16, reports, "For all who do such things, even all who do unrighteously, are an abomination to the Lord your God," and then immediately following, Deuteronomy 25:17 says, "Remember what Amalek did to you (attacking Israel) by the way as you came forth out of Egypt."[Ruth Rabbah](/wiki/Ruth_Rabbah "Ruth Rabbah") 1:2\.
[thumb\|left\|225px\|Offering to Molech (illustration from the 1897 *[Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us](/wiki/commons:Category:Bible_Pictures_with_brief_descriptions_by_Charles_Foster "Category:Bible Pictures with brief descriptions by Charles Foster")* by Charles Foster)](/wiki/File:Foster_Bible_Pictures_0074-1_Offering_to_Molech.jpg "Foster Bible Pictures 0074-1 Offering to Molech.jpg")
### Leviticus chapter 20
Mishnah Sanhedrin[Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:7](http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sanhedrin.7.7); [Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 64a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_64.html). and Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 64a–b](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_64.html). interpreted the laws prohibiting passing one's child through the fire to [Molech](/wiki/Moloch "Moloch") in Leviticus 18:21 and 20:1–5 and Deuteronomy 18:10\.
The Mishnah asked about the command of Leviticus 20:15–16 that the animal be killed: If the person had sinned, in what way did the animal sin? The Mishnah concluded that Scripture ordered it killed because it enticed the person to sin. Alternatively, the Mishnah explained that the animal was killed so that it should not pass through the streets provoking people to say, "This is the animal on account of which so and so was stoned."[Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:4](http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sanhedrin.7.4); [Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 54a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_54.html).
[right\|thumb\|200px\|A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey (illustration from Henry Davenport Northrop's 1894 *Treasures of the Bible*)](/wiki/File:Northrop_A_Land_Flowing_with_Milk_and_Honey.jpg "Northrop A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey.jpg")
The Gemara reported a number of Rabbis' reports of how the Land of Israel did indeed flow with "milk and honey," as described in Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Leviticus 20:24, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20\. Once when Rami bar Ezekiel visited [Bnei Brak](/wiki/Bnei_Brak "Bnei Brak"), he saw goats grazing under fig trees while honey was flowing from the figs, and milk dripped from the goats mingling with the fig honey, causing him to remark that it was indeed a land flowing with milk and honey. Rabbi Jacob ben Dostai said that it is about three miles from [Lod](/wiki/Lod "Lod") to [Ono](/wiki/Ono%2C_Benjamin "Ono, Benjamin"), and once he rose up early in the morning and waded all that way up to his ankles in fig honey. Resh Lakish said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey of [Sepphoris](/wiki/Sepphoris "Sepphoris") extend over an area of sixteen miles by sixteen miles. Rabbah bar Bar Hana said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey in all the Land of Israel and the total area was equal to an area of twenty\-two [parasangs](/wiki/Parasang "Parasang") by six parasangs.[Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 111b–12a](http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_111.html#PARTb).
|
[
"In classical rabbinic interpretation\n------------------------------------",
"The parashah is discussed in these [rabbinic](/wiki/Rabbi \"Rabbi\") sources from the era of the [Mishnah](/wiki/Mishnah \"Mishnah\") and the [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud \"Talmud\"):For more on classical rabbinic interpretation, see, e.g., [Yaakov Elman](/wiki/Yaakov_Elman \"Yaakov Elman\"). \"Classical Rabbinic Interpretation.\" In *The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition*. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 1859–78\\.",
"### Leviticus chapter 19",
"Rabbi Judah ben Pazzi deduced from the juxtaposition of the sexual prohibitions of Leviticus 18 and the exhortation to holiness in Leviticus 19:2 that those who fence themselves against sexual immorality are called holy, and Rabbi [Joshua ben Levi](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Levi \"Joshua ben Levi\") taught that wherever one finds a fence against sexual immorality, one will also find sanctity.[Leviticus Rabbah](/wiki/Leviticus_Rabbah \"Leviticus Rabbah\") 24:6\\.",
"A [Midrash](/wiki/Midrash \"Midrash\") interpreted God's message to Israel in Leviticus 19:1–2 to mean: \"My children, as I am separate, so you be separate; as I am holy, so you be holy.\"Leviticus Rabbah 24:4\\.",
"Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness in Leviticus 19:1–2 and 20:7 to the case of a king who rewarded his drunkard watchmen twice as much as his sober watchmen. Similarly, God twice exhorted the Israelites to holiness because the Evil Inclination sways people like drunkards, whereas the Evil Inclination does not exist among celestial beings. Similarly, Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness to the case of the citizens who made three crowns for the king, and the king placed one on his own head and two on the heads of his sons. Similarly, every day the celestial beings crown God with three sanctities, calling him, in the words of [Isaiah](/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah \"Book of Isaiah\") 6:3, \"Holy, holy, holy.\" God then places one crown of holiness on God's own head and two crowns of holiness on the head of Israel.Leviticus Rabbah 24:8\\.",
"[Rabbi Ḥiyya](/wiki/Rabbi_Hiyya \"Rabbi Hiyya\") taught that the section beginning at Leviticus 19:1 was spoken in the presence of the whole Israelite people, because it includes most of the essential principles of the Torah. And Rabbi Levi said it was because it includes each of the [Ten Commandments](/wiki/Ten_Commandments \"Ten Commandments\"), noting that: (1\\) Exodus 20:2 says, \"I am the Lord your God,\" and Leviticus 19:3 says, \"I am the Lord your God\"; (2\\) Exodus 20:2–3 says, \"You shall have no other gods,\" and Leviticus 19:4 says, \"Nor make to yourselves molten gods\"; (3\\) Exodus 20:7 says, \"You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain,\" and Leviticus 19:12 says, \"And you shall not swear by My name falsely\"; (4\\) Exodus 20:8 says, \"Remember the Sabbath day,\" and Leviticus 19:3 says, \"And you shall keep My Sabbaths\"; (5\\) Exodus 20:12 says, \"Honor your father and your mother,\" and Leviticus 19:3 says, \"You shall fear every man his mother, and his father\"; (6\\) Exodus 20:13 says, \"You shall not murder,\" and Leviticus 19:16 says, \"Neither shall you stand idly by the blood of your neighbor\"; (7\\) Exodus 20:13 says, \"You shall not commit adultery,\" and Leviticus 20:10 says, \"Both the adulterer and the adulteress shall surely be put to death; (8\\) Exodus 20:13 says, \"You shall not steal,\" and Leviticus 19:11 says, \"You shall not steal\"; (9\\) Exodus 20:13 says, \"You shall not bear false witness,\" and Leviticus 19:16 says, \"You shall not go up and down as a talebearer\"; and (10\\) Exodus 20:14 says, \"You shall not covet . . . anything that is your neighbor's,\" and Leviticus 19:18 says, \"You shall love your neighbor as yourself.\"Leviticus Rabbah 24:5\\.",
"A [Baraita](/wiki/Baraita \"Baraita\") cited the words of Leviticus 19:3, \"You shall fear every man his mother and his father, and you shall keep My Sabbaths,\" to teach that one's duty to honor one's parent does not supersede one's duty to keep the Sabbath.[Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 5b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yevamot.5b).",
"[Rabbi Shimon](/wiki/Shimon_bar_Yochai \"Shimon bar Yochai\") noted that everywhere else, Scripture mentions a father's honor before the mother's honor.E.g., {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Exodus\\|20:11\\|HE}} (20:12 in NJSP) {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Exodus\\|21:15\\|HE}}, and {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Exodus\\|21:17\\|HE}}, and {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|5:16 and {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|27:16\\|HE}}. But Leviticus 19:3 mentions the mother first to teach that one should honor both parents equally.[Mishnah Keritot 6:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Kodashim/Tractate_Keritot/Chapter_6/9 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Keritot/Chapter 6/9\"); [Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a](https://www.sefaria.org/Keritot.28a); see also [Genesis Rabbah](/wiki/Genesis_Rabbah \"Genesis Rabbah\") [1:15](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n60/mode/1up). The Sages, however, said that the father comes before the mother in all places, because both the son and the mother are bound to honor the father.[Mishnah Keritot 6:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Kodashim/Tractate_Keritot/Chapter_6/9 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Keritot/Chapter 6/9\"); [Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a](https://www.sefaria.org/Keritot.28a).",
"It was taught in a Baraita that [Rabbi](/wiki/Judah_the_Prince \"Judah the Prince\") said that God knows that a son honors his mother more than his father, because the mother wins him over with words. Therefore, (in Exodus 20:12\\) God put the honor of the father before that of the mother. God knows that a son fears his father more than his mother, because the father teaches him Torah. Therefore, (in Leviticus 19:3\\) God put the fear of the mother before that of the father.[Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 30b–31a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.30b).",
"Noting that as Leviticus 19:3 commands, \"You shall fear your father and mother,\" and Deuteronomy 6:13 commands, \"The Lord your God you shall fear and you shall serve,\" the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Scripture likens the fear of parents to the fear of God. As Exodus 20:12 commands, \"Honor your father and your mother,\" and [Proverbs](/wiki/Proverbs \"Proverbs\") 3:9 directs, \"Honor the Lord with your substance,\" Scripture likens the honor due to parents to that due to God. And as Exodus 21:17 commands, \"He that curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death,\" and Leviticus 24:15 commands, \"Whoever curses his God shall bear his sin,\" Scripture likens cursing parents to cursing God. But the Baraita conceded that with respect to striking (which Exodus 21:15 addresses regarding parents) that it is certainly impossible (with respect to God). The Baraita concluded that these comparisons between parents and God are only logical, since the three (God, the mother, and the father) are partners in creation of the child. For the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are three partners in the creation of a person—God, the father, and the mother. When one honors one's father and mother, God considers it as if God had dwelt among them and they had honored God. And a [Tanna](/wiki/Tannaim \"Tannaim\") taught before [Rav Nachman](/wiki/Rav_Nachman \"Rav Nachman\") that when one vexes one's father and mother, God considers it right not to dwell among them, for had God dwelt among them, they would have vexed God.",
"Tractate [Shabbat](/wiki/Shabbat_%28Talmud%29 \"Shabbat (Talmud)\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, [Jerusalem Talmud](/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud \"Jerusalem Talmud\"), and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbath in Exodus 16:23 and 29; 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:13–17; 35:2–3; Leviticus 19:3; 23:3; Numbers 15:32–36; and Deuteronomy 5:12\\.[Mishnah Shabbat 1:1–24:5](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Moed/Tractate_Shabbat \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Moed/Tractate Shabbat\"); Tosefta Shabbat 1:1–17:29; [Jerusalem Talmud Shabbat 1a–113b](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shabbat); [Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 2a–157b](https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat).",
"A Midrash asked to which commandment Deuteronomy 11:22 refers when it says, \"For if you shall diligently keep all *this commandment* that I command you, to do it, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all His ways, and to cleave to Him, then will the Lord drive out all these nations from before you, and you shall dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourselves.\" Rabbi Levi said that \"this commandment\" refers to the recitation of the *Shema* (Deuteronomy 6:4–9\\), but the Rabbis said that it refers to the Sabbath, which is equal to all the precepts of the Torah.Deuteronomy Rabbah 4:4\\.",
"The [Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva](/wiki/Alphabet_of_Rabbi_Akiva \"Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva\") taught that when God was giving Israel the Torah, God told them that if they accepted the Torah and observed God's commandments, then God would give them for eternity a most precious thing that God possessed—the [World To Come](/wiki/Jewish_eschatology \"Jewish eschatology\"). When Israel asked to see in this world an example of the World To Come, God replied that the Sabbath is an example of the World To Come.Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva. Circa 700\\. Quoted in [Abraham Joshua Heschel](/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel \"Abraham Joshua Heschel\"). *The Sabbath*, page 73\\. New York: [Farrar, Straus and Giroux](/wiki/Farrar%2C_Straus_and_Giroux \"Farrar, Straus and Giroux\"), 1951\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|*[Gleaners](/wiki/Gleaning \"Gleaning\")* (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by [James Tissot](/wiki/James_Tissot \"James Tissot\"))](/wiki/File:Tissot_Gleaners.jpg \"Tissot Gleaners.jpg\")\nTractate [Peah](/wiki/Pe%27ah \"Pe'ah\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the harvest of the corner of the field and gleanings to be given to the poor in Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–22\\.[Mishnah Peah 1:1–8:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah\"); [Tosefta Peah 1:1–4:21](https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Peah); [Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a–73b](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Peah).",
"The Mishnah and the Tosefta taught that the Torah sets no upper limit for the donation of the corners of one's field to the poor.[Mishnah Peah 1:1](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_1/1 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 1/1\"); [Tosefta Peah 1:1](https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Peah.1.1); [Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Peah.1.1.1). And the Mishnah also taught that one should not make the amount left to the poor less than one\\-sixtieth of the entire crop. And even though no definite amount is given, the amount given should accord with the size of the field, the number of poor people, and the extent of the yield.[Mishnah Peah 1:2](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_1/2 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 1/2\").",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|*The Gleaners* (engraving by [Gustave Doré](/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9 \"Gustave Doré\") from the 1865 *La Sainte Bible*)](/wiki/File:Dore_Bible_The_Gleaners.jpg \"Dore Bible The Gleaners.jpg\")",
"Rabbi Eliezer taught that one who cultivates land in which one can plant a quarter *[kav](/wiki/Hebrew_measurements%23Dry_measure \"Hebrew measurements#Dry measure\")* of seed is obligated to give a corner to the poor. [Rabbi Joshua](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah \"Joshua ben Hananiah\") said land that yields two *[seah](/wiki/Seah_%28volume%29 \"Seah (volume)\")* of grain. [Rabbi Tarfon](/wiki/Rabbi_Tarfon \"Rabbi Tarfon\") said land of at least six handbreadths by six handbreadths. Rabbi Judah ben Betera said land that requires two strokes of a sickle to harvest, and the law is as he spoke. [Rabbi Akiva](/wiki/Rabbi_Akiva \"Rabbi Akiva\") said that one who cultivates land of any size is obligated to give a corner to the poor and the [first fruits](/wiki/First_Fruits \"First Fruits\").[Mishnah Peah 3:6](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_3 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 3\").",
"The Mishnah taught that the poor could enter a field to collect three times a day—in the morning, at midday, and in the afternoon. Rabban [Gamliel](/wiki/Gamaliel \"Gamaliel\") taught that they said this only so that landowners should not reduce the number of times that the poor could enter. Rabbi Akiva taught that they said this only so that landowners should not increase the number of times that the poor had to enter. The landowners of Beit Namer used to harvest along a rope and allowed the poor to collect a corner from every row.[Mishnah Peah 4:5](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_4 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 4\").",
"The Mishnah taught that one who does not allow the poor to glean, or who allows one and not another, or who helps only one, is stealing from the poor. The Mishnah taught that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not encroach upon the border of those who go up.”[Mishnah Peah 5:6](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.5.6).",
"The Gemara noted that Leviticus 19:9 includes a superfluous term “by reaping” and reasoned that this must teach that the obligation to leave for the poor applies to crops that the owner uproots as well as to crops that the owner cuts. And the Gemara reasoned that the superfluous words “When you reap” in Leviticus 23:22 teach that the obligation also extends to one who picks a crop by hand.[Babylonian Talmud Chullin 137a](https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.137a.14).",
"Noting that the discussion of gifts to the poor in Leviticus 23:22 appears between discussions of the festivals—Passover and Shavuot on one side, and Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur on the other—Rabbi Avardimos ben Rabbi Yossi said that this teaches that people who give immature clusters of grapes (as in Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21\\), the forgotten sheaf (as in Deuteronomy 24:19\\), the corner of the field (as in Leviticus 19:9 and 23:22\\), and the poor tithe (as in Deuteronomy 14:28 and 26:12\\) is accounted as if the Temple existed and they offered up their sacrifices in it. And for those who do not give to the poor, it is accounted to them as if the Temple existed and they did not offer up their sacrifices in it.[Sifra Emor chapter 13 (233:2\\)](https://www.sefaria.org/Sifra%2C_Emor%2C_Chapter_13.11).",
"The Mishnah taught that even if a landowner said, “I am harvesting on the condition that whatever I forget I will take,” the landowner was still subject to the law of the forgotten sheaf in Leviticus 19:9–10 (and anything the landowner forgot belonged to the poor).[Mishnah Peah 6:11](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.6.11).",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Grapes](/wiki/File:Wine_grapes07.jpg \"Wine grapes07.jpg\")",
"The Mishnah defined “fallen fruit ({{Script/Hebrew\\|פֶרֶט}}, *peret*)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 to mean that which falls at the time of the grape harvest. The Mishnah taught that one who left a basket under the vine when harvesting grapes was stealing from the poor. The Mishnah said that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not withdraw the border of those who go up.”[Mishnah Peah 7:3](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.7.3).",
"The Mishnah defined “a defective cluster ({{Script/Hebrew\\|עוֹלֶלֶת}}, *olelet*)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21 to mean any cluster that had neither a shoulder nor a dangling portion (but rather was entirely attached to the main stem). If the cluster had a shoulder or a dangling portion, it belonged to the property owner, but if there was a doubt, it belonged to the poor. A cluster that was attached to the joint between branches or the stem and the trunk, if it was plucked with the grape cluster, it belonged to the property owner; if not, it belonged to the poor. Rabbi Judah said that a single\\-grape cluster was a cluster, but the Sages said that it was a defective cluster (and thus belonged to the poor).[Mishnah Peah 7:4](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.7.4).",
"The Mishnah taught that after the weakest of the poor had come and gone, everyone (regardless of poverty or wealth) was permitted to take individual stalks that fell during harvest ({{Script/Hebrew\\|לֶקֶט}}, *leket*—which had to be left for the poor to glean).[Mishnah Peah 8:1](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.8.1).",
"The Mishnah taught that if a wife foreswore all benefit from other people, her husband could not annul his wife's vow, but she could still benefit from the gleanings, forgotten sheaves, and the corner of the field that Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–21 commanded farmers to leave for the poor.[Mishnah Nedarim 11:3](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Nedarim/Chapter_11/3 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Nedarim/Chapter 11/3\").",
"[Rabbi Josiah](/wiki/Rabbi_Josiah \"Rabbi Josiah\") taught that we learn the formal prohibition against [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\") from the words \"You shall not steal\" in Exodus 20:13 (since Deuteronomy 22:7 and Exodus 21:16 merely state the *punishment* for abduction). [Rabbi Johanan](/wiki/Yochanan_bar_Nafcha \"Yochanan bar Nafcha\") taught that we learn it from Leviticus 25:42, \"They shall not be sold as bondsmen.\" The [Gemara](/wiki/Gemara \"Gemara\") harmonized the two positions by concluding that Rabbi Josiah referred to the prohibition for abduction, while Rabbi Johanan referred to the prohibition for selling a kidnapped person. Similarly, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Exodus 20:13, \"You shall not steal,\" refers to the stealing of human beings. To the potential objection that Exodus 20:13 refers to property [theft](/wiki/Theft \"Theft\"), the Baraita responded that one of the thirteen principles by which we interpret the Torah is that a law is interpreted by its general context, and the Ten Commandments speak of capital crimes (like murder and adultery). (Thus \"You shall not steal\" must refer to a capital crime and thus to kidnapping.) Another Baraita taught that the words \"You shall not steal\" in Leviticus 19:11 refer to theft of property. To the potential objection that Leviticus 19:11 refers to the theft of human beings, the Baraita responded that the general context of Leviticus 19:10–15 speaks of money matters; therefore Leviticus 19:11 must refer to monetary theft.[Babylonian Talmud Talmud Sanhedrin 86a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_86.html); see also [Mekhilta](/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Ishmael \"Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael\") Bahodesh 8\\.",
"Tractates [Nedarim](/wiki/Nedarim \"Nedarim\") and [Shevuot](/wiki/Shevu%27ot \"Shevu'ot\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of vows and oaths in [Exodus](/wiki/Book_of_Exodus \"Book of Exodus\") 20:7, 5:1–10 and 19:12, Numbers 30:2–17, and [Deuteronomy](/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy \"Book of Deuteronomy\") 23:24\\.[Mishnah Nedarim 1:1–11:11](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Nedarim \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Nedarim\"); Tosefta Nedarim 1:1–7:8; [Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 1a–](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Nedarim); [Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 2a–91b](https://www.sefaria.org/Nedarim); [Mishnah Shevuot 1:1–8:6](/wiki/s:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Shevuot \"Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Shevuot\"); Tosefta Shevuot 1:1–6:7; [Jerusalem Talmud Shevuot 1a–](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shevuot); [Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 2a–49b](https://www.sefaria.org/Shevuot.2a).",
"The Mishnah interpreted Leviticus 19:13 and Deuteronomy 24:14–15 to teach that a worker engaged by the day could collect the worker's wages all the following night. If engaged by the night, the worker could collect the wages all the following day. If engaged by the hour, the worker could collect the wages all that day and night. If engaged by the week, month, year, or 7\\-year period, if the worker's time expired during the day, the worker could collect the wages all that day. If the worker's time expired during the night, the worker could collect the wages all that night and the following day.[Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:11](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Bava_Metzia/Chapter_9/11 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Bava Metzia/Chapter 9/11\"); [Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 110b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_110.html#PARTb).",
"The Mishnah taught that the hire of persons, animals, or utensils were all subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that \"in the same day you shall give him his hire\" and the law of Leviticus 19:13 that \"the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning.\" The employer became liable only when the worker or vendor demanded payment from the employer. Otherwise, the employer did not infringe the law. If the employer gave the worker or vendor a draft on a shopkeeper or a money changer, the employer complied with the law. A worker who claimed the wages within the set time could collect payment if the worker merely swore that the employer had not yet paid. But if the set time had passed, the worker's oath was insufficient to collect payment. Yet if the worker had witnesses that the worker had demanded payment (within the set time), the worker could still swear and receive payment.[Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:12](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Bava_Metzia/Chapter_9/12 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Bava Metzia/Chapter 9/12\"); [Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 111a](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_111.html).",
"The Mishnah taught that the employer of a resident alien was subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that \"in the same day you shall give him his hire\" (as Deuteronomy 24:14 refers to the stranger), but not to the law of Leviticus 19:13 that \"the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning.\"",
"[Abaye](/wiki/Abaye \"Abaye\") taught that the rule that a community should mark graves may be derived from Leviticus 19:14, \"And put not a stumbling\\-block before the blind.\"[Babylonian Talmud Moed Katan 5a](https://www.sefaria.org/Moed_Katan.5a).",
"The Mishnah taught that one who pursues a neighbor with intent to kill must be saved from sin even at the cost of the pursuer's life.[Mishnah Sanhedrin 8:7](http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sanhedrin.8.7); [Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.73a.2). The Gemara taught that it is from Leviticus 19:16, “You shall not stand idly by the blood of another,” that the Sages in a Baraita derived that where one person is pursuing another with intent to kill, the pursued person should be saved even at the cost of the pursuer's life. The Gemara also cited Leviticus 19:16 for a Baraita that taught that one is obligated to try to save another whom one sees drowning in a river, or being dragged away by a wild animal, or being attacked by bandits. The Gemara further taught that the verse “Do not stand by the blood of another” teaches that one must even hire others to help rescue a person one sees to be jeopardy, and one transgresses a prohibition if one does not do so.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.73a.2).",
"In a Baraita, the Rabbis reasoned that had Leviticus 19:17 said simply, \"You shall not hate your brother,\" one might have believed that one should simply not smite, slap, or curse him; therefore Leviticus 19:17 states \"in your heart\" to cover intentions as well as actions. Scripture speaks of hatred in the heart.[Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b](https://www.sefaria.org/Arakhin.16b); see also [Sifra](/wiki/Sifra \"Sifra\"), Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3\\.",
"Thus, in Leviticus 19:17, the heart hates. A Midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible.[Ecclesiastes Rabbah](/wiki/Ecclesiastes_Rabbah \"Ecclesiastes Rabbah\") 1:16\\. The heart speaks,[Ecclesiastes](/wiki/Ecclesiastes \"Ecclesiastes\") {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Ecclesiastes\\|1:16\\|HE}}. sees, hears,[1 Kings](/wiki/Books_of_Kings \"Books of Kings\") {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|1\\|Kings\\|3:9\\|HE}}. walks,{{Bibleverse\\|2\\|Kings\\|5:26\\|HE}}. falls,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Samuel\\|17:32\\|HE}}. stands,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Ezekiel\\|22:14\\|HE}}. rejoices,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|16:9\\|HE}}. cries,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Lamentations\\|2:18\\|HE}}. is comforted,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Isaiah\\|40:2\\|HE}}. is troubled,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|15:10\\|HE}}. becomes hardened,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Exodus\\|9:12\\|HE}}. grows faint,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|20:3\\|HE}}. grieves,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Genesis\\|6:6\\|HE}}. fears,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|28:67\\|HE}}. can be broken,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|51:19\\|HE}}. becomes proud,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|8:14\\|HE}}. rebels,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|5:23\\|HE}}. invents,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Kings\\|12:33\\|HE}}. cavils,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|29:18\\|HE}}. overflows,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|45:2\\|HE}}. devises,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|19:21\\|HE}}. desires,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|21:3\\|HE}}. goes astray,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|7:25\\|HE}}. lusts,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Numbers\\|15:39\\|HE}}. is refreshed,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Genesis\\|18:5\\|HE}}. can be stolen,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Genesis\\|31:20\\|HE}}. is humbled,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|26:41\\|HE}}. is enticed,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Genesis\\|34:3\\|HE}}. errs,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Isaiah\\|21:4\\|HE}}. trembles,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Samuel\\|4:13\\|HE}}. is awakened,[Song of Songs](/wiki/Song_of_Songs \"Song of Songs\") {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Song\\|5:2\\|HE}}. loves,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|6:5\\|HE}}. envies,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|23:17\\|HE}}. is searched,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|17:10\\|HE}}. is rent,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Joel\\|2:13\\|HE}}. meditates,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|49:4\\|HE}}. is like a fire,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|20:9\\|HE}}. is like a stone,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Ezekiel\\|36:26\\|HE}}. turns in repentance,{{Bibleverse\\|2\\|Kings\\|23:25\\|HE}}. becomes hot,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|19:6\\|HE}}. dies,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Samuel\\|25:37\\|HE}}. melts,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Joshua\\|7:5\\|HE}}. takes in words,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|6:6\\|HE}}. is susceptible to fear,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|32:40\\|HE}}. gives thanks,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|111:1\\|HE}}. covets,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|6:25\\|HE}}. becomes hard,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|28:14\\|HE}}. makes merry,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Judges\\|16:25\\|HE}}. acts deceitfully,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|12:20\\|HE}}. speaks from out of itself,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Samuel\\|1:13\\|HE}}. loves bribes,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|22:17\\|HE}}. writes words,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|3:3\\|HE}}. plans,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|6:18\\|HE}}. receives commandments,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|10:8\\|HE}}. acts with pride,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Obadiah\\|1:3\\|HE}}. makes arrangements,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|16:1\\|HE}}. and aggrandizes itself.[2 Chronicles](/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles \"Books of Chronicles\") {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|2\\|Chronicles\\|25:19\\|HE}}.",
"Rabbi [Samuel bar Rav Isaac](/wiki/Samuel_bar_Isaac \"Samuel bar Isaac\") said that [Rav](/wiki/Abba_Arika \"Abba Arika\") said that one is permitted to hate another whom one sees committing a sin, as Exodus 23:5 states: \"If you see the donkey of he who hates you lying under its load.\" But the Gemara asked whether one is permitted to hate one's fellow, as Leviticus 19:17 says, “You shall not hate your brother in your heart,” which prohibits hating one's fellow. The Gemara concluded that one is permitted to hate another for evil behavior one sees, whereas others who are unaware of these actions may not hate the other. Rav [Naḥman bar Isaac](/wiki/Rav_Nachman_bar_Yitzchak \"Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak\") said: Not only is this permitted, it is even a commandment to hate this other person, as Proverbs 8:13 states: \"The fear of God is to hate evil.\"[Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 113b](https://www.sefaria.org/Pesachim.113b.4).",
"In a Baraita, the Rabbis deduced from the command in Leviticus 19:17 that \"you shall surely rebuke your neighbor\" that one is obliged to reprove a neighbor whom one observes doing something wrong. And they deduced from the emphatic words \"you shall surely rebuke\" that if one has rebuked one's neighbor and the neighbor does not accept the rebuke, then one must rebuke the neighbor again. But the Rabbis deduced that Leviticus 19:17 continues to say \"you shall not bear sin because of him\" to teach that one should not rebuke a neighbor to the neighbor's embarrassment.",
"Reading the report of Genesis 21:25, \"And [Abraham](/wiki/Abraham \"Abraham\") reproved [Abimelech](/wiki/Abimelech \"Abimelech\"),\" Rabbi [Jose ben Rabbi Hanina](/wiki/Jose_b._Hanina \"Jose b. Hanina\") taught that reproof leads to love, as Proverbs 9:8 says, \"Reprove a wise man, and he will love you.\" Rabbi Jose ben Hanina said that love unaccompanied by reproof is not love. And [Resh Lakish](/wiki/Shimon_ben_Lakish \"Shimon ben Lakish\") taught that reproof leads to peace, and thus (as Genesis 21:25 reports) \"Abraham reproved Abimelech.\" Resh Lakish said that peace unaccompanied by reproof is not peace.[Genesis Rabbah 54:3](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n524/mode/1up).",
"The Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, \"And they shall stumble one upon another,\" to mean that one will stumble through the sin of another. The Gemara concluded that all everyone is held responsible for each another.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 27b](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_27.html#PARTb). Similarly, elsewhere, the Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, \"And they shall stumble one upon another,\" to mean that for all transgressions of the Torah, the whole world is punished. Thus the Gemara taught that all Jews stand as guarantors for one another.[Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 39a](https://www.sefaria.org/Shevuot.39a). And reading [Song of Songs](/wiki/Song_of_Songs \"Song of Songs\") 6:11, \"I went down into the garden of nuts,\" to apply to Israel, a Midrash taught that just as when one takes a nut from a stack of nuts, all the rest come toppling over, so if a single Jew is smitten, all Jews feel it, as Numbers 16:22 says, \"Shall one man sin, and will You be angry with all the congregation?\"[Song of Songs Rabbah](/wiki/Shir_ha-Shirim_Rabbah \"Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah\") 6:11 \\[6:26].",
"Rabbi [Tarfon](/wiki/Tarfon \"Tarfon\") wondered whether anyone in his generation could accept reproof, for if one told another, \"Remove the mote from between your eyes,\" the other would answer, \"Remove the beam from between your eyes!\" Rabbi [Eleazar ben Azariah](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Azariah \"Eleazar ben Azariah\") wondered whether anyone in his generation knew how to *reprove*. Rabbi [Johanan ben Nuri](/wiki/Yochanan_ben_Nuri \"Yochanan ben Nuri\") said that he would often complain about Akiva to Rabban Gamaliel Beribbi, causing Akiva to be punished as a result, but Akiva all the more showered love upon Rabbi Johanan ben Nuri, bearing out what Proverbs 9:8 says: \"Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you.\"",
"Rabbi Judah the son of Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi asked his father whether it was preferable to reprove honestly or to forgo reproof out of false modesty. Rabbi Simeon answered that restraint out of true modesty is better still, for a Master said modesty is greatest of all. Thus, false modesty is also preferable, he reasoned, for [Rav Judah](/wiki/Judah_ben_Ezekiel \"Judah ben Ezekiel\") said in the name of Rav that one should engage in Torah study and good deeds, even if not for their own sake, because through doing good for an ulterior motive one will come to do good for its own sake. To illustrate honest reproof and forbearance out of false modesty, the Gemara told how [Rav Huna](/wiki/Rav_Huna \"Rav Huna\") and Ḥiyya bar Rav were sitting before Samuel, when Ḥiyya bar Rav complained about how Rav Huna was bothering him. Rav Huna undertook not to bother Ḥiyya bar Rav anymore. After Ḥiyya bar Rav left, Rav Huna told Samuel how Ḥiyya bar Rav had done this and that wrong thing. So Samuel asked Rav Huna why he had not told Ḥiyya bar Rav to his face. Rav Huna replied that he did not want to put the son of Rav to shame (and thus chose insincere forbearance over honest rebuke).[Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b](https://www.sefaria.org/Arakhin.16b).",
"The Gemara discussed how far one should reprove another. Rav said that one should reprove until the one reproved strikes the reprover. Samuel said that one should reprove until the one reproved *curses* the reprover. Rabbi Johanan said that one should reprove only until the one reproved *rebukes* the reprover. The Gemara noted a similar dispute among [Tannaim](/wiki/Tannaim \"Tannaim\"). [Rabbi Eliezer](/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus \"Eliezer ben Hurcanus\") said until the one reproved strikes the reprover. [Rabbi Joshua](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah \"Joshua ben Hananiah\") said until the one reproved curses the reprove. [Ben Azzai](/wiki/Simeon_ben_Azzai \"Simeon ben Azzai\") said until the one reproved rebukes the reprover. Rav Naḥman bar Isaac said that all three cited 1 Samuel 20:30 to support their positions. 1 Samuel 20:30 says: \"Then [Saul](/wiki/Saul \"Saul\")'s anger was kindled against [Jonathan](/wiki/David_and_Jonathan \"David and Jonathan\") and he said to him: ‘You son of perverse rebellion, do not I know that you have chosen the son of [Jesse](/wiki/Jesse_%28biblical_figure%29 \"Jesse (biblical figure)\") ([David](/wiki/David \"David\")) to your own shame, and to the shame of your mother's nakedness?'\" And shortly thereafter, 1 Samuel 20:33 says: \"And Saul cast his spear at him to smite him.\" Rabbi Eliezer said, \"until the one reproved strikes\" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says \"to smite him.\" Rabbi Joshua said, \"until the one reproved curses\" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says: \"to your own shame and to the shame of your mother's nakedness.\" Ben Azzai said, \"until the one reproved rebukes\" because 1 Samuel 20:30 says: \"Then Saul's anger was kindled.\" The Gemara asked how Ben Azzai, who said \"until the one reproved rebukes,\" explained how 1 Samuel 20:33 also mentions beating and cursing. The Gemara reasoned that Jonathan risked his life even further (and rebuked even more than required) because of his great love of David.",
"[Rabbi Nathan](/wiki/Nathan_the_Babylonian \"Nathan the Babylonian\") cautioned, however, that one should not reprove another about a fault that one has oneself. Thus the proverb runs: If there is a case of hanging in a person's family record, one should not even ask that person to hang up a fish.[Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_59.html#PARTb).",
"And Rabbi Il'a said in the name of Rabbi Eleazar son of Rabbi Simeon that just as one is obliged to say words of reproof that will be accepted, so one is obliged *not* to say words of reproof that will *not* be accepted. Rabbi Abba said that it is a duty to forgo reproof that will not be accepted, as Proverbs 9:8 says: \"Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you.\"[Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 65b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yevamot.65b).",
"Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"You shall not take vengeance,\" the [Sifra](/wiki/Sifra \"Sifra\") defined the extent of the term \"vengeance.\" The Sifra taught that the term \"vengeance\" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's sickle, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's spade, and the first declines to lend it because the second did not lend the second's sickle. And reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"You shall not . . . bear any grudge,\" the Sifra defined the extent of the term \"grudge.\" The Sifra taught that the term \"grudge\" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's spade, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's sickle, and the first consents to lend the sickle but taunts, \"I am not like you, for you did not lend me your spade, but here, take the sickle!\"Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶¶ 200:3:4–5; see also [Babylonian Talmud Yoma 23a](https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.23a.1).",
"Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"You shall not take vengeance or bear any grudge against the sons of your own people,\" the Jerusalem Talmud asked what a practical illustration would be. The Gemara answered: If one was cutting meat, and the knife in one hand cut the other hand, would the person then go and cut the hand that held the knife?Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4\\.",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|right\\|Hillel (sculpture at the [Knesset](/wiki/Knesset \"Knesset\") Menorah, Jerusalem)](/wiki/File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG \"Knesset Menorah P5200009 Hilel.JPG\")\nOnce a [gentile](/wiki/Gentile \"Gentile\") came before [Shammai](/wiki/Shammai \"Shammai\") and said, \"I will [convert to Judaism](/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism \"Conversion to Judaism\"), on the condition that you teach me the whole Torah while I stand on one foot.\" Shammai pushed him away with a builder's ruler. When the gentile repeated his challenge before [Hillel](/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder \"Hillel the Elder\"), Hillel said to him (paraphrasing Leviticus 19:18\\), \"What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah, and the rest is the explanation—go and learn it.\"[Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 31a](https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat.31a).",
"The Sifra reported that Rabbi Akiva taught that the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"you shall love your neighbor as yourself,\" state the encompassing principle of the Torah. But Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, \"This is the book of the generations of Adam,\" state a still more encompassing principle.Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3:7; see also Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4\\. Similarly, a Midrash reported that Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, \"This is the book of the descendants of Adam,\" teach a great principle of the Torah. But Rabbi Akiva replied that the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"you shall love your neighbor as yourself,\" teach an even greater principle. Hence, one must not say, \"Since I have been put to shame, let my neighbor be put to shame.\" And [Rabbi Tanhuma](/wiki/Tanhuma_bar_Abba \"Tanhuma bar Abba\") taught that those who do so must know Whom they put to shame, for Genesis 1:27 reports of humankind, \"In the likeness of God made He him.\"[Genesis Rabbah 24:7](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n251/mode/1up).",
"The Gemara reported that a dilemma was raised before the Sages: Could a child operate on his parent? Would the child thus be liable for wounding the parent? Rav Mattana quoted Leviticus 19:18, \"And you shall love your neighbor as yourself,\" and reasoned that just as people would want others to heal them when the need arises, they must heal others when the need arises. It is prohibited for one to do to others only those actions that one would not want done to oneself. Therefore, it is permitted for one to heal a parent even if the procedure entails wounding the parent.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 84b](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.84b.13).",
"Rav Naḥman said in the name of Rabbah bar Abbuha that Leviticus 19:18 requires that even when executing a person, one must choose for the condemned an easy death.[Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 37b](http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_37.html#PARTb), [Sanhedrin 45a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_45.html).",
"And other Rabbis counseled that Leviticus 19:18 prohibits taking actions that would make one's spouse unattractive. Thus Rav Judah said in the name of Rav that Leviticus 19:18 requires a man not to become engaged to a woman before he sees her, lest he subsequently see something in her that might make her repulsive to him.[Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 41a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.41a). Similarly, [Rav Hisda](/wiki/Rav_Chisda \"Rav Chisda\") taught that Leviticus 19:18 prohibited one from engaging in marital relations during the daytime, and Abaye explained that this was because one might observe something that should make one's spouse repulsive.[Babylonian Talmud Niddah 17a](http://www.halakhah.com/niddah/niddah_17.html).",
"Tractate [Kilayim](/wiki/Kil%27ayim_%28tractate%29 \"Kil'ayim (tractate)\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of mixing plants, cloth, and animals in Leviticus 19:19\\.[Mishnah Kilayim 1:1–9:10](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Kilayim.1).",
"Reading Leviticus 18:4, \"My ordinances ({{Script/Hebrew\\|מִשְׁפָּטַי}}, *mishpatai*) shall you do, and My statutes ({{Script/Hebrew\\|חֻקֹּתַי}}, *chukotai*) shall you keep,\" the Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the \"ordinances\" ({{Script/Hebrew\\|מִשְׁפָּטִים}}, *mishpatim*) were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And \"statutes\" ({{Script/Hebrew\\|חֻקִּים}}, *chukim*) were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to wool\\-linen mixtures ({{Script/Hebrew\\|שַׁעַטְנֵז}}, *[shatnez](/wiki/Shatnez \"Shatnez\")*, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\), release from levirate marriage ({{Script/Hebrew\\|חליצה}}, *[chalitzah](/wiki/Halizah \"Halizah\")*, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10\\), purification of the person with *[tzaraat](/wiki/Tzaraath \"Tzaraath\")* (in Leviticus 14\\), and the [scapegoat](/wiki/Scapegoat \"Scapegoat\") (in Leviticus 16\\). So that people do not think these \"ordinances\" ({{Script/Hebrew\\|מִשְׁפָּטִים}}, *mishpatim*) to be empty acts, in Leviticus 18:4, God says, \"I am the Lord,\" indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.[Babylonian Talmud Yoma 67b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.67b). The Sifra reported the same discussion, and added eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8\\) and purification of a person affected by skin disease ({{Script/Hebrew\\|מְּצֹרָע}}, *[metzora](/wiki/Tzaraath \"Tzaraath\")*, regulated in Leviticus 13–14\\).Sifra, Aharei Mot, pereq 13, ¶ 194:2:11\\. Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Evil Inclination criticizes four laws as without logical basis, and Scripture uses the expression \"statute\" (*chuk*) in connection with each: the laws of (1\\) a [brother's wife](/wiki/Levirate_marriage \"Levirate marriage\") (in Deuteronomy 25:5–10\\), (2\\) mingled kinds (in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\), (3\\) the [scapegoat](/wiki/Scapegoat \"Scapegoat\") (in Leviticus 16\\), and (4\\) the [red cow](/wiki/Red_heifer \"Red heifer\") (in Numbers 19\\).[Numbers Rabbah](/wiki/Numbers_Rabbah \"Numbers Rabbah\") 19:5\\.",
"Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool\\-linen mixture ({{Script/Hebrew\\|שַׁעַטְנֵז}}, *shatnez*, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\), eat pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8\\), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by Leviticus 18 and 20\\), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in Leviticus 20:26, God says, \"I have separated you from the nations to be mine.\" So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 9, ¶ 207:2:13\\.",
"[Hanina ben Hakinai](/wiki/Hanina_ben_Hakinai \"Hanina ben Hakinai\") employed the prohibition of Leviticus 19:19 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1\\) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10\\) (2 and 3\\) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4\\) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9\\), (5\\) during a [Sabbatical year](/wiki/Shmita \"Shmita\") (in violation of Leviticus 25:4\\), (6\\) on a Festival\\-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7\\), (7\\) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1\\) and (8\\) a Nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6\\) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.[Mishnah Makkot 3:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Makkot/Chapter_3/9 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Makkot/Chapter 3/9\"); [Babylonian Talmud Makkot 21b](https://www.sefaria.org/Makkot.21b).",
"Tractate [Orlah](/wiki/Orlah_%28Talmud%29 \"Orlah (Talmud)\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the prohibition in Leviticus 19:23–25 against using the fruits of a tree in its first three years.[Mishnah Orlah 1:1–3:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Orlah \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Orlah\"); Tosefta Orlah 1:1–8; [Jerusalem Talmud Orlah 1a–42a](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Orlah).",
"[Rav Zeira](/wiki/Rav_Zeira \"Rav Zeira\") counted five kinds of *[orlah](/wiki/Orlah \"Orlah\")* (things uncircumcised) in the world: (1\\) uncircumcised ears (as in Jeremiah 6:10\\), (2\\) uncircumcised lips (as in Exodus 6:12\\), (3\\) uncircumcised hearts (as in Deuteronomy 10:16 and Jeremiah 9:26\\), (4\\) uncircumcised flesh (as in Genesis 17:14\\), and (5\\) uncircumcised trees (as in Leviticus 19:23\\). Rav Zeira taught that all the nations are uncircumcised in each of the first four ways, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart, in that their hearts do not allow them to do God's will. And Rav Zeira taught that in the future, God will take away from Israel the uncircumcision of their hearts, and they will not harden their stubborn hearts anymore before their Creator, as Ezekiel 36:26 says, \"And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you an heart of flesh,\" and Genesis 17:11 says, \"And you shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin.\"[Pirke De\\-Rabbi Eliezer](/wiki/Pirke_De-Rabbi_Eliezer \"Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer\"), chapter 29; see also [Genesis Rabbah 46:5](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n439/mode/2up) (Rabbi Akiva counted four kinds of *orlah*).",
"Judah ben Padiah noted [Adam's](/wiki/Adam_%28Bible%29 \"Adam (Bible)\") frailty, for he could not remain loyal even for a single hour to God's charge that he not eat from the [Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil](/wiki/Tree_of_Knowledge_of_Good_and_Evil \"Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil\"), yet in accordance with Leviticus 19:23, Adam's descendants the Israelites waited three years for the fruits of a tree.[Genesis Rabbah 21:7](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n223/mode/2up).",
"The Mishnah taught that the commandments of Leviticus 19:27 not to round off the side\\-growth of one's head and not to destroy the corners of one's beard are two of only three exceptions to the general rule that every commandment that is a prohibition (whether time\\-dependent or not) governs both men and women. The other exception is the commandment of Leviticus 21:1 for [Kohanim](/wiki/Kohen \"Kohen\") not to become ritually impure for the dead.[Mishnah Kiddushin 1:7](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Kiddushin/Chapter_1/7 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Kiddushin/Chapter 1/7\"); [Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 29a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.29a).",
"[Rabbi Eliezer the Great](/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus \"Eliezer ben Hurcanus\") taught that the Torah warns against wronging a stranger in 36, or others say 46, places (including Leviticus 19:33–34\\).See, e.g., {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Exodus\\|22:20\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Exodus\\|23:9\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:33–34\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|1:16\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|10:17–19\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|24:14–15\\|HE}} and [17–22](http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0524.htm#17); and {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|27:19\\|HE}}. The Gemara went on to cite Rabbi Nathan's interpretation of Exodus 22:20, \"You shall neither wrong a stranger, nor oppress him; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt,\" to teach that one must not taunt another about a flaw that one has oneself.[Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_59.html#PARTb).",
"Rabbi [Ḥiyya](/wiki/Hiyya_the_Great \"Hiyya the Great\") taught that the words of Leviticus 19:35, \"You shall do no unrighteousness in judgment,\" apply to judgment in law. But a Midrash noted that Leviticus 19:15 already mentioned judgment in law and questioned why Leviticus 19:35 would state the same proposition again and why Leviticus 19:35 uses the words, \"in judgment, in measures.\" The Midrash deduced that Leviticus 19:35 teaches that a person who measures is called a judge, and one who falsifies measurements is called by the five names \"unrighteous,\" \"hated,\" \"repulsive,\" \"accursed,\" and an \"abomination,\" and is the cause of these five evils. Rabbi Banya said in the name of [Rav Huna](/wiki/Rav_Huna \"Rav Huna\") that the government comes and attacks that generation whose measures are false. The Midrash found support for this from [Proverbs](/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs \"Book of Proverbs\") 11:1, \"A false balance is an abomination to the Lord,\" which is followed by Proverbs 11:2, \"When presumption comes, then comes shame.\" Reading [Micah](/wiki/Book_of_Micah \"Book of Micah\") 6:11, \"Shall I be pure with wicked balances?\" [Rabbi Berekiah](/wiki/Rabbi_Berekiah \"Rabbi Berekiah\") said in the name of Rabbi Abba that it is impossible for a generation whose measures are false to be meritorious, for Micah 6:11 continues, \"And with a bag of deceitful weights\" (showing that their holdings would be merely illusory). Rabbi Levi taught that Moses also hinted to Israel that a generation with false measures would be attacked. Deuteronomy 25:13–14 warns, \"You shall not have in your bag diverse weights . . . you shall not have in your house diverse measures.\" But if one does, one will be attacked, as Deuteronomy 25:16, reports, \"For all who do such things, even all who do unrighteously, are an abomination to the Lord your God,\" and then immediately following, Deuteronomy 25:17 says, \"Remember what Amalek did to you (attacking Israel) by the way as you came forth out of Egypt.\"[Ruth Rabbah](/wiki/Ruth_Rabbah \"Ruth Rabbah\") 1:2\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|225px\\|Offering to Molech (illustration from the 1897 *[Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us](/wiki/commons:Category:Bible_Pictures_with_brief_descriptions_by_Charles_Foster \"Category:Bible Pictures with brief descriptions by Charles Foster\")* by Charles Foster)](/wiki/File:Foster_Bible_Pictures_0074-1_Offering_to_Molech.jpg \"Foster Bible Pictures 0074-1 Offering to Molech.jpg\")",
"### Leviticus chapter 20",
"Mishnah Sanhedrin[Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:7](http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sanhedrin.7.7); [Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 64a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_64.html). and Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 64a–b](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_64.html). interpreted the laws prohibiting passing one's child through the fire to [Molech](/wiki/Moloch \"Moloch\") in Leviticus 18:21 and 20:1–5 and Deuteronomy 18:10\\.",
"The Mishnah asked about the command of Leviticus 20:15–16 that the animal be killed: If the person had sinned, in what way did the animal sin? The Mishnah concluded that Scripture ordered it killed because it enticed the person to sin. Alternatively, the Mishnah explained that the animal was killed so that it should not pass through the streets provoking people to say, \"This is the animal on account of which so and so was stoned.\"[Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:4](http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sanhedrin.7.4); [Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 54a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_54.html).",
"[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey (illustration from Henry Davenport Northrop's 1894 *Treasures of the Bible*)](/wiki/File:Northrop_A_Land_Flowing_with_Milk_and_Honey.jpg \"Northrop A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey.jpg\")\nThe Gemara reported a number of Rabbis' reports of how the Land of Israel did indeed flow with \"milk and honey,\" as described in Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Leviticus 20:24, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20\\. Once when Rami bar Ezekiel visited [Bnei Brak](/wiki/Bnei_Brak \"Bnei Brak\"), he saw goats grazing under fig trees while honey was flowing from the figs, and milk dripped from the goats mingling with the fig honey, causing him to remark that it was indeed a land flowing with milk and honey. Rabbi Jacob ben Dostai said that it is about three miles from [Lod](/wiki/Lod \"Lod\") to [Ono](/wiki/Ono%2C_Benjamin \"Ono, Benjamin\"), and once he rose up early in the morning and waded all that way up to his ankles in fig honey. Resh Lakish said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey of [Sepphoris](/wiki/Sepphoris \"Sepphoris\") extend over an area of sixteen miles by sixteen miles. Rabbah bar Bar Hana said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey in all the Land of Israel and the total area was equal to an area of twenty\\-two [parasangs](/wiki/Parasang \"Parasang\") by six parasangs.[Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 111b–12a](http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_111.html#PARTb).",
""
] |
### Leviticus chapter 19
Rabbi Judah ben Pazzi deduced from the juxtaposition of the sexual prohibitions of Leviticus 18 and the exhortation to holiness in Leviticus 19:2 that those who fence themselves against sexual immorality are called holy, and Rabbi [Joshua ben Levi](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Levi "Joshua ben Levi") taught that wherever one finds a fence against sexual immorality, one will also find sanctity.[Leviticus Rabbah](/wiki/Leviticus_Rabbah "Leviticus Rabbah") 24:6\.
A [Midrash](/wiki/Midrash "Midrash") interpreted God's message to Israel in Leviticus 19:1–2 to mean: "My children, as I am separate, so you be separate; as I am holy, so you be holy."Leviticus Rabbah 24:4\.
Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness in Leviticus 19:1–2 and 20:7 to the case of a king who rewarded his drunkard watchmen twice as much as his sober watchmen. Similarly, God twice exhorted the Israelites to holiness because the Evil Inclination sways people like drunkards, whereas the Evil Inclination does not exist among celestial beings. Similarly, Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness to the case of the citizens who made three crowns for the king, and the king placed one on his own head and two on the heads of his sons. Similarly, every day the celestial beings crown God with three sanctities, calling him, in the words of [Isaiah](/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah "Book of Isaiah") 6:3, "Holy, holy, holy." God then places one crown of holiness on God's own head and two crowns of holiness on the head of Israel.Leviticus Rabbah 24:8\.
[Rabbi Ḥiyya](/wiki/Rabbi_Hiyya "Rabbi Hiyya") taught that the section beginning at Leviticus 19:1 was spoken in the presence of the whole Israelite people, because it includes most of the essential principles of the Torah. And Rabbi Levi said it was because it includes each of the [Ten Commandments](/wiki/Ten_Commandments "Ten Commandments"), noting that: (1\) Exodus 20:2 says, "I am the Lord your God," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "I am the Lord your God"; (2\) Exodus 20:2–3 says, "You shall have no other gods," and Leviticus 19:4 says, "Nor make to yourselves molten gods"; (3\) Exodus 20:7 says, "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain," and Leviticus 19:12 says, "And you shall not swear by My name falsely"; (4\) Exodus 20:8 says, "Remember the Sabbath day," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "And you shall keep My Sabbaths"; (5\) Exodus 20:12 says, "Honor your father and your mother," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "You shall fear every man his mother, and his father"; (6\) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not murder," and Leviticus 19:16 says, "Neither shall you stand idly by the blood of your neighbor"; (7\) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not commit adultery," and Leviticus 20:10 says, "Both the adulterer and the adulteress shall surely be put to death; (8\) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not steal," and Leviticus 19:11 says, "You shall not steal"; (9\) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not bear false witness," and Leviticus 19:16 says, "You shall not go up and down as a talebearer"; and (10\) Exodus 20:14 says, "You shall not covet . . . anything that is your neighbor's," and Leviticus 19:18 says, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself."Leviticus Rabbah 24:5\.
A [Baraita](/wiki/Baraita "Baraita") cited the words of Leviticus 19:3, "You shall fear every man his mother and his father, and you shall keep My Sabbaths," to teach that one's duty to honor one's parent does not supersede one's duty to keep the Sabbath.[Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 5b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yevamot.5b).
[Rabbi Shimon](/wiki/Shimon_bar_Yochai "Shimon bar Yochai") noted that everywhere else, Scripture mentions a father's honor before the mother's honor.E.g., {{Bibleverse\|\|Exodus\|20:11\|HE}} (20:12 in NJSP) {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Exodus\|21:15\|HE}}, and {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Exodus\|21:17\|HE}}, and {{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|5:16 and {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Deuteronomy\|27:16\|HE}}. But Leviticus 19:3 mentions the mother first to teach that one should honor both parents equally.[Mishnah Keritot 6:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Kodashim/Tractate_Keritot/Chapter_6/9 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Keritot/Chapter 6/9"); [Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a](https://www.sefaria.org/Keritot.28a); see also [Genesis Rabbah](/wiki/Genesis_Rabbah "Genesis Rabbah") [1:15](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n60/mode/1up). The Sages, however, said that the father comes before the mother in all places, because both the son and the mother are bound to honor the father.[Mishnah Keritot 6:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Kodashim/Tractate_Keritot/Chapter_6/9 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Keritot/Chapter 6/9"); [Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a](https://www.sefaria.org/Keritot.28a).
It was taught in a Baraita that [Rabbi](/wiki/Judah_the_Prince "Judah the Prince") said that God knows that a son honors his mother more than his father, because the mother wins him over with words. Therefore, (in Exodus 20:12\) God put the honor of the father before that of the mother. God knows that a son fears his father more than his mother, because the father teaches him Torah. Therefore, (in Leviticus 19:3\) God put the fear of the mother before that of the father.[Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 30b–31a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.30b).
Noting that as Leviticus 19:3 commands, "You shall fear your father and mother," and Deuteronomy 6:13 commands, "The Lord your God you shall fear and you shall serve," the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Scripture likens the fear of parents to the fear of God. As Exodus 20:12 commands, "Honor your father and your mother," and [Proverbs](/wiki/Proverbs "Proverbs") 3:9 directs, "Honor the Lord with your substance," Scripture likens the honor due to parents to that due to God. And as Exodus 21:17 commands, "He that curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death," and Leviticus 24:15 commands, "Whoever curses his God shall bear his sin," Scripture likens cursing parents to cursing God. But the Baraita conceded that with respect to striking (which Exodus 21:15 addresses regarding parents) that it is certainly impossible (with respect to God). The Baraita concluded that these comparisons between parents and God are only logical, since the three (God, the mother, and the father) are partners in creation of the child. For the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are three partners in the creation of a person—God, the father, and the mother. When one honors one's father and mother, God considers it as if God had dwelt among them and they had honored God. And a [Tanna](/wiki/Tannaim "Tannaim") taught before [Rav Nachman](/wiki/Rav_Nachman "Rav Nachman") that when one vexes one's father and mother, God considers it right not to dwell among them, for had God dwelt among them, they would have vexed God.
Tractate [Shabbat](/wiki/Shabbat_%28Talmud%29 "Shabbat (Talmud)") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, [Jerusalem Talmud](/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud "Jerusalem Talmud"), and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbath in Exodus 16:23 and 29; 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:13–17; 35:2–3; Leviticus 19:3; 23:3; Numbers 15:32–36; and Deuteronomy 5:12\.[Mishnah Shabbat 1:1–24:5](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Moed/Tractate_Shabbat "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Moed/Tractate Shabbat"); Tosefta Shabbat 1:1–17:29; [Jerusalem Talmud Shabbat 1a–113b](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shabbat); [Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 2a–157b](https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat).
A Midrash asked to which commandment Deuteronomy 11:22 refers when it says, "For if you shall diligently keep all *this commandment* that I command you, to do it, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all His ways, and to cleave to Him, then will the Lord drive out all these nations from before you, and you shall dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourselves." Rabbi Levi said that "this commandment" refers to the recitation of the *Shema* (Deuteronomy 6:4–9\), but the Rabbis said that it refers to the Sabbath, which is equal to all the precepts of the Torah.Deuteronomy Rabbah 4:4\.
The [Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva](/wiki/Alphabet_of_Rabbi_Akiva "Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva") taught that when God was giving Israel the Torah, God told them that if they accepted the Torah and observed God's commandments, then God would give them for eternity a most precious thing that God possessed—the [World To Come](/wiki/Jewish_eschatology "Jewish eschatology"). When Israel asked to see in this world an example of the World To Come, God replied that the Sabbath is an example of the World To Come.Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva. Circa 700\. Quoted in [Abraham Joshua Heschel](/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel "Abraham Joshua Heschel"). *The Sabbath*, page 73\. New York: [Farrar, Straus and Giroux](/wiki/Farrar%2C_Straus_and_Giroux "Farrar, Straus and Giroux"), 1951\.
[thumb\|left\|300px\|*[Gleaners](/wiki/Gleaning "Gleaning")* (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by [James Tissot](/wiki/James_Tissot "James Tissot"))](/wiki/File:Tissot_Gleaners.jpg "Tissot Gleaners.jpg")
Tractate [Peah](/wiki/Pe%27ah "Pe'ah") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the harvest of the corner of the field and gleanings to be given to the poor in Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–22\.[Mishnah Peah 1:1–8:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah"); [Tosefta Peah 1:1–4:21](https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Peah); [Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a–73b](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Peah).
The Mishnah and the Tosefta taught that the Torah sets no upper limit for the donation of the corners of one's field to the poor.[Mishnah Peah 1:1](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_1/1 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 1/1"); [Tosefta Peah 1:1](https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Peah.1.1); [Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Peah.1.1.1). And the Mishnah also taught that one should not make the amount left to the poor less than one\-sixtieth of the entire crop. And even though no definite amount is given, the amount given should accord with the size of the field, the number of poor people, and the extent of the yield.[Mishnah Peah 1:2](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_1/2 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 1/2").
[thumb\|right\|250px\|*The Gleaners* (engraving by [Gustave Doré](/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9 "Gustave Doré") from the 1865 *La Sainte Bible*)](/wiki/File:Dore_Bible_The_Gleaners.jpg "Dore Bible The Gleaners.jpg")
Rabbi Eliezer taught that one who cultivates land in which one can plant a quarter *[kav](/wiki/Hebrew_measurements%23Dry_measure "Hebrew measurements#Dry measure")* of seed is obligated to give a corner to the poor. [Rabbi Joshua](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah "Joshua ben Hananiah") said land that yields two *[seah](/wiki/Seah_%28volume%29 "Seah (volume)")* of grain. [Rabbi Tarfon](/wiki/Rabbi_Tarfon "Rabbi Tarfon") said land of at least six handbreadths by six handbreadths. Rabbi Judah ben Betera said land that requires two strokes of a sickle to harvest, and the law is as he spoke. [Rabbi Akiva](/wiki/Rabbi_Akiva "Rabbi Akiva") said that one who cultivates land of any size is obligated to give a corner to the poor and the [first fruits](/wiki/First_Fruits "First Fruits").[Mishnah Peah 3:6](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_3 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 3").
The Mishnah taught that the poor could enter a field to collect three times a day—in the morning, at midday, and in the afternoon. Rabban [Gamliel](/wiki/Gamaliel "Gamaliel") taught that they said this only so that landowners should not reduce the number of times that the poor could enter. Rabbi Akiva taught that they said this only so that landowners should not increase the number of times that the poor had to enter. The landowners of Beit Namer used to harvest along a rope and allowed the poor to collect a corner from every row.[Mishnah Peah 4:5](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_4 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 4").
The Mishnah taught that one who does not allow the poor to glean, or who allows one and not another, or who helps only one, is stealing from the poor. The Mishnah taught that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not encroach upon the border of those who go up.”[Mishnah Peah 5:6](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.5.6).
The Gemara noted that Leviticus 19:9 includes a superfluous term “by reaping” and reasoned that this must teach that the obligation to leave for the poor applies to crops that the owner uproots as well as to crops that the owner cuts. And the Gemara reasoned that the superfluous words “When you reap” in Leviticus 23:22 teach that the obligation also extends to one who picks a crop by hand.[Babylonian Talmud Chullin 137a](https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.137a.14).
Noting that the discussion of gifts to the poor in Leviticus 23:22 appears between discussions of the festivals—Passover and Shavuot on one side, and Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur on the other—Rabbi Avardimos ben Rabbi Yossi said that this teaches that people who give immature clusters of grapes (as in Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21\), the forgotten sheaf (as in Deuteronomy 24:19\), the corner of the field (as in Leviticus 19:9 and 23:22\), and the poor tithe (as in Deuteronomy 14:28 and 26:12\) is accounted as if the Temple existed and they offered up their sacrifices in it. And for those who do not give to the poor, it is accounted to them as if the Temple existed and they did not offer up their sacrifices in it.[Sifra Emor chapter 13 (233:2\)](https://www.sefaria.org/Sifra%2C_Emor%2C_Chapter_13.11).
The Mishnah taught that even if a landowner said, “I am harvesting on the condition that whatever I forget I will take,” the landowner was still subject to the law of the forgotten sheaf in Leviticus 19:9–10 (and anything the landowner forgot belonged to the poor).[Mishnah Peah 6:11](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.6.11).
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Grapes](/wiki/File:Wine_grapes07.jpg "Wine grapes07.jpg")
The Mishnah defined “fallen fruit ({{Script/Hebrew\|פֶרֶט}}, *peret*)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 to mean that which falls at the time of the grape harvest. The Mishnah taught that one who left a basket under the vine when harvesting grapes was stealing from the poor. The Mishnah said that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not withdraw the border of those who go up.”[Mishnah Peah 7:3](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.7.3).
The Mishnah defined “a defective cluster ({{Script/Hebrew\|עוֹלֶלֶת}}, *olelet*)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21 to mean any cluster that had neither a shoulder nor a dangling portion (but rather was entirely attached to the main stem). If the cluster had a shoulder or a dangling portion, it belonged to the property owner, but if there was a doubt, it belonged to the poor. A cluster that was attached to the joint between branches or the stem and the trunk, if it was plucked with the grape cluster, it belonged to the property owner; if not, it belonged to the poor. Rabbi Judah said that a single\-grape cluster was a cluster, but the Sages said that it was a defective cluster (and thus belonged to the poor).[Mishnah Peah 7:4](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.7.4).
The Mishnah taught that after the weakest of the poor had come and gone, everyone (regardless of poverty or wealth) was permitted to take individual stalks that fell during harvest ({{Script/Hebrew\|לֶקֶט}}, *leket*—which had to be left for the poor to glean).[Mishnah Peah 8:1](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.8.1).
The Mishnah taught that if a wife foreswore all benefit from other people, her husband could not annul his wife's vow, but she could still benefit from the gleanings, forgotten sheaves, and the corner of the field that Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–21 commanded farmers to leave for the poor.[Mishnah Nedarim 11:3](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Nedarim/Chapter_11/3 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Nedarim/Chapter 11/3").
[Rabbi Josiah](/wiki/Rabbi_Josiah "Rabbi Josiah") taught that we learn the formal prohibition against [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping") from the words "You shall not steal" in Exodus 20:13 (since Deuteronomy 22:7 and Exodus 21:16 merely state the *punishment* for abduction). [Rabbi Johanan](/wiki/Yochanan_bar_Nafcha "Yochanan bar Nafcha") taught that we learn it from Leviticus 25:42, "They shall not be sold as bondsmen." The [Gemara](/wiki/Gemara "Gemara") harmonized the two positions by concluding that Rabbi Josiah referred to the prohibition for abduction, while Rabbi Johanan referred to the prohibition for selling a kidnapped person. Similarly, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Exodus 20:13, "You shall not steal," refers to the stealing of human beings. To the potential objection that Exodus 20:13 refers to property [theft](/wiki/Theft "Theft"), the Baraita responded that one of the thirteen principles by which we interpret the Torah is that a law is interpreted by its general context, and the Ten Commandments speak of capital crimes (like murder and adultery). (Thus "You shall not steal" must refer to a capital crime and thus to kidnapping.) Another Baraita taught that the words "You shall not steal" in Leviticus 19:11 refer to theft of property. To the potential objection that Leviticus 19:11 refers to the theft of human beings, the Baraita responded that the general context of Leviticus 19:10–15 speaks of money matters; therefore Leviticus 19:11 must refer to monetary theft.[Babylonian Talmud Talmud Sanhedrin 86a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_86.html); see also [Mekhilta](/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Ishmael "Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael") Bahodesh 8\.
Tractates [Nedarim](/wiki/Nedarim "Nedarim") and [Shevuot](/wiki/Shevu%27ot "Shevu'ot") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of vows and oaths in [Exodus](/wiki/Book_of_Exodus "Book of Exodus") 20:7, 5:1–10 and 19:12, Numbers 30:2–17, and [Deuteronomy](/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy "Book of Deuteronomy") 23:24\.[Mishnah Nedarim 1:1–11:11](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Nedarim "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Nedarim"); Tosefta Nedarim 1:1–7:8; [Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 1a–](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Nedarim); [Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 2a–91b](https://www.sefaria.org/Nedarim); [Mishnah Shevuot 1:1–8:6](/wiki/s:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Shevuot "Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Shevuot"); Tosefta Shevuot 1:1–6:7; [Jerusalem Talmud Shevuot 1a–](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shevuot); [Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 2a–49b](https://www.sefaria.org/Shevuot.2a).
The Mishnah interpreted Leviticus 19:13 and Deuteronomy 24:14–15 to teach that a worker engaged by the day could collect the worker's wages all the following night. If engaged by the night, the worker could collect the wages all the following day. If engaged by the hour, the worker could collect the wages all that day and night. If engaged by the week, month, year, or 7\-year period, if the worker's time expired during the day, the worker could collect the wages all that day. If the worker's time expired during the night, the worker could collect the wages all that night and the following day.[Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:11](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Bava_Metzia/Chapter_9/11 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Bava Metzia/Chapter 9/11"); [Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 110b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_110.html#PARTb).
The Mishnah taught that the hire of persons, animals, or utensils were all subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that "in the same day you shall give him his hire" and the law of Leviticus 19:13 that "the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning." The employer became liable only when the worker or vendor demanded payment from the employer. Otherwise, the employer did not infringe the law. If the employer gave the worker or vendor a draft on a shopkeeper or a money changer, the employer complied with the law. A worker who claimed the wages within the set time could collect payment if the worker merely swore that the employer had not yet paid. But if the set time had passed, the worker's oath was insufficient to collect payment. Yet if the worker had witnesses that the worker had demanded payment (within the set time), the worker could still swear and receive payment.[Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:12](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Bava_Metzia/Chapter_9/12 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Bava Metzia/Chapter 9/12"); [Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 111a](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_111.html).
The Mishnah taught that the employer of a resident alien was subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that "in the same day you shall give him his hire" (as Deuteronomy 24:14 refers to the stranger), but not to the law of Leviticus 19:13 that "the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning."
[Abaye](/wiki/Abaye "Abaye") taught that the rule that a community should mark graves may be derived from Leviticus 19:14, "And put not a stumbling\-block before the blind."[Babylonian Talmud Moed Katan 5a](https://www.sefaria.org/Moed_Katan.5a).
The Mishnah taught that one who pursues a neighbor with intent to kill must be saved from sin even at the cost of the pursuer's life.[Mishnah Sanhedrin 8:7](http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sanhedrin.8.7); [Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.73a.2). The Gemara taught that it is from Leviticus 19:16, “You shall not stand idly by the blood of another,” that the Sages in a Baraita derived that where one person is pursuing another with intent to kill, the pursued person should be saved even at the cost of the pursuer's life. The Gemara also cited Leviticus 19:16 for a Baraita that taught that one is obligated to try to save another whom one sees drowning in a river, or being dragged away by a wild animal, or being attacked by bandits. The Gemara further taught that the verse “Do not stand by the blood of another” teaches that one must even hire others to help rescue a person one sees to be jeopardy, and one transgresses a prohibition if one does not do so.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.73a.2).
In a Baraita, the Rabbis reasoned that had Leviticus 19:17 said simply, "You shall not hate your brother," one might have believed that one should simply not smite, slap, or curse him; therefore Leviticus 19:17 states "in your heart" to cover intentions as well as actions. Scripture speaks of hatred in the heart.[Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b](https://www.sefaria.org/Arakhin.16b); see also [Sifra](/wiki/Sifra "Sifra"), Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3\.
Thus, in Leviticus 19:17, the heart hates. A Midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible.[Ecclesiastes Rabbah](/wiki/Ecclesiastes_Rabbah "Ecclesiastes Rabbah") 1:16\. The heart speaks,[Ecclesiastes](/wiki/Ecclesiastes "Ecclesiastes") {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Ecclesiastes\|1:16\|HE}}. sees, hears,[1 Kings](/wiki/Books_of_Kings "Books of Kings") {{Bibleverse\-nb\|1\|Kings\|3:9\|HE}}. walks,{{Bibleverse\|2\|Kings\|5:26\|HE}}. falls,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Samuel\|17:32\|HE}}. stands,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Ezekiel\|22:14\|HE}}. rejoices,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|16:9\|HE}}. cries,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Lamentations\|2:18\|HE}}. is comforted,{{Bibleverse\|\|Isaiah\|40:2\|HE}}. is troubled,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|15:10\|HE}}. becomes hardened,{{Bibleverse\|\|Exodus\|9:12\|HE}}. grows faint,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|20:3\|HE}}. grieves,{{Bibleverse\|\|Genesis\|6:6\|HE}}. fears,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|28:67\|HE}}. can be broken,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|51:19\|HE}}. becomes proud,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|8:14\|HE}}. rebels,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Jeremiah\|5:23\|HE}}. invents,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Kings\|12:33\|HE}}. cavils,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|29:18\|HE}}. overflows,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|45:2\|HE}}. devises,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|19:21\|HE}}. desires,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|21:3\|HE}}. goes astray,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|7:25\|HE}}. lusts,{{Bibleverse\|\|Numbers\|15:39\|HE}}. is refreshed,{{Bibleverse\|\|Genesis\|18:5\|HE}}. can be stolen,{{Bibleverse\|\|Genesis\|31:20\|HE}}. is humbled,{{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|26:41\|HE}}. is enticed,{{Bibleverse\|\|Genesis\|34:3\|HE}}. errs,{{Bibleverse\|\|Isaiah\|21:4\|HE}}. trembles,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Samuel\|4:13\|HE}}. is awakened,[Song of Songs](/wiki/Song_of_Songs "Song of Songs") {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Song\|5:2\|HE}}. loves,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|6:5\|HE}}. envies,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|23:17\|HE}}. is searched,{{Bibleverse\|\|Jeremiah\|17:10\|HE}}. is rent,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Joel\|2:13\|HE}}. meditates,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|49:4\|HE}}. is like a fire,{{Bibleverse\|\|Jeremiah\|20:9\|HE}}. is like a stone,{{Bibleverse\|\|Ezekiel\|36:26\|HE}}. turns in repentance,{{Bibleverse\|2\|Kings\|23:25\|HE}}. becomes hot,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|19:6\|HE}}. dies,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Samuel\|25:37\|HE}}. melts,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Joshua\|7:5\|HE}}. takes in words,{{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|6:6\|HE}}. is susceptible to fear,{{Bibleverse\|\|Jeremiah\|32:40\|HE}}. gives thanks,{{Bibleverse\|\|Psalm\|111:1\|HE}}. covets,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|6:25\|HE}}. becomes hard,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|28:14\|HE}}. makes merry,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Judges\|16:25\|HE}}. acts deceitfully,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|12:20\|HE}}. speaks from out of itself,{{Bibleverse\|1\|Samuel\|1:13\|HE}}. loves bribes,{{Bibleverse\|\|Jeremiah\|22:17\|HE}}. writes words,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|3:3\|HE}}. plans,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|6:18\|HE}}. receives commandments,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|10:8\|HE}}. acts with pride,{{Bibleverse\-lb\|\|Obadiah\|1:3\|HE}}. makes arrangements,{{Bibleverse\|\|Proverbs\|16:1\|HE}}. and aggrandizes itself.[2 Chronicles](/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles "Books of Chronicles") {{Bibleverse\-nb\|2\|Chronicles\|25:19\|HE}}.
Rabbi [Samuel bar Rav Isaac](/wiki/Samuel_bar_Isaac "Samuel bar Isaac") said that [Rav](/wiki/Abba_Arika "Abba Arika") said that one is permitted to hate another whom one sees committing a sin, as Exodus 23:5 states: "If you see the donkey of he who hates you lying under its load." But the Gemara asked whether one is permitted to hate one's fellow, as Leviticus 19:17 says, “You shall not hate your brother in your heart,” which prohibits hating one's fellow. The Gemara concluded that one is permitted to hate another for evil behavior one sees, whereas others who are unaware of these actions may not hate the other. Rav [Naḥman bar Isaac](/wiki/Rav_Nachman_bar_Yitzchak "Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak") said: Not only is this permitted, it is even a commandment to hate this other person, as Proverbs 8:13 states: "The fear of God is to hate evil."[Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 113b](https://www.sefaria.org/Pesachim.113b.4).
In a Baraita, the Rabbis deduced from the command in Leviticus 19:17 that "you shall surely rebuke your neighbor" that one is obliged to reprove a neighbor whom one observes doing something wrong. And they deduced from the emphatic words "you shall surely rebuke" that if one has rebuked one's neighbor and the neighbor does not accept the rebuke, then one must rebuke the neighbor again. But the Rabbis deduced that Leviticus 19:17 continues to say "you shall not bear sin because of him" to teach that one should not rebuke a neighbor to the neighbor's embarrassment.
Reading the report of Genesis 21:25, "And [Abraham](/wiki/Abraham "Abraham") reproved [Abimelech](/wiki/Abimelech "Abimelech")," Rabbi [Jose ben Rabbi Hanina](/wiki/Jose_b._Hanina "Jose b. Hanina") taught that reproof leads to love, as Proverbs 9:8 says, "Reprove a wise man, and he will love you." Rabbi Jose ben Hanina said that love unaccompanied by reproof is not love. And [Resh Lakish](/wiki/Shimon_ben_Lakish "Shimon ben Lakish") taught that reproof leads to peace, and thus (as Genesis 21:25 reports) "Abraham reproved Abimelech." Resh Lakish said that peace unaccompanied by reproof is not peace.[Genesis Rabbah 54:3](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n524/mode/1up).
The Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, "And they shall stumble one upon another," to mean that one will stumble through the sin of another. The Gemara concluded that all everyone is held responsible for each another.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 27b](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_27.html#PARTb). Similarly, elsewhere, the Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, "And they shall stumble one upon another," to mean that for all transgressions of the Torah, the whole world is punished. Thus the Gemara taught that all Jews stand as guarantors for one another.[Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 39a](https://www.sefaria.org/Shevuot.39a). And reading [Song of Songs](/wiki/Song_of_Songs "Song of Songs") 6:11, "I went down into the garden of nuts," to apply to Israel, a Midrash taught that just as when one takes a nut from a stack of nuts, all the rest come toppling over, so if a single Jew is smitten, all Jews feel it, as Numbers 16:22 says, "Shall one man sin, and will You be angry with all the congregation?"[Song of Songs Rabbah](/wiki/Shir_ha-Shirim_Rabbah "Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah") 6:11 \[6:26].
Rabbi [Tarfon](/wiki/Tarfon "Tarfon") wondered whether anyone in his generation could accept reproof, for if one told another, "Remove the mote from between your eyes," the other would answer, "Remove the beam from between your eyes!" Rabbi [Eleazar ben Azariah](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Azariah "Eleazar ben Azariah") wondered whether anyone in his generation knew how to *reprove*. Rabbi [Johanan ben Nuri](/wiki/Yochanan_ben_Nuri "Yochanan ben Nuri") said that he would often complain about Akiva to Rabban Gamaliel Beribbi, causing Akiva to be punished as a result, but Akiva all the more showered love upon Rabbi Johanan ben Nuri, bearing out what Proverbs 9:8 says: "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you."
Rabbi Judah the son of Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi asked his father whether it was preferable to reprove honestly or to forgo reproof out of false modesty. Rabbi Simeon answered that restraint out of true modesty is better still, for a Master said modesty is greatest of all. Thus, false modesty is also preferable, he reasoned, for [Rav Judah](/wiki/Judah_ben_Ezekiel "Judah ben Ezekiel") said in the name of Rav that one should engage in Torah study and good deeds, even if not for their own sake, because through doing good for an ulterior motive one will come to do good for its own sake. To illustrate honest reproof and forbearance out of false modesty, the Gemara told how [Rav Huna](/wiki/Rav_Huna "Rav Huna") and Ḥiyya bar Rav were sitting before Samuel, when Ḥiyya bar Rav complained about how Rav Huna was bothering him. Rav Huna undertook not to bother Ḥiyya bar Rav anymore. After Ḥiyya bar Rav left, Rav Huna told Samuel how Ḥiyya bar Rav had done this and that wrong thing. So Samuel asked Rav Huna why he had not told Ḥiyya bar Rav to his face. Rav Huna replied that he did not want to put the son of Rav to shame (and thus chose insincere forbearance over honest rebuke).[Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b](https://www.sefaria.org/Arakhin.16b).
The Gemara discussed how far one should reprove another. Rav said that one should reprove until the one reproved strikes the reprover. Samuel said that one should reprove until the one reproved *curses* the reprover. Rabbi Johanan said that one should reprove only until the one reproved *rebukes* the reprover. The Gemara noted a similar dispute among [Tannaim](/wiki/Tannaim "Tannaim"). [Rabbi Eliezer](/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus "Eliezer ben Hurcanus") said until the one reproved strikes the reprover. [Rabbi Joshua](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah "Joshua ben Hananiah") said until the one reproved curses the reprove. [Ben Azzai](/wiki/Simeon_ben_Azzai "Simeon ben Azzai") said until the one reproved rebukes the reprover. Rav Naḥman bar Isaac said that all three cited 1 Samuel 20:30 to support their positions. 1 Samuel 20:30 says: "Then [Saul](/wiki/Saul "Saul")'s anger was kindled against [Jonathan](/wiki/David_and_Jonathan "David and Jonathan") and he said to him: ‘You son of perverse rebellion, do not I know that you have chosen the son of [Jesse](/wiki/Jesse_%28biblical_figure%29 "Jesse (biblical figure)") ([David](/wiki/David "David")) to your own shame, and to the shame of your mother's nakedness?'" And shortly thereafter, 1 Samuel 20:33 says: "And Saul cast his spear at him to smite him." Rabbi Eliezer said, "until the one reproved strikes" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says "to smite him." Rabbi Joshua said, "until the one reproved curses" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says: "to your own shame and to the shame of your mother's nakedness." Ben Azzai said, "until the one reproved rebukes" because 1 Samuel 20:30 says: "Then Saul's anger was kindled." The Gemara asked how Ben Azzai, who said "until the one reproved rebukes," explained how 1 Samuel 20:33 also mentions beating and cursing. The Gemara reasoned that Jonathan risked his life even further (and rebuked even more than required) because of his great love of David.
[Rabbi Nathan](/wiki/Nathan_the_Babylonian "Nathan the Babylonian") cautioned, however, that one should not reprove another about a fault that one has oneself. Thus the proverb runs: If there is a case of hanging in a person's family record, one should not even ask that person to hang up a fish.[Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_59.html#PARTb).
And Rabbi Il'a said in the name of Rabbi Eleazar son of Rabbi Simeon that just as one is obliged to say words of reproof that will be accepted, so one is obliged *not* to say words of reproof that will *not* be accepted. Rabbi Abba said that it is a duty to forgo reproof that will not be accepted, as Proverbs 9:8 says: "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you."[Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 65b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yevamot.65b).
Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not take vengeance," the [Sifra](/wiki/Sifra "Sifra") defined the extent of the term "vengeance." The Sifra taught that the term "vengeance" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's sickle, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's spade, and the first declines to lend it because the second did not lend the second's sickle. And reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not . . . bear any grudge," the Sifra defined the extent of the term "grudge." The Sifra taught that the term "grudge" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's spade, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's sickle, and the first consents to lend the sickle but taunts, "I am not like you, for you did not lend me your spade, but here, take the sickle!"Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶¶ 200:3:4–5; see also [Babylonian Talmud Yoma 23a](https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.23a.1).
Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not take vengeance or bear any grudge against the sons of your own people," the Jerusalem Talmud asked what a practical illustration would be. The Gemara answered: If one was cutting meat, and the knife in one hand cut the other hand, would the person then go and cut the hand that held the knife?Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4\.
[thumb\|150px\|right\|Hillel (sculpture at the [Knesset](/wiki/Knesset "Knesset") Menorah, Jerusalem)](/wiki/File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG "Knesset Menorah P5200009 Hilel.JPG")
Once a [gentile](/wiki/Gentile "Gentile") came before [Shammai](/wiki/Shammai "Shammai") and said, "I will [convert to Judaism](/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism "Conversion to Judaism"), on the condition that you teach me the whole Torah while I stand on one foot." Shammai pushed him away with a builder's ruler. When the gentile repeated his challenge before [Hillel](/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder "Hillel the Elder"), Hillel said to him (paraphrasing Leviticus 19:18\), "What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah, and the rest is the explanation—go and learn it."[Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 31a](https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat.31a).
The Sifra reported that Rabbi Akiva taught that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "you shall love your neighbor as yourself," state the encompassing principle of the Torah. But Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the generations of Adam," state a still more encompassing principle.Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3:7; see also Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4\. Similarly, a Midrash reported that Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the descendants of Adam," teach a great principle of the Torah. But Rabbi Akiva replied that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "you shall love your neighbor as yourself," teach an even greater principle. Hence, one must not say, "Since I have been put to shame, let my neighbor be put to shame." And [Rabbi Tanhuma](/wiki/Tanhuma_bar_Abba "Tanhuma bar Abba") taught that those who do so must know Whom they put to shame, for Genesis 1:27 reports of humankind, "In the likeness of God made He him."[Genesis Rabbah 24:7](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n251/mode/1up).
The Gemara reported that a dilemma was raised before the Sages: Could a child operate on his parent? Would the child thus be liable for wounding the parent? Rav Mattana quoted Leviticus 19:18, "And you shall love your neighbor as yourself," and reasoned that just as people would want others to heal them when the need arises, they must heal others when the need arises. It is prohibited for one to do to others only those actions that one would not want done to oneself. Therefore, it is permitted for one to heal a parent even if the procedure entails wounding the parent.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 84b](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.84b.13).
Rav Naḥman said in the name of Rabbah bar Abbuha that Leviticus 19:18 requires that even when executing a person, one must choose for the condemned an easy death.[Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 37b](http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_37.html#PARTb), [Sanhedrin 45a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_45.html).
And other Rabbis counseled that Leviticus 19:18 prohibits taking actions that would make one's spouse unattractive. Thus Rav Judah said in the name of Rav that Leviticus 19:18 requires a man not to become engaged to a woman before he sees her, lest he subsequently see something in her that might make her repulsive to him.[Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 41a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.41a). Similarly, [Rav Hisda](/wiki/Rav_Chisda "Rav Chisda") taught that Leviticus 19:18 prohibited one from engaging in marital relations during the daytime, and Abaye explained that this was because one might observe something that should make one's spouse repulsive.[Babylonian Talmud Niddah 17a](http://www.halakhah.com/niddah/niddah_17.html).
Tractate [Kilayim](/wiki/Kil%27ayim_%28tractate%29 "Kil'ayim (tractate)") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of mixing plants, cloth, and animals in Leviticus 19:19\.[Mishnah Kilayim 1:1–9:10](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Kilayim.1).
Reading Leviticus 18:4, "My ordinances ({{Script/Hebrew\|מִשְׁפָּטַי}}, *mishpatai*) shall you do, and My statutes ({{Script/Hebrew\|חֻקֹּתַי}}, *chukotai*) shall you keep," the Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the "ordinances" ({{Script/Hebrew\|מִשְׁפָּטִים}}, *mishpatim*) were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And "statutes" ({{Script/Hebrew\|חֻקִּים}}, *chukim*) were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to wool\-linen mixtures ({{Script/Hebrew\|שַׁעַטְנֵז}}, *[shatnez](/wiki/Shatnez "Shatnez")*, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\), release from levirate marriage ({{Script/Hebrew\|חליצה}}, *[chalitzah](/wiki/Halizah "Halizah")*, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10\), purification of the person with *[tzaraat](/wiki/Tzaraath "Tzaraath")* (in Leviticus 14\), and the [scapegoat](/wiki/Scapegoat "Scapegoat") (in Leviticus 16\). So that people do not think these "ordinances" ({{Script/Hebrew\|מִשְׁפָּטִים}}, *mishpatim*) to be empty acts, in Leviticus 18:4, God says, "I am the Lord," indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.[Babylonian Talmud Yoma 67b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.67b). The Sifra reported the same discussion, and added eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8\) and purification of a person affected by skin disease ({{Script/Hebrew\|מְּצֹרָע}}, *[metzora](/wiki/Tzaraath "Tzaraath")*, regulated in Leviticus 13–14\).Sifra, Aharei Mot, pereq 13, ¶ 194:2:11\. Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Evil Inclination criticizes four laws as without logical basis, and Scripture uses the expression "statute" (*chuk*) in connection with each: the laws of (1\) a [brother's wife](/wiki/Levirate_marriage "Levirate marriage") (in Deuteronomy 25:5–10\), (2\) mingled kinds (in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\), (3\) the [scapegoat](/wiki/Scapegoat "Scapegoat") (in Leviticus 16\), and (4\) the [red cow](/wiki/Red_heifer "Red heifer") (in Numbers 19\).[Numbers Rabbah](/wiki/Numbers_Rabbah "Numbers Rabbah") 19:5\.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool\-linen mixture ({{Script/Hebrew\|שַׁעַטְנֵז}}, *shatnez*, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\), eat pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8\), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by Leviticus 18 and 20\), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in Leviticus 20:26, God says, "I have separated you from the nations to be mine." So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 9, ¶ 207:2:13\.
[Hanina ben Hakinai](/wiki/Hanina_ben_Hakinai "Hanina ben Hakinai") employed the prohibition of Leviticus 19:19 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1\) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10\) (2 and 3\) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4\) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9\), (5\) during a [Sabbatical year](/wiki/Shmita "Shmita") (in violation of Leviticus 25:4\), (6\) on a Festival\-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7\), (7\) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1\) and (8\) a Nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6\) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.[Mishnah Makkot 3:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Makkot/Chapter_3/9 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Makkot/Chapter 3/9"); [Babylonian Talmud Makkot 21b](https://www.sefaria.org/Makkot.21b).
Tractate [Orlah](/wiki/Orlah_%28Talmud%29 "Orlah (Talmud)") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the prohibition in Leviticus 19:23–25 against using the fruits of a tree in its first three years.[Mishnah Orlah 1:1–3:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Orlah "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Orlah"); Tosefta Orlah 1:1–8; [Jerusalem Talmud Orlah 1a–42a](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Orlah).
[Rav Zeira](/wiki/Rav_Zeira "Rav Zeira") counted five kinds of *[orlah](/wiki/Orlah "Orlah")* (things uncircumcised) in the world: (1\) uncircumcised ears (as in Jeremiah 6:10\), (2\) uncircumcised lips (as in Exodus 6:12\), (3\) uncircumcised hearts (as in Deuteronomy 10:16 and Jeremiah 9:26\), (4\) uncircumcised flesh (as in Genesis 17:14\), and (5\) uncircumcised trees (as in Leviticus 19:23\). Rav Zeira taught that all the nations are uncircumcised in each of the first four ways, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart, in that their hearts do not allow them to do God's will. And Rav Zeira taught that in the future, God will take away from Israel the uncircumcision of their hearts, and they will not harden their stubborn hearts anymore before their Creator, as Ezekiel 36:26 says, "And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you an heart of flesh," and Genesis 17:11 says, "And you shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin."[Pirke De\-Rabbi Eliezer](/wiki/Pirke_De-Rabbi_Eliezer "Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer"), chapter 29; see also [Genesis Rabbah 46:5](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n439/mode/2up) (Rabbi Akiva counted four kinds of *orlah*).
Judah ben Padiah noted [Adam's](/wiki/Adam_%28Bible%29 "Adam (Bible)") frailty, for he could not remain loyal even for a single hour to God's charge that he not eat from the [Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil](/wiki/Tree_of_Knowledge_of_Good_and_Evil "Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil"), yet in accordance with Leviticus 19:23, Adam's descendants the Israelites waited three years for the fruits of a tree.[Genesis Rabbah 21:7](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n223/mode/2up).
The Mishnah taught that the commandments of Leviticus 19:27 not to round off the side\-growth of one's head and not to destroy the corners of one's beard are two of only three exceptions to the general rule that every commandment that is a prohibition (whether time\-dependent or not) governs both men and women. The other exception is the commandment of Leviticus 21:1 for [Kohanim](/wiki/Kohen "Kohen") not to become ritually impure for the dead.[Mishnah Kiddushin 1:7](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Kiddushin/Chapter_1/7 "Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Kiddushin/Chapter 1/7"); [Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 29a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.29a).
[Rabbi Eliezer the Great](/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus "Eliezer ben Hurcanus") taught that the Torah warns against wronging a stranger in 36, or others say 46, places (including Leviticus 19:33–34\).See, e.g., {{Bibleverse\|\|Exodus\|22:20\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Exodus\|23:9\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\|\|Leviticus\|19:33–34\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\|\|Deuteronomy\|1:16\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Deuteronomy\|10:17–19\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Deuteronomy\|24:14–15\|HE}} and [17–22](http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0524.htm#17); and {{Bibleverse\-nb\|\|Deuteronomy\|27:19\|HE}}. The Gemara went on to cite Rabbi Nathan's interpretation of Exodus 22:20, "You shall neither wrong a stranger, nor oppress him; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt," to teach that one must not taunt another about a flaw that one has oneself.[Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_59.html#PARTb).
Rabbi [Ḥiyya](/wiki/Hiyya_the_Great "Hiyya the Great") taught that the words of Leviticus 19:35, "You shall do no unrighteousness in judgment," apply to judgment in law. But a Midrash noted that Leviticus 19:15 already mentioned judgment in law and questioned why Leviticus 19:35 would state the same proposition again and why Leviticus 19:35 uses the words, "in judgment, in measures." The Midrash deduced that Leviticus 19:35 teaches that a person who measures is called a judge, and one who falsifies measurements is called by the five names "unrighteous," "hated," "repulsive," "accursed," and an "abomination," and is the cause of these five evils. Rabbi Banya said in the name of [Rav Huna](/wiki/Rav_Huna "Rav Huna") that the government comes and attacks that generation whose measures are false. The Midrash found support for this from [Proverbs](/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs "Book of Proverbs") 11:1, "A false balance is an abomination to the Lord," which is followed by Proverbs 11:2, "When presumption comes, then comes shame." Reading [Micah](/wiki/Book_of_Micah "Book of Micah") 6:11, "Shall I be pure with wicked balances?" [Rabbi Berekiah](/wiki/Rabbi_Berekiah "Rabbi Berekiah") said in the name of Rabbi Abba that it is impossible for a generation whose measures are false to be meritorious, for Micah 6:11 continues, "And with a bag of deceitful weights" (showing that their holdings would be merely illusory). Rabbi Levi taught that Moses also hinted to Israel that a generation with false measures would be attacked. Deuteronomy 25:13–14 warns, "You shall not have in your bag diverse weights . . . you shall not have in your house diverse measures." But if one does, one will be attacked, as Deuteronomy 25:16, reports, "For all who do such things, even all who do unrighteously, are an abomination to the Lord your God," and then immediately following, Deuteronomy 25:17 says, "Remember what Amalek did to you (attacking Israel) by the way as you came forth out of Egypt."[Ruth Rabbah](/wiki/Ruth_Rabbah "Ruth Rabbah") 1:2\.
[thumb\|left\|225px\|Offering to Molech (illustration from the 1897 *[Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us](/wiki/commons:Category:Bible_Pictures_with_brief_descriptions_by_Charles_Foster "Category:Bible Pictures with brief descriptions by Charles Foster")* by Charles Foster)](/wiki/File:Foster_Bible_Pictures_0074-1_Offering_to_Molech.jpg "Foster Bible Pictures 0074-1 Offering to Molech.jpg")
|
[
"### Leviticus chapter 19",
"Rabbi Judah ben Pazzi deduced from the juxtaposition of the sexual prohibitions of Leviticus 18 and the exhortation to holiness in Leviticus 19:2 that those who fence themselves against sexual immorality are called holy, and Rabbi [Joshua ben Levi](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Levi \"Joshua ben Levi\") taught that wherever one finds a fence against sexual immorality, one will also find sanctity.[Leviticus Rabbah](/wiki/Leviticus_Rabbah \"Leviticus Rabbah\") 24:6\\.",
"A [Midrash](/wiki/Midrash \"Midrash\") interpreted God's message to Israel in Leviticus 19:1–2 to mean: \"My children, as I am separate, so you be separate; as I am holy, so you be holy.\"Leviticus Rabbah 24:4\\.",
"Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness in Leviticus 19:1–2 and 20:7 to the case of a king who rewarded his drunkard watchmen twice as much as his sober watchmen. Similarly, God twice exhorted the Israelites to holiness because the Evil Inclination sways people like drunkards, whereas the Evil Inclination does not exist among celestial beings. Similarly, Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness to the case of the citizens who made three crowns for the king, and the king placed one on his own head and two on the heads of his sons. Similarly, every day the celestial beings crown God with three sanctities, calling him, in the words of [Isaiah](/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah \"Book of Isaiah\") 6:3, \"Holy, holy, holy.\" God then places one crown of holiness on God's own head and two crowns of holiness on the head of Israel.Leviticus Rabbah 24:8\\.",
"[Rabbi Ḥiyya](/wiki/Rabbi_Hiyya \"Rabbi Hiyya\") taught that the section beginning at Leviticus 19:1 was spoken in the presence of the whole Israelite people, because it includes most of the essential principles of the Torah. And Rabbi Levi said it was because it includes each of the [Ten Commandments](/wiki/Ten_Commandments \"Ten Commandments\"), noting that: (1\\) Exodus 20:2 says, \"I am the Lord your God,\" and Leviticus 19:3 says, \"I am the Lord your God\"; (2\\) Exodus 20:2–3 says, \"You shall have no other gods,\" and Leviticus 19:4 says, \"Nor make to yourselves molten gods\"; (3\\) Exodus 20:7 says, \"You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain,\" and Leviticus 19:12 says, \"And you shall not swear by My name falsely\"; (4\\) Exodus 20:8 says, \"Remember the Sabbath day,\" and Leviticus 19:3 says, \"And you shall keep My Sabbaths\"; (5\\) Exodus 20:12 says, \"Honor your father and your mother,\" and Leviticus 19:3 says, \"You shall fear every man his mother, and his father\"; (6\\) Exodus 20:13 says, \"You shall not murder,\" and Leviticus 19:16 says, \"Neither shall you stand idly by the blood of your neighbor\"; (7\\) Exodus 20:13 says, \"You shall not commit adultery,\" and Leviticus 20:10 says, \"Both the adulterer and the adulteress shall surely be put to death; (8\\) Exodus 20:13 says, \"You shall not steal,\" and Leviticus 19:11 says, \"You shall not steal\"; (9\\) Exodus 20:13 says, \"You shall not bear false witness,\" and Leviticus 19:16 says, \"You shall not go up and down as a talebearer\"; and (10\\) Exodus 20:14 says, \"You shall not covet . . . anything that is your neighbor's,\" and Leviticus 19:18 says, \"You shall love your neighbor as yourself.\"Leviticus Rabbah 24:5\\.",
"A [Baraita](/wiki/Baraita \"Baraita\") cited the words of Leviticus 19:3, \"You shall fear every man his mother and his father, and you shall keep My Sabbaths,\" to teach that one's duty to honor one's parent does not supersede one's duty to keep the Sabbath.[Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 5b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yevamot.5b).",
"[Rabbi Shimon](/wiki/Shimon_bar_Yochai \"Shimon bar Yochai\") noted that everywhere else, Scripture mentions a father's honor before the mother's honor.E.g., {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Exodus\\|20:11\\|HE}} (20:12 in NJSP) {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Exodus\\|21:15\\|HE}}, and {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Exodus\\|21:17\\|HE}}, and {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|5:16 and {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|27:16\\|HE}}. But Leviticus 19:3 mentions the mother first to teach that one should honor both parents equally.[Mishnah Keritot 6:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Kodashim/Tractate_Keritot/Chapter_6/9 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Keritot/Chapter 6/9\"); [Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a](https://www.sefaria.org/Keritot.28a); see also [Genesis Rabbah](/wiki/Genesis_Rabbah \"Genesis Rabbah\") [1:15](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n60/mode/1up). The Sages, however, said that the father comes before the mother in all places, because both the son and the mother are bound to honor the father.[Mishnah Keritot 6:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Kodashim/Tractate_Keritot/Chapter_6/9 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Keritot/Chapter 6/9\"); [Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a](https://www.sefaria.org/Keritot.28a).",
"It was taught in a Baraita that [Rabbi](/wiki/Judah_the_Prince \"Judah the Prince\") said that God knows that a son honors his mother more than his father, because the mother wins him over with words. Therefore, (in Exodus 20:12\\) God put the honor of the father before that of the mother. God knows that a son fears his father more than his mother, because the father teaches him Torah. Therefore, (in Leviticus 19:3\\) God put the fear of the mother before that of the father.[Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 30b–31a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.30b).",
"Noting that as Leviticus 19:3 commands, \"You shall fear your father and mother,\" and Deuteronomy 6:13 commands, \"The Lord your God you shall fear and you shall serve,\" the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Scripture likens the fear of parents to the fear of God. As Exodus 20:12 commands, \"Honor your father and your mother,\" and [Proverbs](/wiki/Proverbs \"Proverbs\") 3:9 directs, \"Honor the Lord with your substance,\" Scripture likens the honor due to parents to that due to God. And as Exodus 21:17 commands, \"He that curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death,\" and Leviticus 24:15 commands, \"Whoever curses his God shall bear his sin,\" Scripture likens cursing parents to cursing God. But the Baraita conceded that with respect to striking (which Exodus 21:15 addresses regarding parents) that it is certainly impossible (with respect to God). The Baraita concluded that these comparisons between parents and God are only logical, since the three (God, the mother, and the father) are partners in creation of the child. For the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are three partners in the creation of a person—God, the father, and the mother. When one honors one's father and mother, God considers it as if God had dwelt among them and they had honored God. And a [Tanna](/wiki/Tannaim \"Tannaim\") taught before [Rav Nachman](/wiki/Rav_Nachman \"Rav Nachman\") that when one vexes one's father and mother, God considers it right not to dwell among them, for had God dwelt among them, they would have vexed God.",
"Tractate [Shabbat](/wiki/Shabbat_%28Talmud%29 \"Shabbat (Talmud)\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, [Jerusalem Talmud](/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud \"Jerusalem Talmud\"), and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbath in Exodus 16:23 and 29; 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:13–17; 35:2–3; Leviticus 19:3; 23:3; Numbers 15:32–36; and Deuteronomy 5:12\\.[Mishnah Shabbat 1:1–24:5](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Moed/Tractate_Shabbat \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Moed/Tractate Shabbat\"); Tosefta Shabbat 1:1–17:29; [Jerusalem Talmud Shabbat 1a–113b](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shabbat); [Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 2a–157b](https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat).",
"A Midrash asked to which commandment Deuteronomy 11:22 refers when it says, \"For if you shall diligently keep all *this commandment* that I command you, to do it, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all His ways, and to cleave to Him, then will the Lord drive out all these nations from before you, and you shall dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourselves.\" Rabbi Levi said that \"this commandment\" refers to the recitation of the *Shema* (Deuteronomy 6:4–9\\), but the Rabbis said that it refers to the Sabbath, which is equal to all the precepts of the Torah.Deuteronomy Rabbah 4:4\\.",
"The [Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva](/wiki/Alphabet_of_Rabbi_Akiva \"Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva\") taught that when God was giving Israel the Torah, God told them that if they accepted the Torah and observed God's commandments, then God would give them for eternity a most precious thing that God possessed—the [World To Come](/wiki/Jewish_eschatology \"Jewish eschatology\"). When Israel asked to see in this world an example of the World To Come, God replied that the Sabbath is an example of the World To Come.Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva. Circa 700\\. Quoted in [Abraham Joshua Heschel](/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel \"Abraham Joshua Heschel\"). *The Sabbath*, page 73\\. New York: [Farrar, Straus and Giroux](/wiki/Farrar%2C_Straus_and_Giroux \"Farrar, Straus and Giroux\"), 1951\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|*[Gleaners](/wiki/Gleaning \"Gleaning\")* (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by [James Tissot](/wiki/James_Tissot \"James Tissot\"))](/wiki/File:Tissot_Gleaners.jpg \"Tissot Gleaners.jpg\")\nTractate [Peah](/wiki/Pe%27ah \"Pe'ah\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the harvest of the corner of the field and gleanings to be given to the poor in Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–22\\.[Mishnah Peah 1:1–8:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah\"); [Tosefta Peah 1:1–4:21](https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Peah); [Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a–73b](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Peah).",
"The Mishnah and the Tosefta taught that the Torah sets no upper limit for the donation of the corners of one's field to the poor.[Mishnah Peah 1:1](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_1/1 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 1/1\"); [Tosefta Peah 1:1](https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Peah.1.1); [Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Peah.1.1.1). And the Mishnah also taught that one should not make the amount left to the poor less than one\\-sixtieth of the entire crop. And even though no definite amount is given, the amount given should accord with the size of the field, the number of poor people, and the extent of the yield.[Mishnah Peah 1:2](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_1/2 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 1/2\").",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|*The Gleaners* (engraving by [Gustave Doré](/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9 \"Gustave Doré\") from the 1865 *La Sainte Bible*)](/wiki/File:Dore_Bible_The_Gleaners.jpg \"Dore Bible The Gleaners.jpg\")",
"Rabbi Eliezer taught that one who cultivates land in which one can plant a quarter *[kav](/wiki/Hebrew_measurements%23Dry_measure \"Hebrew measurements#Dry measure\")* of seed is obligated to give a corner to the poor. [Rabbi Joshua](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah \"Joshua ben Hananiah\") said land that yields two *[seah](/wiki/Seah_%28volume%29 \"Seah (volume)\")* of grain. [Rabbi Tarfon](/wiki/Rabbi_Tarfon \"Rabbi Tarfon\") said land of at least six handbreadths by six handbreadths. Rabbi Judah ben Betera said land that requires two strokes of a sickle to harvest, and the law is as he spoke. [Rabbi Akiva](/wiki/Rabbi_Akiva \"Rabbi Akiva\") said that one who cultivates land of any size is obligated to give a corner to the poor and the [first fruits](/wiki/First_Fruits \"First Fruits\").[Mishnah Peah 3:6](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_3 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 3\").",
"The Mishnah taught that the poor could enter a field to collect three times a day—in the morning, at midday, and in the afternoon. Rabban [Gamliel](/wiki/Gamaliel \"Gamaliel\") taught that they said this only so that landowners should not reduce the number of times that the poor could enter. Rabbi Akiva taught that they said this only so that landowners should not increase the number of times that the poor had to enter. The landowners of Beit Namer used to harvest along a rope and allowed the poor to collect a corner from every row.[Mishnah Peah 4:5](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Peah/Chapter_4 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Peah/Chapter 4\").",
"The Mishnah taught that one who does not allow the poor to glean, or who allows one and not another, or who helps only one, is stealing from the poor. The Mishnah taught that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not encroach upon the border of those who go up.”[Mishnah Peah 5:6](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.5.6).",
"The Gemara noted that Leviticus 19:9 includes a superfluous term “by reaping” and reasoned that this must teach that the obligation to leave for the poor applies to crops that the owner uproots as well as to crops that the owner cuts. And the Gemara reasoned that the superfluous words “When you reap” in Leviticus 23:22 teach that the obligation also extends to one who picks a crop by hand.[Babylonian Talmud Chullin 137a](https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.137a.14).",
"Noting that the discussion of gifts to the poor in Leviticus 23:22 appears between discussions of the festivals—Passover and Shavuot on one side, and Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur on the other—Rabbi Avardimos ben Rabbi Yossi said that this teaches that people who give immature clusters of grapes (as in Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21\\), the forgotten sheaf (as in Deuteronomy 24:19\\), the corner of the field (as in Leviticus 19:9 and 23:22\\), and the poor tithe (as in Deuteronomy 14:28 and 26:12\\) is accounted as if the Temple existed and they offered up their sacrifices in it. And for those who do not give to the poor, it is accounted to them as if the Temple existed and they did not offer up their sacrifices in it.[Sifra Emor chapter 13 (233:2\\)](https://www.sefaria.org/Sifra%2C_Emor%2C_Chapter_13.11).",
"The Mishnah taught that even if a landowner said, “I am harvesting on the condition that whatever I forget I will take,” the landowner was still subject to the law of the forgotten sheaf in Leviticus 19:9–10 (and anything the landowner forgot belonged to the poor).[Mishnah Peah 6:11](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.6.11).",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Grapes](/wiki/File:Wine_grapes07.jpg \"Wine grapes07.jpg\")",
"The Mishnah defined “fallen fruit ({{Script/Hebrew\\|פֶרֶט}}, *peret*)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 to mean that which falls at the time of the grape harvest. The Mishnah taught that one who left a basket under the vine when harvesting grapes was stealing from the poor. The Mishnah said that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not withdraw the border of those who go up.”[Mishnah Peah 7:3](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.7.3).",
"The Mishnah defined “a defective cluster ({{Script/Hebrew\\|עוֹלֶלֶת}}, *olelet*)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21 to mean any cluster that had neither a shoulder nor a dangling portion (but rather was entirely attached to the main stem). If the cluster had a shoulder or a dangling portion, it belonged to the property owner, but if there was a doubt, it belonged to the poor. A cluster that was attached to the joint between branches or the stem and the trunk, if it was plucked with the grape cluster, it belonged to the property owner; if not, it belonged to the poor. Rabbi Judah said that a single\\-grape cluster was a cluster, but the Sages said that it was a defective cluster (and thus belonged to the poor).[Mishnah Peah 7:4](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.7.4).",
"The Mishnah taught that after the weakest of the poor had come and gone, everyone (regardless of poverty or wealth) was permitted to take individual stalks that fell during harvest ({{Script/Hebrew\\|לֶקֶט}}, *leket*—which had to be left for the poor to glean).[Mishnah Peah 8:1](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Peah.8.1).",
"The Mishnah taught that if a wife foreswore all benefit from other people, her husband could not annul his wife's vow, but she could still benefit from the gleanings, forgotten sheaves, and the corner of the field that Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–21 commanded farmers to leave for the poor.[Mishnah Nedarim 11:3](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Nedarim/Chapter_11/3 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Nedarim/Chapter 11/3\").",
"[Rabbi Josiah](/wiki/Rabbi_Josiah \"Rabbi Josiah\") taught that we learn the formal prohibition against [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\") from the words \"You shall not steal\" in Exodus 20:13 (since Deuteronomy 22:7 and Exodus 21:16 merely state the *punishment* for abduction). [Rabbi Johanan](/wiki/Yochanan_bar_Nafcha \"Yochanan bar Nafcha\") taught that we learn it from Leviticus 25:42, \"They shall not be sold as bondsmen.\" The [Gemara](/wiki/Gemara \"Gemara\") harmonized the two positions by concluding that Rabbi Josiah referred to the prohibition for abduction, while Rabbi Johanan referred to the prohibition for selling a kidnapped person. Similarly, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Exodus 20:13, \"You shall not steal,\" refers to the stealing of human beings. To the potential objection that Exodus 20:13 refers to property [theft](/wiki/Theft \"Theft\"), the Baraita responded that one of the thirteen principles by which we interpret the Torah is that a law is interpreted by its general context, and the Ten Commandments speak of capital crimes (like murder and adultery). (Thus \"You shall not steal\" must refer to a capital crime and thus to kidnapping.) Another Baraita taught that the words \"You shall not steal\" in Leviticus 19:11 refer to theft of property. To the potential objection that Leviticus 19:11 refers to the theft of human beings, the Baraita responded that the general context of Leviticus 19:10–15 speaks of money matters; therefore Leviticus 19:11 must refer to monetary theft.[Babylonian Talmud Talmud Sanhedrin 86a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_86.html); see also [Mekhilta](/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Ishmael \"Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael\") Bahodesh 8\\.",
"Tractates [Nedarim](/wiki/Nedarim \"Nedarim\") and [Shevuot](/wiki/Shevu%27ot \"Shevu'ot\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of vows and oaths in [Exodus](/wiki/Book_of_Exodus \"Book of Exodus\") 20:7, 5:1–10 and 19:12, Numbers 30:2–17, and [Deuteronomy](/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy \"Book of Deuteronomy\") 23:24\\.[Mishnah Nedarim 1:1–11:11](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Nedarim \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Nedarim\"); Tosefta Nedarim 1:1–7:8; [Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 1a–](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Nedarim); [Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 2a–91b](https://www.sefaria.org/Nedarim); [Mishnah Shevuot 1:1–8:6](/wiki/s:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Shevuot \"Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Shevuot\"); Tosefta Shevuot 1:1–6:7; [Jerusalem Talmud Shevuot 1a–](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shevuot); [Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 2a–49b](https://www.sefaria.org/Shevuot.2a).",
"The Mishnah interpreted Leviticus 19:13 and Deuteronomy 24:14–15 to teach that a worker engaged by the day could collect the worker's wages all the following night. If engaged by the night, the worker could collect the wages all the following day. If engaged by the hour, the worker could collect the wages all that day and night. If engaged by the week, month, year, or 7\\-year period, if the worker's time expired during the day, the worker could collect the wages all that day. If the worker's time expired during the night, the worker could collect the wages all that night and the following day.[Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:11](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Bava_Metzia/Chapter_9/11 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Bava Metzia/Chapter 9/11\"); [Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 110b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_110.html#PARTb).",
"The Mishnah taught that the hire of persons, animals, or utensils were all subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that \"in the same day you shall give him his hire\" and the law of Leviticus 19:13 that \"the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning.\" The employer became liable only when the worker or vendor demanded payment from the employer. Otherwise, the employer did not infringe the law. If the employer gave the worker or vendor a draft on a shopkeeper or a money changer, the employer complied with the law. A worker who claimed the wages within the set time could collect payment if the worker merely swore that the employer had not yet paid. But if the set time had passed, the worker's oath was insufficient to collect payment. Yet if the worker had witnesses that the worker had demanded payment (within the set time), the worker could still swear and receive payment.[Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:12](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Bava_Metzia/Chapter_9/12 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Bava Metzia/Chapter 9/12\"); [Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 111a](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_111.html).",
"The Mishnah taught that the employer of a resident alien was subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that \"in the same day you shall give him his hire\" (as Deuteronomy 24:14 refers to the stranger), but not to the law of Leviticus 19:13 that \"the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning.\"",
"[Abaye](/wiki/Abaye \"Abaye\") taught that the rule that a community should mark graves may be derived from Leviticus 19:14, \"And put not a stumbling\\-block before the blind.\"[Babylonian Talmud Moed Katan 5a](https://www.sefaria.org/Moed_Katan.5a).",
"The Mishnah taught that one who pursues a neighbor with intent to kill must be saved from sin even at the cost of the pursuer's life.[Mishnah Sanhedrin 8:7](http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sanhedrin.8.7); [Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.73a.2). The Gemara taught that it is from Leviticus 19:16, “You shall not stand idly by the blood of another,” that the Sages in a Baraita derived that where one person is pursuing another with intent to kill, the pursued person should be saved even at the cost of the pursuer's life. The Gemara also cited Leviticus 19:16 for a Baraita that taught that one is obligated to try to save another whom one sees drowning in a river, or being dragged away by a wild animal, or being attacked by bandits. The Gemara further taught that the verse “Do not stand by the blood of another” teaches that one must even hire others to help rescue a person one sees to be jeopardy, and one transgresses a prohibition if one does not do so.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.73a.2).",
"In a Baraita, the Rabbis reasoned that had Leviticus 19:17 said simply, \"You shall not hate your brother,\" one might have believed that one should simply not smite, slap, or curse him; therefore Leviticus 19:17 states \"in your heart\" to cover intentions as well as actions. Scripture speaks of hatred in the heart.[Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b](https://www.sefaria.org/Arakhin.16b); see also [Sifra](/wiki/Sifra \"Sifra\"), Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3\\.",
"Thus, in Leviticus 19:17, the heart hates. A Midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible.[Ecclesiastes Rabbah](/wiki/Ecclesiastes_Rabbah \"Ecclesiastes Rabbah\") 1:16\\. The heart speaks,[Ecclesiastes](/wiki/Ecclesiastes \"Ecclesiastes\") {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Ecclesiastes\\|1:16\\|HE}}. sees, hears,[1 Kings](/wiki/Books_of_Kings \"Books of Kings\") {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|1\\|Kings\\|3:9\\|HE}}. walks,{{Bibleverse\\|2\\|Kings\\|5:26\\|HE}}. falls,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Samuel\\|17:32\\|HE}}. stands,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Ezekiel\\|22:14\\|HE}}. rejoices,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|16:9\\|HE}}. cries,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Lamentations\\|2:18\\|HE}}. is comforted,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Isaiah\\|40:2\\|HE}}. is troubled,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|15:10\\|HE}}. becomes hardened,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Exodus\\|9:12\\|HE}}. grows faint,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|20:3\\|HE}}. grieves,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Genesis\\|6:6\\|HE}}. fears,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|28:67\\|HE}}. can be broken,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|51:19\\|HE}}. becomes proud,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|8:14\\|HE}}. rebels,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|5:23\\|HE}}. invents,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Kings\\|12:33\\|HE}}. cavils,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|29:18\\|HE}}. overflows,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|45:2\\|HE}}. devises,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|19:21\\|HE}}. desires,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|21:3\\|HE}}. goes astray,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|7:25\\|HE}}. lusts,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Numbers\\|15:39\\|HE}}. is refreshed,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Genesis\\|18:5\\|HE}}. can be stolen,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Genesis\\|31:20\\|HE}}. is humbled,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|26:41\\|HE}}. is enticed,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Genesis\\|34:3\\|HE}}. errs,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Isaiah\\|21:4\\|HE}}. trembles,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Samuel\\|4:13\\|HE}}. is awakened,[Song of Songs](/wiki/Song_of_Songs \"Song of Songs\") {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Song\\|5:2\\|HE}}. loves,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|6:5\\|HE}}. envies,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|23:17\\|HE}}. is searched,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|17:10\\|HE}}. is rent,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Joel\\|2:13\\|HE}}. meditates,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|49:4\\|HE}}. is like a fire,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|20:9\\|HE}}. is like a stone,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Ezekiel\\|36:26\\|HE}}. turns in repentance,{{Bibleverse\\|2\\|Kings\\|23:25\\|HE}}. becomes hot,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|19:6\\|HE}}. dies,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Samuel\\|25:37\\|HE}}. melts,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Joshua\\|7:5\\|HE}}. takes in words,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|6:6\\|HE}}. is susceptible to fear,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|32:40\\|HE}}. gives thanks,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Psalm\\|111:1\\|HE}}. covets,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|6:25\\|HE}}. becomes hard,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|28:14\\|HE}}. makes merry,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Judges\\|16:25\\|HE}}. acts deceitfully,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|12:20\\|HE}}. speaks from out of itself,{{Bibleverse\\|1\\|Samuel\\|1:13\\|HE}}. loves bribes,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Jeremiah\\|22:17\\|HE}}. writes words,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|3:3\\|HE}}. plans,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|6:18\\|HE}}. receives commandments,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|10:8\\|HE}}. acts with pride,{{Bibleverse\\-lb\\|\\|Obadiah\\|1:3\\|HE}}. makes arrangements,{{Bibleverse\\|\\|Proverbs\\|16:1\\|HE}}. and aggrandizes itself.[2 Chronicles](/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles \"Books of Chronicles\") {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|2\\|Chronicles\\|25:19\\|HE}}.",
"Rabbi [Samuel bar Rav Isaac](/wiki/Samuel_bar_Isaac \"Samuel bar Isaac\") said that [Rav](/wiki/Abba_Arika \"Abba Arika\") said that one is permitted to hate another whom one sees committing a sin, as Exodus 23:5 states: \"If you see the donkey of he who hates you lying under its load.\" But the Gemara asked whether one is permitted to hate one's fellow, as Leviticus 19:17 says, “You shall not hate your brother in your heart,” which prohibits hating one's fellow. The Gemara concluded that one is permitted to hate another for evil behavior one sees, whereas others who are unaware of these actions may not hate the other. Rav [Naḥman bar Isaac](/wiki/Rav_Nachman_bar_Yitzchak \"Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak\") said: Not only is this permitted, it is even a commandment to hate this other person, as Proverbs 8:13 states: \"The fear of God is to hate evil.\"[Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 113b](https://www.sefaria.org/Pesachim.113b.4).",
"In a Baraita, the Rabbis deduced from the command in Leviticus 19:17 that \"you shall surely rebuke your neighbor\" that one is obliged to reprove a neighbor whom one observes doing something wrong. And they deduced from the emphatic words \"you shall surely rebuke\" that if one has rebuked one's neighbor and the neighbor does not accept the rebuke, then one must rebuke the neighbor again. But the Rabbis deduced that Leviticus 19:17 continues to say \"you shall not bear sin because of him\" to teach that one should not rebuke a neighbor to the neighbor's embarrassment.",
"Reading the report of Genesis 21:25, \"And [Abraham](/wiki/Abraham \"Abraham\") reproved [Abimelech](/wiki/Abimelech \"Abimelech\"),\" Rabbi [Jose ben Rabbi Hanina](/wiki/Jose_b._Hanina \"Jose b. Hanina\") taught that reproof leads to love, as Proverbs 9:8 says, \"Reprove a wise man, and he will love you.\" Rabbi Jose ben Hanina said that love unaccompanied by reproof is not love. And [Resh Lakish](/wiki/Shimon_ben_Lakish \"Shimon ben Lakish\") taught that reproof leads to peace, and thus (as Genesis 21:25 reports) \"Abraham reproved Abimelech.\" Resh Lakish said that peace unaccompanied by reproof is not peace.[Genesis Rabbah 54:3](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n524/mode/1up).",
"The Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, \"And they shall stumble one upon another,\" to mean that one will stumble through the sin of another. The Gemara concluded that all everyone is held responsible for each another.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 27b](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_27.html#PARTb). Similarly, elsewhere, the Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, \"And they shall stumble one upon another,\" to mean that for all transgressions of the Torah, the whole world is punished. Thus the Gemara taught that all Jews stand as guarantors for one another.[Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 39a](https://www.sefaria.org/Shevuot.39a). And reading [Song of Songs](/wiki/Song_of_Songs \"Song of Songs\") 6:11, \"I went down into the garden of nuts,\" to apply to Israel, a Midrash taught that just as when one takes a nut from a stack of nuts, all the rest come toppling over, so if a single Jew is smitten, all Jews feel it, as Numbers 16:22 says, \"Shall one man sin, and will You be angry with all the congregation?\"[Song of Songs Rabbah](/wiki/Shir_ha-Shirim_Rabbah \"Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah\") 6:11 \\[6:26].",
"Rabbi [Tarfon](/wiki/Tarfon \"Tarfon\") wondered whether anyone in his generation could accept reproof, for if one told another, \"Remove the mote from between your eyes,\" the other would answer, \"Remove the beam from between your eyes!\" Rabbi [Eleazar ben Azariah](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Azariah \"Eleazar ben Azariah\") wondered whether anyone in his generation knew how to *reprove*. Rabbi [Johanan ben Nuri](/wiki/Yochanan_ben_Nuri \"Yochanan ben Nuri\") said that he would often complain about Akiva to Rabban Gamaliel Beribbi, causing Akiva to be punished as a result, but Akiva all the more showered love upon Rabbi Johanan ben Nuri, bearing out what Proverbs 9:8 says: \"Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you.\"",
"Rabbi Judah the son of Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi asked his father whether it was preferable to reprove honestly or to forgo reproof out of false modesty. Rabbi Simeon answered that restraint out of true modesty is better still, for a Master said modesty is greatest of all. Thus, false modesty is also preferable, he reasoned, for [Rav Judah](/wiki/Judah_ben_Ezekiel \"Judah ben Ezekiel\") said in the name of Rav that one should engage in Torah study and good deeds, even if not for their own sake, because through doing good for an ulterior motive one will come to do good for its own sake. To illustrate honest reproof and forbearance out of false modesty, the Gemara told how [Rav Huna](/wiki/Rav_Huna \"Rav Huna\") and Ḥiyya bar Rav were sitting before Samuel, when Ḥiyya bar Rav complained about how Rav Huna was bothering him. Rav Huna undertook not to bother Ḥiyya bar Rav anymore. After Ḥiyya bar Rav left, Rav Huna told Samuel how Ḥiyya bar Rav had done this and that wrong thing. So Samuel asked Rav Huna why he had not told Ḥiyya bar Rav to his face. Rav Huna replied that he did not want to put the son of Rav to shame (and thus chose insincere forbearance over honest rebuke).[Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b](https://www.sefaria.org/Arakhin.16b).",
"The Gemara discussed how far one should reprove another. Rav said that one should reprove until the one reproved strikes the reprover. Samuel said that one should reprove until the one reproved *curses* the reprover. Rabbi Johanan said that one should reprove only until the one reproved *rebukes* the reprover. The Gemara noted a similar dispute among [Tannaim](/wiki/Tannaim \"Tannaim\"). [Rabbi Eliezer](/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus \"Eliezer ben Hurcanus\") said until the one reproved strikes the reprover. [Rabbi Joshua](/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah \"Joshua ben Hananiah\") said until the one reproved curses the reprove. [Ben Azzai](/wiki/Simeon_ben_Azzai \"Simeon ben Azzai\") said until the one reproved rebukes the reprover. Rav Naḥman bar Isaac said that all three cited 1 Samuel 20:30 to support their positions. 1 Samuel 20:30 says: \"Then [Saul](/wiki/Saul \"Saul\")'s anger was kindled against [Jonathan](/wiki/David_and_Jonathan \"David and Jonathan\") and he said to him: ‘You son of perverse rebellion, do not I know that you have chosen the son of [Jesse](/wiki/Jesse_%28biblical_figure%29 \"Jesse (biblical figure)\") ([David](/wiki/David \"David\")) to your own shame, and to the shame of your mother's nakedness?'\" And shortly thereafter, 1 Samuel 20:33 says: \"And Saul cast his spear at him to smite him.\" Rabbi Eliezer said, \"until the one reproved strikes\" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says \"to smite him.\" Rabbi Joshua said, \"until the one reproved curses\" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says: \"to your own shame and to the shame of your mother's nakedness.\" Ben Azzai said, \"until the one reproved rebukes\" because 1 Samuel 20:30 says: \"Then Saul's anger was kindled.\" The Gemara asked how Ben Azzai, who said \"until the one reproved rebukes,\" explained how 1 Samuel 20:33 also mentions beating and cursing. The Gemara reasoned that Jonathan risked his life even further (and rebuked even more than required) because of his great love of David.",
"[Rabbi Nathan](/wiki/Nathan_the_Babylonian \"Nathan the Babylonian\") cautioned, however, that one should not reprove another about a fault that one has oneself. Thus the proverb runs: If there is a case of hanging in a person's family record, one should not even ask that person to hang up a fish.[Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_59.html#PARTb).",
"And Rabbi Il'a said in the name of Rabbi Eleazar son of Rabbi Simeon that just as one is obliged to say words of reproof that will be accepted, so one is obliged *not* to say words of reproof that will *not* be accepted. Rabbi Abba said that it is a duty to forgo reproof that will not be accepted, as Proverbs 9:8 says: \"Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you.\"[Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 65b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yevamot.65b).",
"Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"You shall not take vengeance,\" the [Sifra](/wiki/Sifra \"Sifra\") defined the extent of the term \"vengeance.\" The Sifra taught that the term \"vengeance\" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's sickle, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's spade, and the first declines to lend it because the second did not lend the second's sickle. And reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"You shall not . . . bear any grudge,\" the Sifra defined the extent of the term \"grudge.\" The Sifra taught that the term \"grudge\" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's spade, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's sickle, and the first consents to lend the sickle but taunts, \"I am not like you, for you did not lend me your spade, but here, take the sickle!\"Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶¶ 200:3:4–5; see also [Babylonian Talmud Yoma 23a](https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.23a.1).",
"Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"You shall not take vengeance or bear any grudge against the sons of your own people,\" the Jerusalem Talmud asked what a practical illustration would be. The Gemara answered: If one was cutting meat, and the knife in one hand cut the other hand, would the person then go and cut the hand that held the knife?Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4\\.",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|right\\|Hillel (sculpture at the [Knesset](/wiki/Knesset \"Knesset\") Menorah, Jerusalem)](/wiki/File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG \"Knesset Menorah P5200009 Hilel.JPG\")\nOnce a [gentile](/wiki/Gentile \"Gentile\") came before [Shammai](/wiki/Shammai \"Shammai\") and said, \"I will [convert to Judaism](/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism \"Conversion to Judaism\"), on the condition that you teach me the whole Torah while I stand on one foot.\" Shammai pushed him away with a builder's ruler. When the gentile repeated his challenge before [Hillel](/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder \"Hillel the Elder\"), Hillel said to him (paraphrasing Leviticus 19:18\\), \"What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah, and the rest is the explanation—go and learn it.\"[Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 31a](https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat.31a).",
"The Sifra reported that Rabbi Akiva taught that the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"you shall love your neighbor as yourself,\" state the encompassing principle of the Torah. But Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, \"This is the book of the generations of Adam,\" state a still more encompassing principle.Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3:7; see also Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4\\. Similarly, a Midrash reported that Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, \"This is the book of the descendants of Adam,\" teach a great principle of the Torah. But Rabbi Akiva replied that the words of Leviticus 19:18, \"you shall love your neighbor as yourself,\" teach an even greater principle. Hence, one must not say, \"Since I have been put to shame, let my neighbor be put to shame.\" And [Rabbi Tanhuma](/wiki/Tanhuma_bar_Abba \"Tanhuma bar Abba\") taught that those who do so must know Whom they put to shame, for Genesis 1:27 reports of humankind, \"In the likeness of God made He him.\"[Genesis Rabbah 24:7](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n251/mode/1up).",
"The Gemara reported that a dilemma was raised before the Sages: Could a child operate on his parent? Would the child thus be liable for wounding the parent? Rav Mattana quoted Leviticus 19:18, \"And you shall love your neighbor as yourself,\" and reasoned that just as people would want others to heal them when the need arises, they must heal others when the need arises. It is prohibited for one to do to others only those actions that one would not want done to oneself. Therefore, it is permitted for one to heal a parent even if the procedure entails wounding the parent.[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 84b](https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.84b.13).",
"Rav Naḥman said in the name of Rabbah bar Abbuha that Leviticus 19:18 requires that even when executing a person, one must choose for the condemned an easy death.[Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 37b](http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_37.html#PARTb), [Sanhedrin 45a](http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_45.html).",
"And other Rabbis counseled that Leviticus 19:18 prohibits taking actions that would make one's spouse unattractive. Thus Rav Judah said in the name of Rav that Leviticus 19:18 requires a man not to become engaged to a woman before he sees her, lest he subsequently see something in her that might make her repulsive to him.[Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 41a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.41a). Similarly, [Rav Hisda](/wiki/Rav_Chisda \"Rav Chisda\") taught that Leviticus 19:18 prohibited one from engaging in marital relations during the daytime, and Abaye explained that this was because one might observe something that should make one's spouse repulsive.[Babylonian Talmud Niddah 17a](http://www.halakhah.com/niddah/niddah_17.html).",
"Tractate [Kilayim](/wiki/Kil%27ayim_%28tractate%29 \"Kil'ayim (tractate)\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of mixing plants, cloth, and animals in Leviticus 19:19\\.[Mishnah Kilayim 1:1–9:10](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Kilayim.1).",
"Reading Leviticus 18:4, \"My ordinances ({{Script/Hebrew\\|מִשְׁפָּטַי}}, *mishpatai*) shall you do, and My statutes ({{Script/Hebrew\\|חֻקֹּתַי}}, *chukotai*) shall you keep,\" the Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the \"ordinances\" ({{Script/Hebrew\\|מִשְׁפָּטִים}}, *mishpatim*) were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And \"statutes\" ({{Script/Hebrew\\|חֻקִּים}}, *chukim*) were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to wool\\-linen mixtures ({{Script/Hebrew\\|שַׁעַטְנֵז}}, *[shatnez](/wiki/Shatnez \"Shatnez\")*, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\), release from levirate marriage ({{Script/Hebrew\\|חליצה}}, *[chalitzah](/wiki/Halizah \"Halizah\")*, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10\\), purification of the person with *[tzaraat](/wiki/Tzaraath \"Tzaraath\")* (in Leviticus 14\\), and the [scapegoat](/wiki/Scapegoat \"Scapegoat\") (in Leviticus 16\\). So that people do not think these \"ordinances\" ({{Script/Hebrew\\|מִשְׁפָּטִים}}, *mishpatim*) to be empty acts, in Leviticus 18:4, God says, \"I am the Lord,\" indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.[Babylonian Talmud Yoma 67b](https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.67b). The Sifra reported the same discussion, and added eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8\\) and purification of a person affected by skin disease ({{Script/Hebrew\\|מְּצֹרָע}}, *[metzora](/wiki/Tzaraath \"Tzaraath\")*, regulated in Leviticus 13–14\\).Sifra, Aharei Mot, pereq 13, ¶ 194:2:11\\. Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Evil Inclination criticizes four laws as without logical basis, and Scripture uses the expression \"statute\" (*chuk*) in connection with each: the laws of (1\\) a [brother's wife](/wiki/Levirate_marriage \"Levirate marriage\") (in Deuteronomy 25:5–10\\), (2\\) mingled kinds (in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\), (3\\) the [scapegoat](/wiki/Scapegoat \"Scapegoat\") (in Leviticus 16\\), and (4\\) the [red cow](/wiki/Red_heifer \"Red heifer\") (in Numbers 19\\).[Numbers Rabbah](/wiki/Numbers_Rabbah \"Numbers Rabbah\") 19:5\\.",
"Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool\\-linen mixture ({{Script/Hebrew\\|שַׁעַטְנֵז}}, *shatnez*, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\), eat pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8\\), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by Leviticus 18 and 20\\), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in Leviticus 20:26, God says, \"I have separated you from the nations to be mine.\" So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 9, ¶ 207:2:13\\.",
"[Hanina ben Hakinai](/wiki/Hanina_ben_Hakinai \"Hanina ben Hakinai\") employed the prohibition of Leviticus 19:19 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1\\) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10\\) (2 and 3\\) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4\\) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9\\), (5\\) during a [Sabbatical year](/wiki/Shmita \"Shmita\") (in violation of Leviticus 25:4\\), (6\\) on a Festival\\-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7\\), (7\\) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1\\) and (8\\) a Nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6\\) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.[Mishnah Makkot 3:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Makkot/Chapter_3/9 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Makkot/Chapter 3/9\"); [Babylonian Talmud Makkot 21b](https://www.sefaria.org/Makkot.21b).",
"Tractate [Orlah](/wiki/Orlah_%28Talmud%29 \"Orlah (Talmud)\") in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the prohibition in Leviticus 19:23–25 against using the fruits of a tree in its first three years.[Mishnah Orlah 1:1–3:9](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Zeraim/Tractate_Orlah \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Orlah\"); Tosefta Orlah 1:1–8; [Jerusalem Talmud Orlah 1a–42a](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Orlah).",
"[Rav Zeira](/wiki/Rav_Zeira \"Rav Zeira\") counted five kinds of *[orlah](/wiki/Orlah \"Orlah\")* (things uncircumcised) in the world: (1\\) uncircumcised ears (as in Jeremiah 6:10\\), (2\\) uncircumcised lips (as in Exodus 6:12\\), (3\\) uncircumcised hearts (as in Deuteronomy 10:16 and Jeremiah 9:26\\), (4\\) uncircumcised flesh (as in Genesis 17:14\\), and (5\\) uncircumcised trees (as in Leviticus 19:23\\). Rav Zeira taught that all the nations are uncircumcised in each of the first four ways, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart, in that their hearts do not allow them to do God's will. And Rav Zeira taught that in the future, God will take away from Israel the uncircumcision of their hearts, and they will not harden their stubborn hearts anymore before their Creator, as Ezekiel 36:26 says, \"And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you an heart of flesh,\" and Genesis 17:11 says, \"And you shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin.\"[Pirke De\\-Rabbi Eliezer](/wiki/Pirke_De-Rabbi_Eliezer \"Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer\"), chapter 29; see also [Genesis Rabbah 46:5](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n439/mode/2up) (Rabbi Akiva counted four kinds of *orlah*).",
"Judah ben Padiah noted [Adam's](/wiki/Adam_%28Bible%29 \"Adam (Bible)\") frailty, for he could not remain loyal even for a single hour to God's charge that he not eat from the [Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil](/wiki/Tree_of_Knowledge_of_Good_and_Evil \"Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil\"), yet in accordance with Leviticus 19:23, Adam's descendants the Israelites waited three years for the fruits of a tree.[Genesis Rabbah 21:7](https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n223/mode/2up).",
"The Mishnah taught that the commandments of Leviticus 19:27 not to round off the side\\-growth of one's head and not to destroy the corners of one's beard are two of only three exceptions to the general rule that every commandment that is a prohibition (whether time\\-dependent or not) governs both men and women. The other exception is the commandment of Leviticus 21:1 for [Kohanim](/wiki/Kohen \"Kohen\") not to become ritually impure for the dead.[Mishnah Kiddushin 1:7](/wiki/s:Translation:Mishnah/Seder_Nashim/Tractate_Kiddushin/Chapter_1/7 \"Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Kiddushin/Chapter 1/7\"); [Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 29a](https://www.sefaria.org/Kiddushin.29a).",
"[Rabbi Eliezer the Great](/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus \"Eliezer ben Hurcanus\") taught that the Torah warns against wronging a stranger in 36, or others say 46, places (including Leviticus 19:33–34\\).See, e.g., {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Exodus\\|22:20\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Exodus\\|23:9\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Leviticus\\|19:33–34\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|1:16\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|10:17–19\\|HE}}; {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|24:14–15\\|HE}} and [17–22](http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0524.htm#17); and {{Bibleverse\\-nb\\|\\|Deuteronomy\\|27:19\\|HE}}. The Gemara went on to cite Rabbi Nathan's interpretation of Exodus 22:20, \"You shall neither wrong a stranger, nor oppress him; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt,\" to teach that one must not taunt another about a flaw that one has oneself.[Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b](http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_59.html#PARTb).",
"Rabbi [Ḥiyya](/wiki/Hiyya_the_Great \"Hiyya the Great\") taught that the words of Leviticus 19:35, \"You shall do no unrighteousness in judgment,\" apply to judgment in law. But a Midrash noted that Leviticus 19:15 already mentioned judgment in law and questioned why Leviticus 19:35 would state the same proposition again and why Leviticus 19:35 uses the words, \"in judgment, in measures.\" The Midrash deduced that Leviticus 19:35 teaches that a person who measures is called a judge, and one who falsifies measurements is called by the five names \"unrighteous,\" \"hated,\" \"repulsive,\" \"accursed,\" and an \"abomination,\" and is the cause of these five evils. Rabbi Banya said in the name of [Rav Huna](/wiki/Rav_Huna \"Rav Huna\") that the government comes and attacks that generation whose measures are false. The Midrash found support for this from [Proverbs](/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs \"Book of Proverbs\") 11:1, \"A false balance is an abomination to the Lord,\" which is followed by Proverbs 11:2, \"When presumption comes, then comes shame.\" Reading [Micah](/wiki/Book_of_Micah \"Book of Micah\") 6:11, \"Shall I be pure with wicked balances?\" [Rabbi Berekiah](/wiki/Rabbi_Berekiah \"Rabbi Berekiah\") said in the name of Rabbi Abba that it is impossible for a generation whose measures are false to be meritorious, for Micah 6:11 continues, \"And with a bag of deceitful weights\" (showing that their holdings would be merely illusory). Rabbi Levi taught that Moses also hinted to Israel that a generation with false measures would be attacked. Deuteronomy 25:13–14 warns, \"You shall not have in your bag diverse weights . . . you shall not have in your house diverse measures.\" But if one does, one will be attacked, as Deuteronomy 25:16, reports, \"For all who do such things, even all who do unrighteously, are an abomination to the Lord your God,\" and then immediately following, Deuteronomy 25:17 says, \"Remember what Amalek did to you (attacking Israel) by the way as you came forth out of Egypt.\"[Ruth Rabbah](/wiki/Ruth_Rabbah \"Ruth Rabbah\") 1:2\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|225px\\|Offering to Molech (illustration from the 1897 *[Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us](/wiki/commons:Category:Bible_Pictures_with_brief_descriptions_by_Charles_Foster \"Category:Bible Pictures with brief descriptions by Charles Foster\")* by Charles Foster)](/wiki/File:Foster_Bible_Pictures_0074-1_Offering_to_Molech.jpg \"Foster Bible Pictures 0074-1 Offering to Molech.jpg\")",
""
] |
In modern interpretation
------------------------
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
### Leviticus chapter 19
In 1877, [August Klostermann](/wiki/August_Klostermann "August Klostermann") observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the “[Holiness Code](/wiki/Holiness_code "Holiness code").”Menahem Haran. “Holiness Code.” In *[Encyclopaedia Judaica](/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica "Encyclopaedia Judaica")*, column 820\. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing, 1972\. LCCN 72\-90254\.
John Gammie ranked Leviticus 19 as one of the high points of Hebrew Bible ethics, along with Amos 5, Micah 6, Ezekiel 18, and [Job](/wiki/Book_of_Job "Book of Job") 31\.John G. Gammie. *Holiness in Israel*, page 34\. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf \& Stock Publishers, 1989\.
In 1950, the [Committee on Jewish Law and Standards](/wiki/Committee_on_Jewish_Law_and_Standards "Committee on Jewish Law and Standards") of [Conservative Judaism](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism "Conservative Judaism") ruled: “Refraining from the use of a motor vehicle is an important aid in the maintenance of the Sabbath spirit of repose. Such restraint aids, moreover, in keeping the members of the family together on the Sabbath. However where a family resides beyond reasonable walking distance from the synagogue, the use of a motor vehicle for the purpose of synagogue attendance shall in no wise be construed as a violation of the Sabbath but, on the contrary, such attendance shall be deemed an expression of loyalty to our faith. . . . \[I]n the spirit of a living and developing Halachah responsive to the changing needs of our people, we declare it to be permitted to use electric lights on the Sabbath for the purpose of enhancing the enjoyment of the Sabbath, or reducing personal discomfort in the performance of a mitzvah.”Morris Adler, [Jacob B. Agus](/wiki/Jacob_B._Agus "Jacob B. Agus"), and Theodore Friedman. “Responsum on the Sabbath.” *Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly*, volume 14 (1950\), pages 112–88\. New York: [Rabbinical Assembly](/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly "Rabbinical Assembly") of America, 1951, in *Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970*, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34\. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997\.
The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement noted that based on Leviticus 19:16, "Nor shall you stand idly by the blood of your fellow," the Talmud expands the obligation to provide medical aid to encompass expenditure of financial resources for that purpose. The Committee noted that the Rabbis taught that God both authorizes us and requires us to heal. The Rabbis found that authorization and imperative in Exodus 21:19–20, according to which an assailant must ensure that the victim is "thoroughly healed," and Deuteronomy 22:2, "And you shall restore the lost property to him." The Talmud understood Exodus 21:19–20 to give "permission for the physician to cure." Based on an extra letter in the Hebrew text of Deuteronomy 22:2, the Talmud found the obligation to restore other people's bodies as well as their property, and hence found an obligation to come to the aid of someone in a life\-threatening situation.[Elliot N. Dorff](/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff "Elliot N. Dorff") and [Aaron L. Mackler](/wiki/Aaron_L._Mackler "Aaron L. Mackler"). [“Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.”](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorffmackler_care.pdf) New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998\. YD 336:1\.1998, in *Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement*. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 321\. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002\. The Committee thus concluded that Jewish law requires that individuals and families, physicians and other health care providers, and the community provide people with at least a decent minimum of health care that preserves life and meets other basic needs. The Committee concluded that the national society bears ultimate responsibility to assure provision of needed health care for people who cannot afford it, and Jewish citizens should support (by lobbying and other means) societal institutions that will fulfill that responsibility.Elliot N. Dorff and Aaron L. Mackler. [“Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.”](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorffmackler_care.pdf) New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998, in *Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement*. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 335–36\.
[William Dever](/wiki/William_G._Dever "William G. Dever") noted that most of the 100 linen and wool fragments, likely textiles used for cultic purposes, that archeologists found at [Kuntillet Ajrud](/wiki/Kuntillet_Ajrud "Kuntillet Ajrud") in the [Sinai Desert](/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula "Sinai Peninsula") (where the climate may better preserve organic materials) adhered to the regulations in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\.William G. Dever. *The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect*, page 178 and note 43\. [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan "Grand Rapids, Michigan"): [William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company](/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Company "William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company"), 2012\.
Dever explained that the Hebrew term in Leviticus 19:36 for “balance,” {{Script/Hebrew\|מֹאזְנַיִם}}, *moznayim*, is a dual noun that means “ears,” apparently because one could see the flanking balance\-pans as resembling two ears. Dever argued that varieties of sheqel weights that archeologists found in well\-stratified archaeological contexts of the late 8th and early 7th centuries help to explain texts like Leviticus 19:36 that refer to the balances with which Israelites used the weights. Dever concluded that the doctored weights that archeologists found give these passages the ring of truth as calling for the reform of an economic system that actually existed.William G. Dever. *The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect*, pages 244–45\.
### Leviticus chapter 20
Leading modern authorities in different [Jewish religious movements](/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements "Jewish religious movements") differ in their interpretation of the law on homosexuality in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13\. From [Orthodox Judaism](/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism "Orthodox Judaism"), in 2010, four leaders of the [Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary](/wiki/Rabbi_Isaac_Elchanan_Theological_Seminary "Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary") of [Yeshiva University](/wiki/Yeshiva_University "Yeshiva University") posted a statement saying that the Torah absolutely prohibits homosexual behavior, and with respect to homosexuality, the study of Torah will place observant Jews at odds with political correctness and the temper of the times, but they must be honest with themselves and with God, regardless of the consequences.[Hershel Schachter](/wiki/Hershel_Schachter "Hershel Schachter"), [Mordechai Willig](/wiki/Mordechai_Willig "Mordechai Willig"), [Michael Rosensweig](/wiki/Michael_Rosensweig "Michael Rosensweig"), and [Mayer Twersky](/wiki/Mayer_Twersky "Mayer Twersky"). ["Torah View on Homosexuality."](http://www.torahweb.org/torah/special/2010/homosexuality.html) (2010\). In 1977, the [Central Conference of American Rabbis](/wiki/Central_Conference_of_American_Rabbis "Central Conference of American Rabbis") of [Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism "Reform Judaism") adopted a resolution encouraging legislation to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults and prohibit discrimination against them.Central Conference of American Rabbis. ["Rights of Homosexuals."](http://www.ccarnet.org/rabbis-speak/resolutions/all/homosexuals-rights-of-1977/) (1977\). In 2006, the [Committee on Jewish Law and Standards](/wiki/Committee_on_Jewish_Law_and_Standards "Committee on Jewish Law and Standards") of [Conservative Judaism](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism "Conservative Judaism") approved by a 13\-to\-12 vote a [responsum](/wiki/Responsa "Responsa") that held while that the explicit biblical ban on anal sex between men remains in effect, for homosexuals who are incapable of maintaining a heterosexual relationship, the rabbinic prohibitions that have been associated with other gay and lesbian intimate acts are superseded based upon the Talmudic principle of the obligation to preserve the human dignity of all people, in effect normalizing the status of gay and lesbian Jews in the Jewish community, while explicitly not ruling on the question of gay marriage.[Elliot N. Dorff](/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff "Elliot N. Dorff"), [Daniel S. Nevins](/wiki/Daniel_S._Nevins "Daniel S. Nevins"), and Avram I. Reisner. ["Homosexuality, Human Dignity \& Halakhah: A Combined Responsum for the Committee on Jewish Law And Standards."](http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/20052010/dorff_nevins_reisner_dignity.pdf) EH 24\.2006b New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006\. Then in 2013, the Central Conference of American Rabbis Responsa Committee adopted a responsum holding that Reform rabbis officiate with the full support of the CCAR at the marriage ceremonies of Jews of the same sex and Reform rabbis may consider these same\-sex marriages to be *kiddushin*, utilizing in the marriage ceremony the Jewish forms and rites that are most appropriate to the partners involved.CCAR Responsa Committee. ["Same\-Sex Marriage as Kiddushin."](http://www.ccarnet.org/responsa/same-sex-marriage-kiddushin/) 5774\.4\. (2013\).
[Nathan MacDonald](/wiki/Nathan_MacDonald_%28Bible_Scholar%29 "Nathan MacDonald (Bible Scholar)") reported some dispute over the exact meaning of the description of the Land of Israel as a "land flowing with milk and honey," as in Leviticus 20:24, as well as Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20\. MacDonald wrote that the term for milk ({{Script/Hebrew\|חָלָב}}, *chalav*) could easily be the word for "fat" ({{Script/Hebrew\|חֵלֶב}}, *chelev*), and the word for honey ({{Script/Hebrew\|דְבָשׁ}}, *devash*) could indicate not bees' honey but a sweet syrup made from fruit. The expression evoked a general sense of the bounty of the land and suggested an ecological richness exhibited in a number of ways, not just with milk and honey. MacDonald noted that the expression was always used to describe a land that the people of Israel had not yet experienced, and thus characterized it as always a future expectation.Nathan MacDonald. *What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times*, page 7\.
|
[
"In modern interpretation\n------------------------",
"The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:",
"### Leviticus chapter 19",
"In 1877, [August Klostermann](/wiki/August_Klostermann \"August Klostermann\") observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the “[Holiness Code](/wiki/Holiness_code \"Holiness code\").”Menahem Haran. “Holiness Code.” In *[Encyclopaedia Judaica](/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica \"Encyclopaedia Judaica\")*, column 820\\. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing, 1972\\. LCCN 72\\-90254\\.",
"John Gammie ranked Leviticus 19 as one of the high points of Hebrew Bible ethics, along with Amos 5, Micah 6, Ezekiel 18, and [Job](/wiki/Book_of_Job \"Book of Job\") 31\\.John G. Gammie. *Holiness in Israel*, page 34\\. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf \\& Stock Publishers, 1989\\.",
"In 1950, the [Committee on Jewish Law and Standards](/wiki/Committee_on_Jewish_Law_and_Standards \"Committee on Jewish Law and Standards\") of [Conservative Judaism](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism \"Conservative Judaism\") ruled: “Refraining from the use of a motor vehicle is an important aid in the maintenance of the Sabbath spirit of repose. Such restraint aids, moreover, in keeping the members of the family together on the Sabbath. However where a family resides beyond reasonable walking distance from the synagogue, the use of a motor vehicle for the purpose of synagogue attendance shall in no wise be construed as a violation of the Sabbath but, on the contrary, such attendance shall be deemed an expression of loyalty to our faith. . . . \\[I]n the spirit of a living and developing Halachah responsive to the changing needs of our people, we declare it to be permitted to use electric lights on the Sabbath for the purpose of enhancing the enjoyment of the Sabbath, or reducing personal discomfort in the performance of a mitzvah.”Morris Adler, [Jacob B. Agus](/wiki/Jacob_B._Agus \"Jacob B. Agus\"), and Theodore Friedman. “Responsum on the Sabbath.” *Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly*, volume 14 (1950\\), pages 112–88\\. New York: [Rabbinical Assembly](/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly \"Rabbinical Assembly\") of America, 1951, in *Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970*, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34\\. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997\\.",
"The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement noted that based on Leviticus 19:16, \"Nor shall you stand idly by the blood of your fellow,\" the Talmud expands the obligation to provide medical aid to encompass expenditure of financial resources for that purpose. The Committee noted that the Rabbis taught that God both authorizes us and requires us to heal. The Rabbis found that authorization and imperative in Exodus 21:19–20, according to which an assailant must ensure that the victim is \"thoroughly healed,\" and Deuteronomy 22:2, \"And you shall restore the lost property to him.\" The Talmud understood Exodus 21:19–20 to give \"permission for the physician to cure.\" Based on an extra letter in the Hebrew text of Deuteronomy 22:2, the Talmud found the obligation to restore other people's bodies as well as their property, and hence found an obligation to come to the aid of someone in a life\\-threatening situation.[Elliot N. Dorff](/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff \"Elliot N. Dorff\") and [Aaron L. Mackler](/wiki/Aaron_L._Mackler \"Aaron L. Mackler\"). [“Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.”](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorffmackler_care.pdf) New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998\\. YD 336:1\\.1998, in *Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement*. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 321\\. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002\\. The Committee thus concluded that Jewish law requires that individuals and families, physicians and other health care providers, and the community provide people with at least a decent minimum of health care that preserves life and meets other basic needs. The Committee concluded that the national society bears ultimate responsibility to assure provision of needed health care for people who cannot afford it, and Jewish citizens should support (by lobbying and other means) societal institutions that will fulfill that responsibility.Elliot N. Dorff and Aaron L. Mackler. [“Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.”](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorffmackler_care.pdf) New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998, in *Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement*. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 335–36\\.",
"[William Dever](/wiki/William_G._Dever \"William G. Dever\") noted that most of the 100 linen and wool fragments, likely textiles used for cultic purposes, that archeologists found at [Kuntillet Ajrud](/wiki/Kuntillet_Ajrud \"Kuntillet Ajrud\") in the [Sinai Desert](/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula \"Sinai Peninsula\") (where the climate may better preserve organic materials) adhered to the regulations in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\.William G. Dever. *The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect*, page 178 and note 43\\. [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan \"Grand Rapids, Michigan\"): [William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company](/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Company \"William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company\"), 2012\\.",
"Dever explained that the Hebrew term in Leviticus 19:36 for “balance,” {{Script/Hebrew\\|מֹאזְנַיִם}}, *moznayim*, is a dual noun that means “ears,” apparently because one could see the flanking balance\\-pans as resembling two ears. Dever argued that varieties of sheqel weights that archeologists found in well\\-stratified archaeological contexts of the late 8th and early 7th centuries help to explain texts like Leviticus 19:36 that refer to the balances with which Israelites used the weights. Dever concluded that the doctored weights that archeologists found give these passages the ring of truth as calling for the reform of an economic system that actually existed.William G. Dever. *The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect*, pages 244–45\\.",
"### Leviticus chapter 20",
"Leading modern authorities in different [Jewish religious movements](/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements \"Jewish religious movements\") differ in their interpretation of the law on homosexuality in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13\\. From [Orthodox Judaism](/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism \"Orthodox Judaism\"), in 2010, four leaders of the [Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary](/wiki/Rabbi_Isaac_Elchanan_Theological_Seminary \"Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary\") of [Yeshiva University](/wiki/Yeshiva_University \"Yeshiva University\") posted a statement saying that the Torah absolutely prohibits homosexual behavior, and with respect to homosexuality, the study of Torah will place observant Jews at odds with political correctness and the temper of the times, but they must be honest with themselves and with God, regardless of the consequences.[Hershel Schachter](/wiki/Hershel_Schachter \"Hershel Schachter\"), [Mordechai Willig](/wiki/Mordechai_Willig \"Mordechai Willig\"), [Michael Rosensweig](/wiki/Michael_Rosensweig \"Michael Rosensweig\"), and [Mayer Twersky](/wiki/Mayer_Twersky \"Mayer Twersky\"). [\"Torah View on Homosexuality.\"](http://www.torahweb.org/torah/special/2010/homosexuality.html) (2010\\). In 1977, the [Central Conference of American Rabbis](/wiki/Central_Conference_of_American_Rabbis \"Central Conference of American Rabbis\") of [Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\") adopted a resolution encouraging legislation to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults and prohibit discrimination against them.Central Conference of American Rabbis. [\"Rights of Homosexuals.\"](http://www.ccarnet.org/rabbis-speak/resolutions/all/homosexuals-rights-of-1977/) (1977\\). In 2006, the [Committee on Jewish Law and Standards](/wiki/Committee_on_Jewish_Law_and_Standards \"Committee on Jewish Law and Standards\") of [Conservative Judaism](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism \"Conservative Judaism\") approved by a 13\\-to\\-12 vote a [responsum](/wiki/Responsa \"Responsa\") that held while that the explicit biblical ban on anal sex between men remains in effect, for homosexuals who are incapable of maintaining a heterosexual relationship, the rabbinic prohibitions that have been associated with other gay and lesbian intimate acts are superseded based upon the Talmudic principle of the obligation to preserve the human dignity of all people, in effect normalizing the status of gay and lesbian Jews in the Jewish community, while explicitly not ruling on the question of gay marriage.[Elliot N. Dorff](/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff \"Elliot N. Dorff\"), [Daniel S. Nevins](/wiki/Daniel_S._Nevins \"Daniel S. Nevins\"), and Avram I. Reisner. [\"Homosexuality, Human Dignity \\& Halakhah: A Combined Responsum for the Committee on Jewish Law And Standards.\"](http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/20052010/dorff_nevins_reisner_dignity.pdf) EH 24\\.2006b New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006\\. Then in 2013, the Central Conference of American Rabbis Responsa Committee adopted a responsum holding that Reform rabbis officiate with the full support of the CCAR at the marriage ceremonies of Jews of the same sex and Reform rabbis may consider these same\\-sex marriages to be *kiddushin*, utilizing in the marriage ceremony the Jewish forms and rites that are most appropriate to the partners involved.CCAR Responsa Committee. [\"Same\\-Sex Marriage as Kiddushin.\"](http://www.ccarnet.org/responsa/same-sex-marriage-kiddushin/) 5774\\.4\\. (2013\\).",
"[Nathan MacDonald](/wiki/Nathan_MacDonald_%28Bible_Scholar%29 \"Nathan MacDonald (Bible Scholar)\") reported some dispute over the exact meaning of the description of the Land of Israel as a \"land flowing with milk and honey,\" as in Leviticus 20:24, as well as Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20\\. MacDonald wrote that the term for milk ({{Script/Hebrew\\|חָלָב}}, *chalav*) could easily be the word for \"fat\" ({{Script/Hebrew\\|חֵלֶב}}, *chelev*), and the word for honey ({{Script/Hebrew\\|דְבָשׁ}}, *devash*) could indicate not bees' honey but a sweet syrup made from fruit. The expression evoked a general sense of the bounty of the land and suggested an ecological richness exhibited in a number of ways, not just with milk and honey. MacDonald noted that the expression was always used to describe a land that the people of Israel had not yet experienced, and thus characterized it as always a future expectation.Nathan MacDonald. *What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times*, page 7\\.",
""
] |
### Leviticus chapter 19
In 1877, [August Klostermann](/wiki/August_Klostermann "August Klostermann") observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the “[Holiness Code](/wiki/Holiness_code "Holiness code").”Menahem Haran. “Holiness Code.” In *[Encyclopaedia Judaica](/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica "Encyclopaedia Judaica")*, column 820\. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing, 1972\. LCCN 72\-90254\.
John Gammie ranked Leviticus 19 as one of the high points of Hebrew Bible ethics, along with Amos 5, Micah 6, Ezekiel 18, and [Job](/wiki/Book_of_Job "Book of Job") 31\.John G. Gammie. *Holiness in Israel*, page 34\. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf \& Stock Publishers, 1989\.
In 1950, the [Committee on Jewish Law and Standards](/wiki/Committee_on_Jewish_Law_and_Standards "Committee on Jewish Law and Standards") of [Conservative Judaism](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism "Conservative Judaism") ruled: “Refraining from the use of a motor vehicle is an important aid in the maintenance of the Sabbath spirit of repose. Such restraint aids, moreover, in keeping the members of the family together on the Sabbath. However where a family resides beyond reasonable walking distance from the synagogue, the use of a motor vehicle for the purpose of synagogue attendance shall in no wise be construed as a violation of the Sabbath but, on the contrary, such attendance shall be deemed an expression of loyalty to our faith. . . . \[I]n the spirit of a living and developing Halachah responsive to the changing needs of our people, we declare it to be permitted to use electric lights on the Sabbath for the purpose of enhancing the enjoyment of the Sabbath, or reducing personal discomfort in the performance of a mitzvah.”Morris Adler, [Jacob B. Agus](/wiki/Jacob_B._Agus "Jacob B. Agus"), and Theodore Friedman. “Responsum on the Sabbath.” *Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly*, volume 14 (1950\), pages 112–88\. New York: [Rabbinical Assembly](/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly "Rabbinical Assembly") of America, 1951, in *Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970*, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34\. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997\.
The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement noted that based on Leviticus 19:16, "Nor shall you stand idly by the blood of your fellow," the Talmud expands the obligation to provide medical aid to encompass expenditure of financial resources for that purpose. The Committee noted that the Rabbis taught that God both authorizes us and requires us to heal. The Rabbis found that authorization and imperative in Exodus 21:19–20, according to which an assailant must ensure that the victim is "thoroughly healed," and Deuteronomy 22:2, "And you shall restore the lost property to him." The Talmud understood Exodus 21:19–20 to give "permission for the physician to cure." Based on an extra letter in the Hebrew text of Deuteronomy 22:2, the Talmud found the obligation to restore other people's bodies as well as their property, and hence found an obligation to come to the aid of someone in a life\-threatening situation.[Elliot N. Dorff](/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff "Elliot N. Dorff") and [Aaron L. Mackler](/wiki/Aaron_L._Mackler "Aaron L. Mackler"). [“Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.”](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorffmackler_care.pdf) New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998\. YD 336:1\.1998, in *Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement*. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 321\. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002\. The Committee thus concluded that Jewish law requires that individuals and families, physicians and other health care providers, and the community provide people with at least a decent minimum of health care that preserves life and meets other basic needs. The Committee concluded that the national society bears ultimate responsibility to assure provision of needed health care for people who cannot afford it, and Jewish citizens should support (by lobbying and other means) societal institutions that will fulfill that responsibility.Elliot N. Dorff and Aaron L. Mackler. [“Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.”](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorffmackler_care.pdf) New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998, in *Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement*. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 335–36\.
[William Dever](/wiki/William_G._Dever "William G. Dever") noted that most of the 100 linen and wool fragments, likely textiles used for cultic purposes, that archeologists found at [Kuntillet Ajrud](/wiki/Kuntillet_Ajrud "Kuntillet Ajrud") in the [Sinai Desert](/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula "Sinai Peninsula") (where the climate may better preserve organic materials) adhered to the regulations in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\.William G. Dever. *The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect*, page 178 and note 43\. [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan "Grand Rapids, Michigan"): [William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company](/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Company "William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company"), 2012\.
Dever explained that the Hebrew term in Leviticus 19:36 for “balance,” {{Script/Hebrew\|מֹאזְנַיִם}}, *moznayim*, is a dual noun that means “ears,” apparently because one could see the flanking balance\-pans as resembling two ears. Dever argued that varieties of sheqel weights that archeologists found in well\-stratified archaeological contexts of the late 8th and early 7th centuries help to explain texts like Leviticus 19:36 that refer to the balances with which Israelites used the weights. Dever concluded that the doctored weights that archeologists found give these passages the ring of truth as calling for the reform of an economic system that actually existed.William G. Dever. *The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect*, pages 244–45\.
|
[
"### Leviticus chapter 19",
"In 1877, [August Klostermann](/wiki/August_Klostermann \"August Klostermann\") observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the “[Holiness Code](/wiki/Holiness_code \"Holiness code\").”Menahem Haran. “Holiness Code.” In *[Encyclopaedia Judaica](/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica \"Encyclopaedia Judaica\")*, column 820\\. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing, 1972\\. LCCN 72\\-90254\\.",
"John Gammie ranked Leviticus 19 as one of the high points of Hebrew Bible ethics, along with Amos 5, Micah 6, Ezekiel 18, and [Job](/wiki/Book_of_Job \"Book of Job\") 31\\.John G. Gammie. *Holiness in Israel*, page 34\\. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf \\& Stock Publishers, 1989\\.",
"In 1950, the [Committee on Jewish Law and Standards](/wiki/Committee_on_Jewish_Law_and_Standards \"Committee on Jewish Law and Standards\") of [Conservative Judaism](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism \"Conservative Judaism\") ruled: “Refraining from the use of a motor vehicle is an important aid in the maintenance of the Sabbath spirit of repose. Such restraint aids, moreover, in keeping the members of the family together on the Sabbath. However where a family resides beyond reasonable walking distance from the synagogue, the use of a motor vehicle for the purpose of synagogue attendance shall in no wise be construed as a violation of the Sabbath but, on the contrary, such attendance shall be deemed an expression of loyalty to our faith. . . . \\[I]n the spirit of a living and developing Halachah responsive to the changing needs of our people, we declare it to be permitted to use electric lights on the Sabbath for the purpose of enhancing the enjoyment of the Sabbath, or reducing personal discomfort in the performance of a mitzvah.”Morris Adler, [Jacob B. Agus](/wiki/Jacob_B._Agus \"Jacob B. Agus\"), and Theodore Friedman. “Responsum on the Sabbath.” *Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly*, volume 14 (1950\\), pages 112–88\\. New York: [Rabbinical Assembly](/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly \"Rabbinical Assembly\") of America, 1951, in *Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970*, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34\\. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997\\.",
"The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement noted that based on Leviticus 19:16, \"Nor shall you stand idly by the blood of your fellow,\" the Talmud expands the obligation to provide medical aid to encompass expenditure of financial resources for that purpose. The Committee noted that the Rabbis taught that God both authorizes us and requires us to heal. The Rabbis found that authorization and imperative in Exodus 21:19–20, according to which an assailant must ensure that the victim is \"thoroughly healed,\" and Deuteronomy 22:2, \"And you shall restore the lost property to him.\" The Talmud understood Exodus 21:19–20 to give \"permission for the physician to cure.\" Based on an extra letter in the Hebrew text of Deuteronomy 22:2, the Talmud found the obligation to restore other people's bodies as well as their property, and hence found an obligation to come to the aid of someone in a life\\-threatening situation.[Elliot N. Dorff](/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff \"Elliot N. Dorff\") and [Aaron L. Mackler](/wiki/Aaron_L._Mackler \"Aaron L. Mackler\"). [“Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.”](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorffmackler_care.pdf) New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998\\. YD 336:1\\.1998, in *Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement*. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 321\\. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002\\. The Committee thus concluded that Jewish law requires that individuals and families, physicians and other health care providers, and the community provide people with at least a decent minimum of health care that preserves life and meets other basic needs. The Committee concluded that the national society bears ultimate responsibility to assure provision of needed health care for people who cannot afford it, and Jewish citizens should support (by lobbying and other means) societal institutions that will fulfill that responsibility.Elliot N. Dorff and Aaron L. Mackler. [“Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.”](https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorffmackler_care.pdf) New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998, in *Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement*. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 335–36\\.",
"[William Dever](/wiki/William_G._Dever \"William G. Dever\") noted that most of the 100 linen and wool fragments, likely textiles used for cultic purposes, that archeologists found at [Kuntillet Ajrud](/wiki/Kuntillet_Ajrud \"Kuntillet Ajrud\") in the [Sinai Desert](/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula \"Sinai Peninsula\") (where the climate may better preserve organic materials) adhered to the regulations in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11\\.William G. Dever. *The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect*, page 178 and note 43\\. [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan \"Grand Rapids, Michigan\"): [William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company](/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Company \"William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company\"), 2012\\.",
"Dever explained that the Hebrew term in Leviticus 19:36 for “balance,” {{Script/Hebrew\\|מֹאזְנַיִם}}, *moznayim*, is a dual noun that means “ears,” apparently because one could see the flanking balance\\-pans as resembling two ears. Dever argued that varieties of sheqel weights that archeologists found in well\\-stratified archaeological contexts of the late 8th and early 7th centuries help to explain texts like Leviticus 19:36 that refer to the balances with which Israelites used the weights. Dever concluded that the doctored weights that archeologists found give these passages the ring of truth as calling for the reform of an economic system that actually existed.William G. Dever. *The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect*, pages 244–45\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
### Flashbacks
In 2010, Grace ([Carrie Preston](/wiki/Carrie_Preston "Carrie Preston")) attends Finch's ([Michael Emerson](/wiki/Michael_Emerson "Michael Emerson")) funeral, being the only one in attendance and laments how no one else was there to appreciate him.
### Present day
After helping the Machine with relevant numbers, Root ([Amy Acker](/wiki/Amy_Acker "Amy Acker")) locates Reese ([Jim Caviezel](/wiki/Jim_Caviezel "Jim Caviezel")) and Shaw ([Sarah Shahi](/wiki/Sarah_Shahi "Sarah Shahi")) and helps them sneak around the city while avoiding cameras following Samaritan's activation. Having failed to locate Finch, Greer ([John Nolan](/wiki/John_Nolan_%28British_actor%29 "John Nolan (British actor)")) has decided to locate his closest connection: Grace.
Decima agents attempt to kidnap Grace but are subdued by Reese and Shaw. They take Grace to the precinct with Fusco ([Kevin Chapman](/wiki/Kevin_Chapman "Kevin Chapman")). They evade many attempts by hitmen to retrieve her; Root causes an explosion in another building to distract the police and allows them to escape. However, Greer's henchman rams their car and kidnaps Grace. Reese, Shaw and Root are forced to escape to [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey") as it's off\-limits to Samaritan. They go to the [Red Hook Container Terminal](/wiki/Red_Hook_Container_Terminal "Red Hook Container Terminal") as a possible lead and after fighting off Decima agents, they find Grace's location in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn") and head there, although Root stays behind due to orders from the Machine.
Greer questions Grace, asking her about her life and her connection to Finch. She is oblivious to the fact that he is alive but Greer still does not reveal his status. Reese and Shaw arrive at the location but they only find a technician who commits suicide to avoid speaking. Greer talks to them through a surveillance feed and tells them to give them Finch in exchange for Grace. Thanks to a tip from Root, Reese and Shaw find Finch outside Grace's house, who planned to save her before realizing it was too late. Finch agrees to the exchange but tells Reese and Shaw that if Decima harms Grace, they must kill them.
The next day, the exchange takes place at a bridge. A blindfolded Grace is allowed to walk to one side while Finch walks towards the other. They briefly touch when she almost falls but she still doesn't recognize it's Finch. Grace is safely escorted off the bridge while Finch is taken by Decima agents. At her house, Grace is given (unknown to her, by Finch) a fake ID so she can flee to [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") with a new job and to avoid Decima. In another location, Greer shows Garrison ([John Doman](/wiki/John_Doman "John Doman")) the use of Samaritan to catch a terrorist and earns his trust. Unknown to Garrison, Samaritan starts losing its feeds. With its beta test complete, Samaritan shuts down. Root then shows to Reese and Shaw that she has stolen seven computer servers meant for Samaritan. The episode ends as Greer finally meets with Finch at an undisclosed building to talk.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"### Flashbacks",
"In 2010, Grace ([Carrie Preston](/wiki/Carrie_Preston \"Carrie Preston\")) attends Finch's ([Michael Emerson](/wiki/Michael_Emerson \"Michael Emerson\")) funeral, being the only one in attendance and laments how no one else was there to appreciate him.",
"### Present day",
"After helping the Machine with relevant numbers, Root ([Amy Acker](/wiki/Amy_Acker \"Amy Acker\")) locates Reese ([Jim Caviezel](/wiki/Jim_Caviezel \"Jim Caviezel\")) and Shaw ([Sarah Shahi](/wiki/Sarah_Shahi \"Sarah Shahi\")) and helps them sneak around the city while avoiding cameras following Samaritan's activation. Having failed to locate Finch, Greer ([John Nolan](/wiki/John_Nolan_%28British_actor%29 \"John Nolan (British actor)\")) has decided to locate his closest connection: Grace.",
"Decima agents attempt to kidnap Grace but are subdued by Reese and Shaw. They take Grace to the precinct with Fusco ([Kevin Chapman](/wiki/Kevin_Chapman \"Kevin Chapman\")). They evade many attempts by hitmen to retrieve her; Root causes an explosion in another building to distract the police and allows them to escape. However, Greer's henchman rams their car and kidnaps Grace. Reese, Shaw and Root are forced to escape to [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\") as it's off\\-limits to Samaritan. They go to the [Red Hook Container Terminal](/wiki/Red_Hook_Container_Terminal \"Red Hook Container Terminal\") as a possible lead and after fighting off Decima agents, they find Grace's location in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\") and head there, although Root stays behind due to orders from the Machine.",
"Greer questions Grace, asking her about her life and her connection to Finch. She is oblivious to the fact that he is alive but Greer still does not reveal his status. Reese and Shaw arrive at the location but they only find a technician who commits suicide to avoid speaking. Greer talks to them through a surveillance feed and tells them to give them Finch in exchange for Grace. Thanks to a tip from Root, Reese and Shaw find Finch outside Grace's house, who planned to save her before realizing it was too late. Finch agrees to the exchange but tells Reese and Shaw that if Decima harms Grace, they must kill them.",
"The next day, the exchange takes place at a bridge. A blindfolded Grace is allowed to walk to one side while Finch walks towards the other. They briefly touch when she almost falls but she still doesn't recognize it's Finch. Grace is safely escorted off the bridge while Finch is taken by Decima agents. At her house, Grace is given (unknown to her, by Finch) a fake ID so she can flee to [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") with a new job and to avoid Decima. In another location, Greer shows Garrison ([John Doman](/wiki/John_Doman \"John Doman\")) the use of Samaritan to catch a terrorist and earns his trust. Unknown to Garrison, Samaritan starts losing its feeds. With its beta test complete, Samaritan shuts down. Root then shows to Reese and Shaw that she has stolen seven computer servers meant for Samaritan. The episode ends as Greer finally meets with Finch at an undisclosed building to talk.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Angel Dimitrov was born on 1 January 1927 in the village of Mogilino, but later lived in the city of Rousse, where he graduated from high school. In 1950 he was elected secretary of the district leadership of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BANU), and in 1951 was selected as regional correspondent. From 1952 to 1959 he served as Secretary of the District Executive Committee before going on to serve as the Chairman from 1959 to 1962\.
In 1962 he was elected a member of parliament and placed in charge of "political education" of the BANU. Additionally, he served as Deputy Chairman of the Sofia City People's Council from 1964 till 1972\. In 1981 he became a member of the State Council of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, while remaining active in the BANU. While on the State Council, he served as the head of International Relations for the BANU from 21 May 1986 to 2 December 1989\. On 2 December 1989 he was elected Secretary of the BANU. Later that same month he was appointed First Deputy Chairman of the State Council of the People's Republic of Bulgaria.
While acting as the head of International Relations for BANU, Dimitrov was a member of the World Peace Council. He helped promote Bulgarian disarmament during the 1980s, as well as promoting the Balkans as a nuclear\-free zone. This proposal helped bring the BANU international approval. Dimitrov did much to push this idea forward, meeting with Western politicians in Berlin, Helsinki, and Brussels. He was a steadfast supporter of détente. He also participated in numerous conferences between various agrarian parties and movements around the world, which he used as a platform to promote disarmament.
In 1990, Dimitrov took part in round table discussions on the end of the People's Republic, but the BANU delegation was forced to withdraw I February 1990 after being excluded from the new government of [Andrey Lukanov](/wiki/Andrey_Lukanov "Andrey Lukanov") in February 1990\. This ended the 50\-year coalition between the Bulgarian Communist Party and the BANU. At the 36th Congress of the Bulgarian National Agrarian Union in March 1990 the leadership of the BANU, including Dimitrov, filed resignation for failing to retain a seat at the National Round Table. At the end of that month, the National Round Table submitting an amendment to the Bulgarian Constitution that eliminated the State Council, replacing it with a single head of state. This was passed on 3 April 1990, replacing the State Council with a President and eliminating Dimitrov's position. The President of the State Council, [Petar Mladenov](/wiki/Petar_Mladenov "Petar Mladenov") became the President of the Republic.
Although he had resigned his formal leadership role, Dimitrov continued to be involved in the BANU, working to maintain party unity. He died on 8 October 2005\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Angel Dimitrov was born on 1 January 1927 in the village of Mogilino, but later lived in the city of Rousse, where he graduated from high school. In 1950 he was elected secretary of the district leadership of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BANU), and in 1951 was selected as regional correspondent. From 1952 to 1959 he served as Secretary of the District Executive Committee before going on to serve as the Chairman from 1959 to 1962\\.",
"In 1962 he was elected a member of parliament and placed in charge of \"political education\" of the BANU. Additionally, he served as Deputy Chairman of the Sofia City People's Council from 1964 till 1972\\. In 1981 he became a member of the State Council of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, while remaining active in the BANU. While on the State Council, he served as the head of International Relations for the BANU from 21 May 1986 to 2 December 1989\\. On 2 December 1989 he was elected Secretary of the BANU. Later that same month he was appointed First Deputy Chairman of the State Council of the People's Republic of Bulgaria.",
"While acting as the head of International Relations for BANU, Dimitrov was a member of the World Peace Council. He helped promote Bulgarian disarmament during the 1980s, as well as promoting the Balkans as a nuclear\\-free zone. This proposal helped bring the BANU international approval. Dimitrov did much to push this idea forward, meeting with Western politicians in Berlin, Helsinki, and Brussels. He was a steadfast supporter of détente. He also participated in numerous conferences between various agrarian parties and movements around the world, which he used as a platform to promote disarmament.",
"In 1990, Dimitrov took part in round table discussions on the end of the People's Republic, but the BANU delegation was forced to withdraw I February 1990 after being excluded from the new government of [Andrey Lukanov](/wiki/Andrey_Lukanov \"Andrey Lukanov\") in February 1990\\. This ended the 50\\-year coalition between the Bulgarian Communist Party and the BANU. At the 36th Congress of the Bulgarian National Agrarian Union in March 1990 the leadership of the BANU, including Dimitrov, filed resignation for failing to retain a seat at the National Round Table. At the end of that month, the National Round Table submitting an amendment to the Bulgarian Constitution that eliminated the State Council, replacing it with a single head of state. This was passed on 3 April 1990, replacing the State Council with a President and eliminating Dimitrov's position. The President of the State Council, [Petar Mladenov](/wiki/Petar_Mladenov \"Petar Mladenov\") became the President of the Republic.",
"Although he had resigned his formal leadership role, Dimitrov continued to be involved in the BANU, working to maintain party unity. He died on 8 October 2005\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Most of the book takes place in Gramarye, the name that White gives to Britain, and chronicles the youth and education of [King Arthur](/wiki/King_Arthur "King Arthur"), his rule as a king, and the romance between [Sir Lancelot](/wiki/Lancelot "Lancelot") and [Queen Guinevere](/wiki/Guinevere "Guinevere"). The story starts in the final years of the rule of King [Uther Pendragon](/wiki/Uther_Pendragon "Uther Pendragon").
### [The Sword in the Stone](/wiki/The_Sword_in_the_Stone_%28novel%29 "The Sword in the Stone (novel)")
The first part, "The Sword in the Stone" (first published 1938\), chronicles Arthur's upbringing by his foster father [Sir Ector](/wiki/Sir_Ector "Sir Ector"), his rivalry and friendship with his foster brother [Kay](/wiki/Sir_Kay "Sir Kay"), and his initial training by Merlyn, a wizard who lives through time backwards. Merlyn, knowing the boy's destiny, teaches Arthur (known as "Wart") what it means to be a good king by turning him into various kinds of animals: fish, hawk, ant, goose, and badger. Each of the transformations is meant to teach Wart a lesson, which will prepare him for his future life. Merlyn instills in Arthur the concept that the only justifiable reason for war is to prevent another from going to war and that contemporary human governments and powerful people exemplify the worst aspects of the rule of Might.
### *[The Queen of Air and Darkness](/wiki/The_Queen_of_Air_and_Darkness "The Queen of Air and Darkness")*
White sets the stage for Arthur's demise by introducing the [Orkney](/wiki/Orkney "Orkney") clan and detailing Arthur's seduction by their mother, his half\-sister [Queen Morgause](/wiki/Morgause "Morgause"). While the young king suppresses initial rebellions, Merlyn leads him to envision a means of harnessing potentially destructive Might for the cause of Right: the [chivalric order](/wiki/Chivalric_order "Chivalric order") of the [Round Table](/wiki/Round_Table "Round Table").
### *[The Ill\-Made Knight](/wiki/The_Ill-Made_Knight "The Ill-Made Knight")*
The focus shifts from King Arthur to the story of Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere's forbidden love, the means they adopt to hide their affair from the King (although he already knows of it from Merlyn), and its effect on [Elaine](/wiki/Elaine_of_Corbenic "Elaine of Corbenic"), Lancelot's sometime lover and the mother of his son [Galahad](/wiki/Galahad "Galahad").
### *[The Candle in the Wind](/wiki/The_Candle_in_the_Wind "The Candle in the Wind")*
[Mordred](/wiki/Mordred "Mordred")'s hatred of his father and [Sir Agravaine's](/wiki/Agravain "Agravain") hatred of Lancelot cause the eventual downfall of Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot, and the entire ideal kingdom of [Camelot](/wiki/Camelot "Camelot"). The "Candle in the Wind" is an allegory to the hope of progress. Arthur sends little Tom (Sir Thomas Mallory) to be a vessel and carry on his ideas from his famous round table.
### *[The Book of Merlyn](/wiki/The_Book_of_Merlyn "The Book of Merlyn")*
Published separately following White's death, this book chronicles Arthur's final lessons from [Merlyn](/wiki/Merlin "Merlin").
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Most of the book takes place in Gramarye, the name that White gives to Britain, and chronicles the youth and education of [King Arthur](/wiki/King_Arthur \"King Arthur\"), his rule as a king, and the romance between [Sir Lancelot](/wiki/Lancelot \"Lancelot\") and [Queen Guinevere](/wiki/Guinevere \"Guinevere\"). The story starts in the final years of the rule of King [Uther Pendragon](/wiki/Uther_Pendragon \"Uther Pendragon\").",
"### [The Sword in the Stone](/wiki/The_Sword_in_the_Stone_%28novel%29 \"The Sword in the Stone (novel)\")",
"The first part, \"The Sword in the Stone\" (first published 1938\\), chronicles Arthur's upbringing by his foster father [Sir Ector](/wiki/Sir_Ector \"Sir Ector\"), his rivalry and friendship with his foster brother [Kay](/wiki/Sir_Kay \"Sir Kay\"), and his initial training by Merlyn, a wizard who lives through time backwards. Merlyn, knowing the boy's destiny, teaches Arthur (known as \"Wart\") what it means to be a good king by turning him into various kinds of animals: fish, hawk, ant, goose, and badger. Each of the transformations is meant to teach Wart a lesson, which will prepare him for his future life. Merlyn instills in Arthur the concept that the only justifiable reason for war is to prevent another from going to war and that contemporary human governments and powerful people exemplify the worst aspects of the rule of Might.",
"### *[The Queen of Air and Darkness](/wiki/The_Queen_of_Air_and_Darkness \"The Queen of Air and Darkness\")*",
"White sets the stage for Arthur's demise by introducing the [Orkney](/wiki/Orkney \"Orkney\") clan and detailing Arthur's seduction by their mother, his half\\-sister [Queen Morgause](/wiki/Morgause \"Morgause\"). While the young king suppresses initial rebellions, Merlyn leads him to envision a means of harnessing potentially destructive Might for the cause of Right: the [chivalric order](/wiki/Chivalric_order \"Chivalric order\") of the [Round Table](/wiki/Round_Table \"Round Table\").",
"### *[The Ill\\-Made Knight](/wiki/The_Ill-Made_Knight \"The Ill-Made Knight\")*",
"The focus shifts from King Arthur to the story of Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere's forbidden love, the means they adopt to hide their affair from the King (although he already knows of it from Merlyn), and its effect on [Elaine](/wiki/Elaine_of_Corbenic \"Elaine of Corbenic\"), Lancelot's sometime lover and the mother of his son [Galahad](/wiki/Galahad \"Galahad\").",
"### *[The Candle in the Wind](/wiki/The_Candle_in_the_Wind \"The Candle in the Wind\")*",
"[Mordred](/wiki/Mordred \"Mordred\")'s hatred of his father and [Sir Agravaine's](/wiki/Agravain \"Agravain\") hatred of Lancelot cause the eventual downfall of Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot, and the entire ideal kingdom of [Camelot](/wiki/Camelot \"Camelot\"). The \"Candle in the Wind\" is an allegory to the hope of progress. Arthur sends little Tom (Sir Thomas Mallory) to be a vessel and carry on his ideas from his famous round table.",
"### *[The Book of Merlyn](/wiki/The_Book_of_Merlyn \"The Book of Merlyn\")*",
"Published separately following White's death, this book chronicles Arthur's final lessons from [Merlyn](/wiki/Merlin \"Merlin\").",
""
] |
Career under Li Cunxu
---------------------
### During Jin
Li Cunxu decided to lead the army to relieve Lu Prefecture himself, and as he advanced there, he caught the Later Liang army, which was not expecting him to be able to come so quickly, by surprise. He had Li Siyuan lead the assault on the northeast side, and Zhou Dewei lead the assault on the northwest side. The Later Liang army surrounding the city collapsed, and the siege was lifted.
In 910, another major confrontation between Jin and Later Liang began to take shape, as Zhu Quanzhong, believing that his vassal [Wang Rong](/wiki/Wang_Rong_%28warlord%29 "Wang Rong (warlord)") – the Prince of [Zhao](/wiki/Zhao_%28Five_Dynasties_period%29 "Zhao (Five Dynasties period)") and the military governor of Wushun Circuit (headquartered in modern [Shijiazhuang](/wiki/Shijiazhuang "Shijiazhuang"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")) – might be considering to align with Jin and turning against Later Liang. He therefore decided to, by trick, seize Wushun's Shen (深州) and Ji (冀州, both in modern [Hengshui](/wiki/Hengshui "Hengshui"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")) Prefectures and slaughter the Wushun garrisons at those prefectures, with the intent to then use the prefectures as the base for taking over Wushun entirely. When this occurred, Wang Rong and his ally [Wang Chuzhi](/wiki/Wang_Chuzhi "Wang Chuzhi"), the military governor of Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern [Baoding](/wiki/Baoding "Baoding"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")) turned against Later Liang and sought aid from Li Cunxu. Li Cunxu launched an army to head to the aid of Wang Rong and Wang Chuzhi. Subsequently, in a battle that Li Siyuan served as a battlefield commander, at Boxiang (柏鄉, in modern [Xingtai](/wiki/Xingtai "Xingtai"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")), the Jin army crushed the Later Liang army, securing Wushun (which was then changed back to its Tang name Chengde (成德)) and Yiwu from further Later Liang attack.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 267](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7267 "資治通鑑/卷267").
In 912, Li Cunxu launched a major campaign, intending to destroy the [Yan](/wiki/Yan_%28Five_Dynasties_period%29 "Yan (Five Dynasties period)") state ruled by [Liu Shouguang](/wiki/Liu_Shouguang "Liu Shouguang"), with Zhou in command of the overall operations. As part of the campaign, Li Siyuan was in charge of attacking Ying Prefecture (瀛州, in modern [Cangzhou](/wiki/Cangzhou "Cangzhou"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")), and he was successful in getting its prefect, Zhao Jing (趙敬), to surrender. Subsequently, when Liu sent his major general [Yuan Xingqin](/wiki/Yuan_Xingqin "Yuan Xingqin") to his northern borders with the [Khitan Empire](/wiki/Liao_dynasty "Liao dynasty") to await potential aid from Khitan's [Emperor Taizu](/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao "Emperor Taizu of Liao"), Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to intercept Yuan's army. Li Siyuan first attacked Wu Prefecture (武州, in modern [Zhangjiakou](/wiki/Zhangjiakou "Zhangjiakou"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")), and its prefect Gao Xinggui (高行珪) surrendered. Yuan then attacked Wu Prefecture, and when Li Siyuan came to its aid, Yuan tried to withdraw, but Li Siyuan subsequently engaged him eight times and forced him into surrendering. Li Siyuan took Yuan as an adoptive son and kept Yuan under his command. (Gao Xinggui's brother [Gao Xingzhou](/wiki/Gao_Xingzhou "Gao Xingzhou"), whom Gao Xinggui sent to seek aid from Li Siyuan, also joined Li Siyuan's army and subsequently often commanded Li Siyuan's guards along with Li Siyuan's adoptive son [Li Congke](/wiki/Li_Congke "Li Congke") – the son of Li Siyuan's concubine Lady Wei.) Jin forces were subsequently able to destroy Yan and add its territory to Jin.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 268](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7268 "資治通鑑/卷268"). (In 915, when Li Cunxu heard of Yuan's ferocity in battle, he requested that Li Siyuan send Yuan to serve under his own personal army, and Li Siyuan, unwilling to resist the order, reluctantly sent Yuan to Li Cunxu. Li Cunxu also wanted Gao Xingzhou and tried to entice Gao with promotion offers, but Gao declined to leave Li Siyuan's command.)*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 269](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7269 "資治通鑑/卷269").
In 916, when the Later Liang major general [Liu Xun](/wiki/Liu_Xun_%28Later_Liang%29 "Liu Xun (Later Liang)") tried to attack Wei Prefecture (魏州, in modern [Handan](/wiki/Handan "Handan"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")), which had recently surrendered to Jin – an attack that Li Cunxu anticipated and therefore reacted to immediately – Li Siyuan and his adoptive brother [Li Cunshen](/wiki/Li_Cunshen "Li Cunshen") served as main commanders under Li Cunxu. In the subsequent battle, the Jin army crushed the Later Liang army, ending Liu's hopes of defeating Li Cunxu there. When the Later Liang military governor of Zhaode Circuit (昭德, headquartered in modern Handan) subsequently abandoned the circuit in light of Liu's defeat, Li Cunxu merged Zhaode's three prefectures, which had previously belonged to Tianxiong Circuit (天雄, headquartered at Wei) back into Tianxiong, and made Li Siyuan the prefect of Zhaode's former capital Xiang Prefecture (相州). When Jin forces subsequently approached Cang Prefecture (滄州, in modern Cangzhou), Later Liang's military governor of Shunhua Circuit (順化, headquartered at Cang), [Dai Siyuan](/wiki/Dai_Siyuan "Dai Siyuan"), abandoned it and fled back to Later Liang territory. Dai's officer Mao Zhang (毛璋) surrendered Cang to Jin. Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to pacify the region, and Li Siyuan subsequently sent Mao away to pay homage to Li Cunxu. Li Siyuan was subsequently made the military governor of Anguo Circuit (安國, headquartered in modern Xingtai). It was there where one of his officers, [An Chonghui](/wiki/An_Chonghui "An Chonghui"), became a key trusted staffer.
In 917, Khitan's Emperor Taizu launched a major attack on You Prefecture (幽州, in modern [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing")) – the former capital of Yan and now the capital of Jin's Lulong Circuit (盧龍), where Zhou served as military commander. Zhou sought emergency aid, but Li Cunxu was initially unsure what to do, given that he was in constant battles with Later Liang and was hesitant to divide his army to go to Zhou's aid. However, Li Siyuan, Li Cunshen, and Yan Bao (閻寶) all advocated for an army to be sent to aid Zhou. Li Cunxu agreed, and sent Li Siyuan as the commander of the forward troops, followed by Yan Bao, and then by Li Cunshen. The Jin relief forces were subsequently able to defeat the Khitan siege troops and lift the siege on You.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 270](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7270 "資治通鑑/卷270").
In fall 918, Li Cunxu planned to launch a major attack on Later Liang, and he gathered troops directly under his command at Wei. Zhou, Li Cunshen, and Li Siyuan all led their own troops to rendezvous with him there as well, along with troops sent by Wang Chuzhi. He crossed the [Yellow River](/wiki/Yellow_River "Yellow River") into Later Liang territory, with the intent of destroying Later Liang. Subsequently, the joint Jin forces encountered the Later Liang forces under [He Gui](/wiki/He_Gui "He Gui") at Huliu Slope (胡柳陂, in modern [Heze](/wiki/Heze "Heze"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")). The battle was initially a major Jin defeat, with Zhou being killed in the battle. In the confusion of the battle, Li Siyuan believed that Li Cunxu had already retreated north of the Yellow River, and therefore retreated. Li Cunxu, however, was subsequently able to turn the battle around and defeat He Gui's Later Liang forces, causing the battle to be an overall stalemate in which both sides lost over two thirds of their armies, before withdrawing back north. When Li Siyuan rendezvoused with him, Li Cunxu was displeased, believing that Li Siyuan had thought that he died and was abandoning the battle. However, as Li Congke, who got separated from Li Siyuan during the battle and ended up fighting under Li Cunxu during the second stage of the battle, had great contributions during it, Li Cunxu did not punish Li Siyuan, although he did not treat Li Siyuan with as great respect subsequently.
In 921, Wang Rong was killed in a coup instigated by his adoptive son [Wang Deming](/wiki/Zhang_Wenli "Zhang Wenli"), who subsequently took over the circuit, changed his name back to the birth name of Zhang Wenli, and slaughtered Wang Rong's family. Li Cunxu sent an army to try to destroy Zhang, commanded by Yan Bao and Shi Jiantang (史建瑭), but was contemplating leading an army himself as well after Shi was killed in battle. Dai, who was then the overall Later Liang commander of the army against Jin, tried to take advantage of the situation, but his attack on the Yellow River ford city of Desheng (德勝, in modern [Puyang](/wiki/Puyang "Puyang"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")) was repelled by Li Cunxu himself, aided by Li Siyuan and Li Cunshen. Li Cunxu subsequently gave Li Siyuan the title of deputy commander of the [Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese "Han Chinese") and non\-Han cavalry and infantry forces, and gave him the honorary [chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Tang_dynasty "Chancellor of the Tang dynasty") title of *Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi* (同中書門下平章事). He then left Li Siyuan and Li Cunshen in defense of Desheng, while heading to join the Zhao campaign himself. When Dai subsequently tried to attack Wei Prefecture, Li Siyuan took his army to intercept Dai while warning Wei Prefecture. Dai thereafter changed directions and put Desheng under siege, but withdrew when Li Cunxu, hearing news of Dai's incursion, returned.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 271](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7271 "資治通鑑/卷271").
In spring 922, in light of a Khitan incursion, Li Cunxu made Li Cunshen the military governor of Lulong (aka You Prefecture), to defend against further Khitan attack. Li Siyuan was made the military governor of Henghai Circuit (previously known as Shunhua when under Later Liang rule), which Li Cunshen had been the military governor of, but remained with Li Cunxu's army.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 272](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7272 "資治通鑑/卷272").
### During Later Tang
### During the destruction of Later Liang
In summer 923, Li Cunxu, then at Wei Prefecture, declared himself the emperor of a continuation of Tang — historically known as [Later Tang](/wiki/Later_Tang "Later Tang"). However, at the same time as his declaration, the Later Tang state was facing several serious threats that caused its subjects to be distressed about its prospects — the Khitan Empire was continuing to harass Lulong Circuit; Later Liang had just recently seized Wei Prefecture (衛州, in modern Puyang, different than the Wei Prefecture referred to above); and Zhaoyi Circuit, previously governed by Li Sizhao but under the control of his son [Li Jitao](/wiki/Li_Jitao "Li Jitao") after his battlefield death during the Zhao campaign, had just rebelled against Later Tang and pledged allegiance to Later Liang. At this juncture, though, an officer of Later Liang's Tianping Circuit (天平, headquartered in modern [Tai'an](/wiki/Tai%27an "Tai'an"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")), Lu Shunmi (盧順密), defected to Later Tang, and revealed to Li Cunxu that Dai Siyuan, who was the military governor of Tianping, had left two unpopular officers, Liu Suiyan (劉遂嚴) and Yan Yong (燕顒), in defense of Tianping's capital Yun Prefecture (鄆州), and that a surprise attack on Yun could cause it to fall. When Li Cunxu consulted Li Siyuan, Li Siyuan, who had long wanted to have a specular achievement since the Battle of Huliu Slope, advocated carrying out this attack and volunteered to command his own troops. Li Cunxu agreed, and Li Siyuan thereafter led 5,000 elite soldiers and launched a surprise attack across the Yellow River, catching Liu and Yan unaware. When he quickly entered the city, Liu and Yan fled to the Later Liang capital [Daliang](/wiki/Kaifeng "Kaifeng"). Li Cunxu thereafter commissioned Li Siyuan as the military governor of Tianping. Subsequently, the Later Liang emperor [Zhu Youzhen](/wiki/Zhu_Youzhen "Zhu Youzhen") (Zhu Quanzhong's son) replaced Dai with [Wang Yanzhang](/wiki/Wang_Yanzhang "Wang Yanzhang"), who tried to cut off the communications between Yun and the rest of Later Tang territory north of the Yellow River by capturing the fords at Desheng and Yangliu (楊劉, in modern [Liaocheng](/wiki/Liaocheng "Liaocheng"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")). He captured Desheng quickly, but Yangliu's defenses held under the defense of Li Zhou (李周), and Li Cunxu was subsequently able to lift the siege on Yangliu, allowing Yun to remain in contact with Later Tang proper.
After the failure to capture Yangliu, Zhu replaced Wang with [Duan Ning](/wiki/Duan_Ning "Duan Ning"), who prepared an ambitious four\-prong attack against Later Tang:
1. [Dong Zhang](/wiki/Dong_Zhang "Dong Zhang") would head toward Taiyuan.
2. [Huo Yanwei](/wiki/Huo_Yanwei "Huo Yanwei") would head toward Zhen Prefecture (鎮州, formerly Zhao's capital).
3. Wang and Zhang Hanjie (張漢傑) would head toward Yun Prefecture.
4. Duan himself, along with [Du Yanqiu](/wiki/Wang_Yanqiu "Wang Yanqiu"), would confront Li Cunxu.
However, the Later Liang officer [Kang Yanxiao](/wiki/Kang_Yanxiao "Kang Yanxiao"), at this junction, defected to Later Tang, revealing Duan's plan to the Later Tang emperor and pointing out that the plan left the Later Liang capital Daliang defenseless, and pointing out that Wang's and Zhang Hanjie's army was the weakest of the four prongs and could easily be defeated. Li Cunxu decided to take the risky move himself, and advanced to Yun to join forces with Li Siyuan, and then engage Wang and Zhang Hanjie. He defeated them, capturing both Wang and Zhang Hanjie at Zhongdu (中都, in modern [Jining](/wiki/Jining "Jining"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")). Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to try to persuade Wang to submit to him, but Wang, wanting death, disrespectfully stated to Li Siyuan, "Are you not Miaojilie?" Li Cunxu subsequently, knowing that Wang would not submit, executed Wang.
Li Cunxu weighed his options, as most of his officers suggested attacking east and capturing Later Liang's territory to the east of Yun. However, Kang and Li Siyuan both advocated attacking Daliang before Duan could withdraw to aid the city. Li Cunxu accepted their suggestion, and he continued to proceed toward Daliang with Li Siyuan as his forward commander. With Duan's army trapped north of the Yellow River and unable to come to his rescue, Zhu saw the situation as hopeless. He ordered his general Huangfu Lin (皇甫麟) to kill him; Huangfu did, and then committed suicide himself. When Li Siyuan reached the gates of Daliang, he met no resistance, and he entered and pacified the city. When Li Cunxu subsequently arrived, he happily stated to Li Siyuan, "I have gained the land under the heavens due to the accomplishment of you, Lord, and your son. I will share this land with you." He subsequently bestowed the greater honorary chancellor title of *Zhongshu Ling* (中書令, head of [Zhongshu Sheng](/wiki/Zhongshu_Sheng "Zhongshu Sheng")) on Li Siyuan.
### During Li Cunxu's subsequent governance
In spring 924, Khitan forces made an incursion into Lulong territory, going as deep into Later Tang as Waqiao Pass (瓦橋關, in modern Baoding). Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to command an army against the Khitan forces, with Huo Yanwei, now a Later Tang general, as his deputy. However, soon thereafter, Khitan forces withdrew, so he recalled Li Siyuan, instead leaving Duan Ning — now bearing the imperially\-bestowed name of Li Shaoqin — and Dong Zhang at Waqiao Pass to defend it. Shortly after, though, there was yet another report of a Khitan incursion, so Li Siyuan was ordered to stop at Xing Prefecture (邢州, the capital of Anguo Circuit) to see if the Khitan would attack, while Li Congke and [Li Shaobin](/wiki/Zhao_Dejun "Zhao Dejun") were ordered to command cavalry forces to defend against the attack as well. Around this time, Li Siyuan, who, like other generals, feared false accusations by Li Cunxu's favored eunuchs and [performers](/wiki/Chinese_opera "Chinese opera"), sought to be relieved of his command, but Li Cunxu did not accept his resignation.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 273](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7273 "資治通鑑/卷273").
In summer 924, the Anyi Circuit (安義, i.e., formerly Zhaoyi) officer Yang Li (楊立), who had previously been trusted by Li Jitao, whom Li Cunxu had executed after his conquest of Later Liang, mutinied and seized control of Anyi's capital Lu Prefecture. Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to command the forces against Yang, with Yuan Xingqin — now with the imperially\-bestowed name of Li Sharing — and Zhang Tingyun (張廷蘊) serving as his deputies. Zhang quickly advanced to Luo and entered it, capturing Yang and his coconspirators, before Li Siyuan and Li Shaorong could arrive. (Yang and his coconspirators were subsequently delivered to then\-Later Tang capital [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang "Luoyang") and executed.) After this campaign, Li Siyuan was made the military governor of Xuanwu Circuit and the commander of the Han and non\-Han cavalry and infantry forces, replacing the recently deceased Li Cunshen.
In late 924, Li Cunxu ordered Li Siyuan to take 37,000 imperial guard soldiers to Bian Prefecture, and then to further take them north to be ready to engage the Khitan. When he went through Xingtang (興唐, i.e., formerly Wei Prefecture, which by this point was made into a special municipality), he requested 500 sets of armor from the Xingtang armory. The defender of Xingtang, Zhang Xian (張憲), believing that Li Siyuan's army needed the armors, approved the request without first seeking Li Cunxu's approval, but when Li Cunxu heard of this, he was very displeased, stating, "Zhang Xian, without my edict, decided to on his own give my armors to Li Siyuan. What is he intending to do?" He fined Zhang a month of Zhang's salary and ordered Zhang to retrieve the armors back from Li Siyuan's camp.
Shortly after, Li Siyuan defeated Khitan forces at Zhuo Prefecture (涿州, in modern Baoding). Meanwhile, Li Cunxu decided to realign his military governors to better defend against the recurrent Khitan threat. Li Cunxu transferred Li Shaobin from Henghai to Lulong, but thought that, while Li Shaobin was considered a capable general, he lacked the battlefield reputation, and therefore decided to transfer Li Siyuan to Chengde. After Li Siyuan received the transfer order, as his household was at Taiyuan, he requested that Li Congke, then serving as the prefect of Wei Prefecture (the prefecture in modern Puyang), be transferred to Taiyuan so that his household can be better watched after. This, however, drew Li Cunxu's ire, and Li Cunxu stated, "Li Siyuan holds a military command and controls a large circuit. Should he not know that both military and government matters are my prerogative, and how does he dare to make such a request for his son!" He demoted Li Congke, causing Li Siyuan to become worried and submit written explanations in apology for Li Cunxu's ires to die. However, when Li Siyuan subsequently sought to go to Xingtang, where he was at the time, to pay homage to him, he refused. Meanwhile, his chief of staff [Guo Chongtao](/wiki/Guo_Chongtao "Guo Chongtao") was apprehensive of Li Siyuan, and secretly suggested to him that Li Siyuan be relieved of command, or even killed; he refused Guo's suggestions.
In 925, when Li Cunxu's mother [Empress Dowager Cao](/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cao_%28Li_Cunxu%27s_mother%29 "Empress Dowager Cao (Li Cunxu's mother)") was seriously ill, Li Siyuan requested to be able to pay homage to her. Li Cunxu refused. (She died not long after.) Later in the year, when Li Cunxu considered launching a major attack to destroy Later Tang's southwestern neighbor [Former Shu](/wiki/Former_Shu "Former Shu"), he initially considered Li Shaoqin to command the army, but Guo opposed. When Li Siyuan was proposed by others, Guo argued that given the recurrence of Khitan incursions, Li Siyuan needed to stay at Chengde to guard against the Khitan. Instead, he recommended that Li Siyuan's oldest son [Li Jiji](/wiki/Li_Jiji "Li Jiji") be put in command. Li Cunxu agreed, and made Guo the deputy to Li Jiji, but be actually responsible for military matters. The Later Tang forces under Li Jiji and Guo were subsequently able to conquer Former Shu and forces its emperor [Wang Yan](/wiki/Wang_Zongyan "Wang Zongyan")'s surrender in late 925\. It was during Guo's absence that Li Siyuan was apparently finally allowed to go to the capital Luoyang to pay homage to Li Cunxu.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 274](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7274 "資治通鑑/卷274").
### During the collapse of Li Cunxu's reign
Soon after Former Shu's fall, however, Li Cunxu and his wife [Empress Liu](/wiki/Empress_Liu_%28Li_Cunxu%27s_wife%29 "Empress Liu (Li Cunxu's wife)") came to suspect Guo Chongtao of hoarding wealth and planning to occupy Former Shu's territory to rebel himself. Empress Liu wanted to order Guo's death, and, after Li Cunxu initially refused to issue such an edict, issued her own edict to Li JIji and ordered Guo's death. Li Jiji carried the order out, leading to much shock and dissension among the imperial troops. Li Cunxu's subsequent execution of another major general, [Li Jilin](/wiki/Zhu_Youqian "Zhu Youqian"), only added to such dissent. Kang Yanxiao subsequently rebelled, and while his rebellion was quickly suppressed, the soldiers' dissensions continued, particularly because at that time, the Luoyang region was stricken with famine, leading to many rumors. Li Siyuan was also the subject of many rumors, leading to Li Cunxu's sending his close associate [Zhu Shouyin](/wiki/Zhu_Shouyin "Zhu Shouyin") to meet with and observe Li Siyuan. Zhu secretly informed Li Siyuan of this and stated, "Your achievements, Lord Chancellor, make your Lord comprehensive about you. You should consider trying to return to your fief to avoid disaster." Li Siyuan responded, "My heart does not sin against heaven or earth. If disasters come, I cannot avoid it. It will be my lot." It was said that several times Li Cunxu came to believe the rumors about Li Siyuan, but Li Cunxu's director of palace affairs, [Li Shaohong](/wiki/Ma_Shaohong "Ma Shaohong") protected Li Siyuan such that no disaster came to Li Siyuan.
At that time, Li Cunxu was faced with several mutinies north of the Yellow River, the chief of which was at Xingtang, where the soldiers had forced the officer Zhao Zaili (趙在禮) into leading them in mutiny. Li Cunxu initially sent Li Shaorong to try to quell the rebellion, but Li Shaorong's siege of Xingtang was fruitless. The key officials, including [Zhang Quanyi](/wiki/Zhang_Quanyi "Zhang Quanyi") and Li Shaohong, all recommended that he send Li Siyuan, and despite his hesitations, he put Li Siyuan in command of the imperial guards and sent him against the Xingtang rebels. Li Siyuan subsequently arrived at Xingtang and put it under siege, but that night, the officer Zhang Pobai (張破敗) led a mutiny and took Li Siyuan and his deputy Huo Yanwei — now with the imperially\-bestowed name of Li Shaozhen — hostage, forcing them to join the Xingtang rebels. After some initial confusions in which the Xingtang rebels attacked and killed Zhang, the Xingtang rebels welcomed Li Siyuan and Li Shaozhen into the city, but subsequently allowed them to leave to regather their troops, after Li Siyuan made assurances to ally with them.
By this point, Li Shaorong, believing that Li Siyuan was rebelling against Li Cunxu, withdrew from the Xingtang vicinity and submitted reports to Li Cunxu that Li Siyuan had rebelled. Li Siyuan, with some Chengde troops who initially fled the scene having rejoined him, considered his options. He initially wanted to return to Chengde and then submitting a petition begging forgiveness for being unable to properly rein in his troops, but Li Shaozhen and An Chonghui pointed out that he would then be vulnerable to accusations of occupying the land for his own benefit. They, instead, recommended heading toward Luoyang to try to defend himself against Li Shaorong's accusations. On the way, he sent a number of messengers to Li Cunxu, hoping to explain himself, but these messengers were all intercepted and killed by Li Shaorong. Li Cunxu's attempt to verify Li Siyuan's intentions by sending Li Siyuan's son Li Congshen (李從審) to Li Siyuan was also thwarted by Li Shaorong, who eventually killed Li Congshen. Under the advice of his son\-in\-law [Shi Jingtang](/wiki/Shi_Jingtang "Shi Jingtang"), Li Siyuan changed his posture and instead prepared for battle against the imperial troops. He headed toward Daliang, as Li Cunxu also prepared to do so. When he reached Daliang first, the defender of Daliang, [Kong Xun](/wiki/Kong_Xun "Kong Xun"), welcomed him in, causing Li Cunxu, then on the way, to be dejected, and Li Cunxu returned to Luoyang. Shortly after, a mutiny occurred at Luoyang as well, and Li Cunxu was killed in battle while battling the mutineers.
Li Siyuan subsequently arrived at Luoyang at Zhu Shouyin's invitation. Initially, he stayed at his own mansion and ordered the soldiers to stop looting; he also gathered Li Cunxu's remains to prepare for funeral. When the officials encouraged him to take the throne, he declined, and stated to Zhu that he should continue to treat Li Cunxu's consorts [Consort Han](/wiki/Consort_Han_%28Later_Tang%29 "Consort Han (Later Tang)") and Consort Yin with respect, and prepare for the return of Li Jiji, suggesting that he would return to Chengde once Li Cunxu was buried and Li Jiji took the throne. However, after repeated requests by officials, he took the title of [regent](/wiki/Regent "Regent"). He issued orders for the imperial princes to be found. Li Shaozhen and An Chonghui, however, believing the situation to be untenable, secretly had two of Li Cunxu's younger brothers, Li Cunque (李存確) the Prince of Tong and Li Cunji (李存紀) the Prince of Ya, assassinated. By Li Siyuan's orders, Empress Liu, who fled to Taiyuan, was killed, and the soldiers also killed Li Cunxu's brothers Li Cunwo (李存渥) the Prince of Shen and Li Cunba (李存霸) the Prince of Yong. Several other imperial princes were never located, and only Li Cunxu's brother Li Cunmei (李存美) the Prince of Yong (different title than Li Cunba's) was spared on account of his illness. When Li Shaorong was captured, Li Siyuan personally questioned him, "How have I wronged you that you killed my son?" Li Shaorong stared at him and responded, "How has the deceased emperor wronged you?" Li Siyuan had him executed and his name changed back to Yuan Xingqin.
With the possibilities of a rapprochement with Li Jiji gone, Li Siyuan decided to resist Li Jiji's return. He sent Shi Jingtang and Li Congke to take up defensive positions at Shan Prefecture (陝州, in modern [Sanmenxia](/wiki/Sanmenxia "Sanmenxia"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")), and Hezhong Municipality (河中, in modern [Yuncheng](/wiki/Yuncheng "Yuncheng"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi "Shanxi")), respectively, to block Li Jiji's potential return. Shortly after, with his own associates abandoning him, Li Jiji committed suicide. The general [Ren Huan](/wiki/Ren_Huan "Ren Huan") took over command of his army; when the army met Shi's, they submitted to Li Siyuan's rule.
With Li Jiji eliminated, Li Siyuan prepared to take the throne himself. Li Shaozhen and Kong Xun, believing that Tang's heavenly mandate was over, advocated that he change the name of the state. However, Li Siyuan, citing the fact that he had long served Li Guochang, Li Keyong, and Li Cunxu, declined. Under the suggestion of [Li Qi](/wiki/Li_Qi_%28Five_Dynasties%29 "Li Qi (Five Dynasties)"), he took the position that he was succeeding Li Cunxu legitimately, and, after a ceremony in which he first mourned Li Cunxu, took the throne as the new emperor.
|
[
"Career under Li Cunxu\n---------------------",
"### During Jin",
"Li Cunxu decided to lead the army to relieve Lu Prefecture himself, and as he advanced there, he caught the Later Liang army, which was not expecting him to be able to come so quickly, by surprise. He had Li Siyuan lead the assault on the northeast side, and Zhou Dewei lead the assault on the northwest side. The Later Liang army surrounding the city collapsed, and the siege was lifted.",
"In 910, another major confrontation between Jin and Later Liang began to take shape, as Zhu Quanzhong, believing that his vassal [Wang Rong](/wiki/Wang_Rong_%28warlord%29 \"Wang Rong (warlord)\") – the Prince of [Zhao](/wiki/Zhao_%28Five_Dynasties_period%29 \"Zhao (Five Dynasties period)\") and the military governor of Wushun Circuit (headquartered in modern [Shijiazhuang](/wiki/Shijiazhuang \"Shijiazhuang\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")) – might be considering to align with Jin and turning against Later Liang. He therefore decided to, by trick, seize Wushun's Shen (深州) and Ji (冀州, both in modern [Hengshui](/wiki/Hengshui \"Hengshui\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")) Prefectures and slaughter the Wushun garrisons at those prefectures, with the intent to then use the prefectures as the base for taking over Wushun entirely. When this occurred, Wang Rong and his ally [Wang Chuzhi](/wiki/Wang_Chuzhi \"Wang Chuzhi\"), the military governor of Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern [Baoding](/wiki/Baoding \"Baoding\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")) turned against Later Liang and sought aid from Li Cunxu. Li Cunxu launched an army to head to the aid of Wang Rong and Wang Chuzhi. Subsequently, in a battle that Li Siyuan served as a battlefield commander, at Boxiang (柏鄉, in modern [Xingtai](/wiki/Xingtai \"Xingtai\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")), the Jin army crushed the Later Liang army, securing Wushun (which was then changed back to its Tang name Chengde (成德)) and Yiwu from further Later Liang attack.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 267](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7267 \"資治通鑑/卷267\").",
"In 912, Li Cunxu launched a major campaign, intending to destroy the [Yan](/wiki/Yan_%28Five_Dynasties_period%29 \"Yan (Five Dynasties period)\") state ruled by [Liu Shouguang](/wiki/Liu_Shouguang \"Liu Shouguang\"), with Zhou in command of the overall operations. As part of the campaign, Li Siyuan was in charge of attacking Ying Prefecture (瀛州, in modern [Cangzhou](/wiki/Cangzhou \"Cangzhou\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")), and he was successful in getting its prefect, Zhao Jing (趙敬), to surrender. Subsequently, when Liu sent his major general [Yuan Xingqin](/wiki/Yuan_Xingqin \"Yuan Xingqin\") to his northern borders with the [Khitan Empire](/wiki/Liao_dynasty \"Liao dynasty\") to await potential aid from Khitan's [Emperor Taizu](/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao \"Emperor Taizu of Liao\"), Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to intercept Yuan's army. Li Siyuan first attacked Wu Prefecture (武州, in modern [Zhangjiakou](/wiki/Zhangjiakou \"Zhangjiakou\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")), and its prefect Gao Xinggui (高行珪) surrendered. Yuan then attacked Wu Prefecture, and when Li Siyuan came to its aid, Yuan tried to withdraw, but Li Siyuan subsequently engaged him eight times and forced him into surrendering. Li Siyuan took Yuan as an adoptive son and kept Yuan under his command. (Gao Xinggui's brother [Gao Xingzhou](/wiki/Gao_Xingzhou \"Gao Xingzhou\"), whom Gao Xinggui sent to seek aid from Li Siyuan, also joined Li Siyuan's army and subsequently often commanded Li Siyuan's guards along with Li Siyuan's adoptive son [Li Congke](/wiki/Li_Congke \"Li Congke\") – the son of Li Siyuan's concubine Lady Wei.) Jin forces were subsequently able to destroy Yan and add its territory to Jin.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 268](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7268 \"資治通鑑/卷268\"). (In 915, when Li Cunxu heard of Yuan's ferocity in battle, he requested that Li Siyuan send Yuan to serve under his own personal army, and Li Siyuan, unwilling to resist the order, reluctantly sent Yuan to Li Cunxu. Li Cunxu also wanted Gao Xingzhou and tried to entice Gao with promotion offers, but Gao declined to leave Li Siyuan's command.)*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 269](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7269 \"資治通鑑/卷269\").",
"In 916, when the Later Liang major general [Liu Xun](/wiki/Liu_Xun_%28Later_Liang%29 \"Liu Xun (Later Liang)\") tried to attack Wei Prefecture (魏州, in modern [Handan](/wiki/Handan \"Handan\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")), which had recently surrendered to Jin – an attack that Li Cunxu anticipated and therefore reacted to immediately – Li Siyuan and his adoptive brother [Li Cunshen](/wiki/Li_Cunshen \"Li Cunshen\") served as main commanders under Li Cunxu. In the subsequent battle, the Jin army crushed the Later Liang army, ending Liu's hopes of defeating Li Cunxu there. When the Later Liang military governor of Zhaode Circuit (昭德, headquartered in modern Handan) subsequently abandoned the circuit in light of Liu's defeat, Li Cunxu merged Zhaode's three prefectures, which had previously belonged to Tianxiong Circuit (天雄, headquartered at Wei) back into Tianxiong, and made Li Siyuan the prefect of Zhaode's former capital Xiang Prefecture (相州). When Jin forces subsequently approached Cang Prefecture (滄州, in modern Cangzhou), Later Liang's military governor of Shunhua Circuit (順化, headquartered at Cang), [Dai Siyuan](/wiki/Dai_Siyuan \"Dai Siyuan\"), abandoned it and fled back to Later Liang territory. Dai's officer Mao Zhang (毛璋) surrendered Cang to Jin. Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to pacify the region, and Li Siyuan subsequently sent Mao away to pay homage to Li Cunxu. Li Siyuan was subsequently made the military governor of Anguo Circuit (安國, headquartered in modern Xingtai). It was there where one of his officers, [An Chonghui](/wiki/An_Chonghui \"An Chonghui\"), became a key trusted staffer.",
"In 917, Khitan's Emperor Taizu launched a major attack on You Prefecture (幽州, in modern [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\")) – the former capital of Yan and now the capital of Jin's Lulong Circuit (盧龍), where Zhou served as military commander. Zhou sought emergency aid, but Li Cunxu was initially unsure what to do, given that he was in constant battles with Later Liang and was hesitant to divide his army to go to Zhou's aid. However, Li Siyuan, Li Cunshen, and Yan Bao (閻寶) all advocated for an army to be sent to aid Zhou. Li Cunxu agreed, and sent Li Siyuan as the commander of the forward troops, followed by Yan Bao, and then by Li Cunshen. The Jin relief forces were subsequently able to defeat the Khitan siege troops and lift the siege on You.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 270](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7270 \"資治通鑑/卷270\").",
"In fall 918, Li Cunxu planned to launch a major attack on Later Liang, and he gathered troops directly under his command at Wei. Zhou, Li Cunshen, and Li Siyuan all led their own troops to rendezvous with him there as well, along with troops sent by Wang Chuzhi. He crossed the [Yellow River](/wiki/Yellow_River \"Yellow River\") into Later Liang territory, with the intent of destroying Later Liang. Subsequently, the joint Jin forces encountered the Later Liang forces under [He Gui](/wiki/He_Gui \"He Gui\") at Huliu Slope (胡柳陂, in modern [Heze](/wiki/Heze \"Heze\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")). The battle was initially a major Jin defeat, with Zhou being killed in the battle. In the confusion of the battle, Li Siyuan believed that Li Cunxu had already retreated north of the Yellow River, and therefore retreated. Li Cunxu, however, was subsequently able to turn the battle around and defeat He Gui's Later Liang forces, causing the battle to be an overall stalemate in which both sides lost over two thirds of their armies, before withdrawing back north. When Li Siyuan rendezvoused with him, Li Cunxu was displeased, believing that Li Siyuan had thought that he died and was abandoning the battle. However, as Li Congke, who got separated from Li Siyuan during the battle and ended up fighting under Li Cunxu during the second stage of the battle, had great contributions during it, Li Cunxu did not punish Li Siyuan, although he did not treat Li Siyuan with as great respect subsequently.",
"In 921, Wang Rong was killed in a coup instigated by his adoptive son [Wang Deming](/wiki/Zhang_Wenli \"Zhang Wenli\"), who subsequently took over the circuit, changed his name back to the birth name of Zhang Wenli, and slaughtered Wang Rong's family. Li Cunxu sent an army to try to destroy Zhang, commanded by Yan Bao and Shi Jiantang (史建瑭), but was contemplating leading an army himself as well after Shi was killed in battle. Dai, who was then the overall Later Liang commander of the army against Jin, tried to take advantage of the situation, but his attack on the Yellow River ford city of Desheng (德勝, in modern [Puyang](/wiki/Puyang \"Puyang\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")) was repelled by Li Cunxu himself, aided by Li Siyuan and Li Cunshen. Li Cunxu subsequently gave Li Siyuan the title of deputy commander of the [Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") and non\\-Han cavalry and infantry forces, and gave him the honorary [chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Tang_dynasty \"Chancellor of the Tang dynasty\") title of *Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi* (同中書門下平章事). He then left Li Siyuan and Li Cunshen in defense of Desheng, while heading to join the Zhao campaign himself. When Dai subsequently tried to attack Wei Prefecture, Li Siyuan took his army to intercept Dai while warning Wei Prefecture. Dai thereafter changed directions and put Desheng under siege, but withdrew when Li Cunxu, hearing news of Dai's incursion, returned.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 271](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7271 \"資治通鑑/卷271\").",
"In spring 922, in light of a Khitan incursion, Li Cunxu made Li Cunshen the military governor of Lulong (aka You Prefecture), to defend against further Khitan attack. Li Siyuan was made the military governor of Henghai Circuit (previously known as Shunhua when under Later Liang rule), which Li Cunshen had been the military governor of, but remained with Li Cunxu's army.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 272](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7272 \"資治通鑑/卷272\").",
"### During Later Tang",
"### During the destruction of Later Liang",
"In summer 923, Li Cunxu, then at Wei Prefecture, declared himself the emperor of a continuation of Tang — historically known as [Later Tang](/wiki/Later_Tang \"Later Tang\"). However, at the same time as his declaration, the Later Tang state was facing several serious threats that caused its subjects to be distressed about its prospects — the Khitan Empire was continuing to harass Lulong Circuit; Later Liang had just recently seized Wei Prefecture (衛州, in modern Puyang, different than the Wei Prefecture referred to above); and Zhaoyi Circuit, previously governed by Li Sizhao but under the control of his son [Li Jitao](/wiki/Li_Jitao \"Li Jitao\") after his battlefield death during the Zhao campaign, had just rebelled against Later Tang and pledged allegiance to Later Liang. At this juncture, though, an officer of Later Liang's Tianping Circuit (天平, headquartered in modern [Tai'an](/wiki/Tai%27an \"Tai'an\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")), Lu Shunmi (盧順密), defected to Later Tang, and revealed to Li Cunxu that Dai Siyuan, who was the military governor of Tianping, had left two unpopular officers, Liu Suiyan (劉遂嚴) and Yan Yong (燕顒), in defense of Tianping's capital Yun Prefecture (鄆州), and that a surprise attack on Yun could cause it to fall. When Li Cunxu consulted Li Siyuan, Li Siyuan, who had long wanted to have a specular achievement since the Battle of Huliu Slope, advocated carrying out this attack and volunteered to command his own troops. Li Cunxu agreed, and Li Siyuan thereafter led 5,000 elite soldiers and launched a surprise attack across the Yellow River, catching Liu and Yan unaware. When he quickly entered the city, Liu and Yan fled to the Later Liang capital [Daliang](/wiki/Kaifeng \"Kaifeng\"). Li Cunxu thereafter commissioned Li Siyuan as the military governor of Tianping. Subsequently, the Later Liang emperor [Zhu Youzhen](/wiki/Zhu_Youzhen \"Zhu Youzhen\") (Zhu Quanzhong's son) replaced Dai with [Wang Yanzhang](/wiki/Wang_Yanzhang \"Wang Yanzhang\"), who tried to cut off the communications between Yun and the rest of Later Tang territory north of the Yellow River by capturing the fords at Desheng and Yangliu (楊劉, in modern [Liaocheng](/wiki/Liaocheng \"Liaocheng\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")). He captured Desheng quickly, but Yangliu's defenses held under the defense of Li Zhou (李周), and Li Cunxu was subsequently able to lift the siege on Yangliu, allowing Yun to remain in contact with Later Tang proper.",
"After the failure to capture Yangliu, Zhu replaced Wang with [Duan Ning](/wiki/Duan_Ning \"Duan Ning\"), who prepared an ambitious four\\-prong attack against Later Tang:",
"1. [Dong Zhang](/wiki/Dong_Zhang \"Dong Zhang\") would head toward Taiyuan.\n2. [Huo Yanwei](/wiki/Huo_Yanwei \"Huo Yanwei\") would head toward Zhen Prefecture (鎮州, formerly Zhao's capital).\n3. Wang and Zhang Hanjie (張漢傑) would head toward Yun Prefecture.\n4. Duan himself, along with [Du Yanqiu](/wiki/Wang_Yanqiu \"Wang Yanqiu\"), would confront Li Cunxu.",
"However, the Later Liang officer [Kang Yanxiao](/wiki/Kang_Yanxiao \"Kang Yanxiao\"), at this junction, defected to Later Tang, revealing Duan's plan to the Later Tang emperor and pointing out that the plan left the Later Liang capital Daliang defenseless, and pointing out that Wang's and Zhang Hanjie's army was the weakest of the four prongs and could easily be defeated. Li Cunxu decided to take the risky move himself, and advanced to Yun to join forces with Li Siyuan, and then engage Wang and Zhang Hanjie. He defeated them, capturing both Wang and Zhang Hanjie at Zhongdu (中都, in modern [Jining](/wiki/Jining \"Jining\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")). Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to try to persuade Wang to submit to him, but Wang, wanting death, disrespectfully stated to Li Siyuan, \"Are you not Miaojilie?\" Li Cunxu subsequently, knowing that Wang would not submit, executed Wang.",
"Li Cunxu weighed his options, as most of his officers suggested attacking east and capturing Later Liang's territory to the east of Yun. However, Kang and Li Siyuan both advocated attacking Daliang before Duan could withdraw to aid the city. Li Cunxu accepted their suggestion, and he continued to proceed toward Daliang with Li Siyuan as his forward commander. With Duan's army trapped north of the Yellow River and unable to come to his rescue, Zhu saw the situation as hopeless. He ordered his general Huangfu Lin (皇甫麟) to kill him; Huangfu did, and then committed suicide himself. When Li Siyuan reached the gates of Daliang, he met no resistance, and he entered and pacified the city. When Li Cunxu subsequently arrived, he happily stated to Li Siyuan, \"I have gained the land under the heavens due to the accomplishment of you, Lord, and your son. I will share this land with you.\" He subsequently bestowed the greater honorary chancellor title of *Zhongshu Ling* (中書令, head of [Zhongshu Sheng](/wiki/Zhongshu_Sheng \"Zhongshu Sheng\")) on Li Siyuan.",
"### During Li Cunxu's subsequent governance",
"In spring 924, Khitan forces made an incursion into Lulong territory, going as deep into Later Tang as Waqiao Pass (瓦橋關, in modern Baoding). Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to command an army against the Khitan forces, with Huo Yanwei, now a Later Tang general, as his deputy. However, soon thereafter, Khitan forces withdrew, so he recalled Li Siyuan, instead leaving Duan Ning — now bearing the imperially\\-bestowed name of Li Shaoqin — and Dong Zhang at Waqiao Pass to defend it. Shortly after, though, there was yet another report of a Khitan incursion, so Li Siyuan was ordered to stop at Xing Prefecture (邢州, the capital of Anguo Circuit) to see if the Khitan would attack, while Li Congke and [Li Shaobin](/wiki/Zhao_Dejun \"Zhao Dejun\") were ordered to command cavalry forces to defend against the attack as well. Around this time, Li Siyuan, who, like other generals, feared false accusations by Li Cunxu's favored eunuchs and [performers](/wiki/Chinese_opera \"Chinese opera\"), sought to be relieved of his command, but Li Cunxu did not accept his resignation.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 273](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7273 \"資治通鑑/卷273\").",
"In summer 924, the Anyi Circuit (安義, i.e., formerly Zhaoyi) officer Yang Li (楊立), who had previously been trusted by Li Jitao, whom Li Cunxu had executed after his conquest of Later Liang, mutinied and seized control of Anyi's capital Lu Prefecture. Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to command the forces against Yang, with Yuan Xingqin — now with the imperially\\-bestowed name of Li Sharing — and Zhang Tingyun (張廷蘊) serving as his deputies. Zhang quickly advanced to Luo and entered it, capturing Yang and his coconspirators, before Li Siyuan and Li Shaorong could arrive. (Yang and his coconspirators were subsequently delivered to then\\-Later Tang capital [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang \"Luoyang\") and executed.) After this campaign, Li Siyuan was made the military governor of Xuanwu Circuit and the commander of the Han and non\\-Han cavalry and infantry forces, replacing the recently deceased Li Cunshen.",
"In late 924, Li Cunxu ordered Li Siyuan to take 37,000 imperial guard soldiers to Bian Prefecture, and then to further take them north to be ready to engage the Khitan. When he went through Xingtang (興唐, i.e., formerly Wei Prefecture, which by this point was made into a special municipality), he requested 500 sets of armor from the Xingtang armory. The defender of Xingtang, Zhang Xian (張憲), believing that Li Siyuan's army needed the armors, approved the request without first seeking Li Cunxu's approval, but when Li Cunxu heard of this, he was very displeased, stating, \"Zhang Xian, without my edict, decided to on his own give my armors to Li Siyuan. What is he intending to do?\" He fined Zhang a month of Zhang's salary and ordered Zhang to retrieve the armors back from Li Siyuan's camp.",
"Shortly after, Li Siyuan defeated Khitan forces at Zhuo Prefecture (涿州, in modern Baoding). Meanwhile, Li Cunxu decided to realign his military governors to better defend against the recurrent Khitan threat. Li Cunxu transferred Li Shaobin from Henghai to Lulong, but thought that, while Li Shaobin was considered a capable general, he lacked the battlefield reputation, and therefore decided to transfer Li Siyuan to Chengde. After Li Siyuan received the transfer order, as his household was at Taiyuan, he requested that Li Congke, then serving as the prefect of Wei Prefecture (the prefecture in modern Puyang), be transferred to Taiyuan so that his household can be better watched after. This, however, drew Li Cunxu's ire, and Li Cunxu stated, \"Li Siyuan holds a military command and controls a large circuit. Should he not know that both military and government matters are my prerogative, and how does he dare to make such a request for his son!\" He demoted Li Congke, causing Li Siyuan to become worried and submit written explanations in apology for Li Cunxu's ires to die. However, when Li Siyuan subsequently sought to go to Xingtang, where he was at the time, to pay homage to him, he refused. Meanwhile, his chief of staff [Guo Chongtao](/wiki/Guo_Chongtao \"Guo Chongtao\") was apprehensive of Li Siyuan, and secretly suggested to him that Li Siyuan be relieved of command, or even killed; he refused Guo's suggestions.",
"In 925, when Li Cunxu's mother [Empress Dowager Cao](/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cao_%28Li_Cunxu%27s_mother%29 \"Empress Dowager Cao (Li Cunxu's mother)\") was seriously ill, Li Siyuan requested to be able to pay homage to her. Li Cunxu refused. (She died not long after.) Later in the year, when Li Cunxu considered launching a major attack to destroy Later Tang's southwestern neighbor [Former Shu](/wiki/Former_Shu \"Former Shu\"), he initially considered Li Shaoqin to command the army, but Guo opposed. When Li Siyuan was proposed by others, Guo argued that given the recurrence of Khitan incursions, Li Siyuan needed to stay at Chengde to guard against the Khitan. Instead, he recommended that Li Siyuan's oldest son [Li Jiji](/wiki/Li_Jiji \"Li Jiji\") be put in command. Li Cunxu agreed, and made Guo the deputy to Li Jiji, but be actually responsible for military matters. The Later Tang forces under Li Jiji and Guo were subsequently able to conquer Former Shu and forces its emperor [Wang Yan](/wiki/Wang_Zongyan \"Wang Zongyan\")'s surrender in late 925\\. It was during Guo's absence that Li Siyuan was apparently finally allowed to go to the capital Luoyang to pay homage to Li Cunxu.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 274](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7274 \"資治通鑑/卷274\").",
"### During the collapse of Li Cunxu's reign",
"Soon after Former Shu's fall, however, Li Cunxu and his wife [Empress Liu](/wiki/Empress_Liu_%28Li_Cunxu%27s_wife%29 \"Empress Liu (Li Cunxu's wife)\") came to suspect Guo Chongtao of hoarding wealth and planning to occupy Former Shu's territory to rebel himself. Empress Liu wanted to order Guo's death, and, after Li Cunxu initially refused to issue such an edict, issued her own edict to Li JIji and ordered Guo's death. Li Jiji carried the order out, leading to much shock and dissension among the imperial troops. Li Cunxu's subsequent execution of another major general, [Li Jilin](/wiki/Zhu_Youqian \"Zhu Youqian\"), only added to such dissent. Kang Yanxiao subsequently rebelled, and while his rebellion was quickly suppressed, the soldiers' dissensions continued, particularly because at that time, the Luoyang region was stricken with famine, leading to many rumors. Li Siyuan was also the subject of many rumors, leading to Li Cunxu's sending his close associate [Zhu Shouyin](/wiki/Zhu_Shouyin \"Zhu Shouyin\") to meet with and observe Li Siyuan. Zhu secretly informed Li Siyuan of this and stated, \"Your achievements, Lord Chancellor, make your Lord comprehensive about you. You should consider trying to return to your fief to avoid disaster.\" Li Siyuan responded, \"My heart does not sin against heaven or earth. If disasters come, I cannot avoid it. It will be my lot.\" It was said that several times Li Cunxu came to believe the rumors about Li Siyuan, but Li Cunxu's director of palace affairs, [Li Shaohong](/wiki/Ma_Shaohong \"Ma Shaohong\") protected Li Siyuan such that no disaster came to Li Siyuan.",
"At that time, Li Cunxu was faced with several mutinies north of the Yellow River, the chief of which was at Xingtang, where the soldiers had forced the officer Zhao Zaili (趙在禮) into leading them in mutiny. Li Cunxu initially sent Li Shaorong to try to quell the rebellion, but Li Shaorong's siege of Xingtang was fruitless. The key officials, including [Zhang Quanyi](/wiki/Zhang_Quanyi \"Zhang Quanyi\") and Li Shaohong, all recommended that he send Li Siyuan, and despite his hesitations, he put Li Siyuan in command of the imperial guards and sent him against the Xingtang rebels. Li Siyuan subsequently arrived at Xingtang and put it under siege, but that night, the officer Zhang Pobai (張破敗) led a mutiny and took Li Siyuan and his deputy Huo Yanwei — now with the imperially\\-bestowed name of Li Shaozhen — hostage, forcing them to join the Xingtang rebels. After some initial confusions in which the Xingtang rebels attacked and killed Zhang, the Xingtang rebels welcomed Li Siyuan and Li Shaozhen into the city, but subsequently allowed them to leave to regather their troops, after Li Siyuan made assurances to ally with them.",
"By this point, Li Shaorong, believing that Li Siyuan was rebelling against Li Cunxu, withdrew from the Xingtang vicinity and submitted reports to Li Cunxu that Li Siyuan had rebelled. Li Siyuan, with some Chengde troops who initially fled the scene having rejoined him, considered his options. He initially wanted to return to Chengde and then submitting a petition begging forgiveness for being unable to properly rein in his troops, but Li Shaozhen and An Chonghui pointed out that he would then be vulnerable to accusations of occupying the land for his own benefit. They, instead, recommended heading toward Luoyang to try to defend himself against Li Shaorong's accusations. On the way, he sent a number of messengers to Li Cunxu, hoping to explain himself, but these messengers were all intercepted and killed by Li Shaorong. Li Cunxu's attempt to verify Li Siyuan's intentions by sending Li Siyuan's son Li Congshen (李從審) to Li Siyuan was also thwarted by Li Shaorong, who eventually killed Li Congshen. Under the advice of his son\\-in\\-law [Shi Jingtang](/wiki/Shi_Jingtang \"Shi Jingtang\"), Li Siyuan changed his posture and instead prepared for battle against the imperial troops. He headed toward Daliang, as Li Cunxu also prepared to do so. When he reached Daliang first, the defender of Daliang, [Kong Xun](/wiki/Kong_Xun \"Kong Xun\"), welcomed him in, causing Li Cunxu, then on the way, to be dejected, and Li Cunxu returned to Luoyang. Shortly after, a mutiny occurred at Luoyang as well, and Li Cunxu was killed in battle while battling the mutineers.",
"Li Siyuan subsequently arrived at Luoyang at Zhu Shouyin's invitation. Initially, he stayed at his own mansion and ordered the soldiers to stop looting; he also gathered Li Cunxu's remains to prepare for funeral. When the officials encouraged him to take the throne, he declined, and stated to Zhu that he should continue to treat Li Cunxu's consorts [Consort Han](/wiki/Consort_Han_%28Later_Tang%29 \"Consort Han (Later Tang)\") and Consort Yin with respect, and prepare for the return of Li Jiji, suggesting that he would return to Chengde once Li Cunxu was buried and Li Jiji took the throne. However, after repeated requests by officials, he took the title of [regent](/wiki/Regent \"Regent\"). He issued orders for the imperial princes to be found. Li Shaozhen and An Chonghui, however, believing the situation to be untenable, secretly had two of Li Cunxu's younger brothers, Li Cunque (李存確) the Prince of Tong and Li Cunji (李存紀) the Prince of Ya, assassinated. By Li Siyuan's orders, Empress Liu, who fled to Taiyuan, was killed, and the soldiers also killed Li Cunxu's brothers Li Cunwo (李存渥) the Prince of Shen and Li Cunba (李存霸) the Prince of Yong. Several other imperial princes were never located, and only Li Cunxu's brother Li Cunmei (李存美) the Prince of Yong (different title than Li Cunba's) was spared on account of his illness. When Li Shaorong was captured, Li Siyuan personally questioned him, \"How have I wronged you that you killed my son?\" Li Shaorong stared at him and responded, \"How has the deceased emperor wronged you?\" Li Siyuan had him executed and his name changed back to Yuan Xingqin.",
"With the possibilities of a rapprochement with Li Jiji gone, Li Siyuan decided to resist Li Jiji's return. He sent Shi Jingtang and Li Congke to take up defensive positions at Shan Prefecture (陝州, in modern [Sanmenxia](/wiki/Sanmenxia \"Sanmenxia\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")), and Hezhong Municipality (河中, in modern [Yuncheng](/wiki/Yuncheng \"Yuncheng\"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\")), respectively, to block Li Jiji's potential return. Shortly after, with his own associates abandoning him, Li Jiji committed suicide. The general [Ren Huan](/wiki/Ren_Huan \"Ren Huan\") took over command of his army; when the army met Shi's, they submitted to Li Siyuan's rule.",
"With Li Jiji eliminated, Li Siyuan prepared to take the throne himself. Li Shaozhen and Kong Xun, believing that Tang's heavenly mandate was over, advocated that he change the name of the state. However, Li Siyuan, citing the fact that he had long served Li Guochang, Li Keyong, and Li Cunxu, declined. Under the suggestion of [Li Qi](/wiki/Li_Qi_%28Five_Dynasties%29 \"Li Qi (Five Dynasties)\"), he took the position that he was succeeding Li Cunxu legitimately, and, after a ceremony in which he first mourned Li Cunxu, took the throne as the new emperor.",
""
] |
### During Jin
Li Cunxu decided to lead the army to relieve Lu Prefecture himself, and as he advanced there, he caught the Later Liang army, which was not expecting him to be able to come so quickly, by surprise. He had Li Siyuan lead the assault on the northeast side, and Zhou Dewei lead the assault on the northwest side. The Later Liang army surrounding the city collapsed, and the siege was lifted.
In 910, another major confrontation between Jin and Later Liang began to take shape, as Zhu Quanzhong, believing that his vassal [Wang Rong](/wiki/Wang_Rong_%28warlord%29 "Wang Rong (warlord)") – the Prince of [Zhao](/wiki/Zhao_%28Five_Dynasties_period%29 "Zhao (Five Dynasties period)") and the military governor of Wushun Circuit (headquartered in modern [Shijiazhuang](/wiki/Shijiazhuang "Shijiazhuang"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")) – might be considering to align with Jin and turning against Later Liang. He therefore decided to, by trick, seize Wushun's Shen (深州) and Ji (冀州, both in modern [Hengshui](/wiki/Hengshui "Hengshui"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")) Prefectures and slaughter the Wushun garrisons at those prefectures, with the intent to then use the prefectures as the base for taking over Wushun entirely. When this occurred, Wang Rong and his ally [Wang Chuzhi](/wiki/Wang_Chuzhi "Wang Chuzhi"), the military governor of Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern [Baoding](/wiki/Baoding "Baoding"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")) turned against Later Liang and sought aid from Li Cunxu. Li Cunxu launched an army to head to the aid of Wang Rong and Wang Chuzhi. Subsequently, in a battle that Li Siyuan served as a battlefield commander, at Boxiang (柏鄉, in modern [Xingtai](/wiki/Xingtai "Xingtai"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")), the Jin army crushed the Later Liang army, securing Wushun (which was then changed back to its Tang name Chengde (成德)) and Yiwu from further Later Liang attack.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 267](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7267 "資治通鑑/卷267").
In 912, Li Cunxu launched a major campaign, intending to destroy the [Yan](/wiki/Yan_%28Five_Dynasties_period%29 "Yan (Five Dynasties period)") state ruled by [Liu Shouguang](/wiki/Liu_Shouguang "Liu Shouguang"), with Zhou in command of the overall operations. As part of the campaign, Li Siyuan was in charge of attacking Ying Prefecture (瀛州, in modern [Cangzhou](/wiki/Cangzhou "Cangzhou"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")), and he was successful in getting its prefect, Zhao Jing (趙敬), to surrender. Subsequently, when Liu sent his major general [Yuan Xingqin](/wiki/Yuan_Xingqin "Yuan Xingqin") to his northern borders with the [Khitan Empire](/wiki/Liao_dynasty "Liao dynasty") to await potential aid from Khitan's [Emperor Taizu](/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao "Emperor Taizu of Liao"), Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to intercept Yuan's army. Li Siyuan first attacked Wu Prefecture (武州, in modern [Zhangjiakou](/wiki/Zhangjiakou "Zhangjiakou"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")), and its prefect Gao Xinggui (高行珪) surrendered. Yuan then attacked Wu Prefecture, and when Li Siyuan came to its aid, Yuan tried to withdraw, but Li Siyuan subsequently engaged him eight times and forced him into surrendering. Li Siyuan took Yuan as an adoptive son and kept Yuan under his command. (Gao Xinggui's brother [Gao Xingzhou](/wiki/Gao_Xingzhou "Gao Xingzhou"), whom Gao Xinggui sent to seek aid from Li Siyuan, also joined Li Siyuan's army and subsequently often commanded Li Siyuan's guards along with Li Siyuan's adoptive son [Li Congke](/wiki/Li_Congke "Li Congke") – the son of Li Siyuan's concubine Lady Wei.) Jin forces were subsequently able to destroy Yan and add its territory to Jin.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 268](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7268 "資治通鑑/卷268"). (In 915, when Li Cunxu heard of Yuan's ferocity in battle, he requested that Li Siyuan send Yuan to serve under his own personal army, and Li Siyuan, unwilling to resist the order, reluctantly sent Yuan to Li Cunxu. Li Cunxu also wanted Gao Xingzhou and tried to entice Gao with promotion offers, but Gao declined to leave Li Siyuan's command.)*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 269](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7269 "資治通鑑/卷269").
In 916, when the Later Liang major general [Liu Xun](/wiki/Liu_Xun_%28Later_Liang%29 "Liu Xun (Later Liang)") tried to attack Wei Prefecture (魏州, in modern [Handan](/wiki/Handan "Handan"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei")), which had recently surrendered to Jin – an attack that Li Cunxu anticipated and therefore reacted to immediately – Li Siyuan and his adoptive brother [Li Cunshen](/wiki/Li_Cunshen "Li Cunshen") served as main commanders under Li Cunxu. In the subsequent battle, the Jin army crushed the Later Liang army, ending Liu's hopes of defeating Li Cunxu there. When the Later Liang military governor of Zhaode Circuit (昭德, headquartered in modern Handan) subsequently abandoned the circuit in light of Liu's defeat, Li Cunxu merged Zhaode's three prefectures, which had previously belonged to Tianxiong Circuit (天雄, headquartered at Wei) back into Tianxiong, and made Li Siyuan the prefect of Zhaode's former capital Xiang Prefecture (相州). When Jin forces subsequently approached Cang Prefecture (滄州, in modern Cangzhou), Later Liang's military governor of Shunhua Circuit (順化, headquartered at Cang), [Dai Siyuan](/wiki/Dai_Siyuan "Dai Siyuan"), abandoned it and fled back to Later Liang territory. Dai's officer Mao Zhang (毛璋) surrendered Cang to Jin. Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to pacify the region, and Li Siyuan subsequently sent Mao away to pay homage to Li Cunxu. Li Siyuan was subsequently made the military governor of Anguo Circuit (安國, headquartered in modern Xingtai). It was there where one of his officers, [An Chonghui](/wiki/An_Chonghui "An Chonghui"), became a key trusted staffer.
In 917, Khitan's Emperor Taizu launched a major attack on You Prefecture (幽州, in modern [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing")) – the former capital of Yan and now the capital of Jin's Lulong Circuit (盧龍), where Zhou served as military commander. Zhou sought emergency aid, but Li Cunxu was initially unsure what to do, given that he was in constant battles with Later Liang and was hesitant to divide his army to go to Zhou's aid. However, Li Siyuan, Li Cunshen, and Yan Bao (閻寶) all advocated for an army to be sent to aid Zhou. Li Cunxu agreed, and sent Li Siyuan as the commander of the forward troops, followed by Yan Bao, and then by Li Cunshen. The Jin relief forces were subsequently able to defeat the Khitan siege troops and lift the siege on You.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 270](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7270 "資治通鑑/卷270").
In fall 918, Li Cunxu planned to launch a major attack on Later Liang, and he gathered troops directly under his command at Wei. Zhou, Li Cunshen, and Li Siyuan all led their own troops to rendezvous with him there as well, along with troops sent by Wang Chuzhi. He crossed the [Yellow River](/wiki/Yellow_River "Yellow River") into Later Liang territory, with the intent of destroying Later Liang. Subsequently, the joint Jin forces encountered the Later Liang forces under [He Gui](/wiki/He_Gui "He Gui") at Huliu Slope (胡柳陂, in modern [Heze](/wiki/Heze "Heze"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")). The battle was initially a major Jin defeat, with Zhou being killed in the battle. In the confusion of the battle, Li Siyuan believed that Li Cunxu had already retreated north of the Yellow River, and therefore retreated. Li Cunxu, however, was subsequently able to turn the battle around and defeat He Gui's Later Liang forces, causing the battle to be an overall stalemate in which both sides lost over two thirds of their armies, before withdrawing back north. When Li Siyuan rendezvoused with him, Li Cunxu was displeased, believing that Li Siyuan had thought that he died and was abandoning the battle. However, as Li Congke, who got separated from Li Siyuan during the battle and ended up fighting under Li Cunxu during the second stage of the battle, had great contributions during it, Li Cunxu did not punish Li Siyuan, although he did not treat Li Siyuan with as great respect subsequently.
In 921, Wang Rong was killed in a coup instigated by his adoptive son [Wang Deming](/wiki/Zhang_Wenli "Zhang Wenli"), who subsequently took over the circuit, changed his name back to the birth name of Zhang Wenli, and slaughtered Wang Rong's family. Li Cunxu sent an army to try to destroy Zhang, commanded by Yan Bao and Shi Jiantang (史建瑭), but was contemplating leading an army himself as well after Shi was killed in battle. Dai, who was then the overall Later Liang commander of the army against Jin, tried to take advantage of the situation, but his attack on the Yellow River ford city of Desheng (德勝, in modern [Puyang](/wiki/Puyang "Puyang"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")) was repelled by Li Cunxu himself, aided by Li Siyuan and Li Cunshen. Li Cunxu subsequently gave Li Siyuan the title of deputy commander of the [Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese "Han Chinese") and non\-Han cavalry and infantry forces, and gave him the honorary [chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Tang_dynasty "Chancellor of the Tang dynasty") title of *Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi* (同中書門下平章事). He then left Li Siyuan and Li Cunshen in defense of Desheng, while heading to join the Zhao campaign himself. When Dai subsequently tried to attack Wei Prefecture, Li Siyuan took his army to intercept Dai while warning Wei Prefecture. Dai thereafter changed directions and put Desheng under siege, but withdrew when Li Cunxu, hearing news of Dai's incursion, returned.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 271](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7271 "資治通鑑/卷271").
In spring 922, in light of a Khitan incursion, Li Cunxu made Li Cunshen the military governor of Lulong (aka You Prefecture), to defend against further Khitan attack. Li Siyuan was made the military governor of Henghai Circuit (previously known as Shunhua when under Later Liang rule), which Li Cunshen had been the military governor of, but remained with Li Cunxu's army.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 272](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7272 "資治通鑑/卷272").
|
[
"### During Jin",
"Li Cunxu decided to lead the army to relieve Lu Prefecture himself, and as he advanced there, he caught the Later Liang army, which was not expecting him to be able to come so quickly, by surprise. He had Li Siyuan lead the assault on the northeast side, and Zhou Dewei lead the assault on the northwest side. The Later Liang army surrounding the city collapsed, and the siege was lifted.",
"In 910, another major confrontation between Jin and Later Liang began to take shape, as Zhu Quanzhong, believing that his vassal [Wang Rong](/wiki/Wang_Rong_%28warlord%29 \"Wang Rong (warlord)\") – the Prince of [Zhao](/wiki/Zhao_%28Five_Dynasties_period%29 \"Zhao (Five Dynasties period)\") and the military governor of Wushun Circuit (headquartered in modern [Shijiazhuang](/wiki/Shijiazhuang \"Shijiazhuang\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")) – might be considering to align with Jin and turning against Later Liang. He therefore decided to, by trick, seize Wushun's Shen (深州) and Ji (冀州, both in modern [Hengshui](/wiki/Hengshui \"Hengshui\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")) Prefectures and slaughter the Wushun garrisons at those prefectures, with the intent to then use the prefectures as the base for taking over Wushun entirely. When this occurred, Wang Rong and his ally [Wang Chuzhi](/wiki/Wang_Chuzhi \"Wang Chuzhi\"), the military governor of Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern [Baoding](/wiki/Baoding \"Baoding\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")) turned against Later Liang and sought aid from Li Cunxu. Li Cunxu launched an army to head to the aid of Wang Rong and Wang Chuzhi. Subsequently, in a battle that Li Siyuan served as a battlefield commander, at Boxiang (柏鄉, in modern [Xingtai](/wiki/Xingtai \"Xingtai\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")), the Jin army crushed the Later Liang army, securing Wushun (which was then changed back to its Tang name Chengde (成德)) and Yiwu from further Later Liang attack.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 267](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7267 \"資治通鑑/卷267\").",
"In 912, Li Cunxu launched a major campaign, intending to destroy the [Yan](/wiki/Yan_%28Five_Dynasties_period%29 \"Yan (Five Dynasties period)\") state ruled by [Liu Shouguang](/wiki/Liu_Shouguang \"Liu Shouguang\"), with Zhou in command of the overall operations. As part of the campaign, Li Siyuan was in charge of attacking Ying Prefecture (瀛州, in modern [Cangzhou](/wiki/Cangzhou \"Cangzhou\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")), and he was successful in getting its prefect, Zhao Jing (趙敬), to surrender. Subsequently, when Liu sent his major general [Yuan Xingqin](/wiki/Yuan_Xingqin \"Yuan Xingqin\") to his northern borders with the [Khitan Empire](/wiki/Liao_dynasty \"Liao dynasty\") to await potential aid from Khitan's [Emperor Taizu](/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao \"Emperor Taizu of Liao\"), Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to intercept Yuan's army. Li Siyuan first attacked Wu Prefecture (武州, in modern [Zhangjiakou](/wiki/Zhangjiakou \"Zhangjiakou\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")), and its prefect Gao Xinggui (高行珪) surrendered. Yuan then attacked Wu Prefecture, and when Li Siyuan came to its aid, Yuan tried to withdraw, but Li Siyuan subsequently engaged him eight times and forced him into surrendering. Li Siyuan took Yuan as an adoptive son and kept Yuan under his command. (Gao Xinggui's brother [Gao Xingzhou](/wiki/Gao_Xingzhou \"Gao Xingzhou\"), whom Gao Xinggui sent to seek aid from Li Siyuan, also joined Li Siyuan's army and subsequently often commanded Li Siyuan's guards along with Li Siyuan's adoptive son [Li Congke](/wiki/Li_Congke \"Li Congke\") – the son of Li Siyuan's concubine Lady Wei.) Jin forces were subsequently able to destroy Yan and add its territory to Jin.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 268](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7268 \"資治通鑑/卷268\"). (In 915, when Li Cunxu heard of Yuan's ferocity in battle, he requested that Li Siyuan send Yuan to serve under his own personal army, and Li Siyuan, unwilling to resist the order, reluctantly sent Yuan to Li Cunxu. Li Cunxu also wanted Gao Xingzhou and tried to entice Gao with promotion offers, but Gao declined to leave Li Siyuan's command.)*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 269](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7269 \"資治通鑑/卷269\").",
"In 916, when the Later Liang major general [Liu Xun](/wiki/Liu_Xun_%28Later_Liang%29 \"Liu Xun (Later Liang)\") tried to attack Wei Prefecture (魏州, in modern [Handan](/wiki/Handan \"Handan\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\")), which had recently surrendered to Jin – an attack that Li Cunxu anticipated and therefore reacted to immediately – Li Siyuan and his adoptive brother [Li Cunshen](/wiki/Li_Cunshen \"Li Cunshen\") served as main commanders under Li Cunxu. In the subsequent battle, the Jin army crushed the Later Liang army, ending Liu's hopes of defeating Li Cunxu there. When the Later Liang military governor of Zhaode Circuit (昭德, headquartered in modern Handan) subsequently abandoned the circuit in light of Liu's defeat, Li Cunxu merged Zhaode's three prefectures, which had previously belonged to Tianxiong Circuit (天雄, headquartered at Wei) back into Tianxiong, and made Li Siyuan the prefect of Zhaode's former capital Xiang Prefecture (相州). When Jin forces subsequently approached Cang Prefecture (滄州, in modern Cangzhou), Later Liang's military governor of Shunhua Circuit (順化, headquartered at Cang), [Dai Siyuan](/wiki/Dai_Siyuan \"Dai Siyuan\"), abandoned it and fled back to Later Liang territory. Dai's officer Mao Zhang (毛璋) surrendered Cang to Jin. Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to pacify the region, and Li Siyuan subsequently sent Mao away to pay homage to Li Cunxu. Li Siyuan was subsequently made the military governor of Anguo Circuit (安國, headquartered in modern Xingtai). It was there where one of his officers, [An Chonghui](/wiki/An_Chonghui \"An Chonghui\"), became a key trusted staffer.",
"In 917, Khitan's Emperor Taizu launched a major attack on You Prefecture (幽州, in modern [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\")) – the former capital of Yan and now the capital of Jin's Lulong Circuit (盧龍), where Zhou served as military commander. Zhou sought emergency aid, but Li Cunxu was initially unsure what to do, given that he was in constant battles with Later Liang and was hesitant to divide his army to go to Zhou's aid. However, Li Siyuan, Li Cunshen, and Yan Bao (閻寶) all advocated for an army to be sent to aid Zhou. Li Cunxu agreed, and sent Li Siyuan as the commander of the forward troops, followed by Yan Bao, and then by Li Cunshen. The Jin relief forces were subsequently able to defeat the Khitan siege troops and lift the siege on You.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 270](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7270 \"資治通鑑/卷270\").",
"In fall 918, Li Cunxu planned to launch a major attack on Later Liang, and he gathered troops directly under his command at Wei. Zhou, Li Cunshen, and Li Siyuan all led their own troops to rendezvous with him there as well, along with troops sent by Wang Chuzhi. He crossed the [Yellow River](/wiki/Yellow_River \"Yellow River\") into Later Liang territory, with the intent of destroying Later Liang. Subsequently, the joint Jin forces encountered the Later Liang forces under [He Gui](/wiki/He_Gui \"He Gui\") at Huliu Slope (胡柳陂, in modern [Heze](/wiki/Heze \"Heze\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")). The battle was initially a major Jin defeat, with Zhou being killed in the battle. In the confusion of the battle, Li Siyuan believed that Li Cunxu had already retreated north of the Yellow River, and therefore retreated. Li Cunxu, however, was subsequently able to turn the battle around and defeat He Gui's Later Liang forces, causing the battle to be an overall stalemate in which both sides lost over two thirds of their armies, before withdrawing back north. When Li Siyuan rendezvoused with him, Li Cunxu was displeased, believing that Li Siyuan had thought that he died and was abandoning the battle. However, as Li Congke, who got separated from Li Siyuan during the battle and ended up fighting under Li Cunxu during the second stage of the battle, had great contributions during it, Li Cunxu did not punish Li Siyuan, although he did not treat Li Siyuan with as great respect subsequently.",
"In 921, Wang Rong was killed in a coup instigated by his adoptive son [Wang Deming](/wiki/Zhang_Wenli \"Zhang Wenli\"), who subsequently took over the circuit, changed his name back to the birth name of Zhang Wenli, and slaughtered Wang Rong's family. Li Cunxu sent an army to try to destroy Zhang, commanded by Yan Bao and Shi Jiantang (史建瑭), but was contemplating leading an army himself as well after Shi was killed in battle. Dai, who was then the overall Later Liang commander of the army against Jin, tried to take advantage of the situation, but his attack on the Yellow River ford city of Desheng (德勝, in modern [Puyang](/wiki/Puyang \"Puyang\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")) was repelled by Li Cunxu himself, aided by Li Siyuan and Li Cunshen. Li Cunxu subsequently gave Li Siyuan the title of deputy commander of the [Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") and non\\-Han cavalry and infantry forces, and gave him the honorary [chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Tang_dynasty \"Chancellor of the Tang dynasty\") title of *Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi* (同中書門下平章事). He then left Li Siyuan and Li Cunshen in defense of Desheng, while heading to join the Zhao campaign himself. When Dai subsequently tried to attack Wei Prefecture, Li Siyuan took his army to intercept Dai while warning Wei Prefecture. Dai thereafter changed directions and put Desheng under siege, but withdrew when Li Cunxu, hearing news of Dai's incursion, returned.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 271](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7271 \"資治通鑑/卷271\").",
"In spring 922, in light of a Khitan incursion, Li Cunxu made Li Cunshen the military governor of Lulong (aka You Prefecture), to defend against further Khitan attack. Li Siyuan was made the military governor of Henghai Circuit (previously known as Shunhua when under Later Liang rule), which Li Cunshen had been the military governor of, but remained with Li Cunxu's army.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 272](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7272 \"資治通鑑/卷272\").",
""
] |
### During Li Cunxu's subsequent governance
In spring 924, Khitan forces made an incursion into Lulong territory, going as deep into Later Tang as Waqiao Pass (瓦橋關, in modern Baoding). Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to command an army against the Khitan forces, with Huo Yanwei, now a Later Tang general, as his deputy. However, soon thereafter, Khitan forces withdrew, so he recalled Li Siyuan, instead leaving Duan Ning — now bearing the imperially\-bestowed name of Li Shaoqin — and Dong Zhang at Waqiao Pass to defend it. Shortly after, though, there was yet another report of a Khitan incursion, so Li Siyuan was ordered to stop at Xing Prefecture (邢州, the capital of Anguo Circuit) to see if the Khitan would attack, while Li Congke and [Li Shaobin](/wiki/Zhao_Dejun "Zhao Dejun") were ordered to command cavalry forces to defend against the attack as well. Around this time, Li Siyuan, who, like other generals, feared false accusations by Li Cunxu's favored eunuchs and [performers](/wiki/Chinese_opera "Chinese opera"), sought to be relieved of his command, but Li Cunxu did not accept his resignation.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 273](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7273 "資治通鑑/卷273").
In summer 924, the Anyi Circuit (安義, i.e., formerly Zhaoyi) officer Yang Li (楊立), who had previously been trusted by Li Jitao, whom Li Cunxu had executed after his conquest of Later Liang, mutinied and seized control of Anyi's capital Lu Prefecture. Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to command the forces against Yang, with Yuan Xingqin — now with the imperially\-bestowed name of Li Sharing — and Zhang Tingyun (張廷蘊) serving as his deputies. Zhang quickly advanced to Luo and entered it, capturing Yang and his coconspirators, before Li Siyuan and Li Shaorong could arrive. (Yang and his coconspirators were subsequently delivered to then\-Later Tang capital [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang "Luoyang") and executed.) After this campaign, Li Siyuan was made the military governor of Xuanwu Circuit and the commander of the Han and non\-Han cavalry and infantry forces, replacing the recently deceased Li Cunshen.
In late 924, Li Cunxu ordered Li Siyuan to take 37,000 imperial guard soldiers to Bian Prefecture, and then to further take them north to be ready to engage the Khitan. When he went through Xingtang (興唐, i.e., formerly Wei Prefecture, which by this point was made into a special municipality), he requested 500 sets of armor from the Xingtang armory. The defender of Xingtang, Zhang Xian (張憲), believing that Li Siyuan's army needed the armors, approved the request without first seeking Li Cunxu's approval, but when Li Cunxu heard of this, he was very displeased, stating, "Zhang Xian, without my edict, decided to on his own give my armors to Li Siyuan. What is he intending to do?" He fined Zhang a month of Zhang's salary and ordered Zhang to retrieve the armors back from Li Siyuan's camp.
Shortly after, Li Siyuan defeated Khitan forces at Zhuo Prefecture (涿州, in modern Baoding). Meanwhile, Li Cunxu decided to realign his military governors to better defend against the recurrent Khitan threat. Li Cunxu transferred Li Shaobin from Henghai to Lulong, but thought that, while Li Shaobin was considered a capable general, he lacked the battlefield reputation, and therefore decided to transfer Li Siyuan to Chengde. After Li Siyuan received the transfer order, as his household was at Taiyuan, he requested that Li Congke, then serving as the prefect of Wei Prefecture (the prefecture in modern Puyang), be transferred to Taiyuan so that his household can be better watched after. This, however, drew Li Cunxu's ire, and Li Cunxu stated, "Li Siyuan holds a military command and controls a large circuit. Should he not know that both military and government matters are my prerogative, and how does he dare to make such a request for his son!" He demoted Li Congke, causing Li Siyuan to become worried and submit written explanations in apology for Li Cunxu's ires to die. However, when Li Siyuan subsequently sought to go to Xingtang, where he was at the time, to pay homage to him, he refused. Meanwhile, his chief of staff [Guo Chongtao](/wiki/Guo_Chongtao "Guo Chongtao") was apprehensive of Li Siyuan, and secretly suggested to him that Li Siyuan be relieved of command, or even killed; he refused Guo's suggestions.
In 925, when Li Cunxu's mother [Empress Dowager Cao](/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cao_%28Li_Cunxu%27s_mother%29 "Empress Dowager Cao (Li Cunxu's mother)") was seriously ill, Li Siyuan requested to be able to pay homage to her. Li Cunxu refused. (She died not long after.) Later in the year, when Li Cunxu considered launching a major attack to destroy Later Tang's southwestern neighbor [Former Shu](/wiki/Former_Shu "Former Shu"), he initially considered Li Shaoqin to command the army, but Guo opposed. When Li Siyuan was proposed by others, Guo argued that given the recurrence of Khitan incursions, Li Siyuan needed to stay at Chengde to guard against the Khitan. Instead, he recommended that Li Siyuan's oldest son [Li Jiji](/wiki/Li_Jiji "Li Jiji") be put in command. Li Cunxu agreed, and made Guo the deputy to Li Jiji, but be actually responsible for military matters. The Later Tang forces under Li Jiji and Guo were subsequently able to conquer Former Shu and forces its emperor [Wang Yan](/wiki/Wang_Zongyan "Wang Zongyan")'s surrender in late 925\. It was during Guo's absence that Li Siyuan was apparently finally allowed to go to the capital Luoyang to pay homage to Li Cunxu.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 274](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7274 "資治通鑑/卷274").
|
[
"### During Li Cunxu's subsequent governance",
"In spring 924, Khitan forces made an incursion into Lulong territory, going as deep into Later Tang as Waqiao Pass (瓦橋關, in modern Baoding). Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to command an army against the Khitan forces, with Huo Yanwei, now a Later Tang general, as his deputy. However, soon thereafter, Khitan forces withdrew, so he recalled Li Siyuan, instead leaving Duan Ning — now bearing the imperially\\-bestowed name of Li Shaoqin — and Dong Zhang at Waqiao Pass to defend it. Shortly after, though, there was yet another report of a Khitan incursion, so Li Siyuan was ordered to stop at Xing Prefecture (邢州, the capital of Anguo Circuit) to see if the Khitan would attack, while Li Congke and [Li Shaobin](/wiki/Zhao_Dejun \"Zhao Dejun\") were ordered to command cavalry forces to defend against the attack as well. Around this time, Li Siyuan, who, like other generals, feared false accusations by Li Cunxu's favored eunuchs and [performers](/wiki/Chinese_opera \"Chinese opera\"), sought to be relieved of his command, but Li Cunxu did not accept his resignation.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 273](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7273 \"資治通鑑/卷273\").",
"In summer 924, the Anyi Circuit (安義, i.e., formerly Zhaoyi) officer Yang Li (楊立), who had previously been trusted by Li Jitao, whom Li Cunxu had executed after his conquest of Later Liang, mutinied and seized control of Anyi's capital Lu Prefecture. Li Cunxu sent Li Siyuan to command the forces against Yang, with Yuan Xingqin — now with the imperially\\-bestowed name of Li Sharing — and Zhang Tingyun (張廷蘊) serving as his deputies. Zhang quickly advanced to Luo and entered it, capturing Yang and his coconspirators, before Li Siyuan and Li Shaorong could arrive. (Yang and his coconspirators were subsequently delivered to then\\-Later Tang capital [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang \"Luoyang\") and executed.) After this campaign, Li Siyuan was made the military governor of Xuanwu Circuit and the commander of the Han and non\\-Han cavalry and infantry forces, replacing the recently deceased Li Cunshen.",
"In late 924, Li Cunxu ordered Li Siyuan to take 37,000 imperial guard soldiers to Bian Prefecture, and then to further take them north to be ready to engage the Khitan. When he went through Xingtang (興唐, i.e., formerly Wei Prefecture, which by this point was made into a special municipality), he requested 500 sets of armor from the Xingtang armory. The defender of Xingtang, Zhang Xian (張憲), believing that Li Siyuan's army needed the armors, approved the request without first seeking Li Cunxu's approval, but when Li Cunxu heard of this, he was very displeased, stating, \"Zhang Xian, without my edict, decided to on his own give my armors to Li Siyuan. What is he intending to do?\" He fined Zhang a month of Zhang's salary and ordered Zhang to retrieve the armors back from Li Siyuan's camp.",
"Shortly after, Li Siyuan defeated Khitan forces at Zhuo Prefecture (涿州, in modern Baoding). Meanwhile, Li Cunxu decided to realign his military governors to better defend against the recurrent Khitan threat. Li Cunxu transferred Li Shaobin from Henghai to Lulong, but thought that, while Li Shaobin was considered a capable general, he lacked the battlefield reputation, and therefore decided to transfer Li Siyuan to Chengde. After Li Siyuan received the transfer order, as his household was at Taiyuan, he requested that Li Congke, then serving as the prefect of Wei Prefecture (the prefecture in modern Puyang), be transferred to Taiyuan so that his household can be better watched after. This, however, drew Li Cunxu's ire, and Li Cunxu stated, \"Li Siyuan holds a military command and controls a large circuit. Should he not know that both military and government matters are my prerogative, and how does he dare to make such a request for his son!\" He demoted Li Congke, causing Li Siyuan to become worried and submit written explanations in apology for Li Cunxu's ires to die. However, when Li Siyuan subsequently sought to go to Xingtang, where he was at the time, to pay homage to him, he refused. Meanwhile, his chief of staff [Guo Chongtao](/wiki/Guo_Chongtao \"Guo Chongtao\") was apprehensive of Li Siyuan, and secretly suggested to him that Li Siyuan be relieved of command, or even killed; he refused Guo's suggestions.",
"In 925, when Li Cunxu's mother [Empress Dowager Cao](/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cao_%28Li_Cunxu%27s_mother%29 \"Empress Dowager Cao (Li Cunxu's mother)\") was seriously ill, Li Siyuan requested to be able to pay homage to her. Li Cunxu refused. (She died not long after.) Later in the year, when Li Cunxu considered launching a major attack to destroy Later Tang's southwestern neighbor [Former Shu](/wiki/Former_Shu \"Former Shu\"), he initially considered Li Shaoqin to command the army, but Guo opposed. When Li Siyuan was proposed by others, Guo argued that given the recurrence of Khitan incursions, Li Siyuan needed to stay at Chengde to guard against the Khitan. Instead, he recommended that Li Siyuan's oldest son [Li Jiji](/wiki/Li_Jiji \"Li Jiji\") be put in command. Li Cunxu agreed, and made Guo the deputy to Li Jiji, but be actually responsible for military matters. The Later Tang forces under Li Jiji and Guo were subsequently able to conquer Former Shu and forces its emperor [Wang Yan](/wiki/Wang_Zongyan \"Wang Zongyan\")'s surrender in late 925\\. It was during Guo's absence that Li Siyuan was apparently finally allowed to go to the capital Luoyang to pay homage to Li Cunxu.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 274](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7274 \"資治通鑑/卷274\").",
""
] |
### During the collapse of Li Cunxu's reign
Soon after Former Shu's fall, however, Li Cunxu and his wife [Empress Liu](/wiki/Empress_Liu_%28Li_Cunxu%27s_wife%29 "Empress Liu (Li Cunxu's wife)") came to suspect Guo Chongtao of hoarding wealth and planning to occupy Former Shu's territory to rebel himself. Empress Liu wanted to order Guo's death, and, after Li Cunxu initially refused to issue such an edict, issued her own edict to Li JIji and ordered Guo's death. Li Jiji carried the order out, leading to much shock and dissension among the imperial troops. Li Cunxu's subsequent execution of another major general, [Li Jilin](/wiki/Zhu_Youqian "Zhu Youqian"), only added to such dissent. Kang Yanxiao subsequently rebelled, and while his rebellion was quickly suppressed, the soldiers' dissensions continued, particularly because at that time, the Luoyang region was stricken with famine, leading to many rumors. Li Siyuan was also the subject of many rumors, leading to Li Cunxu's sending his close associate [Zhu Shouyin](/wiki/Zhu_Shouyin "Zhu Shouyin") to meet with and observe Li Siyuan. Zhu secretly informed Li Siyuan of this and stated, "Your achievements, Lord Chancellor, make your Lord comprehensive about you. You should consider trying to return to your fief to avoid disaster." Li Siyuan responded, "My heart does not sin against heaven or earth. If disasters come, I cannot avoid it. It will be my lot." It was said that several times Li Cunxu came to believe the rumors about Li Siyuan, but Li Cunxu's director of palace affairs, [Li Shaohong](/wiki/Ma_Shaohong "Ma Shaohong") protected Li Siyuan such that no disaster came to Li Siyuan.
At that time, Li Cunxu was faced with several mutinies north of the Yellow River, the chief of which was at Xingtang, where the soldiers had forced the officer Zhao Zaili (趙在禮) into leading them in mutiny. Li Cunxu initially sent Li Shaorong to try to quell the rebellion, but Li Shaorong's siege of Xingtang was fruitless. The key officials, including [Zhang Quanyi](/wiki/Zhang_Quanyi "Zhang Quanyi") and Li Shaohong, all recommended that he send Li Siyuan, and despite his hesitations, he put Li Siyuan in command of the imperial guards and sent him against the Xingtang rebels. Li Siyuan subsequently arrived at Xingtang and put it under siege, but that night, the officer Zhang Pobai (張破敗) led a mutiny and took Li Siyuan and his deputy Huo Yanwei — now with the imperially\-bestowed name of Li Shaozhen — hostage, forcing them to join the Xingtang rebels. After some initial confusions in which the Xingtang rebels attacked and killed Zhang, the Xingtang rebels welcomed Li Siyuan and Li Shaozhen into the city, but subsequently allowed them to leave to regather their troops, after Li Siyuan made assurances to ally with them.
By this point, Li Shaorong, believing that Li Siyuan was rebelling against Li Cunxu, withdrew from the Xingtang vicinity and submitted reports to Li Cunxu that Li Siyuan had rebelled. Li Siyuan, with some Chengde troops who initially fled the scene having rejoined him, considered his options. He initially wanted to return to Chengde and then submitting a petition begging forgiveness for being unable to properly rein in his troops, but Li Shaozhen and An Chonghui pointed out that he would then be vulnerable to accusations of occupying the land for his own benefit. They, instead, recommended heading toward Luoyang to try to defend himself against Li Shaorong's accusations. On the way, he sent a number of messengers to Li Cunxu, hoping to explain himself, but these messengers were all intercepted and killed by Li Shaorong. Li Cunxu's attempt to verify Li Siyuan's intentions by sending Li Siyuan's son Li Congshen (李從審) to Li Siyuan was also thwarted by Li Shaorong, who eventually killed Li Congshen. Under the advice of his son\-in\-law [Shi Jingtang](/wiki/Shi_Jingtang "Shi Jingtang"), Li Siyuan changed his posture and instead prepared for battle against the imperial troops. He headed toward Daliang, as Li Cunxu also prepared to do so. When he reached Daliang first, the defender of Daliang, [Kong Xun](/wiki/Kong_Xun "Kong Xun"), welcomed him in, causing Li Cunxu, then on the way, to be dejected, and Li Cunxu returned to Luoyang. Shortly after, a mutiny occurred at Luoyang as well, and Li Cunxu was killed in battle while battling the mutineers.
Li Siyuan subsequently arrived at Luoyang at Zhu Shouyin's invitation. Initially, he stayed at his own mansion and ordered the soldiers to stop looting; he also gathered Li Cunxu's remains to prepare for funeral. When the officials encouraged him to take the throne, he declined, and stated to Zhu that he should continue to treat Li Cunxu's consorts [Consort Han](/wiki/Consort_Han_%28Later_Tang%29 "Consort Han (Later Tang)") and Consort Yin with respect, and prepare for the return of Li Jiji, suggesting that he would return to Chengde once Li Cunxu was buried and Li Jiji took the throne. However, after repeated requests by officials, he took the title of [regent](/wiki/Regent "Regent"). He issued orders for the imperial princes to be found. Li Shaozhen and An Chonghui, however, believing the situation to be untenable, secretly had two of Li Cunxu's younger brothers, Li Cunque (李存確) the Prince of Tong and Li Cunji (李存紀) the Prince of Ya, assassinated. By Li Siyuan's orders, Empress Liu, who fled to Taiyuan, was killed, and the soldiers also killed Li Cunxu's brothers Li Cunwo (李存渥) the Prince of Shen and Li Cunba (李存霸) the Prince of Yong. Several other imperial princes were never located, and only Li Cunxu's brother Li Cunmei (李存美) the Prince of Yong (different title than Li Cunba's) was spared on account of his illness. When Li Shaorong was captured, Li Siyuan personally questioned him, "How have I wronged you that you killed my son?" Li Shaorong stared at him and responded, "How has the deceased emperor wronged you?" Li Siyuan had him executed and his name changed back to Yuan Xingqin.
With the possibilities of a rapprochement with Li Jiji gone, Li Siyuan decided to resist Li Jiji's return. He sent Shi Jingtang and Li Congke to take up defensive positions at Shan Prefecture (陝州, in modern [Sanmenxia](/wiki/Sanmenxia "Sanmenxia"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")), and Hezhong Municipality (河中, in modern [Yuncheng](/wiki/Yuncheng "Yuncheng"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi "Shanxi")), respectively, to block Li Jiji's potential return. Shortly after, with his own associates abandoning him, Li Jiji committed suicide. The general [Ren Huan](/wiki/Ren_Huan "Ren Huan") took over command of his army; when the army met Shi's, they submitted to Li Siyuan's rule.
With Li Jiji eliminated, Li Siyuan prepared to take the throne himself. Li Shaozhen and Kong Xun, believing that Tang's heavenly mandate was over, advocated that he change the name of the state. However, Li Siyuan, citing the fact that he had long served Li Guochang, Li Keyong, and Li Cunxu, declined. Under the suggestion of [Li Qi](/wiki/Li_Qi_%28Five_Dynasties%29 "Li Qi (Five Dynasties)"), he took the position that he was succeeding Li Cunxu legitimately, and, after a ceremony in which he first mourned Li Cunxu, took the throne as the new emperor.
|
[
"### During the collapse of Li Cunxu's reign",
"Soon after Former Shu's fall, however, Li Cunxu and his wife [Empress Liu](/wiki/Empress_Liu_%28Li_Cunxu%27s_wife%29 \"Empress Liu (Li Cunxu's wife)\") came to suspect Guo Chongtao of hoarding wealth and planning to occupy Former Shu's territory to rebel himself. Empress Liu wanted to order Guo's death, and, after Li Cunxu initially refused to issue such an edict, issued her own edict to Li JIji and ordered Guo's death. Li Jiji carried the order out, leading to much shock and dissension among the imperial troops. Li Cunxu's subsequent execution of another major general, [Li Jilin](/wiki/Zhu_Youqian \"Zhu Youqian\"), only added to such dissent. Kang Yanxiao subsequently rebelled, and while his rebellion was quickly suppressed, the soldiers' dissensions continued, particularly because at that time, the Luoyang region was stricken with famine, leading to many rumors. Li Siyuan was also the subject of many rumors, leading to Li Cunxu's sending his close associate [Zhu Shouyin](/wiki/Zhu_Shouyin \"Zhu Shouyin\") to meet with and observe Li Siyuan. Zhu secretly informed Li Siyuan of this and stated, \"Your achievements, Lord Chancellor, make your Lord comprehensive about you. You should consider trying to return to your fief to avoid disaster.\" Li Siyuan responded, \"My heart does not sin against heaven or earth. If disasters come, I cannot avoid it. It will be my lot.\" It was said that several times Li Cunxu came to believe the rumors about Li Siyuan, but Li Cunxu's director of palace affairs, [Li Shaohong](/wiki/Ma_Shaohong \"Ma Shaohong\") protected Li Siyuan such that no disaster came to Li Siyuan.",
"At that time, Li Cunxu was faced with several mutinies north of the Yellow River, the chief of which was at Xingtang, where the soldiers had forced the officer Zhao Zaili (趙在禮) into leading them in mutiny. Li Cunxu initially sent Li Shaorong to try to quell the rebellion, but Li Shaorong's siege of Xingtang was fruitless. The key officials, including [Zhang Quanyi](/wiki/Zhang_Quanyi \"Zhang Quanyi\") and Li Shaohong, all recommended that he send Li Siyuan, and despite his hesitations, he put Li Siyuan in command of the imperial guards and sent him against the Xingtang rebels. Li Siyuan subsequently arrived at Xingtang and put it under siege, but that night, the officer Zhang Pobai (張破敗) led a mutiny and took Li Siyuan and his deputy Huo Yanwei — now with the imperially\\-bestowed name of Li Shaozhen — hostage, forcing them to join the Xingtang rebels. After some initial confusions in which the Xingtang rebels attacked and killed Zhang, the Xingtang rebels welcomed Li Siyuan and Li Shaozhen into the city, but subsequently allowed them to leave to regather their troops, after Li Siyuan made assurances to ally with them.",
"By this point, Li Shaorong, believing that Li Siyuan was rebelling against Li Cunxu, withdrew from the Xingtang vicinity and submitted reports to Li Cunxu that Li Siyuan had rebelled. Li Siyuan, with some Chengde troops who initially fled the scene having rejoined him, considered his options. He initially wanted to return to Chengde and then submitting a petition begging forgiveness for being unable to properly rein in his troops, but Li Shaozhen and An Chonghui pointed out that he would then be vulnerable to accusations of occupying the land for his own benefit. They, instead, recommended heading toward Luoyang to try to defend himself against Li Shaorong's accusations. On the way, he sent a number of messengers to Li Cunxu, hoping to explain himself, but these messengers were all intercepted and killed by Li Shaorong. Li Cunxu's attempt to verify Li Siyuan's intentions by sending Li Siyuan's son Li Congshen (李從審) to Li Siyuan was also thwarted by Li Shaorong, who eventually killed Li Congshen. Under the advice of his son\\-in\\-law [Shi Jingtang](/wiki/Shi_Jingtang \"Shi Jingtang\"), Li Siyuan changed his posture and instead prepared for battle against the imperial troops. He headed toward Daliang, as Li Cunxu also prepared to do so. When he reached Daliang first, the defender of Daliang, [Kong Xun](/wiki/Kong_Xun \"Kong Xun\"), welcomed him in, causing Li Cunxu, then on the way, to be dejected, and Li Cunxu returned to Luoyang. Shortly after, a mutiny occurred at Luoyang as well, and Li Cunxu was killed in battle while battling the mutineers.",
"Li Siyuan subsequently arrived at Luoyang at Zhu Shouyin's invitation. Initially, he stayed at his own mansion and ordered the soldiers to stop looting; he also gathered Li Cunxu's remains to prepare for funeral. When the officials encouraged him to take the throne, he declined, and stated to Zhu that he should continue to treat Li Cunxu's consorts [Consort Han](/wiki/Consort_Han_%28Later_Tang%29 \"Consort Han (Later Tang)\") and Consort Yin with respect, and prepare for the return of Li Jiji, suggesting that he would return to Chengde once Li Cunxu was buried and Li Jiji took the throne. However, after repeated requests by officials, he took the title of [regent](/wiki/Regent \"Regent\"). He issued orders for the imperial princes to be found. Li Shaozhen and An Chonghui, however, believing the situation to be untenable, secretly had two of Li Cunxu's younger brothers, Li Cunque (李存確) the Prince of Tong and Li Cunji (李存紀) the Prince of Ya, assassinated. By Li Siyuan's orders, Empress Liu, who fled to Taiyuan, was killed, and the soldiers also killed Li Cunxu's brothers Li Cunwo (李存渥) the Prince of Shen and Li Cunba (李存霸) the Prince of Yong. Several other imperial princes were never located, and only Li Cunxu's brother Li Cunmei (李存美) the Prince of Yong (different title than Li Cunba's) was spared on account of his illness. When Li Shaorong was captured, Li Siyuan personally questioned him, \"How have I wronged you that you killed my son?\" Li Shaorong stared at him and responded, \"How has the deceased emperor wronged you?\" Li Siyuan had him executed and his name changed back to Yuan Xingqin.",
"With the possibilities of a rapprochement with Li Jiji gone, Li Siyuan decided to resist Li Jiji's return. He sent Shi Jingtang and Li Congke to take up defensive positions at Shan Prefecture (陝州, in modern [Sanmenxia](/wiki/Sanmenxia \"Sanmenxia\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")), and Hezhong Municipality (河中, in modern [Yuncheng](/wiki/Yuncheng \"Yuncheng\"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\")), respectively, to block Li Jiji's potential return. Shortly after, with his own associates abandoning him, Li Jiji committed suicide. The general [Ren Huan](/wiki/Ren_Huan \"Ren Huan\") took over command of his army; when the army met Shi's, they submitted to Li Siyuan's rule.",
"With Li Jiji eliminated, Li Siyuan prepared to take the throne himself. Li Shaozhen and Kong Xun, believing that Tang's heavenly mandate was over, advocated that he change the name of the state. However, Li Siyuan, citing the fact that he had long served Li Guochang, Li Keyong, and Li Cunxu, declined. Under the suggestion of [Li Qi](/wiki/Li_Qi_%28Five_Dynasties%29 \"Li Qi (Five Dynasties)\"), he took the position that he was succeeding Li Cunxu legitimately, and, after a ceremony in which he first mourned Li Cunxu, took the throne as the new emperor.",
""
] |
Reign
-----
### Early reign (*Tiancheng* era)
Li Siyuan commissioned An Chonghui and Kong Xun as his chiefs of staff, with An becoming effectively his chief advisor. [Zheng Jue](/wiki/Zheng_Jue "Zheng Jue") and Ren Huan served as chancellors, with Ren also served as the director of the three financial agencies (taxation, treasury, and salt and iron monopolies). (Li Cunxu's chancellors [Doulu Ge](/wiki/Doulu_Ge "Doulu Ge") and [Wei Yue](/wiki/Wei_Yue "Wei Yue") were initially retained as well, but were subsequently removed and exiled after they were accused of corruption.) As the emperor was illiterate, he had An read all of the submissions to for him, but An himself was also unable to comprehend all that were being submitted. Thus, under An's suggestion, the institution of imperial scholars of Duanming Hall (端明殿) was established, with the responsibility of processing and reading the submissions to the emperor, with [Feng Dao](/wiki/Feng_Dao "Feng Dao") and [Zhao Feng](/wiki/Zhao_Feng "Zhao Feng") serving as the inaugural scholars. As Li Siyuan's name contained two relatively common characters, he, in order to decrease the people's burden when observing [naming taboo](/wiki/Naming_taboo "Naming taboo"), ordered that only the consecutive use of *Siyuan* is to be avoided; the individual characters of *yuan* did not have to be avoided. However, apparently to further make it easier for people to observe the naming taboo, in 927, he renamed himself Li Dan. Also, when many generals who had received imperially\-bestowed names from Li Cunxu requested that their original names be restored, he agreed.
Meanwhile, Li Siyuan tried to create a friendly relationship with Khitan. He sent his attendant Yao Kun (姚坤) as an emissary to Khitan, to announce to Khitan's [Emperor Taizu](/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao "Emperor Taizu of Liao") (Yelü Abaoji) Li Cunxu's death. The Khitan emperor initially tried to rebuke Yao for how Li Siyuan took the throne, but Yao replied back that the Khitan emperor took over power under similar circumstances, making the Khitan emperor unable to reply. However, the Khitan emperor then demanded, as a term of peace, that the Later Tang territory north of the Yellow River be ceded to him. When Yao responded that he did not have authority to do so, the Khitan emperor put him under arrest, and then instead demanded Lulong, Chengde, and Yiwu Circuits. When Yao again refused, he was kept under arrest, and no peace was achieved between the states at that time.
Another issue confronting Li Siyuan was some military governors' unwillingness to fully accept his authority. The ones that An was particularly concerned about were [Meng Zhixiang](/wiki/Meng_Zhixiang "Meng Zhixiang") the military governor of Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu "Chengdu"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")) and Dong Zhang the military governor of Dongchuan Circuit (東川, headquartered in modern [Mianyang](/wiki/Mianyang "Mianyang"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")) — whose territories were the ones captured earlier from Former Shu — because Dong was considered a strong\-willed general and Meng was married to Li Cunxu's cousin (or sister). An's attempts to curb in their powers by sending to Meng an army monitor (Li Yan (李嚴)) and sending Dong a deputy military governor ([Zhu Hongzhao](/wiki/Zhu_Hongzhao "Zhu Hongzhao")) only increased tensions, such that Meng eventually executed Li Yan and Zhu fled back to Luoyang from Dong's domain. However, open hostility did not immediately occur, and Li Siyuan allowed Meng's wife (Grand Princess Qionghua) and son ([Meng Renzan](/wiki/Meng_Chang "Meng Chang")) to join him in Xichuan. It was, however, a different matter with [Gao Jixing](/wiki/Gao_Jixing "Gao Jixing") the military governor of [Jingnan](/wiki/Jingnan "Jingnan") Circuit (荊南, headquartered in modern [Jingzhou](/wiki/Jingzhou "Jingzhou"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei")), who had long ruled his circuit as an independent domain. Gao had been given three prefectures (Kui (夔州), Zhong (忠州), and Wan (萬州), all in modern [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing "Chongqing")) that he long wanted on the eastern periphery of Former Shu when Later Tang destroyed Former Shu, but was not content. When he intercept a convoy of Former Shu goods that Li Jiji had previously sent down the [Yangtze River](/wiki/Yangtze_River "Yangtze River"), killed the officers, and kept the wealth, that was the final aggravation for Li Siyuan, and he declared a general campaign against Gao in spring 927\. However, the Later Tang army against Jingnan, commanded by Liu Xun (劉訓), when putting Jingnan's capital [Jiangling](/wiki/Jiangling_County "Jiangling County") under siege, ran into weather and supply difficulties, and was eventually forced to withdraw, although the Later Tang general Xifang Ye (西方鄴) was able to recapture Kui, Zhong, and Wan Prefectures from Jingnan. Around that time, Feng and [Cui Xie](/wiki/Cui_Xie "Cui Xie") were made chancellors to replace the dismissed Doulu and Wei. (Cui's becoming chancellor was despite Ren Huan's vehement opposition, and in summer 927, Ren, sensing that Li Siyuan was displeased about the disputes between him and An, resigned his directorship of the three financial agencies and, shortly after, his chancellorship. When Zhu Shouyin, then the military governor of Xuanwu, subsequently rebelled at Bian Prefecture (as Li Siyuan was announcing an imperial visit there, along with the imperial army, and Zhu was fearful that it was targeting him), An, apparently believing that Ren might have instigated Zhu into doing so, persuaded Li Siyuan to have Ren put to death. Zhu's rebellion was quickly suppressed, and Zhu committed suicide.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 276](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7276 "資治通鑑/卷276").
Late in 927, [Yang Pu](/wiki/Yang_Pu "Yang Pu"), the king of Later Tang's southeastern neighbor [Wu](/wiki/Wu_%28Ten_Kingdoms%29 "Wu (Ten Kingdoms)"), with whom Later Tang had friendly relations, declared himself emperor. An suggested a campaign against Wu, but Li Siyuan did not approve it. Still, in early 928, An refused further emissaries from Wu, thus effectively breaking relations with Wu. Around that time, Li Siyuan considered visiting Yedu (鄴都, i.e., a new name for Xingtang), but the imperial army soldiers were displeased with yet another journey after the recent journey from Luoyang to Bian, and as a result, all kinds of rumors again started. When Li Siyuan heard of this, he decided not to visit Yedu.
In spring 928, there was an episode where An and another formerly close associate of Li Siyuan's, [Wang Jianli](/wiki/Wang_Jianli "Wang Jianli") the military governor of Chengde, were accusing each other of abuses; An was accusing Wang of allying with [Wang Du](/wiki/Wang_Du "Wang Du") the military governor of Yiwu (Wang Chuzhi's adoptive son, who had overthrown Wang Chuzhi in 921 and subsequently continued to govern Yiwu in *de facto* independence), while Wang Jianli accused An of authoritarianism and allying with the acting director of the three financial agencies, [Zhang Yanlang](/wiki/Zhang_Yanlang "Zhang Yanlang") by having their children marry. (Wang Du had in fact been trying to ally with Wang Jianli, but Wang Jianli was secretly reporting that attempt to the imperial government.) Li Siyuan, initially believing in Wang Jianli, decided to send An and Zhang out of the capital to serve as military governors, but after Zhu Hongzhao defended An, did not do so. However, as at that time Zheng Jue requested retirement, Li Siyuan kept Wang Jianli at the imperial government to serve as chancellor and the director of the three financial agencies.
Meanwhile, Wang Du was apprehensive about his relations with the imperial government, as Li Siyuan's administration, under An's auspices, had been stricter with military governors than Li Cunxu's had been. In addition to Wang Jianli, he was also sending secret correspondences to Huo Yanwei, then the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern [Weifang](/wiki/Weifang "Weifang"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")); Fang Zhiwen (房知溫) the military governor of Zhongwu Circuit (忠武, headquartered in modern [Xuchang](/wiki/Xuchang "Xuchang"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")); Mao Zhang the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit; Meng Zhixiang; and Dong Zhang, hoping to alienate them from the imperial government. He similarly tried to entice Wang Yanqiu (i.e., Du Yanqiu, who had returned to his birth name) the military governor of Guide Circuit (歸德, headquartered in modern [Shangqiu](/wiki/Shangqiu "Shangqiu"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")), who was then commanding the northern defense forces against Khitan, into an alliance, but when Wang Yanqiu rejected his overtures, unsuccessfully tried to have Wang Yanqiu assassinated. When Wang Yanqiu reported this to the imperial government, Li Siyuan ordered a general campaign against Wang Du, with Wang Yanqiu in command. Wang Yanqiu put Yiwu's capital Ding Prefecture (定州) under siege immediately, but chose to wear out Wang Du by surrounding the well\-fortified city, rather than launch heavy assaults on it. Khitan's attempt to aid Wang Du was unsuccessful, and in early 929, Wang Du's officer Ma Rangneng (馬讓能) opened the city gates to allow the Later Tang forces in; Wang Du committed suicide, ending the campaign.
Simmering below the surface of Li Siyuan's reign was also the issue of succession. His oldest biological son [Li Congrong](/wiki/Li_Congrong "Li Congrong") was, by this time, serving as the military governor of Hedong, and was considered the likely heir, but he was said to be arrogant and inattentive to governance. Li Siyuan tried to have a friend of Li Congrong's advise him that his younger brother [Li Conghou](/wiki/Li_Conghou "Li Conghou"), who was serving as the mayor of Luoyang, was milder in disposition and diligent, and therefore was gaining better reputation, to correct Li Congrong's behavior. However, Li Congrong did not accept the advice, and instead was listening to his close associate Yang Siquan (楊思權), who was advocating that he gather officers around him to be able to react with force if he were bypassed. When Li Siyuan heard this, he recalled Yang, but did not punish Yang on account of Yang's close association with Li Congrong. In 929, he made Li Congrong the mayor of Luoyang and the commander of the imperial guards, while making Li Conghou the military governor of Hedong.
In late 928, Gao Jixing died and was succeeded by his son [Gao Conghui](/wiki/Gao_Conghui "Gao Conghui"), who had not agreed with his father's defiant stance toward Later Tang. Gao Conghui sent petitions through another Later Tang vassal, [Ma Yin](/wiki/Ma_Yin "Ma Yin") the king of [Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28Ten_Kingdoms%29 "Chu (Ten Kingdoms)"), and the Later Tang military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang "Xiangyang"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei")), An Yuanxin (安元信), requesting Later Tang to allow him to submit again as a vassal. Li Siyuan agreed, and commissioned Gao Conghui as the military governor of Jingnan. He also formally ended the general campaign against Jingnan.
However, the relationship between Later Tang and another vassal, [Wuyue](/wiki/Wuyue "Wuyue"), was deteriorating, as the king of Wuyue, [Qian Liu](/wiki/Qian_Liu "Qian Liu"), was arrogant in his old age, and had offended An Chonghui by using pompous language in his letters to An. In 929, Li Siyuan sent his attendants Wu Zhaoyu (烏昭遇) and Han Mei (韓玫) on a diplomatic mission to Wuyue. Upon their return, Han, who had grudges against Wu, accused Wu of bowing to Qian, referring to himself as "subject," and telling Qian about Later Tang state secrets. An had Wu put to death, and then persuaded Li Siyuan to issue an edict ordering Qian to retire as *Taishi* (太師) and stripping him of his other posts. It also ordered that all Wuyue emissaries be arrested wherever they could be found. Qian had his son [Qian Chuanguan](/wiki/Qian_Yuanguan "Qian Yuanguan") submit a petition on his behalf, pleading for him and defending him; Li Siyuan ignored it. At the same time, the Later Tang imperial government was carving out territories out of Xichuan and Dongchuan and establishing new circuits, to curb the strengths of Meng and Dong. The two of them, who had previously had a contentious relationship, entered into an alliance and prepared for war against the imperial government.
### Late reign (*Changxing* era)
In 930, Li Siyuan created his wife [Consort Cao](/wiki/Empress_Cao_%28Li_Siyuan%27s_wife%29 "Empress Cao (Li Siyuan's wife)"), who then carried the imperial consort title of *Shufei* (淑妃), empress, and made his favorite concubine, [Consort Wang](/wiki/Consort_Dowager_Wang "Consort Dowager Wang"), *Shufei*. Consort Wang had a liking for luxurious clothing, and An Chonghui tried to correct her behavior, citing to her the example of Li Cunxu's hoarding wife Empress Liu. She therefore came to resent An.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 277](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7277 "資治通鑑/卷277").
Meanwhile, there was also an adversarial relationship between An and Li Congke, stemming from a time in their youths when Li Congke battered An severely after a drunken argument, despite Li Congke's subsequent apologies to An. As of 930, Li Congke was serving as the military governor of Huguo Circuit (護國, headquartered at Hezhong Municipality), and An often criticized his governance to Li Siyuan, but Li Siyuan did not listen to it. Therefore, An resolved to remove Li Congke by other means. He induced Li Congke's subordinate Yan Yanwen (楊彥溫) into refusing to allow Li Congke to return to headquarters after Li Congke was out on a hunt once. When Li Congke inquired why Yang did this, Yang responded, "It is not that I, Yang Yanwen, forgot your grace, but it is by the orders of the Office of the Chiefs of Staff that you, Lord, report to the capital." When Li Congke reported this to Li Siyuan, Li Siyuan summoned both Li Congke and Yang to the capital, hoping to inquire of the situation, but An sent an army that captured and executed Yang (i.e., killing Yang so that Yang would not have an opportunity to report him). As a result of this incident, Li Siyuan relieved Li Congke of his command and had him return to his mansion. An subsequently tried to make further false accusations against Li Congke for allegedly stockpiling weapons, but with Consort Wang protecting Li Congke, Li Congke escaped further repercussions. Around the same time, Li Congrong was created the Prince of Qin and Li Conghou the Prince of Song.
Meanwhile, both Meng Zhixiang and Dong Zhang were nervous over the central government's buildup of armies at three circuits carved out of Dongchuan and Xichuan — Zhaowu (昭武, headquartered in modern [Guangyuan](/wiki/Guangyuan "Guangyuan"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")); Baoning (保寧, headquartered in modern [Langzhong](/wiki/Langzhong "Langzhong"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")); and Wuxin (武信, headquartered in modern [Suining](/wiki/Suining "Suining"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")). When Dong's threats of rebellion if the imperial government continued to reinforce those circuits went unheeded by An, Dong and Meng rebelled in 931\. (However, as noted by, inter alia, the modern historian [Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang "Bo Yang"), An's intent was to force Dong and Meng into rebellion so that he could destroy them.)*[Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang "Bo Yang") Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian*, vol. 68 (930\). Li Siyuan commissioned an imperial army, commanded by Shi Jingtang, to attack Meng and Dong. However, despite some early successes, the imperial army became bogged down in its confrontation with the two circuits, becoming stuck at Jian Prefecture (劍州, in modern Guangyuan), while the Dongchuan and Xichuan armies captured Zhaowu, Baoning, Wuxin, and Wutai (武泰, headquartered in modern [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing "Chongqing")) Circuits. In late 930, An offered to head to the front to oversee the operations, and Li Siyuan agreed. However, after An left the capital, Shi, who did not favor the campaign in the first place, submitted a petition listing the reasons why the campaign was not advisable. Zhu Hongzhao, who was previously a close associate of An's and who was then the military governor of Fengxiang Circuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji "Baoji"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")), also submitted a petition accusing An of planning to take over Shi's army. Li Siyuan thus recalled An, and then relieved him of his position as chief of staff made him the military governor of Huguo. After An offered to retire, Li Siyuan made his nephew Li Congzhang the Prince of Yang the military governor of Huguo, but Li Congzhang then, apparently with Li Siyuan's approval, put An and his wife to death. (Upon An's demotion, Li Siyuan restored Li Congke's privileges and restored Qian Liu's offices, blaming An for provoking Qian, Dong, and Meng.)
Upon An's demotion, Shi withdrew from Jian and returned to imperial lands. Li Siyuan subsequently tried to make a peace overture to Dong and Meng. Meng was receptive, but Dong, as his son Dong Guangye (董光業) and Dong Guangye's family were slaughtered during the campaign, refused. As a result, Meng was initially hesitant to make peace with the imperial government himself. Dong, however, resolved to attack Xichuan and capture it himself. He was defeated by Meng's general [Zhao Tingyin](/wiki/Zhao_Tingyin "Zhao Tingyin"), however, and forced to flee back to Dongchuan's capital Zi Prefecture (梓州). Upon his return, his officers mutinied, killed him, and surrendered to Meng, allowing Meng to take over Dongchuan. At the suggestion of [Fan Yanguang](/wiki/Fan_Yanguang "Fan Yanguang"), Li Siyuan sent Meng's nephew Li Cungui (李存瓌) as an emissary to Meng, to persuade him to resubmit to the imperial government. Meng thus formally resubmitted to the imperial government, but was subsequently becoming more arrogant and independent. Subsequently, at Meng's request, Li Siyuan granted Meng the authority to commission the military governors and prefects of the six circuits now under this control.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 278](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7278 "資治通鑑/卷278").
After An's death, Li Congrong, who previously had been respectful of An, became uncurbed in his behavior. At this time, Consort Wang and the director of palace affairs, [Meng Hanqiong](/wiki/Meng_Hanqiong "Meng Hanqiong"), were in control of the palace, and Fan Yanguang and Li Siyuan's son\-in\-law [Zhao Yanshou](/wiki/Zhao_Yanshou "Zhao Yanshou") served as chief of staff in An's stead, but Li Congrong was not respectful of any of them and often insulted them, causing them to be fearful and often requesting to leave the imperial government. Shi Jingtang, whose wife was not born of the same mother as Li Congrong, also had an unfriendly relationship with Li Congrong, and therefore often wanted to leave the capital as well. In late 932, when Li Siyuan considered installing a strong military governor of Hedong to defend against possible Khitan incursions, Fan and Zhao recommended Shi, and therefore Shi was commissioned as the military governor of Hedong.
In 933, there were concerns that [Li Renfu](/wiki/Li_Renfu "Li Renfu") the military governor of [Dingnan Circuit](/wiki/Dingnan_Jiedushi "Dingnan Jiedushi"), whose family (ethnically [Dangxiang](/wiki/Dangxiang "Dangxiang")) had ruled Dingnan in effective independence from the Later Tang imperial government, might ally with the Khitan. When Li Renfu happened to die at that time, the Dingnan soldiers supported Li Renfu's son [Li Yichao](/wiki/Li_Yichao "Li Yichao") as his successor. Li Siyuan decided to assert his authority over Dingnan, and he commissioned [An Congjin](/wiki/An_Congjin "An Congjin") the military governor of Zhangwu Circuit (彰武, headquartered in modern [Yan'an](/wiki/Yan%27an "Yan'an"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")) as the acting military governor of Dingnan, while commissioning Li Yichao as the acting military governor of Zhangwu. Anticipating that Li Yichao would resist, Li Siyuan put Yao Yanchou (藥彥稠) the military governor of Fengxiang in command of an army to escort An Congjin to Dingnan. When Li Yichao did resist, Yao put Dingnan's capital Xia Prefecture (夏州, in modern [Yulin](/wiki/Yulin%2C_Shaanxi "Yulin, Shaanxi"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")) under siege, but as the city was well\-fortified, and Li Yichao's Dangxiang soldiers capably harassed the Later Tang army's supply route, the city's defense held. When Li Yichao subsequently pled for forgiveness, the Later Tang imperial army withdrew. It was said that from that point on, Dingnan no longer had respect for the imperial government. As Li Siyuan suffered a minor stroke at that time, that illness, coupled with the failure of the Dingnan campaign, led to many rumors in the army. When Li Siyuan tried to quell them by giving out bonus rewards for the soldiers, it instead led the soldiers to greater arrogance.
Shortly after, the retired official He Ze (何澤), who was yearning to return to governmental service and who wanted to ingratiate Li Congrong, decided to submit a petition to Li Siyuan asking for Li Congrong to be made [crown prince](/wiki/Crown_prince "Crown prince") — which, however, was a sensitive subject for Li Siyuan, who, as he read the petition, wept and stated to his attendants, "The officials want a crown prince. It is time for me to retire to my old home in Taiyuan." However, knowing that the subject was important, he ordered the chancellors and the chiefs of staff to discuss the matter. However, Li Congrong perceived the situation differently — and he soon went to see his father, stating, "I had heard that evil people had asked that I, your subject, be made the crown prince. I am still young, and I still need to learn how to govern. I do not wish to have this title." After he withdrew from Li Siyuan's presence, he went to see Fan and Zhao, and stated to them, "You want to make me crown prince in order to take away my military command and confine me in the Eastern Palace \[(i.e., the crown prince's palace)]." Knowing that Li Siyuan and Li Congrong were both displeased, Fan and Zhao proposed that the petition be rejected, and under their advice, Li Congrong was given the title of Generalissimo of All Armed Forces (天下兵馬大元帥, *Tianxia Bingma Da Yuanshuai*).
Fearful of Li Congrong, Fan and Zhao continued to request to leave their posts as chiefs of staff, but Li Siyuan initially refused, believing that they were abandoning him. In fall 933, with Zhao's wife the Princess of Qi continuing to beg for him, Zhao was made the military governor of Xuanwu, and Zhu Hongzhao, who was then the military governor of Shannan East, was made chief of staff to replace him. Later in the year, Fan was also allowed to leave his post and was made the military governor of Chengde; [Feng Yun](/wiki/Feng_Yun_%28Later_Tang%29 "Feng Yun (Later Tang)") replaced him.
|
[
"Reign\n-----",
"### Early reign (*Tiancheng* era)",
"Li Siyuan commissioned An Chonghui and Kong Xun as his chiefs of staff, with An becoming effectively his chief advisor. [Zheng Jue](/wiki/Zheng_Jue \"Zheng Jue\") and Ren Huan served as chancellors, with Ren also served as the director of the three financial agencies (taxation, treasury, and salt and iron monopolies). (Li Cunxu's chancellors [Doulu Ge](/wiki/Doulu_Ge \"Doulu Ge\") and [Wei Yue](/wiki/Wei_Yue \"Wei Yue\") were initially retained as well, but were subsequently removed and exiled after they were accused of corruption.) As the emperor was illiterate, he had An read all of the submissions to for him, but An himself was also unable to comprehend all that were being submitted. Thus, under An's suggestion, the institution of imperial scholars of Duanming Hall (端明殿) was established, with the responsibility of processing and reading the submissions to the emperor, with [Feng Dao](/wiki/Feng_Dao \"Feng Dao\") and [Zhao Feng](/wiki/Zhao_Feng \"Zhao Feng\") serving as the inaugural scholars. As Li Siyuan's name contained two relatively common characters, he, in order to decrease the people's burden when observing [naming taboo](/wiki/Naming_taboo \"Naming taboo\"), ordered that only the consecutive use of *Siyuan* is to be avoided; the individual characters of *yuan* did not have to be avoided. However, apparently to further make it easier for people to observe the naming taboo, in 927, he renamed himself Li Dan. Also, when many generals who had received imperially\\-bestowed names from Li Cunxu requested that their original names be restored, he agreed.",
"Meanwhile, Li Siyuan tried to create a friendly relationship with Khitan. He sent his attendant Yao Kun (姚坤) as an emissary to Khitan, to announce to Khitan's [Emperor Taizu](/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao \"Emperor Taizu of Liao\") (Yelü Abaoji) Li Cunxu's death. The Khitan emperor initially tried to rebuke Yao for how Li Siyuan took the throne, but Yao replied back that the Khitan emperor took over power under similar circumstances, making the Khitan emperor unable to reply. However, the Khitan emperor then demanded, as a term of peace, that the Later Tang territory north of the Yellow River be ceded to him. When Yao responded that he did not have authority to do so, the Khitan emperor put him under arrest, and then instead demanded Lulong, Chengde, and Yiwu Circuits. When Yao again refused, he was kept under arrest, and no peace was achieved between the states at that time.",
"Another issue confronting Li Siyuan was some military governors' unwillingness to fully accept his authority. The ones that An was particularly concerned about were [Meng Zhixiang](/wiki/Meng_Zhixiang \"Meng Zhixiang\") the military governor of Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu \"Chengdu\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")) and Dong Zhang the military governor of Dongchuan Circuit (東川, headquartered in modern [Mianyang](/wiki/Mianyang \"Mianyang\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")) — whose territories were the ones captured earlier from Former Shu — because Dong was considered a strong\\-willed general and Meng was married to Li Cunxu's cousin (or sister). An's attempts to curb in their powers by sending to Meng an army monitor (Li Yan (李嚴)) and sending Dong a deputy military governor ([Zhu Hongzhao](/wiki/Zhu_Hongzhao \"Zhu Hongzhao\")) only increased tensions, such that Meng eventually executed Li Yan and Zhu fled back to Luoyang from Dong's domain. However, open hostility did not immediately occur, and Li Siyuan allowed Meng's wife (Grand Princess Qionghua) and son ([Meng Renzan](/wiki/Meng_Chang \"Meng Chang\")) to join him in Xichuan. It was, however, a different matter with [Gao Jixing](/wiki/Gao_Jixing \"Gao Jixing\") the military governor of [Jingnan](/wiki/Jingnan \"Jingnan\") Circuit (荊南, headquartered in modern [Jingzhou](/wiki/Jingzhou \"Jingzhou\"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\")), who had long ruled his circuit as an independent domain. Gao had been given three prefectures (Kui (夔州), Zhong (忠州), and Wan (萬州), all in modern [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing \"Chongqing\")) that he long wanted on the eastern periphery of Former Shu when Later Tang destroyed Former Shu, but was not content. When he intercept a convoy of Former Shu goods that Li Jiji had previously sent down the [Yangtze River](/wiki/Yangtze_River \"Yangtze River\"), killed the officers, and kept the wealth, that was the final aggravation for Li Siyuan, and he declared a general campaign against Gao in spring 927\\. However, the Later Tang army against Jingnan, commanded by Liu Xun (劉訓), when putting Jingnan's capital [Jiangling](/wiki/Jiangling_County \"Jiangling County\") under siege, ran into weather and supply difficulties, and was eventually forced to withdraw, although the Later Tang general Xifang Ye (西方鄴) was able to recapture Kui, Zhong, and Wan Prefectures from Jingnan. Around that time, Feng and [Cui Xie](/wiki/Cui_Xie \"Cui Xie\") were made chancellors to replace the dismissed Doulu and Wei. (Cui's becoming chancellor was despite Ren Huan's vehement opposition, and in summer 927, Ren, sensing that Li Siyuan was displeased about the disputes between him and An, resigned his directorship of the three financial agencies and, shortly after, his chancellorship. When Zhu Shouyin, then the military governor of Xuanwu, subsequently rebelled at Bian Prefecture (as Li Siyuan was announcing an imperial visit there, along with the imperial army, and Zhu was fearful that it was targeting him), An, apparently believing that Ren might have instigated Zhu into doing so, persuaded Li Siyuan to have Ren put to death. Zhu's rebellion was quickly suppressed, and Zhu committed suicide.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 276](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7276 \"資治通鑑/卷276\").",
"Late in 927, [Yang Pu](/wiki/Yang_Pu \"Yang Pu\"), the king of Later Tang's southeastern neighbor [Wu](/wiki/Wu_%28Ten_Kingdoms%29 \"Wu (Ten Kingdoms)\"), with whom Later Tang had friendly relations, declared himself emperor. An suggested a campaign against Wu, but Li Siyuan did not approve it. Still, in early 928, An refused further emissaries from Wu, thus effectively breaking relations with Wu. Around that time, Li Siyuan considered visiting Yedu (鄴都, i.e., a new name for Xingtang), but the imperial army soldiers were displeased with yet another journey after the recent journey from Luoyang to Bian, and as a result, all kinds of rumors again started. When Li Siyuan heard of this, he decided not to visit Yedu.",
"In spring 928, there was an episode where An and another formerly close associate of Li Siyuan's, [Wang Jianli](/wiki/Wang_Jianli \"Wang Jianli\") the military governor of Chengde, were accusing each other of abuses; An was accusing Wang of allying with [Wang Du](/wiki/Wang_Du \"Wang Du\") the military governor of Yiwu (Wang Chuzhi's adoptive son, who had overthrown Wang Chuzhi in 921 and subsequently continued to govern Yiwu in *de facto* independence), while Wang Jianli accused An of authoritarianism and allying with the acting director of the three financial agencies, [Zhang Yanlang](/wiki/Zhang_Yanlang \"Zhang Yanlang\") by having their children marry. (Wang Du had in fact been trying to ally with Wang Jianli, but Wang Jianli was secretly reporting that attempt to the imperial government.) Li Siyuan, initially believing in Wang Jianli, decided to send An and Zhang out of the capital to serve as military governors, but after Zhu Hongzhao defended An, did not do so. However, as at that time Zheng Jue requested retirement, Li Siyuan kept Wang Jianli at the imperial government to serve as chancellor and the director of the three financial agencies.",
"Meanwhile, Wang Du was apprehensive about his relations with the imperial government, as Li Siyuan's administration, under An's auspices, had been stricter with military governors than Li Cunxu's had been. In addition to Wang Jianli, he was also sending secret correspondences to Huo Yanwei, then the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern [Weifang](/wiki/Weifang \"Weifang\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")); Fang Zhiwen (房知溫) the military governor of Zhongwu Circuit (忠武, headquartered in modern [Xuchang](/wiki/Xuchang \"Xuchang\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")); Mao Zhang the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit; Meng Zhixiang; and Dong Zhang, hoping to alienate them from the imperial government. He similarly tried to entice Wang Yanqiu (i.e., Du Yanqiu, who had returned to his birth name) the military governor of Guide Circuit (歸德, headquartered in modern [Shangqiu](/wiki/Shangqiu \"Shangqiu\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")), who was then commanding the northern defense forces against Khitan, into an alliance, but when Wang Yanqiu rejected his overtures, unsuccessfully tried to have Wang Yanqiu assassinated. When Wang Yanqiu reported this to the imperial government, Li Siyuan ordered a general campaign against Wang Du, with Wang Yanqiu in command. Wang Yanqiu put Yiwu's capital Ding Prefecture (定州) under siege immediately, but chose to wear out Wang Du by surrounding the well\\-fortified city, rather than launch heavy assaults on it. Khitan's attempt to aid Wang Du was unsuccessful, and in early 929, Wang Du's officer Ma Rangneng (馬讓能) opened the city gates to allow the Later Tang forces in; Wang Du committed suicide, ending the campaign.",
"Simmering below the surface of Li Siyuan's reign was also the issue of succession. His oldest biological son [Li Congrong](/wiki/Li_Congrong \"Li Congrong\") was, by this time, serving as the military governor of Hedong, and was considered the likely heir, but he was said to be arrogant and inattentive to governance. Li Siyuan tried to have a friend of Li Congrong's advise him that his younger brother [Li Conghou](/wiki/Li_Conghou \"Li Conghou\"), who was serving as the mayor of Luoyang, was milder in disposition and diligent, and therefore was gaining better reputation, to correct Li Congrong's behavior. However, Li Congrong did not accept the advice, and instead was listening to his close associate Yang Siquan (楊思權), who was advocating that he gather officers around him to be able to react with force if he were bypassed. When Li Siyuan heard this, he recalled Yang, but did not punish Yang on account of Yang's close association with Li Congrong. In 929, he made Li Congrong the mayor of Luoyang and the commander of the imperial guards, while making Li Conghou the military governor of Hedong.",
"In late 928, Gao Jixing died and was succeeded by his son [Gao Conghui](/wiki/Gao_Conghui \"Gao Conghui\"), who had not agreed with his father's defiant stance toward Later Tang. Gao Conghui sent petitions through another Later Tang vassal, [Ma Yin](/wiki/Ma_Yin \"Ma Yin\") the king of [Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28Ten_Kingdoms%29 \"Chu (Ten Kingdoms)\"), and the Later Tang military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang \"Xiangyang\"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\")), An Yuanxin (安元信), requesting Later Tang to allow him to submit again as a vassal. Li Siyuan agreed, and commissioned Gao Conghui as the military governor of Jingnan. He also formally ended the general campaign against Jingnan.",
"However, the relationship between Later Tang and another vassal, [Wuyue](/wiki/Wuyue \"Wuyue\"), was deteriorating, as the king of Wuyue, [Qian Liu](/wiki/Qian_Liu \"Qian Liu\"), was arrogant in his old age, and had offended An Chonghui by using pompous language in his letters to An. In 929, Li Siyuan sent his attendants Wu Zhaoyu (烏昭遇) and Han Mei (韓玫) on a diplomatic mission to Wuyue. Upon their return, Han, who had grudges against Wu, accused Wu of bowing to Qian, referring to himself as \"subject,\" and telling Qian about Later Tang state secrets. An had Wu put to death, and then persuaded Li Siyuan to issue an edict ordering Qian to retire as *Taishi* (太師) and stripping him of his other posts. It also ordered that all Wuyue emissaries be arrested wherever they could be found. Qian had his son [Qian Chuanguan](/wiki/Qian_Yuanguan \"Qian Yuanguan\") submit a petition on his behalf, pleading for him and defending him; Li Siyuan ignored it. At the same time, the Later Tang imperial government was carving out territories out of Xichuan and Dongchuan and establishing new circuits, to curb the strengths of Meng and Dong. The two of them, who had previously had a contentious relationship, entered into an alliance and prepared for war against the imperial government.",
"### Late reign (*Changxing* era)",
"In 930, Li Siyuan created his wife [Consort Cao](/wiki/Empress_Cao_%28Li_Siyuan%27s_wife%29 \"Empress Cao (Li Siyuan's wife)\"), who then carried the imperial consort title of *Shufei* (淑妃), empress, and made his favorite concubine, [Consort Wang](/wiki/Consort_Dowager_Wang \"Consort Dowager Wang\"), *Shufei*. Consort Wang had a liking for luxurious clothing, and An Chonghui tried to correct her behavior, citing to her the example of Li Cunxu's hoarding wife Empress Liu. She therefore came to resent An.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 277](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7277 \"資治通鑑/卷277\").",
"Meanwhile, there was also an adversarial relationship between An and Li Congke, stemming from a time in their youths when Li Congke battered An severely after a drunken argument, despite Li Congke's subsequent apologies to An. As of 930, Li Congke was serving as the military governor of Huguo Circuit (護國, headquartered at Hezhong Municipality), and An often criticized his governance to Li Siyuan, but Li Siyuan did not listen to it. Therefore, An resolved to remove Li Congke by other means. He induced Li Congke's subordinate Yan Yanwen (楊彥溫) into refusing to allow Li Congke to return to headquarters after Li Congke was out on a hunt once. When Li Congke inquired why Yang did this, Yang responded, \"It is not that I, Yang Yanwen, forgot your grace, but it is by the orders of the Office of the Chiefs of Staff that you, Lord, report to the capital.\" When Li Congke reported this to Li Siyuan, Li Siyuan summoned both Li Congke and Yang to the capital, hoping to inquire of the situation, but An sent an army that captured and executed Yang (i.e., killing Yang so that Yang would not have an opportunity to report him). As a result of this incident, Li Siyuan relieved Li Congke of his command and had him return to his mansion. An subsequently tried to make further false accusations against Li Congke for allegedly stockpiling weapons, but with Consort Wang protecting Li Congke, Li Congke escaped further repercussions. Around the same time, Li Congrong was created the Prince of Qin and Li Conghou the Prince of Song.",
"Meanwhile, both Meng Zhixiang and Dong Zhang were nervous over the central government's buildup of armies at three circuits carved out of Dongchuan and Xichuan — Zhaowu (昭武, headquartered in modern [Guangyuan](/wiki/Guangyuan \"Guangyuan\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")); Baoning (保寧, headquartered in modern [Langzhong](/wiki/Langzhong \"Langzhong\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")); and Wuxin (武信, headquartered in modern [Suining](/wiki/Suining \"Suining\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")). When Dong's threats of rebellion if the imperial government continued to reinforce those circuits went unheeded by An, Dong and Meng rebelled in 931\\. (However, as noted by, inter alia, the modern historian [Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang \"Bo Yang\"), An's intent was to force Dong and Meng into rebellion so that he could destroy them.)*[Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang \"Bo Yang\") Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian*, vol. 68 (930\\). Li Siyuan commissioned an imperial army, commanded by Shi Jingtang, to attack Meng and Dong. However, despite some early successes, the imperial army became bogged down in its confrontation with the two circuits, becoming stuck at Jian Prefecture (劍州, in modern Guangyuan), while the Dongchuan and Xichuan armies captured Zhaowu, Baoning, Wuxin, and Wutai (武泰, headquartered in modern [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing \"Chongqing\")) Circuits. In late 930, An offered to head to the front to oversee the operations, and Li Siyuan agreed. However, after An left the capital, Shi, who did not favor the campaign in the first place, submitted a petition listing the reasons why the campaign was not advisable. Zhu Hongzhao, who was previously a close associate of An's and who was then the military governor of Fengxiang Circuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji \"Baoji\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")), also submitted a petition accusing An of planning to take over Shi's army. Li Siyuan thus recalled An, and then relieved him of his position as chief of staff made him the military governor of Huguo. After An offered to retire, Li Siyuan made his nephew Li Congzhang the Prince of Yang the military governor of Huguo, but Li Congzhang then, apparently with Li Siyuan's approval, put An and his wife to death. (Upon An's demotion, Li Siyuan restored Li Congke's privileges and restored Qian Liu's offices, blaming An for provoking Qian, Dong, and Meng.)",
"Upon An's demotion, Shi withdrew from Jian and returned to imperial lands. Li Siyuan subsequently tried to make a peace overture to Dong and Meng. Meng was receptive, but Dong, as his son Dong Guangye (董光業) and Dong Guangye's family were slaughtered during the campaign, refused. As a result, Meng was initially hesitant to make peace with the imperial government himself. Dong, however, resolved to attack Xichuan and capture it himself. He was defeated by Meng's general [Zhao Tingyin](/wiki/Zhao_Tingyin \"Zhao Tingyin\"), however, and forced to flee back to Dongchuan's capital Zi Prefecture (梓州). Upon his return, his officers mutinied, killed him, and surrendered to Meng, allowing Meng to take over Dongchuan. At the suggestion of [Fan Yanguang](/wiki/Fan_Yanguang \"Fan Yanguang\"), Li Siyuan sent Meng's nephew Li Cungui (李存瓌) as an emissary to Meng, to persuade him to resubmit to the imperial government. Meng thus formally resubmitted to the imperial government, but was subsequently becoming more arrogant and independent. Subsequently, at Meng's request, Li Siyuan granted Meng the authority to commission the military governors and prefects of the six circuits now under this control.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 278](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7278 \"資治通鑑/卷278\").",
"After An's death, Li Congrong, who previously had been respectful of An, became uncurbed in his behavior. At this time, Consort Wang and the director of palace affairs, [Meng Hanqiong](/wiki/Meng_Hanqiong \"Meng Hanqiong\"), were in control of the palace, and Fan Yanguang and Li Siyuan's son\\-in\\-law [Zhao Yanshou](/wiki/Zhao_Yanshou \"Zhao Yanshou\") served as chief of staff in An's stead, but Li Congrong was not respectful of any of them and often insulted them, causing them to be fearful and often requesting to leave the imperial government. Shi Jingtang, whose wife was not born of the same mother as Li Congrong, also had an unfriendly relationship with Li Congrong, and therefore often wanted to leave the capital as well. In late 932, when Li Siyuan considered installing a strong military governor of Hedong to defend against possible Khitan incursions, Fan and Zhao recommended Shi, and therefore Shi was commissioned as the military governor of Hedong.",
"In 933, there were concerns that [Li Renfu](/wiki/Li_Renfu \"Li Renfu\") the military governor of [Dingnan Circuit](/wiki/Dingnan_Jiedushi \"Dingnan Jiedushi\"), whose family (ethnically [Dangxiang](/wiki/Dangxiang \"Dangxiang\")) had ruled Dingnan in effective independence from the Later Tang imperial government, might ally with the Khitan. When Li Renfu happened to die at that time, the Dingnan soldiers supported Li Renfu's son [Li Yichao](/wiki/Li_Yichao \"Li Yichao\") as his successor. Li Siyuan decided to assert his authority over Dingnan, and he commissioned [An Congjin](/wiki/An_Congjin \"An Congjin\") the military governor of Zhangwu Circuit (彰武, headquartered in modern [Yan'an](/wiki/Yan%27an \"Yan'an\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")) as the acting military governor of Dingnan, while commissioning Li Yichao as the acting military governor of Zhangwu. Anticipating that Li Yichao would resist, Li Siyuan put Yao Yanchou (藥彥稠) the military governor of Fengxiang in command of an army to escort An Congjin to Dingnan. When Li Yichao did resist, Yao put Dingnan's capital Xia Prefecture (夏州, in modern [Yulin](/wiki/Yulin%2C_Shaanxi \"Yulin, Shaanxi\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")) under siege, but as the city was well\\-fortified, and Li Yichao's Dangxiang soldiers capably harassed the Later Tang army's supply route, the city's defense held. When Li Yichao subsequently pled for forgiveness, the Later Tang imperial army withdrew. It was said that from that point on, Dingnan no longer had respect for the imperial government. As Li Siyuan suffered a minor stroke at that time, that illness, coupled with the failure of the Dingnan campaign, led to many rumors in the army. When Li Siyuan tried to quell them by giving out bonus rewards for the soldiers, it instead led the soldiers to greater arrogance.",
"Shortly after, the retired official He Ze (何澤), who was yearning to return to governmental service and who wanted to ingratiate Li Congrong, decided to submit a petition to Li Siyuan asking for Li Congrong to be made [crown prince](/wiki/Crown_prince \"Crown prince\") — which, however, was a sensitive subject for Li Siyuan, who, as he read the petition, wept and stated to his attendants, \"The officials want a crown prince. It is time for me to retire to my old home in Taiyuan.\" However, knowing that the subject was important, he ordered the chancellors and the chiefs of staff to discuss the matter. However, Li Congrong perceived the situation differently — and he soon went to see his father, stating, \"I had heard that evil people had asked that I, your subject, be made the crown prince. I am still young, and I still need to learn how to govern. I do not wish to have this title.\" After he withdrew from Li Siyuan's presence, he went to see Fan and Zhao, and stated to them, \"You want to make me crown prince in order to take away my military command and confine me in the Eastern Palace \\[(i.e., the crown prince's palace)].\" Knowing that Li Siyuan and Li Congrong were both displeased, Fan and Zhao proposed that the petition be rejected, and under their advice, Li Congrong was given the title of Generalissimo of All Armed Forces (天下兵馬大元帥, *Tianxia Bingma Da Yuanshuai*).",
"Fearful of Li Congrong, Fan and Zhao continued to request to leave their posts as chiefs of staff, but Li Siyuan initially refused, believing that they were abandoning him. In fall 933, with Zhao's wife the Princess of Qi continuing to beg for him, Zhao was made the military governor of Xuanwu, and Zhu Hongzhao, who was then the military governor of Shannan East, was made chief of staff to replace him. Later in the year, Fan was also allowed to leave his post and was made the military governor of Chengde; [Feng Yun](/wiki/Feng_Yun_%28Later_Tang%29 \"Feng Yun (Later Tang)\") replaced him.",
""
] |
### Early reign (*Tiancheng* era)
Li Siyuan commissioned An Chonghui and Kong Xun as his chiefs of staff, with An becoming effectively his chief advisor. [Zheng Jue](/wiki/Zheng_Jue "Zheng Jue") and Ren Huan served as chancellors, with Ren also served as the director of the three financial agencies (taxation, treasury, and salt and iron monopolies). (Li Cunxu's chancellors [Doulu Ge](/wiki/Doulu_Ge "Doulu Ge") and [Wei Yue](/wiki/Wei_Yue "Wei Yue") were initially retained as well, but were subsequently removed and exiled after they were accused of corruption.) As the emperor was illiterate, he had An read all of the submissions to for him, but An himself was also unable to comprehend all that were being submitted. Thus, under An's suggestion, the institution of imperial scholars of Duanming Hall (端明殿) was established, with the responsibility of processing and reading the submissions to the emperor, with [Feng Dao](/wiki/Feng_Dao "Feng Dao") and [Zhao Feng](/wiki/Zhao_Feng "Zhao Feng") serving as the inaugural scholars. As Li Siyuan's name contained two relatively common characters, he, in order to decrease the people's burden when observing [naming taboo](/wiki/Naming_taboo "Naming taboo"), ordered that only the consecutive use of *Siyuan* is to be avoided; the individual characters of *yuan* did not have to be avoided. However, apparently to further make it easier for people to observe the naming taboo, in 927, he renamed himself Li Dan. Also, when many generals who had received imperially\-bestowed names from Li Cunxu requested that their original names be restored, he agreed.
Meanwhile, Li Siyuan tried to create a friendly relationship with Khitan. He sent his attendant Yao Kun (姚坤) as an emissary to Khitan, to announce to Khitan's [Emperor Taizu](/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao "Emperor Taizu of Liao") (Yelü Abaoji) Li Cunxu's death. The Khitan emperor initially tried to rebuke Yao for how Li Siyuan took the throne, but Yao replied back that the Khitan emperor took over power under similar circumstances, making the Khitan emperor unable to reply. However, the Khitan emperor then demanded, as a term of peace, that the Later Tang territory north of the Yellow River be ceded to him. When Yao responded that he did not have authority to do so, the Khitan emperor put him under arrest, and then instead demanded Lulong, Chengde, and Yiwu Circuits. When Yao again refused, he was kept under arrest, and no peace was achieved between the states at that time.
Another issue confronting Li Siyuan was some military governors' unwillingness to fully accept his authority. The ones that An was particularly concerned about were [Meng Zhixiang](/wiki/Meng_Zhixiang "Meng Zhixiang") the military governor of Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu "Chengdu"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")) and Dong Zhang the military governor of Dongchuan Circuit (東川, headquartered in modern [Mianyang](/wiki/Mianyang "Mianyang"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")) — whose territories were the ones captured earlier from Former Shu — because Dong was considered a strong\-willed general and Meng was married to Li Cunxu's cousin (or sister). An's attempts to curb in their powers by sending to Meng an army monitor (Li Yan (李嚴)) and sending Dong a deputy military governor ([Zhu Hongzhao](/wiki/Zhu_Hongzhao "Zhu Hongzhao")) only increased tensions, such that Meng eventually executed Li Yan and Zhu fled back to Luoyang from Dong's domain. However, open hostility did not immediately occur, and Li Siyuan allowed Meng's wife (Grand Princess Qionghua) and son ([Meng Renzan](/wiki/Meng_Chang "Meng Chang")) to join him in Xichuan. It was, however, a different matter with [Gao Jixing](/wiki/Gao_Jixing "Gao Jixing") the military governor of [Jingnan](/wiki/Jingnan "Jingnan") Circuit (荊南, headquartered in modern [Jingzhou](/wiki/Jingzhou "Jingzhou"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei")), who had long ruled his circuit as an independent domain. Gao had been given three prefectures (Kui (夔州), Zhong (忠州), and Wan (萬州), all in modern [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing "Chongqing")) that he long wanted on the eastern periphery of Former Shu when Later Tang destroyed Former Shu, but was not content. When he intercept a convoy of Former Shu goods that Li Jiji had previously sent down the [Yangtze River](/wiki/Yangtze_River "Yangtze River"), killed the officers, and kept the wealth, that was the final aggravation for Li Siyuan, and he declared a general campaign against Gao in spring 927\. However, the Later Tang army against Jingnan, commanded by Liu Xun (劉訓), when putting Jingnan's capital [Jiangling](/wiki/Jiangling_County "Jiangling County") under siege, ran into weather and supply difficulties, and was eventually forced to withdraw, although the Later Tang general Xifang Ye (西方鄴) was able to recapture Kui, Zhong, and Wan Prefectures from Jingnan. Around that time, Feng and [Cui Xie](/wiki/Cui_Xie "Cui Xie") were made chancellors to replace the dismissed Doulu and Wei. (Cui's becoming chancellor was despite Ren Huan's vehement opposition, and in summer 927, Ren, sensing that Li Siyuan was displeased about the disputes between him and An, resigned his directorship of the three financial agencies and, shortly after, his chancellorship. When Zhu Shouyin, then the military governor of Xuanwu, subsequently rebelled at Bian Prefecture (as Li Siyuan was announcing an imperial visit there, along with the imperial army, and Zhu was fearful that it was targeting him), An, apparently believing that Ren might have instigated Zhu into doing so, persuaded Li Siyuan to have Ren put to death. Zhu's rebellion was quickly suppressed, and Zhu committed suicide.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 276](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7276 "資治通鑑/卷276").
Late in 927, [Yang Pu](/wiki/Yang_Pu "Yang Pu"), the king of Later Tang's southeastern neighbor [Wu](/wiki/Wu_%28Ten_Kingdoms%29 "Wu (Ten Kingdoms)"), with whom Later Tang had friendly relations, declared himself emperor. An suggested a campaign against Wu, but Li Siyuan did not approve it. Still, in early 928, An refused further emissaries from Wu, thus effectively breaking relations with Wu. Around that time, Li Siyuan considered visiting Yedu (鄴都, i.e., a new name for Xingtang), but the imperial army soldiers were displeased with yet another journey after the recent journey from Luoyang to Bian, and as a result, all kinds of rumors again started. When Li Siyuan heard of this, he decided not to visit Yedu.
In spring 928, there was an episode where An and another formerly close associate of Li Siyuan's, [Wang Jianli](/wiki/Wang_Jianli "Wang Jianli") the military governor of Chengde, were accusing each other of abuses; An was accusing Wang of allying with [Wang Du](/wiki/Wang_Du "Wang Du") the military governor of Yiwu (Wang Chuzhi's adoptive son, who had overthrown Wang Chuzhi in 921 and subsequently continued to govern Yiwu in *de facto* independence), while Wang Jianli accused An of authoritarianism and allying with the acting director of the three financial agencies, [Zhang Yanlang](/wiki/Zhang_Yanlang "Zhang Yanlang") by having their children marry. (Wang Du had in fact been trying to ally with Wang Jianli, but Wang Jianli was secretly reporting that attempt to the imperial government.) Li Siyuan, initially believing in Wang Jianli, decided to send An and Zhang out of the capital to serve as military governors, but after Zhu Hongzhao defended An, did not do so. However, as at that time Zheng Jue requested retirement, Li Siyuan kept Wang Jianli at the imperial government to serve as chancellor and the director of the three financial agencies.
Meanwhile, Wang Du was apprehensive about his relations with the imperial government, as Li Siyuan's administration, under An's auspices, had been stricter with military governors than Li Cunxu's had been. In addition to Wang Jianli, he was also sending secret correspondences to Huo Yanwei, then the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern [Weifang](/wiki/Weifang "Weifang"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")); Fang Zhiwen (房知溫) the military governor of Zhongwu Circuit (忠武, headquartered in modern [Xuchang](/wiki/Xuchang "Xuchang"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")); Mao Zhang the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit; Meng Zhixiang; and Dong Zhang, hoping to alienate them from the imperial government. He similarly tried to entice Wang Yanqiu (i.e., Du Yanqiu, who had returned to his birth name) the military governor of Guide Circuit (歸德, headquartered in modern [Shangqiu](/wiki/Shangqiu "Shangqiu"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")), who was then commanding the northern defense forces against Khitan, into an alliance, but when Wang Yanqiu rejected his overtures, unsuccessfully tried to have Wang Yanqiu assassinated. When Wang Yanqiu reported this to the imperial government, Li Siyuan ordered a general campaign against Wang Du, with Wang Yanqiu in command. Wang Yanqiu put Yiwu's capital Ding Prefecture (定州) under siege immediately, but chose to wear out Wang Du by surrounding the well\-fortified city, rather than launch heavy assaults on it. Khitan's attempt to aid Wang Du was unsuccessful, and in early 929, Wang Du's officer Ma Rangneng (馬讓能) opened the city gates to allow the Later Tang forces in; Wang Du committed suicide, ending the campaign.
Simmering below the surface of Li Siyuan's reign was also the issue of succession. His oldest biological son [Li Congrong](/wiki/Li_Congrong "Li Congrong") was, by this time, serving as the military governor of Hedong, and was considered the likely heir, but he was said to be arrogant and inattentive to governance. Li Siyuan tried to have a friend of Li Congrong's advise him that his younger brother [Li Conghou](/wiki/Li_Conghou "Li Conghou"), who was serving as the mayor of Luoyang, was milder in disposition and diligent, and therefore was gaining better reputation, to correct Li Congrong's behavior. However, Li Congrong did not accept the advice, and instead was listening to his close associate Yang Siquan (楊思權), who was advocating that he gather officers around him to be able to react with force if he were bypassed. When Li Siyuan heard this, he recalled Yang, but did not punish Yang on account of Yang's close association with Li Congrong. In 929, he made Li Congrong the mayor of Luoyang and the commander of the imperial guards, while making Li Conghou the military governor of Hedong.
In late 928, Gao Jixing died and was succeeded by his son [Gao Conghui](/wiki/Gao_Conghui "Gao Conghui"), who had not agreed with his father's defiant stance toward Later Tang. Gao Conghui sent petitions through another Later Tang vassal, [Ma Yin](/wiki/Ma_Yin "Ma Yin") the king of [Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28Ten_Kingdoms%29 "Chu (Ten Kingdoms)"), and the Later Tang military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang "Xiangyang"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei")), An Yuanxin (安元信), requesting Later Tang to allow him to submit again as a vassal. Li Siyuan agreed, and commissioned Gao Conghui as the military governor of Jingnan. He also formally ended the general campaign against Jingnan.
However, the relationship between Later Tang and another vassal, [Wuyue](/wiki/Wuyue "Wuyue"), was deteriorating, as the king of Wuyue, [Qian Liu](/wiki/Qian_Liu "Qian Liu"), was arrogant in his old age, and had offended An Chonghui by using pompous language in his letters to An. In 929, Li Siyuan sent his attendants Wu Zhaoyu (烏昭遇) and Han Mei (韓玫) on a diplomatic mission to Wuyue. Upon their return, Han, who had grudges against Wu, accused Wu of bowing to Qian, referring to himself as "subject," and telling Qian about Later Tang state secrets. An had Wu put to death, and then persuaded Li Siyuan to issue an edict ordering Qian to retire as *Taishi* (太師) and stripping him of his other posts. It also ordered that all Wuyue emissaries be arrested wherever they could be found. Qian had his son [Qian Chuanguan](/wiki/Qian_Yuanguan "Qian Yuanguan") submit a petition on his behalf, pleading for him and defending him; Li Siyuan ignored it. At the same time, the Later Tang imperial government was carving out territories out of Xichuan and Dongchuan and establishing new circuits, to curb the strengths of Meng and Dong. The two of them, who had previously had a contentious relationship, entered into an alliance and prepared for war against the imperial government.
|
[
"### Early reign (*Tiancheng* era)",
"Li Siyuan commissioned An Chonghui and Kong Xun as his chiefs of staff, with An becoming effectively his chief advisor. [Zheng Jue](/wiki/Zheng_Jue \"Zheng Jue\") and Ren Huan served as chancellors, with Ren also served as the director of the three financial agencies (taxation, treasury, and salt and iron monopolies). (Li Cunxu's chancellors [Doulu Ge](/wiki/Doulu_Ge \"Doulu Ge\") and [Wei Yue](/wiki/Wei_Yue \"Wei Yue\") were initially retained as well, but were subsequently removed and exiled after they were accused of corruption.) As the emperor was illiterate, he had An read all of the submissions to for him, but An himself was also unable to comprehend all that were being submitted. Thus, under An's suggestion, the institution of imperial scholars of Duanming Hall (端明殿) was established, with the responsibility of processing and reading the submissions to the emperor, with [Feng Dao](/wiki/Feng_Dao \"Feng Dao\") and [Zhao Feng](/wiki/Zhao_Feng \"Zhao Feng\") serving as the inaugural scholars. As Li Siyuan's name contained two relatively common characters, he, in order to decrease the people's burden when observing [naming taboo](/wiki/Naming_taboo \"Naming taboo\"), ordered that only the consecutive use of *Siyuan* is to be avoided; the individual characters of *yuan* did not have to be avoided. However, apparently to further make it easier for people to observe the naming taboo, in 927, he renamed himself Li Dan. Also, when many generals who had received imperially\\-bestowed names from Li Cunxu requested that their original names be restored, he agreed.",
"Meanwhile, Li Siyuan tried to create a friendly relationship with Khitan. He sent his attendant Yao Kun (姚坤) as an emissary to Khitan, to announce to Khitan's [Emperor Taizu](/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao \"Emperor Taizu of Liao\") (Yelü Abaoji) Li Cunxu's death. The Khitan emperor initially tried to rebuke Yao for how Li Siyuan took the throne, but Yao replied back that the Khitan emperor took over power under similar circumstances, making the Khitan emperor unable to reply. However, the Khitan emperor then demanded, as a term of peace, that the Later Tang territory north of the Yellow River be ceded to him. When Yao responded that he did not have authority to do so, the Khitan emperor put him under arrest, and then instead demanded Lulong, Chengde, and Yiwu Circuits. When Yao again refused, he was kept under arrest, and no peace was achieved between the states at that time.",
"Another issue confronting Li Siyuan was some military governors' unwillingness to fully accept his authority. The ones that An was particularly concerned about were [Meng Zhixiang](/wiki/Meng_Zhixiang \"Meng Zhixiang\") the military governor of Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu \"Chengdu\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")) and Dong Zhang the military governor of Dongchuan Circuit (東川, headquartered in modern [Mianyang](/wiki/Mianyang \"Mianyang\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")) — whose territories were the ones captured earlier from Former Shu — because Dong was considered a strong\\-willed general and Meng was married to Li Cunxu's cousin (or sister). An's attempts to curb in their powers by sending to Meng an army monitor (Li Yan (李嚴)) and sending Dong a deputy military governor ([Zhu Hongzhao](/wiki/Zhu_Hongzhao \"Zhu Hongzhao\")) only increased tensions, such that Meng eventually executed Li Yan and Zhu fled back to Luoyang from Dong's domain. However, open hostility did not immediately occur, and Li Siyuan allowed Meng's wife (Grand Princess Qionghua) and son ([Meng Renzan](/wiki/Meng_Chang \"Meng Chang\")) to join him in Xichuan. It was, however, a different matter with [Gao Jixing](/wiki/Gao_Jixing \"Gao Jixing\") the military governor of [Jingnan](/wiki/Jingnan \"Jingnan\") Circuit (荊南, headquartered in modern [Jingzhou](/wiki/Jingzhou \"Jingzhou\"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\")), who had long ruled his circuit as an independent domain. Gao had been given three prefectures (Kui (夔州), Zhong (忠州), and Wan (萬州), all in modern [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing \"Chongqing\")) that he long wanted on the eastern periphery of Former Shu when Later Tang destroyed Former Shu, but was not content. When he intercept a convoy of Former Shu goods that Li Jiji had previously sent down the [Yangtze River](/wiki/Yangtze_River \"Yangtze River\"), killed the officers, and kept the wealth, that was the final aggravation for Li Siyuan, and he declared a general campaign against Gao in spring 927\\. However, the Later Tang army against Jingnan, commanded by Liu Xun (劉訓), when putting Jingnan's capital [Jiangling](/wiki/Jiangling_County \"Jiangling County\") under siege, ran into weather and supply difficulties, and was eventually forced to withdraw, although the Later Tang general Xifang Ye (西方鄴) was able to recapture Kui, Zhong, and Wan Prefectures from Jingnan. Around that time, Feng and [Cui Xie](/wiki/Cui_Xie \"Cui Xie\") were made chancellors to replace the dismissed Doulu and Wei. (Cui's becoming chancellor was despite Ren Huan's vehement opposition, and in summer 927, Ren, sensing that Li Siyuan was displeased about the disputes between him and An, resigned his directorship of the three financial agencies and, shortly after, his chancellorship. When Zhu Shouyin, then the military governor of Xuanwu, subsequently rebelled at Bian Prefecture (as Li Siyuan was announcing an imperial visit there, along with the imperial army, and Zhu was fearful that it was targeting him), An, apparently believing that Ren might have instigated Zhu into doing so, persuaded Li Siyuan to have Ren put to death. Zhu's rebellion was quickly suppressed, and Zhu committed suicide.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 276](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7276 \"資治通鑑/卷276\").",
"Late in 927, [Yang Pu](/wiki/Yang_Pu \"Yang Pu\"), the king of Later Tang's southeastern neighbor [Wu](/wiki/Wu_%28Ten_Kingdoms%29 \"Wu (Ten Kingdoms)\"), with whom Later Tang had friendly relations, declared himself emperor. An suggested a campaign against Wu, but Li Siyuan did not approve it. Still, in early 928, An refused further emissaries from Wu, thus effectively breaking relations with Wu. Around that time, Li Siyuan considered visiting Yedu (鄴都, i.e., a new name for Xingtang), but the imperial army soldiers were displeased with yet another journey after the recent journey from Luoyang to Bian, and as a result, all kinds of rumors again started. When Li Siyuan heard of this, he decided not to visit Yedu.",
"In spring 928, there was an episode where An and another formerly close associate of Li Siyuan's, [Wang Jianli](/wiki/Wang_Jianli \"Wang Jianli\") the military governor of Chengde, were accusing each other of abuses; An was accusing Wang of allying with [Wang Du](/wiki/Wang_Du \"Wang Du\") the military governor of Yiwu (Wang Chuzhi's adoptive son, who had overthrown Wang Chuzhi in 921 and subsequently continued to govern Yiwu in *de facto* independence), while Wang Jianli accused An of authoritarianism and allying with the acting director of the three financial agencies, [Zhang Yanlang](/wiki/Zhang_Yanlang \"Zhang Yanlang\") by having their children marry. (Wang Du had in fact been trying to ally with Wang Jianli, but Wang Jianli was secretly reporting that attempt to the imperial government.) Li Siyuan, initially believing in Wang Jianli, decided to send An and Zhang out of the capital to serve as military governors, but after Zhu Hongzhao defended An, did not do so. However, as at that time Zheng Jue requested retirement, Li Siyuan kept Wang Jianli at the imperial government to serve as chancellor and the director of the three financial agencies.",
"Meanwhile, Wang Du was apprehensive about his relations with the imperial government, as Li Siyuan's administration, under An's auspices, had been stricter with military governors than Li Cunxu's had been. In addition to Wang Jianli, he was also sending secret correspondences to Huo Yanwei, then the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern [Weifang](/wiki/Weifang \"Weifang\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")); Fang Zhiwen (房知溫) the military governor of Zhongwu Circuit (忠武, headquartered in modern [Xuchang](/wiki/Xuchang \"Xuchang\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")); Mao Zhang the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit; Meng Zhixiang; and Dong Zhang, hoping to alienate them from the imperial government. He similarly tried to entice Wang Yanqiu (i.e., Du Yanqiu, who had returned to his birth name) the military governor of Guide Circuit (歸德, headquartered in modern [Shangqiu](/wiki/Shangqiu \"Shangqiu\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")), who was then commanding the northern defense forces against Khitan, into an alliance, but when Wang Yanqiu rejected his overtures, unsuccessfully tried to have Wang Yanqiu assassinated. When Wang Yanqiu reported this to the imperial government, Li Siyuan ordered a general campaign against Wang Du, with Wang Yanqiu in command. Wang Yanqiu put Yiwu's capital Ding Prefecture (定州) under siege immediately, but chose to wear out Wang Du by surrounding the well\\-fortified city, rather than launch heavy assaults on it. Khitan's attempt to aid Wang Du was unsuccessful, and in early 929, Wang Du's officer Ma Rangneng (馬讓能) opened the city gates to allow the Later Tang forces in; Wang Du committed suicide, ending the campaign.",
"Simmering below the surface of Li Siyuan's reign was also the issue of succession. His oldest biological son [Li Congrong](/wiki/Li_Congrong \"Li Congrong\") was, by this time, serving as the military governor of Hedong, and was considered the likely heir, but he was said to be arrogant and inattentive to governance. Li Siyuan tried to have a friend of Li Congrong's advise him that his younger brother [Li Conghou](/wiki/Li_Conghou \"Li Conghou\"), who was serving as the mayor of Luoyang, was milder in disposition and diligent, and therefore was gaining better reputation, to correct Li Congrong's behavior. However, Li Congrong did not accept the advice, and instead was listening to his close associate Yang Siquan (楊思權), who was advocating that he gather officers around him to be able to react with force if he were bypassed. When Li Siyuan heard this, he recalled Yang, but did not punish Yang on account of Yang's close association with Li Congrong. In 929, he made Li Congrong the mayor of Luoyang and the commander of the imperial guards, while making Li Conghou the military governor of Hedong.",
"In late 928, Gao Jixing died and was succeeded by his son [Gao Conghui](/wiki/Gao_Conghui \"Gao Conghui\"), who had not agreed with his father's defiant stance toward Later Tang. Gao Conghui sent petitions through another Later Tang vassal, [Ma Yin](/wiki/Ma_Yin \"Ma Yin\") the king of [Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28Ten_Kingdoms%29 \"Chu (Ten Kingdoms)\"), and the Later Tang military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang \"Xiangyang\"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\")), An Yuanxin (安元信), requesting Later Tang to allow him to submit again as a vassal. Li Siyuan agreed, and commissioned Gao Conghui as the military governor of Jingnan. He also formally ended the general campaign against Jingnan.",
"However, the relationship between Later Tang and another vassal, [Wuyue](/wiki/Wuyue \"Wuyue\"), was deteriorating, as the king of Wuyue, [Qian Liu](/wiki/Qian_Liu \"Qian Liu\"), was arrogant in his old age, and had offended An Chonghui by using pompous language in his letters to An. In 929, Li Siyuan sent his attendants Wu Zhaoyu (烏昭遇) and Han Mei (韓玫) on a diplomatic mission to Wuyue. Upon their return, Han, who had grudges against Wu, accused Wu of bowing to Qian, referring to himself as \"subject,\" and telling Qian about Later Tang state secrets. An had Wu put to death, and then persuaded Li Siyuan to issue an edict ordering Qian to retire as *Taishi* (太師) and stripping him of his other posts. It also ordered that all Wuyue emissaries be arrested wherever they could be found. Qian had his son [Qian Chuanguan](/wiki/Qian_Yuanguan \"Qian Yuanguan\") submit a petition on his behalf, pleading for him and defending him; Li Siyuan ignored it. At the same time, the Later Tang imperial government was carving out territories out of Xichuan and Dongchuan and establishing new circuits, to curb the strengths of Meng and Dong. The two of them, who had previously had a contentious relationship, entered into an alliance and prepared for war against the imperial government.",
""
] |
### Late reign (*Changxing* era)
In 930, Li Siyuan created his wife [Consort Cao](/wiki/Empress_Cao_%28Li_Siyuan%27s_wife%29 "Empress Cao (Li Siyuan's wife)"), who then carried the imperial consort title of *Shufei* (淑妃), empress, and made his favorite concubine, [Consort Wang](/wiki/Consort_Dowager_Wang "Consort Dowager Wang"), *Shufei*. Consort Wang had a liking for luxurious clothing, and An Chonghui tried to correct her behavior, citing to her the example of Li Cunxu's hoarding wife Empress Liu. She therefore came to resent An.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 277](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7277 "資治通鑑/卷277").
Meanwhile, there was also an adversarial relationship between An and Li Congke, stemming from a time in their youths when Li Congke battered An severely after a drunken argument, despite Li Congke's subsequent apologies to An. As of 930, Li Congke was serving as the military governor of Huguo Circuit (護國, headquartered at Hezhong Municipality), and An often criticized his governance to Li Siyuan, but Li Siyuan did not listen to it. Therefore, An resolved to remove Li Congke by other means. He induced Li Congke's subordinate Yan Yanwen (楊彥溫) into refusing to allow Li Congke to return to headquarters after Li Congke was out on a hunt once. When Li Congke inquired why Yang did this, Yang responded, "It is not that I, Yang Yanwen, forgot your grace, but it is by the orders of the Office of the Chiefs of Staff that you, Lord, report to the capital." When Li Congke reported this to Li Siyuan, Li Siyuan summoned both Li Congke and Yang to the capital, hoping to inquire of the situation, but An sent an army that captured and executed Yang (i.e., killing Yang so that Yang would not have an opportunity to report him). As a result of this incident, Li Siyuan relieved Li Congke of his command and had him return to his mansion. An subsequently tried to make further false accusations against Li Congke for allegedly stockpiling weapons, but with Consort Wang protecting Li Congke, Li Congke escaped further repercussions. Around the same time, Li Congrong was created the Prince of Qin and Li Conghou the Prince of Song.
Meanwhile, both Meng Zhixiang and Dong Zhang were nervous over the central government's buildup of armies at three circuits carved out of Dongchuan and Xichuan — Zhaowu (昭武, headquartered in modern [Guangyuan](/wiki/Guangyuan "Guangyuan"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")); Baoning (保寧, headquartered in modern [Langzhong](/wiki/Langzhong "Langzhong"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")); and Wuxin (武信, headquartered in modern [Suining](/wiki/Suining "Suining"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan "Sichuan")). When Dong's threats of rebellion if the imperial government continued to reinforce those circuits went unheeded by An, Dong and Meng rebelled in 931\. (However, as noted by, inter alia, the modern historian [Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang "Bo Yang"), An's intent was to force Dong and Meng into rebellion so that he could destroy them.)*[Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang "Bo Yang") Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian*, vol. 68 (930\). Li Siyuan commissioned an imperial army, commanded by Shi Jingtang, to attack Meng and Dong. However, despite some early successes, the imperial army became bogged down in its confrontation with the two circuits, becoming stuck at Jian Prefecture (劍州, in modern Guangyuan), while the Dongchuan and Xichuan armies captured Zhaowu, Baoning, Wuxin, and Wutai (武泰, headquartered in modern [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing "Chongqing")) Circuits. In late 930, An offered to head to the front to oversee the operations, and Li Siyuan agreed. However, after An left the capital, Shi, who did not favor the campaign in the first place, submitted a petition listing the reasons why the campaign was not advisable. Zhu Hongzhao, who was previously a close associate of An's and who was then the military governor of Fengxiang Circuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji "Baoji"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")), also submitted a petition accusing An of planning to take over Shi's army. Li Siyuan thus recalled An, and then relieved him of his position as chief of staff made him the military governor of Huguo. After An offered to retire, Li Siyuan made his nephew Li Congzhang the Prince of Yang the military governor of Huguo, but Li Congzhang then, apparently with Li Siyuan's approval, put An and his wife to death. (Upon An's demotion, Li Siyuan restored Li Congke's privileges and restored Qian Liu's offices, blaming An for provoking Qian, Dong, and Meng.)
Upon An's demotion, Shi withdrew from Jian and returned to imperial lands. Li Siyuan subsequently tried to make a peace overture to Dong and Meng. Meng was receptive, but Dong, as his son Dong Guangye (董光業) and Dong Guangye's family were slaughtered during the campaign, refused. As a result, Meng was initially hesitant to make peace with the imperial government himself. Dong, however, resolved to attack Xichuan and capture it himself. He was defeated by Meng's general [Zhao Tingyin](/wiki/Zhao_Tingyin "Zhao Tingyin"), however, and forced to flee back to Dongchuan's capital Zi Prefecture (梓州). Upon his return, his officers mutinied, killed him, and surrendered to Meng, allowing Meng to take over Dongchuan. At the suggestion of [Fan Yanguang](/wiki/Fan_Yanguang "Fan Yanguang"), Li Siyuan sent Meng's nephew Li Cungui (李存瓌) as an emissary to Meng, to persuade him to resubmit to the imperial government. Meng thus formally resubmitted to the imperial government, but was subsequently becoming more arrogant and independent. Subsequently, at Meng's request, Li Siyuan granted Meng the authority to commission the military governors and prefects of the six circuits now under this control.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 278](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7278 "資治通鑑/卷278").
After An's death, Li Congrong, who previously had been respectful of An, became uncurbed in his behavior. At this time, Consort Wang and the director of palace affairs, [Meng Hanqiong](/wiki/Meng_Hanqiong "Meng Hanqiong"), were in control of the palace, and Fan Yanguang and Li Siyuan's son\-in\-law [Zhao Yanshou](/wiki/Zhao_Yanshou "Zhao Yanshou") served as chief of staff in An's stead, but Li Congrong was not respectful of any of them and often insulted them, causing them to be fearful and often requesting to leave the imperial government. Shi Jingtang, whose wife was not born of the same mother as Li Congrong, also had an unfriendly relationship with Li Congrong, and therefore often wanted to leave the capital as well. In late 932, when Li Siyuan considered installing a strong military governor of Hedong to defend against possible Khitan incursions, Fan and Zhao recommended Shi, and therefore Shi was commissioned as the military governor of Hedong.
In 933, there were concerns that [Li Renfu](/wiki/Li_Renfu "Li Renfu") the military governor of [Dingnan Circuit](/wiki/Dingnan_Jiedushi "Dingnan Jiedushi"), whose family (ethnically [Dangxiang](/wiki/Dangxiang "Dangxiang")) had ruled Dingnan in effective independence from the Later Tang imperial government, might ally with the Khitan. When Li Renfu happened to die at that time, the Dingnan soldiers supported Li Renfu's son [Li Yichao](/wiki/Li_Yichao "Li Yichao") as his successor. Li Siyuan decided to assert his authority over Dingnan, and he commissioned [An Congjin](/wiki/An_Congjin "An Congjin") the military governor of Zhangwu Circuit (彰武, headquartered in modern [Yan'an](/wiki/Yan%27an "Yan'an"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")) as the acting military governor of Dingnan, while commissioning Li Yichao as the acting military governor of Zhangwu. Anticipating that Li Yichao would resist, Li Siyuan put Yao Yanchou (藥彥稠) the military governor of Fengxiang in command of an army to escort An Congjin to Dingnan. When Li Yichao did resist, Yao put Dingnan's capital Xia Prefecture (夏州, in modern [Yulin](/wiki/Yulin%2C_Shaanxi "Yulin, Shaanxi"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")) under siege, but as the city was well\-fortified, and Li Yichao's Dangxiang soldiers capably harassed the Later Tang army's supply route, the city's defense held. When Li Yichao subsequently pled for forgiveness, the Later Tang imperial army withdrew. It was said that from that point on, Dingnan no longer had respect for the imperial government. As Li Siyuan suffered a minor stroke at that time, that illness, coupled with the failure of the Dingnan campaign, led to many rumors in the army. When Li Siyuan tried to quell them by giving out bonus rewards for the soldiers, it instead led the soldiers to greater arrogance.
Shortly after, the retired official He Ze (何澤), who was yearning to return to governmental service and who wanted to ingratiate Li Congrong, decided to submit a petition to Li Siyuan asking for Li Congrong to be made [crown prince](/wiki/Crown_prince "Crown prince") — which, however, was a sensitive subject for Li Siyuan, who, as he read the petition, wept and stated to his attendants, "The officials want a crown prince. It is time for me to retire to my old home in Taiyuan." However, knowing that the subject was important, he ordered the chancellors and the chiefs of staff to discuss the matter. However, Li Congrong perceived the situation differently — and he soon went to see his father, stating, "I had heard that evil people had asked that I, your subject, be made the crown prince. I am still young, and I still need to learn how to govern. I do not wish to have this title." After he withdrew from Li Siyuan's presence, he went to see Fan and Zhao, and stated to them, "You want to make me crown prince in order to take away my military command and confine me in the Eastern Palace \[(i.e., the crown prince's palace)]." Knowing that Li Siyuan and Li Congrong were both displeased, Fan and Zhao proposed that the petition be rejected, and under their advice, Li Congrong was given the title of Generalissimo of All Armed Forces (天下兵馬大元帥, *Tianxia Bingma Da Yuanshuai*).
Fearful of Li Congrong, Fan and Zhao continued to request to leave their posts as chiefs of staff, but Li Siyuan initially refused, believing that they were abandoning him. In fall 933, with Zhao's wife the Princess of Qi continuing to beg for him, Zhao was made the military governor of Xuanwu, and Zhu Hongzhao, who was then the military governor of Shannan East, was made chief of staff to replace him. Later in the year, Fan was also allowed to leave his post and was made the military governor of Chengde; [Feng Yun](/wiki/Feng_Yun_%28Later_Tang%29 "Feng Yun (Later Tang)") replaced him.
|
[
"### Late reign (*Changxing* era)",
"In 930, Li Siyuan created his wife [Consort Cao](/wiki/Empress_Cao_%28Li_Siyuan%27s_wife%29 \"Empress Cao (Li Siyuan's wife)\"), who then carried the imperial consort title of *Shufei* (淑妃), empress, and made his favorite concubine, [Consort Wang](/wiki/Consort_Dowager_Wang \"Consort Dowager Wang\"), *Shufei*. Consort Wang had a liking for luxurious clothing, and An Chonghui tried to correct her behavior, citing to her the example of Li Cunxu's hoarding wife Empress Liu. She therefore came to resent An.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 277](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7277 \"資治通鑑/卷277\").",
"Meanwhile, there was also an adversarial relationship between An and Li Congke, stemming from a time in their youths when Li Congke battered An severely after a drunken argument, despite Li Congke's subsequent apologies to An. As of 930, Li Congke was serving as the military governor of Huguo Circuit (護國, headquartered at Hezhong Municipality), and An often criticized his governance to Li Siyuan, but Li Siyuan did not listen to it. Therefore, An resolved to remove Li Congke by other means. He induced Li Congke's subordinate Yan Yanwen (楊彥溫) into refusing to allow Li Congke to return to headquarters after Li Congke was out on a hunt once. When Li Congke inquired why Yang did this, Yang responded, \"It is not that I, Yang Yanwen, forgot your grace, but it is by the orders of the Office of the Chiefs of Staff that you, Lord, report to the capital.\" When Li Congke reported this to Li Siyuan, Li Siyuan summoned both Li Congke and Yang to the capital, hoping to inquire of the situation, but An sent an army that captured and executed Yang (i.e., killing Yang so that Yang would not have an opportunity to report him). As a result of this incident, Li Siyuan relieved Li Congke of his command and had him return to his mansion. An subsequently tried to make further false accusations against Li Congke for allegedly stockpiling weapons, but with Consort Wang protecting Li Congke, Li Congke escaped further repercussions. Around the same time, Li Congrong was created the Prince of Qin and Li Conghou the Prince of Song.",
"Meanwhile, both Meng Zhixiang and Dong Zhang were nervous over the central government's buildup of armies at three circuits carved out of Dongchuan and Xichuan — Zhaowu (昭武, headquartered in modern [Guangyuan](/wiki/Guangyuan \"Guangyuan\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")); Baoning (保寧, headquartered in modern [Langzhong](/wiki/Langzhong \"Langzhong\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")); and Wuxin (武信, headquartered in modern [Suining](/wiki/Suining \"Suining\"), [Sichuan](/wiki/Sichuan \"Sichuan\")). When Dong's threats of rebellion if the imperial government continued to reinforce those circuits went unheeded by An, Dong and Meng rebelled in 931\\. (However, as noted by, inter alia, the modern historian [Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang \"Bo Yang\"), An's intent was to force Dong and Meng into rebellion so that he could destroy them.)*[Bo Yang](/wiki/Bo_Yang \"Bo Yang\") Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian*, vol. 68 (930\\). Li Siyuan commissioned an imperial army, commanded by Shi Jingtang, to attack Meng and Dong. However, despite some early successes, the imperial army became bogged down in its confrontation with the two circuits, becoming stuck at Jian Prefecture (劍州, in modern Guangyuan), while the Dongchuan and Xichuan armies captured Zhaowu, Baoning, Wuxin, and Wutai (武泰, headquartered in modern [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing \"Chongqing\")) Circuits. In late 930, An offered to head to the front to oversee the operations, and Li Siyuan agreed. However, after An left the capital, Shi, who did not favor the campaign in the first place, submitted a petition listing the reasons why the campaign was not advisable. Zhu Hongzhao, who was previously a close associate of An's and who was then the military governor of Fengxiang Circuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji \"Baoji\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")), also submitted a petition accusing An of planning to take over Shi's army. Li Siyuan thus recalled An, and then relieved him of his position as chief of staff made him the military governor of Huguo. After An offered to retire, Li Siyuan made his nephew Li Congzhang the Prince of Yang the military governor of Huguo, but Li Congzhang then, apparently with Li Siyuan's approval, put An and his wife to death. (Upon An's demotion, Li Siyuan restored Li Congke's privileges and restored Qian Liu's offices, blaming An for provoking Qian, Dong, and Meng.)",
"Upon An's demotion, Shi withdrew from Jian and returned to imperial lands. Li Siyuan subsequently tried to make a peace overture to Dong and Meng. Meng was receptive, but Dong, as his son Dong Guangye (董光業) and Dong Guangye's family were slaughtered during the campaign, refused. As a result, Meng was initially hesitant to make peace with the imperial government himself. Dong, however, resolved to attack Xichuan and capture it himself. He was defeated by Meng's general [Zhao Tingyin](/wiki/Zhao_Tingyin \"Zhao Tingyin\"), however, and forced to flee back to Dongchuan's capital Zi Prefecture (梓州). Upon his return, his officers mutinied, killed him, and surrendered to Meng, allowing Meng to take over Dongchuan. At the suggestion of [Fan Yanguang](/wiki/Fan_Yanguang \"Fan Yanguang\"), Li Siyuan sent Meng's nephew Li Cungui (李存瓌) as an emissary to Meng, to persuade him to resubmit to the imperial government. Meng thus formally resubmitted to the imperial government, but was subsequently becoming more arrogant and independent. Subsequently, at Meng's request, Li Siyuan granted Meng the authority to commission the military governors and prefects of the six circuits now under this control.*Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 278](/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7278 \"資治通鑑/卷278\").",
"After An's death, Li Congrong, who previously had been respectful of An, became uncurbed in his behavior. At this time, Consort Wang and the director of palace affairs, [Meng Hanqiong](/wiki/Meng_Hanqiong \"Meng Hanqiong\"), were in control of the palace, and Fan Yanguang and Li Siyuan's son\\-in\\-law [Zhao Yanshou](/wiki/Zhao_Yanshou \"Zhao Yanshou\") served as chief of staff in An's stead, but Li Congrong was not respectful of any of them and often insulted them, causing them to be fearful and often requesting to leave the imperial government. Shi Jingtang, whose wife was not born of the same mother as Li Congrong, also had an unfriendly relationship with Li Congrong, and therefore often wanted to leave the capital as well. In late 932, when Li Siyuan considered installing a strong military governor of Hedong to defend against possible Khitan incursions, Fan and Zhao recommended Shi, and therefore Shi was commissioned as the military governor of Hedong.",
"In 933, there were concerns that [Li Renfu](/wiki/Li_Renfu \"Li Renfu\") the military governor of [Dingnan Circuit](/wiki/Dingnan_Jiedushi \"Dingnan Jiedushi\"), whose family (ethnically [Dangxiang](/wiki/Dangxiang \"Dangxiang\")) had ruled Dingnan in effective independence from the Later Tang imperial government, might ally with the Khitan. When Li Renfu happened to die at that time, the Dingnan soldiers supported Li Renfu's son [Li Yichao](/wiki/Li_Yichao \"Li Yichao\") as his successor. Li Siyuan decided to assert his authority over Dingnan, and he commissioned [An Congjin](/wiki/An_Congjin \"An Congjin\") the military governor of Zhangwu Circuit (彰武, headquartered in modern [Yan'an](/wiki/Yan%27an \"Yan'an\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")) as the acting military governor of Dingnan, while commissioning Li Yichao as the acting military governor of Zhangwu. Anticipating that Li Yichao would resist, Li Siyuan put Yao Yanchou (藥彥稠) the military governor of Fengxiang in command of an army to escort An Congjin to Dingnan. When Li Yichao did resist, Yao put Dingnan's capital Xia Prefecture (夏州, in modern [Yulin](/wiki/Yulin%2C_Shaanxi \"Yulin, Shaanxi\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")) under siege, but as the city was well\\-fortified, and Li Yichao's Dangxiang soldiers capably harassed the Later Tang army's supply route, the city's defense held. When Li Yichao subsequently pled for forgiveness, the Later Tang imperial army withdrew. It was said that from that point on, Dingnan no longer had respect for the imperial government. As Li Siyuan suffered a minor stroke at that time, that illness, coupled with the failure of the Dingnan campaign, led to many rumors in the army. When Li Siyuan tried to quell them by giving out bonus rewards for the soldiers, it instead led the soldiers to greater arrogance.",
"Shortly after, the retired official He Ze (何澤), who was yearning to return to governmental service and who wanted to ingratiate Li Congrong, decided to submit a petition to Li Siyuan asking for Li Congrong to be made [crown prince](/wiki/Crown_prince \"Crown prince\") — which, however, was a sensitive subject for Li Siyuan, who, as he read the petition, wept and stated to his attendants, \"The officials want a crown prince. It is time for me to retire to my old home in Taiyuan.\" However, knowing that the subject was important, he ordered the chancellors and the chiefs of staff to discuss the matter. However, Li Congrong perceived the situation differently — and he soon went to see his father, stating, \"I had heard that evil people had asked that I, your subject, be made the crown prince. I am still young, and I still need to learn how to govern. I do not wish to have this title.\" After he withdrew from Li Siyuan's presence, he went to see Fan and Zhao, and stated to them, \"You want to make me crown prince in order to take away my military command and confine me in the Eastern Palace \\[(i.e., the crown prince's palace)].\" Knowing that Li Siyuan and Li Congrong were both displeased, Fan and Zhao proposed that the petition be rejected, and under their advice, Li Congrong was given the title of Generalissimo of All Armed Forces (天下兵馬大元帥, *Tianxia Bingma Da Yuanshuai*).",
"Fearful of Li Congrong, Fan and Zhao continued to request to leave their posts as chiefs of staff, but Li Siyuan initially refused, believing that they were abandoning him. In fall 933, with Zhao's wife the Princess of Qi continuing to beg for him, Zhao was made the military governor of Xuanwu, and Zhu Hongzhao, who was then the military governor of Shannan East, was made chief of staff to replace him. Later in the year, Fan was also allowed to leave his post and was made the military governor of Chengde; [Feng Yun](/wiki/Feng_Yun_%28Later_Tang%29 \"Feng Yun (Later Tang)\") replaced him.",
""
] |
History
-------
Throughout its existence, the agency changed its name and some functions. On 20 December 1990, by the presidential decree “On the Reorganization of Government Agencies in the Kazakh SSR”, the **State Committee of the Kazakh SSR on Ecology and Nature Management** was formed on the basis of the abolished State Committee of the Kazakh SSR on Nature Protection.
In 1992, the **Ministry of Ecology and Bioresources** was created by combining the State Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Ecology and Nature Management and the Ministry of Forestry of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
In 1997, by the Decree No. 3655 “On Measures to Further Improve the Efficiency of Public Administration in the Republic of Kazakhstan”, the **Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources** was established with the transfer of functions, powers to manage the property and affairs of the abolished Ministry of Ecology and Bioresources to it, as well as parts of the functions, powers to manage property and affairs of the abolished Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources.
On 22 January 1999, by the Decree No. 6 “On the Structure of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan”, the **Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection** was established with the transfer of functions in the field of forestry, fishing and hunting, water resources, with the exception of land reclamation, irrigation and drainage.
On 28 August 2002, by the Decree No. 931 “On measures to further improve the public administration system of the Republic of Kazakhstan”, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection was reorganized by its transformation into the **Ministry of Environmental Protection** with the transfer to the [Ministry of Agriculture](/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_%28Kazakhstan%29 "Ministry of Agriculture (Kazakhstan)") functions and powers in the field of water resources management, forestry, fisheries and hunting.
In 2007, an Environmental Code was adopted. As a result, part of the powers of the Ministry of Environmental Protection was transferred to local executive bodies. In particular, powers were transferred to conduct a state environmental review for a number of business entities. Decree No. 1201 “Issues of the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan” from 8 December 2007, reorganized the territorial bodies of the Ministry of Environmental Protection. They were enlarged by merger. The Committee for Environmental Control of the Ministry of Environmental Protection was reorganized into the Committee for Environmental Regulation and Control. State institutions, territorial bodies of the Ministry of Environmental Protection, were reorganized into the territorial bodies of the Committee for Environmental Regulation and Control of the Ministry of Environmental Protection.
On 31 October 2013, the Ministry of Environmental Protection was transformed into the **Ministry of Environment and Water Resources** with the transfer of functions and powers to it to form and implement state policy in the field of water supply to water users or their associations and its removal for land reclamation purposes from the Ministry of Agriculture; rational and integrated use of groundwater, with the exception of the geological study of subsoil in terms of groundwater, from the Ministry of Industry and New Technologies.{{Cite web\|title\=МООС РК преобразован в Министерство окружающей среды и водных ресурсов РК\|url\=https://www.zakon.kz/4583716\-moos\-rk\-preobrazovan\-v\-ministerstvo.html\|date\=2013\-10\-31\|website\=Zakon.kz\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-01}}
On 6 August 2014, in connection with restructuring state bodies of the Kazakh government, the Ministry of Environment and Water was disbanded and its functions were transferred to the newly created [Ministry of Energy](/wiki/Ministry_of_Energy_%28Kazakhstan%29 "Ministry of Energy (Kazakhstan)") and partly to the [Ministry of Agriculture](/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_%28Kazakhstan%29 "Ministry of Agriculture (Kazakhstan)").{{Cite web\|title\=Указ "О реформе системы государственного управления Республики Казахстан" — Официальный сайт Президента Республики Казахстан\|url\=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/akorda\_news/akorda\_other\_events/ukaz\-o\-reforme\-sistemy\-gosudarstvennogo\-upravleniya\-respubliki\-kazahstan\|website\=Akorda.kz\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-01}}
In 2019, the Ministry was re\-established as the **Ministry of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources**.{{Cite web\|title\=Kazakh President creates new trade and ecology ministries, appoints new ministers\|url\=https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/kazakh\-president\-creates\-new\-trade\-and\-ecology\-ministries\-appoints\-new\-ministers/\|last\=June 2019\|first\=Saltanat Boteu in Nation on 20\|date\=2019\-06\-20\|website\=The Astana Times\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-01}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Throughout its existence, the agency changed its name and some functions. On 20 December 1990, by the presidential decree “On the Reorganization of Government Agencies in the Kazakh SSR”, the **State Committee of the Kazakh SSR on Ecology and Nature Management** was formed on the basis of the abolished State Committee of the Kazakh SSR on Nature Protection.",
"In 1992, the **Ministry of Ecology and Bioresources** was created by combining the State Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Ecology and Nature Management and the Ministry of Forestry of the Republic of Kazakhstan.",
"In 1997, by the Decree No. 3655 “On Measures to Further Improve the Efficiency of Public Administration in the Republic of Kazakhstan”, the **Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources** was established with the transfer of functions, powers to manage the property and affairs of the abolished Ministry of Ecology and Bioresources to it, as well as parts of the functions, powers to manage property and affairs of the abolished Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources.",
"On 22 January 1999, by the Decree No. 6 “On the Structure of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan”, the **Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection** was established with the transfer of functions in the field of forestry, fishing and hunting, water resources, with the exception of land reclamation, irrigation and drainage.",
"On 28 August 2002, by the Decree No. 931 “On measures to further improve the public administration system of the Republic of Kazakhstan”, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection was reorganized by its transformation into the **Ministry of Environmental Protection** with the transfer to the [Ministry of Agriculture](/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_%28Kazakhstan%29 \"Ministry of Agriculture (Kazakhstan)\") functions and powers in the field of water resources management, forestry, fisheries and hunting.",
"In 2007, an Environmental Code was adopted. As a result, part of the powers of the Ministry of Environmental Protection was transferred to local executive bodies. In particular, powers were transferred to conduct a state environmental review for a number of business entities. Decree No. 1201 “Issues of the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan” from 8 December 2007, reorganized the territorial bodies of the Ministry of Environmental Protection. They were enlarged by merger. The Committee for Environmental Control of the Ministry of Environmental Protection was reorganized into the Committee for Environmental Regulation and Control. State institutions, territorial bodies of the Ministry of Environmental Protection, were reorganized into the territorial bodies of the Committee for Environmental Regulation and Control of the Ministry of Environmental Protection.",
"On 31 October 2013, the Ministry of Environmental Protection was transformed into the **Ministry of Environment and Water Resources** with the transfer of functions and powers to it to form and implement state policy in the field of water supply to water users or their associations and its removal for land reclamation purposes from the Ministry of Agriculture; rational and integrated use of groundwater, with the exception of the geological study of subsoil in terms of groundwater, from the Ministry of Industry and New Technologies.{{Cite web\\|title\\=МООС РК преобразован в Министерство окружающей среды и водных ресурсов РК\\|url\\=https://www.zakon.kz/4583716\\-moos\\-rk\\-preobrazovan\\-v\\-ministerstvo.html\\|date\\=2013\\-10\\-31\\|website\\=Zakon.kz\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-01}}",
"On 6 August 2014, in connection with restructuring state bodies of the Kazakh government, the Ministry of Environment and Water was disbanded and its functions were transferred to the newly created [Ministry of Energy](/wiki/Ministry_of_Energy_%28Kazakhstan%29 \"Ministry of Energy (Kazakhstan)\") and partly to the [Ministry of Agriculture](/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_%28Kazakhstan%29 \"Ministry of Agriculture (Kazakhstan)\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Указ \"О реформе системы государственного управления Республики Казахстан\" — Официальный сайт Президента Республики Казахстан\\|url\\=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/akorda\\_news/akorda\\_other\\_events/ukaz\\-o\\-reforme\\-sistemy\\-gosudarstvennogo\\-upravleniya\\-respubliki\\-kazahstan\\|website\\=Akorda.kz\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-01}}",
"In 2019, the Ministry was re\\-established as the **Ministry of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources**.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Kazakh President creates new trade and ecology ministries, appoints new ministers\\|url\\=https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/kazakh\\-president\\-creates\\-new\\-trade\\-and\\-ecology\\-ministries\\-appoints\\-new\\-ministers/\\|last\\=June 2019\\|first\\=Saltanat Boteu in Nation on 20\\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-20\\|website\\=The Astana Times\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-01}}",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Minor leagues
Papelbon was drafted by the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox "Boston Red Sox") in the fourth round of the [2003 Major League Baseball draft](/wiki/2003_Major_League_Baseball_draft "2003 Major League Baseball draft").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mstateathletics.com/ViewArticle.dbml?DB\_OEM\_ID\=16800\&ATCLID\=928571\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon Drafted By Oakland\|work\=\[\[Mississippi State Bulldogs]]\|publisher\=Mississippi State Athletics\|access\-date\=February 11, 2014}} Papelbon began his minor league career as a starting pitcher for the [Lowell Spinners](/wiki/Lowell_Spinners "Lowell Spinners") of the [New York–Penn League](/wiki/New_York%E2%80%93Penn_League "New York–Penn League"). In 13 games (6 started), he had a 1–2 record, a 6\.34 ERA, 43 hits, 36 [strikeouts](/wiki/Strikeout "Strikeout"), and 9 [walks](/wiki/Walk_%28baseball%29 "Walk (baseball)") in {{fract\|32\|2\|3}} [innings pitched](/wiki/Innings_pitched "Innings pitched").
After a 13–10 record for [Class\-A](/wiki/Minor_league_baseball "Minor league baseball") [Lowell Spinners](/wiki/Lowell_Spinners "Lowell Spinners") and [Sarasota Red Sox](/wiki/Sarasota_Red_Sox "Sarasota Red Sox") from 2003 to 2004, Papelbon was 5–2 in 14 [starts](/wiki/Starting_pitcher "Starting pitcher") for Double\-A [Portland](/wiki/Portland_Sea_Dogs "Portland Sea Dogs") in 2005\. Promoted to Triple\-A [Pawtucket](/wiki/Pawtucket_Red_Sox "Pawtucket Red Sox"), he went 1–2 with a 3\.57 [ERA](/wiki/Earned_run_average "Earned run average") in four starts, walking two and striking out 21 in 22{{fraction\|1\|3}} innings.{{Cite web\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon Pitching Statistics \- The Baseball Cube\|url\=http://thebaseballcube.com/players/P/Jon\-Papelbon.shtml\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817083407/http://thebaseballcube.com/players/P/Jon\-Papelbon.shtml\|archive\-date\=August 17, 2010\|access\-date\=March 22, 2007\|website\=The Baseball Cube}}
### Boston Red Sox (2005–2011\)
#### 2005
Papelbon made his major league debut with the Red Sox on July 31, 2005, against the [Minnesota Twins](/wiki/Minnesota_Twins "Minnesota Twins"), in which he went 5{{fraction\|1\|3}} innings, struck out seven batters and issued five walks in Boston's 4–3 victory. He did not receive a decision.{{cite web\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon Stats, Video, Photos, Highlights, Bio\|url\=https://www.mlb.com/player/jonathan\-papelbon\-449097\|access\-date\=February 15, 2014\|work\=\[\[MLB.com]]\|publisher\=\[\[Major League Baseball]]}} Papelbon earned his first [major league win](/wiki/Win_%28baseball%29 "Win (baseball)") on September 12, pitching three scoreless innings in an [extra\-inning](/wiki/Extra_innings "Extra innings") game against the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays "Toronto Blue Jays").{{Cite web\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon Game by Game Stats and Performance\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/player/gamelog/\_/id/6373/jonathan\-papelbon\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|language\=en}} In two [postseason](/wiki/American_League_Division_Series "American League Division Series") appearances in 2005, he pitched four scoreless innings against the eventual World Series Champion [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox "Chicago White Sox"). The Red Sox had plans of slotting Papelbon into their starting rotation prior to the regular season in 2006\.{{cite news\|last1\=Shaughnessy\|first1\=Dan\|date\=April 17, 2006\|title\=Papelbon has heater, stays cool\|work\=\[\[The Boston Globe]]\|url\=http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/articles/2006/04/17/papelbon\_has\_heater\_stays\_cool/\|access\-date\=May 2, 2021}} However, the incumbent closer, [Keith Foulke](/wiki/Keith_Foulke "Keith Foulke"), proved to be ineffective trying to come back from an injury\-plagued 2005\.{{Cite web\|last\=Heuschkel\|first\=David\|date\=April 7, 2006\|title\=At this point, Foulke has lost it\|url\=https://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc\-xpm\-2006\-04\-07\-0604070863\-story.html\|access\-date\=May 2, 2021\|website\=\[\[Hartford Courant]]}}
#### 2006
In April 2006, Papelbon changed his hair to a [Mohawk](/wiki/Mohawk_hairstyle "Mohawk hairstyle") style, after [Charlie Sheen](/wiki/Charlie_Sheen "Charlie Sheen")'s character Ricky Vaughn from the film *[Major League](/wiki/Major_League_%28film%29 "Major League (film)")* due to a wager with teammate [Kevin Youkilis](/wiki/Kevin_Youkilis "Kevin Youkilis") in which they bet whether he could start the season with 10 scoreless innings.{{Cite web\|last\=Silverman\|first\=Michael\|date\=April 23, 2006\|title\=A hair\-raising incident: Papelbon takes wild walk on Mohawk trail\|url\=http://redsox.bostonherald.com/redSox/view.bg?articleid\=136300\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060502014039/http://redsox.bostonherald.com/redSox/view.bg?articleid\=136300\|archive\-date\=May 2, 2006\|access\-date\=March 22, 2007\|website\=\[\[Boston Herald]]}}
On April 5, the third game of the 2006 season, Papelbon recorded his first career save, against the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)"). On April 29, he set a major league record with his 10th save, against the [Tampa Bay Devil Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays "Tampa Bay Rays"), becoming the first rookie in major league history to record double\-digit saves in the month of April.{{cite web\|last\=Heuschkel\|first\=David\|date\=July 11, 2006\|title\=He's A Super Saver\|url\=https://www.courant.com/2006/07/11/hes\-a\-super\-saver/\|access\-date\=September 28, 2015\|work\=\[\[Hartford Courant]]}} He subsequently received the [Delivery Man of the Month Award](/wiki/Delivery_Man_of_the_Month_Award "Delivery Man of the Month Award") for April.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary\_0286\-15124734\_ITM\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon Named Winner of the ''DHL Presents the Major League Baseball Delivery Man of the Month Award'' for April\|publisher\=Business Wire\|date\=May 4, 2006\|access\-date\=September 25, 2009}} In early September, Papelbon injured his shoulder. When the Red Sox were eliminated from playoff contention, he was shut down for the remainder of the season to rest. The team considered using Papelbon as a starter due to his shoulder problems, but he was moved back to the bullpen before the start of the 2007 season and remained the team's [closer](/wiki/Closer_%28baseball%29 "Closer (baseball)").{{Cite web\|last\=Browne\|first\=Ian\|date\=March 22, 2007\|title\=Papelbon to return as closer\|url\=http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20070322\&content\_id\=1854433\&vkey\=spt2007news\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=bos\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070326063931/http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20070322\&content\_id\=1854433\&vkey\=spt2007news\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=bos\|archive\-date\=March 26, 2007\|access\-date\=March 22, 2007\|website\=\[\[Boston Red Sox]]}} Papelbon in 2006 saved 35 games, struck out 75 batters in 68 innings, and held opposing batters to a .167 [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)").
#### 2007
On October 11, 2007, Papelbon was named the 2007 winner of the "DHL Presents the Major League Baseball [Delivery Man of the Year Award](/wiki/Delivery_Man_of_the_Year_Award "Delivery Man of the Year Award")." Papelbon garnered 39,043 votes out of almost 125,000 votes cast.{{Cite web\|date\=October 11, 2007\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon wins "DHL Presents the Major League Baseball Delivery Man of the Year Award"\|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/press\_releases/press\_release.jsp?ymd\=20071011\&content\_id\=2260829\&vkey\=pr\_mlb\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=mlb\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012235710/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/press\_releases/press\_release.jsp?ymd\=20071011\&content\_id\=2260829\&vkey\=pr\_mlb\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=mlb\|archive\-date\=October 12, 2007\|access\-date\=July 26, 2008\|website\=\[\[MLB.com]]}}
[thumb\|right\|Papelbon celebrates the Red Sox victory in the [2007 World Series](/wiki/2007_World_Series "2007 World Series").](/wiki/File:Papelbon_Beckons_Tek.jpg "Papelbon Beckons Tek.jpg")
In Game 2 of the [World Series](/wiki/2007_World_Series "2007 World Series"), Papelbon was brought in with the bases empty and two outs in the eighth with the Red Sox leading 2–1 to face Rockies hitter [Matt Holliday](/wiki/Matt_Holliday "Matt Holliday"). Papelbon gave up a single to Holliday before picking him off to end the inning. Papelbon pitched a one\-two\-three ninth for the save. In Game 4, he entered in the eighth inning to shut down the Rockies' comeback, and pitched the ninth inning where he struck out [Seth Smith](/wiki/Seth_Smith "Seth Smith") to clinch the 2007 Championship for the Red Sox.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/playoffs2007/series?series\=colbos\|title\=MLB playoffs \- 2007 World Series\|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]]\|access\-date\=March 9, 2014}}
#### 2008
[thumb\|upright\|Papelbon during a pregame warmup in 2008](/wiki/File:Jonathan_Papelbon_warmups_2008.jpg "Jonathan Papelbon warmups 2008.jpg")
On March 6, 2008, Papelbon agreed to terms with the Red Sox for $775,000\. Papelbon's deal set the record for the largest contract for a closer not eligible for [salary arbitration](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_transactions%23Free_agency_and_salary_arbitration "Major League Baseball transactions#Free agency and salary arbitration"), topping [Mariano Rivera](/wiki/Mariano_Rivera "Mariano Rivera")'s previous record by $25,000\. Boston was under no obligation to pay Papelbon more than the league minimum of $390,000\.{{Cite web\|date\=March 6, 2008\|title\=Red Sox re\-sign Papelbon for one year, $775,000\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id\=3280428\|access\-date\=March 15, 2008\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]}} On January 20, 2009, Papelbon agreed to a one\-year $6\.25 million contract with the Red Sox, avoiding arbitration. This was the largest contract for a closer in his first year of arbitration eligibility.{{Cite web\|last\=Stark\|first\=Jayson\|date\=January 20, 2009\|title\=Closer's record deal avoids arbitration\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id\=3846966\|access\-date\=January 20, 2009\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]}} Papelbon recorded his 100th career save on July 13, 2008\.{{cite web\|last\=Lemme\|first\=Mark\|date\=July 13, 2008\|title\=Papelbon notches 100th career save\|url\=http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080713\&content\_id\=3132971\&vkey\=news\_bos\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=bos\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714180734/http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080713\&content\_id\=3132971\&vkey\=news\_bos\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=bos\|archive\-date\=July 14, 2008\|access\-date\=July 28, 2015\|website\=\[\[Boston Red Sox]]\|publisher\=\[\[MLB Advanced Media]]}} Among pitchers who had thrown at least 200 innings, Papelbon's 0\.930 [WHIP](/wiki/Walks_plus_hits_per_inning_pitched "Walks plus hits per inning pitched") through 2008 was the lowest in major league history.{{Cite web\|last\=Chuck\|first\=Bill\|date\=April 2, 2009\|title\=100 random things about the Red Sox, Rays, and Yankees\|url\=http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/extras/100\_random\_things\_2009/\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090405072934/http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/extras/100\_random\_things\_2009/\|archive\-date\=April 5, 2009\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021\|website\=\[\[The Boston Globe]]}}
#### 2009
Papelbon criticized former teammate [Manny Ramirez](/wiki/Manny_Ramirez "Manny Ramirez") in the April 2009 issue of *Esquire* magazine, citing his selfishness and incapability of working with his teammates.{{Cite web\|last\=Jones\|first\=Chris\|date\=May 7, 2009\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon Grinds His Teeth\|url\=https://www.esquire.com/features/the\-game/jonathan\-papelbon\-0409\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021\|website\=\[\[Esquire (magazine)\|Esquire]]\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite news\|last\=Benjamin\|first\=Amalie\|date\=March 13, 2009\|title\=Papelbon blasts Ramírez\|work\=\[\[The Boston Globe]]\|url\=http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/articles/2009/03/13/papelbon\_blasts\_ram237rez/\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021}}
On June 29, 2009, Papelbon gained his 132nd save, in a 4–0 shut out against the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles "Baltimore Orioles"), tying [Bob Stanley](/wiki/Bob_Stanley_%28baseball_player%29 "Bob Stanley (baseball player)")'s team record for saves which had stood for 20 years. Stanley prophetically commented to the *[Boston Herald](/wiki/Boston_Herald "Boston Herald")* in reference to Papelbon breaking the record ""He’s a great kid and competitor. If anyone’s going to break it, that’s a good guy to do it. He’s probably going to end up with a lot more than 132\."{{Cite web\|last1\=Tomase\|first1\=John\|last2\=Tomasered\|first2\=John\|date\=February 19, 2009\|title\=Bob Stanley happy to pass torch to Jonathan Papelbon\|url\=https://www.bostonherald.com/2009/02/19/bob\-stanley\-happy\-to\-pass\-torch\-to\-jonathan\-papelbon/\|access\-date\=February 4, 2020\|website\=\[\[Boston Herald]]\|language\=en\-US}} On July 1, Papelbon recorded his 133rd save with the Red Sox, to break the franchise record. He was selected to represent Boston at the [2009 All\-Star Game](/wiki/2009_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game "2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game").{{Cite web\|last\=Buckley\|first\=Steve\|date\=July 2, 2009\|title\=Papelbon packs away franchise record\|url\=https://www.bostonherald.com/2009/07/02/papelbon\-packs\-away\-franchise\-record/\|access\-date\=February 4, 2020\|website\=\[\[Boston Herald]]\|language\=en\-US}}
Papelbon was cited repeatedly for his slow play. On September 4, 2009, it was reported that he had been fined $5,000 for failing to deliver his first pitch within the required time in a September 1 appearance. Papelbon told the *[Boston Herald](/wiki/Boston_Herald "Boston Herald")* that he had been cited on at least five occasions, and fined more than $10,000 for these violations. Papelbon jokingly added, "I think they're going to call my parole officer and put me away."{{Cite web\|date\=September 4, 2009\|title\=MLB fines Papelbon for taking too long to pitch\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id\=4445223\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|language\=en}}
In Game 3 of the 2009 ALDS, with Boston down two games to none, Papelbon failed to make the save and Boston was swept. He allowed four hits and three runs; all of the runs scored with two outs.{{cite web\|title\=2009 AL Division Series\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/postseason/2009\_ALDS2\.shtml\|access\-date\=July 28, 2015\|website\=Baseball\-Reference\|publisher\=\[\[Sports Reference]]}} His difficulties continued into the next season.
#### 2010
In 2010, Papelbon failed in eight save attempts (including one against the Yankees on May 17, 2010, where he allowed four earned runs and a walk\-off home run for the first time in his career), leaving open the possibility that he might be traded. The Red Sox kept Papelbon as their closer and his productivity improved over the 2011 season.
#### 2011
On June 7, 2011, Papelbon recorded his 200th career save against the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees "New York Yankees"), and achieved the mark in the fewest appearances (359\), beating Mariano Rivera's mark in 382 appearances.{{Cite web\|last\=Silverman\|first\=Michael\|date\=June 8, 2011\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon bags 200th save quicker than Mariano Rivera\|url\=https://www.bostonherald.com/2011/06/08/jonathan\-papelbon\-bags\-200th\-save\-quicker\-than\-mariano\-rivera/\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021\|website\=\[\[Boston Herald]]\|language\=en\-US}} For the 2011 season, Papelbon recorded 31 saves in 34 opportunities. He blew just three saves all season long, but two occurred during the final month of the season, including the final game of the 2011 regular season; the Red Sox and Rays tied in the standings for the AL Wild Card, and Papelbon blew a 3–2 lead against the Baltimore Orioles in the ninth inning when he struck out the first two batters, but then gave up three consecutive hits, leading to a walk\-off 4–3 loss. Just moments later, the Rays won their game against the Yankees with a walk\-off home run by [Evan Longoria](/wiki/Evan_Longoria "Evan Longoria") to clinch the Wild Card, which capped off both an improbable late comeback from a 7–0 deficit in the eighth inning and a nine\-game comeback in the standings against Boston and officially eliminating them from the playoffs.{{Cite web\|date\=September 28, 2011\|title\=Red Sox miss out on postseason after loss to O's and Rays' win\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/310928101\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504060158/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/310928101\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=May 4, 2021\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|language\=en}} Following the 2011 World Series, Papelbon became a free agent.
### Philadelphia Phillies (2012–2015\)
#### 2012
In November 2011 Papelbon agreed with the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies "Philadelphia Phillies") on a four\-year, $50 million contract (equivalent to ${{Inflation\|US\|50\|2011\|r\=1}} million in {{Inflation/year\|US}}) with a vesting option for a fifth year, bringing the total possible contract value to $60 million.{{cite news\|date\=November 14, 2011\|title\=Phillies Sign Papelbon\|newspaper\=\[\[Philadelphia Phillies]]\|url\=http://philadelphia.phillies.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20111114\&content\_id\=25968638\&vkey\=pr\_phi\&c\_id\=phi\|url\-status\=dead\|access\-date\=November 14, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023045737/http://philadelphia.phillies.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20111114\&content\_id\=25968638\&vkey\=pr\_phi\&c\_id\=phi\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2013}} It was the largest contract ever signed by a relief pitcher.{{cite news \|title\=Phillies complete $50M contract with Papelbon \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/7234627/philadelphia\-phillies\-complete\-50m\-contract\-jonathan\-papelbon \|access\-date\=November 18, 2022 \|work\=\[\[ESPN.com]] \|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]] \|date\=November 14, 2011 \|language\=en}} He was signed to fill the role of former closer [Ryan Madson](/wiki/Ryan_Madson "Ryan Madson"), who left to join the Reds.{{cite web\|last\=Zolecki\|first\=Todd\|date\=November 14, 2011\|title\=Porting alter\-ego, Papelbon joins Phillies\|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20111111\&content\_id\=25957264\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023045735/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20111111\&content\_id\=25957264\|archive\-date\=October 23, 2013\|access\-date\=October 23, 2013\|work\=MLB.com}}{{cite web\|last\=Abraham\|first\=Peter\|date\=November 11, 2011\|title\=Report: Papelbon agrees to deal with Phillies\|url\=http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/extras/extra\_bases/2011/11/report\_papelbon\_2\.html\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021\|work\=\[\[The Boston Globe]]}}
[180px\|thumb\|Papelbon pitching for the [Philadelphia Phillies in 2012](/wiki/2012_Philadelphia_Phillies_season "2012 Philadelphia Phillies season")](/wiki/File:Jonathan_Papelbon_on_June_17%2C_2012.jpg "Jonathan Papelbon on June 17, 2012.jpg")
During April, Papelbon started using [Metallica](/wiki/Metallica "Metallica")'s song "[For Whom the Bell Tolls](/wiki/For_Whom_the_Bell_Tolls_%28Metallica_song%29 "For Whom the Bell Tolls (Metallica song)")" as his entrance music.{{cite news\|author\=Mast\|first\=Ricky\|date\=April 10, 2012\|title\=Papelbon's Entrance Music\|work\=\[\[MLB Fan Cave]]\|publisher\=\[\[Major League Baseball]]\|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/fancave/blog.jsp?content\=article\&content\_id\=28344688\#fbid\=iRyG6tpT7EQ\|access\-date\=February 13, 2014}} Papelbon finished the season with 64 games finished (leading the National League), 38 saves, 92 strikeouts, and a 2\.44 ERA over 70 innings pitched.
#### 2013
Papelbon finished the 2013 season with 29 saves in 61 games. His save total was the lowest of any of his complete MLB seasons to that point, and the Phillies finished with a 73–89 win–loss record. Papelbon said that he could not remember playing for another losing team.{{cite web\|last1\=Woods\|first1\=Alden\|date\=March 27, 2014\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon taking on leadership role in Philadelphia Phillies' bullpen\|url\=http://m.mlb.com/news/article/70228046/jonathan\-papelbon\-taking\-on\-leadership\-role\-in\-philadelphia\-phillies\-bullpen/\|access\-date\=July 19, 2016\|website\=\[\[MLB.com]]}} He lost more than two miles per hour off of his average fastball velocity, and after the season he said he had been playing with an injured hip.{{cite web\|last1\=Di Fino\|first1\=Nando\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon had hip injury in 2013\|url\=http://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/jonathan\-papelbon\-had\-hip\-injury\-in\-2013/\|work\=\[\[CBS Sports]]\|access\-date\=July 19, 2016\|date\=March 3, 2014}}
#### 2014
On June 10, Papelbon earned his 300th career save against the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres "San Diego Padres"), becoming the 27th member of the [300 save club](/wiki/300_save_club "300 save club").{{Cite magazine\|last\=Corcoran\|first\=Cliff\|date\=June 11, 2014\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon's 300th save a fine accomplishment but not a major milestone\|url\=https://www.si.com/mlb/2014/06/11/jonathan\-papelbon\-300\-career\-saves\-mariano\-rivera\|access\-date\=May 3, 2021\|magazine\=\[\[Sports Illustrated]]\|language\=en\-us}} On August 26, Papelbon recorded his 100th save with the Philadelphia Phillies becoming tied for fourth on the all\-time franchise saves list.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=August 27, 2014\|title\=Phillies' Jonathan Papelbon Records Save No. 100 with the Team\|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2177767\-phillies\-jonathan\-papelbon\-records\-save\-no\-100\-with\-the\-team\|access\-date\=May 4, 2021\|website\=\[\[Bleacher Report]]\|language\=en}} On September 1, Papelbon was one of four pitchers who combined for a no\-hitter in the Phillies' 7–0 win over the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves "Atlanta Braves").{{Cite web\|last\=White\|first\=Paul\|date\=September 1, 2014\|title\=Cole Hamels, Phillies team up for no\-hitter\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2014/09/01/cole\-hamels\-phillies\-combined\-no\-hitter/14934639/\|access\-date\=May 4, 2021\|website\=\[\[USA Today]]\|language\=en\-US}}
On September 14, 2014, Papelbon blew a save against the [Miami Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins "Miami Marlins"), and was booed by the hometown Phillies fans at [Citizens Bank Park](/wiki/Citizens_Bank_Park "Citizens Bank Park"). He then made an [obscene gesture](/wiki/Obscene_gesture "Obscene gesture") toward the fans, for which he was ejected from the game. He initiated a confrontation with umpire [Joe West](/wiki/Joe_West_%28umpire%29 "Joe West (umpire)"), who had thrown him out of the game, and was subsequently suspended by MLB for seven games.{{cite web\|last\=Lacques\|first\=Gabe\|date\=September 16, 2014\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon suspended seven games for obscene gesture\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2014/09/15/jonathan\-papelbon\-suspended\-seven\-games\-obscene\-gesture/15697537/\|access\-date\=September 16, 2014\|work\=\[\[USA Today]]}} His high school coach said: "The persona that I think he exhibits makes ... fans ... dislike \[him]. Unless you're a Phillies fan ... and even some of them don't like him."{{Cite web\|last\=Manahan\|first\=Kevin\|date\=June 5, 2015\|title\=Is Phillies' Jonathan Papelbon trying to be most hated closer in baseball?\|url\=https://www.nj.com/phillies/2015/06/is\_phillies\_jonathan\_papelbon\_the\_most\_hated\_close.html\|access\-date\=May 16, 2019\|website\=\[\[NJ.com]]\|language\=en\-US}}
#### 2015
In April 2015, he had a heated argument with radio/TV commentator [Howard Eskin](/wiki/Howard_Eskin "Howard Eskin") in the Phillies clubhouse, and the two needed to be separated and restrained.{{Cite news\|last\=Silva\|first\=Steve\|date\=April 9, 2015\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon Disses Philly, Says 'Red Sox Run Deep in My Blood'\|language\=en\-US\|work\=\[\[The Boston Globe]]\|url\=https://www.boston.com/sports/extra\-bases/2015/04/09/jonathan\_papelbon\_disses\_philly\_says\_red\_sox\_run\_d\|access\-date\=May 16, 2019}} On May 13, Papelbon became the Phillies all\-time saves leader with 113 saves.{{Cite magazine\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=May 13, 2015\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon becomes Phillies' all\-time saves leader on throw\-out at home\|url\=https://www.si.com/mlb/2015/05/14/jonathan\-papelbon\-phillies\-saves\-leader\|access\-date\=May 13, 2015\|magazine\=\[\[Sports Illustrated]]\|language\=en\-us}}
### Washington Nationals
#### 2015
[thumb\|left\|Papelbon with the Nationals](/wiki/File:MG_7252_Jonathan_Papelbon.jpg "MG 7252 Jonathan Papelbon.jpg")
Papelbon began to express discontent with being on the Phillies as the trade deadline inched closer.{{cite web\|last\=Salisbury\|first\=Jim\|date\=July 10, 2014\|title\=Phillies' Papelbon eager to be traded to contender\|url\=https://www.nbcsports.com/philadelphia/philadelphia\-phillies/phillies\-papelbon\-eager\-be\-traded\-contender\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515203015/https://www.nbcsports.com/philadelphia/philadelphia\-phillies/phillies\-papelbon\-eager\-be\-traded\-contender\|archive\-date\=May 15, 2020\|access\-date\=September 28, 2015\|work\=\[\[NBC Sports]]}} On July 28, 2015, the Phillies traded Papelbon to the [Washington Nationals](/wiki/Washington_Nationals "Washington Nationals") for [Nick Pivetta](/wiki/Nick_Pivetta "Nick Pivetta").{{cite web\|date\=July 28, 2015\|title\=Philadelphia Phillies trade Jonathan Papelbon to Washington Nationals\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/13333105/philadelphia\-phillies\-trade\-jonathan\-papelbon\-washington\-nationals\|access\-date\=July 28, 2015\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|publisher\=}} Papelbon assumed the role of Nationals' closer from [Drew Storen](/wiki/Drew_Storen "Drew Storen").{{cite web\|last\=Johnson\|first\=Chris\|date\=July 29, 2015\|title\=Nationals Pastime: Jonathan Papelbon to Drew Storen: "I just want to come here and win"\|url\=http://www.masnsports.com/nationals\-pastime/2015/07/jonathan\-papelbon\-to\-drew\-storen\-i\-just\-want\-to\-come\-here\-and\-win.html\|access\-date\=September 28, 2015\|work\=\[\[MASN]]}}
On September 23, Papelbon intentionally threw a pitch at [Manny Machado](/wiki/Manny_Machado "Manny Machado")'s head, resulting in immediate ejection. Machado tried to dodge the ball from hitting his head by throwing up his left shoulder and the ball hit his shoulder. The hit by pitch came after Machado hit a go\-ahead home run in the 7th off of [Max Scherzer](/wiki/Max_Scherzer "Max Scherzer") which gave the Orioles the lead and the win. Two days later, MLB suspended Papelbon for three games and fined him; he initially appealed the suspension.{{cite news\|author\=Janes\|first\=Chelsea\|date\=September 25, 2015\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon suspended three games for throwing at Manny Machado, will appeal\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/nationals\-journal/wp/2015/09/25/jonathan\-papelbon\-suspended\-three\-games\-for\-throwing\-at\-manny\-machado\-will\-appeal/\|access\-date\=September 28, 2015\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]}}{{Cite web\|date\=September 25, 2015\|title\=Papelbon suspended 3 games for hitting Machado\|url\=https://www.nbcsports.com/washington/washington\-nationals/papelbon\-suspended\-3\-games\-hitting\-machado\|access\-date\=May 4, 2021\|website\=\[\[NBC Sports]]\|language\=en}}
Papelbon initiated an argument with teammate [Bryce Harper](/wiki/Bryce_Harper "Bryce Harper") during their September 27 game, as Harper was returning to the dugout following his [at bat](/wiki/At_bat "At bat"). The exchange escalated, and Papelbon grabbed Harper by the throat and then shoved Harper toward the bench with both hands, before the two were separated by teammates.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/baseball/ct\-nationals\-bryce\-harper\-jonathan\-papelbon\-fight\-20150927\-story.html\|title\=Nationals' Bryce Harper, Jonathan Papelbon fight in dugout\|date\=September 27, 2015\|work\=Chicago Tribune\|access\-date\=September 28, 2015}} Nats fans on Twitter offered to donate $100 each (totaling thousands of dollars) to a charity of the Nats' choosing if it got rid of Papelbon.{{Cite magazine\|last\=Rafferty\|first\=Scott\|date\=September 28, 2015\|title\=Washington Nationals Fans Really Hate Jonathan Papelbon\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture\-sports/washington\-nationals\-fans\-really\-hate\-jonathan\-papelbon\-59644/\|access\-date\=May 4, 2021\|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]\|language\=en\-US}} The Nationals suspended Papelbon for four games without pay for attacking Harper, costing Papelbon $284,153\.{{Cite web\|date\=December 6, 2015\|title\=Papelbon files grievance over salary against Nats\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/14310136/jonathan\-papelbon\-files\-grievance\-washington\-nationals\|access\-date\=May 4, 2021\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|language\=en}} Papelbon dropped his appeal of his suspension for hitting Machado. With seven games remaining for the Nationals, the pair of suspensions ended his season.{{cite web\|last\=Matz\|first\=Eddie\|date\=September 28, 2015\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon suspended 4 games by Washington Nationals for fight with Bryce Harper\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/13762806/jonathan\-papelbon\-suspended\-4\-games\-washington\-nationals\-fight\-bryce\-harper\|access\-date\=September 28, 2015\|work\=\[\[ESPN]]}} Papelbon finished the season with seven saves with the Nationals, and 24 in total for the season. On December 6, 2015, Papelbon filed a grievance complaint against the Nationals organization, seeking the money he lost when he was suspended.{{Cite web\|last\=Blum\|first\=Ronald\|date\=December 7, 2015\|title\=MLBPA files grievance over suspension of Nats' Papelbon\|url\=https://apnews.com/74d6e512230f4391b583a72da649a954\|access\-date\=May 16, 2019\|website\=\[\[Associated Press]]}}
#### 2016
During the offseason, Storen was traded to the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays "Toronto Blue Jays"), cementing Papelbon as the team's closer. On June 14, 2016, Papelbon was placed on the [15\-day disabled list](/wiki/15-day_disabled_list "15-day disabled list") due to an [Intercostal muscle](/wiki/Intercostal_muscle "Intercostal muscle") strain, the first stint on the disabled list in his career.{{cite news\|last\=Janes\|first\=Chelsea\|date\=June 14, 2016\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon to 15\-day DL; Matt Belisle reinstated\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/nationals\-journal/wp/2016/06/14/jonathan\-papelbon\-to\-15\-day\-dl\-matt\-belisle\-reinstated/\|access\-date\=June 14, 2016\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]}} The team acquired [Mark Melancon](/wiki/Mark_Melancon "Mark Melancon") to supplant him as closer in late July.{{cite magazine\|date\=August 13, 2016\|title\=Nationals release P Jonathan Papelbon\|magazine\=\[\[Sports Illustrated]]\|publisher\=\|url\=https://www.si.com/mlb/2016/08/13/jonathan\-papelbon\-washington\-nationals\-requests\-release\|access\-date\=August 13, 2016}}{{cite news\|last\=Zuckerman\|first\=Mark\|date\=July 30, 2016\|title\=Rizzo, Baker and Papelbon react to the Melancon trade\|work\=\[\[MASN]]\|agency\=\|url\=http://www.masnsports.com/nationals\-pastime/2016/07/rizzo\-baker\-and\-papelbon\-react\-to\-the\-melancon\-trade.html\|access\-date\=August 13, 2016}}
On August 13, Papelbon requested and was granted his release from the Nationals.{{cite web\|last\=Wells\|first\=Adam\|date\=August 13, 2016\|title\=Nationals release Jonathan Papelbon\|url\=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2657505\-jonathan\-papelbon\-released\-by\-nationals\-latest\-details\-comments\-reaction\|access\-date\=August 13, 2016\|website\=\[\[Bleacher Report]]\|publisher\=}} The Nats released Papelbon despite still being obligated to pay him $3\.3 million over the remainder of the season.{{Cite web\|last\=Matz\|first\=Eddie\|date\=August 13, 2016\|title\=For Nationals, releasing Jonathan Papelbon was all about the bottom line\|url\=https://www.espn.com/blog/washington\-nationals/post/\_/id/1692/for\-nationals\-releasing\-jonathan\-papelbon\-was\-all\-about\-the\-bottom\-line\|access\-date\=May 4, 2021\|website\=\[\[ESPN]]\|language\=en}} In 2016, Papelbon was 2–4 with a career\-high 4\.37 ERA and 19 saves for the Nationals.{{Cite web\|title\=Jonathan Papelbon Stats\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/players/p/papeljo01\.shtml\|access\-date\=May 4, 2021\|website\=Baseball\-Reference\|language\=en}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Minor leagues",
"Papelbon was drafted by the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox \"Boston Red Sox\") in the fourth round of the [2003 Major League Baseball draft](/wiki/2003_Major_League_Baseball_draft \"2003 Major League Baseball draft\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mstateathletics.com/ViewArticle.dbml?DB\\_OEM\\_ID\\=16800\\&ATCLID\\=928571\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon Drafted By Oakland\\|work\\=\\[\\[Mississippi State Bulldogs]]\\|publisher\\=Mississippi State Athletics\\|access\\-date\\=February 11, 2014}} Papelbon began his minor league career as a starting pitcher for the [Lowell Spinners](/wiki/Lowell_Spinners \"Lowell Spinners\") of the [New York–Penn League](/wiki/New_York%E2%80%93Penn_League \"New York–Penn League\"). In 13 games (6 started), he had a 1–2 record, a 6\\.34 ERA, 43 hits, 36 [strikeouts](/wiki/Strikeout \"Strikeout\"), and 9 [walks](/wiki/Walk_%28baseball%29 \"Walk (baseball)\") in {{fract\\|32\\|2\\|3}} [innings pitched](/wiki/Innings_pitched \"Innings pitched\").",
"After a 13–10 record for [Class\\-A](/wiki/Minor_league_baseball \"Minor league baseball\") [Lowell Spinners](/wiki/Lowell_Spinners \"Lowell Spinners\") and [Sarasota Red Sox](/wiki/Sarasota_Red_Sox \"Sarasota Red Sox\") from 2003 to 2004, Papelbon was 5–2 in 14 [starts](/wiki/Starting_pitcher \"Starting pitcher\") for Double\\-A [Portland](/wiki/Portland_Sea_Dogs \"Portland Sea Dogs\") in 2005\\. Promoted to Triple\\-A [Pawtucket](/wiki/Pawtucket_Red_Sox \"Pawtucket Red Sox\"), he went 1–2 with a 3\\.57 [ERA](/wiki/Earned_run_average \"Earned run average\") in four starts, walking two and striking out 21 in 22{{fraction\\|1\\|3}} innings.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon Pitching Statistics \\- The Baseball Cube\\|url\\=http://thebaseballcube.com/players/P/Jon\\-Papelbon.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817083407/http://thebaseballcube.com/players/P/Jon\\-Papelbon.shtml\\|archive\\-date\\=August 17, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2007\\|website\\=The Baseball Cube}}",
"### Boston Red Sox (2005–2011\\)",
"#### 2005",
"Papelbon made his major league debut with the Red Sox on July 31, 2005, against the [Minnesota Twins](/wiki/Minnesota_Twins \"Minnesota Twins\"), in which he went 5{{fraction\\|1\\|3}} innings, struck out seven batters and issued five walks in Boston's 4–3 victory. He did not receive a decision.{{cite web\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon Stats, Video, Photos, Highlights, Bio\\|url\\=https://www.mlb.com/player/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-449097\\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Major League Baseball]]}} Papelbon earned his first [major league win](/wiki/Win_%28baseball%29 \"Win (baseball)\") on September 12, pitching three scoreless innings in an [extra\\-inning](/wiki/Extra_innings \"Extra innings\") game against the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays \"Toronto Blue Jays\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon Game by Game Stats and Performance\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/player/gamelog/\\_/id/6373/jonathan\\-papelbon\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|language\\=en}} In two [postseason](/wiki/American_League_Division_Series \"American League Division Series\") appearances in 2005, he pitched four scoreless innings against the eventual World Series Champion [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox \"Chicago White Sox\"). The Red Sox had plans of slotting Papelbon into their starting rotation prior to the regular season in 2006\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Shaughnessy\\|first1\\=Dan\\|date\\=April 17, 2006\\|title\\=Papelbon has heater, stays cool\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Boston Globe]]\\|url\\=http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/articles/2006/04/17/papelbon\\_has\\_heater\\_stays\\_cool/\\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2021}} However, the incumbent closer, [Keith Foulke](/wiki/Keith_Foulke \"Keith Foulke\"), proved to be ineffective trying to come back from an injury\\-plagued 2005\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Heuschkel\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=April 7, 2006\\|title\\=At this point, Foulke has lost it\\|url\\=https://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc\\-xpm\\-2006\\-04\\-07\\-0604070863\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[Hartford Courant]]}}",
"#### 2006",
"In April 2006, Papelbon changed his hair to a [Mohawk](/wiki/Mohawk_hairstyle \"Mohawk hairstyle\") style, after [Charlie Sheen](/wiki/Charlie_Sheen \"Charlie Sheen\")'s character Ricky Vaughn from the film *[Major League](/wiki/Major_League_%28film%29 \"Major League (film)\")* due to a wager with teammate [Kevin Youkilis](/wiki/Kevin_Youkilis \"Kevin Youkilis\") in which they bet whether he could start the season with 10 scoreless innings.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Silverman\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=April 23, 2006\\|title\\=A hair\\-raising incident: Papelbon takes wild walk on Mohawk trail\\|url\\=http://redsox.bostonherald.com/redSox/view.bg?articleid\\=136300\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060502014039/http://redsox.bostonherald.com/redSox/view.bg?articleid\\=136300\\|archive\\-date\\=May 2, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2007\\|website\\=\\[\\[Boston Herald]]}}",
"On April 5, the third game of the 2006 season, Papelbon recorded his first career save, against the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\"). On April 29, he set a major league record with his 10th save, against the [Tampa Bay Devil Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays \"Tampa Bay Rays\"), becoming the first rookie in major league history to record double\\-digit saves in the month of April.{{cite web\\|last\\=Heuschkel\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=July 11, 2006\\|title\\=He's A Super Saver\\|url\\=https://www.courant.com/2006/07/11/hes\\-a\\-super\\-saver/\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[Hartford Courant]]}} He subsequently received the [Delivery Man of the Month Award](/wiki/Delivery_Man_of_the_Month_Award \"Delivery Man of the Month Award\") for April.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary\\_0286\\-15124734\\_ITM\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon Named Winner of the ''DHL Presents the Major League Baseball Delivery Man of the Month Award'' for April\\|publisher\\=Business Wire\\|date\\=May 4, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2009}} In early September, Papelbon injured his shoulder. When the Red Sox were eliminated from playoff contention, he was shut down for the remainder of the season to rest. The team considered using Papelbon as a starter due to his shoulder problems, but he was moved back to the bullpen before the start of the 2007 season and remained the team's [closer](/wiki/Closer_%28baseball%29 \"Closer (baseball)\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Browne\\|first\\=Ian\\|date\\=March 22, 2007\\|title\\=Papelbon to return as closer\\|url\\=http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20070322\\&content\\_id\\=1854433\\&vkey\\=spt2007news\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=bos\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070326063931/http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20070322\\&content\\_id\\=1854433\\&vkey\\=spt2007news\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=bos\\|archive\\-date\\=March 26, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2007\\|website\\=\\[\\[Boston Red Sox]]}} Papelbon in 2006 saved 35 games, struck out 75 batters in 68 innings, and held opposing batters to a .167 [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\").",
"#### 2007",
"On October 11, 2007, Papelbon was named the 2007 winner of the \"DHL Presents the Major League Baseball [Delivery Man of the Year Award](/wiki/Delivery_Man_of_the_Year_Award \"Delivery Man of the Year Award\").\" Papelbon garnered 39,043 votes out of almost 125,000 votes cast.{{Cite web\\|date\\=October 11, 2007\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon wins \"DHL Presents the Major League Baseball Delivery Man of the Year Award\"\\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/press\\_releases/press\\_release.jsp?ymd\\=20071011\\&content\\_id\\=2260829\\&vkey\\=pr\\_mlb\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=mlb\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012235710/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/press\\_releases/press\\_release.jsp?ymd\\=20071011\\&content\\_id\\=2260829\\&vkey\\=pr\\_mlb\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=mlb\\|archive\\-date\\=October 12, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2008\\|website\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Papelbon celebrates the Red Sox victory in the [2007 World Series](/wiki/2007_World_Series \"2007 World Series\").](/wiki/File:Papelbon_Beckons_Tek.jpg \"Papelbon Beckons Tek.jpg\")",
"In Game 2 of the [World Series](/wiki/2007_World_Series \"2007 World Series\"), Papelbon was brought in with the bases empty and two outs in the eighth with the Red Sox leading 2–1 to face Rockies hitter [Matt Holliday](/wiki/Matt_Holliday \"Matt Holliday\"). Papelbon gave up a single to Holliday before picking him off to end the inning. Papelbon pitched a one\\-two\\-three ninth for the save. In Game 4, he entered in the eighth inning to shut down the Rockies' comeback, and pitched the ninth inning where he struck out [Seth Smith](/wiki/Seth_Smith \"Seth Smith\") to clinch the 2007 Championship for the Red Sox.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/playoffs2007/series?series\\=colbos\\|title\\=MLB playoffs \\- 2007 World Series\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|access\\-date\\=March 9, 2014}}",
"#### 2008",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Papelbon during a pregame warmup in 2008](/wiki/File:Jonathan_Papelbon_warmups_2008.jpg \"Jonathan Papelbon warmups 2008.jpg\")\nOn March 6, 2008, Papelbon agreed to terms with the Red Sox for $775,000\\. Papelbon's deal set the record for the largest contract for a closer not eligible for [salary arbitration](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_transactions%23Free_agency_and_salary_arbitration \"Major League Baseball transactions#Free agency and salary arbitration\"), topping [Mariano Rivera](/wiki/Mariano_Rivera \"Mariano Rivera\")'s previous record by $25,000\\. Boston was under no obligation to pay Papelbon more than the league minimum of $390,000\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=March 6, 2008\\|title\\=Red Sox re\\-sign Papelbon for one year, $775,000\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id\\=3280428\\|access\\-date\\=March 15, 2008\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]}} On January 20, 2009, Papelbon agreed to a one\\-year $6\\.25 million contract with the Red Sox, avoiding arbitration. This was the largest contract for a closer in his first year of arbitration eligibility.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Stark\\|first\\=Jayson\\|date\\=January 20, 2009\\|title\\=Closer's record deal avoids arbitration\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id\\=3846966\\|access\\-date\\=January 20, 2009\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]}} Papelbon recorded his 100th career save on July 13, 2008\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Lemme\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=July 13, 2008\\|title\\=Papelbon notches 100th career save\\|url\\=http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080713\\&content\\_id\\=3132971\\&vkey\\=news\\_bos\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=bos\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714180734/http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080713\\&content\\_id\\=3132971\\&vkey\\=news\\_bos\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=bos\\|archive\\-date\\=July 14, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=July 28, 2015\\|website\\=\\[\\[Boston Red Sox]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB Advanced Media]]}} Among pitchers who had thrown at least 200 innings, Papelbon's 0\\.930 [WHIP](/wiki/Walks_plus_hits_per_inning_pitched \"Walks plus hits per inning pitched\") through 2008 was the lowest in major league history.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Chuck\\|first\\=Bill\\|date\\=April 2, 2009\\|title\\=100 random things about the Red Sox, Rays, and Yankees\\|url\\=http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/extras/100\\_random\\_things\\_2009/\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090405072934/http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/extras/100\\_random\\_things\\_2009/\\|archive\\-date\\=April 5, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Boston Globe]]}}",
"#### 2009",
"Papelbon criticized former teammate [Manny Ramirez](/wiki/Manny_Ramirez \"Manny Ramirez\") in the April 2009 issue of *Esquire* magazine, citing his selfishness and incapability of working with his teammates.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Jones\\|first\\=Chris\\|date\\=May 7, 2009\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon Grinds His Teeth\\|url\\=https://www.esquire.com/features/the\\-game/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-0409\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[Esquire (magazine)\\|Esquire]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Benjamin\\|first\\=Amalie\\|date\\=March 13, 2009\\|title\\=Papelbon blasts Ramírez\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Boston Globe]]\\|url\\=http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/articles/2009/03/13/papelbon\\_blasts\\_ram237rez/\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021}}",
"On June 29, 2009, Papelbon gained his 132nd save, in a 4–0 shut out against the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles \"Baltimore Orioles\"), tying [Bob Stanley](/wiki/Bob_Stanley_%28baseball_player%29 \"Bob Stanley (baseball player)\")'s team record for saves which had stood for 20 years. Stanley prophetically commented to the *[Boston Herald](/wiki/Boston_Herald \"Boston Herald\")* in reference to Papelbon breaking the record \"\"He’s a great kid and competitor. If anyone’s going to break it, that’s a good guy to do it. He’s probably going to end up with a lot more than 132\\.\"{{Cite web\\|last1\\=Tomase\\|first1\\=John\\|last2\\=Tomasered\\|first2\\=John\\|date\\=February 19, 2009\\|title\\=Bob Stanley happy to pass torch to Jonathan Papelbon\\|url\\=https://www.bostonherald.com/2009/02/19/bob\\-stanley\\-happy\\-to\\-pass\\-torch\\-to\\-jonathan\\-papelbon/\\|access\\-date\\=February 4, 2020\\|website\\=\\[\\[Boston Herald]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}} On July 1, Papelbon recorded his 133rd save with the Red Sox, to break the franchise record. He was selected to represent Boston at the [2009 All\\-Star Game](/wiki/2009_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game \"2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Buckley\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=July 2, 2009\\|title\\=Papelbon packs away franchise record\\|url\\=https://www.bostonherald.com/2009/07/02/papelbon\\-packs\\-away\\-franchise\\-record/\\|access\\-date\\=February 4, 2020\\|website\\=\\[\\[Boston Herald]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Papelbon was cited repeatedly for his slow play. On September 4, 2009, it was reported that he had been fined $5,000 for failing to deliver his first pitch within the required time in a September 1 appearance. Papelbon told the *[Boston Herald](/wiki/Boston_Herald \"Boston Herald\")* that he had been cited on at least five occasions, and fined more than $10,000 for these violations. Papelbon jokingly added, \"I think they're going to call my parole officer and put me away.\"{{Cite web\\|date\\=September 4, 2009\\|title\\=MLB fines Papelbon for taking too long to pitch\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id\\=4445223\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|language\\=en}}",
"In Game 3 of the 2009 ALDS, with Boston down two games to none, Papelbon failed to make the save and Boston was swept. He allowed four hits and three runs; all of the runs scored with two outs.{{cite web\\|title\\=2009 AL Division Series\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/postseason/2009\\_ALDS2\\.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=July 28, 2015\\|website\\=Baseball\\-Reference\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sports Reference]]}} His difficulties continued into the next season.",
"#### 2010",
"In 2010, Papelbon failed in eight save attempts (including one against the Yankees on May 17, 2010, where he allowed four earned runs and a walk\\-off home run for the first time in his career), leaving open the possibility that he might be traded. The Red Sox kept Papelbon as their closer and his productivity improved over the 2011 season.",
"#### 2011",
"On June 7, 2011, Papelbon recorded his 200th career save against the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees \"New York Yankees\"), and achieved the mark in the fewest appearances (359\\), beating Mariano Rivera's mark in 382 appearances.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Silverman\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=June 8, 2011\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon bags 200th save quicker than Mariano Rivera\\|url\\=https://www.bostonherald.com/2011/06/08/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-bags\\-200th\\-save\\-quicker\\-than\\-mariano\\-rivera/\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[Boston Herald]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}} For the 2011 season, Papelbon recorded 31 saves in 34 opportunities. He blew just three saves all season long, but two occurred during the final month of the season, including the final game of the 2011 regular season; the Red Sox and Rays tied in the standings for the AL Wild Card, and Papelbon blew a 3–2 lead against the Baltimore Orioles in the ninth inning when he struck out the first two batters, but then gave up three consecutive hits, leading to a walk\\-off 4–3 loss. Just moments later, the Rays won their game against the Yankees with a walk\\-off home run by [Evan Longoria](/wiki/Evan_Longoria \"Evan Longoria\") to clinch the Wild Card, which capped off both an improbable late comeback from a 7–0 deficit in the eighth inning and a nine\\-game comeback in the standings against Boston and officially eliminating them from the playoffs.{{Cite web\\|date\\=September 28, 2011\\|title\\=Red Sox miss out on postseason after loss to O's and Rays' win\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/310928101\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504060158/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/310928101\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|language\\=en}} Following the 2011 World Series, Papelbon became a free agent.",
"### Philadelphia Phillies (2012–2015\\)",
"#### 2012",
"In November 2011 Papelbon agreed with the [Philadelphia Phillies](/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies \"Philadelphia Phillies\") on a four\\-year, $50 million contract (equivalent to ${{Inflation\\|US\\|50\\|2011\\|r\\=1}} million in {{Inflation/year\\|US}}) with a vesting option for a fifth year, bringing the total possible contract value to $60 million.{{cite news\\|date\\=November 14, 2011\\|title\\=Phillies Sign Papelbon\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Philadelphia Phillies]]\\|url\\=http://philadelphia.phillies.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20111114\\&content\\_id\\=25968638\\&vkey\\=pr\\_phi\\&c\\_id\\=phi\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023045737/http://philadelphia.phillies.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20111114\\&content\\_id\\=25968638\\&vkey\\=pr\\_phi\\&c\\_id\\=phi\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2013}} It was the largest contract ever signed by a relief pitcher.{{cite news \\|title\\=Phillies complete $50M contract with Papelbon \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/7234627/philadelphia\\-phillies\\-complete\\-50m\\-contract\\-jonathan\\-papelbon \\|access\\-date\\=November 18, 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN.com]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|date\\=November 14, 2011 \\|language\\=en}} He was signed to fill the role of former closer [Ryan Madson](/wiki/Ryan_Madson \"Ryan Madson\"), who left to join the Reds.{{cite web\\|last\\=Zolecki\\|first\\=Todd\\|date\\=November 14, 2011\\|title\\=Porting alter\\-ego, Papelbon joins Phillies\\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20111111\\&content\\_id\\=25957264\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023045735/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20111111\\&content\\_id\\=25957264\\|archive\\-date\\=October 23, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=October 23, 2013\\|work\\=MLB.com}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Abraham\\|first\\=Peter\\|date\\=November 11, 2011\\|title\\=Report: Papelbon agrees to deal with Phillies\\|url\\=http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/extras/extra\\_bases/2011/11/report\\_papelbon\\_2\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Boston Globe]]}}",
"[180px\\|thumb\\|Papelbon pitching for the [Philadelphia Phillies in 2012](/wiki/2012_Philadelphia_Phillies_season \"2012 Philadelphia Phillies season\")](/wiki/File:Jonathan_Papelbon_on_June_17%2C_2012.jpg \"Jonathan Papelbon on June 17, 2012.jpg\")\nDuring April, Papelbon started using [Metallica](/wiki/Metallica \"Metallica\")'s song \"[For Whom the Bell Tolls](/wiki/For_Whom_the_Bell_Tolls_%28Metallica_song%29 \"For Whom the Bell Tolls (Metallica song)\")\" as his entrance music.{{cite news\\|author\\=Mast\\|first\\=Ricky\\|date\\=April 10, 2012\\|title\\=Papelbon's Entrance Music\\|work\\=\\[\\[MLB Fan Cave]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Major League Baseball]]\\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/fancave/blog.jsp?content\\=article\\&content\\_id\\=28344688\\#fbid\\=iRyG6tpT7EQ\\|access\\-date\\=February 13, 2014}} Papelbon finished the season with 64 games finished (leading the National League), 38 saves, 92 strikeouts, and a 2\\.44 ERA over 70 innings pitched.",
"#### 2013",
"Papelbon finished the 2013 season with 29 saves in 61 games. His save total was the lowest of any of his complete MLB seasons to that point, and the Phillies finished with a 73–89 win–loss record. Papelbon said that he could not remember playing for another losing team.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Woods\\|first1\\=Alden\\|date\\=March 27, 2014\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon taking on leadership role in Philadelphia Phillies' bullpen\\|url\\=http://m.mlb.com/news/article/70228046/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-taking\\-on\\-leadership\\-role\\-in\\-philadelphia\\-phillies\\-bullpen/\\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2016\\|website\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]}} He lost more than two miles per hour off of his average fastball velocity, and after the season he said he had been playing with an injured hip.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Di Fino\\|first1\\=Nando\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon had hip injury in 2013\\|url\\=http://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-had\\-hip\\-injury\\-in\\-2013/\\|work\\=\\[\\[CBS Sports]]\\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2016\\|date\\=March 3, 2014}}",
"#### 2014",
"On June 10, Papelbon earned his 300th career save against the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres \"San Diego Padres\"), becoming the 27th member of the [300 save club](/wiki/300_save_club \"300 save club\").{{Cite magazine\\|last\\=Corcoran\\|first\\=Cliff\\|date\\=June 11, 2014\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon's 300th save a fine accomplishment but not a major milestone\\|url\\=https://www.si.com/mlb/2014/06/11/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-300\\-career\\-saves\\-mariano\\-rivera\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2021\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Sports Illustrated]]\\|language\\=en\\-us}} On August 26, Papelbon recorded his 100th save with the Philadelphia Phillies becoming tied for fourth on the all\\-time franchise saves list.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=August 27, 2014\\|title\\=Phillies' Jonathan Papelbon Records Save No. 100 with the Team\\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2177767\\-phillies\\-jonathan\\-papelbon\\-records\\-save\\-no\\-100\\-with\\-the\\-team\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[Bleacher Report]]\\|language\\=en}} On September 1, Papelbon was one of four pitchers who combined for a no\\-hitter in the Phillies' 7–0 win over the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves \"Atlanta Braves\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=White\\|first\\=Paul\\|date\\=September 1, 2014\\|title\\=Cole Hamels, Phillies team up for no\\-hitter\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2014/09/01/cole\\-hamels\\-phillies\\-combined\\-no\\-hitter/14934639/\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"On September 14, 2014, Papelbon blew a save against the [Miami Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins \"Miami Marlins\"), and was booed by the hometown Phillies fans at [Citizens Bank Park](/wiki/Citizens_Bank_Park \"Citizens Bank Park\"). He then made an [obscene gesture](/wiki/Obscene_gesture \"Obscene gesture\") toward the fans, for which he was ejected from the game. He initiated a confrontation with umpire [Joe West](/wiki/Joe_West_%28umpire%29 \"Joe West (umpire)\"), who had thrown him out of the game, and was subsequently suspended by MLB for seven games.{{cite web\\|last\\=Lacques\\|first\\=Gabe\\|date\\=September 16, 2014\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon suspended seven games for obscene gesture\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2014/09/15/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-suspended\\-seven\\-games\\-obscene\\-gesture/15697537/\\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]}} His high school coach said: \"The persona that I think he exhibits makes ... fans ... dislike \\[him]. Unless you're a Phillies fan ... and even some of them don't like him.\"{{Cite web\\|last\\=Manahan\\|first\\=Kevin\\|date\\=June 5, 2015\\|title\\=Is Phillies' Jonathan Papelbon trying to be most hated closer in baseball?\\|url\\=https://www.nj.com/phillies/2015/06/is\\_phillies\\_jonathan\\_papelbon\\_the\\_most\\_hated\\_close.html\\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2019\\|website\\=\\[\\[NJ.com]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### 2015",
"In April 2015, he had a heated argument with radio/TV commentator [Howard Eskin](/wiki/Howard_Eskin \"Howard Eskin\") in the Phillies clubhouse, and the two needed to be separated and restrained.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Silva\\|first\\=Steve\\|date\\=April 9, 2015\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon Disses Philly, Says 'Red Sox Run Deep in My Blood'\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Boston Globe]]\\|url\\=https://www.boston.com/sports/extra\\-bases/2015/04/09/jonathan\\_papelbon\\_disses\\_philly\\_says\\_red\\_sox\\_run\\_d\\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2019}} On May 13, Papelbon became the Phillies all\\-time saves leader with 113 saves.{{Cite magazine\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=May 13, 2015\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon becomes Phillies' all\\-time saves leader on throw\\-out at home\\|url\\=https://www.si.com/mlb/2015/05/14/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-phillies\\-saves\\-leader\\|access\\-date\\=May 13, 2015\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Sports Illustrated]]\\|language\\=en\\-us}}",
"### Washington Nationals",
"#### 2015",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Papelbon with the Nationals](/wiki/File:MG_7252_Jonathan_Papelbon.jpg \"MG 7252 Jonathan Papelbon.jpg\")\nPapelbon began to express discontent with being on the Phillies as the trade deadline inched closer.{{cite web\\|last\\=Salisbury\\|first\\=Jim\\|date\\=July 10, 2014\\|title\\=Phillies' Papelbon eager to be traded to contender\\|url\\=https://www.nbcsports.com/philadelphia/philadelphia\\-phillies/phillies\\-papelbon\\-eager\\-be\\-traded\\-contender\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515203015/https://www.nbcsports.com/philadelphia/philadelphia\\-phillies/phillies\\-papelbon\\-eager\\-be\\-traded\\-contender\\|archive\\-date\\=May 15, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[NBC Sports]]}} On July 28, 2015, the Phillies traded Papelbon to the [Washington Nationals](/wiki/Washington_Nationals \"Washington Nationals\") for [Nick Pivetta](/wiki/Nick_Pivetta \"Nick Pivetta\").{{cite web\\|date\\=July 28, 2015\\|title\\=Philadelphia Phillies trade Jonathan Papelbon to Washington Nationals\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/13333105/philadelphia\\-phillies\\-trade\\-jonathan\\-papelbon\\-washington\\-nationals\\|access\\-date\\=July 28, 2015\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|publisher\\=}} Papelbon assumed the role of Nationals' closer from [Drew Storen](/wiki/Drew_Storen \"Drew Storen\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Johnson\\|first\\=Chris\\|date\\=July 29, 2015\\|title\\=Nationals Pastime: Jonathan Papelbon to Drew Storen: \"I just want to come here and win\"\\|url\\=http://www.masnsports.com/nationals\\-pastime/2015/07/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-to\\-drew\\-storen\\-i\\-just\\-want\\-to\\-come\\-here\\-and\\-win.html\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[MASN]]}}",
"On September 23, Papelbon intentionally threw a pitch at [Manny Machado](/wiki/Manny_Machado \"Manny Machado\")'s head, resulting in immediate ejection. Machado tried to dodge the ball from hitting his head by throwing up his left shoulder and the ball hit his shoulder. The hit by pitch came after Machado hit a go\\-ahead home run in the 7th off of [Max Scherzer](/wiki/Max_Scherzer \"Max Scherzer\") which gave the Orioles the lead and the win. Two days later, MLB suspended Papelbon for three games and fined him; he initially appealed the suspension.{{cite news\\|author\\=Janes\\|first\\=Chelsea\\|date\\=September 25, 2015\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon suspended three games for throwing at Manny Machado, will appeal\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/nationals\\-journal/wp/2015/09/25/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-suspended\\-three\\-games\\-for\\-throwing\\-at\\-manny\\-machado\\-will\\-appeal/\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2015\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=September 25, 2015\\|title\\=Papelbon suspended 3 games for hitting Machado\\|url\\=https://www.nbcsports.com/washington/washington\\-nationals/papelbon\\-suspended\\-3\\-games\\-hitting\\-machado\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[NBC Sports]]\\|language\\=en}}",
"Papelbon initiated an argument with teammate [Bryce Harper](/wiki/Bryce_Harper \"Bryce Harper\") during their September 27 game, as Harper was returning to the dugout following his [at bat](/wiki/At_bat \"At bat\"). The exchange escalated, and Papelbon grabbed Harper by the throat and then shoved Harper toward the bench with both hands, before the two were separated by teammates.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/baseball/ct\\-nationals\\-bryce\\-harper\\-jonathan\\-papelbon\\-fight\\-20150927\\-story.html\\|title\\=Nationals' Bryce Harper, Jonathan Papelbon fight in dugout\\|date\\=September 27, 2015\\|work\\=Chicago Tribune\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2015}} Nats fans on Twitter offered to donate $100 each (totaling thousands of dollars) to a charity of the Nats' choosing if it got rid of Papelbon.{{Cite magazine\\|last\\=Rafferty\\|first\\=Scott\\|date\\=September 28, 2015\\|title\\=Washington Nationals Fans Really Hate Jonathan Papelbon\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture\\-sports/washington\\-nationals\\-fans\\-really\\-hate\\-jonathan\\-papelbon\\-59644/\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}} The Nationals suspended Papelbon for four games without pay for attacking Harper, costing Papelbon $284,153\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=December 6, 2015\\|title\\=Papelbon files grievance over salary against Nats\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/14310136/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-files\\-grievance\\-washington\\-nationals\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|language\\=en}} Papelbon dropped his appeal of his suspension for hitting Machado. With seven games remaining for the Nationals, the pair of suspensions ended his season.{{cite web\\|last\\=Matz\\|first\\=Eddie\\|date\\=September 28, 2015\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon suspended 4 games by Washington Nationals for fight with Bryce Harper\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/13762806/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-suspended\\-4\\-games\\-washington\\-nationals\\-fight\\-bryce\\-harper\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]}} Papelbon finished the season with seven saves with the Nationals, and 24 in total for the season. On December 6, 2015, Papelbon filed a grievance complaint against the Nationals organization, seeking the money he lost when he was suspended.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Blum\\|first\\=Ronald\\|date\\=December 7, 2015\\|title\\=MLBPA files grievance over suspension of Nats' Papelbon\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/74d6e512230f4391b583a72da649a954\\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2019\\|website\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}}",
"#### 2016",
"During the offseason, Storen was traded to the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays \"Toronto Blue Jays\"), cementing Papelbon as the team's closer. On June 14, 2016, Papelbon was placed on the [15\\-day disabled list](/wiki/15-day_disabled_list \"15-day disabled list\") due to an [Intercostal muscle](/wiki/Intercostal_muscle \"Intercostal muscle\") strain, the first stint on the disabled list in his career.{{cite news\\|last\\=Janes\\|first\\=Chelsea\\|date\\=June 14, 2016\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon to 15\\-day DL; Matt Belisle reinstated\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/nationals\\-journal/wp/2016/06/14/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-to\\-15\\-day\\-dl\\-matt\\-belisle\\-reinstated/\\|access\\-date\\=June 14, 2016\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]}} The team acquired [Mark Melancon](/wiki/Mark_Melancon \"Mark Melancon\") to supplant him as closer in late July.{{cite magazine\\|date\\=August 13, 2016\\|title\\=Nationals release P Jonathan Papelbon\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Sports Illustrated]]\\|publisher\\=\\|url\\=https://www.si.com/mlb/2016/08/13/jonathan\\-papelbon\\-washington\\-nationals\\-requests\\-release\\|access\\-date\\=August 13, 2016}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Zuckerman\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=July 30, 2016\\|title\\=Rizzo, Baker and Papelbon react to the Melancon trade\\|work\\=\\[\\[MASN]]\\|agency\\=\\|url\\=http://www.masnsports.com/nationals\\-pastime/2016/07/rizzo\\-baker\\-and\\-papelbon\\-react\\-to\\-the\\-melancon\\-trade.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 13, 2016}}",
"On August 13, Papelbon requested and was granted his release from the Nationals.{{cite web\\|last\\=Wells\\|first\\=Adam\\|date\\=August 13, 2016\\|title\\=Nationals release Jonathan Papelbon\\|url\\=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2657505\\-jonathan\\-papelbon\\-released\\-by\\-nationals\\-latest\\-details\\-comments\\-reaction\\|access\\-date\\=August 13, 2016\\|website\\=\\[\\[Bleacher Report]]\\|publisher\\=}} The Nats released Papelbon despite still being obligated to pay him $3\\.3 million over the remainder of the season.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Matz\\|first\\=Eddie\\|date\\=August 13, 2016\\|title\\=For Nationals, releasing Jonathan Papelbon was all about the bottom line\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/blog/washington\\-nationals/post/\\_/id/1692/for\\-nationals\\-releasing\\-jonathan\\-papelbon\\-was\\-all\\-about\\-the\\-bottom\\-line\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|language\\=en}} In 2016, Papelbon was 2–4 with a career\\-high 4\\.37 ERA and 19 saves for the Nationals.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Jonathan Papelbon Stats\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/players/p/papeljo01\\.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2021\\|website\\=Baseball\\-Reference\\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
[300px\|thumb\|*Błażej Czepiec and Franciszek Ptak in the Chamber in Bronowice village*, a pastel by [Włodzimierz Tetmajer](/wiki/W%C5%82odzimierz_Tetmajer "Włodzimierz Tetmajer") (c. 1900\). Ptak is seated in the middle. Picture in the collection of the [Historical Museum of Kraków](/wiki/Historical_Museum_of_Krak%C3%B3w "Historical Museum of Kraków")](/wiki/File:B%C5%82a%C5%BCej_Czepiec_i_Franciszek_Ptak_rys._W%C5%82odzimierz_Tetmajer.jpg "Błażej Czepiec i Franciszek Ptak rys. Włodzimierz Tetmajer.jpg")
[200px\|thumb\|Oil portrait of Franciszek Ptak by Józef Krasnowolski (1906\)](/wiki/File:Franciszek_Ptak_mal._J%C3%B3zef_Krasnowolski.JPG "Franciszek Ptak mal. Józef Krasnowolski.JPG")
[200px\|thumb\|Oil portrait of Marcjanna Ptak by Józef Krasnowolski (1906\)](/wiki/File:Marcjanna_Ptak_mal._J%C3%B3zef_Krasnowolski.JPG "Marcjanna Ptak mal. Józef Krasnowolski.JPG")
[300px\|thumb\|The Ptak family from Bieńczyce. Seated from the left: Zofia Norkowa née Ptak, Franciszek and Marcjanna Ptak and their son Wojciech (1917\)](/wiki/File:Franciszek-ptak-z_rodzina_1917.jpg "Franciszek-ptak-z rodzina 1917.jpg")
### Early years
He was born to a peasant family, the son of Antoni Ptak, who owned seven [acres](/wiki/Acre "Acre"), and Salomea née Włodek.{{cite book \|last\=Korczyk \|first\=Henryk \|chapter\=Franciszek Ptak (1859–1936\) \|title\=Polish Biographical Dictionary \|volume\=XXIX/2 \|publisher\=\[\[Polish Academy of Learning]] \|year\=1986 \|pages\=287–288 \|url\=https://www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl/a/biografia/franciszek\-ptak}} The family name Ptak means a *bird* in Polish.
Franciszek Ptak graduated from a peasant elementary school and was also a self\-taught; he read a lot. He started with farming on his three acres. Periodically he was a wage worker in a mill. For nine years he charged a toll tax on the behalf of local authorities. In 1886 he married Marcjanna née Szafrańska (7 January 1864 – 4 August 1947\). They had twelve children: five sons and seven daughters.
### Innkeeper
He founded and ran an [inn](/wiki/Inn "Inn") in the village [Bieńczyce](/wiki/Bie%C5%84czyce%2C_Krak%C3%B3w "Bieńczyce, Kraków") outside [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków"). As an innkeeper, he always took care of laying current editions of the folk press on the tables so that the guests could read them. Thanks to his own entrepreneurship and diligence he managed to outmatch the competitive Jewish innkeeper. He was a co\-founder and editor of the magazines *Wieniec* (*Wreath*) and *Pszczółka* (*Little Bee*) that focused on rural issues. His farm was considered exemplary in the district. He promoted the latest achievements in farming and breeding.
[Wincenty Witos](/wiki/Wincenty_Witos "Wincenty Witos"), a prominent politician of the [Polish People's Party](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party "Polish People's Party") and later a prime minister of [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic"), recalled Ptak in his memoir. Witos described, among others, the first time he met Ptak in 1895 in Bieńczyce. According to Witos, other peasants expressed unflattering judgements about Ptak, "unable to endure the boasting parvenu". Witos, who served at the time in the [Austro\-Hungarian Army](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Armed_Forces "Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces"), moved with his troop to the fort in the village of [Krzesławice](/wiki/Krzes%C5%82awice%2C_Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship "Krzesławice, Lesser Poland Voivodeship"), and one day he “learned from the peasants coming with the potatoes to the barracks that in the neighboring village of Bieńczyce there is a host and an innkeeper, Franciszek Ptak, who deals with politics and receives folk newspapers.”{{cite book \|last\=Witos \|first\=Wincenty \|author\-link\=Wincenty Witos \|title\=Moje wspomnienia \|chapter\=Karczmarz z Bieńczyc \|pages\=177–179 \|publisher\=Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza \|year\=1981}}
On the subsequent Sunday, which was a day off, Witos with a friend of his went to visit the tavern in Bieńczyce, as Witos recalled: "Already on the way we learned from the neighbor of Mr. Ptak, who went to the village, that Ptak is an extremely rich man, but also no less a speculator and flay\-flint, that he earns money on masters and priests, and for that money he buys estates and lends usury, that peasants and laborers give him the last pennies, etc. stuff. He also said that Mr. Ptak, in addition to the tavern, has a large stone house, a steam mill, a few dozen acres of land, and yet he rents all tolls in the poviat, takes military and poviat supplies, not giving anyone a chance to earn a penny." This "seemingly talkative and jealous" neighbor peasant, as Witos remarked, also said "that the current rich man, Mr. Ptak, although he comes from the beggar family, is himself worse than many a count. He considers peasants nothing, he only goes in with the masters, he travels to [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") and [Lviv](/wiki/Lviv "Lviv") for exhibitions, takes over his daughters around the world and introduces them to the great masters." Finally, the peasant "expressed the hope that this Sodom would end, and God's punishment would not pass Mr. Ptak." Witos commented that "although these details have discouraged him a bit and prejudiced him, he decided to go to the inn", the more that he and his friend were only about fifty steps away from it.
Then Witos goes on describing his first direct encounter with Ptak. "Having entered a very large inn, we found there a crowd of workers sipping vodka and beer, smoking pipes and cigarettes, talking loudly to each other. At a separate table Mr. Ptak was sitting with only few older hosts. In front of them stood a large, yet unfinished glass of beer. We put ourselves in a corner, and started reading the paper *Przyjaciel Ludu* (*Friend of the People*), which just lay on the table in front of us, heavily crumpled and stained. Not to be thrown out of the inn, we ordered a small glass of beer. At one point Mr. Ptak got up and went to another table. I looked at him closer. He was a tall, upright, handsome man of good corpulence and posture, a perfect model for a painter, sculptor or even a poet. His face was full of pride, contentment, self\-confidence and disrespect for the people who surrounded him. I tried to talk to him in vain, he pushed away the intervening waiter and did not even look at me. And no wonder. I did not belong to those who would impress him with their property or office, or those who would make him earn more. He did not recognize others. I remembered his neighbor's chatter and I could not refuse him right. Although I went out a bit resentful from Mr. Ptak's inn, I did not fail to go there every Sunday afternoon, to read a newspaper and drink a small glass of beer, this way saving myself from being thrown out the door. I did not try to communicate Mr. Ptak any more, he also did not turn to me, always having a more urgent engagement."
### Beginnings in the people's movement
Ptak went to politics, becoming a member of the Polish People's Party (PSL). He was associated with the Christian\-folk movement of Father Stanisław Stojałowski, a priest. In 1892, unsuccessfully he stood for the supplementary election to the [Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria](/wiki/Diet_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria "Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria"). From 1898 to 1902, he was an editor of the magazine *Obrona Ludu* (*The Defend of the People*) issued by the Stojałowski group in Kraków.
Together with Witos, Ptak financially supported the construction of the Bonifratres Hospital at Trynitarska Street in Kraków. He was inscribed on the list of benefactors of the Order of Bonifratres. When he later did not want to stay in the hospital during his illness, the monks took care of him at home due to his services to the convent. He also contributed to the construction of a brick school in Bieńczyce, the first of its kind in the poviat, and to the construction of a parish house in [Raciborowice](/wiki/Raciborowice%2C_Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship "Raciborowice, Lesser Poland Voivodeship"), next to the gothic fifteenth century church of St Margaret.
Ptak was friends with several artists. Among them was [Włodzimierz Tetmajer](/wiki/W%C5%82odzimierz_Tetmajer "Włodzimierz Tetmajer"). The correspondence of the two was preserved. In one of his pastels, Tetmajer depicted Ptak and other peasant Błażej Czepiec. Ptak, on the other hand, made his old house available to the painter Józef Krasnowolski, who found himself together with his family in a difficult financial situation. The guests in Ptak's house, apart from Tetmajer and Krasnowolski, included [Stanisław Wyspiański](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski "Stanisław Wyspiański"), [Lucjan Rydel](/wiki/Lucjan_Rydel "Lucjan Rydel"), and [Wojciech Kossak](/wiki/Wojciech_Kossak "Wojciech Kossak").
### *The Wedding* episode
{{Main\|The Wedding (1901 play)}}
In December 1900 Franciszek Ptak ran unsuccessfully to the Austrian [Imperial Council](/wiki/Imperial_Council_%28Austria%29 "Imperial Council (Austria)"). A reference to that event appeared in one of the dialogues of [Stanisław Wyspiański](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski "Stanisław Wyspiański") play *[The Wedding](/wiki/The_Wedding_%281901_play%29 "The Wedding (1901 play)")* (1901\). According to [Tadeusz Boy\-Żeleński](/wiki/Tadeusz_Boy-%C5%BBele%C5%84ski "Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński"), a notable figure of the [Young Poland](/wiki/Young_Poland "Young Poland"), the fictional figure of Czepiec brought to life by Wyspiański was modeled mainly after Błażej Czepiec, a peasant from the village of [Bronowice](/wiki/Bronowice_%28Krak%C3%B3w%29 "Bronowice (Kraków)"), but in fact included some characteristics of both Błażej Czepiec and Franciszek Ptak. Boy\-Żeleński pointed out that “Wyspiański, portraying Czepiec in several authentic situations of that wedding reception, strengthened his physiognomy with some of the features taken from another sub\-Krakow peasant, Ptak. Mr. Ptak, even taller than Czepiec, a peasant of enormous strength, popular in the poviat, magnificent in his white coat, a figurehead on all “national parades” (...) also did not let others to push him around; when some kind of intellectual tried to offend his honor, Ptak said only: – *Beware, sir, because I am of the Ptaks that beat in the face*”{{cite book \|chapter\=Zmarł Czepiec z ''Wesela'' \|last\=Boy\-Żeleński \|first\=Tadeusz \|author\-link\=Tadeusz Boy\-Żeleński \|title\=O Krakowie \|page\=415 \|publisher\=Wydawnictwo Literackie \|place\=Kraków \|year\=1963}} (in Polish: of the Birds that beat in the face).
Wyspiański invited Mr. and Mrs. Ptak to the premiere show of *The Wedding* in the [Kraków Municipal Theatre](/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_Theatre "Juliusz Słowacki Theatre"). Author of the play was particularly interested in the opinion of Mrs. Marcjanna Ptak, whom he “valued for practical peasant reason”.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nhpedia.pl/franciszek\_ptak.html \|title\=Franciszek Ptak \|publisher\=nhpedia.pl \|language\=pl \|access\-date\=27 January 2015 \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185506/http://www.nhpedia.pl/franciszek\_ptak.html \|url\-status\=dead }} A columnist, literary critic and wife of the then\-director of the Municipal Theatre Lucyna Kotarbińska recalled: “Wyspiański wanted to check what impression would *The Wedding* make on the countrywoman who doesn't have any closer contact with our artistic and literary world. We have agreed that, following his wishes, we will invite a peasant from Tonie, near Kraków, Mr. Ptak, with his wife. Mr. Ptak was a wise peasant. Deputy. Editor of the magazine. The only one eager to help to make decorations during ceremonies. Indeed he made the Jew move out from the tavern in the village, but he took the tavern himself, and his wife traded well at the canteen. Apart from that, she was also very strict. So we go to them, on Sunday afternoon, with our sister Teofila Kotarbińska, who was staying at our place, and Włodzimierz Tetmajer. The host welcomed us like [Piast](/wiki/Piast_the_Wheelwright "Piast the Wheelwright"). In a white sukmana with a loaf of bread, putting a jar of honey, which we liked so much that we forgot about the hour. And here's the show and we have to get on the train we just hear whistling. We run as if we were shot from a sling, as if we all had wings, trotting through the fields, with waving hands, handkerchiefs and screams, that the train stands in the middle of nowhere and takes us to Kraków. Well, that's when we invited Mr. and Mrs. Ptak to the lodge, in which Mrs. Ptak was the main subject of our observation. She behaved quite indifferently to the whole. She only reacted to one thing, namely, when in response to a long epistle of The Poet, Czepiec says: – *Take a simple wife: much bliss, little cost*. – *If someone takes a simple wife, the costs are smaller, it's true, but that it gives much bliss – I do not believe it*, judged Mrs. Ptak.”{{cite journal \|last\=Kotarbińska \|first\=Lucyna \|title\=Wokoło teatru. Moje wspomnienia \|journal\=17227 I \|pages\=202–203 \|publisher\=Księgarnia F. Hoesicka \|place\=Warszawa \|year\=1930 \|url\=https://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/show\-content/publication/edition/34364?id\=34364}}
### Member of the Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria
[300px\|thumb\|The [“Falcon” Polish Gymnastic Society](/wiki/Polish_Sok%C3%B3%C5%82_movement "Polish Sokół movement") House in Bieńczyce, constructed thanks to the financing of Franciszek Ptak](/wiki/File:Dom%22Soko%C5%82a%22-Bie%C5%84czyce-POL%2C_Krak%C3%B3w.jpg "Dom")
Ptak collaborated with Jan Stapiński, a priest and co\-organizer of the People's Party (SL) in [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 "Galicia (Eastern Europe)"). In 1897–1909, as a representative of the rural communes, he was a member of the Poviat Council of the People's Party in Kraków and the deputy member of the Poviat Department in Kraków. From 1904 he was a member of the Poviat Department of the People's Party in Kraków. From 1904 to 1910 he was a member of the District School Council in Kraków on behalf of the Poviat Council of the People's Party. On 20 January 1907, he was elected a member of the Supreme Council of the Polish People's Party. He resigned from candidacy for the benefit of Franciszek Wójcik before the elections to the Austrian Imperial Council in May 1907\.
In 1908, Ptak organised together with Władysław Bogacki a sizable live show in Vienna, titled *The Cracovian Wedding*. The show has been performed to the eyes of the Emperor of Austria [Franz Joseph I](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria "Franz Joseph I of Austria") to celebrate the sixtieth anniversary of his accession to the Austrian throne.
Ptak's daughter, Zofia, played the part of a bride, the painter Henryk Uziembło performed as the groom, while [Wojciech Kossak](/wiki/Wojciech_Kossak "Wojciech Kossak") played the starost. The performance sparked enthusiasm in Vienna and echoed widely in Galicia, in the latter also resulting in a wave of harsh criticism. Stanisław Szczepański referred to Ptak as "'Kraków paradebauer'", pejoratively meaning a peasant or farmer making an empty and meaningless performance in a parade just for the sake of the government to avoid claims of excluding peasantry from the public life.{{cite book \|last\=Kopaliński \|first\=Władysław \|author\-link\=Władysław Kopaliński \|title\=Słownik wyrazów obcych i zwrotów obcojęzycznych}}
On 25 February 1908, Ptak was elected a member of the [Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria](/wiki/Diet_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria "Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria") (*Sejm Krajowy*), representing the rural communes of the Kraków poviat. In the Diet, he was a member of the petition committee and the commune committee. From 1910, he spoke on the abolition of the national toll (1 October 1908\) and the establishment of a school of rural housewives in the poviat of Kraków (14 October 1909\), and was also a parliamentary auditor. He and his fellow Members made an urgent proposal to prevent hunger threatening populations throughout the country (19 March 1913\). On 8 March 1908, Ptak was re\-elected a member of the Supreme Council of the Polish People's Party.
In 1909 he founded a branch of the [“Falcon” Polish Gymnastic Society](/wiki/Polish_Sokol_movement "Polish Sokol movement") in his village Bieńczyce.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.okn.edu.pl/korowod/franciszek\_ptak.pdf \|title\=Franciszek Ptak \|publisher\=C. K. Norwid Culture Centre in Kraków \|language\=pl \|access\-date\=17 May 2018 \|archive\-date\=2 January 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102050453/http://www.okn.edu.pl/korowod/franciszek\_ptak.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} The “Falcon” House was built from the contributions of the residents of Bieńczyce on the plot given by Ptak. The construction work took place under his leadership and with his significant financial participation. He was a member of the Supervisory Board of the National Central Fund for Agricultural Companies in Lviv (1913–1914\).
### In the Polish People's Party "Left"
In the elections to the Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria on 30 June 1913 Ptak was not re\-elected, losing his mandate to the benefit of Józef Serczyk of the People's Party. Ptak was a member of the Polish People's Party Supreme Council during its meeting in [Tarnów](/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w "Tarnów") on 13 December 1913\. At the meeting the party has split into the [Polish People's Party "Left"](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party_%22Left%22 "Polish People's Party "), which gathered supporters of Stapiński; and the [Polish People's Party "Piast"](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party_%22Piast%22_%281913%E2%80%9331%29 "Polish People's Party "), led by Jakub Bojko and Wincenty Witos. Franciszek Ptak joined the Polish People's Party "Left" and was elected a member of its Supreme Council on 5 April 1914\. On 28 June 1914, together with Franciszek Wójcik, he addressed the peasants with financial support for the Polish People's Party "Left".*Przyjaciel Ludu*, 26, 1914, p. 4\.
During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") (1914–1918\) Ptak did not serve in the army and remained at home. During the short\-lived reunification of the Polish People's Party "Piast" and the Polish People's Party "Left", he was elected a member of the Central Board of the Polish People's Party at the congress in Tarnów on 1 December 1918\.
Wincety Witos in his memoir recalled a short conversation he had with Ptak in the spring of 1917\. A resolution stating that the only pursuit of the Polish nation is to regain an independent, united Poland with access to the sea was then submitted to the Imperial Council in Vienna by Włodzimierz Tetmajer. Until then, territories of the former Polish Republic remained under foreign annexations, and ethnically Polish Galicia was a part of Austro\-Hungary. Witos wrote: “In the evening, the Kraków peasants took up the deputy Tetmajer, proud of what had happened, satisfied with their chosen one. I saw Franciszek Ptak among them (...) and several others. Despite my will, I recalled all the galas and festivities in which they took part, appearing equally festive and having happy faces. The difference was that they were richly paid for imperial money there, and here they were the hosts. In a word, the Kraków peasants of that time were not the best. That's nothing surprising, however, because they were constantly demoralized, used for decorations and various decorative performances. They did not feel strong at that time, because when someone brought news that the police were to arrest the participants of the manifestation, they immediately remembered various urgent interests and began to leave alone. Franciszek Ptak, who was very defiant all the time, approached me and asked: – *What do you think , Wicek, if Poland will rise, will it be a bit better for the peasants? Because I think that the governments of gentry and new serfdom will come*. – Why do these thoughts come to you again? – I asked. – *I know our masters* – he said – *they are taught to live through someone else's work and rush, and now they will be even worse, because they have less, and would like to use endlessly*.”Witos, Wincenty (1981\). *Moje wspomnienia*, p. 499\.
Witos also illustrated Ptak's parsimony with an episode that took place in the first months after the establishment of the Polish state, around 1919, when a Polish military detachment commandeered Ptak some oats. Poland was at the time in a [war with the Soviet Union](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War "Polish–Soviet War") to the eastern border. “Mr. Ptak defended himself against giving away oats so much that they had to be overtaken by force. It resented and at the same time upset him so much that not only did he cover the soldiers with insults on the spot, but also in public.”
In 1920 Ptak, outraged by the need to pay fines for not sending children to school, organized together with Franciszek Wójcik a meeting for about forty people and was to convince the gathered parents not to pay fines imposed by the District School Board. The School Board in the village of Krzesławice accused Ptak of anarchism. Ptak did not plead guilty, he replied, saying that he “did not announce that children should not be sent to school nor that the parents should not pay fines for not sending their children to school.” The case was discontinued.{{cite journal \|title\=Buntownik w oświacie \|url\=http://www.gazetakrakowska.pl/artykul/162706,buntownik\-w\-oswiacie,2,id,t,sa.html \|date\=16 September 2009 \|access\-date\=19 January 2015 \|last\=Drożdżak \|first\=Artur \|journal\=\[\[Gazeta Krakowska]]}}
### In the Polish People's Party "Piast" – the final years
[300px\|thumb\|The grave of the Ptak family at the parish cemetery in Raciborowice](/wiki/File:Gr%C3%B3b_rodziny_Ptak%C3%B3w_w_Raciborowicach_byVetulani.jpg "Grób rodziny Ptaków w Raciborowicach byVetulani.jpg")
[300px\|thumb\|The grave inscription](/wiki/File:Gr%C3%B3b_rodziny_Ptak%C3%B3w_w_Raciborowicach_2.jpg "Grób rodziny Ptaków w Raciborowicach 2.jpg")
In 1924, he left the Polish People's Party "Left" and joined the [People's Party "Piast"](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party_%22Piast%22_%281913%E2%80%9331%29 "Polish People's Party "). In Bieńczyce he founded a branch of Kasa Stefczyka, a savings and loan cooperative created on the model of Raiffeisen cooperatives in several spots in Galicia, and served more than a dozen neighboring villages being a long\-time president of the branch. In 1932, with the Banderia of Cracovians he welcomed Wincenty Witos who was going to nearby village of Pleszów. Witos described this event as follows.
“Mr. Franciszek Ptak was this kind of person whose luck never leaves. His growth, beauty, and attitude were themselves simply an invaluable gift of God, which he did not waste at all. I did not know his origin, nor did I ever try to find out. On the other hand, the native serfs of Kraków, who knew him more closely, thought that he was nobody compared with them in this respect, and often maliciously told that it was Mr. Ptak that Wyspiański meant when writing about birds, eagles and shit. Maybe they did this out of envy, unable to endure the boasting parvenu. On the other hand, having gained a serious fortune, he threw himself into politics with panache and impudence typical for him, though he did not have much talent for it. Over the years, he passed almost all parties and tried to be their zealous follower. Not wanting to go against the trend, he even lost himself in the Socialist faction, and motivated a change of opinion saying that now the whole world is going to the left. (...) In spite of everything that happened, you can see that he did not lose his sentiment for me, because in 1932, when I was going to Pleszów through his village, not only did he, along with others, prepare a great honorary horse escort, but welcomed me very cordially, he did not fail to mention that he does so on the spot where [Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko "Tadeusz Kościuszko") rested, when he went to Racławice and expressed confidence that I would be given the completion of the work begun by Kościuszko and the assurance of freedom not only to Poland, but also to peasants who did not have it so far. I saw that he spoke honestly and powerfully, because the policeman, alarmed, had recorded his entire speech.”
Franciszek Ptak died after long illness on 29 July 1936 at the Bonifratres Hospital in Kraków.{{cite journal \|title\=Zgon b. pos. Franciszka Ptaka \|journal\=\[\[Ilustrowany Kuryer Codzienny]] \|date\=1 August 1936 \|volume\=212 \|page\=10 \|url\=http://mbc.malopolska.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\=68264\&from\=publication}} He was buried at the parish cemetery in Raciborowice three days later, on August 1\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"[300px\\|thumb\\|*Błażej Czepiec and Franciszek Ptak in the Chamber in Bronowice village*, a pastel by [Włodzimierz Tetmajer](/wiki/W%C5%82odzimierz_Tetmajer \"Włodzimierz Tetmajer\") (c. 1900\\). Ptak is seated in the middle. Picture in the collection of the [Historical Museum of Kraków](/wiki/Historical_Museum_of_Krak%C3%B3w \"Historical Museum of Kraków\")](/wiki/File:B%C5%82a%C5%BCej_Czepiec_i_Franciszek_Ptak_rys._W%C5%82odzimierz_Tetmajer.jpg \"Błażej Czepiec i Franciszek Ptak rys. Włodzimierz Tetmajer.jpg\")\n[200px\\|thumb\\|Oil portrait of Franciszek Ptak by Józef Krasnowolski (1906\\)](/wiki/File:Franciszek_Ptak_mal._J%C3%B3zef_Krasnowolski.JPG \"Franciszek Ptak mal. Józef Krasnowolski.JPG\")\n[200px\\|thumb\\|Oil portrait of Marcjanna Ptak by Józef Krasnowolski (1906\\)](/wiki/File:Marcjanna_Ptak_mal._J%C3%B3zef_Krasnowolski.JPG \"Marcjanna Ptak mal. Józef Krasnowolski.JPG\")\n[300px\\|thumb\\|The Ptak family from Bieńczyce. Seated from the left: Zofia Norkowa née Ptak, Franciszek and Marcjanna Ptak and their son Wojciech (1917\\)](/wiki/File:Franciszek-ptak-z_rodzina_1917.jpg \"Franciszek-ptak-z rodzina 1917.jpg\")",
"### Early years",
"He was born to a peasant family, the son of Antoni Ptak, who owned seven [acres](/wiki/Acre \"Acre\"), and Salomea née Włodek.{{cite book \\|last\\=Korczyk \\|first\\=Henryk \\|chapter\\=Franciszek Ptak (1859–1936\\) \\|title\\=Polish Biographical Dictionary \\|volume\\=XXIX/2 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Polish Academy of Learning]] \\|year\\=1986 \\|pages\\=287–288 \\|url\\=https://www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl/a/biografia/franciszek\\-ptak}} The family name Ptak means a *bird* in Polish.",
"Franciszek Ptak graduated from a peasant elementary school and was also a self\\-taught; he read a lot. He started with farming on his three acres. Periodically he was a wage worker in a mill. For nine years he charged a toll tax on the behalf of local authorities. In 1886 he married Marcjanna née Szafrańska (7 January 1864 – 4 August 1947\\). They had twelve children: five sons and seven daughters.",
"### Innkeeper",
"He founded and ran an [inn](/wiki/Inn \"Inn\") in the village [Bieńczyce](/wiki/Bie%C5%84czyce%2C_Krak%C3%B3w \"Bieńczyce, Kraków\") outside [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"). As an innkeeper, he always took care of laying current editions of the folk press on the tables so that the guests could read them. Thanks to his own entrepreneurship and diligence he managed to outmatch the competitive Jewish innkeeper. He was a co\\-founder and editor of the magazines *Wieniec* (*Wreath*) and *Pszczółka* (*Little Bee*) that focused on rural issues. His farm was considered exemplary in the district. He promoted the latest achievements in farming and breeding.",
"[Wincenty Witos](/wiki/Wincenty_Witos \"Wincenty Witos\"), a prominent politician of the [Polish People's Party](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party \"Polish People's Party\") and later a prime minister of [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\"), recalled Ptak in his memoir. Witos described, among others, the first time he met Ptak in 1895 in Bieńczyce. According to Witos, other peasants expressed unflattering judgements about Ptak, \"unable to endure the boasting parvenu\". Witos, who served at the time in the [Austro\\-Hungarian Army](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Armed_Forces \"Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces\"), moved with his troop to the fort in the village of [Krzesławice](/wiki/Krzes%C5%82awice%2C_Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship \"Krzesławice, Lesser Poland Voivodeship\"), and one day he “learned from the peasants coming with the potatoes to the barracks that in the neighboring village of Bieńczyce there is a host and an innkeeper, Franciszek Ptak, who deals with politics and receives folk newspapers.”{{cite book \\|last\\=Witos \\|first\\=Wincenty \\|author\\-link\\=Wincenty Witos \\|title\\=Moje wspomnienia \\|chapter\\=Karczmarz z Bieńczyc \\|pages\\=177–179 \\|publisher\\=Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza \\|year\\=1981}}",
"On the subsequent Sunday, which was a day off, Witos with a friend of his went to visit the tavern in Bieńczyce, as Witos recalled: \"Already on the way we learned from the neighbor of Mr. Ptak, who went to the village, that Ptak is an extremely rich man, but also no less a speculator and flay\\-flint, that he earns money on masters and priests, and for that money he buys estates and lends usury, that peasants and laborers give him the last pennies, etc. stuff. He also said that Mr. Ptak, in addition to the tavern, has a large stone house, a steam mill, a few dozen acres of land, and yet he rents all tolls in the poviat, takes military and poviat supplies, not giving anyone a chance to earn a penny.\" This \"seemingly talkative and jealous\" neighbor peasant, as Witos remarked, also said \"that the current rich man, Mr. Ptak, although he comes from the beggar family, is himself worse than many a count. He considers peasants nothing, he only goes in with the masters, he travels to [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") and [Lviv](/wiki/Lviv \"Lviv\") for exhibitions, takes over his daughters around the world and introduces them to the great masters.\" Finally, the peasant \"expressed the hope that this Sodom would end, and God's punishment would not pass Mr. Ptak.\" Witos commented that \"although these details have discouraged him a bit and prejudiced him, he decided to go to the inn\", the more that he and his friend were only about fifty steps away from it.",
"Then Witos goes on describing his first direct encounter with Ptak. \"Having entered a very large inn, we found there a crowd of workers sipping vodka and beer, smoking pipes and cigarettes, talking loudly to each other. At a separate table Mr. Ptak was sitting with only few older hosts. In front of them stood a large, yet unfinished glass of beer. We put ourselves in a corner, and started reading the paper *Przyjaciel Ludu* (*Friend of the People*), which just lay on the table in front of us, heavily crumpled and stained. Not to be thrown out of the inn, we ordered a small glass of beer. At one point Mr. Ptak got up and went to another table. I looked at him closer. He was a tall, upright, handsome man of good corpulence and posture, a perfect model for a painter, sculptor or even a poet. His face was full of pride, contentment, self\\-confidence and disrespect for the people who surrounded him. I tried to talk to him in vain, he pushed away the intervening waiter and did not even look at me. And no wonder. I did not belong to those who would impress him with their property or office, or those who would make him earn more. He did not recognize others. I remembered his neighbor's chatter and I could not refuse him right. Although I went out a bit resentful from Mr. Ptak's inn, I did not fail to go there every Sunday afternoon, to read a newspaper and drink a small glass of beer, this way saving myself from being thrown out the door. I did not try to communicate Mr. Ptak any more, he also did not turn to me, always having a more urgent engagement.\"",
"### Beginnings in the people's movement",
"Ptak went to politics, becoming a member of the Polish People's Party (PSL). He was associated with the Christian\\-folk movement of Father Stanisław Stojałowski, a priest. In 1892, unsuccessfully he stood for the supplementary election to the [Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria](/wiki/Diet_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria \"Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria\"). From 1898 to 1902, he was an editor of the magazine *Obrona Ludu* (*The Defend of the People*) issued by the Stojałowski group in Kraków.",
"Together with Witos, Ptak financially supported the construction of the Bonifratres Hospital at Trynitarska Street in Kraków. He was inscribed on the list of benefactors of the Order of Bonifratres. When he later did not want to stay in the hospital during his illness, the monks took care of him at home due to his services to the convent. He also contributed to the construction of a brick school in Bieńczyce, the first of its kind in the poviat, and to the construction of a parish house in [Raciborowice](/wiki/Raciborowice%2C_Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship \"Raciborowice, Lesser Poland Voivodeship\"), next to the gothic fifteenth century church of St Margaret.",
"Ptak was friends with several artists. Among them was [Włodzimierz Tetmajer](/wiki/W%C5%82odzimierz_Tetmajer \"Włodzimierz Tetmajer\"). The correspondence of the two was preserved. In one of his pastels, Tetmajer depicted Ptak and other peasant Błażej Czepiec. Ptak, on the other hand, made his old house available to the painter Józef Krasnowolski, who found himself together with his family in a difficult financial situation. The guests in Ptak's house, apart from Tetmajer and Krasnowolski, included [Stanisław Wyspiański](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski \"Stanisław Wyspiański\"), [Lucjan Rydel](/wiki/Lucjan_Rydel \"Lucjan Rydel\"), and [Wojciech Kossak](/wiki/Wojciech_Kossak \"Wojciech Kossak\").",
"### *The Wedding* episode",
"{{Main\\|The Wedding (1901 play)}}\nIn December 1900 Franciszek Ptak ran unsuccessfully to the Austrian [Imperial Council](/wiki/Imperial_Council_%28Austria%29 \"Imperial Council (Austria)\"). A reference to that event appeared in one of the dialogues of [Stanisław Wyspiański](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski \"Stanisław Wyspiański\") play *[The Wedding](/wiki/The_Wedding_%281901_play%29 \"The Wedding (1901 play)\")* (1901\\). According to [Tadeusz Boy\\-Żeleński](/wiki/Tadeusz_Boy-%C5%BBele%C5%84ski \"Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński\"), a notable figure of the [Young Poland](/wiki/Young_Poland \"Young Poland\"), the fictional figure of Czepiec brought to life by Wyspiański was modeled mainly after Błażej Czepiec, a peasant from the village of [Bronowice](/wiki/Bronowice_%28Krak%C3%B3w%29 \"Bronowice (Kraków)\"), but in fact included some characteristics of both Błażej Czepiec and Franciszek Ptak. Boy\\-Żeleński pointed out that “Wyspiański, portraying Czepiec in several authentic situations of that wedding reception, strengthened his physiognomy with some of the features taken from another sub\\-Krakow peasant, Ptak. Mr. Ptak, even taller than Czepiec, a peasant of enormous strength, popular in the poviat, magnificent in his white coat, a figurehead on all “national parades” (...) also did not let others to push him around; when some kind of intellectual tried to offend his honor, Ptak said only: – *Beware, sir, because I am of the Ptaks that beat in the face*”{{cite book \\|chapter\\=Zmarł Czepiec z ''Wesela'' \\|last\\=Boy\\-Żeleński \\|first\\=Tadeusz \\|author\\-link\\=Tadeusz Boy\\-Żeleński \\|title\\=O Krakowie \\|page\\=415 \\|publisher\\=Wydawnictwo Literackie \\|place\\=Kraków \\|year\\=1963}} (in Polish: of the Birds that beat in the face).",
"Wyspiański invited Mr. and Mrs. Ptak to the premiere show of *The Wedding* in the [Kraków Municipal Theatre](/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_Theatre \"Juliusz Słowacki Theatre\"). Author of the play was particularly interested in the opinion of Mrs. Marcjanna Ptak, whom he “valued for practical peasant reason”.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nhpedia.pl/franciszek\\_ptak.html \\|title\\=Franciszek Ptak \\|publisher\\=nhpedia.pl \\|language\\=pl \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185506/http://www.nhpedia.pl/franciszek\\_ptak.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} A columnist, literary critic and wife of the then\\-director of the Municipal Theatre Lucyna Kotarbińska recalled: “Wyspiański wanted to check what impression would *The Wedding* make on the countrywoman who doesn't have any closer contact with our artistic and literary world. We have agreed that, following his wishes, we will invite a peasant from Tonie, near Kraków, Mr. Ptak, with his wife. Mr. Ptak was a wise peasant. Deputy. Editor of the magazine. The only one eager to help to make decorations during ceremonies. Indeed he made the Jew move out from the tavern in the village, but he took the tavern himself, and his wife traded well at the canteen. Apart from that, she was also very strict. So we go to them, on Sunday afternoon, with our sister Teofila Kotarbińska, who was staying at our place, and Włodzimierz Tetmajer. The host welcomed us like [Piast](/wiki/Piast_the_Wheelwright \"Piast the Wheelwright\"). In a white sukmana with a loaf of bread, putting a jar of honey, which we liked so much that we forgot about the hour. And here's the show and we have to get on the train we just hear whistling. We run as if we were shot from a sling, as if we all had wings, trotting through the fields, with waving hands, handkerchiefs and screams, that the train stands in the middle of nowhere and takes us to Kraków. Well, that's when we invited Mr. and Mrs. Ptak to the lodge, in which Mrs. Ptak was the main subject of our observation. She behaved quite indifferently to the whole. She only reacted to one thing, namely, when in response to a long epistle of The Poet, Czepiec says: – *Take a simple wife: much bliss, little cost*. – *If someone takes a simple wife, the costs are smaller, it's true, but that it gives much bliss – I do not believe it*, judged Mrs. Ptak.”{{cite journal \\|last\\=Kotarbińska \\|first\\=Lucyna \\|title\\=Wokoło teatru. Moje wspomnienia \\|journal\\=17227 I \\|pages\\=202–203 \\|publisher\\=Księgarnia F. Hoesicka \\|place\\=Warszawa \\|year\\=1930 \\|url\\=https://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/show\\-content/publication/edition/34364?id\\=34364}}",
"### Member of the Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria",
"[300px\\|thumb\\|The [“Falcon” Polish Gymnastic Society](/wiki/Polish_Sok%C3%B3%C5%82_movement \"Polish Sokół movement\") House in Bieńczyce, constructed thanks to the financing of Franciszek Ptak](/wiki/File:Dom%22Soko%C5%82a%22-Bie%C5%84czyce-POL%2C_Krak%C3%B3w.jpg \"Dom\")\nPtak collaborated with Jan Stapiński, a priest and co\\-organizer of the People's Party (SL) in [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Eastern Europe)\"). In 1897–1909, as a representative of the rural communes, he was a member of the Poviat Council of the People's Party in Kraków and the deputy member of the Poviat Department in Kraków. From 1904 he was a member of the Poviat Department of the People's Party in Kraków. From 1904 to 1910 he was a member of the District School Council in Kraków on behalf of the Poviat Council of the People's Party. On 20 January 1907, he was elected a member of the Supreme Council of the Polish People's Party. He resigned from candidacy for the benefit of Franciszek Wójcik before the elections to the Austrian Imperial Council in May 1907\\.",
"In 1908, Ptak organised together with Władysław Bogacki a sizable live show in Vienna, titled *The Cracovian Wedding*. The show has been performed to the eyes of the Emperor of Austria [Franz Joseph I](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria \"Franz Joseph I of Austria\") to celebrate the sixtieth anniversary of his accession to the Austrian throne.",
"Ptak's daughter, Zofia, played the part of a bride, the painter Henryk Uziembło performed as the groom, while [Wojciech Kossak](/wiki/Wojciech_Kossak \"Wojciech Kossak\") played the starost. The performance sparked enthusiasm in Vienna and echoed widely in Galicia, in the latter also resulting in a wave of harsh criticism. Stanisław Szczepański referred to Ptak as \"'Kraków paradebauer'\", pejoratively meaning a peasant or farmer making an empty and meaningless performance in a parade just for the sake of the government to avoid claims of excluding peasantry from the public life.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kopaliński \\|first\\=Władysław \\|author\\-link\\=Władysław Kopaliński \\|title\\=Słownik wyrazów obcych i zwrotów obcojęzycznych}}",
"On 25 February 1908, Ptak was elected a member of the [Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria](/wiki/Diet_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria \"Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria\") (*Sejm Krajowy*), representing the rural communes of the Kraków poviat. In the Diet, he was a member of the petition committee and the commune committee. From 1910, he spoke on the abolition of the national toll (1 October 1908\\) and the establishment of a school of rural housewives in the poviat of Kraków (14 October 1909\\), and was also a parliamentary auditor. He and his fellow Members made an urgent proposal to prevent hunger threatening populations throughout the country (19 March 1913\\). On 8 March 1908, Ptak was re\\-elected a member of the Supreme Council of the Polish People's Party.",
"In 1909 he founded a branch of the [“Falcon” Polish Gymnastic Society](/wiki/Polish_Sokol_movement \"Polish Sokol movement\") in his village Bieńczyce.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.okn.edu.pl/korowod/franciszek\\_ptak.pdf \\|title\\=Franciszek Ptak \\|publisher\\=C. K. Norwid Culture Centre in Kraków \\|language\\=pl \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 January 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102050453/http://www.okn.edu.pl/korowod/franciszek\\_ptak.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The “Falcon” House was built from the contributions of the residents of Bieńczyce on the plot given by Ptak. The construction work took place under his leadership and with his significant financial participation. He was a member of the Supervisory Board of the National Central Fund for Agricultural Companies in Lviv (1913–1914\\).",
"### In the Polish People's Party \"Left\"",
"In the elections to the Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria on 30 June 1913 Ptak was not re\\-elected, losing his mandate to the benefit of Józef Serczyk of the People's Party. Ptak was a member of the Polish People's Party Supreme Council during its meeting in [Tarnów](/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w \"Tarnów\") on 13 December 1913\\. At the meeting the party has split into the [Polish People's Party \"Left\"](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party_%22Left%22 \"Polish People's Party \"), which gathered supporters of Stapiński; and the [Polish People's Party \"Piast\"](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party_%22Piast%22_%281913%E2%80%9331%29 \"Polish People's Party \"), led by Jakub Bojko and Wincenty Witos. Franciszek Ptak joined the Polish People's Party \"Left\" and was elected a member of its Supreme Council on 5 April 1914\\. On 28 June 1914, together with Franciszek Wójcik, he addressed the peasants with financial support for the Polish People's Party \"Left\".*Przyjaciel Ludu*, 26, 1914, p. 4\\.",
"During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") (1914–1918\\) Ptak did not serve in the army and remained at home. During the short\\-lived reunification of the Polish People's Party \"Piast\" and the Polish People's Party \"Left\", he was elected a member of the Central Board of the Polish People's Party at the congress in Tarnów on 1 December 1918\\.",
"Wincety Witos in his memoir recalled a short conversation he had with Ptak in the spring of 1917\\. A resolution stating that the only pursuit of the Polish nation is to regain an independent, united Poland with access to the sea was then submitted to the Imperial Council in Vienna by Włodzimierz Tetmajer. Until then, territories of the former Polish Republic remained under foreign annexations, and ethnically Polish Galicia was a part of Austro\\-Hungary. Witos wrote: “In the evening, the Kraków peasants took up the deputy Tetmajer, proud of what had happened, satisfied with their chosen one. I saw Franciszek Ptak among them (...) and several others. Despite my will, I recalled all the galas and festivities in which they took part, appearing equally festive and having happy faces. The difference was that they were richly paid for imperial money there, and here they were the hosts. In a word, the Kraków peasants of that time were not the best. That's nothing surprising, however, because they were constantly demoralized, used for decorations and various decorative performances. They did not feel strong at that time, because when someone brought news that the police were to arrest the participants of the manifestation, they immediately remembered various urgent interests and began to leave alone. Franciszek Ptak, who was very defiant all the time, approached me and asked: – *What do you think , Wicek, if Poland will rise, will it be a bit better for the peasants? Because I think that the governments of gentry and new serfdom will come*. – Why do these thoughts come to you again? – I asked. – *I know our masters* – he said – *they are taught to live through someone else's work and rush, and now they will be even worse, because they have less, and would like to use endlessly*.”Witos, Wincenty (1981\\). *Moje wspomnienia*, p. 499\\.",
"Witos also illustrated Ptak's parsimony with an episode that took place in the first months after the establishment of the Polish state, around 1919, when a Polish military detachment commandeered Ptak some oats. Poland was at the time in a [war with the Soviet Union](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War \"Polish–Soviet War\") to the eastern border. “Mr. Ptak defended himself against giving away oats so much that they had to be overtaken by force. It resented and at the same time upset him so much that not only did he cover the soldiers with insults on the spot, but also in public.”",
"In 1920 Ptak, outraged by the need to pay fines for not sending children to school, organized together with Franciszek Wójcik a meeting for about forty people and was to convince the gathered parents not to pay fines imposed by the District School Board. The School Board in the village of Krzesławice accused Ptak of anarchism. Ptak did not plead guilty, he replied, saying that he “did not announce that children should not be sent to school nor that the parents should not pay fines for not sending their children to school.” The case was discontinued.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Buntownik w oświacie \\|url\\=http://www.gazetakrakowska.pl/artykul/162706,buntownik\\-w\\-oswiacie,2,id,t,sa.html \\|date\\=16 September 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2015 \\|last\\=Drożdżak \\|first\\=Artur \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Gazeta Krakowska]]}}",
"### In the Polish People's Party \"Piast\" – the final years",
"[300px\\|thumb\\|The grave of the Ptak family at the parish cemetery in Raciborowice](/wiki/File:Gr%C3%B3b_rodziny_Ptak%C3%B3w_w_Raciborowicach_byVetulani.jpg \"Grób rodziny Ptaków w Raciborowicach byVetulani.jpg\")\n[300px\\|thumb\\|The grave inscription](/wiki/File:Gr%C3%B3b_rodziny_Ptak%C3%B3w_w_Raciborowicach_2.jpg \"Grób rodziny Ptaków w Raciborowicach 2.jpg\")\nIn 1924, he left the Polish People's Party \"Left\" and joined the [People's Party \"Piast\"](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party_%22Piast%22_%281913%E2%80%9331%29 \"Polish People's Party \"). In Bieńczyce he founded a branch of Kasa Stefczyka, a savings and loan cooperative created on the model of Raiffeisen cooperatives in several spots in Galicia, and served more than a dozen neighboring villages being a long\\-time president of the branch. In 1932, with the Banderia of Cracovians he welcomed Wincenty Witos who was going to nearby village of Pleszów. Witos described this event as follows.",
"“Mr. Franciszek Ptak was this kind of person whose luck never leaves. His growth, beauty, and attitude were themselves simply an invaluable gift of God, which he did not waste at all. I did not know his origin, nor did I ever try to find out. On the other hand, the native serfs of Kraków, who knew him more closely, thought that he was nobody compared with them in this respect, and often maliciously told that it was Mr. Ptak that Wyspiański meant when writing about birds, eagles and shit. Maybe they did this out of envy, unable to endure the boasting parvenu. On the other hand, having gained a serious fortune, he threw himself into politics with panache and impudence typical for him, though he did not have much talent for it. Over the years, he passed almost all parties and tried to be their zealous follower. Not wanting to go against the trend, he even lost himself in the Socialist faction, and motivated a change of opinion saying that now the whole world is going to the left. (...) In spite of everything that happened, you can see that he did not lose his sentiment for me, because in 1932, when I was going to Pleszów through his village, not only did he, along with others, prepare a great honorary horse escort, but welcomed me very cordially, he did not fail to mention that he does so on the spot where [Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko \"Tadeusz Kościuszko\") rested, when he went to Racławice and expressed confidence that I would be given the completion of the work begun by Kościuszko and the assurance of freedom not only to Poland, but also to peasants who did not have it so far. I saw that he spoke honestly and powerfully, because the policeman, alarmed, had recorded his entire speech.”",
"Franciszek Ptak died after long illness on 29 July 1936 at the Bonifratres Hospital in Kraków.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Zgon b. pos. Franciszka Ptaka \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Ilustrowany Kuryer Codzienny]] \\|date\\=1 August 1936 \\|volume\\=212 \\|page\\=10 \\|url\\=http://mbc.malopolska.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\\=68264\\&from\\=publication}} He was buried at the parish cemetery in Raciborowice three days later, on August 1\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
Located about 250 km northwest of Hobart, Queenstown is a large mining settlement, which has operated continuously for around 120 years. [Charles Gould](/wiki/Charles_Gould_%28geologist%29 "Charles Gould (geologist)") first explored the area in the 1860s, but the remoteness of the place and rugged terrain delayed settlement until the discovery of gold at [Queen River](/wiki/Queen_River%2C_Tasmania "Queen River, Tasmania") in 1881\. An influx of prospectors and miners followed, many travelling down the west coast to the port of [Strahan](/wiki/Strahan%2C_Tasmania "Strahan, Tasmania"), then walking inland to the diggings. Two years later, three miners discovered the rocky outcrop known as Iron Blow and by 1888 the [Mount Lyell Gold Mining Company](/wiki/Mount_Lyell_Mining_and_Railway_Company "Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company") was formed.
The area's deposits of alluvial gold were limited and by 1891, attention turned to its substantial copper deposits. A tent city sprung up around the first smelters in Penghana but in late 1896, the township was destroyed by fire and settlers forced to relocate to the neighbouring settlement of Queenstown, also known as Polkana and Queen Crossing. The establishment of rail services the following year accelerated the town's growth and by 1899, Queenstown had 1300 dwellings and a population of 5000\.
More broadly, the establishment of postal services in Tasmania's west coast coincided with the discovery of valuable minerals in the 1880s. The first office was at [Gormanston](/wiki/Gormanston%2C_Tasmania "Gormanston, Tasmania") in 1884, with mail arriving at Strahan by ship and then being transported overland to the diggings. The Penghana Post Office was built in 1886\-7 following the discovery of the Mount Lyell ores. Following the 1896 fire, postal services relocated to Queenstown and a timber post office was built there in 1896\-7\. By the end of the century, ship mail was arriving via Strahan three times a week and there was a daily service to northwest coast and [Launceston](/wiki/Launceston%2C_Tasmania "Launceston, Tasmania").History of the Post Office in Tasmania, p.28
Queenstown developed rapidly and by 1901, the central activities district centred around Orr and Sticht streets, including two and three\-storey hotels, shops and public buildings. Growth was then curtailed in the years 1900\-10, following a dramatic slump in copper prices. By 1925, the population had dropped to about half its level at [Federation](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia "Federation of Australia") and it was not until the 1960s, with the development of the Prince Lyell copper fields that it again reached these levels. Mount Lyell Mines continued to operate until 1972 when they were taken over by the Renison Gold Company.
The current Queenstown Post Office (originally a Post, Telegraph and Money Order Office) was constructed in 1902, replacing the earlier building. Charles W. Leeming was the first postmaster, and the building was designed by the Tasmanian Government Public Works Office, prior to the Commonwealth taking over this responsibility. The substantial two\-storey stucco building was erected at the tailend of the town's boom period, but reflected the growth and optimism of the preceding years. It underwent alterations and additions in 1907\. The clock and chimes were not installed until 1909\.
The building received a new roof in 1928, and a new porch and outbuildings were built in 1932, as well as a new garage and fuel bin in 1943\. It underwent substantial remodelling at a cost of $23,931 in 1963\. A disabled ramp was added in 1994\-95\. In 2001, an interior wall was removed to enlarge the public area, the Sticht Street alcove was infilled, and the retail area was refurbished with standard [Australia Post](/wiki/Australia_Post "Australia Post") livery.
The ground floor continues to be used as a post office, while the first floor is now vacant.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Located about 250 km northwest of Hobart, Queenstown is a large mining settlement, which has operated continuously for around 120 years. [Charles Gould](/wiki/Charles_Gould_%28geologist%29 \"Charles Gould (geologist)\") first explored the area in the 1860s, but the remoteness of the place and rugged terrain delayed settlement until the discovery of gold at [Queen River](/wiki/Queen_River%2C_Tasmania \"Queen River, Tasmania\") in 1881\\. An influx of prospectors and miners followed, many travelling down the west coast to the port of [Strahan](/wiki/Strahan%2C_Tasmania \"Strahan, Tasmania\"), then walking inland to the diggings. Two years later, three miners discovered the rocky outcrop known as Iron Blow and by 1888 the [Mount Lyell Gold Mining Company](/wiki/Mount_Lyell_Mining_and_Railway_Company \"Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company\") was formed.",
"The area's deposits of alluvial gold were limited and by 1891, attention turned to its substantial copper deposits. A tent city sprung up around the first smelters in Penghana but in late 1896, the township was destroyed by fire and settlers forced to relocate to the neighbouring settlement of Queenstown, also known as Polkana and Queen Crossing. The establishment of rail services the following year accelerated the town's growth and by 1899, Queenstown had 1300 dwellings and a population of 5000\\.",
"More broadly, the establishment of postal services in Tasmania's west coast coincided with the discovery of valuable minerals in the 1880s. The first office was at [Gormanston](/wiki/Gormanston%2C_Tasmania \"Gormanston, Tasmania\") in 1884, with mail arriving at Strahan by ship and then being transported overland to the diggings. The Penghana Post Office was built in 1886\\-7 following the discovery of the Mount Lyell ores. Following the 1896 fire, postal services relocated to Queenstown and a timber post office was built there in 1896\\-7\\. By the end of the century, ship mail was arriving via Strahan three times a week and there was a daily service to northwest coast and [Launceston](/wiki/Launceston%2C_Tasmania \"Launceston, Tasmania\").History of the Post Office in Tasmania, p.28",
"Queenstown developed rapidly and by 1901, the central activities district centred around Orr and Sticht streets, including two and three\\-storey hotels, shops and public buildings. Growth was then curtailed in the years 1900\\-10, following a dramatic slump in copper prices. By 1925, the population had dropped to about half its level at [Federation](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia \"Federation of Australia\") and it was not until the 1960s, with the development of the Prince Lyell copper fields that it again reached these levels. Mount Lyell Mines continued to operate until 1972 when they were taken over by the Renison Gold Company.",
"The current Queenstown Post Office (originally a Post, Telegraph and Money Order Office) was constructed in 1902, replacing the earlier building. Charles W. Leeming was the first postmaster, and the building was designed by the Tasmanian Government Public Works Office, prior to the Commonwealth taking over this responsibility. The substantial two\\-storey stucco building was erected at the tailend of the town's boom period, but reflected the growth and optimism of the preceding years. It underwent alterations and additions in 1907\\. The clock and chimes were not installed until 1909\\.",
"The building received a new roof in 1928, and a new porch and outbuildings were built in 1932, as well as a new garage and fuel bin in 1943\\. It underwent substantial remodelling at a cost of $23,931 in 1963\\. A disabled ramp was added in 1994\\-95\\. In 2001, an interior wall was removed to enlarge the public area, the Sticht Street alcove was infilled, and the retail area was refurbished with standard [Australia Post](/wiki/Australia_Post \"Australia Post\") livery.",
"The ground floor continues to be used as a post office, while the first floor is now vacant.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
Queenstown Post Office is at 32\-34 Orr Street, corner Sticht Street, Queenstown. It is built in the Federation Free Classical style.
Queenstown Post Office is located on the site of the previous post office, which was built in 1897 at the corner of Orr and Sticht Streets. Built in 1902, it is a two\-storied stucco building with a corner clock tower surmounted by a curved ogee roof. The general building mass is rectangular in plan form with a loggia built out to the north (Orr Street) and west (Sticht Street) street pavements. The east and south yards are concreted and a small weatherboard carpark is located in the southeast corner of the site. A small steel\-framed [awning](/wiki/Awning "Awning") has subsequently been erected along the east building elevation where there is a separate entry. A steel\-framed stair has been erected at the southeast rear corner and provides external access to the first floor.
The principal elevations are similar in detail but asymmetrical, a composition emphasized by the inclusion of a deep L\-shaped loggia at the ground level. This element serves to separate the corner tower assembly from the breakfronted end bays \- one\-arched bay (west) and three\-arched bays (north) \- which are surmounted by triangular pediments. A single\-storey L\-shaped [porch](/wiki/Porch "Porch") extension has been erected on the south side of the building, with a similar coursed stucco wall treatment to the original building. Its rear and side walls have face red brickwork with steel\-framed window openings. More generally, the rear (south) two\-storey section of wall is weatherboarded.
Compositionally the design derives freely from a range of classical motifs and sources. The ground floor is presented as an arcaded basement along sixteenth\-century palazzo lines, with the four largest arches fronting a return loggia containing the entry. The clock tower base is given a different grain with narrower entry arches and grouped window arches differentiate the two flanking end breakfronts. The clock tower extends another level past the first floor, set on a stuccoed base with large scroll consoles and a close\-bracketed eave over resembling a [dentil](/wiki/Dentil "Dentil") moulding. It is topped by an ogival metal\-decked roof, a popular device in the 1900s. The clock faces are housed in arched aedicules and linked to the cornice by extruded keystones, an Edwardian Baroque touch, also evident in the end pediments which are flanked by wide pilasters. The tympanums have shallow relief depicting the Australian crest and date 19 – 02 (north) and the Tasmanian crest (west).
Horizontally, the elevations are divided into two levels by expressive lines located at the raised course below the ground floor arch springing points and a string course, which encircles the first floor as a [balustrade](/wiki/Balustrade "Balustrade") augmented by [coffered](/wiki/Coffer "Coffer") panelling. Each floor level is marked by an entablature.
The main post office entry is located at the south return leg of the loggia and post office boxes have subsequently been installed along the inner wall openings. The main retail area is open in plan form, divided spatially by a large counter, a timber veneered partition and a structural beam which has been installed to support the first floor following the removal of loadbearing walls. Beyond this is a large workroom with mail sorting areas are loosely organised around the post office box (loggia) and a central area with three fire hearth placements. Beyond this again, staff amenities are located in the southeast corner which includes a stairwell to the first floor, toilets and an exit passage to the east side porch. The glazed double doors in the south porch extension facing Sticht Street are locked and no longer used.
Internally, the first floor comprises large perimeter rooms which are grouped around a central non\-linear passage. Entered via the southeast stair, the floor is vacant and exhibits at a high level of dereliction. The original usage of the upper floor for residential or other purposes has not been clarified and the current configuration appears to relate to the 1960s refurbishment comprising (east to west) a large Post\-Tel Institute room, toilet amenities, staff room and clock tower access (north); and two storerooms and the stair [atrium](/wiki/Atrium_%28architecture%29 "Atrium (architecture)") (south). A projecting awning has been added to provide access to the external stair.
### Condition and integrity
Externally, Queenstown Post Office's ability to demonstrate its original design is relatively good. The key alterations to the building's streetscape presentation are associated with the single storey extension along Sticht Street, which is detailed to match the original stucco walling, the installation of post office boxes to the loggia wall openings and the overpainting of the stucco in a high\-contrast red and mustard colour scheme. The corner flagpole is missing and the roof cladding altered. The upper return wall along Sticht Street has been altered by the removal of its [parapet](/wiki/Parapet "Parapet") and entablature, wall stucco and wide [chimney](/wiki/Chimney "Chimney"). The rear (south) of the building is substantially altered by the construction of the steel external stair and projecting weatherboard awning, in addition to the redbrick extension at the rear of the south porch.
While the design intent is legible externally, cumulative works have been undertaken throughout the majority of the interior spaces and currently, Australia Post operates only from the ground floor. Beyond the loggia, little evidence remains of the original plan form of the postal hall, telegraph office and/or money order office functions and the strong room was not located. Generally, perimeter windows are extant as constructed, although many interior walls have been demolished and evidence of decorative detail either removed or concealed.
The first floor retains its original building elements, such as lathe plaster walls and ceilings, windows, door architraves, 4\-panel doors and moulded skirtings, but the walls and ceiling throughout are in a derelict condition and require maintenance to stabilise this situation. In particular, much of the plaster is cracked or loose due to water damage and sustained roof leakage. The floor is subsiding in the vicinity of the stairwell and rising damp is evident in various places along the perimeter walls. Structural cracking is also evident in the ceilings and walls, possibly due to movement and/or settlement associated with the removal of the ground floor load bearing walls.
The exterior of the building is generally in good condition although the lack of maintenance to water ingress, rising damp, and possible structural movement represents a risk to its physical integrity.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"Queenstown Post Office is at 32\\-34 Orr Street, corner Sticht Street, Queenstown. It is built in the Federation Free Classical style.",
"Queenstown Post Office is located on the site of the previous post office, which was built in 1897 at the corner of Orr and Sticht Streets. Built in 1902, it is a two\\-storied stucco building with a corner clock tower surmounted by a curved ogee roof. The general building mass is rectangular in plan form with a loggia built out to the north (Orr Street) and west (Sticht Street) street pavements. The east and south yards are concreted and a small weatherboard carpark is located in the southeast corner of the site. A small steel\\-framed [awning](/wiki/Awning \"Awning\") has subsequently been erected along the east building elevation where there is a separate entry. A steel\\-framed stair has been erected at the southeast rear corner and provides external access to the first floor.",
"The principal elevations are similar in detail but asymmetrical, a composition emphasized by the inclusion of a deep L\\-shaped loggia at the ground level. This element serves to separate the corner tower assembly from the breakfronted end bays \\- one\\-arched bay (west) and three\\-arched bays (north) \\- which are surmounted by triangular pediments. A single\\-storey L\\-shaped [porch](/wiki/Porch \"Porch\") extension has been erected on the south side of the building, with a similar coursed stucco wall treatment to the original building. Its rear and side walls have face red brickwork with steel\\-framed window openings. More generally, the rear (south) two\\-storey section of wall is weatherboarded.",
"Compositionally the design derives freely from a range of classical motifs and sources. The ground floor is presented as an arcaded basement along sixteenth\\-century palazzo lines, with the four largest arches fronting a return loggia containing the entry. The clock tower base is given a different grain with narrower entry arches and grouped window arches differentiate the two flanking end breakfronts. The clock tower extends another level past the first floor, set on a stuccoed base with large scroll consoles and a close\\-bracketed eave over resembling a [dentil](/wiki/Dentil \"Dentil\") moulding. It is topped by an ogival metal\\-decked roof, a popular device in the 1900s. The clock faces are housed in arched aedicules and linked to the cornice by extruded keystones, an Edwardian Baroque touch, also evident in the end pediments which are flanked by wide pilasters. The tympanums have shallow relief depicting the Australian crest and date 19 – 02 (north) and the Tasmanian crest (west).",
"Horizontally, the elevations are divided into two levels by expressive lines located at the raised course below the ground floor arch springing points and a string course, which encircles the first floor as a [balustrade](/wiki/Balustrade \"Balustrade\") augmented by [coffered](/wiki/Coffer \"Coffer\") panelling. Each floor level is marked by an entablature.",
"The main post office entry is located at the south return leg of the loggia and post office boxes have subsequently been installed along the inner wall openings. The main retail area is open in plan form, divided spatially by a large counter, a timber veneered partition and a structural beam which has been installed to support the first floor following the removal of loadbearing walls. Beyond this is a large workroom with mail sorting areas are loosely organised around the post office box (loggia) and a central area with three fire hearth placements. Beyond this again, staff amenities are located in the southeast corner which includes a stairwell to the first floor, toilets and an exit passage to the east side porch. The glazed double doors in the south porch extension facing Sticht Street are locked and no longer used.",
"Internally, the first floor comprises large perimeter rooms which are grouped around a central non\\-linear passage. Entered via the southeast stair, the floor is vacant and exhibits at a high level of dereliction. The original usage of the upper floor for residential or other purposes has not been clarified and the current configuration appears to relate to the 1960s refurbishment comprising (east to west) a large Post\\-Tel Institute room, toilet amenities, staff room and clock tower access (north); and two storerooms and the stair [atrium](/wiki/Atrium_%28architecture%29 \"Atrium (architecture)\") (south). A projecting awning has been added to provide access to the external stair.",
"### Condition and integrity",
"Externally, Queenstown Post Office's ability to demonstrate its original design is relatively good. The key alterations to the building's streetscape presentation are associated with the single storey extension along Sticht Street, which is detailed to match the original stucco walling, the installation of post office boxes to the loggia wall openings and the overpainting of the stucco in a high\\-contrast red and mustard colour scheme. The corner flagpole is missing and the roof cladding altered. The upper return wall along Sticht Street has been altered by the removal of its [parapet](/wiki/Parapet \"Parapet\") and entablature, wall stucco and wide [chimney](/wiki/Chimney \"Chimney\"). The rear (south) of the building is substantially altered by the construction of the steel external stair and projecting weatherboard awning, in addition to the redbrick extension at the rear of the south porch.",
"While the design intent is legible externally, cumulative works have been undertaken throughout the majority of the interior spaces and currently, Australia Post operates only from the ground floor. Beyond the loggia, little evidence remains of the original plan form of the postal hall, telegraph office and/or money order office functions and the strong room was not located. Generally, perimeter windows are extant as constructed, although many interior walls have been demolished and evidence of decorative detail either removed or concealed.",
"The first floor retains its original building elements, such as lathe plaster walls and ceilings, windows, door architraves, 4\\-panel doors and moulded skirtings, but the walls and ceiling throughout are in a derelict condition and require maintenance to stabilise this situation. In particular, much of the plaster is cracked or loose due to water damage and sustained roof leakage. The floor is subsiding in the vicinity of the stairwell and rising damp is evident in various places along the perimeter walls. Structural cracking is also evident in the ceilings and walls, possibly due to movement and/or settlement associated with the removal of the ground floor load bearing walls.",
"The exterior of the building is generally in good condition although the lack of maintenance to water ingress, rising damp, and possible structural movement represents a risk to its physical integrity.",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1994 [Karsten Nielsen](/wiki/Karsten_Nielsen_%28audio_engineer%29 "Karsten Nielsen (audio engineer)") began to write a Ph.D. dissertation "*Audio Power Amplifiers Techniques Based on Efficient Power Conversion*"[Audio Power Amplifier Techniques With Energy Efficient Power Conversion, Ph.D. Thesis, Karsten Nielsen, Technical University of Denmark, 30 April 1998](http://www.icepower.bang-olufsen.com/en/company/phd_thesis/) PhD thesis sectionalised at company website. at the [Technical University of Denmark](/wiki/Technical_University_of_Denmark "Technical University of Denmark") as part of a project in collaboration with [Bang \& Olufsen](/wiki/Bang_%26_Olufsen "Bang & Olufsen"); his findings were applied in the Beolab 1 active loudspeakers in 1997, and he was awarded a Ph.D. in 1998\. Bang \& Olufsen subsequently hired Nielsen.[ICEpower \- Our history](http://www.icepower.bang-olufsen.com/en/company/history/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520182056/http://www.icepower.bang\-olufsen.com/en/company/history \|date\=20 May 2009 }} *icepower.bang\-olufsen.com*
In 1999 a new [R\&D](/wiki/R%26D "R&D") company; a joint venture between Nielsen and Bang \& Olufsen was formed, with the aim of designing integrated amplifiers components of powers up to 1000W as a discrete electronic device. The company was initially called ***Bang \& Olufsen PowerHouse***.
In 2001 the company was renamed **Bang \& Olufsen ICEpower** and the company's first commercial product was released – the *A series*. In 2002 the company began collaboration with [Sanyo Semiconductor](/wiki/Sanyo_Semiconductor "Sanyo Semiconductor"); a major manufacturer of integrated amplifier chips. In 2003 the *ICEpower ASP* product range was launched, and the company began a partnership with [Samsung Telecommunications](/wiki/Samsung_Telecommunications "Samsung Telecommunications") for the development of a dedicated amplifier for mobile phones.
Between 2003 and 2008 the companies' product range was extended to include audio amplifier components for mobile phones, home audio (active speakers and amplifiers), car audio and home theatre (multichannel audio).
In 2008 Bang \& Olufsen bought out Nielsen's share in the company, making it a wholly owned subsidiary of Bang \& Olufsen. At the same time, Nielsen left the company.[Bang \& Olufsen Takes Over ICEpower, 28 July 2008](http://www.icepower.bang-olufsen.com/en/news/news?id=31) *icepower.bang\-olufsen.com*
[thumb\|Bang \& Olufsen ICE Power Class D Amplifier Module](/wiki/File:Bang_%26_Olufsen_ICE_POWER_Module_Class_D_Amplifier.jpg "Bang & Olufsen ICE POWER Module Class D Amplifier.jpg")
In 2016, realizing the potential of the business as an independent entity, a management buyout supported by Industry Development (Industri Udvikling) – a Danish private equity company – allowed ICEpower to finally begin the development of its full potential.
Industry Development is funded by Danish taxpayer's savings and the purpose is to turn SMEs (small and medium enterprises) into larger enterprises. The strategic direction and decisions are made by the management of ICEpower, and the management are also majority shareholders.
One of the first strategic moves of ICEpower in 2016 was to acquire Audio Bricks (Sweden) and its holding company, thereby also getting access to fundamentals from Anaview – a former competitor founded by Patrik Boström. The two founders of Audio Bricks, Patrik Boström and Lars Press Petersen, were well known to ICEpower.
In 2017 ICEpower moved to a new location in Søborg.
### Current operations
**ICEpower a/s** is a 100\+ employee firm, involved in applications of class\-D amplifiers. The company's engineering development is carried out in its Danish headquarters in [Søborg](/wiki/S%C3%B8borg "Søborg").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1994 [Karsten Nielsen](/wiki/Karsten_Nielsen_%28audio_engineer%29 \"Karsten Nielsen (audio engineer)\") began to write a Ph.D. dissertation \"*Audio Power Amplifiers Techniques Based on Efficient Power Conversion*\"[Audio Power Amplifier Techniques With Energy Efficient Power Conversion, Ph.D. Thesis, Karsten Nielsen, Technical University of Denmark, 30 April 1998](http://www.icepower.bang-olufsen.com/en/company/phd_thesis/) PhD thesis sectionalised at company website. at the [Technical University of Denmark](/wiki/Technical_University_of_Denmark \"Technical University of Denmark\") as part of a project in collaboration with [Bang \\& Olufsen](/wiki/Bang_%26_Olufsen \"Bang & Olufsen\"); his findings were applied in the Beolab 1 active loudspeakers in 1997, and he was awarded a Ph.D. in 1998\\. Bang \\& Olufsen subsequently hired Nielsen.[ICEpower \\- Our history](http://www.icepower.bang-olufsen.com/en/company/history/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520182056/http://www.icepower.bang\\-olufsen.com/en/company/history \\|date\\=20 May 2009 }} *icepower.bang\\-olufsen.com*",
"In 1999 a new [R\\&D](/wiki/R%26D \"R&D\") company; a joint venture between Nielsen and Bang \\& Olufsen was formed, with the aim of designing integrated amplifiers components of powers up to 1000W as a discrete electronic device. The company was initially called ***Bang \\& Olufsen PowerHouse***.",
"In 2001 the company was renamed **Bang \\& Olufsen ICEpower** and the company's first commercial product was released – the *A series*. In 2002 the company began collaboration with [Sanyo Semiconductor](/wiki/Sanyo_Semiconductor \"Sanyo Semiconductor\"); a major manufacturer of integrated amplifier chips. In 2003 the *ICEpower ASP* product range was launched, and the company began a partnership with [Samsung Telecommunications](/wiki/Samsung_Telecommunications \"Samsung Telecommunications\") for the development of a dedicated amplifier for mobile phones.",
"Between 2003 and 2008 the companies' product range was extended to include audio amplifier components for mobile phones, home audio (active speakers and amplifiers), car audio and home theatre (multichannel audio).",
"In 2008 Bang \\& Olufsen bought out Nielsen's share in the company, making it a wholly owned subsidiary of Bang \\& Olufsen. At the same time, Nielsen left the company.[Bang \\& Olufsen Takes Over ICEpower, 28 July 2008](http://www.icepower.bang-olufsen.com/en/news/news?id=31) *icepower.bang\\-olufsen.com*\n[thumb\\|Bang \\& Olufsen ICE Power Class D Amplifier Module](/wiki/File:Bang_%26_Olufsen_ICE_POWER_Module_Class_D_Amplifier.jpg \"Bang & Olufsen ICE POWER Module Class D Amplifier.jpg\")\nIn 2016, realizing the potential of the business as an independent entity, a management buyout supported by Industry Development (Industri Udvikling) – a Danish private equity company – allowed ICEpower to finally begin the development of its full potential.",
"Industry Development is funded by Danish taxpayer's savings and the purpose is to turn SMEs (small and medium enterprises) into larger enterprises. The strategic direction and decisions are made by the management of ICEpower, and the management are also majority shareholders.",
"One of the first strategic moves of ICEpower in 2016 was to acquire Audio Bricks (Sweden) and its holding company, thereby also getting access to fundamentals from Anaview – a former competitor founded by Patrik Boström. The two founders of Audio Bricks, Patrik Boström and Lars Press Petersen, were well known to ICEpower.",
"In 2017 ICEpower moved to a new location in Søborg.",
"### Current operations",
"**ICEpower a/s** is a 100\\+ employee firm, involved in applications of class\\-D amplifiers. The company's engineering development is carried out in its Danish headquarters in [Søborg](/wiki/S%C3%B8borg \"Søborg\").",
""
] |
Career
------
Grell entered the comics industry as an assistant to [Dale Messick](/wiki/Dale_Messick "Dale Messick") on the *[Brenda Starr](/wiki/Brenda_Starr "Brenda Starr")* [comic strip](/wiki/Comic_strip "Comic strip") in 1972\.
### DC Comics
In 1973 Grell moved to New York City, and began his long relationship with [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics"). At DC, Grell worked on characters such as [Aquaman](/wiki/Aquaman "Aquaman"), [Batman](/wiki/Batman "Batman"), [Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow "Green Arrow"), and the [Phantom Stranger](/wiki/Phantom_Stranger "Phantom Stranger") in arcs or single\-issue stories. He and [Elliot S. Maggin](/wiki/Elliot_S._Maggin "Elliot S. Maggin") launched the *[Batman Family](/wiki/Batman_Family "Batman Family")* title in 1975{{cite book\|last1\=McAvennie\|first1\= Michael\|last2\=Dolan\|first2\=Hannah, ed.\|chapter\= 1970s\|title \= DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle\|publisher\=\[\[Dorling Kindersley]]\|date\=2010\|location\= London, United Kingdom\|isbn\= 978\-0\-7566\-6742\-9\|page\= 164\|quote \= DC launched ''Batman Family'' with its memorable debut of the Batgirl\-Robin team. Scribe Elliot S! Maggin and artist Mike Grell unleashed 'The Invader From Hell'.}} and Grell would work with [Dennis O'Neil](/wiki/Dennis_O%27Neil "Dennis O'Neil") on the revival of the *[Green Lantern](/wiki/Green_Lantern "Green Lantern")/[Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow "Green Arrow")* series the following year.McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 171: "After a four\-year hiatus, Green Lantern's ongoing series made a triumphant return to DC's publishing schedule.... Returning writer Denny O'Neil partnered himself with artist Mike Grell, choosing to focus the title on sci\-fi and super\-heroics". For a time between 1976 and 1978, Grell was writing and penciling one series, [Warlord](/wiki/Warlord "Warlord"), and providing pencil art on two others, [Green Lantern](/wiki/Green_Lantern "Green Lantern") and [Superboy and the Legion of Super\-Heroes](/wiki/Superboy_and_the_Legion_of_Super-Heroes "Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes").
### *Superboy and the Legion of Super\-Heroes*
His regular first assignment at DC was on *[Superboy](/wiki/Superboy_%28comic_book%29 "Superboy (comic book)") and the [Legion of Super\-Heroes](/wiki/Legion_of_Super-Heroes "Legion of Super-Heroes")*,{{gcdb\|type\=credit\|search\= Mike\+Grell\|title\= Mike Grell}} a high\-profile assignment for an artist with no prior experience illustrating a monthly comic book. Grell says he got that job because he was walking in the editor's door to ask for work, literally, as the previous artist, [Dave Cockrum](/wiki/Dave_Cockrum "Dave Cockrum"), was walking out the door, having just quit. Grell inked a Cockrum penciled story ("Lost: A Million Miles from Home!") in issue \#202[*Superboy* \#202 (June 1974\)](http://www.comics.org/issue/27456/) at the Grand Comics Database and became the penciler of the book with issue No. 203 (August 1974\) which featured the death of [Invisible Kid](/wiki/Invisible_Kid "Invisible Kid").McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 160: "With the unenviable task of replacing the departing Dave Cockrum, one of the most popular artists ever to draw the Legion of Super\-Heroes, Mike Grell's first issue on *Superboy starring the Legion of Super\-Heroes* killed off one of the team's most beloved members". These stories were written by [Cary Bates](/wiki/Cary_Bates "Cary Bates") with later issues by [Jim Shooter](/wiki/Jim_Shooter "Jim Shooter"). Grell drew *[All\-New Collectors' Edition](/wiki/Limited_Collectors%27_Edition "Limited Collectors' Edition")* \#C\-55 (1978\), a treasury\-sized special written by [Paul Levitz](/wiki/Paul_Levitz "Paul Levitz") in which longtime Legion members [Saturn Girl](/wiki/Saturn_Girl "Saturn Girl") and [Lightning Lad](/wiki/Garth_Ranzz "Garth Ranzz") were married.{{cite journal\|last \= Ford\|first \= Jim\|title \= Superboy and the Legion of Super\-Heroes\|journal\= \[\[Back Issue!]]\|issue \= 61\|pages \= 55–58\|publisher \= \[\[TwoMorrows Publishing]]\|date \= December 2012\|location\= Raleigh, North Carolina}}McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 177: "Only an oversized treasury edition could have contained Superboy and the entire Legion of Super\-Heroes' battle with the Time Trapper...and the long\-awaited wedding of Lightning Lad and Saturn Girl...Legion favorites Paul Levitz and Mike Grell were up to the enormous challenge with the popular tale 'The Millennium Massacre'".
### *The Warlord*
[thumb\|upright\|The cover of *The Warlord* No. 67\. Art by Mike Grell.](/wiki/Image:Warlord67.png "Warlord67.png")
A writer as well as artist, Grell cemented his status as a fan\-favorite with his best\-known creation, *[The Warlord](/wiki/Warlord_%28DC_Comics%29 "Warlord (DC Comics)")*. The character first appeared in *[1st Issue Special](/wiki/1st_Issue_Special "1st Issue Special")* No. 8 (Nov. 1975\)McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 165: "Writer/artist Mike Grell elevated the sword\-and\-sorcery genre to new heights with the Warlord". and was soon given his own ongoing title (*The Warlord* \#1, Jan/Feb 1976\). In this series, Air Force pilot Travis Morgan crash\-lands in the prehistoric "hidden world" of [Skartaris](/wiki/Skartaris "Skartaris") (a setting highly influenced by [Jules Verne](/wiki/Jules_Verne "Jules Verne")'s *[A Journey to the Center of the Earth](/wiki/A_Journey_to_the_Center_of_the_Earth "A Journey to the Center of the Earth")* and [Edgar Rice Burroughs](/wiki/Edgar_Rice_Burroughs "Edgar Rice Burroughs")' [Pellucidar](/wiki/Pellucidar "Pellucidar")). For years thereafter, Morgan engages in adventures dressed only in a winged helmet, wristbands, boots, and breechclout, and armed with a sword and a [.44 Auto Mag](/wiki/AutoMag_%28pistol%29 "AutoMag (pistol)"). Grell wrote himself and editor [Jack C. Harris](/wiki/Jack_C._Harris "Jack C. Harris") into the [metafictional conclusion](/wiki/List_of_comics_creators_appearing_in_comics "List of comics creators appearing in comics") of the story in *The Warlord* \#35 (July 1980\).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wtv\-zone.com/silverager/interviews/harris2\.shtml \|title\=Jack C. Harris Interview (Pt. 2\) \|first\=Ron E. \|last\=Daudt \|year\=2010 \|publisher\=TheSilverLantern.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901223812/http://www.wtv\-zone.com/silverager/interviews/harris2\.shtml \|archive\-date\=September 1, 2012 \|access\-date\=March 20, 2011 \|quote\=the Warlord goes into a sort of parallel world where it's like a Dungeons and Dragons game and at the end of the story we pull back and the two guys playing Dungeons and Dragons are me and Grell. Which I thought was great and as we're playing the game this other guy comes in to scold us for not doing our work and it's Joe Orlando.\|url\-status\=dead}} Other artists took over pencil duties, while Sharon Grell, as revealed in the letter column of a later issue,{{gcdb series\|id\=2338\|title\=The Warlord}}{{cite web \|url\= http://www.bailsprojects.com/%28S%28caylzbast4adrv45bfkgav55%29%29/bio.aspx?Name\=WRIGHT%2C\+SHARON\|title\= Wright, Sharon\|first\= Jerry\|last\= Bails\|author\-link \= Jerry Bails\|year\= 2006\|work\= Who's Who of American Comic Books 1928–1999\|access\-date\= May 8, 2013}} took over writing.
### *Tarzan*
Grell wrote and drew the [*Tarzan* comic strip](/wiki/Tarzan_comics "Tarzan comics") from July 19, 1981, to February 27, 1983 (except for one strip, February 13, 1983, by [Thomas Yeates](/wiki/Thomas_Yeates "Thomas Yeates")). These strips were rerun in newspapers in 2004 – 2005\.
### First Comics: *Jon Sable Freelance* and *Starslayer*
[upright\|thumb\|Cover to *Jon Sable Freelance* \#7\. Art by Mike Grell.](/wiki/Image:Jonsablefreelance7.jpg "Jonsablefreelance7.jpg")
Through the 1980s Grell developed [creator\-owned](/wiki/Creator_ownership "Creator ownership") titles such *[Jon Sable Freelance](/wiki/Jon_Sable "Jon Sable")* and *[Starslayer](/wiki/Starslayer "Starslayer")*. *Jon Sable Freelance* was published by the now\-defunct [First Comics](/wiki/First_Comics "First Comics"). *Starslayer*, a space\-born science fiction series, started at [Pacific Comics](/wiki/Pacific_Comics "Pacific Comics"),{{cite journal\|last \= Catron\|first \= Michael\|author\-link \= Michael Catron\|title \= Pacific Signs Kirby, Grell\|journal \= \[\[Amazing Heroes]]\|issue \= 2\|page \= 13\|publisher \= \[\[Fantagraphics Books]]\|date \= July 1981}}{{cite journal\|last \= Catron\|first \= Michael\|title \= Grell's ''Starslayer'' Debuts in July\|journal \= Amazing Heroes\|issue \= 2\|pages \= 14–15\|publisher \= Fantagraphics Books\|date \= July 1981}} but shifted to First after Pacific went out of business.
The titular character of *Jon Sable Freelance* was a former Olympic athlete, later an African big\-game hunter, who became a mercenary. First appearing with a [cover date](/wiki/Cover_date "Cover date") of June 1983, *Jon Sable* was a precursor to what would eventually be called, by some, "the Dark Age of Comics", when even long\-established super\-heroes would become increasingly grim and violent.
The character was heavily influenced by [Ian Fleming](/wiki/Ian_Fleming "Ian Fleming")'s [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond "James Bond") novels as well as drawing on pulp fiction crime stories. Many of the stories of Sable's hunting exploits in Africa were influenced by [Peter Hathaway Capstick](/wiki/Peter_Hathaway_Capstick "Peter Hathaway Capstick")'s novels. At a convention in the late 1980s, Grell stated that his idea for Sable was "something like a cross between James Bond and [Mickey Spillane](/wiki/Mickey_Spillane "Mickey Spillane")'s [Mike Hammer](/wiki/Mike_Hammer_%28character%29 "Mike Hammer (character)")".
Sable was adapted into a short\-lived [television series](/wiki/Sable_%28TV_series%29 "Sable (TV series)") and the character's origin tale, "A Storm Over Eden", from the comic book, was expanded and novelized by Grell under the title *Sable*, which was published in 2000 by [Tor Books](/wiki/Tor_Books "Tor Books").
### Back at DC: Green Arrow
In 1987, Mike Grell wrote and drew the three\-issue prestige format [limited series](/wiki/Limited_series_%28comics%29 "Limited series (comics)") *[Green Arrow: The Longbow Hunters](/wiki/Green_Arrow:The_Longbow_Hunters "The Longbow Hunters")*.Manning, Matthew K. "1980s" in Dolan, p. 229: "Writer/artist Mike Grell introduced a Green Arrow for the modern comic book reader in the three\-issue prestige format *Green Arrow: The Longbow Hunters*". He redesigned the character's costume, away from the costume [Neal Adams](/wiki/Neal_Adams "Neal Adams") had designed in 1969, and recast Green Arrow as an "urban hunter" going up against non\-super\-powered, real world villains such as serial killers, terrorists, street gangs, American mobsters and Japanese Yakuza. He did away with Green Arrow's arsenal of "trick arrows" and instead rearmed him with penetrating broadheads with which he actually killed his opponents. *The Longbow Hunters* showed the first instance in which Green Arrow ever deliberately killed someone.
The popularity of *Longbow Hunters* led to an assignment writing – and occasionally drawing – an ongoing *[Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow "Green Arrow")* seriesManning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 233: "Mike Grell continued the evolution of the character of Oliver Queen that began in 1987's *Green Arrow: The Longbow Hunters* with an ongoing monthly series". for 80 issues from 1988 to 1993\. During this run, Grell avoided references to the fantastical elements of the DC Universe (e.g., in a guest appearance by [Green Lantern](/wiki/Hal_Jordan "Hal Jordan") the character is out of costume and does not use his powers). Notably, believing "Green Arrow" was "a stupid name", in no Mike Grell Green Arrow story (with the exception of *Longbow Hunters* \#1\) is the character ever referred to as Green Arrow anywhere other than on the cover.{{cite web\|first\=Brian \|last\=Cronin \|url\=http://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2008/04/10/comic\-book\-urban\-legends\-revealed\-150/ \|title\=Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed No. 150 \|publisher\=\[\[Comic Book Resources]] \|date\=April 10, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731214742/http://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2008/04/10/comic\-book\-urban\-legends\-revealed\-150/ \|archive\-date\=July 31, 2013 \|url\-status\=live}}
Grell would write a retelling of Green Arrow's origin and first case in *[Secret Origins](/wiki/Secret_Origins "Secret Origins")* vol. 2 \#38 (March 1989\). He was the co\-writer/cover artist for *Green Arrow [Annual](/wiki/Annual_publications "Annual publications")* (1991\), drew the cover art for *Annual* \#5 (1992\), and wrote *Annual* \#6 (1993\). Grell wrote and illustrated the official [Post\-Crisis](/wiki/Post-Crisis "Post-Crisis") origin of Green Arrow in *Green Arrow: The Wonder Year* miniseries in 1993\.
In 1988, Grell had a run writing [Blackhawk](/wiki/Blackhawk_%28DC_Comics%29 "Blackhawk (DC Comics)") in the short\-lived anthology series *[Action Comics](/wiki/Action_Comics "Action Comics") Weekly*, writing the Blackhawk serial from issues \#601–608\.
### James Bond
In 1988, Grell wrote and illustrated the [graphic novel](/wiki/Graphic_novel "Graphic novel") adaptation of the [Timothy Dalton](/wiki/Timothy_Dalton "Timothy Dalton") [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond "James Bond") film *[Licence to Kill](/wiki/Licence_to_Kill "Licence to Kill")*, and in 1989 wrote and drew an original Bond story, the three\-issue mini\-series *Permission to Die*, both co\-published by [Acme Press](/wiki/Acme_Press "Acme Press") and [Eclipse Comics](/wiki/Eclipse_Comics "Eclipse Comics").
### *Shaman's Tears* and *Bar Sinister*
*[Shaman's Tears](/wiki/Shaman%27s_Tears "Shaman's Tears")* was a more ecologically themed outing for Grell. Main character Joshua Brand, the son of a half\-Sioux father and an Irish mother, as an adult returns to the reservation he ran away from as a child. Discovering he mystically possesses the powers of all animals and the Earth itself, he becomes the protector of the planet. Jon Sable guest starred in issues \#5–9 of this 12 issue series (May 1993 – Aug 1995\). There was a number 0 issue published in November 1995\.
Grell wrote and drew the covers, but did none of the interior artwork, for issues \#1–4 of the *Shaman's Tears* spinoff series *Bar Sinister* (June – September 1995\) from Windjammer, the creator\-owned imprint of [Valiant Comics](/wiki/Valiant_Comics "Valiant Comics"). This series followed the adventures of a group of escaped government experimental subjects, animals genetically engineered to human intelligence and, basically, human form, as potential bio\-weapons.
During this time period, Grell began work writing and penciling the unfinished and unpublished *Shaman's Tears*/*[Turok Dinosaur Hunter](/wiki/Turok_Dinosaur_Hunter "Turok Dinosaur Hunter")* cross\-over limited series for [Valiant Comics](/wiki/Valiant_Comics "Valiant Comics"). He did co\-write the two issue Turok limited series entitled *Turok The Hunted*, as well as several fill\-in issues of the ongoing *Turok* series.
### 2000s
[thumb\|Grell at the 2007 [Pittsburgh Comicon](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Comicon "Pittsburgh Comicon").\|upright](/wiki/File:Mike_Grell_Pittsburgh_Comicon.jpg "Mike Grell Pittsburgh Comicon.jpg")
From 2002 to 2003, Grell worked on *Iron Man*. It was during a Grell written story from this period that Tony Stark revealed his secret identity to the world, a development met with mixed fan reaction.
After his work on *Iron Man*, Grell came back to comics in 2008, providing a variant incentive cover for *[Action Comics](/wiki/Action_Comics "Action Comics")* \#861, part four of the *[Superman and the Legion of Super\-Heroes](/wiki/Superman_and_the_Legion_of_Super-Heroes "Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes")* story. DC sought variant drawings for this story from artists who had worked on the Legion in the past, such as [Steve Lightle](/wiki/Steve_Lightle "Steve Lightle"), [Keith Giffen](/wiki/Keith_Giffen "Keith Giffen"), and Grell.
Other work includes a new [ongoing series](/wiki/Ongoing_series "Ongoing series") of *The Warlord* launched to coincide with the 35th anniversary.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.newsarama.com/631\-sdcc\-08\-mike\-grell\-the\-return\-of\-warlord.html \|title\=SDCC '08 – Mike Grell: The Return of Warlord \|first\=Chris \|last\=Arrant \|date\=July 27, 2008 \|publisher\=\[\[Newsarama]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727035448/http://www.newsarama.com/631\-sdcc\-08\-mike\-grell\-the\-return\-of\-warlord.html \|archive\-date\=July 27, 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=August 16, 2008}}Cowsill, Alan "2000s" in Dolan, p. 338: "Mike Grell was back at the helm for the return of DC's greatest sword\-and\-sorcery hero – Travis Morgan, the Warlord". Grell brought the lead character's story to an end and drew some issues. Grell worked for Marvel drawing some stories of *[X\-Men Forever](/wiki/X-Men_Forever "X-Men Forever")*.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://techland.time.com/2010/05/03/exclusive\-preview\-mike\-grell\-artwork\-from\-x\-men\-forever\-giant\-size/ \|title\=Exclusive Preview: Mike Grell Artwork from ''X\-Men Forever Giant\-Size'' \|first\=Douglas \|last\=Wolk \|date\=May 3, 2010 \|magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814012008/http://techland.time.com/2010/05/03/exclusive\-preview\-mike\-grell\-artwork\-from\-x\-men\-forever\-giant\-size/ \|archive\-date\=August 14, 2014 \|url\-status\=live}} His last collaboration with DC to date has been the Green Lantern story for the *[DC Retroactive](/wiki/DC_Retroactive "DC Retroactive")* series, in 2011, where he provided the art.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bleedingcool.com/2011/04/04/mike\-grell\-confirmed\-on\-dc\-retroactive\-at\-wondercon/ \|title\=Mike Grell Confirmed On DC Retroactive at Wondercon \|first\=Peter S. \|last\=Svensson \|date\=April 4, 2011 \|publisher\=BleedingCool.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203022149/http://www.bleedingcool.com/2011/04/04/mike\-grell\-confirmed\-on\-dc\-retroactive\-at\-wondercon/ \|archive\-date\=February 3, 2013 \|url\-status\=live}}
Grell is rewriting the *Jon Sable* screenplay, working on an adaptation of *Shaman's Tears*, and writing two stories for ComicMix.com, a new Jon Sable story and *The Pilgrim* with [Mark Ryan](/wiki/Mark_Ryan_%28actor%29 "Mark Ryan (actor)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.newsarama.com/783\-more\-than\-warlord\-catching\-up\-with\-mike\-grell.html \|title\=More than Warlord: Catching up with Mike Grell \|first\=Chris \|last\=Arrant \|date\=August 14, 2008 \|publisher\=Newsarama \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221180627/http://www.newsarama.com/783\-more\-than\-warlord\-catching\-up\-with\-mike\-grell.html \|archive\-date\=February 21, 2014 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=August 16, 2008}} In December 2010 he was announced as editor\-in\-chief of Ardden Entertainment.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hypergeek.ca/2010/12/mike\-grell\-named\-editor\-in\-chief\-of\-arden.html \|title\=Mike Grell Named Editor\-in\-Chief of Arden Entertainment \|date\=December 9, 2010 \|publisher\=Hybergeek.ca \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406031212/http://www.hypergeek.ca/2010/12/mike\-grell\-named\-editor\-in\-chief\-of\-arden.html \|archive\-date\=April 6, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=March 31, 2012}}
In 2012, Grell provided the cover art for the 10\-page preview comic produced by DC Comics for the 2012 [San Diego Comic\-Con](/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con "San Diego Comic-Con") to promote the TV series *[Arrow](/wiki/Arrow_%28TV_series%29 "Arrow (TV series)")*.Spiegel, Danny (July 16, 2012\). "*Arrow* Targets San Diego". *[TV Guide](/wiki/TV_Guide "TV Guide")*. p. 10 Grell did interior art for issues \#6 and \#11 of the digital comic based on the TV series.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Grell entered the comics industry as an assistant to [Dale Messick](/wiki/Dale_Messick \"Dale Messick\") on the *[Brenda Starr](/wiki/Brenda_Starr \"Brenda Starr\")* [comic strip](/wiki/Comic_strip \"Comic strip\") in 1972\\.",
"### DC Comics",
"In 1973 Grell moved to New York City, and began his long relationship with [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\"). At DC, Grell worked on characters such as [Aquaman](/wiki/Aquaman \"Aquaman\"), [Batman](/wiki/Batman \"Batman\"), [Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow \"Green Arrow\"), and the [Phantom Stranger](/wiki/Phantom_Stranger \"Phantom Stranger\") in arcs or single\\-issue stories. He and [Elliot S. Maggin](/wiki/Elliot_S._Maggin \"Elliot S. Maggin\") launched the *[Batman Family](/wiki/Batman_Family \"Batman Family\")* title in 1975{{cite book\\|last1\\=McAvennie\\|first1\\= Michael\\|last2\\=Dolan\\|first2\\=Hannah, ed.\\|chapter\\= 1970s\\|title \\= DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Dorling Kindersley]]\\|date\\=2010\\|location\\= London, United Kingdom\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-7566\\-6742\\-9\\|page\\= 164\\|quote \\= DC launched ''Batman Family'' with its memorable debut of the Batgirl\\-Robin team. Scribe Elliot S! Maggin and artist Mike Grell unleashed 'The Invader From Hell'.}} and Grell would work with [Dennis O'Neil](/wiki/Dennis_O%27Neil \"Dennis O'Neil\") on the revival of the *[Green Lantern](/wiki/Green_Lantern \"Green Lantern\")/[Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow \"Green Arrow\")* series the following year.McAvennie \"1970s\" in Dolan, p. 171: \"After a four\\-year hiatus, Green Lantern's ongoing series made a triumphant return to DC's publishing schedule.... Returning writer Denny O'Neil partnered himself with artist Mike Grell, choosing to focus the title on sci\\-fi and super\\-heroics\". For a time between 1976 and 1978, Grell was writing and penciling one series, [Warlord](/wiki/Warlord \"Warlord\"), and providing pencil art on two others, [Green Lantern](/wiki/Green_Lantern \"Green Lantern\") and [Superboy and the Legion of Super\\-Heroes](/wiki/Superboy_and_the_Legion_of_Super-Heroes \"Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes\").",
"### *Superboy and the Legion of Super\\-Heroes*",
"His regular first assignment at DC was on *[Superboy](/wiki/Superboy_%28comic_book%29 \"Superboy (comic book)\") and the [Legion of Super\\-Heroes](/wiki/Legion_of_Super-Heroes \"Legion of Super-Heroes\")*,{{gcdb\\|type\\=credit\\|search\\= Mike\\+Grell\\|title\\= Mike Grell}} a high\\-profile assignment for an artist with no prior experience illustrating a monthly comic book. Grell says he got that job because he was walking in the editor's door to ask for work, literally, as the previous artist, [Dave Cockrum](/wiki/Dave_Cockrum \"Dave Cockrum\"), was walking out the door, having just quit. Grell inked a Cockrum penciled story (\"Lost: A Million Miles from Home!\") in issue \\#202[*Superboy* \\#202 (June 1974\\)](http://www.comics.org/issue/27456/) at the Grand Comics Database and became the penciler of the book with issue No. 203 (August 1974\\) which featured the death of [Invisible Kid](/wiki/Invisible_Kid \"Invisible Kid\").McAvennie \"1970s\" in Dolan, p. 160: \"With the unenviable task of replacing the departing Dave Cockrum, one of the most popular artists ever to draw the Legion of Super\\-Heroes, Mike Grell's first issue on *Superboy starring the Legion of Super\\-Heroes* killed off one of the team's most beloved members\". These stories were written by [Cary Bates](/wiki/Cary_Bates \"Cary Bates\") with later issues by [Jim Shooter](/wiki/Jim_Shooter \"Jim Shooter\"). Grell drew *[All\\-New Collectors' Edition](/wiki/Limited_Collectors%27_Edition \"Limited Collectors' Edition\")* \\#C\\-55 (1978\\), a treasury\\-sized special written by [Paul Levitz](/wiki/Paul_Levitz \"Paul Levitz\") in which longtime Legion members [Saturn Girl](/wiki/Saturn_Girl \"Saturn Girl\") and [Lightning Lad](/wiki/Garth_Ranzz \"Garth Ranzz\") were married.{{cite journal\\|last \\= Ford\\|first \\= Jim\\|title \\= Superboy and the Legion of Super\\-Heroes\\|journal\\= \\[\\[Back Issue!]]\\|issue \\= 61\\|pages \\= 55–58\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[TwoMorrows Publishing]]\\|date \\= December 2012\\|location\\= Raleigh, North Carolina}}McAvennie \"1970s\" in Dolan, p. 177: \"Only an oversized treasury edition could have contained Superboy and the entire Legion of Super\\-Heroes' battle with the Time Trapper...and the long\\-awaited wedding of Lightning Lad and Saturn Girl...Legion favorites Paul Levitz and Mike Grell were up to the enormous challenge with the popular tale 'The Millennium Massacre'\".",
"### *The Warlord*",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The cover of *The Warlord* No. 67\\. Art by Mike Grell.](/wiki/Image:Warlord67.png \"Warlord67.png\")",
"A writer as well as artist, Grell cemented his status as a fan\\-favorite with his best\\-known creation, *[The Warlord](/wiki/Warlord_%28DC_Comics%29 \"Warlord (DC Comics)\")*. The character first appeared in *[1st Issue Special](/wiki/1st_Issue_Special \"1st Issue Special\")* No. 8 (Nov. 1975\\)McAvennie \"1970s\" in Dolan, p. 165: \"Writer/artist Mike Grell elevated the sword\\-and\\-sorcery genre to new heights with the Warlord\". and was soon given his own ongoing title (*The Warlord* \\#1, Jan/Feb 1976\\). In this series, Air Force pilot Travis Morgan crash\\-lands in the prehistoric \"hidden world\" of [Skartaris](/wiki/Skartaris \"Skartaris\") (a setting highly influenced by [Jules Verne](/wiki/Jules_Verne \"Jules Verne\")'s *[A Journey to the Center of the Earth](/wiki/A_Journey_to_the_Center_of_the_Earth \"A Journey to the Center of the Earth\")* and [Edgar Rice Burroughs](/wiki/Edgar_Rice_Burroughs \"Edgar Rice Burroughs\")' [Pellucidar](/wiki/Pellucidar \"Pellucidar\")). For years thereafter, Morgan engages in adventures dressed only in a winged helmet, wristbands, boots, and breechclout, and armed with a sword and a [.44 Auto Mag](/wiki/AutoMag_%28pistol%29 \"AutoMag (pistol)\"). Grell wrote himself and editor [Jack C. Harris](/wiki/Jack_C._Harris \"Jack C. Harris\") into the [metafictional conclusion](/wiki/List_of_comics_creators_appearing_in_comics \"List of comics creators appearing in comics\") of the story in *The Warlord* \\#35 (July 1980\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wtv\\-zone.com/silverager/interviews/harris2\\.shtml \\|title\\=Jack C. Harris Interview (Pt. 2\\) \\|first\\=Ron E. \\|last\\=Daudt \\|year\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=TheSilverLantern.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901223812/http://www.wtv\\-zone.com/silverager/interviews/harris2\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=September 1, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2011 \\|quote\\=the Warlord goes into a sort of parallel world where it's like a Dungeons and Dragons game and at the end of the story we pull back and the two guys playing Dungeons and Dragons are me and Grell. Which I thought was great and as we're playing the game this other guy comes in to scold us for not doing our work and it's Joe Orlando.\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Other artists took over pencil duties, while Sharon Grell, as revealed in the letter column of a later issue,{{gcdb series\\|id\\=2338\\|title\\=The Warlord}}{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.bailsprojects.com/%28S%28caylzbast4adrv45bfkgav55%29%29/bio.aspx?Name\\=WRIGHT%2C\\+SHARON\\|title\\= Wright, Sharon\\|first\\= Jerry\\|last\\= Bails\\|author\\-link \\= Jerry Bails\\|year\\= 2006\\|work\\= Who's Who of American Comic Books 1928–1999\\|access\\-date\\= May 8, 2013}} took over writing.",
"### *Tarzan*",
"Grell wrote and drew the [*Tarzan* comic strip](/wiki/Tarzan_comics \"Tarzan comics\") from July 19, 1981, to February 27, 1983 (except for one strip, February 13, 1983, by [Thomas Yeates](/wiki/Thomas_Yeates \"Thomas Yeates\")). These strips were rerun in newspapers in 2004 – 2005\\.",
"### First Comics: *Jon Sable Freelance* and *Starslayer*",
"[upright\\|thumb\\|Cover to *Jon Sable Freelance* \\#7\\. Art by Mike Grell.](/wiki/Image:Jonsablefreelance7.jpg \"Jonsablefreelance7.jpg\")",
"Through the 1980s Grell developed [creator\\-owned](/wiki/Creator_ownership \"Creator ownership\") titles such *[Jon Sable Freelance](/wiki/Jon_Sable \"Jon Sable\")* and *[Starslayer](/wiki/Starslayer \"Starslayer\")*. *Jon Sable Freelance* was published by the now\\-defunct [First Comics](/wiki/First_Comics \"First Comics\"). *Starslayer*, a space\\-born science fiction series, started at [Pacific Comics](/wiki/Pacific_Comics \"Pacific Comics\"),{{cite journal\\|last \\= Catron\\|first \\= Michael\\|author\\-link \\= Michael Catron\\|title \\= Pacific Signs Kirby, Grell\\|journal \\= \\[\\[Amazing Heroes]]\\|issue \\= 2\\|page \\= 13\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Fantagraphics Books]]\\|date \\= July 1981}}{{cite journal\\|last \\= Catron\\|first \\= Michael\\|title \\= Grell's ''Starslayer'' Debuts in July\\|journal \\= Amazing Heroes\\|issue \\= 2\\|pages \\= 14–15\\|publisher \\= Fantagraphics Books\\|date \\= July 1981}} but shifted to First after Pacific went out of business.",
"The titular character of *Jon Sable Freelance* was a former Olympic athlete, later an African big\\-game hunter, who became a mercenary. First appearing with a [cover date](/wiki/Cover_date \"Cover date\") of June 1983, *Jon Sable* was a precursor to what would eventually be called, by some, \"the Dark Age of Comics\", when even long\\-established super\\-heroes would become increasingly grim and violent.",
"The character was heavily influenced by [Ian Fleming](/wiki/Ian_Fleming \"Ian Fleming\")'s [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond \"James Bond\") novels as well as drawing on pulp fiction crime stories. Many of the stories of Sable's hunting exploits in Africa were influenced by [Peter Hathaway Capstick](/wiki/Peter_Hathaway_Capstick \"Peter Hathaway Capstick\")'s novels. At a convention in the late 1980s, Grell stated that his idea for Sable was \"something like a cross between James Bond and [Mickey Spillane](/wiki/Mickey_Spillane \"Mickey Spillane\")'s [Mike Hammer](/wiki/Mike_Hammer_%28character%29 \"Mike Hammer (character)\")\".",
"Sable was adapted into a short\\-lived [television series](/wiki/Sable_%28TV_series%29 \"Sable (TV series)\") and the character's origin tale, \"A Storm Over Eden\", from the comic book, was expanded and novelized by Grell under the title *Sable*, which was published in 2000 by [Tor Books](/wiki/Tor_Books \"Tor Books\").",
"### Back at DC: Green Arrow",
"In 1987, Mike Grell wrote and drew the three\\-issue prestige format [limited series](/wiki/Limited_series_%28comics%29 \"Limited series (comics)\") *[Green Arrow: The Longbow Hunters](/wiki/Green_Arrow:The_Longbow_Hunters \"The Longbow Hunters\")*.Manning, Matthew K. \"1980s\" in Dolan, p. 229: \"Writer/artist Mike Grell introduced a Green Arrow for the modern comic book reader in the three\\-issue prestige format *Green Arrow: The Longbow Hunters*\". He redesigned the character's costume, away from the costume [Neal Adams](/wiki/Neal_Adams \"Neal Adams\") had designed in 1969, and recast Green Arrow as an \"urban hunter\" going up against non\\-super\\-powered, real world villains such as serial killers, terrorists, street gangs, American mobsters and Japanese Yakuza. He did away with Green Arrow's arsenal of \"trick arrows\" and instead rearmed him with penetrating broadheads with which he actually killed his opponents. *The Longbow Hunters* showed the first instance in which Green Arrow ever deliberately killed someone.",
"The popularity of *Longbow Hunters* led to an assignment writing – and occasionally drawing – an ongoing *[Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow \"Green Arrow\")* seriesManning \"1980s\" in Dolan, p. 233: \"Mike Grell continued the evolution of the character of Oliver Queen that began in 1987's *Green Arrow: The Longbow Hunters* with an ongoing monthly series\". for 80 issues from 1988 to 1993\\. During this run, Grell avoided references to the fantastical elements of the DC Universe (e.g., in a guest appearance by [Green Lantern](/wiki/Hal_Jordan \"Hal Jordan\") the character is out of costume and does not use his powers). Notably, believing \"Green Arrow\" was \"a stupid name\", in no Mike Grell Green Arrow story (with the exception of *Longbow Hunters* \\#1\\) is the character ever referred to as Green Arrow anywhere other than on the cover.{{cite web\\|first\\=Brian \\|last\\=Cronin \\|url\\=http://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2008/04/10/comic\\-book\\-urban\\-legends\\-revealed\\-150/ \\|title\\=Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed No. 150 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Comic Book Resources]] \\|date\\=April 10, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731214742/http://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2008/04/10/comic\\-book\\-urban\\-legends\\-revealed\\-150/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Grell would write a retelling of Green Arrow's origin and first case in *[Secret Origins](/wiki/Secret_Origins \"Secret Origins\")* vol. 2 \\#38 (March 1989\\). He was the co\\-writer/cover artist for *Green Arrow [Annual](/wiki/Annual_publications \"Annual publications\")* (1991\\), drew the cover art for *Annual* \\#5 (1992\\), and wrote *Annual* \\#6 (1993\\). Grell wrote and illustrated the official [Post\\-Crisis](/wiki/Post-Crisis \"Post-Crisis\") origin of Green Arrow in *Green Arrow: The Wonder Year* miniseries in 1993\\.",
"In 1988, Grell had a run writing [Blackhawk](/wiki/Blackhawk_%28DC_Comics%29 \"Blackhawk (DC Comics)\") in the short\\-lived anthology series *[Action Comics](/wiki/Action_Comics \"Action Comics\") Weekly*, writing the Blackhawk serial from issues \\#601–608\\.",
"### James Bond",
"In 1988, Grell wrote and illustrated the [graphic novel](/wiki/Graphic_novel \"Graphic novel\") adaptation of the [Timothy Dalton](/wiki/Timothy_Dalton \"Timothy Dalton\") [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond \"James Bond\") film *[Licence to Kill](/wiki/Licence_to_Kill \"Licence to Kill\")*, and in 1989 wrote and drew an original Bond story, the three\\-issue mini\\-series *Permission to Die*, both co\\-published by [Acme Press](/wiki/Acme_Press \"Acme Press\") and [Eclipse Comics](/wiki/Eclipse_Comics \"Eclipse Comics\").",
"### *Shaman's Tears* and *Bar Sinister*",
"*[Shaman's Tears](/wiki/Shaman%27s_Tears \"Shaman's Tears\")* was a more ecologically themed outing for Grell. Main character Joshua Brand, the son of a half\\-Sioux father and an Irish mother, as an adult returns to the reservation he ran away from as a child. Discovering he mystically possesses the powers of all animals and the Earth itself, he becomes the protector of the planet. Jon Sable guest starred in issues \\#5–9 of this 12 issue series (May 1993 – Aug 1995\\). There was a number 0 issue published in November 1995\\.",
"Grell wrote and drew the covers, but did none of the interior artwork, for issues \\#1–4 of the *Shaman's Tears* spinoff series *Bar Sinister* (June – September 1995\\) from Windjammer, the creator\\-owned imprint of [Valiant Comics](/wiki/Valiant_Comics \"Valiant Comics\"). This series followed the adventures of a group of escaped government experimental subjects, animals genetically engineered to human intelligence and, basically, human form, as potential bio\\-weapons.",
"During this time period, Grell began work writing and penciling the unfinished and unpublished *Shaman's Tears*/*[Turok Dinosaur Hunter](/wiki/Turok_Dinosaur_Hunter \"Turok Dinosaur Hunter\")* cross\\-over limited series for [Valiant Comics](/wiki/Valiant_Comics \"Valiant Comics\"). He did co\\-write the two issue Turok limited series entitled *Turok The Hunted*, as well as several fill\\-in issues of the ongoing *Turok* series.",
"### 2000s",
"[thumb\\|Grell at the 2007 [Pittsburgh Comicon](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Comicon \"Pittsburgh Comicon\").\\|upright](/wiki/File:Mike_Grell_Pittsburgh_Comicon.jpg \"Mike Grell Pittsburgh Comicon.jpg\")\nFrom 2002 to 2003, Grell worked on *Iron Man*. It was during a Grell written story from this period that Tony Stark revealed his secret identity to the world, a development met with mixed fan reaction.",
"After his work on *Iron Man*, Grell came back to comics in 2008, providing a variant incentive cover for *[Action Comics](/wiki/Action_Comics \"Action Comics\")* \\#861, part four of the *[Superman and the Legion of Super\\-Heroes](/wiki/Superman_and_the_Legion_of_Super-Heroes \"Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes\")* story. DC sought variant drawings for this story from artists who had worked on the Legion in the past, such as [Steve Lightle](/wiki/Steve_Lightle \"Steve Lightle\"), [Keith Giffen](/wiki/Keith_Giffen \"Keith Giffen\"), and Grell.",
"Other work includes a new [ongoing series](/wiki/Ongoing_series \"Ongoing series\") of *The Warlord* launched to coincide with the 35th anniversary.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newsarama.com/631\\-sdcc\\-08\\-mike\\-grell\\-the\\-return\\-of\\-warlord.html \\|title\\=SDCC '08 – Mike Grell: The Return of Warlord \\|first\\=Chris \\|last\\=Arrant \\|date\\=July 27, 2008 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Newsarama]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727035448/http://www.newsarama.com/631\\-sdcc\\-08\\-mike\\-grell\\-the\\-return\\-of\\-warlord.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 27, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2008}}Cowsill, Alan \"2000s\" in Dolan, p. 338: \"Mike Grell was back at the helm for the return of DC's greatest sword\\-and\\-sorcery hero – Travis Morgan, the Warlord\". Grell brought the lead character's story to an end and drew some issues. Grell worked for Marvel drawing some stories of *[X\\-Men Forever](/wiki/X-Men_Forever \"X-Men Forever\")*.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://techland.time.com/2010/05/03/exclusive\\-preview\\-mike\\-grell\\-artwork\\-from\\-x\\-men\\-forever\\-giant\\-size/ \\|title\\=Exclusive Preview: Mike Grell Artwork from ''X\\-Men Forever Giant\\-Size'' \\|first\\=Douglas \\|last\\=Wolk \\|date\\=May 3, 2010 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814012008/http://techland.time.com/2010/05/03/exclusive\\-preview\\-mike\\-grell\\-artwork\\-from\\-x\\-men\\-forever\\-giant\\-size/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 14, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} His last collaboration with DC to date has been the Green Lantern story for the *[DC Retroactive](/wiki/DC_Retroactive \"DC Retroactive\")* series, in 2011, where he provided the art.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bleedingcool.com/2011/04/04/mike\\-grell\\-confirmed\\-on\\-dc\\-retroactive\\-at\\-wondercon/ \\|title\\=Mike Grell Confirmed On DC Retroactive at Wondercon \\|first\\=Peter S. \\|last\\=Svensson \\|date\\=April 4, 2011 \\|publisher\\=BleedingCool.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203022149/http://www.bleedingcool.com/2011/04/04/mike\\-grell\\-confirmed\\-on\\-dc\\-retroactive\\-at\\-wondercon/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 3, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Grell is rewriting the *Jon Sable* screenplay, working on an adaptation of *Shaman's Tears*, and writing two stories for ComicMix.com, a new Jon Sable story and *The Pilgrim* with [Mark Ryan](/wiki/Mark_Ryan_%28actor%29 \"Mark Ryan (actor)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newsarama.com/783\\-more\\-than\\-warlord\\-catching\\-up\\-with\\-mike\\-grell.html \\|title\\=More than Warlord: Catching up with Mike Grell \\|first\\=Chris \\|last\\=Arrant \\|date\\=August 14, 2008 \\|publisher\\=Newsarama \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221180627/http://www.newsarama.com/783\\-more\\-than\\-warlord\\-catching\\-up\\-with\\-mike\\-grell.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 21, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2008}} In December 2010 he was announced as editor\\-in\\-chief of Ardden Entertainment.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hypergeek.ca/2010/12/mike\\-grell\\-named\\-editor\\-in\\-chief\\-of\\-arden.html \\|title\\=Mike Grell Named Editor\\-in\\-Chief of Arden Entertainment \\|date\\=December 9, 2010 \\|publisher\\=Hybergeek.ca \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406031212/http://www.hypergeek.ca/2010/12/mike\\-grell\\-named\\-editor\\-in\\-chief\\-of\\-arden.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=March 31, 2012}}",
"In 2012, Grell provided the cover art for the 10\\-page preview comic produced by DC Comics for the 2012 [San Diego Comic\\-Con](/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con \"San Diego Comic-Con\") to promote the TV series *[Arrow](/wiki/Arrow_%28TV_series%29 \"Arrow (TV series)\")*.Spiegel, Danny (July 16, 2012\\). \"*Arrow* Targets San Diego\". *[TV Guide](/wiki/TV_Guide \"TV Guide\")*. p. 10 Grell did interior art for issues \\#6 and \\#11 of the digital comic based on the TV series.",
""
] |
Plot
----
It is the day of Luke ([Nolan Gould](/wiki/Nolan_Gould "Nolan Gould")) and Manny's ([Rico Rodriguez](/wiki/Rico_Rodriguez_%28actor%29 "Rico Rodriguez (actor)")) first school dance, which is being organized by Claire ([Julie Bowen](/wiki/Julie_Bowen "Julie Bowen")). However, the school appointed Gloria ([Sofía Vergara](/wiki/Sof%C3%ADa_Vergara "Sofía Vergara")) as co\-chair. Claire has been trying to block Gloria from participating by telling her that there was enough people. Gloria comes anyway and Claire soon gets jealous when Gloria starts taking over and everyone really appreciates it and particularly because she manages to get Gus ([Danny Trejo](/wiki/Danny_Trejo "Danny Trejo")), the school's janitor, to do everything that she asks right away. Eventually, during the dance, Claire gets upset at her but after talking things out they both apologize for making the dance a competition.
Meanwhile, Jay ([Ed O'Neill](/wiki/Ed_O%27Neill "Ed O'Neill")) and Phil ([Ty Burrell](/wiki/Ty_Burrell "Ty Burrell")) take Luke and Manny to the mall which turns disastrous. Manny and Luke get into a fight over a teal tie that Manny needed. After having lost a parking space to a person who cut them off, Phil lets a man in front of the line who takes very long, which leads Jay to get cranky over Phil. Phil pretends to go looking for socks but he ends up attacking a cologne salesman ([Kevin Daniels](/wiki/Kevin_Daniels "Kevin Daniels")) just for spraying him while asking.
While still waiting in line to pay, Jay sees the man that cut them off at the parking lot and wants to give him a piece of his mind to demonstrate to Luke and Manny how his tougher approach will work, but it turns out that the man had no idea that he cut them off because he is very depressed over the death of his dog "Spot", crying all over Jay. Eventually Jay sees he has been rough and apologizes to Phil.
Cameron ([Eric Stonestreet](/wiki/Eric_Stonestreet "Eric Stonestreet")) and Mitchell ([Jesse Tyler Ferguson](/wiki/Jesse_Tyler_Ferguson "Jesse Tyler Ferguson")) learn from a mom they know that Lily bit her son at the playground. At first they deny this, because they think that they are being blamed for just being gay but they come to realize that it was true after Lily bites Cameron. They decide to look at some ways to discipline her, but Cameron is too soft and proposes to sing a song to Lily about not biting while Mitchell is fond of an idea that he got from the Internet to put pepper in her mouth. After the song, they realize that it does not work. This leads Mitchell and Cameron into a fight where Mitchell bites Cameron and tells him to "sing me a song about it". They soon come to accept that their daughter is not perfect, right after that Lily slaps Mitchell and Cameron starts laughing hysterically.
In the epilogue of the episode, it turns out that the cologne man was Longines, a friend of Cameron and Mitchell's, who turns to them for comfort. Mitchell points out that Longines had it coming because he always sprayed while asking.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"It is the day of Luke ([Nolan Gould](/wiki/Nolan_Gould \"Nolan Gould\")) and Manny's ([Rico Rodriguez](/wiki/Rico_Rodriguez_%28actor%29 \"Rico Rodriguez (actor)\")) first school dance, which is being organized by Claire ([Julie Bowen](/wiki/Julie_Bowen \"Julie Bowen\")). However, the school appointed Gloria ([Sofía Vergara](/wiki/Sof%C3%ADa_Vergara \"Sofía Vergara\")) as co\\-chair. Claire has been trying to block Gloria from participating by telling her that there was enough people. Gloria comes anyway and Claire soon gets jealous when Gloria starts taking over and everyone really appreciates it and particularly because she manages to get Gus ([Danny Trejo](/wiki/Danny_Trejo \"Danny Trejo\")), the school's janitor, to do everything that she asks right away. Eventually, during the dance, Claire gets upset at her but after talking things out they both apologize for making the dance a competition.",
"Meanwhile, Jay ([Ed O'Neill](/wiki/Ed_O%27Neill \"Ed O'Neill\")) and Phil ([Ty Burrell](/wiki/Ty_Burrell \"Ty Burrell\")) take Luke and Manny to the mall which turns disastrous. Manny and Luke get into a fight over a teal tie that Manny needed. After having lost a parking space to a person who cut them off, Phil lets a man in front of the line who takes very long, which leads Jay to get cranky over Phil. Phil pretends to go looking for socks but he ends up attacking a cologne salesman ([Kevin Daniels](/wiki/Kevin_Daniels \"Kevin Daniels\")) just for spraying him while asking.",
"While still waiting in line to pay, Jay sees the man that cut them off at the parking lot and wants to give him a piece of his mind to demonstrate to Luke and Manny how his tougher approach will work, but it turns out that the man had no idea that he cut them off because he is very depressed over the death of his dog \"Spot\", crying all over Jay. Eventually Jay sees he has been rough and apologizes to Phil.",
"Cameron ([Eric Stonestreet](/wiki/Eric_Stonestreet \"Eric Stonestreet\")) and Mitchell ([Jesse Tyler Ferguson](/wiki/Jesse_Tyler_Ferguson \"Jesse Tyler Ferguson\")) learn from a mom they know that Lily bit her son at the playground. At first they deny this, because they think that they are being blamed for just being gay but they come to realize that it was true after Lily bites Cameron. They decide to look at some ways to discipline her, but Cameron is too soft and proposes to sing a song to Lily about not biting while Mitchell is fond of an idea that he got from the Internet to put pepper in her mouth. After the song, they realize that it does not work. This leads Mitchell and Cameron into a fight where Mitchell bites Cameron and tells him to \"sing me a song about it\". They soon come to accept that their daughter is not perfect, right after that Lily slaps Mitchell and Cameron starts laughing hysterically.",
"In the epilogue of the episode, it turns out that the cologne man was Longines, a friend of Cameron and Mitchell's, who turns to them for comfort. Mitchell points out that Longines had it coming because he always sprayed while asking.",
""
] |
History
-------
During the [Philippine Revolution](/wiki/Philippine_Revolution "Philippine Revolution"), several leadership elections for the [Katipunan](/wiki/Katipunan "Katipunan") were later on described as precursors of presidential elections. One example of this is the [Tejeros Convention](/wiki/Tejeros_Convention "Tejeros Convention") of 1897, where [Emilio Aguinaldo](/wiki/Emilio_Aguinaldo "Emilio Aguinaldo") successfully removed erstwhile Katipunan leader [Andres Bonifacio](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bonifacio "Andrés Bonifacio"). From that point on, it was Aguinaldo who would lead the revolution, declare independence from Spain, and convened the [Malolos Congress](/wiki/Malolos_Congress "Malolos Congress"). The Malolos Congress elected Aguinaldo as president on January 1, 1899, passed a constitution on January 22, and Aguinaldo and the [First Republic](/wiki/First_Philippine_Republic "First Philippine Republic") was inaugurated on January 23, 1899\. The First Republic existed until Aguinaldo's capture by the Americans on March 23, 1901\.
The first presidential election by popular vote was on September 15, 1935, after the ratification of the [1935 Constitution of the Philippines](/wiki/1935_Constitution_of_the_Philippines "1935 Constitution of the Philippines"); [Manuel Quezon](/wiki/Manuel_Quezon "Manuel Quezon") of the [Nacionalista Party](/wiki/Nacionalista_Party "Nacionalista Party") emerged as the victor, defeating previous president [Emilio Aguinaldo](/wiki/Emilio_Aguinaldo "Emilio Aguinaldo") (Aguinaldo was elected president by the [Malolos Congress](/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Philippines "Revolutionary Government of the Philippines")). As a [commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines "Commonwealth of the Philippines") then of the United States, the constitution decreed that the president shall have one term of six years without reelection. In 1940, it was amended to allow one reelection, but with the term shortened to four years; this setup was first used in the second election in 1941 with Quezon being reelected.
However, World War II intervened and thus suspended the elections of 1945\. The [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan") set up the [Second Philippine Republic](/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic "Second Philippine Republic") that elected [José P. Laurel](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_P._Laurel "José P. Laurel") as president by the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Second_Philippine_Republic "National Assembly of the Second Philippine Republic") in 1943\. After the Japanese were defeated, [Congress](/wiki/1st_Congress_of_the_Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines "1st Congress of the Commonwealth of the Philippines") rescheduled the much\-delayed election in 1946\. [Manuel Roxas](/wiki/Manuel_Roxas "Manuel Roxas") of the newly formed [Liberal Party](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28Philippines%29 "Liberal Party (Philippines)") won the election a few weeks prior to the granting of independence by the United States. In 1949, the first election for the newly independent republic was held with President [Elpidio Quirino](/wiki/Elpidio_Quirino "Elpidio Quirino") winning; Quirino succeeded Roxas, who died while in office. Thereafter, elections were held every four years every second Tuesday of November of the election year, with the winning president and vice president inaugurated on December 30 succeeding the election. The alternation between the Nacionalistas and the Liberals characterized an apparent [two\-party system](/wiki/Two-party_system "Two-party system") of the Third Republic.
In the operation of the 1935 constitution, there were nine presidential elections; excluding the first election where there were no incumbents, the incumbent was beaten four times (1946, 1953, 1961, 1965\), the incumbent won upon ascending to the presidency from a vacancy twice (1949, 1957\), and two incumbents won a second term after being elected to a first term as president (1941, 1969\).
In 1972, President [Ferdinand Marcos](/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos "Ferdinand Marcos") declared martial law and ruled by decree. At this time, a new constitution was ratified in 1973 in which the office of the vice president being abolished. and that the president shall be elected by the [National Assembly](/wiki/Interim_Batasang_Pambansa "Interim Batasang Pambansa") amongst themselves, although once elected, the president will cease to be a member of the National Assembly and any political party (similar to the British [Speaker of the House of Commons](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)")). With the members of the National Assembly having no term limits, the president may serve indefinitely. Before parliament was elected referendums in [1973](/wiki/1973_Philippine_martial_law_referendum "1973 Philippine martial law referendum") and [1977](/wiki/1977_Philippine_presidential_referendum "1977 Philippine presidential referendum") affirmed that Marcos will stay as president and prime minister even after parliament has been organized.
In 1981, [via constitutional amendment](/wiki/1981_Philippine_constitutional_referendum "1981 Philippine constitutional referendum"), the president is again elected via popular vote, with a term of office of six years starting at the thirtieth of June of the year of the election. In the succeeding election on [June 16, 1981](/wiki/1981_Philippine_presidential_election_and_referendum "1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum") (third Monday of June); Marcos was again elected, with much of the opposition boycotting the election. In addition, the amendment also renamed the National Assembly into its [Filipino](/wiki/Filipino_language "Filipino language") translation as "Batasang Pambansa." In 1984, [another amendment](/wiki/1984_Philippine_constitutional_plebiscite "1984 Philippine constitutional plebiscite") reinstated the office of the vice president. The election of the vice president is similar to the United States presidential election, in which a vote for the president is also a vote for the vice president, although this was later changed to a separate vote for each position. Marcos' [Kilusang Bagong Lipunan](/wiki/Kilusang_Bagong_Lipunan "Kilusang Bagong Lipunan") (New Society Movement or KBL) won every presidential election of the Fourth Republic until 1986\.
In 1986, Marcos called for an early or ["snap" election](/wiki/1986_Philippine_presidential_election "1986 Philippine presidential election") (the next scheduled election was in 1987\) and was, including his running mate [Arturo Tolentino](/wiki/Arturo_Tolentino "Arturo Tolentino"), declared the winners. The [People Power Revolution](/wiki/People_Power_Revolution "People Power Revolution") erupted that drove Marcos out of power, and [Corazon Aquino](/wiki/Corazon_Aquino "Corazon Aquino"), the runner\-up, assumed the presidency. A new constitution was ratified in 1987 that was essentially identical with the provisions of the amended 1973 constitution as long as the election of the president and vice president is concerned, with the presidential election occurring at the second Monday of May and the inauguration every June 30 of the election year. The [1992 election](/wiki/1992_Philippine_presidential_election "1992 Philippine presidential election") was the first election under the new constitution and elections are held every six years thereafter. [Fidel V. Ramos](/wiki/Fidel_V._Ramos "Fidel V. Ramos") won the 1992 election with just 23% of the vote, the lowest plurality in history; it also ushered in the [multi\-party system](/wiki/Multi-party_system "Multi-party system") of the Fifth Republic. Thereafter, no winner has won via a majority, although each has had an increasing percentage of votes with every succeeding election. [Joseph Estrada](/wiki/Joseph_Estrada "Joseph Estrada") won [in 1998](/wiki/1998_Philippine_presidential_election "1998 Philippine presidential election") in what was described as landslide, getting just under 40% of the votes, while second place [Jose de Venecia](/wiki/Jose_de_Venecia "Jose de Venecia") getting 16%. President [Gloria Macapagal Arroyo](/wiki/Gloria_Macapagal_Arroyo "Gloria Macapagal Arroyo"), who succeeded Estrada at the outcome of the [2001 EDSA Revolution](/wiki/2001_EDSA_Revolution "2001 EDSA Revolution"), was the first sitting president to run, and defeated [Fernando Poe, Jr.](/wiki/Fernando_Poe%2C_Jr. "Fernando Poe, Jr.") in the closest margin in history. [Benigno Aquino III](/wiki/Benigno_Aquino_III "Benigno Aquino III") won [in 2010](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election "2010 Philippine presidential election") with 42% of the vote in what was also called as a landslide, defeating Estrada who had 26% of the vote, and seven others. [Rodrigo Duterte](/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte "Rodrigo Duterte") won with just under 40% of the vote, but with a 14% margin of victory from second\-placer [Mar Roxas](/wiki/Mar_Roxas "Mar Roxas") [in 2016](/wiki/2016_Philippine_presidential_election "2016 Philippine presidential election"). In the 2022 election, under the Partido Federal ng Pilipinas (PFP), [Bongbong Marcos](/wiki/Bongbong_Marcos "Bongbong Marcos") won by a landslide and received nearly 59% of the votes, becoming the first to be elected by a majority since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1986\.
In the operation of the 1987 constitution, incumbents who have in office for more than four years are barred to defend their seats, but all but one (1992\) candidate endorsed by the incumbent lost, and one defended the seat after ascending to the presidency (2004\).
### Summary
|Manner of election
Constitution
Term of service
Reelection
Election day
Inauguration
Elections implemented
| President | Vice president |
| Majority of the members of the [Malolos Congress](/wiki/Malolos_Republic "Malolos Republic") | none | [Malolos Constitution](/wiki/Malolos_Constitution "Malolos Constitution") | Four years | None | January 1 | January 23 | 1899 |
| Popular vote | Popular vote | 1935 Constitution | Six years | No | Second Tuesday of November | December 30 | [1935](/wiki/1935_Philippine_presidential_election "1935 Philippine presidential election") |
| Popular vote | Popular vote | 1935 Constitution as amended | Four years | Once | Second Tuesday of November | December 30 | [1941](/wiki/1941_Philippine_presidential_election "1941 Philippine presidential election"), [1946](/wiki/1946_Philippine_presidential_election "1946 Philippine presidential election"), [1949](/wiki/1949_Philippine_presidential_election "1949 Philippine presidential election"), [1953](/wiki/1953_Philippine_presidential_election "1953 Philippine presidential election"), [1957](/wiki/1957_Philippine_presidential_election "1957 Philippine presidential election"), [1961](/wiki/1961_Philippine_presidential_election "1961 Philippine presidential election"), [1965](/wiki/1965_Philippine_presidential_election "1965 Philippine presidential election"), [1969](/wiki/1969_Philippine_presidential_election "1969 Philippine presidential election") |
| Majority of the members of the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Second_Philippine_Republic "National Assembly of the Second Philippine Republic") | none | 1943 Constitution | Six years | No | varies | December 30 | [1943](/wiki/1943_Philippine_presidential_election "1943 Philippine presidential election") |
| Majority of the members of the [National Assembly](/wiki/Interim_Batasang_Pambansa "Interim Batasang Pambansa") | none | 1973 Constitution | Six years | Unlimited | varies | "Not be later than three days after his proclamation by the National Assembly, nor in any case earlier than the expiration of the term of his predecessor" | None |
| Popular vote | none | 1973 Constitution as amended | Six years | Unlimited | Second Tuesday of June | June 30 | [1981](/wiki/1981_Philippine_presidential_election_and_referendum "1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum") |
| Popular vote | Together with the president | 1973 Constitution as amended | Six years | Unlimited | As provided by law | June 30 | None |
| Popular vote | Popular vote | 1973 Constitution as amended | Six years | Unlimited | As provided by law | June 30 | None |
| Popular vote | Popular vote | Batas Pambansa Bilang 883 | Six years | Unlimited | February 7, 1986 | "Ten days after proclamation by the Batasang Pambansa" (February 25, 1986\) | [1986](/wiki/1986_Philippine_presidential_election "1986 Philippine presidential election") |
| Popular vote | Popular vote | 1987 Constitution | Six years | No for the incumbent president | Second Monday of May | June 30 | [1992](/wiki/1992_Philippine_presidential_election "1992 Philippine presidential election"), [1998](/wiki/1998_Philippine_presidential_election "1998 Philippine presidential election"), [2004](/wiki/2004_Philippine_presidential_election "2004 Philippine presidential election"), [2010](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election "2010 Philippine presidential election"), [2016](/wiki/2016_Philippine_presidential_election "2016 Philippine presidential election"), [2022](/wiki/2022_Philippine_presidential_election "2022 Philippine presidential election") |
|
[
"History\n-------",
"During the [Philippine Revolution](/wiki/Philippine_Revolution \"Philippine Revolution\"), several leadership elections for the [Katipunan](/wiki/Katipunan \"Katipunan\") were later on described as precursors of presidential elections. One example of this is the [Tejeros Convention](/wiki/Tejeros_Convention \"Tejeros Convention\") of 1897, where [Emilio Aguinaldo](/wiki/Emilio_Aguinaldo \"Emilio Aguinaldo\") successfully removed erstwhile Katipunan leader [Andres Bonifacio](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bonifacio \"Andrés Bonifacio\"). From that point on, it was Aguinaldo who would lead the revolution, declare independence from Spain, and convened the [Malolos Congress](/wiki/Malolos_Congress \"Malolos Congress\"). The Malolos Congress elected Aguinaldo as president on January 1, 1899, passed a constitution on January 22, and Aguinaldo and the [First Republic](/wiki/First_Philippine_Republic \"First Philippine Republic\") was inaugurated on January 23, 1899\\. The First Republic existed until Aguinaldo's capture by the Americans on March 23, 1901\\.",
"The first presidential election by popular vote was on September 15, 1935, after the ratification of the [1935 Constitution of the Philippines](/wiki/1935_Constitution_of_the_Philippines \"1935 Constitution of the Philippines\"); [Manuel Quezon](/wiki/Manuel_Quezon \"Manuel Quezon\") of the [Nacionalista Party](/wiki/Nacionalista_Party \"Nacionalista Party\") emerged as the victor, defeating previous president [Emilio Aguinaldo](/wiki/Emilio_Aguinaldo \"Emilio Aguinaldo\") (Aguinaldo was elected president by the [Malolos Congress](/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Philippines \"Revolutionary Government of the Philippines\")). As a [commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines \"Commonwealth of the Philippines\") then of the United States, the constitution decreed that the president shall have one term of six years without reelection. In 1940, it was amended to allow one reelection, but with the term shortened to four years; this setup was first used in the second election in 1941 with Quezon being reelected.",
"However, World War II intervened and thus suspended the elections of 1945\\. The [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") set up the [Second Philippine Republic](/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic \"Second Philippine Republic\") that elected [José P. Laurel](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_P._Laurel \"José P. Laurel\") as president by the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Second_Philippine_Republic \"National Assembly of the Second Philippine Republic\") in 1943\\. After the Japanese were defeated, [Congress](/wiki/1st_Congress_of_the_Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines \"1st Congress of the Commonwealth of the Philippines\") rescheduled the much\\-delayed election in 1946\\. [Manuel Roxas](/wiki/Manuel_Roxas \"Manuel Roxas\") of the newly formed [Liberal Party](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28Philippines%29 \"Liberal Party (Philippines)\") won the election a few weeks prior to the granting of independence by the United States. In 1949, the first election for the newly independent republic was held with President [Elpidio Quirino](/wiki/Elpidio_Quirino \"Elpidio Quirino\") winning; Quirino succeeded Roxas, who died while in office. Thereafter, elections were held every four years every second Tuesday of November of the election year, with the winning president and vice president inaugurated on December 30 succeeding the election. The alternation between the Nacionalistas and the Liberals characterized an apparent [two\\-party system](/wiki/Two-party_system \"Two-party system\") of the Third Republic.",
"In the operation of the 1935 constitution, there were nine presidential elections; excluding the first election where there were no incumbents, the incumbent was beaten four times (1946, 1953, 1961, 1965\\), the incumbent won upon ascending to the presidency from a vacancy twice (1949, 1957\\), and two incumbents won a second term after being elected to a first term as president (1941, 1969\\).",
"In 1972, President [Ferdinand Marcos](/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos \"Ferdinand Marcos\") declared martial law and ruled by decree. At this time, a new constitution was ratified in 1973 in which the office of the vice president being abolished. and that the president shall be elected by the [National Assembly](/wiki/Interim_Batasang_Pambansa \"Interim Batasang Pambansa\") amongst themselves, although once elected, the president will cease to be a member of the National Assembly and any political party (similar to the British [Speaker of the House of Commons](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)\")). With the members of the National Assembly having no term limits, the president may serve indefinitely. Before parliament was elected referendums in [1973](/wiki/1973_Philippine_martial_law_referendum \"1973 Philippine martial law referendum\") and [1977](/wiki/1977_Philippine_presidential_referendum \"1977 Philippine presidential referendum\") affirmed that Marcos will stay as president and prime minister even after parliament has been organized.",
"In 1981, [via constitutional amendment](/wiki/1981_Philippine_constitutional_referendum \"1981 Philippine constitutional referendum\"), the president is again elected via popular vote, with a term of office of six years starting at the thirtieth of June of the year of the election. In the succeeding election on [June 16, 1981](/wiki/1981_Philippine_presidential_election_and_referendum \"1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum\") (third Monday of June); Marcos was again elected, with much of the opposition boycotting the election. In addition, the amendment also renamed the National Assembly into its [Filipino](/wiki/Filipino_language \"Filipino language\") translation as \"Batasang Pambansa.\" In 1984, [another amendment](/wiki/1984_Philippine_constitutional_plebiscite \"1984 Philippine constitutional plebiscite\") reinstated the office of the vice president. The election of the vice president is similar to the United States presidential election, in which a vote for the president is also a vote for the vice president, although this was later changed to a separate vote for each position. Marcos' [Kilusang Bagong Lipunan](/wiki/Kilusang_Bagong_Lipunan \"Kilusang Bagong Lipunan\") (New Society Movement or KBL) won every presidential election of the Fourth Republic until 1986\\.",
"In 1986, Marcos called for an early or [\"snap\" election](/wiki/1986_Philippine_presidential_election \"1986 Philippine presidential election\") (the next scheduled election was in 1987\\) and was, including his running mate [Arturo Tolentino](/wiki/Arturo_Tolentino \"Arturo Tolentino\"), declared the winners. The [People Power Revolution](/wiki/People_Power_Revolution \"People Power Revolution\") erupted that drove Marcos out of power, and [Corazon Aquino](/wiki/Corazon_Aquino \"Corazon Aquino\"), the runner\\-up, assumed the presidency. A new constitution was ratified in 1987 that was essentially identical with the provisions of the amended 1973 constitution as long as the election of the president and vice president is concerned, with the presidential election occurring at the second Monday of May and the inauguration every June 30 of the election year. The [1992 election](/wiki/1992_Philippine_presidential_election \"1992 Philippine presidential election\") was the first election under the new constitution and elections are held every six years thereafter. [Fidel V. Ramos](/wiki/Fidel_V._Ramos \"Fidel V. Ramos\") won the 1992 election with just 23% of the vote, the lowest plurality in history; it also ushered in the [multi\\-party system](/wiki/Multi-party_system \"Multi-party system\") of the Fifth Republic. Thereafter, no winner has won via a majority, although each has had an increasing percentage of votes with every succeeding election. [Joseph Estrada](/wiki/Joseph_Estrada \"Joseph Estrada\") won [in 1998](/wiki/1998_Philippine_presidential_election \"1998 Philippine presidential election\") in what was described as landslide, getting just under 40% of the votes, while second place [Jose de Venecia](/wiki/Jose_de_Venecia \"Jose de Venecia\") getting 16%. President [Gloria Macapagal Arroyo](/wiki/Gloria_Macapagal_Arroyo \"Gloria Macapagal Arroyo\"), who succeeded Estrada at the outcome of the [2001 EDSA Revolution](/wiki/2001_EDSA_Revolution \"2001 EDSA Revolution\"), was the first sitting president to run, and defeated [Fernando Poe, Jr.](/wiki/Fernando_Poe%2C_Jr. \"Fernando Poe, Jr.\") in the closest margin in history. [Benigno Aquino III](/wiki/Benigno_Aquino_III \"Benigno Aquino III\") won [in 2010](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election \"2010 Philippine presidential election\") with 42% of the vote in what was also called as a landslide, defeating Estrada who had 26% of the vote, and seven others. [Rodrigo Duterte](/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte \"Rodrigo Duterte\") won with just under 40% of the vote, but with a 14% margin of victory from second\\-placer [Mar Roxas](/wiki/Mar_Roxas \"Mar Roxas\") [in 2016](/wiki/2016_Philippine_presidential_election \"2016 Philippine presidential election\"). In the 2022 election, under the Partido Federal ng Pilipinas (PFP), [Bongbong Marcos](/wiki/Bongbong_Marcos \"Bongbong Marcos\") won by a landslide and received nearly 59% of the votes, becoming the first to be elected by a majority since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1986\\.",
"In the operation of the 1987 constitution, incumbents who have in office for more than four years are barred to defend their seats, but all but one (1992\\) candidate endorsed by the incumbent lost, and one defended the seat after ascending to the presidency (2004\\).",
"### Summary",
"",
"|Manner of election",
"Constitution",
"Term of service",
"Reelection",
"Election day",
"Inauguration",
"Elections implemented",
"| President | Vice president |\n| Majority of the members of the [Malolos Congress](/wiki/Malolos_Republic \"Malolos Republic\") | none | [Malolos Constitution](/wiki/Malolos_Constitution \"Malolos Constitution\") | Four years | None | January 1 | January 23 | 1899 |\n| Popular vote | Popular vote | 1935 Constitution | Six years | No | Second Tuesday of November | December 30 | [1935](/wiki/1935_Philippine_presidential_election \"1935 Philippine presidential election\") |\n| Popular vote | Popular vote | 1935 Constitution as amended | Four years | Once | Second Tuesday of November | December 30 | [1941](/wiki/1941_Philippine_presidential_election \"1941 Philippine presidential election\"), [1946](/wiki/1946_Philippine_presidential_election \"1946 Philippine presidential election\"), [1949](/wiki/1949_Philippine_presidential_election \"1949 Philippine presidential election\"), [1953](/wiki/1953_Philippine_presidential_election \"1953 Philippine presidential election\"), [1957](/wiki/1957_Philippine_presidential_election \"1957 Philippine presidential election\"), [1961](/wiki/1961_Philippine_presidential_election \"1961 Philippine presidential election\"), [1965](/wiki/1965_Philippine_presidential_election \"1965 Philippine presidential election\"), [1969](/wiki/1969_Philippine_presidential_election \"1969 Philippine presidential election\") |\n| Majority of the members of the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Second_Philippine_Republic \"National Assembly of the Second Philippine Republic\") | none | 1943 Constitution | Six years | No | varies | December 30 | [1943](/wiki/1943_Philippine_presidential_election \"1943 Philippine presidential election\") |\n| Majority of the members of the [National Assembly](/wiki/Interim_Batasang_Pambansa \"Interim Batasang Pambansa\") | none | 1973 Constitution | Six years | Unlimited | varies | \"Not be later than three days after his proclamation by the National Assembly, nor in any case earlier than the expiration of the term of his predecessor\" | None |\n| Popular vote | none | 1973 Constitution as amended | Six years | Unlimited | Second Tuesday of June | June 30 | [1981](/wiki/1981_Philippine_presidential_election_and_referendum \"1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum\") |\n| Popular vote | Together with the president | 1973 Constitution as amended | Six years | Unlimited | As provided by law | June 30 | None |\n| Popular vote | Popular vote | 1973 Constitution as amended | Six years | Unlimited | As provided by law | June 30 | None |\n| Popular vote | Popular vote | Batas Pambansa Bilang 883 | Six years | Unlimited | February 7, 1986 | \"Ten days after proclamation by the Batasang Pambansa\" (February 25, 1986\\) | [1986](/wiki/1986_Philippine_presidential_election \"1986 Philippine presidential election\") |\n| Popular vote | Popular vote | 1987 Constitution | Six years | No for the incumbent president | Second Monday of May | June 30 | [1992](/wiki/1992_Philippine_presidential_election \"1992 Philippine presidential election\"), [1998](/wiki/1998_Philippine_presidential_election \"1998 Philippine presidential election\"), [2004](/wiki/2004_Philippine_presidential_election \"2004 Philippine presidential election\"), [2010](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election \"2010 Philippine presidential election\"), [2016](/wiki/2016_Philippine_presidential_election \"2016 Philippine presidential election\"), [2022](/wiki/2022_Philippine_presidential_election \"2022 Philippine presidential election\") |"
] |
Incumbent president running for re\-election
--------------------------------------------
Based on the 1935 constitution, from 1935 to 1940, the incumbent president is eligible for one six\-year term and cannot be reelected.
In 1940, [a plebiscite](/wiki/1940_Philippine_constitutional_plebiscites "1940 Philippine constitutional plebiscites") approved an amendment that set a four\-year term for a president, and that a president can be re\-elected, but cannot serve for more than an amount of time that is worth two full terms (eight years).
In 1973, [a plebiscite](/wiki/1973_Philippine_constitutional_plebiscite "1973 Philippine constitutional plebiscite") adopted a new constitution that abolished term limits, and set up a six\-year term for the president.
In 1987, [a plebiscite](/wiki/1987_Philippine_constitutional_plebiscite "1987 Philippine constitutional plebiscite") approved a new constitution that set a six\-year term with no reelection for the incumbent. A vice president who became president cannot be elected as president if that person served as president for more than four years. As the incumbent president at that time was elected under the 1973 constitution, she was allowed to run anew but chose not to.
| Year | Incumbent president | Eligible to run? | Ran for president? | Ran for another position? | Won? |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [1941](/wiki/1941_Philippine_presidential_election "1941 Philippine presidential election") | [Manuel L. Quezon](/wiki/Manuel_L._Quezon "Manuel L. Quezon") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |
| [1946](/wiki/1946_Philippine_presidential_election "1946 Philippine presidential election") | [Sergio Osmeña](/wiki/Sergio_Osme%C3%B1a "Sergio Osmeña") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} |
| [1949](/wiki/1949_Philippine_presidential_election "1949 Philippine presidential election") | [Elpidio Quirino](/wiki/Elpidio_Quirino "Elpidio Quirino") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |
| [1953](/wiki/1953_Philippine_presidential_election "1953 Philippine presidential election") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} |
| [1957](/wiki/1957_Philippine_presidential_election "1957 Philippine presidential election") | [Carlos P. Garcia](/wiki/Carlos_P._Garcia "Carlos P. Garcia") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |
| [1961](/wiki/1961_Philippine_presidential_election "1961 Philippine presidential election") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} |
| [1965](/wiki/1965_Philippine_presidential_election "1965 Philippine presidential election") | [Diosdado Macapagal](/wiki/Diosdado_Macapagal "Diosdado Macapagal") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} |
| [1969](/wiki/1969_Philippine_presidential_election "1969 Philippine presidential election") | [Ferdinand Marcos](/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos "Ferdinand Marcos") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |
| [1981](/wiki/1981_Philippine_presidential_election_and_referendum "1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |
| [1986](/wiki/1986_Philippine_presidential_election "1986 Philippine presidential election") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | Disputed |
| [1992](/wiki/1992_Philippine_presidential_election "1992 Philippine presidential election") | [Corazon Aquino](/wiki/Corazon_Aquino "Corazon Aquino") | {{Yes}} | {{No}} | {{No}} | {{N/A}} |
| [1998](/wiki/1998_Philippine_presidential_election "1998 Philippine presidential election") | [Fidel V. Ramos](/wiki/Fidel_V._Ramos "Fidel V. Ramos") | {{No}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} | {{N/A}} |
| [2004](/wiki/2004_Philippine_presidential_election "2004 Philippine presidential election") | [Gloria Macapagal Arroyo](/wiki/Gloria_Macapagal_Arroyo "Gloria Macapagal Arroyo") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{No}} | {{Yes}} |
| [2010](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election "2010 Philippine presidential election") | {{No}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}}, congresswoman | {{Yes}} |
| [2016](/wiki/2016_Philippine_presidential_election "2016 Philippine presidential election") | [Benigno Aquino III](/wiki/Benigno_Aquino_III "Benigno Aquino III") | {{No}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} | {{N/A}} |
| [2022](/wiki/2022_Philippine_presidential_election "2022 Philippine presidential election") | [Rodrigo Duterte](/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte "Rodrigo Duterte") | {{No}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} | {{N/A}} |
Every president who is eligible to run for president ran again, except in 1992 where Corazon Aquino did not run.
Vice presidents who became president upon vacancy of the latter office ran four times, and won as presidents in their own right in 1949, 1957 and 2004, and lost In 1946\.
|
[
"Incumbent president running for re\\-election\n--------------------------------------------",
"Based on the 1935 constitution, from 1935 to 1940, the incumbent president is eligible for one six\\-year term and cannot be reelected.",
"In 1940, [a plebiscite](/wiki/1940_Philippine_constitutional_plebiscites \"1940 Philippine constitutional plebiscites\") approved an amendment that set a four\\-year term for a president, and that a president can be re\\-elected, but cannot serve for more than an amount of time that is worth two full terms (eight years).",
"In 1973, [a plebiscite](/wiki/1973_Philippine_constitutional_plebiscite \"1973 Philippine constitutional plebiscite\") adopted a new constitution that abolished term limits, and set up a six\\-year term for the president.",
"In 1987, [a plebiscite](/wiki/1987_Philippine_constitutional_plebiscite \"1987 Philippine constitutional plebiscite\") approved a new constitution that set a six\\-year term with no reelection for the incumbent. A vice president who became president cannot be elected as president if that person served as president for more than four years. As the incumbent president at that time was elected under the 1973 constitution, she was allowed to run anew but chose not to.",
"| Year | Incumbent president | Eligible to run? | Ran for president? | Ran for another position? | Won? |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [1941](/wiki/1941_Philippine_presidential_election \"1941 Philippine presidential election\") | [Manuel L. Quezon](/wiki/Manuel_L._Quezon \"Manuel L. Quezon\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |\n| [1946](/wiki/1946_Philippine_presidential_election \"1946 Philippine presidential election\") | [Sergio Osmeña](/wiki/Sergio_Osme%C3%B1a \"Sergio Osmeña\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} |\n| [1949](/wiki/1949_Philippine_presidential_election \"1949 Philippine presidential election\") | [Elpidio Quirino](/wiki/Elpidio_Quirino \"Elpidio Quirino\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |\n| [1953](/wiki/1953_Philippine_presidential_election \"1953 Philippine presidential election\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} |\n| [1957](/wiki/1957_Philippine_presidential_election \"1957 Philippine presidential election\") | [Carlos P. Garcia](/wiki/Carlos_P._Garcia \"Carlos P. Garcia\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |\n| [1961](/wiki/1961_Philippine_presidential_election \"1961 Philippine presidential election\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} |\n| [1965](/wiki/1965_Philippine_presidential_election \"1965 Philippine presidential election\") | [Diosdado Macapagal](/wiki/Diosdado_Macapagal \"Diosdado Macapagal\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} |\n| [1969](/wiki/1969_Philippine_presidential_election \"1969 Philippine presidential election\") | [Ferdinand Marcos](/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos \"Ferdinand Marcos\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |\n| [1981](/wiki/1981_Philippine_presidential_election_and_referendum \"1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}} |\n| [1986](/wiki/1986_Philippine_presidential_election \"1986 Philippine presidential election\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{N/A}} | Disputed |\n| [1992](/wiki/1992_Philippine_presidential_election \"1992 Philippine presidential election\") | [Corazon Aquino](/wiki/Corazon_Aquino \"Corazon Aquino\") | {{Yes}} | {{No}} | {{No}} | {{N/A}} |\n| [1998](/wiki/1998_Philippine_presidential_election \"1998 Philippine presidential election\") | [Fidel V. Ramos](/wiki/Fidel_V._Ramos \"Fidel V. Ramos\") | {{No}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} | {{N/A}} |\n| [2004](/wiki/2004_Philippine_presidential_election \"2004 Philippine presidential election\") | [Gloria Macapagal Arroyo](/wiki/Gloria_Macapagal_Arroyo \"Gloria Macapagal Arroyo\") | {{Yes}} | {{Yes}} | {{No}} | {{Yes}} |\n| [2010](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election \"2010 Philippine presidential election\") | {{No}} | {{N/A}} | {{Yes}}, congresswoman | {{Yes}} |\n| [2016](/wiki/2016_Philippine_presidential_election \"2016 Philippine presidential election\") | [Benigno Aquino III](/wiki/Benigno_Aquino_III \"Benigno Aquino III\") | {{No}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} | {{N/A}} |\n| [2022](/wiki/2022_Philippine_presidential_election \"2022 Philippine presidential election\") | [Rodrigo Duterte](/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte \"Rodrigo Duterte\") | {{No}} | {{N/A}} | {{No}} | {{N/A}} |",
"Every president who is eligible to run for president ran again, except in 1992 where Corazon Aquino did not run.",
"Vice presidents who became president upon vacancy of the latter office ran four times, and won as presidents in their own right in 1949, 1957 and 2004, and lost In 1946\\.",
""
] |
Development
-----------
### Background and Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter competition
The [RAH\-66 Comanche](/wiki/RAH-66_Comanche "RAH-66 Comanche") helicopter program was canceled by the U.S. Army on 23 February 2004\. The cancellation was a result of a six\-month study which recommended canceling the program before the Comanche reached production, after 20 years and development costs of over US$6\.9 billion. The study estimated that the Army would save US$14 billion with the cancellation, which could then be used to update and replace the aging airframes of the Army's helicopter fleet.Burlas, Joe. ["Comanche project grounded"](http://www.dix.army.mil/PAO/Post04/post022704/ComancheProjectGrounded.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121005958/http://www.dix.army.mil/PAO/Post04/post022704/ComancheProjectGrounded.htm \|date\=21 January 2009 }}. Army News Service, 23 February 2004\. Accessed on 17 October 2008\. The study targeted the OH\-58D Kiowa Warrior for replacement based on the age of the airframes, recent losses, and a lack of replacement airframes.
Army officials issued a request for proposals (RFP) for the replacement aircraft as the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter (ARH) on 9 December 2004\.["Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter (ARH)"](http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/arh.htm). Global Security. Accessed 1 October 2007\. The Army's concept would use [commercial off\-the\-shelf](/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf "Commercial off-the-shelf") (COTS) technology, with the goal of an operational unit of 30 helicopters and eight trainers ready by September 2008\.["ARH\-70A First Flight!"](http://www.bellhelicopter.com/en/company/pressReleases/PR_060721-1305_ARH-1stFlight.cfm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080717074849/http://www.bellhelicopter.com/en/company/pressReleases/PR\_060721\-1305\_ARH\-1stFlight.cfm \|date\=17 July 2008 }}. Bell Helicopter press release, 20 July 2006\. Accessed 17 October 2008\. Two companies submitted bids:["Filling Comanche's Shoes"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/military/utility/1533.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911223957/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/military/utility/1533\.html \|date\=11 September 2016 }}. Aviation Today
* [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing "Boeing") proposed the upgraded version of the [MH\-6 Little Bird](/wiki/MH-6_Little_Bird "MH-6 Little Bird"), the MH\-6M Mission Enhanced Little Bird (MELB). Because the aircraft was already in service with the [160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment](/wiki/160th_Special_Operations_Aviation_Regiment "160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment"), it became the predictive favorite despite doubts that [MD Helicopters Inc. (MDHI)](/wiki/MD_Helicopters "MD Helicopters") could ramp up production to meet the contract's demands. To alleviate this concern, Boeing purchased the production rights for the design and served as the prime contractor.["Rotorcraft Report: Bell Beats Boeing, Aims for ARH Deliveries Next Year"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/commercial/ems/1757.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162632/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/commercial/ems/1757\.html \|date\=28 September 2011 }}. *Rotor \& Wing*, September 2005\. Accessed 17 October 2008\.
[thumb\|right\|A Bell 407 being used for early development of the ARH\-70](/wiki/File:RAH-70.jpg "RAH-70.jpg")
* [Bell Helicopter](/wiki/Bell_Helicopter "Bell Helicopter") proposed an update of the OH\-58D concept in a militarized version of the [Bell 407](/wiki/Bell_407 "Bell 407"), using a more powerful [Honeywell HTS900](/wiki/Honeywell_HTS900 "Honeywell HTS900") turboshaft engine,Trimble, Stephen. ["Bell and Boeing battle to win ARH"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/02/22/194174/bell-and-boeing-battle-to-win-arh.html). *Flight International*, 22 February 2005\. an all\-composite main rotor based on the [Bell 430](/wiki/Bell_430 "Bell 430")'s rotor, and the [Bell 427](/wiki/Bell_427 "Bell 427") tail assembly.Warwick, Graham. ["Bell launches Honeywell HTS900\-powered 417 to rival Eurocopter Squirrel"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2006/02/27/205200/bell-launches-honeywell-hts900-powered-417-to-rival-eurocopter.html). *Flight International*, 27 February 2006\.
The Army announced Bell as the winner of a contract for 368 helicopters on 29 July 2005\. There was some confusion as Bell figures placed the contract value at US$2\.2 billion while Army estimates were over US$3 billion, compared to its earlier estimate of US$2\.36 billion.["Bell defeats Boeing with 407 ARH"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/08/09/200810/bell-defeats-boeing-with-407-arh.html). *Flight International*, 9 August 2005\. Accessed 18 October 2008\. The contract called for the development of prototypes and the delivery of preproduction aircraft to the Army for the Limited User Test (LUT), with the first unit equipped by the end of September 2008\.[The Bell ARH\-70A, Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter – Program Timeline](http://www.bellhelicopter.textron.com/en/aircraft/military/bellARH.cfm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509162953/http://www.bellhelicopter.textron.com/en/aircraft/military/bellARH.cfm \|date\=9 May 2008 }}. Bell Helicopter. Accessed 26 September 2010\.
### Flight testing
[thumb\|left\|Unarmed training prototype in January 2008](/wiki/File:Bell_ARH-70-1.jpg "Bell ARH-70-1.jpg")
Bell's ARH demonstrator, a modified Bell 407 (s/n 53343/N91796[407 airframe](http://www.helis.com/database/cn/21974/)), first flew on 3 June 2005\.["ARH debut"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/06/14/198974/arh-debut.html). *Flight International*. 14 June 2005\. Accessed 18 October 2008\. In February 2006, the ARH demonstrator flew with a limited avionics and Mission Equipment Package (MEP), and in April Bell fitted and mounted the Honeywell HTS900\-2 engine to the demonstrator airframe, followed by a series of ground runs.["Rotorcraft Report"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/personalcorporate/exectransport/1556.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162708/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/personalcorporate/exectransport/1556\.html \|date\=28 September 2011 }}. *Rotor \& Wing*, April 2006\. Accessed on 18 October 2008\. The first flight was delayed, first in March and then in May, to allow Bell to configure the prototypes as preproduction aircraft. Bell and the Army both eventually agreed that this delay would be essential for maintaining the compressed timeline for development. The ARH\-70's maiden flight occurred on 20 July 2006, at Bell's XworX facility in [Arlington, Texas](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Texas "Arlington, Texas").
On 21 February 2007, during its first flight, prototype \#4 (s/n 53906/N445HR) suffered a loss of engine power, due to [fuel starvation](/wiki/Fuel_starvation "Fuel starvation"), and made an [autorotational](/wiki/Autorotation_%28helicopter%29 "Autorotation (helicopter)") landing at a nearby golf course. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair when it rolled over during the landing; the test pilots survived and were uninjured.["NTSB Identification: DFW07CA066"](https://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/brief.asp?ev_id=20070328X00341&key=1). factual report. National Transportation Safety Board. 29 May 2007\. Accessed on 18 October 2008\.["ARH Crash: Foreign Objects Blocked Fuel Flow"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/topstories/9971.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162800/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/topstories/9971\.html \|date\=28 September 2011 }}. *Rotor \& Wing*. Aviation Today. 29 March 2007\. Accessed 17 October 2008\.["ARH Crash Probe Clears Engine, Cites Fuel Starvation"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/categories/military/9968.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162812/http://www.aviationtoday.com/categories/military/9968\.html \|date\=28 September 2011 }}. *Aviation Today*, April 2008\. Accessed 17 October 2008\.
### Program cost increases and cancellation
A month later, on 22 March 2007, the Army issued a "Stop Work" notice, giving Bell 30 days to present a plan to get the ARH program back on track. Previous estimates for the System Development Demonstration portion of the program had grown from $210 million to over $300 million.Warwick, Graham. ["Work stops as soaring ARH cost alarms Army"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2007/03/27/212875/work-stops-as-soaring-arh-cost-alarms-army.html). *Flight*. 27 March 2007\. Accessed on 28 June 2009\. [Textron](/wiki/Textron "Textron"), Bell's parent company, notified investors that they could lose $2–4 million on each aircraft under the contract.["US Army orders Bell to stop work on ARH and come up with new plan"](http://www.flightglobal.com/Articles/Article.aspx?liArticleID=212830&PrinterFriendly=true). *Flight International*. Accessed 24 March 2007\. Bell appealed and received permission to continue development using company funds until the notice was resolved. On 18 May 2007, the Army approved continuation of the ARH program. ["Army to Continue with Bell Helicopter/Textron Inc. for Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter"](http://www.army.mil/-newsreleases/2007/05/18/3269-army-to-continue-with-bell-helicoptertextron-inc-for-armed-reconnaissance-helicopter/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613233623/http://www.army.mil/\-newsreleases/2007/05/18/3269\-army\-to\-continue\-with\-bell\-helicoptertextron\-inc\-for\-armed\-reconnaissance\-helicopter/ \|date\=13 June 2007 }}. Army press release. United States Army. 18 May 2007\.
The House Appropriations Committee's Defense panel drafted a bill for the 2008 Defense Budget which zeroed out funding for ARH\-70 production, citing Bell's inability to enter production, but continued funding for research and development.United States House of Representatives. ["Selected Cuts"](http://appropriations.house.gov/pdf/DefenseSummaryFC.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808001435/http://appropriations.house.gov/pdf/DefenseSummaryFC.pdf \|date\=8 August 2007 }}. *Summary: 2008 Defense Appropriations*. United States House of Representatives, 2008\. Accessed on 28 June 2009\. However, government officials began working on export policy to allow international sales of the ARH\-70\. Including the U.S. Army's expected total of 512 helicopters, orders were anticipated to total over 1,000\.["Daily News: Army Requests Hundreds of ARH\-70As"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/topstories/18733.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162547/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/topstories/18733\.html \|date\=28 September 2011 }}. *Rotor \& Wing* magazine, 23 January 2008\. The Army filed a [Nunn\-McCurdy](/wiki/Nunn%E2%80%93McCurdy_Amendment "Nunn–McCurdy Amendment") cost and schedule breach on 9 July 2008, when new cost estimates showed a 40% cost increase above initial estimates. In August 2008, the Army requested that Bell cease recruitment for the ARH\-70 program pending the outcome of the review.Bruno, Michael and Graham Warwick. ["ARH Breaches Nunn\-McCurdy Caps"](http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/jsp_includes/articlePrint.jsp?storyID=news/ARH70071008.xml&headLine=ARH%20Breaches%20Nunn-McCurdy%20Caps){{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}. *Aviation Week*, 10 July 2008\. Accessed 28 June 2009\.
On 16 October 2008, the Army's Acquisition Executive Office for Aviation directed that the ARH contract be terminated completely for the convenience of the government.Army Press Service. ["Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter program halted, need for capability remains"](http://www.army.mil/-news/2008/10/17/13387-armed-reconnaissance-helicopter-program-halted-need-for-capability-remains/). Army News. 17 October 2008\. Accessed on 24 October 2008\. The cancellation was the result of the [United States Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") (DOD) not certifying the US$6\.2 billion ARH\-70 program to Congress. John Young, the Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics, cited the reason as excessive costs of the program which had increased over 70 percent with an estimated per\-unit cost of US$14\.5 million, up from US$8\.5 million.["Pentagon Cancels Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter"](http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=3775612&c=AME&s=AIR){{dead link\|date\=August 2021\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}}. *Defense News*, 16 October 2008\. Accessed 16 October 2008\.
Although the ARH\-70 was not procured by the USA, the [Iraqi Air Force](/wiki/Iraqi_Air_Force "Iraqi Air Force") bought Bell 407 armed scouts in a similar configuration as the ARH starting in 2009\."Bell 407s Ordered for Iraq". *[Air International](/wiki/Air_International "Air International")*, April 2009, Vol 76, No. 4\. p. 7\. There are 30 in service; 24 armed scouts, three gunships, and three trainers.["More For The Iraq Army Air Corps"](http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htproc/20130129.aspx). Strategypage.com, January 29, 2013\.
|
[
"Development\n-----------",
"### Background and Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter competition",
"The [RAH\\-66 Comanche](/wiki/RAH-66_Comanche \"RAH-66 Comanche\") helicopter program was canceled by the U.S. Army on 23 February 2004\\. The cancellation was a result of a six\\-month study which recommended canceling the program before the Comanche reached production, after 20 years and development costs of over US$6\\.9 billion. The study estimated that the Army would save US$14 billion with the cancellation, which could then be used to update and replace the aging airframes of the Army's helicopter fleet.Burlas, Joe. [\"Comanche project grounded\"](http://www.dix.army.mil/PAO/Post04/post022704/ComancheProjectGrounded.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121005958/http://www.dix.army.mil/PAO/Post04/post022704/ComancheProjectGrounded.htm \\|date\\=21 January 2009 }}. Army News Service, 23 February 2004\\. Accessed on 17 October 2008\\. The study targeted the OH\\-58D Kiowa Warrior for replacement based on the age of the airframes, recent losses, and a lack of replacement airframes.",
"Army officials issued a request for proposals (RFP) for the replacement aircraft as the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter (ARH) on 9 December 2004\\.[\"Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter (ARH)\"](http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/arh.htm). Global Security. Accessed 1 October 2007\\. The Army's concept would use [commercial off\\-the\\-shelf](/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf \"Commercial off-the-shelf\") (COTS) technology, with the goal of an operational unit of 30 helicopters and eight trainers ready by September 2008\\.[\"ARH\\-70A First Flight!\"](http://www.bellhelicopter.com/en/company/pressReleases/PR_060721-1305_ARH-1stFlight.cfm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080717074849/http://www.bellhelicopter.com/en/company/pressReleases/PR\\_060721\\-1305\\_ARH\\-1stFlight.cfm \\|date\\=17 July 2008 }}. Bell Helicopter press release, 20 July 2006\\. Accessed 17 October 2008\\. Two companies submitted bids:[\"Filling Comanche's Shoes\"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/military/utility/1533.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911223957/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/military/utility/1533\\.html \\|date\\=11 September 2016 }}. Aviation Today",
"* [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing \"Boeing\") proposed the upgraded version of the [MH\\-6 Little Bird](/wiki/MH-6_Little_Bird \"MH-6 Little Bird\"), the MH\\-6M Mission Enhanced Little Bird (MELB). Because the aircraft was already in service with the [160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment](/wiki/160th_Special_Operations_Aviation_Regiment \"160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment\"), it became the predictive favorite despite doubts that [MD Helicopters Inc. (MDHI)](/wiki/MD_Helicopters \"MD Helicopters\") could ramp up production to meet the contract's demands. To alleviate this concern, Boeing purchased the production rights for the design and served as the prime contractor.[\"Rotorcraft Report: Bell Beats Boeing, Aims for ARH Deliveries Next Year\"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/commercial/ems/1757.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162632/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/commercial/ems/1757\\.html \\|date\\=28 September 2011 }}. *Rotor \\& Wing*, September 2005\\. Accessed 17 October 2008\\.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A Bell 407 being used for early development of the ARH\\-70](/wiki/File:RAH-70.jpg \"RAH-70.jpg\")",
"* [Bell Helicopter](/wiki/Bell_Helicopter \"Bell Helicopter\") proposed an update of the OH\\-58D concept in a militarized version of the [Bell 407](/wiki/Bell_407 \"Bell 407\"), using a more powerful [Honeywell HTS900](/wiki/Honeywell_HTS900 \"Honeywell HTS900\") turboshaft engine,Trimble, Stephen. [\"Bell and Boeing battle to win ARH\"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/02/22/194174/bell-and-boeing-battle-to-win-arh.html). *Flight International*, 22 February 2005\\. an all\\-composite main rotor based on the [Bell 430](/wiki/Bell_430 \"Bell 430\")'s rotor, and the [Bell 427](/wiki/Bell_427 \"Bell 427\") tail assembly.Warwick, Graham. [\"Bell launches Honeywell HTS900\\-powered 417 to rival Eurocopter Squirrel\"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2006/02/27/205200/bell-launches-honeywell-hts900-powered-417-to-rival-eurocopter.html). *Flight International*, 27 February 2006\\.",
"The Army announced Bell as the winner of a contract for 368 helicopters on 29 July 2005\\. There was some confusion as Bell figures placed the contract value at US$2\\.2 billion while Army estimates were over US$3 billion, compared to its earlier estimate of US$2\\.36 billion.[\"Bell defeats Boeing with 407 ARH\"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/08/09/200810/bell-defeats-boeing-with-407-arh.html). *Flight International*, 9 August 2005\\. Accessed 18 October 2008\\. The contract called for the development of prototypes and the delivery of preproduction aircraft to the Army for the Limited User Test (LUT), with the first unit equipped by the end of September 2008\\.[The Bell ARH\\-70A, Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter – Program Timeline](http://www.bellhelicopter.textron.com/en/aircraft/military/bellARH.cfm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509162953/http://www.bellhelicopter.textron.com/en/aircraft/military/bellARH.cfm \\|date\\=9 May 2008 }}. Bell Helicopter. Accessed 26 September 2010\\.",
"### Flight testing",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Unarmed training prototype in January 2008](/wiki/File:Bell_ARH-70-1.jpg \"Bell ARH-70-1.jpg\")\nBell's ARH demonstrator, a modified Bell 407 (s/n 53343/N91796[407 airframe](http://www.helis.com/database/cn/21974/)), first flew on 3 June 2005\\.[\"ARH debut\"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/06/14/198974/arh-debut.html). *Flight International*. 14 June 2005\\. Accessed 18 October 2008\\. In February 2006, the ARH demonstrator flew with a limited avionics and Mission Equipment Package (MEP), and in April Bell fitted and mounted the Honeywell HTS900\\-2 engine to the demonstrator airframe, followed by a series of ground runs.[\"Rotorcraft Report\"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/personalcorporate/exectransport/1556.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162708/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/personalcorporate/exectransport/1556\\.html \\|date\\=28 September 2011 }}. *Rotor \\& Wing*, April 2006\\. Accessed on 18 October 2008\\. The first flight was delayed, first in March and then in May, to allow Bell to configure the prototypes as preproduction aircraft. Bell and the Army both eventually agreed that this delay would be essential for maintaining the compressed timeline for development. The ARH\\-70's maiden flight occurred on 20 July 2006, at Bell's XworX facility in [Arlington, Texas](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Texas \"Arlington, Texas\").",
"On 21 February 2007, during its first flight, prototype \\#4 (s/n 53906/N445HR) suffered a loss of engine power, due to [fuel starvation](/wiki/Fuel_starvation \"Fuel starvation\"), and made an [autorotational](/wiki/Autorotation_%28helicopter%29 \"Autorotation (helicopter)\") landing at a nearby golf course. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair when it rolled over during the landing; the test pilots survived and were uninjured.[\"NTSB Identification: DFW07CA066\"](https://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/brief.asp?ev_id=20070328X00341&key=1). factual report. National Transportation Safety Board. 29 May 2007\\. Accessed on 18 October 2008\\.[\"ARH Crash: Foreign Objects Blocked Fuel Flow\"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/topstories/9971.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162800/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/topstories/9971\\.html \\|date\\=28 September 2011 }}. *Rotor \\& Wing*. Aviation Today. 29 March 2007\\. Accessed 17 October 2008\\.[\"ARH Crash Probe Clears Engine, Cites Fuel Starvation\"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/categories/military/9968.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162812/http://www.aviationtoday.com/categories/military/9968\\.html \\|date\\=28 September 2011 }}. *Aviation Today*, April 2008\\. Accessed 17 October 2008\\.",
"### Program cost increases and cancellation",
"A month later, on 22 March 2007, the Army issued a \"Stop Work\" notice, giving Bell 30 days to present a plan to get the ARH program back on track. Previous estimates for the System Development Demonstration portion of the program had grown from $210 million to over $300 million.Warwick, Graham. [\"Work stops as soaring ARH cost alarms Army\"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2007/03/27/212875/work-stops-as-soaring-arh-cost-alarms-army.html). *Flight*. 27 March 2007\\. Accessed on 28 June 2009\\. [Textron](/wiki/Textron \"Textron\"), Bell's parent company, notified investors that they could lose $2–4 million on each aircraft under the contract.[\"US Army orders Bell to stop work on ARH and come up with new plan\"](http://www.flightglobal.com/Articles/Article.aspx?liArticleID=212830&PrinterFriendly=true). *Flight International*. Accessed 24 March 2007\\. Bell appealed and received permission to continue development using company funds until the notice was resolved. On 18 May 2007, the Army approved continuation of the ARH program. [\"Army to Continue with Bell Helicopter/Textron Inc. for Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter\"](http://www.army.mil/-newsreleases/2007/05/18/3269-army-to-continue-with-bell-helicoptertextron-inc-for-armed-reconnaissance-helicopter/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613233623/http://www.army.mil/\\-newsreleases/2007/05/18/3269\\-army\\-to\\-continue\\-with\\-bell\\-helicoptertextron\\-inc\\-for\\-armed\\-reconnaissance\\-helicopter/ \\|date\\=13 June 2007 }}. Army press release. United States Army. 18 May 2007\\.",
"The House Appropriations Committee's Defense panel drafted a bill for the 2008 Defense Budget which zeroed out funding for ARH\\-70 production, citing Bell's inability to enter production, but continued funding for research and development.United States House of Representatives. [\"Selected Cuts\"](http://appropriations.house.gov/pdf/DefenseSummaryFC.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808001435/http://appropriations.house.gov/pdf/DefenseSummaryFC.pdf \\|date\\=8 August 2007 }}. *Summary: 2008 Defense Appropriations*. United States House of Representatives, 2008\\. Accessed on 28 June 2009\\. However, government officials began working on export policy to allow international sales of the ARH\\-70\\. Including the U.S. Army's expected total of 512 helicopters, orders were anticipated to total over 1,000\\.[\"Daily News: Army Requests Hundreds of ARH\\-70As\"](http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/topstories/18733.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928162547/http://www.aviationtoday.com/rw/topstories/18733\\.html \\|date\\=28 September 2011 }}. *Rotor \\& Wing* magazine, 23 January 2008\\. The Army filed a [Nunn\\-McCurdy](/wiki/Nunn%E2%80%93McCurdy_Amendment \"Nunn–McCurdy Amendment\") cost and schedule breach on 9 July 2008, when new cost estimates showed a 40% cost increase above initial estimates. In August 2008, the Army requested that Bell cease recruitment for the ARH\\-70 program pending the outcome of the review.Bruno, Michael and Graham Warwick. [\"ARH Breaches Nunn\\-McCurdy Caps\"](http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/jsp_includes/articlePrint.jsp?storyID=news/ARH70071008.xml&headLine=ARH%20Breaches%20Nunn-McCurdy%20Caps){{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}. *Aviation Week*, 10 July 2008\\. Accessed 28 June 2009\\.",
"On 16 October 2008, the Army's Acquisition Executive Office for Aviation directed that the ARH contract be terminated completely for the convenience of the government.Army Press Service. [\"Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter program halted, need for capability remains\"](http://www.army.mil/-news/2008/10/17/13387-armed-reconnaissance-helicopter-program-halted-need-for-capability-remains/). Army News. 17 October 2008\\. Accessed on 24 October 2008\\. The cancellation was the result of the [United States Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense \"United States Department of Defense\") (DOD) not certifying the US$6\\.2 billion ARH\\-70 program to Congress. John Young, the Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics, cited the reason as excessive costs of the program which had increased over 70 percent with an estimated per\\-unit cost of US$14\\.5 million, up from US$8\\.5 million.[\"Pentagon Cancels Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter\"](http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=3775612&c=AME&s=AIR){{dead link\\|date\\=August 2021\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}. *Defense News*, 16 October 2008\\. Accessed 16 October 2008\\.",
"Although the ARH\\-70 was not procured by the USA, the [Iraqi Air Force](/wiki/Iraqi_Air_Force \"Iraqi Air Force\") bought Bell 407 armed scouts in a similar configuration as the ARH starting in 2009\\.\"Bell 407s Ordered for Iraq\". *[Air International](/wiki/Air_International \"Air International\")*, April 2009, Vol 76, No. 4\\. p. 7\\. There are 30 in service; 24 armed scouts, three gunships, and three trainers.[\"More For The Iraq Army Air Corps\"](http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htproc/20130129.aspx). Strategypage.com, January 29, 2013\\.",
""
] |
Overview
--------
Prior to 1792, Kentucky formed the [far\-western frontier of Virginia](/wiki/Kentucky_County%2C_Virginia "Kentucky County, Virginia"), which [had a long history of slavery](/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia "History of slavery in Virginia") and [indentured servitude](/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Virginia "Indentured servitude in Virginia").
In early Kentucky history, [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States") was an integral part of the state's economy, though the use of slavery varied widely in a geographically diverse state. From 1790 to 1860, the slave population of Kentucky was never more than one\-quarter of the total population. After 1830, as tobacco production decreased in favor of less labor\-intensive crops, much of the [planter class](/wiki/Planter_class "Planter class") in the central and western part of the state sold enslaved Africans to markets in the Deep South, where the demand for agricultural labor rose rapidly as [cotton](/wiki/Cotton "Cotton") cultivation was expanded. It was lucrative for slave owners to sell the people they enslaved to the deep south, shipping approximately 80,000 stolen Africans southward between 1830 and 1860\.
Kentucky's enslaved population was concentrated in the "bluegrass" region of the state, which was rich in farmland and a center of agriculture. In less populated mountainous areas of Kentucky with independent farmers, slave ownership was much less frequent. In 1850, 28 percent of Kentucky's white families held enslaved African Americans. 5% of slave owners had 100 or more slaves. In Lexington, enslaved people outnumbered the enslavers: 10,000 enslaved were owned by 1,700 slave owners. Lexington was a central city in the state for the slave trade.{{Cite web\|last\=Shockley\|first\=Jenn\|date\=July 6, 2016\|title\=This Square In Kentucky Has A Dark And Evil History That Will Never Be Forgotten\|url\=https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/kentucky/square\-dark\-and\-evil\-history\-ky/\|access\-date\=August 25, 2021\|website\=OnlyInYourState\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=September 6, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906090359/https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/kentucky/square\-dark\-and\-evil\-history\-ky/\|url\-status\=live}} 12 percent of Kentucky's slave owners enslaved 20 or more people, 70 white families enslaved 50 or more people. Fluctuating markets, seasonal needs and widely varying geographical conditions characterized Kentucky slavery.
The enslaved people were a key part of the settlement of Kentucky in the 1750s and 1760s, as permanent settlers started arriving in the late 1770s, especially after the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"), some brought slaves to clear and develop the land. Early settlements were called stations and developed around [forts](/wiki/Fort "Fort") for protection against [indigenous peoples](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas") such as the [Shawnee](/wiki/Shawnee "Shawnee"), [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee"), [Chickasaw](/wiki/Chickasaw "Chickasaw") and [Osage](/wiki/Osage_Nation "Osage Nation"), with whom there were numerous violent conflicts. Most of the early settlers were from Virginia, and some relied on slave labor as they developed larger, more permanent plantations.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2021}}
Planters who grew [hemp](/wiki/Hemp "Hemp") and [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco "Tobacco"), which were labor\-intensive crops, held more slaves than did smaller farmers who cultivated mixed crops. [Subsistence agriculture](/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture "Subsistence agriculture") could be done without any slave labor, although some subsistence farmers held a few slaves with whom they would work. Some owners also used enslaved African Americans in mining and [manufacturing operations](/wiki/Manufacturing_operations "Manufacturing operations"), for work on riverboats and along the waterfront, and to work in skilled trades in towns.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2021}}
Early farms in Kentucky tended to be smaller than the later [plantation complexes](/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States "Plantation complexes in the Southern United States") common in the Deep South, so most slaveholders had a small number of slaves. As a result, many slaves had to find spouses "abroad", on a neighboring farm. Often, African American men had to live apart from their wives and children.
It was not infrequent for slaves to be "hired out", leased on temporary basis to other farmers or business for seasonal work. This was a common practice across the upper south. Some historians estimate that 12% of the slaves in Lexington and 16% of the slaves in Louisville were hired out.{{Cite web\|last\=Curtis\|first\=Tony\|title\=Understanding the Complexities of Slavery in Kentucky {{!}} CivilWarGovernors.org\|url\=https://civilwargovernors.org/understanding\-the\-complexities\-of\-slavery\-in\-kentucky/\|access\-date\=August 25, 2021\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=September 27, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927103456/https://civilwargovernors.org/understanding\-the\-complexities\-of\-slavery\-in\-kentucky/\|url\-status\=live}}
Kentucky contained small but notable free black hamlets throughout the state. About 5% of Kentucky's black population was free by 1860\. [Free Negroes](/wiki/Free_Negro "Free Negro") were among the slaveholders; in 1830, this group held slaves in 29 of Kentucky's counties. In some cases, people would purchase their spouse, their children, or other enslaved relatives in order to protect them until they could free them. After the 1831 [Nat Turner's slave rebellion](/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion "Nat Turner's slave rebellion"), the legislature passed new restrictions against [manumission](/wiki/Manumission "Manumission"), requiring acts of the legislature to gain freedom.{{Cite web \|url\=http://nkaa.uky.edu/subject.php?sub\_id\=179 \|title\=''Notable Kentucky African Americans Database: Slave Owners, Slaves, Free Blacks, Free Mulattoes in Kentucky, 1850–1870 \[by county N\-Z]'', University of Kentucky, accessed 2 December 2013 \|access\-date\=December 2, 2013 \|archive\-date\=December 3, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203020641/http://nkaa.uky.edu/subject.php?sub\_id\=179 \|url\-status\=dead }}
Kentucky exported more slaves than did most states. From 1850 to 1860, 16 percent of enslaved African Americans were sold out of state, as part of the [forced displacement](/wiki/Forced_displacement "Forced displacement") to the Deep South of a total of more than a million [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans") before the Civil War. Many slaves were sold directly to plantations in the Deep South from the Louisville [slave market](/wiki/Slave_market "Slave market"), or were transported by slave traders along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to slave markets in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), hence the later euphemism "sold down the river" for any sort of betrayal. Kentucky had a surplus of slaves due to reduced labor needs from changes in local agriculture, as well as substantial out\-migration by white families from Kentucky.
Beginning in the 1820s and extending through the 1840s and 1850s, many white families migrated west to Missouri, south to Tennessee, or southwest to Texas. The larger slave\-holding families took slaves with them, as one kind of forced migration. These factors combined to create greater instability for enslaved families in Kentucky than in some other areas.
|
[
"Overview\n--------",
"Prior to 1792, Kentucky formed the [far\\-western frontier of Virginia](/wiki/Kentucky_County%2C_Virginia \"Kentucky County, Virginia\"), which [had a long history of slavery](/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia \"History of slavery in Virginia\") and [indentured servitude](/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Virginia \"Indentured servitude in Virginia\").",
"In early Kentucky history, [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States \"Slavery in the United States\") was an integral part of the state's economy, though the use of slavery varied widely in a geographically diverse state. From 1790 to 1860, the slave population of Kentucky was never more than one\\-quarter of the total population. After 1830, as tobacco production decreased in favor of less labor\\-intensive crops, much of the [planter class](/wiki/Planter_class \"Planter class\") in the central and western part of the state sold enslaved Africans to markets in the Deep South, where the demand for agricultural labor rose rapidly as [cotton](/wiki/Cotton \"Cotton\") cultivation was expanded. It was lucrative for slave owners to sell the people they enslaved to the deep south, shipping approximately 80,000 stolen Africans southward between 1830 and 1860\\.",
"Kentucky's enslaved population was concentrated in the \"bluegrass\" region of the state, which was rich in farmland and a center of agriculture. In less populated mountainous areas of Kentucky with independent farmers, slave ownership was much less frequent. In 1850, 28 percent of Kentucky's white families held enslaved African Americans. 5% of slave owners had 100 or more slaves. In Lexington, enslaved people outnumbered the enslavers: 10,000 enslaved were owned by 1,700 slave owners. Lexington was a central city in the state for the slave trade.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Shockley\\|first\\=Jenn\\|date\\=July 6, 2016\\|title\\=This Square In Kentucky Has A Dark And Evil History That Will Never Be Forgotten\\|url\\=https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/kentucky/square\\-dark\\-and\\-evil\\-history\\-ky/\\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2021\\|website\\=OnlyInYourState\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=September 6, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906090359/https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/kentucky/square\\-dark\\-and\\-evil\\-history\\-ky/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} 12 percent of Kentucky's slave owners enslaved 20 or more people, 70 white families enslaved 50 or more people. Fluctuating markets, seasonal needs and widely varying geographical conditions characterized Kentucky slavery.",
"The enslaved people were a key part of the settlement of Kentucky in the 1750s and 1760s, as permanent settlers started arriving in the late 1770s, especially after the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\"), some brought slaves to clear and develop the land. Early settlements were called stations and developed around [forts](/wiki/Fort \"Fort\") for protection against [indigenous peoples](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\") such as the [Shawnee](/wiki/Shawnee \"Shawnee\"), [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\"), [Chickasaw](/wiki/Chickasaw \"Chickasaw\") and [Osage](/wiki/Osage_Nation \"Osage Nation\"), with whom there were numerous violent conflicts. Most of the early settlers were from Virginia, and some relied on slave labor as they developed larger, more permanent plantations.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2021}}",
"Planters who grew [hemp](/wiki/Hemp \"Hemp\") and [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco \"Tobacco\"), which were labor\\-intensive crops, held more slaves than did smaller farmers who cultivated mixed crops. [Subsistence agriculture](/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture \"Subsistence agriculture\") could be done without any slave labor, although some subsistence farmers held a few slaves with whom they would work. Some owners also used enslaved African Americans in mining and [manufacturing operations](/wiki/Manufacturing_operations \"Manufacturing operations\"), for work on riverboats and along the waterfront, and to work in skilled trades in towns.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2021}}",
"Early farms in Kentucky tended to be smaller than the later [plantation complexes](/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States \"Plantation complexes in the Southern United States\") common in the Deep South, so most slaveholders had a small number of slaves. As a result, many slaves had to find spouses \"abroad\", on a neighboring farm. Often, African American men had to live apart from their wives and children.",
"It was not infrequent for slaves to be \"hired out\", leased on temporary basis to other farmers or business for seasonal work. This was a common practice across the upper south. Some historians estimate that 12% of the slaves in Lexington and 16% of the slaves in Louisville were hired out.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Curtis\\|first\\=Tony\\|title\\=Understanding the Complexities of Slavery in Kentucky {{!}} CivilWarGovernors.org\\|url\\=https://civilwargovernors.org/understanding\\-the\\-complexities\\-of\\-slavery\\-in\\-kentucky/\\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2021\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=September 27, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927103456/https://civilwargovernors.org/understanding\\-the\\-complexities\\-of\\-slavery\\-in\\-kentucky/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Kentucky contained small but notable free black hamlets throughout the state. About 5% of Kentucky's black population was free by 1860\\. [Free Negroes](/wiki/Free_Negro \"Free Negro\") were among the slaveholders; in 1830, this group held slaves in 29 of Kentucky's counties. In some cases, people would purchase their spouse, their children, or other enslaved relatives in order to protect them until they could free them. After the 1831 [Nat Turner's slave rebellion](/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion \"Nat Turner's slave rebellion\"), the legislature passed new restrictions against [manumission](/wiki/Manumission \"Manumission\"), requiring acts of the legislature to gain freedom.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://nkaa.uky.edu/subject.php?sub\\_id\\=179 \\|title\\=''Notable Kentucky African Americans Database: Slave Owners, Slaves, Free Blacks, Free Mulattoes in Kentucky, 1850–1870 \\[by county N\\-Z]'', University of Kentucky, accessed 2 December 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=December 2, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 3, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203020641/http://nkaa.uky.edu/subject.php?sub\\_id\\=179 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Kentucky exported more slaves than did most states. From 1850 to 1860, 16 percent of enslaved African Americans were sold out of state, as part of the [forced displacement](/wiki/Forced_displacement \"Forced displacement\") to the Deep South of a total of more than a million [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\") before the Civil War. Many slaves were sold directly to plantations in the Deep South from the Louisville [slave market](/wiki/Slave_market \"Slave market\"), or were transported by slave traders along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to slave markets in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), hence the later euphemism \"sold down the river\" for any sort of betrayal. Kentucky had a surplus of slaves due to reduced labor needs from changes in local agriculture, as well as substantial out\\-migration by white families from Kentucky.",
"Beginning in the 1820s and extending through the 1840s and 1850s, many white families migrated west to Missouri, south to Tennessee, or southwest to Texas. The larger slave\\-holding families took slaves with them, as one kind of forced migration. These factors combined to create greater instability for enslaved families in Kentucky than in some other areas.",
""
] |
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