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Professional career ------------------- Brow played in 59 games during his Major League career, 42 of them with the Toronto Blue Jays. He had a career record of 3–4 with a 6\.06 ERA, while earning two saves. Brow struck out 58 batters, and pitched 107 career innings. Brow was drafted by the Toronto Blue Jays in the [1990 MLB Draft](/wiki/1990_MLB_Draft "1990 MLB Draft") in the seventh round (204th overall), and signed with the team on June 26, 1990\. He worked his way through the Blue Jays farm system, and made his Major League Baseball debut on April 28, 1993, as a starting pitcher against the [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals "Kansas City Royals"). In his first game, Brow pitched six innings, allowing four runs as he took the loss in a 5\-3 Royals victory. On October 3, the last game of the regular season for the Blue Jays, Brow earned his first career victory, pitching six innings and allowing four runs in an 11–6 victory over the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles "Baltimore Orioles"). Overall, Brow finished the season with a 1–1 record with a 6\.00 ERA in six games, starting three of them. In the postseason, the Blue Jays won the [1993 World Series](/wiki/1993_World_Series "1993 World Series"). In 1994, the Blue Jays used Brow in the bullpen, as in 18 games, he was 0–3 with a 5\.90 ERA and two saves in 29 innings pitched. On May 21, Brow earned his first career save, pitching 0\.2 innings of scoreless baseball in a 9–7 win over the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians "Cleveland Indians"). Brow ran into injury problems in the 1995 season, and spent the entire season with the [Syracuse Chiefs](/wiki/Syracuse_Chiefs "Syracuse Chiefs") of the [International League](/wiki/International_League "International League"), the Blue Jays [Triple\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 "Triple-A (baseball)") affiliate. He returned to Toronto for the 1996 season, where he played in 18 games, starting one of them, and had a 1–0 record with a 5\.59 ERA in 38\.2 innings pitched. On September 30, 1996, Brow was claimed off of waivers by the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves "Atlanta Braves") from the Blue Jays. He spent the 1997 season with Atlanta's Triple\-A affiliate, the [Richmond Braves](/wiki/Richmond_Braves "Richmond Braves") of the International League. After the season, Brow became a free agent, and on December 18, he signed with the [Arizona Diamondbacks](/wiki/Arizona_Diamondbacks "Arizona Diamondbacks"). Brow began the 1998 season with the Diamondbacks, and pitched an inning in their inaugural game on March 31, allowing a run in a 9–2 loss to the [Colorado Rockies](/wiki/Colorado_Rockies "Colorado Rockies"). Brow played in 17 games with Arizona, going 1–0 with a 7\.17 ERA in 21\.1 innings pitched. On June 3, the Diamondbacks traded Brow to the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees "New York Yankees") for [Willie Banks](/wiki/Willie_Banks "Willie Banks"), but Brow did not play in any more MLB games, as with the Yankees, he spent time with their Triple\-A affiliate, the [Columbus Clippers](/wiki/Columbus_Clippers "Columbus Clippers") of the International League. In 1999, Brow played with the [Edmonton Trappers](/wiki/Edmonton_Trappers "Edmonton Trappers") of the [Pacific Coast League](/wiki/Pacific_Coast_League "Pacific Coast League"), the [Anaheim Angels](/wiki/Anaheim_Angels "Anaheim Angels")' Triple\-A affiliate, before retiring.
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "Brow played in 59 games during his Major League career, 42 of them with the Toronto Blue Jays. He had a career record of 3–4 with a 6\\.06 ERA, while earning two saves. Brow struck out 58 batters, and pitched 107 career innings.", "Brow was drafted by the Toronto Blue Jays in the [1990 MLB Draft](/wiki/1990_MLB_Draft \"1990 MLB Draft\") in the seventh round (204th overall), and signed with the team on June 26, 1990\\. He worked his way through the Blue Jays farm system, and made his Major League Baseball debut on April 28, 1993, as a starting pitcher against the [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals \"Kansas City Royals\"). In his first game, Brow pitched six innings, allowing four runs as he took the loss in a 5\\-3 Royals victory. On October 3, the last game of the regular season for the Blue Jays, Brow earned his first career victory, pitching six innings and allowing four runs in an 11–6 victory over the [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles \"Baltimore Orioles\"). Overall, Brow finished the season with a 1–1 record with a 6\\.00 ERA in six games, starting three of them. In the postseason, the Blue Jays won the [1993 World Series](/wiki/1993_World_Series \"1993 World Series\").", "In 1994, the Blue Jays used Brow in the bullpen, as in 18 games, he was 0–3 with a 5\\.90 ERA and two saves in 29 innings pitched. On May 21, Brow earned his first career save, pitching 0\\.2 innings of scoreless baseball in a 9–7 win over the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/Cleveland_Indians \"Cleveland Indians\"). Brow ran into injury problems in the 1995 season, and spent the entire season with the [Syracuse Chiefs](/wiki/Syracuse_Chiefs \"Syracuse Chiefs\") of the [International League](/wiki/International_League \"International League\"), the Blue Jays [Triple\\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 \"Triple-A (baseball)\") affiliate. He returned to Toronto for the 1996 season, where he played in 18 games, starting one of them, and had a 1–0 record with a 5\\.59 ERA in 38\\.2 innings pitched.", "On September 30, 1996, Brow was claimed off of waivers by the [Atlanta Braves](/wiki/Atlanta_Braves \"Atlanta Braves\") from the Blue Jays. He spent the 1997 season with Atlanta's Triple\\-A affiliate, the [Richmond Braves](/wiki/Richmond_Braves \"Richmond Braves\") of the International League. After the season, Brow became a free agent, and on December 18, he signed with the [Arizona Diamondbacks](/wiki/Arizona_Diamondbacks \"Arizona Diamondbacks\").", "Brow began the 1998 season with the Diamondbacks, and pitched an inning in their inaugural game on March 31, allowing a run in a 9–2 loss to the [Colorado Rockies](/wiki/Colorado_Rockies \"Colorado Rockies\"). Brow played in 17 games with Arizona, going 1–0 with a 7\\.17 ERA in 21\\.1 innings pitched.", "On June 3, the Diamondbacks traded Brow to the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees \"New York Yankees\") for [Willie Banks](/wiki/Willie_Banks \"Willie Banks\"), but Brow did not play in any more MLB games, as with the Yankees, he spent time with their Triple\\-A affiliate, the [Columbus Clippers](/wiki/Columbus_Clippers \"Columbus Clippers\") of the International League. In 1999, Brow played with the [Edmonton Trappers](/wiki/Edmonton_Trappers \"Edmonton Trappers\") of the [Pacific Coast League](/wiki/Pacific_Coast_League \"Pacific Coast League\"), the [Anaheim Angels](/wiki/Anaheim_Angels \"Anaheim Angels\")' Triple\\-A affiliate, before retiring.", "" ]
History ------- The Osage ceded their land claims in 1825, and the Federal Government allowed the Western Cherokee to settle in this area in 1828\. The 1835 [Treaty of New Echota](/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota "Treaty of New Echota") confirmed Cherokee ownership of the land. The area now covered by Washington County was part of the Cherokee Saline District between 1840 and 1856 and the Cooweescoowee District from 1856 to 1906\. The first post office was established in 1859 at the confluence of Butler Creek and the Caney River by James L. Butler. Known as Little Verdigris, the settlement also had a trading post and a school. The Civil War caused most of the inhabitants to move away and the post office closed in 1866\. In 1867, the Cherokees sold 157,600 acres to the [Eastern Delaware](/wiki/Eastern_Delaware "Eastern Delaware"). In 1870, Nelson Carr built a grist mill along the Caney River, which he used to grind seed corn. In 1875, he sold the mill to Jacob Bartles (for whom the town of [Bartlesville](/wiki/Bartlesville%2C_Oklahoma "Bartlesville, Oklahoma") would be named), who modified the mill to produce wheat flour. Other important agricultural crops included potatoes, sorghum and oats, as well as prairie hay and pecans. Cotton production was attempted in the early 1900s, but the soil proved unsuitable and this crop was soon discontinued. The first commercial oil well in Oklahoma, designated as Nellie Johnstone Number One, was drilled near Bartlesville in 1897\. According to the *Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture*, the industry developed slowly because of communal land ownership by the Cherokees, the lack of crude oil markets, and lack of reliable transportation. Bartlesville became an oil boom town only after 1900, when the nearby Osage County oil fields were developed and railroads were built into the area. In 1900, Phoenix Oil Company built a pipeline from Osage County to Bartlesville's Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway depot, where there was an oil loading facility. Oil was shipped from there to a refinery in [Neodesha, Kansas](/wiki/Neodesha%2C_Kansas "Neodesha, Kansas") in the same year. Washington County fields were developed soon afterward. The Bartlesville Field reached peak development during 1904 to 1906; the Bartlesville\-Dewey Field in 1905 and the Copan, Canary, Hogshooter, and Wann fields were located in 1907\. Several oil companies set up headquarters in the county, most notably [Phillips Petroleum](/wiki/Phillips_Petroleum "Phillips Petroleum") in Bartlesville. Railroads came to this area at the turn of the 20th century. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway opened a line from [Owen](/wiki/Owen%2C_Oklahoma "Owen, Oklahoma") to [Owasso, Oklahoma](/wiki/Owasso%2C_Oklahoma "Owasso, Oklahoma") in 1899\. The Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad opened a line from [Stevens, Kansas](/wiki/Stevens%2C_Kansas "Stevens, Kansas") to [Dewey, Oklahoma](/wiki/Dewey%2C_Oklahoma "Dewey, Oklahoma") in 1901\-2 and another line from [Hominy, Oklahoma](/wiki/Hominy%2C_Oklahoma "Hominy, Oklahoma") to Bartlesville in 1903–04\.
[ "History\n-------", "The Osage ceded their land claims in 1825, and the Federal Government allowed the Western Cherokee to settle in this area in 1828\\. The 1835 [Treaty of New Echota](/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota \"Treaty of New Echota\") confirmed Cherokee ownership of the land. The area now covered by Washington County was part of the Cherokee Saline District between 1840 and 1856 and the Cooweescoowee District from 1856 to 1906\\.", "The first post office was established in 1859 at the confluence of Butler Creek and the Caney River by James L. Butler. Known as Little Verdigris, the settlement also had a trading post and a school. The Civil War caused most of the inhabitants to move away and the post office closed in 1866\\. In 1867, the Cherokees sold 157,600 acres to the [Eastern Delaware](/wiki/Eastern_Delaware \"Eastern Delaware\").", "In 1870, Nelson Carr built a grist mill along the Caney River, which he used to grind seed corn. In 1875, he sold the mill to Jacob Bartles (for whom the town of [Bartlesville](/wiki/Bartlesville%2C_Oklahoma \"Bartlesville, Oklahoma\") would be named), who modified the mill to produce wheat flour. Other important agricultural crops included potatoes, sorghum and oats, as well as prairie hay and pecans. Cotton production was attempted in the early 1900s, but the soil proved unsuitable and this crop was soon discontinued.", "The first commercial oil well in Oklahoma, designated as Nellie Johnstone Number One, was drilled near Bartlesville in 1897\\. According to the *Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture*, the industry developed slowly because of communal land ownership by the Cherokees, the lack of crude oil markets, and lack of reliable transportation. Bartlesville became an oil boom town only after 1900, when the nearby Osage County oil fields were developed and railroads were built into the area. In 1900, Phoenix Oil Company built a pipeline from Osage County to Bartlesville's Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway depot, where there was an oil loading facility. Oil was shipped from there to a refinery in [Neodesha, Kansas](/wiki/Neodesha%2C_Kansas \"Neodesha, Kansas\") in the same year. Washington County fields were developed soon afterward. The Bartlesville Field reached peak development during 1904 to 1906; the Bartlesville\\-Dewey Field in 1905 and the Copan, Canary, Hogshooter, and Wann fields were located in 1907\\. Several oil companies set up headquarters in the county, most notably [Phillips Petroleum](/wiki/Phillips_Petroleum \"Phillips Petroleum\") in Bartlesville.", "Railroads came to this area at the turn of the 20th century. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway opened a line from [Owen](/wiki/Owen%2C_Oklahoma \"Owen, Oklahoma\") to [Owasso, Oklahoma](/wiki/Owasso%2C_Oklahoma \"Owasso, Oklahoma\") in 1899\\. The Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad opened a line from [Stevens, Kansas](/wiki/Stevens%2C_Kansas \"Stevens, Kansas\") to [Dewey, Oklahoma](/wiki/Dewey%2C_Oklahoma \"Dewey, Oklahoma\") in 1901\\-2 and another line from [Hominy, Oklahoma](/wiki/Hominy%2C_Oklahoma \"Hominy, Oklahoma\") to Bartlesville in 1903–04\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### Origins of the Clan There are several different origins for the surname *MacLean*, however, the clan surname is an [anglicisation](/wiki/Anglicisation "Anglicisation") of the [Scottish Gaelic](/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") {{lang\|gd\|MacGilleEathain}}. This was the [patronymic](/wiki/Patronymic "Patronymic") form of the [personal name](/wiki/Personal_name "Personal name") meaning 'Servant of [\[Saint\&\#93 John](/wiki/John_the_Apostle "John the Apostle")',{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ancestry.com/facts/McLean\-family\-history.ashx \|title\=McLean Name Meaning and History \|access\-date\=28 June 2008 \|work\=\[\[Ancestry.com]]}}{{unreliable source\|certain\=y\|date\=June 2024\|reason\=Ancestry gets their name data by contract from Swyrich (AKA House of Names, Hall of Names – a heraldry bric\-a\-brac vendor, itself an unreliable source, and most entries for most names have multiple errors. Ancestry is also helpless to correct any of it; I have tried to get them to do so, and they can't because they are literally piping this data in from a Swyrich datbase overwhich they have no editorial control of any kind.}} thus 'Son of the Servant of \[St] John'.Way of Plean, George; Squire, Romily. (1994\). *Collins Scottish Clan \& Family Encyclopedia*. pp. 238–239\. The clan's rise to power began in 852 with a Papal Bull of Charter and Protection for the [Iona Abbey](/wiki/Iona_Abbey "Iona Abbey"), issued by [Pope Leo IV](/wiki/Pope_Leo_IV "Pope Leo IV"). Marriages with [Clan MacDonald](/wiki/Clan_MacDonald "Clan MacDonald") in the late 1200s, [Clan Bruce](/wiki/Clan_Bruce "Clan Bruce") in the 1300s, and [Clan MacKenzie](/wiki/Clan_MacKenzie "Clan MacKenzie") in the 1400s brought Clan MacLean into the Scottish royal sphere. #### Gillean of the Battleaxe The founder of the clan was a Scottish warlord descended from the [Cenél Loairn](/wiki/Cen%C3%A9l_Loairn "Cenél Loairn") kindred of [Dál Riata](/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata "Dál Riata"), named [Gillean of the Battle Axe](/wiki/Gillean_of_the_Battle_Axe "Gillean of the Battle Axe") (1210–1263\).*Gillean na Tuaighe* in Scottish Gaelic and it is pronounced Gillane not Gill\-ee\-un. There are stories of Gillean being descended from the [FitzGerald dynasty](/wiki/FitzGerald_dynasty "FitzGerald dynasty"). He was a {{lang\|la\|judex}} (judge) and councillor to King David I of Scots.{{cite book \|title\=Clan Gillean (The Macleans) \|editor\-first\=James Noel Mackenzie \|editor\-last\=Maclean \|publisher\=Clan Maclean Association, London and District Branch}} Gillean fought at the [Battle of Largs](/wiki/Battle_of_Largs "Battle of Largs") in 1263 during the Scottish–Norwegian War, in which the Scottish were victorious. Gillean's son [Malise mac Gilleain](/wiki/Malise_mac_Gilleain "Malise mac Gilleain") (from the Gaelic {{lang\|gd\|Maoliosa}} 'Servant of Jesus') was thought by some to have taken the name Gillemor in 1263 and is also said to have led his followers at the Battle of Largs in 1263\. He wrote his name as "Gillemor Mcilyn, County of Perth" (indicating 'Gillemor Son of \[Gil]lean') on the third [Ragman Rolls](/wiki/Ragman_Rolls "Ragman Rolls") of 1296, swearing fealty to [Edward I of England](/wiki/Edward_I_of_England "Edward I of England"). Gillean's great\-great\-grandson was Iain Dhu Maclean who settled on the [Isle of Mull](/wiki/Isle_of_Mull "Isle of Mull"). One of his sons was Lachainn Lubanach (Lachlan) who was the progenitor of the Macleans of Duart and the other son was Eachainn Reafanach (Hector) who was the progenitor of the [Clan Maclaine of Lochbuie](/wiki/Clan_Maclaine_of_Lochbuie "Clan Maclaine of Lochbuie"). The Macleans of Duart married into the family of [John of Islay, Lord of the Isles](/wiki/John_of_Islay%2C_Lord_of_the_Isles "John of Islay, Lord of the Isles") (chief of [Clan Donald](/wiki/Clan_Donald "Clan Donald")). By the end of the 15th century, the Macleans owned the isles of [Mull](/wiki/Isle_of_Mull "Isle of Mull"), [Tiree](/wiki/Tiree "Tiree"), [Islay](/wiki/Islay "Islay"), and [Jura](/wiki/Jura%2C_Scotland "Jura, Scotland"), as well as the mainland provinces of [Knapdale](/wiki/Knapdale "Knapdale") and [Morvern](/wiki/Morvern "Morvern") in [Argyll](/wiki/Argyll "Argyll"), and [Lochaber](/wiki/Lochaber "Lochaber") in what was later [Inverness\-shire](/wiki/Inverness-shire "Inverness-shire"). ### Wars of Scottish Independence [thumb\|200px\|right\|"Mac Lean" illustration by [R. R. McIan](/wiki/R._R._McIan "R. R. McIan"), from [James Logan](/wiki/James_Logan_%28writer%29 "James Logan (writer)")'s *The Clans of the Scottish Highlands*, 1845](/wiki/File:Mac_Lean_%28R._R._McIan%29.jpg "Mac Lean (R. R. McIan).jpg") The Clan MacLean are said to have fought in support of Robert the Bruce at the [Battle of Bannockburn](/wiki/Battle_of_Bannockburn "Battle of Bannockburn") in 1314\.[Battle of Bannockburn](http://www.britishbattles.com/scottish/battle-bannockburn.htm) britishbattles.com. Retrieved 26 October 2013\. ### The Early MacLeans at Duart By the 14th century, the Clan MacLean had become a dominant force in the Western Isles. In about 1364 Lachlan Lùbanach MacLean (1325\-1405\) of Duart, 5th Chief, solidified the MacLean alliance with the Macdonalds through marriage. His bride, Mary Macdonald, was not only the daughter of John Macdonald, first Lord of the Isles, but also the granddaughter of Robert II, King of Scots. The families were close enough related that the approval of the church was sought. The papal dispensation issued by Pope Urban V on 3 May of 1367 approving the already consummated marriage is the first mention of a MacLean in any official records.. The papal dispensation blessed the marriage retroactively as insurance that it could not be annulled for political purposes. Mary's marriage dowry included Duart Castle and much of Mull. Lachlan Lùbanach also was granted the hereditary position of Lieutenant\-General of the Isles. He was recognized as the superior MacLean on Mull by the Lord of the Isles. Hector (1328\-1407\), his younger brother, was in the late 1300s given Lochbuie by the Lord of the Isles.Collins, Ronald W., *The Genealogy of the Clan MacLean* ### Fifteenth century and clan conflicts During the 14th and 15th century many battles were fought between the Clan Maclean and [Clan Mackinnon](/wiki/Clan_Mackinnon "Clan Mackinnon").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/m/maclean2\.html\|title\=Clan Maclean2@ElectricScotland.com}} #### Battle of Harlaw In 1411, Clan MacLean fought with Donald Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, to claim the earldom of Ross, which was his by right of his wife, Mariota Leslie, countess of Ross. Robert Stewart, the ambitious the Duke of Albany, had denied Donald's claim because he wanted Ross for himself. (The young King of Scots, James I, was being held prisoner of the English king, Henry IV, and Albany did nothing to seek his release.) The [Battle of Harlaw](/wiki/Battle_of_Harlaw "Battle of Harlaw") took place near Inverurie in Aberdeenshire on 24 July 1411 against a mounted army of knights led by Alexander Stewart, [Earl of Mar](/wiki/Earl_of_Mar "Earl of Mar"). The MacLeans were led by Hector Roy Maclean, "Red Hector of the Battles", the 6th Chief, and nephew of Donald Macdonald. Hector commanded the right flank of Donald Macdonald's army. Hector engaged in single combat with the chief of [Clan Irvine](/wiki/Clan_Irvine "Clan Irvine"), Sir Alexander Irvine. After a legendary struggle both died of the wounds inflicted upon each other. ##### Origins of the Macleans of the North (Clan Tearlach) Tearlach \[Charles] Maclean, eldest son of Hector Maclean, 1st of Lochbuie, brother of Lachlan Maclean, 1st of Duart. Tearlach was part of the vanguard but following this battle, he sought protection within the [Clan Chattan](/wiki/Clan_Chattan "Clan Chattan") Confederation. His son Hector subsequently married a daughter of the Chief of the Mackintoshes. Despite the active support of Clan Chattan, these Macleans lost ownership of [Urquhart Castle](/wiki/Urquhart_Castle "Urquhart Castle") by 1509, and settled nearby at [Dochgarroch](/wiki/Dochgarroch "Dochgarroch"), though they still managed to lease much of Urquhart. In 1609 Alexander Maclean of Dochgarroch signed the Clan Chattan Bond.{{cite web \| url\=https://clanchattan.org.uk/clan\-maclean/ \| title\=Clan Maclean }} #### Battle of Corpach The [Battle of Corpach](/wiki/Battle_of_Corpach "Battle of Corpach") took place in 1439\. It was fought between the Clan Maclean and the [Clan Cameron](/wiki/Clan_Cameron "Clan Cameron").[The Battle of Corpach](http://www.clan-cameron.org/battles/1439.html) clan\-cameron.org. Retrieved 25 May 2015\. #### Battle of Bloody Bay In 1484 the Clan MacLean fought at the [Battle of Bloody Bay](/wiki/Battle_of_Bloody_Bay "Battle of Bloody Bay") on the side of the [Lord of the Isles](/wiki/Lord_of_the_Isles "Lord of the Isles"), chief of [Clan Donald](/wiki/Clan_Donald "Clan Donald"). In 1493 the Lordship of the Isles was abolished and Duart and Lochbuie MacLeans held their lands by charter directly from the king, thus Lochbuie became a clan independent of Duart. ### Sixteenth century and the Anglo\-Scottish Wars In 1513 during the [Anglo\-Scottish Wars](/wiki/Anglo-Scottish_Wars "Anglo-Scottish Wars"), Lachlan Maclean of Duart was killed at the [Battle of Flodden](/wiki/Battle_of_Flodden "Battle of Flodden").{{cite book \|last\=Guthrie \|first\=William \|author\-link\=William Guthrie (historian) \|year\=1767 \|title\=A General History of Scotland \|url\=https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory14guthgoog/page/n6/mode/2up \|volume\=4 \|location\=\[\[Paternoster Row]], London \|publisher\=A. Hamilton, Robinson and Roberts \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory14guthgoog/page/n366/mode/2up 371]\-373 \|access\-date\=May 8, 2023}} The clan extended its influence to other Hebridean islands such as Tiree and Islay and onto the mainland. In 1560 the Clan MacLean, joined by their allies the [Clan Mackay](/wiki/Clan_Mackay "Clan Mackay") and [Clan MacLeod](/wiki/Clan_MacLeod "Clan MacLeod") became part of the [Gallowglass](/wiki/Gallowglass "Gallowglass"), who were ferocious mercenaries of [Norse\-Gaelic](/wiki/Norse-Gaels "Norse-Gaels") descent who served in Ireland for King [Shane O'Neill](/wiki/Shane_O%27Neill_%28Irish_chieftain%29 "Shane O'Neill (Irish chieftain)"). The rising power of the [Clan Campbell](/wiki/Clan_Campbell "Clan Campbell") during the sixteenth century brought them into opposition with the Macleans. Several marriages were arranged between Macleans and Campbells to avoid feuding, however one of these went badly wrong when chief [Lachlan Maclean](/wiki/Lachlan_Cattanach_Maclean%2C_11th_Chief "Lachlan Cattanach Maclean, 11th Chief") married Lady Elizabeth Campbell, daughter of the [Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Earl_of_Argyll "Earl of Argyll"), chief of Clan Campbell. The match was not a happy one and Maclean took drastic action by marooning his wife on a rock in the sea, leaving her to drown. However she was rescued by some passing fishermen who took her back to her kin and Maclean was later killed by her brother in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh") in 1523\. The [Battle of the Western Isles](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Western_Isles "Battle of the Western Isles") was fought in 1586, on the island of [Jura](/wiki/Jura%2C_Scotland "Jura, Scotland"), between the [Clan MacDonald of Sleat](/wiki/Clan_MacDonald_of_Sleat "Clan MacDonald of Sleat") and the Clan MacLean.'Conflicts of the Clans' published in 1764 by the Foulis press, written from a manuscript wrote in the reign of James VI of Scotland.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/conflict/Western\_Isles.html\| title\=Conflicts of the Clans: Troubles in the Western Isles in the Year 1586\| publisher\=Electric Scotland\| access\-date\=26 March 2009}} In 1588 the Clan MacLean attempted to capture [Mingarry Castle](/wiki/Mingarry_Castle "Mingarry Castle") seat of the chief of the [Clan MacDonald of Ardnamurchan](/wiki/Clan_MacDonald_of_Ardnamurchan "Clan MacDonald of Ardnamurchan"), using Spanish mercenaries from the [San Juan de Sicilia](/wiki/San_Juan_de_Sicilia "San Juan de Sicilia"). One thing that did unite the Macleans and the Campbells was their Protestant faith as well as their dislike for the MacDonalds. Sir Lachland Maclean harried the MacDonalds of Islay causing so much carnage that both he and the MacDonald chief were declared outlaws in 1594 by the Privy Council. However Lachlan redeemed himself when in the same year he fought for the king at the [Battle of Glenlivet](/wiki/Battle_of_Glenlivet "Battle of Glenlivet"), on the side of the Earl of Argyll and Clan Campbell, against the [Earl of Huntly](/wiki/Earl_of_Huntly "Earl of Huntly") and [Clan Gordon](/wiki/Clan_Gordon "Clan Gordon"). ### Sir Lachlan Mor MacLean The [Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart](/wiki/Battle_of_Traigh_Ghruinneart "Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart") took place on 5 August 1598\. It was fought between the Clan Donald and Clan Maclean on the [Isle of Islay](/wiki/Isle_of_Islay "Isle of Islay"). Chief [Sir Lachlan Mor Maclean](/wiki/Sir_Lachlan_Mor_Maclean "Sir Lachlan Mor Maclean") was killed. After Sir Lachlan MacLean's death in 1598, his sons took revenge on his suspected murderers, the MacDonalds, by carrying out a massacre of the people of Islay which lasted for three days. After obtaining "[Letters of Fire and Sword](/wiki/Letters_of_fire_and_sword "Letters of fire and sword")" he was assisted in this by the MacLeods, MacNeils,and Camerons. The quarrel between the MacLeans and the Macdonalds of Islay and Kintyre was, at the outset, merely a dispute as to the right of occupancy of the crown lands called the [Rinns of Islay](/wiki/Rinns_of_Islay "Rinns of Islay"), but it soon involved these tribes in a long and bloody feud, and eventually led to the near destruction of them both. The Macleans, who were in possession, claimed to hold the lands in dispute as tenants of the crown, but the privy council decided that Macdonald of Islay was really the crown tenant. ### Seventeenth century and Civil War [thumb\|right\|The charge of the Macleans at Kilsyth](/wiki/File:Charge_of_the_MacLeans.jpg "Charge of the MacLeans.jpg") On 3 September 1631 [Sir Lachlan Maclean](/wiki/Sir_Lachlan_Maclean%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Lachlan Maclean, 1st Baronet") created a [Baronet of Nova Scotia](/wiki/List_of_baronetcies_in_the_Baronetage_of_Nova_Scotia "List of baronetcies in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia"). Later during the [Scottish Civil War](/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms "Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms") he was devoted to [Charles I of England](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England "Charles I of England") and called out his clan to fight for [James Graham, 1st Marquis of Montrose](/wiki/James_Graham%2C_1st_Marquis_of_Montrose "James Graham, 1st Marquis of Montrose") who was the king's captain general. The Clan Maclean fought as royalists at the [Battle of Inverlochy (1645\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Inverlochy_%281645%29 "Battle of Inverlochy (1645)"), [Battle of Auldearn](/wiki/Battle_of_Auldearn "Battle of Auldearn") and [Battle of Kilsyth](/wiki/Battle_of_Kilsyth "Battle of Kilsyth"), alongside men from [Clan MacDonald](/wiki/Clan_Donald "Clan Donald"), and other allies from Ireland raised by [Alasdair MacColla](/wiki/Alasdair_MacColla "Alasdair MacColla"). Their enemy was the Scottish Argyll government forces of [Clan Campbell](/wiki/Clan_Campbell "Clan Campbell"), led by [Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll](/wiki/Archibald_Campbell%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Argyll "Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll"). Through cunning tactics the Royalist force of 1500 MacDonalds and MacLeans defeated the Argyll Campbell force of 3000\. In 1647 the MacLean's Duart Castle was attacked and laid siege to by the Argyll government troops of [Clan Campbell](/wiki/Clan_Campbell "Clan Campbell"), but they were defeated and driven off by the royalist troops of Clan Maclean. The [Battle of Inverkeithing](/wiki/Battle_of_Inverkeithing "Battle of Inverkeithing") took place in 1651 where Sir Hector Maclean, 18th chief was killed. Archibald Campbell the 9th Earl, son of the Marquess of Argyll, invaded the Clan Maclean lands on the [Isle of Mull](/wiki/Isle_of_Mull "Isle of Mull") and garrisoned Duart Castle in 1678\. The Campbells had control of Duart and most of the Maclean estates by 1679\. When the Stuarts again called for support the Macleans hurried to their standard and Sir John Maclean, fifth Baronet fought at the [Battle of Killiecrankie](/wiki/Battle_of_Killiecrankie "Battle of Killiecrankie") in 1689, in support of [John Graham, 1st Viscount of Dundee](/wiki/John_Graham%2C_1st_Viscount_of_Dundee "John Graham, 1st Viscount of Dundee"). ### Eighteenth century and the Jacobite risings {{anchor\|Lord Maclean}} The Clan Maclean supported the [Jacobite rising of 1715](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1715 "Jacobite rising of 1715") and their chief, Sir Hector Maclean, was created Lord Maclean in the [Jacobite peerage](/wiki/Jacobite_peerage "Jacobite peerage") in 1716\. However, the chief was exiled to France, where he founded, and was the first Grand Master of, the Grand Lodge of Freemasons in Paris. [General Wade](/wiki/General_Wade "General Wade")'s report on the Highlands in 1724, estimated the clan strength at 150 men.{{cite book \|last1\=Johnston \|first1\=Thomas Brumby \|author\-link1\=Thomas Brumby Johnston \|last2\=Robertson \|first2\=James Alexander \|last3\=Dickson \|first3\=William Kirk \|author\-link3\=William Kirk Dickson \|year\=1899 \|chapter\=General Wade's Report \|title\=Historical Geography of the Clans of Scotland \|url\=https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra00john \|location\=\[\[Edinburgh]] and \[\[London]] \|publisher\=\[\[W. \& A.K. Johnston]] \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra00john/page/26 26] \|access\-date\=19 February 2020}} Hector returned for the [Jacobite rising of 1745](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 "Jacobite rising of 1745") but was captured and imprisoned in the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London "Tower of London") until 1747\. He died in 1750 in Rome. During the rising of 1745 the clan had been led by Maclean of Drimmin who was killed at the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden "Battle of Culloden"). Duart Castle then fell into ruin. After the defeat of the Jacobites, the Macleans then served Great Britain with distinction. From that time onwards, all of the chiefs have been soldiers. Sir Fitzroy Maclean, the tenth Baronet, fought at the [Battle of Sevastopol](/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_%281854%E2%80%9355%29 "Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55)"). [Allan Maclean of Torloisk](/wiki/Allan_Maclean_of_Torloisk "Allan Maclean of Torloisk") fought at the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden "Battle of Culloden"). He later commanded the [84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants)](/wiki/84th_Regiment_of_Foot_%28Royal_Highland_Emigrants%29 "84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants)") in the [Battle of Quebec](/wiki/Battle_of_Quebec_%281775%29 "Battle of Quebec (1775)"). [Allan McLane](/wiki/Allan_McLane "Allan McLane") served in the American Revolution.
[ "History\n-------", "### Origins of the Clan", "There are several different origins for the surname *MacLean*, however, the clan surname is an [anglicisation](/wiki/Anglicisation \"Anglicisation\") of the [Scottish Gaelic](/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic \"Scottish Gaelic\") {{lang\\|gd\\|MacGilleEathain}}. This was the [patronymic](/wiki/Patronymic \"Patronymic\") form of the [personal name](/wiki/Personal_name \"Personal name\") meaning 'Servant of [\\[Saint\\&\\#93 John](/wiki/John_the_Apostle \"John the Apostle\")',{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ancestry.com/facts/McLean\\-family\\-history.ashx \\|title\\=McLean Name Meaning and History \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2008 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Ancestry.com]]}}{{unreliable source\\|certain\\=y\\|date\\=June 2024\\|reason\\=Ancestry gets their name data by contract from Swyrich (AKA House of Names, Hall of Names – a heraldry bric\\-a\\-brac vendor, itself an unreliable source, and most entries for most names have multiple errors. Ancestry is also helpless to correct any of it; I have tried to get them to do so, and they can't because they are literally piping this data in from a Swyrich datbase overwhich they have no editorial control of any kind.}} thus 'Son of the Servant of \\[St] John'.Way of Plean, George; Squire, Romily. (1994\\). *Collins Scottish Clan \\& Family Encyclopedia*. pp. 238–239\\. The clan's rise to power began in 852 with a Papal Bull of Charter and Protection for the [Iona Abbey](/wiki/Iona_Abbey \"Iona Abbey\"), issued by [Pope Leo IV](/wiki/Pope_Leo_IV \"Pope Leo IV\"). Marriages with [Clan MacDonald](/wiki/Clan_MacDonald \"Clan MacDonald\") in the late 1200s, [Clan Bruce](/wiki/Clan_Bruce \"Clan Bruce\") in the 1300s, and [Clan MacKenzie](/wiki/Clan_MacKenzie \"Clan MacKenzie\") in the 1400s brought Clan MacLean into the Scottish royal sphere.", "#### Gillean of the Battleaxe", "The founder of the clan was a Scottish warlord descended from the [Cenél Loairn](/wiki/Cen%C3%A9l_Loairn \"Cenél Loairn\") kindred of [Dál Riata](/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata \"Dál Riata\"), named [Gillean of the Battle Axe](/wiki/Gillean_of_the_Battle_Axe \"Gillean of the Battle Axe\") (1210–1263\\).*Gillean na Tuaighe* in Scottish Gaelic and it is pronounced Gillane not Gill\\-ee\\-un. There are stories of Gillean being descended from the [FitzGerald dynasty](/wiki/FitzGerald_dynasty \"FitzGerald dynasty\"). He was a {{lang\\|la\\|judex}} (judge) and councillor to King David I of Scots.{{cite book \\|title\\=Clan Gillean (The Macleans) \\|editor\\-first\\=James Noel Mackenzie \\|editor\\-last\\=Maclean \\|publisher\\=Clan Maclean Association, London and District Branch}} Gillean fought at the [Battle of Largs](/wiki/Battle_of_Largs \"Battle of Largs\") in 1263 during the Scottish–Norwegian War, in which the Scottish were victorious.", "Gillean's son [Malise mac Gilleain](/wiki/Malise_mac_Gilleain \"Malise mac Gilleain\") (from the Gaelic {{lang\\|gd\\|Maoliosa}} 'Servant of Jesus') was thought by some to have taken the name Gillemor in 1263 and is also said to have led his followers at the Battle of Largs in 1263\\. He wrote his name as \"Gillemor Mcilyn, County of Perth\" (indicating 'Gillemor Son of \\[Gil]lean') on the third [Ragman Rolls](/wiki/Ragman_Rolls \"Ragman Rolls\") of 1296, swearing fealty to [Edward I of England](/wiki/Edward_I_of_England \"Edward I of England\").", "Gillean's great\\-great\\-grandson was Iain Dhu Maclean who settled on the [Isle of Mull](/wiki/Isle_of_Mull \"Isle of Mull\"). One of his sons was Lachainn Lubanach (Lachlan) who was the progenitor of the Macleans of Duart and the other son was Eachainn Reafanach (Hector) who was the progenitor of the [Clan Maclaine of Lochbuie](/wiki/Clan_Maclaine_of_Lochbuie \"Clan Maclaine of Lochbuie\"). The Macleans of Duart married into the family of [John of Islay, Lord of the Isles](/wiki/John_of_Islay%2C_Lord_of_the_Isles \"John of Islay, Lord of the Isles\") (chief of [Clan Donald](/wiki/Clan_Donald \"Clan Donald\")). By the end of the 15th century, the Macleans owned the isles of [Mull](/wiki/Isle_of_Mull \"Isle of Mull\"), [Tiree](/wiki/Tiree \"Tiree\"), [Islay](/wiki/Islay \"Islay\"), and [Jura](/wiki/Jura%2C_Scotland \"Jura, Scotland\"), as well as the mainland provinces of [Knapdale](/wiki/Knapdale \"Knapdale\") and [Morvern](/wiki/Morvern \"Morvern\") in [Argyll](/wiki/Argyll \"Argyll\"), and [Lochaber](/wiki/Lochaber \"Lochaber\") in what was later [Inverness\\-shire](/wiki/Inverness-shire \"Inverness-shire\").", "### Wars of Scottish Independence", "[thumb\\|200px\\|right\\|\"Mac Lean\" illustration by [R. R. McIan](/wiki/R._R._McIan \"R. R. McIan\"), from [James Logan](/wiki/James_Logan_%28writer%29 \"James Logan (writer)\")'s *The Clans of the Scottish Highlands*, 1845](/wiki/File:Mac_Lean_%28R._R._McIan%29.jpg \"Mac Lean (R. R. McIan).jpg\")\nThe Clan MacLean are said to have fought in support of Robert the Bruce at the [Battle of Bannockburn](/wiki/Battle_of_Bannockburn \"Battle of Bannockburn\") in 1314\\.[Battle of Bannockburn](http://www.britishbattles.com/scottish/battle-bannockburn.htm) britishbattles.com. Retrieved 26 October 2013\\.", "### The Early MacLeans at Duart", "By the 14th century, the Clan MacLean had become a dominant force in the Western Isles. In about 1364 Lachlan Lùbanach MacLean (1325\\-1405\\) of Duart, 5th Chief, solidified the MacLean alliance with the Macdonalds through marriage. His bride, Mary Macdonald, was not only the daughter of John Macdonald, first Lord of the Isles, but also the granddaughter of Robert II, King of Scots. The families were close enough related that the approval of the church was sought. The papal dispensation issued by Pope Urban V on 3 May of 1367 approving the already consummated marriage is the first mention of a MacLean in any official records.. The papal dispensation blessed the marriage retroactively as insurance that it could not be annulled for political purposes. Mary's marriage dowry included Duart Castle and much of Mull. Lachlan Lùbanach also was granted the hereditary position of Lieutenant\\-General of the Isles. He was recognized as the superior MacLean on Mull by the Lord of the Isles. Hector (1328\\-1407\\), his younger brother, was in the late 1300s given Lochbuie by the Lord of the Isles.Collins, Ronald W., *The Genealogy of the Clan MacLean*", "### Fifteenth century and clan conflicts", "During the 14th and 15th century many battles were fought between the Clan Maclean and [Clan Mackinnon](/wiki/Clan_Mackinnon \"Clan Mackinnon\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/m/maclean2\\.html\\|title\\=Clan Maclean2@ElectricScotland.com}}", "#### Battle of Harlaw", "In 1411, Clan MacLean fought with Donald Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, to claim the earldom of Ross, which was his by right of his wife, Mariota Leslie, countess of Ross. Robert Stewart, the ambitious the Duke of Albany, had denied Donald's claim because he wanted Ross for himself. (The young King of Scots, James I, was being held prisoner of the English king, Henry IV, and Albany did nothing to seek his release.) The [Battle of Harlaw](/wiki/Battle_of_Harlaw \"Battle of Harlaw\") took place near Inverurie in Aberdeenshire on 24 July 1411 against a mounted army of knights led by Alexander Stewart, [Earl of Mar](/wiki/Earl_of_Mar \"Earl of Mar\"). The MacLeans were led by Hector Roy Maclean, \"Red Hector of the Battles\", the 6th Chief, and nephew of Donald Macdonald. Hector commanded the right flank of Donald Macdonald's army. Hector engaged in single combat with the chief of [Clan Irvine](/wiki/Clan_Irvine \"Clan Irvine\"), Sir Alexander Irvine. After a legendary struggle both died of the wounds inflicted upon each other.", "##### Origins of the Macleans of the North (Clan Tearlach)", "Tearlach \\[Charles] Maclean, eldest son of Hector Maclean, 1st of Lochbuie, brother of Lachlan Maclean, 1st of Duart. Tearlach was part of the vanguard but following this battle, he sought protection within the [Clan Chattan](/wiki/Clan_Chattan \"Clan Chattan\") Confederation. His son Hector subsequently married a daughter of the Chief of the Mackintoshes. Despite the active support of Clan Chattan, these Macleans lost ownership of [Urquhart Castle](/wiki/Urquhart_Castle \"Urquhart Castle\") by 1509, and settled nearby at [Dochgarroch](/wiki/Dochgarroch \"Dochgarroch\"), though they still managed to lease much of Urquhart. In 1609 Alexander Maclean of Dochgarroch signed the Clan Chattan Bond.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://clanchattan.org.uk/clan\\-maclean/ \\| title\\=Clan Maclean }}", "#### Battle of Corpach", "The [Battle of Corpach](/wiki/Battle_of_Corpach \"Battle of Corpach\") took place in 1439\\. It was fought between the Clan Maclean and the [Clan Cameron](/wiki/Clan_Cameron \"Clan Cameron\").[The Battle of Corpach](http://www.clan-cameron.org/battles/1439.html) clan\\-cameron.org. Retrieved 25 May 2015\\.", "#### Battle of Bloody Bay", "In 1484 the Clan MacLean fought at the [Battle of Bloody Bay](/wiki/Battle_of_Bloody_Bay \"Battle of Bloody Bay\") on the side of the [Lord of the Isles](/wiki/Lord_of_the_Isles \"Lord of the Isles\"), chief of [Clan Donald](/wiki/Clan_Donald \"Clan Donald\").", "In 1493 the Lordship of the Isles was abolished and Duart and Lochbuie MacLeans held their lands by charter directly from the king, thus Lochbuie became a clan independent of Duart.", "### Sixteenth century and the Anglo\\-Scottish Wars", "In 1513 during the [Anglo\\-Scottish Wars](/wiki/Anglo-Scottish_Wars \"Anglo-Scottish Wars\"), Lachlan Maclean of Duart was killed at the [Battle of Flodden](/wiki/Battle_of_Flodden \"Battle of Flodden\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Guthrie \\|first\\=William \\|author\\-link\\=William Guthrie (historian) \\|year\\=1767 \\|title\\=A General History of Scotland \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory14guthgoog/page/n6/mode/2up \\|volume\\=4 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Paternoster Row]], London \\|publisher\\=A. Hamilton, Robinson and Roberts \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory14guthgoog/page/n366/mode/2up 371]\\-373 \\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2023}} The clan extended its influence to other Hebridean islands such as Tiree and Islay and onto the mainland. In 1560 the Clan MacLean, joined by their allies the [Clan Mackay](/wiki/Clan_Mackay \"Clan Mackay\") and [Clan MacLeod](/wiki/Clan_MacLeod \"Clan MacLeod\") became part of the [Gallowglass](/wiki/Gallowglass \"Gallowglass\"), who were ferocious mercenaries of [Norse\\-Gaelic](/wiki/Norse-Gaels \"Norse-Gaels\") descent who served in Ireland for King [Shane O'Neill](/wiki/Shane_O%27Neill_%28Irish_chieftain%29 \"Shane O'Neill (Irish chieftain)\").", "The rising power of the [Clan Campbell](/wiki/Clan_Campbell \"Clan Campbell\") during the sixteenth century brought them into opposition with the Macleans. Several marriages were arranged between Macleans and Campbells to avoid feuding, however one of these went badly wrong when chief [Lachlan Maclean](/wiki/Lachlan_Cattanach_Maclean%2C_11th_Chief \"Lachlan Cattanach Maclean, 11th Chief\") married Lady Elizabeth Campbell, daughter of the [Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Earl_of_Argyll \"Earl of Argyll\"), chief of Clan Campbell. The match was not a happy one and Maclean took drastic action by marooning his wife on a rock in the sea, leaving her to drown. However she was rescued by some passing fishermen who took her back to her kin and Maclean was later killed by her brother in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") in 1523\\.", "The [Battle of the Western Isles](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Western_Isles \"Battle of the Western Isles\") was fought in 1586, on the island of [Jura](/wiki/Jura%2C_Scotland \"Jura, Scotland\"), between the [Clan MacDonald of Sleat](/wiki/Clan_MacDonald_of_Sleat \"Clan MacDonald of Sleat\") and the Clan MacLean.'Conflicts of the Clans' published in 1764 by the Foulis press, written from a manuscript wrote in the reign of James VI of Scotland.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/conflict/Western\\_Isles.html\\| title\\=Conflicts of the Clans: Troubles in the Western Isles in the Year 1586\\| publisher\\=Electric Scotland\\| access\\-date\\=26 March 2009}} In 1588 the Clan MacLean attempted to capture [Mingarry Castle](/wiki/Mingarry_Castle \"Mingarry Castle\") seat of the chief of the [Clan MacDonald of Ardnamurchan](/wiki/Clan_MacDonald_of_Ardnamurchan \"Clan MacDonald of Ardnamurchan\"), using Spanish mercenaries from the [San Juan de Sicilia](/wiki/San_Juan_de_Sicilia \"San Juan de Sicilia\").", "One thing that did unite the Macleans and the Campbells was their Protestant faith as well as their dislike for the MacDonalds. Sir Lachland Maclean harried the MacDonalds of Islay causing so much carnage that both he and the MacDonald chief were declared outlaws in 1594 by the Privy Council. However Lachlan redeemed himself when in the same year he fought for the king at the [Battle of Glenlivet](/wiki/Battle_of_Glenlivet \"Battle of Glenlivet\"), on the side of the Earl of Argyll and Clan Campbell, against the [Earl of Huntly](/wiki/Earl_of_Huntly \"Earl of Huntly\") and [Clan Gordon](/wiki/Clan_Gordon \"Clan Gordon\").", "### Sir Lachlan Mor MacLean", "The [Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart](/wiki/Battle_of_Traigh_Ghruinneart \"Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart\") took place on 5 August 1598\\. It was fought between the Clan Donald and Clan Maclean on the [Isle of Islay](/wiki/Isle_of_Islay \"Isle of Islay\"). Chief [Sir Lachlan Mor Maclean](/wiki/Sir_Lachlan_Mor_Maclean \"Sir Lachlan Mor Maclean\") was killed. After Sir Lachlan MacLean's death in 1598, his sons took revenge on his suspected murderers, the MacDonalds, by carrying out a massacre of the people of Islay which lasted for three days. After obtaining \"[Letters of Fire and Sword](/wiki/Letters_of_fire_and_sword \"Letters of fire and sword\")\" he was assisted in this by the MacLeods, MacNeils,and Camerons. The quarrel between the MacLeans and the Macdonalds of Islay and Kintyre was, at the outset, merely a dispute as to the right of occupancy of the crown lands called the [Rinns of Islay](/wiki/Rinns_of_Islay \"Rinns of Islay\"), but it soon involved these tribes in a long and bloody feud, and eventually led to the near destruction of them both. The Macleans, who were in possession, claimed to hold the lands in dispute as tenants of the crown, but the privy council decided that Macdonald of Islay was really the crown tenant.", "### Seventeenth century and Civil War", "[thumb\\|right\\|The charge of the Macleans at Kilsyth](/wiki/File:Charge_of_the_MacLeans.jpg \"Charge of the MacLeans.jpg\")\nOn 3 September 1631 [Sir Lachlan Maclean](/wiki/Sir_Lachlan_Maclean%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Lachlan Maclean, 1st Baronet\") created a [Baronet of Nova Scotia](/wiki/List_of_baronetcies_in_the_Baronetage_of_Nova_Scotia \"List of baronetcies in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia\"). Later during the [Scottish Civil War](/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms \"Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms\") he was devoted to [Charles I of England](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England \"Charles I of England\") and called out his clan to fight for [James Graham, 1st Marquis of Montrose](/wiki/James_Graham%2C_1st_Marquis_of_Montrose \"James Graham, 1st Marquis of Montrose\") who was the king's captain general. The Clan Maclean fought as royalists at the [Battle of Inverlochy (1645\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Inverlochy_%281645%29 \"Battle of Inverlochy (1645)\"), [Battle of Auldearn](/wiki/Battle_of_Auldearn \"Battle of Auldearn\") and [Battle of Kilsyth](/wiki/Battle_of_Kilsyth \"Battle of Kilsyth\"), alongside men from [Clan MacDonald](/wiki/Clan_Donald \"Clan Donald\"), and other allies from Ireland raised by [Alasdair MacColla](/wiki/Alasdair_MacColla \"Alasdair MacColla\"). Their enemy was the Scottish Argyll government forces of [Clan Campbell](/wiki/Clan_Campbell \"Clan Campbell\"), led by [Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll](/wiki/Archibald_Campbell%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Argyll \"Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll\"). Through cunning tactics the Royalist force of 1500 MacDonalds and MacLeans defeated the Argyll Campbell force of 3000\\.", "In 1647 the MacLean's Duart Castle was attacked and laid siege to by the Argyll government troops of [Clan Campbell](/wiki/Clan_Campbell \"Clan Campbell\"), but they were defeated and driven off by the royalist troops of Clan Maclean. The [Battle of Inverkeithing](/wiki/Battle_of_Inverkeithing \"Battle of Inverkeithing\") took place in 1651 where Sir Hector Maclean, 18th chief was killed.", "Archibald Campbell the 9th Earl, son of the Marquess of Argyll, invaded the Clan Maclean lands on the [Isle of Mull](/wiki/Isle_of_Mull \"Isle of Mull\") and garrisoned Duart Castle in 1678\\. The Campbells had control of Duart and most of the Maclean estates by 1679\\. When the Stuarts again called for support the Macleans hurried to their standard and Sir John Maclean, fifth Baronet fought at the [Battle of Killiecrankie](/wiki/Battle_of_Killiecrankie \"Battle of Killiecrankie\") in 1689, in support of [John Graham, 1st Viscount of Dundee](/wiki/John_Graham%2C_1st_Viscount_of_Dundee \"John Graham, 1st Viscount of Dundee\").", "### Eighteenth century and the Jacobite risings", "{{anchor\\|Lord Maclean}}\nThe Clan Maclean supported the [Jacobite rising of 1715](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1715 \"Jacobite rising of 1715\") and their chief, Sir Hector Maclean, was created Lord Maclean in the [Jacobite peerage](/wiki/Jacobite_peerage \"Jacobite peerage\") in 1716\\. However, the chief was exiled to France, where he founded, and was the first Grand Master of, the Grand Lodge of Freemasons in Paris. [General Wade](/wiki/General_Wade \"General Wade\")'s report on the Highlands in 1724, estimated the clan strength at 150 men.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Johnston \\|first1\\=Thomas Brumby \\|author\\-link1\\=Thomas Brumby Johnston \\|last2\\=Robertson \\|first2\\=James Alexander \\|last3\\=Dickson \\|first3\\=William Kirk \\|author\\-link3\\=William Kirk Dickson \\|year\\=1899 \\|chapter\\=General Wade's Report \\|title\\=Historical Geography of the Clans of Scotland \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra00john \\|location\\=\\[\\[Edinburgh]] and \\[\\[London]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[W. \\& A.K. Johnston]] \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra00john/page/26 26] \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2020}} Hector returned for the [Jacobite rising of 1745](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 \"Jacobite rising of 1745\") but was captured and imprisoned in the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London \"Tower of London\") until 1747\\. He died in 1750 in Rome. During the rising of 1745 the clan had been led by Maclean of Drimmin who was killed at the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden \"Battle of Culloden\"). Duart Castle then fell into ruin.", "After the defeat of the Jacobites, the Macleans then served Great Britain with distinction. From that time onwards, all of the chiefs have been soldiers. Sir Fitzroy Maclean, the tenth Baronet, fought at the [Battle of Sevastopol](/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_%281854%E2%80%9355%29 \"Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55)\").", "[Allan Maclean of Torloisk](/wiki/Allan_Maclean_of_Torloisk \"Allan Maclean of Torloisk\") fought at the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden \"Battle of Culloden\"). He later commanded the [84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants)](/wiki/84th_Regiment_of_Foot_%28Royal_Highland_Emigrants%29 \"84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants)\") in the [Battle of Quebec](/wiki/Battle_of_Quebec_%281775%29 \"Battle of Quebec (1775)\").", "[Allan McLane](/wiki/Allan_McLane \"Allan McLane\") served in the American Revolution.", "" ]
History ------- ### Hominidae #### Chimpanzees According to the theory of evolution, humans evolved from a [common ancestor](/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor "Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor") of [chimpanzees](/wiki/Pan_%28genus%29 "Pan (genus)"). Researchers hypothesize that the earliest hominid ancestor would have similar dental morphology to chimpanzees today. Thus, comparisons between chimpanzees and *[Homo sapiens](/wiki/Homo_sapiens "Homo sapiens")* could be used to identify major differences. Major characterizing features of *Pan troglodytes* dental morphology include the presence of peripherally located cusps, thin enamel, and strong facial prognathism. ### Earliest Hominids #### *Sahelanthropus tchadensis* *[Sahelanthropus tchadensis](/wiki/Sahelanthropus_tchadensis "Sahelanthropus tchadensis")* is thought to be one of the earliest species belonging to the human lineage. Fossils date back to 7 million years ago.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Brunet \| display\-authors \= etal \| year \= 2002 \| title \= A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa \| doi \= 10\.1038/nature00879 \| journal \= Nature \| volume \= 418 \| issue \= 6894\| pages \= 145–151 \| pmid\=12110880 \| bibcode \= 2002Natur.418\..145B\| s2cid \= 1316969 \| url \= http://doc.rero.ch/record/13388/files/PAL\_E190\.pdf }} The only fossils that remain are five pieces of the jaw, teeth, and a small cranium. These skeletal pieces show dental features that include a U\-shaped palate and canines smaller than those of a chimpanzee’s. #### *Orrorin tugenensis* The species was thought to have lived 6\.1 to 5\.7 million years ago. Fossil remains have provided very important information regarding dental morphology. *[Orrorin](/wiki/Orrorin "Orrorin")* had smaller teeth relative to body size and the enamel was thicker.{{cite book\|last\=Henke\|first\=Winfried\|date\=2007\|editor1\-last\=Henke\|editor1\-first\=Winfried\|editor2\-last\=Hardt\|editor2\-first\=Thorolf\|editor3\-last\=Tattersall\|editor3\-first\=Ian\|title\=Handbook of Paleoanthropology: Phylogeny of Hominids\|publisher\=Springer\|pages\=1527–1529\|isbn\=978\-3\-540\-32474\-4}} The upper canines contain a mesial groove which differs from both *Australopithecus* and *Ardipithecus*. The canines, in general, were very ape\-like but were much smaller. Like modern humans, *Orrorin* had post\-canines that were smaller and were microdont. #### *Ardipithecus* Dated to live around 5\.6 to 4\.4 million years ago. Fossils show *[Ardipithecus](/wiki/Ardipithecus "Ardipithecus")* to have canine teeth that were reduced, much like later hominids. The jaw of *Ardipithecus* was very much prognathic.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Suwa \| first1 \= G. \| last2 \= Asfaw \| first2 \= B. \| last3 \= Kono \| first3 \= R. T. \| last4 \= Kubo \| first4 \= D. \| last5 \= Lovejoy \| first5 \= C. O. \| last6 \= White \| first6 \= T. D. \| display\-authors \= etal \| year \= 2009 \| title \= The ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' skull and its implications for hominid origins \| url \= http://doc.rero.ch/record/211453/files/PAL\_E4442\.pdf\| journal \= Science \| volume \= 326 \| issue \= 5949\| pages \= 68–68, 68e1–68e7 \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.1175825 \| pmid\=19810194\| bibcode \= 2009Sci...326\...68S \| s2cid \= 19725410 }} The teeth of *Ardipithecus ramidus* in particular showed that the species was probably an omnivore. The upper canines are less sharp than a chimpanzee’s, possibly due to them being smaller in general. The canines in chimpanzees can be particularly sharp as they are often shaped through use and wear against the lower teeth. In addition, there is less sexual dimorphism in the size of the canines, a feature that is seen in humans and is heavily contrasted to chimpanzees. The size of these canines have been used to infer the behaviours of *[Ardipithecus ramidus](/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus "Ardipithecus ramidus")*. In great contrast to the social patterns of chimpanzees, the smaller upper canine teeth suggest that the species was not very aggressive, especially in terms of the relationship between males and other groups. ### Archaic Hominids #### *Australopithecus afarensis* Hominid species that lived 3\.9 to 2\.9 million years ago. Compared to modern apes, *A. afarensis* and *A. africanus* have much smaller molars and canines, but they are still larger than those of humans’.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Kustaloglu \| first1 \= O. A. \| year \= 1961 \| title \= ''Australopithecus'' and ''Paranthropus'' dentitions \| journal \= Southwestern Journal of Anthropology \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 226–238 \| doi\=10\.1086/soutjanth.17\.3\.3629043\| s2cid \= 130103203 }} The smaller molars have been attributed to consuming seeds. The jaws of both *A. afarensis* and *A. africanus* are very much prognathic.{{cite book\|last\=Rak\|first\=Yoel\|title\=The Australopithecine Face\|publisher\=\[\[Academic Press]]\|year\=1983\|isbn\=978\-0\-12\-576280\-9\|location\=New York}} The lack of shearing crests in the blunt teeth have also been cited as evidence of a species that could chew buds or flowers but they were still able to consume meat. Studies of [Australopithecine](/wiki/Australopithecine "Australopithecine") diets through [dental microwear](/wiki/Dental_microwear "Dental microwear") showed that they were largely frugivorous but there is some archaeological evidence for meat consumption.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Sponheimer \| first1 \= M. \| last2 \= Lee\-Thorp \| first2 \= J. \| last3 \= Codron \| first3 \= D. \| last4 \= Codron \| first4 \= J. \| last5 \= Baugh \| first5 \= A. T. \| last6 \= Thackeray \| first6 \= F. \| year \= 2005 \| title \= Hominins, sedges, and termites: new carbon isotope data from the Sterkfontein valley and Kruger National Park \| journal \= Journal of Human Evolution \| volume \= 48 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 301–312 \| doi\=10\.1016/j.jhevol.2004\.11\.008 \| pmid\=15737395\| citeseerx \= 10\.1\.1\.421\.8468 }} The shift in dietary capacities gave Australopithecines the advantage survive in several different habitats. ### Archaic megadont hominids Megadont hominids, in normal, show the greatest reduction in canines, but the premolars were abnormally large. #### *Paranthropus robustus* Determined to have lived 2 to 1\.2 million years ago. True to its name, *[Paranthropus robustus](/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus "Paranthropus robustus")* had a more massive jaw and teeth than Homo species. In addition, the species had thicker enamel than any hominid species from the time. There is also evidence from muscle markings on jaws that robustus would have had a diet that was based on hard, tough to chew foods in times of nutritional stress. Research does show, that in general, their diet was very broad. #### *Paranthropus boisei* *[Paranthropus boisei](/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei "Paranthropus boisei")* was a hominid species dated to have lived from 2\.3 to 1\.2 million years ago. The evidence from fossils shows morphological traits designed for chewing hard, tough foods and is commonly referred to as the ‘nutcracker man’.{{cite news\|last\=\[\[University of Arkansas, Fayetteville]]\|date\=April 29, 2008\|title\=Findings Challenge Conventional Ideas on Evolution of Human Diet, Natural Selection\|newspaper\=Newswise\|url\=https://www.newswise.com/articles/findings\-challenge\-conventional\-ideas\-on\-evolution\-of\-human\-diet\-natural\-selection\|access\-date\=April 12, 2021}} Not only do the back molars have double the area that the molars of modern humans possess, but the premolars and the first and second molars were found to be four times larger than the teeth found in humans.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Wood \| first1 \= Bernard \| last2 \= Lieberman \| first2 \= Daniel E. \| year \= 2001 \| title \= Craniodental variation in Paranthropus boisei: A developmental and functional perspective \| journal \= American Journal of Physical Anthropology \| volume \= 116 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 13–25 \| doi \= 10\.1002/ajpa.1097 \| pmid\=11536113}} This has been interpreted as researchers as evidence for the hominids chewing predominantly with their back teeth.{{cite web\|publisher\=Smithsonian Institution\|date\=2015\|title\=''Paranthropus robustus''\|url\=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human\-fossils/species/paranthropus\-robustus}} In addition, *P. boisei* possesses the thickest enamel of any hominid specimens found. Despite such large back teeth, the incisors and canines were smaller than other species from the time. ### Pre\-Modern Homo #### *Homo habilis* The species is dated to have lived 2\.1 to 1\.5 million years ago. Very little is known about the dental morphology. However, in conjunction with dental evolution, it is expected that *[Homo habilis](/wiki/Homo_habilis "Homo habilis")* would display smaller teeth than those of the hominids before them. Furthermore, there would be a reduction in facial prognathism. #### *Homo erectus* Hominid species for evidence of remains date from 1\.9 million years ago to {{val\|70000}} years ago. The dental arcade is smaller than that of australopithecine species and following the trend, prognathism was reduced within the species. Earlier *Homo erectus* species exhibited larger teeth than Homo sapiens do today, but the teeth are smaller than early *Homo* species. The incisors also begin to show the shovel\-shaped appearance, which can be attributed to a change towards a hunter\-gatherer diet.{{cite book\|last\=Relethford\|first\=John\|title\=The Human Species: An Introduction to Biological Anthropology\|publisher\=Mayfield Publishing Company\|year\=1994\|isbn\=978\-1\-55934\-206\-3\|edition\=2nd\|location\=Toronto}} The reduction in molar size has been linked to the eating of softer foods, including cooked foods as well as more meat.{{cite web\|last\=O'Neill\|first\=D.\|date\=2013\|title\=''Homo erectus''\|url\=http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/homo\_2\.htm\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030020532/http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/homo\_2\.htm\|archive\-date\=October 30, 2013\|work\=Early Human Evolution: A Survey of the Biological and Cultural Evolution of Homo habilis and Homo erectus}} #### *Homo ergaster* Hominid species that lived 1\.8 to 1\.3 million years ago. Continuing the pattern of hominid dental morphological evolution, ergaster had a less prognathic face, smaller dental arcade. The mandibular symphysis is also shown to have grown. In general the dentition, is very similar to that of Homo erectus. #### *Homo heidelbergensis* Hominid species dating from {{val\|600000}} to {{val\|300000}} years ago. Analysis of *H. heidelbergensis* skeletons have led researchers to find that the jaw of the species featured new traits in the form of taurodont molars, a reduced M3 molar, and a large buccal cusp in the P3 premolar.{{Cite book\|last\=Schoetensack\|first\=Otto\|url\=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/36382/36382\-h/36382\-h.htm\|title\=Der Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis: Aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg\|publisher\=Wilhelm Engelmann\|year\=1908\|location\=Leipzig\|language\=German\|trans\-title\=The Lower Jaw of the Homo Heidelbergensis\|oclc\=8581333}} In general, when compared to humans, *H. heidelbergensis* shows a larger jaw and smaller teeth.{{cite web\|publisher\=Smithsonian Institution\|date\=2015\|title\=''Homo heidelbergensis''\|url\=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human\-fossils/species/homo\-heidelbergensis}} #### *Homo neanderthalensis* Although not a direct ancestor of *Homo sapiens*, [Neanderthals](/wiki/Neanderthals "Neanderthals") are considered to be close relatives. Living {{val\|500000}} to {{val\|30000}} years ago, Neanderthals were named after the valley they were discovered in. Aside from just dentition, Neanderthals were more robust in general. Through analysis of specimens, the face of Neanderthals showed more prognathism, resulting in a [retromolar space](/wiki/Retromolar_space "Retromolar space") posterior to the third molar. Neanderthals also possessed larger molars and canine teeth with no grooves.{{cite book\|last1\=Scott\|first1\=G. R.\|title\=Anthropological Perspectives on Tooth Morphology: Genetics, Evolution, Variation\|last2\=Irish\|first2\=J. D.\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|year\=2013\|isbn\=978\-1\-107\-01145\-8\|location\=Cambridge}} ### Modern\-day humans #### *Homo sapiens* The general characterizing feature of the dental morphology of humans are the lack of facial [prognathism](/wiki/Prognathism "Prognathism"), a parabola\-shaped mandible and maxilla, and molars that are the same size as the front teeth. Humans also have small crowns in relation to body mass and tend to show a reduction in cusp and root number. The reduction in the dental arcade was accompanied by molars moving posteriorly and axial inclination of the molar roots. Evolution of the mandible has also been hypothesized to provide the necessary physiology required for speech.{{cite journal\|last1\=Emes\|first1\=Y.\|last2\=Aybar\|first2\=B.\|last3\=Yalcin\|first3\=S.\|date\=2011\|title\=On the Evolution of Human Jaws and Teeth: A Review\|journal\=Bulletin of the International Association of Paleodontologists\|volume\=5\|issue\=1\|pages\=37–47}} However, these changes are also linked to the development of obstructive sleep apnea. Furthermore, the evolution of the maxillomandibular system has been linked to encephalization. As the jaw changed and the muscles become weaker, the pressure on the cranial sutures lowered, and encephalization occurred. In addition, the overall changes in the mandible and the maxilla have led to the ability for humans to speak. Additionally, the evolution and reduction in the jaw has left little room for the third molar, or wisdom tooth, to form. As a result, many individuals choose to remove them through surgery. One of the defining features among *[Homo sapiens](/wiki/Homo_sapiens "Homo sapiens")* is the presence of a chin. A protruding chin was absent in archaic hominids, as well as [Neanderthals](/wiki/Neanderthals "Neanderthals"). Research has shown conflicting views on the function of the chin. Many claim that it provides resistance to forces that cause bending of the mandible while others claim there is no outright purpose to the formation and merely emerged as a point after the shortening of the mandible.
[ "History\n-------", "### Hominidae", "#### Chimpanzees", "According to the theory of evolution, humans evolved from a [common ancestor](/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor \"Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor\") of [chimpanzees](/wiki/Pan_%28genus%29 \"Pan (genus)\"). Researchers hypothesize that the earliest hominid ancestor would have similar dental morphology to chimpanzees today. Thus, comparisons between chimpanzees and *[Homo sapiens](/wiki/Homo_sapiens \"Homo sapiens\")* could be used to identify major differences. Major characterizing features of *Pan troglodytes* dental morphology include the presence of peripherally located cusps, thin enamel, and strong facial prognathism.", "### Earliest Hominids", "#### *Sahelanthropus tchadensis*", "*[Sahelanthropus tchadensis](/wiki/Sahelanthropus_tchadensis \"Sahelanthropus tchadensis\")* is thought to be one of the earliest species belonging to the human lineage. Fossils date back to 7 million years ago.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Brunet \\| display\\-authors \\= etal \\| year \\= 2002 \\| title \\= A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nature00879 \\| journal \\= Nature \\| volume \\= 418 \\| issue \\= 6894\\| pages \\= 145–151 \\| pmid\\=12110880 \\| bibcode \\= 2002Natur.418\\..145B\\| s2cid \\= 1316969 \\| url \\= http://doc.rero.ch/record/13388/files/PAL\\_E190\\.pdf }} The only fossils that remain are five pieces of the jaw, teeth, and a small cranium. These skeletal pieces show dental features that include a U\\-shaped palate and canines smaller than those of a chimpanzee’s.", "#### *Orrorin tugenensis*", "The species was thought to have lived 6\\.1 to 5\\.7 million years ago. Fossil remains have provided very important information regarding dental morphology. *[Orrorin](/wiki/Orrorin \"Orrorin\")* had smaller teeth relative to body size and the enamel was thicker.{{cite book\\|last\\=Henke\\|first\\=Winfried\\|date\\=2007\\|editor1\\-last\\=Henke\\|editor1\\-first\\=Winfried\\|editor2\\-last\\=Hardt\\|editor2\\-first\\=Thorolf\\|editor3\\-last\\=Tattersall\\|editor3\\-first\\=Ian\\|title\\=Handbook of Paleoanthropology: Phylogeny of Hominids\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|pages\\=1527–1529\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-540\\-32474\\-4}} The upper canines contain a mesial groove which differs from both *Australopithecus* and *Ardipithecus*. The canines, in general, were very ape\\-like but were much smaller. Like modern humans, *Orrorin* had post\\-canines that were smaller and were microdont.", "#### *Ardipithecus*", "Dated to live around 5\\.6 to 4\\.4 million years ago. Fossils show *[Ardipithecus](/wiki/Ardipithecus \"Ardipithecus\")* to have canine teeth that were reduced, much like later hominids. The jaw of *Ardipithecus* was very much prognathic.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Suwa \\| first1 \\= G. \\| last2 \\= Asfaw \\| first2 \\= B. \\| last3 \\= Kono \\| first3 \\= R. T. \\| last4 \\= Kubo \\| first4 \\= D. \\| last5 \\= Lovejoy \\| first5 \\= C. O. \\| last6 \\= White \\| first6 \\= T. D. \\| display\\-authors \\= etal \\| year \\= 2009 \\| title \\= The ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' skull and its implications for hominid origins \\| url \\= http://doc.rero.ch/record/211453/files/PAL\\_E4442\\.pdf\\| journal \\= Science \\| volume \\= 326 \\| issue \\= 5949\\| pages \\= 68–68, 68e1–68e7 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.1175825 \\| pmid\\=19810194\\| bibcode \\= 2009Sci...326\\...68S \\| s2cid \\= 19725410 }} The teeth of *Ardipithecus ramidus* in particular showed that the species was probably an omnivore. The upper canines are less sharp than a chimpanzee’s, possibly due to them being smaller in general. The canines in chimpanzees can be particularly sharp as they are often shaped through use and wear against the lower teeth. In addition, there is less sexual dimorphism in the size of the canines, a feature that is seen in humans and is heavily contrasted to chimpanzees.", "The size of these canines have been used to infer the behaviours of *[Ardipithecus ramidus](/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus \"Ardipithecus ramidus\")*. In great contrast to the social patterns of chimpanzees, the smaller upper canine teeth suggest that the species was not very aggressive, especially in terms of the relationship between males and other groups.", "### Archaic Hominids", "#### *Australopithecus afarensis*", "Hominid species that lived 3\\.9 to 2\\.9 million years ago. Compared to modern apes, *A. afarensis* and *A. africanus* have much smaller molars and canines, but they are still larger than those of humans’.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Kustaloglu \\| first1 \\= O. A. \\| year \\= 1961 \\| title \\= ''Australopithecus'' and ''Paranthropus'' dentitions \\| journal \\= Southwestern Journal of Anthropology \\| volume \\= 17 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 226–238 \\| doi\\=10\\.1086/soutjanth.17\\.3\\.3629043\\| s2cid \\= 130103203 }} The smaller molars have been attributed to consuming seeds. The jaws of both *A. afarensis* and *A. africanus* are very much prognathic.{{cite book\\|last\\=Rak\\|first\\=Yoel\\|title\\=The Australopithecine Face\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Academic Press]]\\|year\\=1983\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-12\\-576280\\-9\\|location\\=New York}} The lack of shearing crests in the blunt teeth have also been cited as evidence of a species that could chew buds or flowers but they were still able to consume meat.", "Studies of [Australopithecine](/wiki/Australopithecine \"Australopithecine\") diets through [dental microwear](/wiki/Dental_microwear \"Dental microwear\") showed that they were largely frugivorous but there is some archaeological evidence for meat consumption.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Sponheimer \\| first1 \\= M. \\| last2 \\= Lee\\-Thorp \\| first2 \\= J. \\| last3 \\= Codron \\| first3 \\= D. \\| last4 \\= Codron \\| first4 \\= J. \\| last5 \\= Baugh \\| first5 \\= A. T. \\| last6 \\= Thackeray \\| first6 \\= F. \\| year \\= 2005 \\| title \\= Hominins, sedges, and termites: new carbon isotope data from the Sterkfontein valley and Kruger National Park \\| journal \\= Journal of Human Evolution \\| volume \\= 48 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 301–312 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jhevol.2004\\.11\\.008 \\| pmid\\=15737395\\| citeseerx \\= 10\\.1\\.1\\.421\\.8468 }} The shift in dietary capacities gave Australopithecines the advantage survive in several different habitats.", "### Archaic megadont hominids", "Megadont hominids, in normal, show the greatest reduction in canines, but the premolars were abnormally large.", "#### *Paranthropus robustus*", "Determined to have lived 2 to 1\\.2 million years ago. True to its name, *[Paranthropus robustus](/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus \"Paranthropus robustus\")* had a more massive jaw and teeth than Homo species. In addition, the species had thicker enamel than any hominid species from the time. There is also evidence from muscle markings on jaws that robustus would have had a diet that was based on hard, tough to chew foods in times of nutritional stress. Research does show, that in general, their diet was very broad.", "#### *Paranthropus boisei*", "*[Paranthropus boisei](/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei \"Paranthropus boisei\")* was a hominid species dated to have lived from 2\\.3 to 1\\.2 million years ago. The evidence from fossils shows morphological traits designed for chewing hard, tough foods and is commonly referred to as the ‘nutcracker man’.{{cite news\\|last\\=\\[\\[University of Arkansas, Fayetteville]]\\|date\\=April 29, 2008\\|title\\=Findings Challenge Conventional Ideas on Evolution of Human Diet, Natural Selection\\|newspaper\\=Newswise\\|url\\=https://www.newswise.com/articles/findings\\-challenge\\-conventional\\-ideas\\-on\\-evolution\\-of\\-human\\-diet\\-natural\\-selection\\|access\\-date\\=April 12, 2021}} Not only do the back molars have double the area that the molars of modern humans possess, but the premolars and the first and second molars were found to be four times larger than the teeth found in humans.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Wood \\| first1 \\= Bernard \\| last2 \\= Lieberman \\| first2 \\= Daniel E. \\| year \\= 2001 \\| title \\= Craniodental variation in Paranthropus boisei: A developmental and functional perspective \\| journal \\= American Journal of Physical Anthropology \\| volume \\= 116 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 13–25 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/ajpa.1097 \\| pmid\\=11536113}} This has been interpreted as researchers as evidence for the hominids chewing predominantly with their back teeth.{{cite web\\|publisher\\=Smithsonian Institution\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=''Paranthropus robustus''\\|url\\=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human\\-fossils/species/paranthropus\\-robustus}} In addition, *P. boisei* possesses the thickest enamel of any hominid specimens found. Despite such large back teeth, the incisors and canines were smaller than other species from the time.", "### Pre\\-Modern Homo", "#### *Homo habilis*", "The species is dated to have lived 2\\.1 to 1\\.5 million years ago. Very little is known about the dental morphology. However, in conjunction with dental evolution, it is expected that *[Homo habilis](/wiki/Homo_habilis \"Homo habilis\")* would display smaller teeth than those of the hominids before them. Furthermore, there would be a reduction in facial prognathism.", "#### *Homo erectus*", "Hominid species for evidence of remains date from 1\\.9 million years ago to {{val\\|70000}} years ago. The dental arcade is smaller than that of australopithecine species and following the trend, prognathism was reduced within the species.", "Earlier *Homo erectus* species exhibited larger teeth than Homo sapiens do today, but the teeth are smaller than early *Homo* species. The incisors also begin to show the shovel\\-shaped appearance, which can be attributed to a change towards a hunter\\-gatherer diet.{{cite book\\|last\\=Relethford\\|first\\=John\\|title\\=The Human Species: An Introduction to Biological Anthropology\\|publisher\\=Mayfield Publishing Company\\|year\\=1994\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55934\\-206\\-3\\|edition\\=2nd\\|location\\=Toronto}} The reduction in molar size has been linked to the eating of softer foods, including cooked foods as well as more meat.{{cite web\\|last\\=O'Neill\\|first\\=D.\\|date\\=2013\\|title\\=''Homo erectus''\\|url\\=http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/homo\\_2\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030020532/http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/homo\\_2\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 30, 2013\\|work\\=Early Human Evolution: A Survey of the Biological and Cultural Evolution of Homo habilis and Homo erectus}}", "#### *Homo ergaster*", "Hominid species that lived 1\\.8 to 1\\.3 million years ago. Continuing the pattern of hominid dental morphological evolution, ergaster had a less prognathic face, smaller dental arcade. The mandibular symphysis is also shown to have grown. In general the dentition, is very similar to that of Homo erectus.", "#### *Homo heidelbergensis*", "Hominid species dating from {{val\\|600000}} to {{val\\|300000}} years ago. Analysis of *H. heidelbergensis* skeletons have led researchers to find that the jaw of the species featured new traits in the form of taurodont molars, a reduced M3 molar, and a large buccal cusp in the P3 premolar.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Schoetensack\\|first\\=Otto\\|url\\=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/36382/36382\\-h/36382\\-h.htm\\|title\\=Der Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis: Aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg\\|publisher\\=Wilhelm Engelmann\\|year\\=1908\\|location\\=Leipzig\\|language\\=German\\|trans\\-title\\=The Lower Jaw of the Homo Heidelbergensis\\|oclc\\=8581333}} In general, when compared to humans, *H. heidelbergensis* shows a larger jaw and smaller teeth.{{cite web\\|publisher\\=Smithsonian Institution\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=''Homo heidelbergensis''\\|url\\=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human\\-fossils/species/homo\\-heidelbergensis}}", "#### *Homo neanderthalensis*", "Although not a direct ancestor of *Homo sapiens*, [Neanderthals](/wiki/Neanderthals \"Neanderthals\") are considered to be close relatives. Living {{val\\|500000}} to {{val\\|30000}} years ago, Neanderthals were named after the valley they were discovered in. Aside from just dentition, Neanderthals were more robust in general. Through analysis of specimens, the face of Neanderthals showed more prognathism, resulting in a [retromolar space](/wiki/Retromolar_space \"Retromolar space\") posterior to the third molar. Neanderthals also possessed larger molars and canine teeth with no grooves.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Scott\\|first1\\=G. R.\\|title\\=Anthropological Perspectives on Tooth Morphology: Genetics, Evolution, Variation\\|last2\\=Irish\\|first2\\=J. D.\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-107\\-01145\\-8\\|location\\=Cambridge}}", "### Modern\\-day humans", "#### *Homo sapiens*", "The general characterizing feature of the dental morphology of humans are the lack of facial [prognathism](/wiki/Prognathism \"Prognathism\"), a parabola\\-shaped mandible and maxilla, and molars that are the same size as the front teeth. Humans also have small crowns in relation to body mass and tend to show a reduction in cusp and root number. The reduction in the dental arcade was accompanied by molars moving posteriorly and axial inclination of the molar roots.", "Evolution of the mandible has also been hypothesized to provide the necessary physiology required for speech.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Emes\\|first1\\=Y.\\|last2\\=Aybar\\|first2\\=B.\\|last3\\=Yalcin\\|first3\\=S.\\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=On the Evolution of Human Jaws and Teeth: A Review\\|journal\\=Bulletin of the International Association of Paleodontologists\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=37–47}} However, these changes are also linked to the development of obstructive sleep apnea. Furthermore, the evolution of the maxillomandibular system has been linked to encephalization. As the jaw changed and the muscles become weaker, the pressure on the cranial sutures lowered, and encephalization occurred. In addition, the overall changes in the mandible and the maxilla have led to the ability for humans to speak.", "Additionally, the evolution and reduction in the jaw has left little room for the third molar, or wisdom tooth, to form. As a result, many individuals choose to remove them through surgery.", "One of the defining features among *[Homo sapiens](/wiki/Homo_sapiens \"Homo sapiens\")* is the presence of a chin. A protruding chin was absent in archaic hominids, as well as [Neanderthals](/wiki/Neanderthals \"Neanderthals\"). Research has shown conflicting views on the function of the chin. Many claim that it provides resistance to forces that cause bending of the mandible while others claim there is no outright purpose to the formation and merely emerged as a point after the shortening of the mandible.", "" ]
Areas of the hospital --------------------- [thumb\|300px\|New hospital building](/wiki/File:Dr._Jose_Fabella_Memorial_Hospital_01.jpg "Dr. Jose Fabella Memorial Hospital 01.jpg") Since it is a mother and baby care hospital, all wards cater to mothers and babies only. Ward 1 is specifically for abortion, gynecology, and oncology cases. Ward 2 is for high\-risk mothers waiting to give birth and are under observation due to some common pregnancy complications like hypertension, placenta\-previa, abruptio placentae. Like Ward 1, Ward 2 is divided into several areas. There is the Kangaroo Mother care area. The mothers who stay here have babies who are born underweight and need to be in the NICU. This way, the mothers can nurture their children confined to the NICU until discharge. The Maternal High\-Risk area usually houses patients who are hypertensive, hypokalemic or diabetic. The ICU can only accommodate a much smaller number of patients. Caesarian patients who have fewer complications stay in Ward 3\. It is the second most populous ward in the hospital, sometimes reaching a number of more than 100 sets of mother\-and\-baby patients. Ward 4 accommodates patients who had normal delivery. This is the most populous ward and patients have been known to reach more than 300 pairs, most especially in the so\-called “ber”\-months (September to December). The aforementioned wards are separated from the NICU, where most of the babies are taken care of shortly after birth. This area alone is divided into several smaller areas, where babies are placed depending on the patient's condition and/or complication. There is a pediatric ward located in another building, which caters to most pediatric cases. More specialized cases are sent to neighboring hospitals where they can be treated with better equipment and staff. The emergency area is where expectant mothers are assessed and admitted before they are sent to either the MHR, Labor room or inpatient ward. The OR Complex is made up of 4 operating rooms, 1 delivery room (which can accommodate 12–20 laboring patients at any given time), a Labor room with around 5–8 beds, a post\-anesthesia Care Room (recovery room) which can accommodate around 5–8 patients. The operating room mostly operates on Caesarian sections, rare gynecology cases and even rarer pediatric cases. Pediatric cases were assigned to visiting pediatric surgeons before. Consultants with mixed specializations also visit the hospital to guide the residents as this hospital is mostly a resident\-reliant hospital. Usually, one consultant is present at any given time to guide a specific team he/she is assigned to. There is also an outpatient clinic in the hospital where expectant mothers undergo routine tests to assess fetal and mother well\-being.
[ "Areas of the hospital\n---------------------", "[thumb\\|300px\\|New hospital building](/wiki/File:Dr._Jose_Fabella_Memorial_Hospital_01.jpg \"Dr. Jose Fabella Memorial Hospital 01.jpg\")\nSince it is a mother and baby care hospital, all wards cater to mothers and babies only.", "Ward 1 is specifically for abortion, gynecology, and oncology cases.", "Ward 2 is for high\\-risk mothers waiting to give birth and are under observation due to some common pregnancy complications like hypertension, placenta\\-previa, abruptio placentae. Like Ward 1, Ward 2 is divided into several areas. There is the Kangaroo Mother care area. The mothers who stay here have babies who are born underweight and need to be in the NICU. This way, the mothers can nurture their children confined to the NICU until discharge. The Maternal High\\-Risk area usually houses patients who are hypertensive, hypokalemic or diabetic. The ICU can only accommodate a much smaller number of patients.", "Caesarian patients who have fewer complications stay in Ward 3\\. It is the second most populous ward in the hospital, sometimes reaching a number of more than 100 sets of mother\\-and\\-baby patients.", "Ward 4 accommodates patients who had normal delivery. This is the most populous ward and patients have been known to reach more than 300 pairs, most especially in the so\\-called “ber”\\-months (September to December).", "The aforementioned wards are separated from the NICU, where most of the babies are taken care of shortly after birth. This area alone is divided into several smaller areas, where babies are placed depending on the patient's condition and/or complication.", "There is a pediatric ward located in another building, which caters to most pediatric cases. More specialized cases are sent to neighboring hospitals where they can be treated with better equipment and staff.", "The emergency area is where expectant mothers are assessed and admitted before they are sent to either the MHR, Labor room or inpatient ward.", "The OR Complex is made up of 4 operating rooms, 1 delivery room (which can accommodate 12–20 laboring patients at any given time), a Labor room with around 5–8 beds, a post\\-anesthesia Care Room (recovery room) which can accommodate around 5–8 patients. The operating room mostly operates on Caesarian sections, rare gynecology cases and even rarer pediatric cases. Pediatric cases were assigned to visiting pediatric surgeons before. Consultants with mixed specializations also visit the hospital to guide the residents as this hospital is mostly a resident\\-reliant hospital. Usually, one consultant is present at any given time to guide a specific team he/she is assigned to.", "There is also an outpatient clinic in the hospital where expectant mothers undergo routine tests to assess fetal and mother well\\-being.", "" ]
History ------- The first fully developed European settlement in the area was established by Dutch and English colonists c.1690, and a land grant of {{Convert\|1200\|acre\|ha}} was formalized on October 14, 1697\. The settlement was originally known as **Mahackamack**, after a [Lenape](/wiki/Lenape "Lenape") word. It was raided and burned in 1779 during the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War"), by British and Mohawk forces under the command of [Mohawk](/wiki/Mohawk_people "Mohawk people") leader [Joseph Brant](/wiki/Joseph_Brant "Joseph Brant") before the [Battle of Minisink](/wiki/Battle_of_Minisink "Battle of Minisink"). Over the next two decades, residents rebuilt the settlement. They developed more roadways to better connect Mahackamack with the eastern parts of Orange County. After the [Delaware and Hudson Canal](/wiki/Delaware_and_Hudson_Canal "Delaware and Hudson Canal") was opened in 1828, providing transportation of coal from northeastern Pennsylvania to New York and New England via the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River"), trade attracted money and further development to the area.["D\&H Canal \& Gravity Railroad"](http://minisink.org/delhud.html), Minisink Valley Historical Society A village was incorporated on May 11, 1853\. It was renamed as Port Jervis in the mid\-19th century, after [John Bloomfield Jervis](/wiki/John_B._Jervis "John B. Jervis"), chief engineer of the D\&H Canal. Port Jervis grew steadily into the 1900s, and on July 26, 1907, it became a city. [thumb\|left\|The [Erie Depot](/wiki/Port_Jervis_station_%28Erie_Railroad%29 "Port Jervis station (Erie Railroad)"), built in 1892, was the largest station on the [Erie Railroad](/wiki/Erie_Railroad "Erie Railroad")'s Delaware Division. The Erie ceased long\-distance passenger service in 1970\. The depot was recently restored and houses some retail shops.](/wiki/File:Erie_Depot_Port_Jervis_entrance.jpg "Erie Depot Port Jervis entrance.jpg") ### Coming of the railroad The first rail line to run through Port Jervis was the [New York \& Erie Railroad](/wiki/New_York_%26_Erie_Railroad "New York & Erie Railroad"), which in 1832 was chartered to run from [Piermont, New York](/wiki/Piermont%2C_New_York "Piermont, New York"), on the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River") in [Rockland County](/wiki/Rockland_County%2C_New_York "Rockland County, New York"), to [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie"). Ground was broken in 1835, but construction was delayed by a [nationwide financial panic](/wiki/Panic_of_1837 "Panic of 1837"), and did not start again until 1838\. The line was completed in 1851, and the first passenger train – with [President Millard Fillmore](/wiki/Millard_Fillmore "Millard Fillmore") and former [United States Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senator "United States Senator") [Daniel Webster](/wiki/Daniel_Webster "Daniel Webster") on board – came through the city on May 14\. The railroad went through a number of name changes, becoming the [Erie Railroad](/wiki/Erie_Railroad "Erie Railroad") in 1897\.["Railroads of Port Jervis"](http://www.minisink.org/rrpjhis.html). Minisink Valley Historical Society website A second railroad, the Port Jervis and Monticello Railroad, later leased to the [New York, Ontario and Western Railway](/wiki/New_York%2C_Ontario_and_Western_Railway "New York, Ontario and Western Railway") (O\&W), opened in 1868, running northeast out of the city, and eventually connecting to [Kingston, New York](/wiki/Kingston%2C_New_York "Kingston, New York"), [Weehawken, New Jersey](/wiki/Weehawken%2C_New_Jersey "Weehawken, New Jersey") and eastern connections. Like the D\&H Canal, the railroads brought new prosperity to Port Jervis in the form of increased trade and investment in the community from the outside. However, the competition by the railroad, which could deliver products faster, hastened the decline of the canal, which ceased operation in 1898\. The railroads were the basis of the city's economy for the coming decades. Port Jervis became Erie's division center between [Jersey City, New Jersey](/wiki/Jersey_City%2C_New_Jersey "Jersey City, New Jersey") and [Susquehanna, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Susquehanna%2C_Pennsylvania "Susquehanna, Pennsylvania"), and by 1922, 20 passenger trains went through the city every day. More than 2,500 Erie RR employees made their homes there. The railroads began to decline after the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression").["Port Jervis and the Gilded Age"](http://www.minisink.org/histpj.html), Minisink Valley Historical Society A shift in transportation accelerated after World War II with the federal subsidy of the [Interstate Highway System](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System "Interstate Highway System") and increased competition from trucking companies. One of the first [Class I railroads](/wiki/Class_I_railroad "Class I railroad") to shut down was the O\&W, on March 29, 1957, leaving Port Jervis totally reliant on the Erie. A few years later, in 1960, the Erie, also on a shaky financial footing, merged with [Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad](/wiki/Delaware%2C_Lackawanna_and_Western_Railroad "Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad") to become the [Erie Lackawanna](/wiki/Erie_Lackawanna "Erie Lackawanna"). Railroad restructuring continued and in 1976, the Erie Lackawana became part of [Conrail](/wiki/Conrail "Conrail"), along with a number of other struggling railroads, such as the [Penn Central](/wiki/Penn_Central_Railroad "Penn Central Railroad"). Since the breakup of Conrail, the trackage around Port Jervis has been controlled by [Norfolk Southern](/wiki/Norfolk_Southern "Norfolk Southern"). The decline of the railroads was an economic blow to Port Jervis. The city has struggled to find a new economic basis. ### Lynching and Racist incidents On June 2, 1892, [Robert Lewis](/wiki/Robert_Lewis_%28lynching_victim%29 "Robert Lewis (lynching victim)"), an African American, was [lynched](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States "Lynching in the United States"), hanged on Main Street in Port Jervis by a mob after being accused of participation in an assault on a white woman.{{cite web \|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1892/06/03/104132685\.pdf\|title\= Lynching at Port Jervis. – Robert Jackson, a colored man, hanged by a mob \|work\=\[\[New York Times]]\|date\=June 3, 1892 }}[https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=1025\&context\=ho\_pubs](https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=ho_pubs) {{bare URL inline\|date\=April 2023}} A grand jury indicted nine people for assault and rioting rather than Lewis's lynching.{{cite news \|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1892/06/30/104138410\.pdf\|title\=Port Jervis Lynching indictments \|newspaper\=New York Times\|date\=June 30, 1892 }} Some literary critics argue that this event influenced [Stephen Crane](/wiki/Stephen_Crane "Stephen Crane")'s 1898 novella *[The Monster](/wiki/The_Monster_%28novella%29 "The Monster (novella)")*. Crane lived in Port Jervis from 1878 until 1883 and frequently visited the area from 1891 to 1897\.Wertheim, Stanley. *A Stephen Crane Encyclopedia*. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1997\. {{ISBN\|0\-313\-29692\-8}}. p. 195 In the mid\-1920s some residents in the area formed a [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") chapter, in the period of the KKK's early 20th\-century revival. They burned crosses on Point Peter, the mountain peak that overlooks the city.{{cite web \|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1922/08/13/107066826\.pdf\|title\=Boys get 'K.K.K.' Warning – Port Jervis Youths are Ordered to restore crosses to Point Peter\|work\=\[\[New York Times]]\|date\=August 13, 1922 }} [thumb\|center\|675x675px\|A view of Port Jervis showing the [Mid\-Delaware Bridge](/wiki/Mid-Delaware_Bridge "Mid-Delaware Bridge") to [Matamoras, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Matamoras%2C_Pennsylvania "Matamoras, Pennsylvania") on the far right and [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey")'s [High Point](/wiki/High_Point_%28New_Jersey%29 "High Point (New Jersey)") on the [Kittatinny Ridge](/wiki/Kittatinny_Ridge "Kittatinny Ridge") on the far left](/wiki/File:Port_Jervis%2C_NY_crop.jpg "Port Jervis, NY crop.jpg") [thumb\|The parade on July 14, 2007, celebrating the 100th year as a city](/wiki/Image:Port_Jervis_Parade_July_14_2007.jpg "Port Jervis Parade July 14 2007.jpg") ### Geological history The city's location at the confluence of the Delaware and Neversink rivers has made it subject to occasional flooding. There was flooding during the 1955 [Hurricane Diane](/wiki/Hurricane_Diane "Hurricane Diane"), and a flood\-related rumor started a panic in the population. This incident was studied and a 1958 report issued by the [National Research Council](/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council "United States National Research Council"): "The Effects of a Threatening Rumor on a Disaster\-Stricken Community".["The Effects of a Threatening Rumor on a Disaster\-Stricken Community "](https://web.archive.org/web/20110720011941/http://orsted.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9552&page=1). National Research Council (NRC). (1958\) Retrieved January 13, 2011\. In addition to the rivers having flooded during periods of heavy rainfall, at times ice jams have effectively dammed the Delaware, also causing flooding. In 1875 ice floes destroyed the bridge to [Matamoras, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Matamoras%2C_Pennsylvania "Matamoras, Pennsylvania"). In 1981 a large ice floe resulted in the highest water crest measured to date at the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service "National Weather Service")'s [Matamoras](/wiki/Matamoras%2C_Pennsylvania "Matamoras, Pennsylvania") [river gauge](/wiki/River_gauge "River gauge") {{Convert\|26\.6\|ft\|m}}.Weyandt, Kimberly. ["Flooding is old news"](http://www.riverreporter.com/issues/04-09-30/news-floodhistory.html). *The River Reporter* (September 30 – October 6, 2004\). Retrieved March 5, 2011\. However, the NWS' list of ["Historical Crests"](http://water.weather.gov/ahps2/crests.php?wfo=bgm&gage=mtmp1) for the river at Matamoras/Port Jervis shows a peak of {{Convert\|25\.5\|ft\|m}} in 1904, and no record peak in 1981 at all. [thumb\|left\|View of Port Jervis from [High Point, New Jersey](/wiki/High_Point_%28New_Jersey%29 "High Point (New Jersey)")](/wiki/File:2014-08-28_16_34_04_View_northwest_from_the_north_corner_of_the_base_of_High_Point_Monument_in_High_Point_State_Park%2C_New_Jersey.JPG "2014-08-28 16 34 04 View northwest from the north corner of the base of High Point Monument in High Point State Park, New Jersey.JPG")
[ "History\n-------", "The first fully developed European settlement in the area was established by Dutch and English colonists c.1690, and a land grant of {{Convert\\|1200\\|acre\\|ha}} was formalized on October 14, 1697\\. The settlement was originally known as **Mahackamack**, after a [Lenape](/wiki/Lenape \"Lenape\") word. It was raided and burned in 1779 during the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\"), by British and Mohawk forces under the command of [Mohawk](/wiki/Mohawk_people \"Mohawk people\") leader [Joseph Brant](/wiki/Joseph_Brant \"Joseph Brant\") before the [Battle of Minisink](/wiki/Battle_of_Minisink \"Battle of Minisink\"). Over the next two decades, residents rebuilt the settlement. They developed more roadways to better connect Mahackamack with the eastern parts of Orange County.", "After the [Delaware and Hudson Canal](/wiki/Delaware_and_Hudson_Canal \"Delaware and Hudson Canal\") was opened in 1828, providing transportation of coal from northeastern Pennsylvania to New York and New England via the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\"), trade attracted money and further development to the area.[\"D\\&H Canal \\& Gravity Railroad\"](http://minisink.org/delhud.html), Minisink Valley Historical Society A village was incorporated on May 11, 1853\\. It was renamed as Port Jervis in the mid\\-19th century, after [John Bloomfield Jervis](/wiki/John_B._Jervis \"John B. Jervis\"), chief engineer of the D\\&H Canal. Port Jervis grew steadily into the 1900s, and on July 26, 1907, it became a city.", "[thumb\\|left\\|The [Erie Depot](/wiki/Port_Jervis_station_%28Erie_Railroad%29 \"Port Jervis station (Erie Railroad)\"), built in 1892, was the largest station on the [Erie Railroad](/wiki/Erie_Railroad \"Erie Railroad\")'s Delaware Division. The Erie ceased long\\-distance passenger service in 1970\\. The depot was recently restored and houses some retail shops.](/wiki/File:Erie_Depot_Port_Jervis_entrance.jpg \"Erie Depot Port Jervis entrance.jpg\")", "### Coming of the railroad", "The first rail line to run through Port Jervis was the [New York \\& Erie Railroad](/wiki/New_York_%26_Erie_Railroad \"New York & Erie Railroad\"), which in 1832 was chartered to run from [Piermont, New York](/wiki/Piermont%2C_New_York \"Piermont, New York\"), on the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\") in [Rockland County](/wiki/Rockland_County%2C_New_York \"Rockland County, New York\"), to [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\"). Ground was broken in 1835, but construction was delayed by a [nationwide financial panic](/wiki/Panic_of_1837 \"Panic of 1837\"), and did not start again until 1838\\. The line was completed in 1851, and the first passenger train – with [President Millard Fillmore](/wiki/Millard_Fillmore \"Millard Fillmore\") and former [United States Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senator \"United States Senator\") [Daniel Webster](/wiki/Daniel_Webster \"Daniel Webster\") on board – came through the city on May 14\\. The railroad went through a number of name changes, becoming the [Erie Railroad](/wiki/Erie_Railroad \"Erie Railroad\") in 1897\\.[\"Railroads of Port Jervis\"](http://www.minisink.org/rrpjhis.html). Minisink Valley Historical Society website", "A second railroad, the Port Jervis and Monticello Railroad, later leased to the [New York, Ontario and Western Railway](/wiki/New_York%2C_Ontario_and_Western_Railway \"New York, Ontario and Western Railway\") (O\\&W), opened in 1868, running northeast out of the city, and eventually connecting to [Kingston, New York](/wiki/Kingston%2C_New_York \"Kingston, New York\"), [Weehawken, New Jersey](/wiki/Weehawken%2C_New_Jersey \"Weehawken, New Jersey\") and eastern connections.", "Like the D\\&H Canal, the railroads brought new prosperity to Port Jervis in the form of increased trade and investment in the community from the outside. However, the competition by the railroad, which could deliver products faster, hastened the decline of the canal, which ceased operation in 1898\\. The railroads were the basis of the city's economy for the coming decades. Port Jervis became Erie's division center between [Jersey City, New Jersey](/wiki/Jersey_City%2C_New_Jersey \"Jersey City, New Jersey\") and [Susquehanna, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Susquehanna%2C_Pennsylvania \"Susquehanna, Pennsylvania\"), and by 1922, 20 passenger trains went through the city every day. More than 2,500 Erie RR employees made their homes there.", "The railroads began to decline after the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\").[\"Port Jervis and the Gilded Age\"](http://www.minisink.org/histpj.html), Minisink Valley Historical Society A shift in transportation accelerated after World War II with the federal subsidy of the [Interstate Highway System](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System \"Interstate Highway System\") and increased competition from trucking companies. One of the first [Class I railroads](/wiki/Class_I_railroad \"Class I railroad\") to shut down was the O\\&W, on March 29, 1957, leaving Port Jervis totally reliant on the Erie. A few years later, in 1960, the Erie, also on a shaky financial footing, merged with [Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad](/wiki/Delaware%2C_Lackawanna_and_Western_Railroad \"Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad\") to become the [Erie Lackawanna](/wiki/Erie_Lackawanna \"Erie Lackawanna\"). Railroad restructuring continued and in 1976, the Erie Lackawana became part of [Conrail](/wiki/Conrail \"Conrail\"), along with a number of other struggling railroads, such as the [Penn Central](/wiki/Penn_Central_Railroad \"Penn Central Railroad\"). Since the breakup of Conrail, the trackage around Port Jervis has been controlled by [Norfolk Southern](/wiki/Norfolk_Southern \"Norfolk Southern\"). The decline of the railroads was an economic blow to Port Jervis. The city has struggled to find a new economic basis.", "### Lynching and Racist incidents", "On June 2, 1892, [Robert Lewis](/wiki/Robert_Lewis_%28lynching_victim%29 \"Robert Lewis (lynching victim)\"), an African American, was [lynched](/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States \"Lynching in the United States\"), hanged on Main Street in Port Jervis by a mob after being accused of participation in an assault on a white woman.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1892/06/03/104132685\\.pdf\\|title\\= Lynching at Port Jervis. – Robert Jackson, a colored man, hanged by a mob \\|work\\=\\[\\[New York Times]]\\|date\\=June 3, 1892 }}[https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=1025\\&context\\=ho\\_pubs](https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=ho_pubs) {{bare URL inline\\|date\\=April 2023}} A grand jury indicted nine people for assault and rioting rather than Lewis's lynching.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1892/06/30/104138410\\.pdf\\|title\\=Port Jervis Lynching indictments \\|newspaper\\=New York Times\\|date\\=June 30, 1892 }} Some literary critics argue that this event influenced [Stephen Crane](/wiki/Stephen_Crane \"Stephen Crane\")'s 1898 novella *[The Monster](/wiki/The_Monster_%28novella%29 \"The Monster (novella)\")*. Crane lived in Port Jervis from 1878 until 1883 and frequently visited the area from 1891 to 1897\\.Wertheim, Stanley. *A Stephen Crane Encyclopedia*. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1997\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-313\\-29692\\-8}}. p. 195", "In the mid\\-1920s some residents in the area formed a [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") chapter, in the period of the KKK's early 20th\\-century revival. They burned crosses on Point Peter, the mountain peak that overlooks the city.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1922/08/13/107066826\\.pdf\\|title\\=Boys get 'K.K.K.' Warning – Port Jervis Youths are Ordered to restore crosses to Point Peter\\|work\\=\\[\\[New York Times]]\\|date\\=August 13, 1922 }}", "[thumb\\|center\\|675x675px\\|A view of Port Jervis showing the [Mid\\-Delaware Bridge](/wiki/Mid-Delaware_Bridge \"Mid-Delaware Bridge\") to [Matamoras, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Matamoras%2C_Pennsylvania \"Matamoras, Pennsylvania\") on the far right and [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\")'s [High Point](/wiki/High_Point_%28New_Jersey%29 \"High Point (New Jersey)\") on the [Kittatinny Ridge](/wiki/Kittatinny_Ridge \"Kittatinny Ridge\") on the far left](/wiki/File:Port_Jervis%2C_NY_crop.jpg \"Port Jervis, NY crop.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The parade on July 14, 2007, celebrating the 100th year as a city](/wiki/Image:Port_Jervis_Parade_July_14_2007.jpg \"Port Jervis Parade July 14 2007.jpg\")", "### Geological history", "The city's location at the confluence of the Delaware and Neversink rivers has made it subject to occasional flooding. There was flooding during the 1955 [Hurricane Diane](/wiki/Hurricane_Diane \"Hurricane Diane\"), and a flood\\-related rumor started a panic in the population. This incident was studied and a 1958 report issued by the [National Research Council](/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council \"United States National Research Council\"): \"The Effects of a Threatening Rumor on a Disaster\\-Stricken Community\".[\"The Effects of a Threatening Rumor on a Disaster\\-Stricken Community \"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110720011941/http://orsted.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9552&page=1). National Research Council (NRC). (1958\\) Retrieved January 13, 2011\\.", "In addition to the rivers having flooded during periods of heavy rainfall, at times ice jams have effectively dammed the Delaware, also causing flooding. In 1875 ice floes destroyed the bridge to [Matamoras, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Matamoras%2C_Pennsylvania \"Matamoras, Pennsylvania\"). In 1981 a large ice floe resulted in the highest water crest measured to date at the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service \"National Weather Service\")'s [Matamoras](/wiki/Matamoras%2C_Pennsylvania \"Matamoras, Pennsylvania\") [river gauge](/wiki/River_gauge \"River gauge\") {{Convert\\|26\\.6\\|ft\\|m}}.Weyandt, Kimberly. [\"Flooding is old news\"](http://www.riverreporter.com/issues/04-09-30/news-floodhistory.html). *The River Reporter* (September 30 – October 6, 2004\\). Retrieved March 5, 2011\\. \n \nHowever, the NWS' list of [\"Historical Crests\"](http://water.weather.gov/ahps2/crests.php?wfo=bgm&gage=mtmp1) for the river at Matamoras/Port Jervis shows a peak of {{Convert\\|25\\.5\\|ft\\|m}} in 1904, and no record peak in 1981 at all.", "[thumb\\|left\\|View of Port Jervis from [High Point, New Jersey](/wiki/High_Point_%28New_Jersey%29 \"High Point (New Jersey)\")](/wiki/File:2014-08-28_16_34_04_View_northwest_from_the_north_corner_of_the_base_of_High_Point_Monument_in_High_Point_State_Park%2C_New_Jersey.JPG \"2014-08-28 16 34 04 View northwest from the north corner of the base of High Point Monument in High Point State Park, New Jersey.JPG\")", "" ]
Life ---- Worcester was born in [Hollis, New Hampshire](/wiki/Hollis%2C_New_Hampshire "Hollis, New Hampshire"), to a father of the same name, who had been one of the framers of the New Hampshire constitution. At age 16, he joined the militia as a fifer during the [Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War"), and was at the battle of [Bunker Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_Bunker_Hill "Battle of Bunker Hill"), where he narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. He was also at [Bennington](/wiki/Battle_of_Bennington "Battle of Bennington") as a fife major. In September 1778, he moved to [Plymouth, New Hampshire](/wiki/Plymouth%2C_New_Hampshire "Plymouth, New Hampshire"), where he taught, and in February 1782, settled at [Thornton](/wiki/Thornton%2C_New_Hampshire "Thornton, New Hampshire"), filling several local offices, and was chosen to the legislature. Having turned his attention to theology, he published a *Letter to the Rev. John Murray Concerning the Origin of Evil* (Newburyport, 1786\), and was licensed to preach by a [Congregational](/wiki/Congregational "Congregational") association in 1786\. He became pastor of Thornton in 1787\. In 1802 he was employed as Thorton's first missionary in the New Hampshire society then organized, and in that capacity preached and traveled extensively through the northern part of the state. In this period he commenced a prolific writing career, contributing numerous articles to theological and popular journals. In 1810 he became a pastor in [Salisbury, New Hampshire](/wiki/Salisbury%2C_New_Hampshire "Salisbury, New Hampshire"), where his ancestor William Worcester, an emigrant from [Salisbury, England](/wiki/Salisbury%2C_England "Salisbury, England"), had been the first minister. Three years later, in 1813 he accepted an invitation to edit [*The Christian Disciple*](/wiki/Christian_Examiner "Christian Examiner"), a Boston\-based periodical founded by the eminent Unitarian minister [William Ellery Channing](/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing "William Ellery Channing") and others, and moved to [Brighton, Massachusetts](/wiki/Brighton%2C_Massachusetts "Brighton, Massachusetts"). Self\-educated, he accustomed himself to rigorous mental discipline. Physically, Worcester presented the remarkable contrast of robust man "of uncommon strength", combined with unusual mildness of manner. Worcester married twice. His first wife, Hannah Brown, died in 1797 after falling from a horse. The following year he married Hannah Huntington, of Norwich, Connecticut. He had four sons and six daughters by his first marriage. His brother, Thomas (1768–1831\), whose pulpit Noah had filled in Salisbury, was also a clergyman. Thomas wrote extensively on subjects related to [Unitarianism](/wiki/Unitarianism "Unitarianism") and [Trinitarianism](/wiki/Trinitarianism "Trinitarianism"). Another brother, [Samuel](/wiki/Samuel_Worcester_%28theologian%29 "Samuel Worcester (theologian)") (1770–1821\), also a clergyman, was corresponding secretary of the [American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions](/wiki/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions "American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions") in 1810, and in 1815 engaged in the Unitarian controversy, his immediate opponent being [William Ellery Channing](/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing "William Ellery Channing"). Worcester was awarded an honorary arts degree by Dartmouth in 1791 and an honorary [Doctor of Divinity](/wiki/Doctor_of_Divinity "Doctor of Divinity") by Harvard in 1818\.
[ "Life\n----", "Worcester was born in [Hollis, New Hampshire](/wiki/Hollis%2C_New_Hampshire \"Hollis, New Hampshire\"), to a father of the same name, who had been one of the framers of the New Hampshire constitution. At age 16, he joined the militia as a fifer during the [Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\"), and was at the battle of [Bunker Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_Bunker_Hill \"Battle of Bunker Hill\"), where he narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. He was also at [Bennington](/wiki/Battle_of_Bennington \"Battle of Bennington\") as a fife major.", "In September 1778, he moved to [Plymouth, New Hampshire](/wiki/Plymouth%2C_New_Hampshire \"Plymouth, New Hampshire\"), where he taught, and in February 1782, settled at [Thornton](/wiki/Thornton%2C_New_Hampshire \"Thornton, New Hampshire\"), filling several local offices, and was chosen to the legislature. Having turned his attention to theology, he published a *Letter to the Rev. John Murray Concerning the Origin of Evil* (Newburyport, 1786\\), and was licensed to preach by a [Congregational](/wiki/Congregational \"Congregational\") association in 1786\\. He became pastor of Thornton in 1787\\. In 1802 he was employed as Thorton's first missionary in the New Hampshire society then organized, and in that capacity preached and traveled extensively through the northern part of the state. In this period he commenced a prolific writing career, contributing numerous articles to theological and popular journals.", "In 1810 he became a pastor in [Salisbury, New Hampshire](/wiki/Salisbury%2C_New_Hampshire \"Salisbury, New Hampshire\"), where his ancestor William Worcester, an emigrant from [Salisbury, England](/wiki/Salisbury%2C_England \"Salisbury, England\"), had been the first minister. Three years later, in 1813 he accepted an invitation to edit [*The Christian Disciple*](/wiki/Christian_Examiner \"Christian Examiner\"), a Boston\\-based periodical founded by the eminent Unitarian minister [William Ellery Channing](/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing \"William Ellery Channing\") and others, and moved to [Brighton, Massachusetts](/wiki/Brighton%2C_Massachusetts \"Brighton, Massachusetts\").", "Self\\-educated, he accustomed himself to rigorous mental discipline. Physically, Worcester presented the remarkable contrast of robust man \"of uncommon strength\", combined with unusual mildness of manner.", "Worcester married twice. His first wife, Hannah Brown, died in 1797 after falling from a horse. The following year he married Hannah Huntington, of Norwich, Connecticut. He had four sons and six daughters by his first marriage.", "His brother, Thomas (1768–1831\\), whose pulpit Noah had filled in Salisbury, was also a clergyman. Thomas wrote extensively on subjects related to [Unitarianism](/wiki/Unitarianism \"Unitarianism\") and [Trinitarianism](/wiki/Trinitarianism \"Trinitarianism\"). Another brother, [Samuel](/wiki/Samuel_Worcester_%28theologian%29 \"Samuel Worcester (theologian)\") (1770–1821\\), also a clergyman, was corresponding secretary of the [American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions](/wiki/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions \"American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions\") in 1810, and in 1815 engaged in the Unitarian controversy, his immediate opponent being [William Ellery Channing](/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing \"William Ellery Channing\").", "Worcester was awarded an honorary arts degree by Dartmouth in 1791 and an honorary [Doctor of Divinity](/wiki/Doctor_of_Divinity \"Doctor of Divinity\") by Harvard in 1818\\.", "" ]
Models ------ ### Phantom D The Phantom uses a mono\-tube design for simplicity and lower cost, while keeping the same geometry as the P\-38 model and includes disc brakes. An optional add\-on kit can convert the Phantom to a four\-wheeled cycle, called the Phantom Quad. ### P\-38 The P\-38 uses a patented space frame, consisting of small diameter tubes arranged in a three\-dimensional triangular shape. It is considered a short wheelbase recumbent, with the front wheel behind the pedals and cranks. The P\-38 also comes in a Rox version with thicker tubes, reinforcement and steel seat frame for heavier riders, and also in a belt\-drive configuration, which uses belts instead of bicycle chains. ### P\-38 Voyager The P\-38 Voyager is a version of the P\-38 that disassembles and can be carried in a large wheeled carrying case, or checked as luggage for air travel. It takes about 30 minutes to reassemble the bike. ### F\-40 The F\-40 is a full\-faired (enclosed) streamlined recumbent, using the P\-38 frame inside, along with an aluminum frame and fabric fairing in the rear, and a fiberglass nose piece. The fairing improves aerodynamics and allows much higher speeds to be attained with similar pedaling effort. The F\-40 set twelve world bicycle speed records. ### R\-84 The R\-84 recumbent has a similar geometry to the P\-38 and Phantom, but is constructed from carbon fiber, resulting in a lighter total bike weight. ### F\-90 The F\-90 is similar to the F\-40 but uses the R\-84 carbon fiber frame along with a kevlar and mylar sailcloth midsection, instead of the fabric used in the F\-40\. Lightning claims that the F\-90 is the fastest production bicycle available on the market for purchase. ### Previous Models * Thunderbolt (no longer in production) * Stealth (renamed to Phantom) * Phantom II (no longer in production) They also make [handcycles](/wiki/Recumbent_bicycles%23Handcycles "Recumbent bicycles#Handcycles") and cranksets.
[ "Models\n------", "### Phantom D", "The Phantom uses a mono\\-tube design for simplicity and lower cost, while keeping the same geometry as the P\\-38 model and includes disc brakes. An optional add\\-on kit can convert the Phantom to a four\\-wheeled cycle, called the Phantom Quad.", "### P\\-38", "The P\\-38 uses a patented space frame, consisting of small diameter tubes arranged in a three\\-dimensional triangular shape. It is considered a short wheelbase recumbent, with the front wheel behind the pedals and cranks. The P\\-38 also comes in a Rox version with thicker tubes, reinforcement and steel seat frame for heavier riders, and also in a belt\\-drive configuration, which uses belts instead of bicycle chains.", "### P\\-38 Voyager", "The P\\-38 Voyager is a version of the P\\-38 that disassembles and can be carried in a large wheeled carrying case, or checked as luggage for air travel. It takes about 30 minutes to reassemble the bike.", "### F\\-40", "The F\\-40 is a full\\-faired (enclosed) streamlined recumbent, using the P\\-38 frame inside, along with an aluminum frame and fabric fairing in the rear, and a fiberglass nose piece. The fairing improves aerodynamics and allows much higher speeds to be attained with similar pedaling effort. The F\\-40 set twelve world bicycle speed records.", "### R\\-84", "The R\\-84 recumbent has a similar geometry to the P\\-38 and Phantom, but is constructed from carbon fiber, resulting in a lighter total bike weight.", "### F\\-90", "The F\\-90 is similar to the F\\-40 but uses the R\\-84 carbon fiber frame along with a kevlar and mylar sailcloth midsection, instead of the fabric used in the F\\-40\\. Lightning claims that the F\\-90 is the fastest production bicycle available on the market for purchase.", "### Previous Models", "* Thunderbolt (no longer in production)\n* Stealth (renamed to Phantom)\n* Phantom II (no longer in production)", "They also make [handcycles](/wiki/Recumbent_bicycles%23Handcycles \"Recumbent bicycles#Handcycles\") and cranksets.", "" ]
Life ---- She was the youngest child of [Mieszko III the Old](/wiki/Mieszko_III_the_Old "Mieszko III the Old"), [Duke of Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland "Greater Poland") and since 1173 [High Duke of Poland](/wiki/List_of_Polish_rulers "List of Polish rulers"), by his second wife [Eudoxia](/wiki/Eudoxia_of_Kiev "Eudoxia of Kiev"), daughter of Grand Prince [Iziaslav II of Kiev](/wiki/Iziaslav_II_of_Kiev "Iziaslav II of Kiev"). ### Duchess On 26 April 1177 Anastasia married [Bogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania](/wiki/Bogislaw_I%2C_Duke_of_Pomerania "Bogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania"). This marriage reinforced the alliance between Mieszko III and his western neighbors, who started soon before with the marriage of Anastasia's older sister Salomea with Ratibor, the eldest of Bogislaw I's two sons born from his first marriage with Walburgis (who died before 18 April 1172\). During her marriage, Anastasia bore her husband two other sons, [Bogislaw](/wiki/Bogislaw_II%2C_Duke_of_Pomerania "Bogislaw II, Duke of Pomerania") in 1178 and [Casimir](/wiki/Casimir_II%2C_Duke_of_Pomerania "Casimir II, Duke of Pomerania") around 1180\. The High Duke gained a faithful ally with this son\-in\-law, who was the only who supported him when he was exiled from Poland due to the rebellion of his eldest son (and Anastasia's half\-brother) [Odon](/wiki/Odon_of_Pozna%C5%84 "Odon of Poznań"). In 1181 Anastasia's father was able to reconquer [Gniezno](/wiki/Gniezno "Gniezno") and [Kalisz](/wiki/Kalisz "Kalisz") with the help of Duke Bogislaw I. They even took [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 "Poznań") from Odon, who finally reconciled with his father one year later. ### Regency The deaths of Princes Ratibor (14–15 January 1183\) and Wartislaw (18 February 1184\), left Anastasia's sons as the only heirs of Duke Bogislaw I. On 18 March 1187 the Duke died while hunting near [Sassnitz](/wiki/Sassnitz "Sassnitz"); at that time, his two surviving sons Bogislaw II and Casimir II were minors. For this, they succeeded in the Duchy as co\-rulers under the regency of their mother, who was assisted in the government firstly by Wartislaw, [castellan](/wiki/Castellan "Castellan") of [Stettin](/wiki/Stettin "Stettin") (during 1187–1189\) and later by [Jaromar I, Prince of Rügen](/wiki/Jaromar_I%2C_Prince_of_R%C3%BCgen "Jaromar I, Prince of Rügen") (during 1189–1198\). However, the real authority over the Duchy of Pomerania was held by Anastasia until 1208, when her sons were declared adults and began their personal government. ### Later life Anastasia survived both her sons: Casimir II was dead by the end of 1219 and Bogislaw II died on 24 January 1220\. Four years later, on 7 July 1224, she issued a document under which she approved the foundation of a [Norbertine](/wiki/Norbertine "Norbertine") monastery in [Trzebiatów](/wiki/Trzebiat%C3%B3w "Trzebiatów"), which was richly endowed by the Dowager Duchess, giving to them a part of her widow's seat (received after his marriage): twenty castles and seven villages. After the construction of the monastery was finished, Anastasia moved there, but she never took the religious vows. The last time Anastasia appeared in public was on 31 May 1240, when her grandson [Wartislaw III](/wiki/Wartislaw_III%2C_Duke_of_Pomerania "Wartislaw III, Duke of Pomerania") confirmed the foundation of the monastery. She died soon after that date and was buried in the Norbertine monastery in Trzebiatów.
[ "Life\n----", "She was the youngest child of [Mieszko III the Old](/wiki/Mieszko_III_the_Old \"Mieszko III the Old\"), [Duke of Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland \"Greater Poland\") and since 1173 [High Duke of Poland](/wiki/List_of_Polish_rulers \"List of Polish rulers\"), by his second wife [Eudoxia](/wiki/Eudoxia_of_Kiev \"Eudoxia of Kiev\"), daughter of Grand Prince [Iziaslav II of Kiev](/wiki/Iziaslav_II_of_Kiev \"Iziaslav II of Kiev\").", "### Duchess", "On 26 April 1177 Anastasia married [Bogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania](/wiki/Bogislaw_I%2C_Duke_of_Pomerania \"Bogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania\"). This marriage reinforced the alliance between Mieszko III and his western neighbors, who started soon before with the marriage of Anastasia's older sister Salomea with Ratibor, the eldest of Bogislaw I's two sons born from his first marriage with Walburgis (who died before 18 April 1172\\). During her marriage, Anastasia bore her husband two other sons, [Bogislaw](/wiki/Bogislaw_II%2C_Duke_of_Pomerania \"Bogislaw II, Duke of Pomerania\") in 1178 and [Casimir](/wiki/Casimir_II%2C_Duke_of_Pomerania \"Casimir II, Duke of Pomerania\") around 1180\\.", "The High Duke gained a faithful ally with this son\\-in\\-law, who was the only who supported him when he was exiled from Poland due to the rebellion of his eldest son (and Anastasia's half\\-brother) [Odon](/wiki/Odon_of_Pozna%C5%84 \"Odon of Poznań\"). In 1181 Anastasia's father was able to reconquer [Gniezno](/wiki/Gniezno \"Gniezno\") and [Kalisz](/wiki/Kalisz \"Kalisz\") with the help of Duke Bogislaw I. They even took [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 \"Poznań\") from Odon, who finally reconciled with his father one year later.", "### Regency", "The deaths of Princes Ratibor (14–15 January 1183\\) and Wartislaw (18 February 1184\\), left Anastasia's sons as the only heirs of Duke Bogislaw I. On 18 March 1187 the Duke died while hunting near [Sassnitz](/wiki/Sassnitz \"Sassnitz\"); at that time, his two surviving sons Bogislaw II and Casimir II were minors. For this, they succeeded in the Duchy as co\\-rulers under the regency of their mother, who was assisted in the government firstly by Wartislaw, [castellan](/wiki/Castellan \"Castellan\") of [Stettin](/wiki/Stettin \"Stettin\") (during 1187–1189\\) and later by [Jaromar I, Prince of Rügen](/wiki/Jaromar_I%2C_Prince_of_R%C3%BCgen \"Jaromar I, Prince of Rügen\") (during 1189–1198\\). However, the real authority over the Duchy of Pomerania was held by Anastasia until 1208, when her sons were declared adults and began their personal government.", "### Later life", "Anastasia survived both her sons: Casimir II was dead by the end of 1219 and Bogislaw II died on 24 January 1220\\. Four years later, on 7 July 1224, she issued a document under which she approved the foundation of a [Norbertine](/wiki/Norbertine \"Norbertine\") monastery in [Trzebiatów](/wiki/Trzebiat%C3%B3w \"Trzebiatów\"), which was richly endowed by the Dowager Duchess, giving to them a part of her widow's seat (received after his marriage): twenty castles and seven villages. After the construction of the monastery was finished, Anastasia moved there, but she never took the religious vows.", "The last time Anastasia appeared in public was on 31 May 1240, when her grandson [Wartislaw III](/wiki/Wartislaw_III%2C_Duke_of_Pomerania \"Wartislaw III, Duke of Pomerania\") confirmed the foundation of the monastery. She died soon after that date and was buried in the Norbertine monastery in Trzebiatów.", "" ]
Playing career -------------- ### Early career Jack Alderson began his footballing career as a junior with his local side Crook Juniors, beginning his senior career with [Crook Town](/wiki/Crook_Town_F.C. "Crook Town F.C."). He moved to [Shildon Athletic](/wiki/Shildon_A.F.C. "Shildon A.F.C."), before joining [Football League](/wiki/English_Football_League "English Football League") side [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. "Middlesbrough F.C."). While making guest appearances for West Auckland Wanderers during a set of friendlies against [Barcelona](/wiki/FC_Barcelona "FC Barcelona") in December 1912, club president [Joan Gamper](/wiki/Joan_Gamper "Joan Gamper") was impressed with his performances and signed him as player\-coach. However, he never made his debut for Barcelona, as he was transferred to [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. "Newcastle United F.C.") for £30\. Despite not coaching the club, he remains Barcelona's youngest ever manager at the age of 21\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fcbarcelona.com/en/card/648698/jack\-alderson\-1913\|title\=Jack Alderson (1913\)\|publisher\=FC Barcelona\|access\-date\=2 February 2023}} On 25 January 1913, he made only appearance for Newcastle in a 3–1 win against [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.newcastle\-online.org/nufchistory/nufconehitwonders.shtml \|title\=Newcastle United's one\-hit wonders \|publisher\=NUFC History \|access\-date\=7 December 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727120625/http://www.newcastle\-online.org/nufchistory/nufconehitwonders.shtml \|archive\-date\=27 July 2011 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.talkofthetyne.net/93201\.html \|title\=Every player who has played for the first team \|publisher\=Talk of the Toon \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709215754/http://www.talkofthetyne.net/93201\.html \|archive\-date\=9 July 2011 \|access\-date\=7 December 2008}} ### Crystal Palace With the outbreak of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and with league football abandoned, Alderson served as a [gunner](/wiki/Gunner_%28rank%29 "Gunner (rank)") in the [Royal Garrison Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Garrison_Artillery "Royal Garrison Artillery"), whilst remaining on the books at Newcastle.{{Cite book \|title\=Sheffield United Who's Who \|last1\=Clarebrough \|first1\=Denis \|last2\=Kirkham \|first2\=Andrew \|publisher\=Hallamshire Press \|year\=2008 \|isbn\=978\-1\-874718\-69\-7 \|pages\=31–32}}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.newmp.org.uk/article.php?categoryid\=100\&articleid\=1421\&displayorder\=63 \|title\=North East War Memorials Project \- Regional Content \|website\=www.newmp.org.uk \|access\-date\=24 October 2019}} Based at [Woolwich](/wiki/Woolwich "Woolwich"), he played a number of wartime games for [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. "Crystal Palace F.C.") as a guest player and at the end of the war, signed for Palace from Newcastle for a fee of £50\. He was an ever\-present in the first post\-war season, 1919–20,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.cpfc.co.uk/page/PalaceLegendsA\-E/0,,10323\~686006,00\.html \|title\=Palace Legends – Jack Alderson \|publisher\=Crystal Palace FC \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426105941/http://www.cpfc.co.uk/page/PalaceLegendsA\-E/0,,10323\~686006,00\.html \|archive\-date\=26 April 2009 \|access\-date\=7 December 2008}} as Palace finished third in the [Southern League](/wiki/Southern_Football_League "Southern Football League"). At the end of the season, Palace, along with all the other Southern League clubs formed the new [Football League Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division "Football League Third Division"), Alderson playing in their first ever [Football League](/wiki/Football_League "Football League") game, a 2–1 win away to [Merthyr Town](/wiki/Merthyr_Town_F.C. "Merthyr Town F.C.") on 28 August 1920\. He remained a constant in the Palace side as they were promoted as champions in their debut season. Although Palace struggled in the [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division"), Alderson was a success and won his only [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team") cap on 10 May 1923, playing in a 4–1 win against [France](/wiki/France_national_football_team "France national football team") in Paris. In 2005, Palace's centenary year, Alderson was voted their third best goalkeeper of all time, being beaten only by the more recent players [Nigel Martyn](/wiki/Nigel_Martyn "Nigel Martyn") (winner) and [John Jackson](/wiki/John_Jackson_%28footballer%2C_born_1942%29 "John Jackson (footballer, born 1942)") (runner\-up). Following a dispute with Crystal Palace over a benefit match Alderson moved to [Pontypridd](/wiki/Pontypridd_F.C. "Pontypridd F.C.") in 1924, having played 205 first team games for Palace.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2012/july/appearances/ \|title\=History – Appearances \|publisher\=Crystal Palace F.C. \|access\-date\=10 October 2013}} ### Sheffield United With [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") holders [Sheffield United](/wiki/Sheffield_United_F.C. "Sheffield United F.C.") looking for a replacement keeper, they turned to Alderson who had a reputation as a spectacular shot stopper and penalty saver. The football committee (who ran the club at the time) were not completely convinced however, and sanctioned the £500 move only if the player was under thirty. Club secretary [John Nicholson](/wiki/John_Nicholson_%28football_secretary%29 "John Nicholson (football secretary)") was tasked with verifying the matter and the fee was duly paid to Crystal Palace who still retained his registration. Alderson arrived at [Bramall Lane](/wiki/Bramall_Lane "Bramall Lane") with the local press citing him as 29 – this being far from the truth as he was in fact 34\. Despite his confusing transfer, Alderson was a success at United, playing 137 games in four years, although he was often considered eccentric and unreliable by his teammates, particularly his liking for entertaining the fans during a game by touching the ground without bending his knees. ### Later career Moving to the South coast, Alderson joined [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. "Exeter City F.C.") in 1929, before moving to local rivals [Torquay United](/wiki/Torquay_United_F.C. "Torquay United F.C."), but with [Joe Wright](/wiki/Joe_Wright_%28footballer%2C_born_1907%29 "Joe Wright (footballer, born 1907)") as first choice keeper and [Laurie Millsom](/wiki/Laurie_Millsom "Laurie Millsom") as an able understudy,{{Cite book \|title\=The definitive Torquay United F.C. \|last\=Edwards \|first\=Leigh \|date\=March 1997 \|isbn\=1\-899468\-09\-9}} Alderson left without making a first team appearance. He subsequently played for [Worcester City](/wiki/Worcester_City_F.C. "Worcester City F.C."), before rejoining Crook Town, where he ended his playing career.
[ "Playing career\n--------------", "### Early career", "Jack Alderson began his footballing career as a junior with his local side Crook Juniors, beginning his senior career with [Crook Town](/wiki/Crook_Town_F.C. \"Crook Town F.C.\"). He moved to [Shildon Athletic](/wiki/Shildon_A.F.C. \"Shildon A.F.C.\"), before joining [Football League](/wiki/English_Football_League \"English Football League\") side [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. \"Middlesbrough F.C.\").", "While making guest appearances for West Auckland Wanderers during a set of friendlies against [Barcelona](/wiki/FC_Barcelona \"FC Barcelona\") in December 1912, club president [Joan Gamper](/wiki/Joan_Gamper \"Joan Gamper\") was impressed with his performances and signed him as player\\-coach. However, he never made his debut for Barcelona, as he was transferred to [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. \"Newcastle United F.C.\") for £30\\. Despite not coaching the club, he remains Barcelona's youngest ever manager at the age of 21\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fcbarcelona.com/en/card/648698/jack\\-alderson\\-1913\\|title\\=Jack Alderson (1913\\)\\|publisher\\=FC Barcelona\\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2023}} On 25 January 1913, he made only appearance for Newcastle in a 3–1 win against [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.newcastle\\-online.org/nufchistory/nufconehitwonders.shtml \\|title\\=Newcastle United's one\\-hit wonders \\|publisher\\=NUFC History \\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727120625/http://www.newcastle\\-online.org/nufchistory/nufconehitwonders.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.talkofthetyne.net/93201\\.html \\|title\\=Every player who has played for the first team \\|publisher\\=Talk of the Toon \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709215754/http://www.talkofthetyne.net/93201\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2008}}", "### Crystal Palace", "With the outbreak of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") and with league football abandoned, Alderson served as a [gunner](/wiki/Gunner_%28rank%29 \"Gunner (rank)\") in the [Royal Garrison Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Garrison_Artillery \"Royal Garrison Artillery\"), whilst remaining on the books at Newcastle.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Sheffield United Who's Who \\|last1\\=Clarebrough \\|first1\\=Denis \\|last2\\=Kirkham \\|first2\\=Andrew \\|publisher\\=Hallamshire Press \\|year\\=2008 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-874718\\-69\\-7 \\|pages\\=31–32}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.newmp.org.uk/article.php?categoryid\\=100\\&articleid\\=1421\\&displayorder\\=63 \\|title\\=North East War Memorials Project \\- Regional Content \\|website\\=www.newmp.org.uk \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2019}} Based at [Woolwich](/wiki/Woolwich \"Woolwich\"), he played a number of wartime games for [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. \"Crystal Palace F.C.\") as a guest player and at the end of the war, signed for Palace from Newcastle for a fee of £50\\. He was an ever\\-present in the first post\\-war season, 1919–20,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cpfc.co.uk/page/PalaceLegendsA\\-E/0,,10323\\~686006,00\\.html \\|title\\=Palace Legends – Jack Alderson \\|publisher\\=Crystal Palace FC \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426105941/http://www.cpfc.co.uk/page/PalaceLegendsA\\-E/0,,10323\\~686006,00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2008}} as Palace finished third in the [Southern League](/wiki/Southern_Football_League \"Southern Football League\"). At the end of the season, Palace, along with all the other Southern League clubs formed the new [Football League Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\"), Alderson playing in their first ever [Football League](/wiki/Football_League \"Football League\") game, a 2–1 win away to [Merthyr Town](/wiki/Merthyr_Town_F.C. \"Merthyr Town F.C.\") on 28 August 1920\\. He remained a constant in the Palace side as they were promoted as champions in their debut season.", "Although Palace struggled in the [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\"), Alderson was a success and won his only [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\") cap on 10 May 1923, playing in a 4–1 win against [France](/wiki/France_national_football_team \"France national football team\") in Paris. In 2005, Palace's centenary year, Alderson was voted their third best goalkeeper of all time, being beaten only by the more recent players [Nigel Martyn](/wiki/Nigel_Martyn \"Nigel Martyn\") (winner) and [John Jackson](/wiki/John_Jackson_%28footballer%2C_born_1942%29 \"John Jackson (footballer, born 1942)\") (runner\\-up). Following a dispute with Crystal Palace over a benefit match Alderson moved to [Pontypridd](/wiki/Pontypridd_F.C. \"Pontypridd F.C.\") in 1924, having played 205 first team games for Palace.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cpfc.co.uk/news/2012/july/appearances/ \\|title\\=History – Appearances \\|publisher\\=Crystal Palace F.C. \\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2013}}", "### Sheffield United", "With [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") holders [Sheffield United](/wiki/Sheffield_United_F.C. \"Sheffield United F.C.\") looking for a replacement keeper, they turned to Alderson who had a reputation as a spectacular shot stopper and penalty saver. The football committee (who ran the club at the time) were not completely convinced however, and sanctioned the £500 move only if the player was under thirty. Club secretary [John Nicholson](/wiki/John_Nicholson_%28football_secretary%29 \"John Nicholson (football secretary)\") was tasked with verifying the matter and the fee was duly paid to Crystal Palace who still retained his registration. Alderson arrived at [Bramall Lane](/wiki/Bramall_Lane \"Bramall Lane\") with the local press citing him as 29 – this being far from the truth as he was in fact 34\\.", "Despite his confusing transfer, Alderson was a success at United, playing 137 games in four years, although he was often considered eccentric and unreliable by his teammates, particularly his liking for entertaining the fans during a game by touching the ground without bending his knees.", "### Later career", "Moving to the South coast, Alderson joined [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. \"Exeter City F.C.\") in 1929, before moving to local rivals [Torquay United](/wiki/Torquay_United_F.C. \"Torquay United F.C.\"), but with [Joe Wright](/wiki/Joe_Wright_%28footballer%2C_born_1907%29 \"Joe Wright (footballer, born 1907)\") as first choice keeper and [Laurie Millsom](/wiki/Laurie_Millsom \"Laurie Millsom\") as an able understudy,{{Cite book \\|title\\=The definitive Torquay United F.C. \\|last\\=Edwards \\|first\\=Leigh \\|date\\=March 1997 \\|isbn\\=1\\-899468\\-09\\-9}} Alderson left without making a first team appearance.", "He subsequently played for [Worcester City](/wiki/Worcester_City_F.C. \"Worcester City F.C.\"), before rejoining Crook Town, where he ended his playing career.", "" ]
Atlantic anti\-slavery activities --------------------------------- The *Shark* sailed from the Washington Navy Yard on 15 July for [New York](/wiki/New_York%2C_New_York "New York, New York"). While there, she received Dr. [Eli Ayers](/wiki/Eli_Ayers "Eli Ayers"), on board for transportation to the west coast of [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"). On 7 August the *Shark* began her first cruise, with the goals of the suppression of the [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery "History of slavery") and [piracy](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy"). Sailing by way of the [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira "Madeira"), [Canary](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands"), and [Cape Verde islands](/wiki/Cape_Verde_islands "Cape Verde islands"), she landed Dr. Ayers at [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone") in October. The *Shark* returned by way of the [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies "West Indies") to New York, arriving on 17 January 1822\. The *Shark* put to sea from New York on 26 February and joined Commodore [James Biddle](/wiki/James_Biddle_%28commodore%29 "James Biddle (commodore)")'s squadron for the suppression of piracy and slave trading in the West Indies. On 25 March, Lt. Perry took formal possession of what is now [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida "Key West, Florida"), in the name of the United States. He called the island Thompson's Island to honor [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Navy "Secretary of the Navy") [Smith Thompson](/wiki/Smith_Thompson "Smith Thompson") and named the harbor Port Rodgers to compliment Commodore [John Rodgers](/wiki/John_Rodgers_%28naval_officer%2C_War_of_1812%29 "John Rodgers (naval officer, War of 1812)"). Under orders from Commodore Biddle, the *Shark* departed [Nassau](/wiki/Nassau%2C_Bahamas "Nassau, Bahamas") on 14 August for another cruise to the western coast of Africa. On 12 December 1822 she returned to [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"). The *Shark* again sailed for the West Indies in February 1823\. She was back at New York in early July for repairs. On 5 October, she sailed from New York carrying Commodore John Rodgers and three Navy surgeons to Key West to determine the suitability of the location as a naval base. She debarked Rodgers and his party at Norfolk on 16 November 1823 before resuming her cruise in the West Indies. She returned to New York on 13 May 1824\. After repairs in the [New York Navy Yard](/wiki/New_York_Navy_Yard "New York Navy Yard"), the *Shark* sailed on 5 October 1825\. She cruised in the West Indies and the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico "Gulf of Mexico") until 29 August 1826, when she arrived at Norfolk. On 28 November she proceeded to the coast of Africa to protect slaves freed from captured [slave ships](/wiki/Slave_ship "Slave ship"). After seeing that the liberated slaves were safely established in [Liberia](/wiki/Liberia "Liberia"), she returned by way of the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") and arrived at New York on 5 July 1827\. The busy schooner sailed again on 24 July for a cruise to the [Newfoundland](/wiki/Colony_of_Newfoundland "Colony of Newfoundland") fisheries to defend American interests there and returned on 6 October. She then resumed her duty in the West Indies, which included anti\-slavery and anti\-piracy patrols and periodic voyages to West Africa to check the American settlements there.
[ "Atlantic anti\\-slavery activities\n---------------------------------", "The *Shark* sailed from the Washington Navy Yard on 15 July for [New York](/wiki/New_York%2C_New_York \"New York, New York\"). While there, she received Dr. [Eli Ayers](/wiki/Eli_Ayers \"Eli Ayers\"), on board for transportation to the west coast of [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"). On 7 August the *Shark* began her first cruise, with the goals of the suppression of the [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery \"History of slavery\") and [piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\"). Sailing by way of the [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira \"Madeira\"), [Canary](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\"), and [Cape Verde islands](/wiki/Cape_Verde_islands \"Cape Verde islands\"), she landed Dr. Ayers at [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone \"Sierra Leone\") in October. The *Shark* returned by way of the [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies \"West Indies\") to New York, arriving on 17 January 1822\\.", "The *Shark* put to sea from New York on 26 February and joined Commodore [James Biddle](/wiki/James_Biddle_%28commodore%29 \"James Biddle (commodore)\")'s squadron for the suppression of piracy and slave trading in the West Indies. On 25 March, Lt. Perry took formal possession of what is now [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida \"Key West, Florida\"), in the name of the United States. He called the island Thompson's Island to honor [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Navy \"Secretary of the Navy\") [Smith Thompson](/wiki/Smith_Thompson \"Smith Thompson\") and named the harbor Port Rodgers to compliment Commodore [John Rodgers](/wiki/John_Rodgers_%28naval_officer%2C_War_of_1812%29 \"John Rodgers (naval officer, War of 1812)\").", "Under orders from Commodore Biddle, the *Shark* departed [Nassau](/wiki/Nassau%2C_Bahamas \"Nassau, Bahamas\") on 14 August for another cruise to the western coast of Africa. On 12 December 1822 she returned to [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"). The *Shark* again sailed for the West Indies in February 1823\\. She was back at New York in early July for repairs. On 5 October, she sailed from New York carrying Commodore John Rodgers and three Navy surgeons to Key West to determine the suitability of the location as a naval base. She debarked Rodgers and his party at Norfolk on 16 November 1823 before resuming her cruise in the West Indies. She returned to New York on 13 May 1824\\.", "After repairs in the [New York Navy Yard](/wiki/New_York_Navy_Yard \"New York Navy Yard\"), the *Shark* sailed on 5 October 1825\\. She cruised in the West Indies and the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico \"Gulf of Mexico\") until 29 August 1826, when she arrived at Norfolk. On 28 November she proceeded to the coast of Africa to protect slaves freed from captured [slave ships](/wiki/Slave_ship \"Slave ship\"). After seeing that the liberated slaves were safely established in [Liberia](/wiki/Liberia \"Liberia\"), she returned by way of the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") and arrived at New York on 5 July 1827\\.", "The busy schooner sailed again on 24 July for a cruise to the [Newfoundland](/wiki/Colony_of_Newfoundland \"Colony of Newfoundland\") fisheries to defend American interests there and returned on 6 October. She then resumed her duty in the West Indies, which included anti\\-slavery and anti\\-piracy patrols and periodic voyages to West Africa to check the American settlements there.", "" ]
History ------- American architect [Walter Burley Griffin](/wiki/Walter_Burley_Griffin "Walter Burley Griffin") included provision for an impressive, purpose\-built Government House in his plans for the modern city of Canberra. It was to be placed in a dedicated government precinct and provided with scenic views taking in Canberra's landscaped open spaces and central lake; but, as with so much of Burley Griffin's planning for the national capital, financial considerations intervened and the envisaged work never eventuated. The core part of the current vice\-regal structure began life as a double\-gabled Victorian\-era house, erected in 1891 by [grazier](/wiki/Pastoral_farming "Pastoral farming") Frederick Campbell at what was then the hub of a working sheep station. Previously, the site taken up by the present\-day Government House was occupied by an elegant, Georgian\-style homestead with shady verandahs on two sides, a shingle\-clad roof and rows of French windows replete with shutters. The original single\-storey homestead had been continuously occupied by the interrelated Murray and Gibbes families from 1837 through to the end of 1881\. ### Private ownership Following the entry of European explorers into the Limestone Plains area, pastoralists followed during the 1820s, and Johnston and Taylor were the first to graze stock in the Yarralumla area. A [grant of the land](/wiki/Land_grant "Land grant") was made to Henry Donnison in 1828, but he soon sold it to [William Dawes](/wiki/William_Dawes "William Dawes") who in turn sold it to Francis Mowatt in 1832\. Mowatt established an agricultural and dairying property and built a homestead. In 1837 [Terence Aubrey Murray](/wiki/Terence_Aubrey_Murray "Terence Aubrey Murray") and Thomas Walker acquired the property. Walker subsequently left the partnership and Murray increased the size of Yarralumla. He held large grazing lands in the [Lake George](/wiki/Lake_George%2C_New_South_Wales "Lake George, New South Wales") area and became a [Member of the Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_New_South_Wales "Legislative Assembly of New South Wales") in the 1840s. As a member of the Legislative Assembly, Murray served as a minister in the [New South Wales Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales "Government of New South Wales"), and was appointed President of the [New South Wales Legislative Council](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Legislative_Council "New South Wales Legislative Council") in 1862\. Murray planted the Himalayan or [Deodar Cedar](/wiki/Cedrus_deodara "Cedrus deodara") at Yarralumla around 1840, and decorative shrubs and trees among the native eucalypts that dotted the homestead's curtilage. Augustus Onslow Manby "Gussie" Gibbes purchased the Yarralumla sheep station and its homestead from his brother\-in\-law, Sir Terence Aubrey Murray, on 1 July 1859 for approximately £20,000\.{{efn\|The purchase price was to be paid in 12 instalments; see NSW Land Titles' Office, old system deeds, book 81, number 300\.}} "Gussie" Gibbes made improvements to the property and as well as running extensive flocks of sheep on the estate, he bred horses for the Indian market and collected land rents from tenant farmers. Gussie Gibbes' health declined during the early 1880s. He sold his rural holdings and travelled overseas for an extended period with his niece and housekeeper, Leila Murray. On 8 November 1881, Frederick Campbell — who had been managing the neighbouring [Duntroon](/wiki/Duntroon%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory "Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory") sheep station for his uncle and aunt — purchased Yarralumla from his friend Gibbes for £40,000\.{{efn\|Campbell made a £10,000 down\-payment on the property, discharging the rest of the purchase price by instalments in a process that took him until 1911 to complete: see NSW LTO, old system deeds, book 607, number 942\.}} Unlike Gibbes, Campbell was a married man with a growing family that needed to be accommodated. He partially demolished the old Yarralumla homestead in 1890 and, the following year, finished building a three\-storey, red\-brick house on the site.{{efn\|NSW Government land\-title records show that Campbell borrowed money from Gibbes (and from another one of Gibbes' brothers\-in\-law, Augustus Berney, a \[\[Sydney]]\-based Customs Department officer) to help pay for the building project.}} In 1899, Campbell razed what was left of the original homestead, replacing it with a substantial brick extension to the main house. An impressive wooden [shearing shed](/wiki/Yarralumla_Woolshed%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory "Yarralumla Woolshed, Australian Capital Territory") was also built by Campbell in the 1890s to service Yarralumla's flocks of sheep. The shearing shed is situated near the banks of the [Molonglo River](/wiki/Molonglo_River "Molonglo River"), below the [Scrivener Dam](/wiki/Scrivener_Dam "Scrivener Dam"). ### Government House [thumb\|Members of the [First Bruce Ministry](/wiki/First_Bruce_Ministry "First Bruce Ministry") at Government House in January 1924\. This was the first cabinet meeting to take place in Canberra.](/wiki/File:First_cabinet_meeting_in_Canberra_-_group_photo.jpg "First cabinet meeting in Canberra - group photo.jpg") The [Commonwealth Government](/wiki/Australian_Government "Australian Government") bought the Yarralumla estate from Campbell in 1913\. It decided to use Campbell's vacated home as a temporary residence for the [governor\-general of Australia](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia "Governor-General of Australia"). Consequently, another three\-storey block was erected behind the existing one and a new entrance hall was constructed on the southern frontage. A stable block was constructed to the west of the structure and cottages built for staff. For a period of time, the house was used as the residence of [John Goodwin](/wiki/John_Thomas_Hill_Goodwin "John Thomas Hill Goodwin"), the officer\-in\-charge of the Federal Capital Territory.{{cite news\|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/2799301\|title\=Lt.\-Col. J.T.H. Goodwin dies; fine record of service for Canberra\|newspaper\=Canberra Times\|date\=19 September 1950}} Since the 1920s, the building has been extended and refurbished several more times, but the basic structure of the 1891 house can still be seen clearly when viewed from the south. [Lord Stonehaven](/wiki/John_Baird%2C_1st_Viscount_Stonehaven "John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven") was the first governor\-general to live in the house, being in attendance at the opening of the new Provisional Parliament House (now [Old Parliament House](/wiki/Old_Parliament_House%2C_Canberra "Old Parliament House, Canberra")) in Canberra in 1927\. Australian\-born [Sir Isaac Isaacs](/wiki/Isaac_Isaacs "Isaac Isaacs") was the first governor\-general to live at Government House for the entirety of his term. The house remained relatively small when compared to [Government House in Melbourne](/wiki/Government_House%2C_Melbourne "Government House, Melbourne"), and successive governors\-general and their wives complained about its inadequacies as a place for formal entertaining. Plans for a much grander — and permanent — vice\-regal residence were never implemented as a consequence of the economic hardship caused by the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the late 1920s and 1930s. The grave crisis posed to Australia's security during the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") also halted further work. [thumb\|left\|Government House in 1927\. [Lord Stonehaven](/wiki/John_Baird%2C_1st_Viscount_Stonehaven "John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven") was the first [governor\-general](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia "Governor-General of Australia") to reside at Yarralumla, moving into the residence that year.](/wiki/File:NlaGovernment_House_1927-2.jpg "NlaGovernment House 1927-2.jpg") Due to the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and the adverse post\-war economic conditions that prevailed in its immediate wake, the federal government did not move to Canberra from Melbourne until 1927\. It was only at this time that the governor\-general began to use Yarralumla as his official seat, albeit on a limited basis at first. However, the [Federal Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia "Cabinet of Australia") did meet at Government House (then known as Yarralumla House) on 30 January 1924, on that occasion chaired by the acting Prime Minister, [Earle Page](/wiki/Earle_Page "Earle Page").{{cite web \|url\=http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/timeline/results.aspx?type\=pm±\=Stanley%20Melbourne%20Bruce \|work\=National Archives of Australia \|title\=Australia's Prime Ministers: Timeline \|access\-date\=14 December 2015 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article16124454 \|title\=CANBERRA \|page\=13 \|via\=Trove, \[\[National Library of Australia]] \|work\=\[\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \|date\=30 January 1924 \|access\-date\=14 December 2015 }} This was still three years before the opening of Parliament House and Canberra becoming the National Capital. Between 1927 and 1930 the governor\-general continued to live principally at Melbourne's Government House, residing at Yarralumla only during those periods of the year when the [Parliament of Australia](/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia "Parliament of Australia") was sitting. In 1930, Melbourne's Government House was finally returned to the Victorian State Government for use by the [Governor of Victoria](/wiki/Governor_of_Victoria "Governor of Victoria"). In 1927, the Duke and Duchess of York (later [King George VI](/wiki/George_VI "George VI") and [Queen Elizabeth](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_The_Queen_Mother "Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother")) stayed in the house when they visited Canberra to open the [Provisional Parliament House](/wiki/Old_Parliament_House%2C_Canberra "Old Parliament House, Canberra"). Prior to their arrival, extensive improvements were made to ensure that the building would provide a standard of accommodation appropriate for members of the royal family. These improvements were overseen by the then Commonwealth Architect, [John Smith Murdoch](/wiki/John_Smith_Murdoch "John Smith Murdoch"). The interiors of the refurbished house, along with much of their furniture, were designed by [Ruth Lane Poole](/wiki/Ruth_Lane_Poole "Ruth Lane Poole"), of the [Federal Capital Commission](/wiki/Federal_Capital_Commission "Federal Capital Commission"). They are in keeping with the prevailing [Inter\-war Stripped Classical](/wiki/Australian_non-residential_architectural_styles%23Inter-war_Stripped_Classical "Australian non-residential architectural styles#Inter-war Stripped Classical") style, with more formal interiors provided for the official reception rooms, and a lighter scheme prevailing in the private residential rooms.{{efn\|Ruth Lane Poole was also responsible for the interiors of \[\[The Lodge (Australia)\|The Lodge]] — the official residence of the \[\[Prime Minister of Australia\|Prime Minister]].}}{{cite web \|url\=http://uncommonlives.naa.gov.au/contents\-long.asp?sID\=24 \|title\=Charles and Ruth Lane Poole \|work\=Uncommon Lives \|publisher\=\[\[National Archives of Australia]] \|date\=8 November 2006 \|access\-date\=20 May 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613180542/http://uncommonlives.naa.gov.au/contents\-long.asp?sID\=24 \|archive\-date\=13 June 2007 }} A private sitting room was built in 1933 at the request of [Lady Isaacs](/wiki/Isaac_Isaacs "Isaac Isaacs") over the south entrance porch, which looks south across the gardens to the Brindabella Ranges and the foothills of the [Australian Alps](/wiki/Australian_Alps "Australian Alps") beyond. In 1939, Government House was again extensively renovated and expanded in the Inter\-war Stripped Classical style typical of Canberra's early public buildings, to a design by E. H. Henderson, Chief Architect of the Works and Services Branch of the Department of the Interior. [Lord Gowrie](/wiki/Alexander_Hore-Ruthven%2C_1st_Earl_of_Gowrie "Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie") lived in the residence at this time, and it was not regarded as being large enough to meet the demands made of it. The 1899 Campbell extension was therefore demolished and a new, more substantial replacement erected. The drawing room was made larger, while more bedrooms were installed on the second storey, and a "state entrance" built on the northern side. Further alterations to the existing building were also made, adding a nursery on the third\-storey and extending the dining room. All these changes to Yarralumla had been spurred by the impending appointment of the [Duke of Kent](/wiki/Prince_George%2C_Duke_of_Kent "Prince George, Duke of Kent") as the next governor\-general. He was due to succeed Lord Gowrie in early 1945\. However, the Duke died in an aircraft crash in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") in 1942 while on active service in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), and his elder brother, the [Duke of Gloucester](/wiki/Prince_Henry%2C_Duke_of_Gloucester "Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester"), was appointed in his place. The changes were completed in time for the arrival of the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester. In the 1990s, a new chancery building, designed by Roger Pegrum in an Inter\-war Stripped Classical design, was constructed to house the offices of the [Official Secretary to the Governor\-General](/wiki/Official_Secretary_to_the_Governor-General_of_Australia "Official Secretary to the Governor-General of Australia") and associated administrative staff.
[ "History\n-------", "American architect [Walter Burley Griffin](/wiki/Walter_Burley_Griffin \"Walter Burley Griffin\") included provision for an impressive, purpose\\-built Government House in his plans for the modern city of Canberra. It was to be placed in a dedicated government precinct and provided with scenic views taking in Canberra's landscaped open spaces and central lake; but, as with so much of Burley Griffin's planning for the national capital, financial considerations intervened and the envisaged work never eventuated.", "The core part of the current vice\\-regal structure began life as a double\\-gabled Victorian\\-era house, erected in 1891 by [grazier](/wiki/Pastoral_farming \"Pastoral farming\") Frederick Campbell at what was then the hub of a working sheep station. Previously, the site taken up by the present\\-day Government House was occupied by an elegant, Georgian\\-style homestead with shady verandahs on two sides, a shingle\\-clad roof and rows of French windows replete with shutters. The original single\\-storey homestead had been continuously occupied by the interrelated Murray and Gibbes families from 1837 through to the end of 1881\\.", "### Private ownership", "Following the entry of European explorers into the Limestone Plains area, pastoralists followed during the 1820s, and Johnston and Taylor were the first to graze stock in the Yarralumla area. A [grant of the land](/wiki/Land_grant \"Land grant\") was made to Henry Donnison in 1828, but he soon sold it to [William Dawes](/wiki/William_Dawes \"William Dawes\") who in turn sold it to Francis Mowatt in 1832\\. Mowatt established an agricultural and dairying property and built a homestead. In 1837 [Terence Aubrey Murray](/wiki/Terence_Aubrey_Murray \"Terence Aubrey Murray\") and Thomas Walker acquired the property. Walker subsequently left the partnership and Murray increased the size of Yarralumla. He held large grazing lands in the [Lake George](/wiki/Lake_George%2C_New_South_Wales \"Lake George, New South Wales\") area and became a [Member of the Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_New_South_Wales \"Legislative Assembly of New South Wales\") in the 1840s. As a member of the Legislative Assembly, Murray served as a minister in the [New South Wales Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales \"Government of New South Wales\"), and was appointed President of the [New South Wales Legislative Council](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Legislative_Council \"New South Wales Legislative Council\") in 1862\\. Murray planted the Himalayan or [Deodar Cedar](/wiki/Cedrus_deodara \"Cedrus deodara\") at Yarralumla around 1840, and decorative shrubs and trees among the native eucalypts that dotted the homestead's curtilage.", "Augustus Onslow Manby \"Gussie\" Gibbes purchased the Yarralumla sheep station and its homestead from his brother\\-in\\-law, Sir Terence Aubrey Murray, on 1 July 1859 for approximately £20,000\\.{{efn\\|The purchase price was to be paid in 12 instalments; see NSW Land Titles' Office, old system deeds, book 81, number 300\\.}} \"Gussie\" Gibbes made improvements to the property and as well as running extensive flocks of sheep on the estate, he bred horses for the Indian market and collected land rents from tenant farmers.", "Gussie Gibbes' health declined during the early 1880s. He sold his rural holdings and travelled overseas for an extended period with his niece and housekeeper, Leila Murray. On 8 November 1881, Frederick Campbell — who had been managing the neighbouring [Duntroon](/wiki/Duntroon%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory\") sheep station for his uncle and aunt — purchased Yarralumla from his friend Gibbes for £40,000\\.{{efn\\|Campbell made a £10,000 down\\-payment on the property, discharging the rest of the purchase price by instalments in a process that took him until 1911 to complete: see NSW LTO, old system deeds, book 607, number 942\\.}}", "Unlike Gibbes, Campbell was a married man with a growing family that needed to be accommodated. He partially demolished the old Yarralumla homestead in 1890 and, the following year, finished building a three\\-storey, red\\-brick house on the site.{{efn\\|NSW Government land\\-title records show that Campbell borrowed money from Gibbes (and from another one of Gibbes' brothers\\-in\\-law, Augustus Berney, a \\[\\[Sydney]]\\-based Customs Department officer) to help pay for the building project.}} In 1899, Campbell razed what was left of the original homestead, replacing it with a substantial brick extension to the main house. An impressive wooden [shearing shed](/wiki/Yarralumla_Woolshed%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Yarralumla Woolshed, Australian Capital Territory\") was also built by Campbell in the 1890s to service Yarralumla's flocks of sheep. The shearing shed is situated near the banks of the [Molonglo River](/wiki/Molonglo_River \"Molonglo River\"), below the [Scrivener Dam](/wiki/Scrivener_Dam \"Scrivener Dam\").", "### Government House", "[thumb\\|Members of the [First Bruce Ministry](/wiki/First_Bruce_Ministry \"First Bruce Ministry\") at Government House in January 1924\\. This was the first cabinet meeting to take place in Canberra.](/wiki/File:First_cabinet_meeting_in_Canberra_-_group_photo.jpg \"First cabinet meeting in Canberra - group photo.jpg\")\nThe [Commonwealth Government](/wiki/Australian_Government \"Australian Government\") bought the Yarralumla estate from Campbell in 1913\\. It decided to use Campbell's vacated home as a temporary residence for the [governor\\-general of Australia](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia \"Governor-General of Australia\"). Consequently, another three\\-storey block was erected behind the existing one and a new entrance hall was constructed on the southern frontage. A stable block was constructed to the west of the structure and cottages built for staff. For a period of time, the house was used as the residence of [John Goodwin](/wiki/John_Thomas_Hill_Goodwin \"John Thomas Hill Goodwin\"), the officer\\-in\\-charge of the Federal Capital Territory.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/2799301\\|title\\=Lt.\\-Col. J.T.H. Goodwin dies; fine record of service for Canberra\\|newspaper\\=Canberra Times\\|date\\=19 September 1950}} Since the 1920s, the building has been extended and refurbished several more times, but the basic structure of the 1891 house can still be seen clearly when viewed from the south.", "[Lord Stonehaven](/wiki/John_Baird%2C_1st_Viscount_Stonehaven \"John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven\") was the first governor\\-general to live in the house, being in attendance at the opening of the new Provisional Parliament House (now [Old Parliament House](/wiki/Old_Parliament_House%2C_Canberra \"Old Parliament House, Canberra\")) in Canberra in 1927\\. Australian\\-born [Sir Isaac Isaacs](/wiki/Isaac_Isaacs \"Isaac Isaacs\") was the first governor\\-general to live at Government House for the entirety of his term. The house remained relatively small when compared to [Government House in Melbourne](/wiki/Government_House%2C_Melbourne \"Government House, Melbourne\"), and successive governors\\-general and their wives complained about its inadequacies as a place for formal entertaining. Plans for a much grander — and permanent — vice\\-regal residence were never implemented as a consequence of the economic hardship caused by the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of the late 1920s and 1930s. The grave crisis posed to Australia's security during the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") also halted further work.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Government House in 1927\\. [Lord Stonehaven](/wiki/John_Baird%2C_1st_Viscount_Stonehaven \"John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven\") was the first [governor\\-general](/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia \"Governor-General of Australia\") to reside at Yarralumla, moving into the residence that year.](/wiki/File:NlaGovernment_House_1927-2.jpg \"NlaGovernment House 1927-2.jpg\")\nDue to the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") and the adverse post\\-war economic conditions that prevailed in its immediate wake, the federal government did not move to Canberra from Melbourne until 1927\\. It was only at this time that the governor\\-general began to use Yarralumla as his official seat, albeit on a limited basis at first. However, the [Federal Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia \"Cabinet of Australia\") did meet at Government House (then known as Yarralumla House) on 30 January 1924, on that occasion chaired by the acting Prime Minister, [Earle Page](/wiki/Earle_Page \"Earle Page\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/timeline/results.aspx?type\\=pm±\\=Stanley%20Melbourne%20Bruce \\|work\\=National Archives of Australia \\|title\\=Australia's Prime Ministers: Timeline \\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2015 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article16124454 \\|title\\=CANBERRA \\|page\\=13 \\|via\\=Trove, \\[\\[National Library of Australia]] \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Sydney Morning Herald]] \\|date\\=30 January 1924 \\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2015 }} This was still three years before the opening of Parliament House and Canberra becoming the National Capital. Between 1927 and 1930 the governor\\-general continued to live principally at Melbourne's Government House, residing at Yarralumla only during those periods of the year when the [Parliament of Australia](/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia \"Parliament of Australia\") was sitting. In 1930, Melbourne's Government House was finally returned to the Victorian State Government for use by the [Governor of Victoria](/wiki/Governor_of_Victoria \"Governor of Victoria\").", "In 1927, the Duke and Duchess of York (later [King George VI](/wiki/George_VI \"George VI\") and [Queen Elizabeth](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_The_Queen_Mother \"Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother\")) stayed in the house when they visited Canberra to open the [Provisional Parliament House](/wiki/Old_Parliament_House%2C_Canberra \"Old Parliament House, Canberra\"). Prior to their arrival, extensive improvements were made to ensure that the building would provide a standard of accommodation appropriate for members of the royal family. These improvements were overseen by the then Commonwealth Architect, [John Smith Murdoch](/wiki/John_Smith_Murdoch \"John Smith Murdoch\"). The interiors of the refurbished house, along with much of their furniture, were designed by [Ruth Lane Poole](/wiki/Ruth_Lane_Poole \"Ruth Lane Poole\"), of the [Federal Capital Commission](/wiki/Federal_Capital_Commission \"Federal Capital Commission\"). They are in keeping with the prevailing [Inter\\-war Stripped Classical](/wiki/Australian_non-residential_architectural_styles%23Inter-war_Stripped_Classical \"Australian non-residential architectural styles#Inter-war Stripped Classical\") style, with more formal interiors provided for the official reception rooms, and a lighter scheme prevailing in the private residential rooms.{{efn\\|Ruth Lane Poole was also responsible for the interiors of \\[\\[The Lodge (Australia)\\|The Lodge]] — the official residence of the \\[\\[Prime Minister of Australia\\|Prime Minister]].}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://uncommonlives.naa.gov.au/contents\\-long.asp?sID\\=24 \\|title\\=Charles and Ruth Lane Poole \\|work\\=Uncommon Lives \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Archives of Australia]] \\|date\\=8 November 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=20 May 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613180542/http://uncommonlives.naa.gov.au/contents\\-long.asp?sID\\=24 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2007 }}", "A private sitting room was built in 1933 at the request of [Lady Isaacs](/wiki/Isaac_Isaacs \"Isaac Isaacs\") over the south entrance porch, which looks south across the gardens to the Brindabella Ranges and the foothills of the [Australian Alps](/wiki/Australian_Alps \"Australian Alps\") beyond.", "In 1939, Government House was again extensively renovated and expanded in the Inter\\-war Stripped Classical style typical of Canberra's early public buildings, to a design by E. H. Henderson, Chief Architect of the Works and Services Branch of the Department of the Interior. [Lord Gowrie](/wiki/Alexander_Hore-Ruthven%2C_1st_Earl_of_Gowrie \"Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie\") lived in the residence at this time, and it was not regarded as being large enough to meet the demands made of it. The 1899 Campbell extension was therefore demolished and a new, more substantial replacement erected. The drawing room was made larger, while more bedrooms were installed on the second storey, and a \"state entrance\" built on the northern side. Further alterations to the existing building were also made, adding a nursery on the third\\-storey and extending the dining room.", "All these changes to Yarralumla had been spurred by the impending appointment of the [Duke of Kent](/wiki/Prince_George%2C_Duke_of_Kent \"Prince George, Duke of Kent\") as the next governor\\-general. He was due to succeed Lord Gowrie in early 1945\\. However, the Duke died in an aircraft crash in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") in 1942 while on active service in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), and his elder brother, the [Duke of Gloucester](/wiki/Prince_Henry%2C_Duke_of_Gloucester \"Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester\"), was appointed in his place. The changes were completed in time for the arrival of the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester.", "In the 1990s, a new chancery building, designed by Roger Pegrum in an Inter\\-war Stripped Classical design, was constructed to house the offices of the [Official Secretary to the Governor\\-General](/wiki/Official_Secretary_to_the_Governor-General_of_Australia \"Official Secretary to the Governor-General of Australia\") and associated administrative staff.", "" ]
Grounds ------- [thumb\|Iron gates decorated with the [royal arms](/wiki/Royal_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom "Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom") and the [coat of arms of Australia](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Australia "Coat of arms of Australia") at the property's entrance](/wiki/File:Entrance_to_Government_House_Canberra-1_%285660272727%29.jpg "Entrance to Government House Canberra-1 (5660272727).jpg") Government House is situated in the south\-western part of [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra "Canberra"), in the suburb of [Yarralumla](/wiki/Yarralumla%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory "Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory"). It is located on the shores of [Lake Burley Griffin](/wiki/Lake_Burley_Griffin "Lake Burley Griffin") on a north–south orientation and is reached by Dunrossil Drive — named after the only Australian governor\-general to die in office, [Lord Dunrossil](/wiki/William_Morrison%2C_1st_Viscount_Dunrossil "William Morrison, 1st Viscount Dunrossil"). At the entrance to the grounds are iron gates, decorated with the Royal and Commonwealth coats of arms, and a gatekeeper's cottage. The curving drive leads to the house through ornamental lawns and gardens. ### Residence Government House consists of a central brick block, erected by Frederick Campbell in 1890–1891 on the remnants of an 1830s homestead. The house was enlarged in 1899 and again during the 1920s. Further additions were made to it in the 1930s and 1940s. All of these structures were rendered with a layer of cement and painted cream. The roof tiles are green. [thumb\|left\|The "State Entrance" and the main doorway to Government House is covered by a [porte\-cochère](/wiki/Porte-coch%C3%A8re "Porte-cochère")](/wiki/File:Government_House_in_2011.jpg "Government House in 2011.jpg") The "State Entrance" to Government House is located on its eastern facade, and is protected by a [porte\-cochère](/wiki/Porte-coch%C3%A8re "Porte-cochère"), within which there is a set of steps leading up to the main entry doors. Running along the centre of the house is the wood\-panelled "State Entrance Hall", lined with Australian artworks and furniture, including a study by multiple [Archibald Prize](/wiki/Archibald_Prize "Archibald Prize")\-winner Sir [William Dargie](/wiki/William_Dargie "William Dargie") for the "[Wattle Portrait](/wiki/Wattle_Queen "Wattle Queen")" of Queen Elizabeth II and a study for a portrait, again by Dargie, of [Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh](/wiki/Prince_Philip%2C_Duke_of_Edinburgh "Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh"). Official ceremonies, such as the swearing\-in of Cabinet ministers, the presentation of honours and the holding of receptions, take place in the drawing room, which is hung with paintings by Australian artists and contains examples of early Australian furniture. The drawing room leads through to the private entrance, which is composed of a series of rooms leading from the south façade (with views of the [Brindabella Ranges](/wiki/Brindabella_Ranges "Brindabella Ranges")) through to the "State Entrance Hall". Again, these rooms are hung with paintings by Australian artists and contain antique furniture and other items of interest. [thumb\|The High Commissioner for Tonga presents credentials to Governor\-General [Quentin Bryce](/wiki/Quentin_Bryce "Quentin Bryce") in the drawing room.](/wiki/File:The_High_Commissioner_for_Tonga%2C_HRH_Princess_Angelika_Latufuipeka_Tuku%27aho%2C_presents_credentials_to_the_Governor-General._01.jpg "The High Commissioner for Tonga, HRH Princess Angelika Latufuipeka Tuku'aho, presents credentials to the Governor-General. 01.jpg") Beyond the private entrance are a morning room and a small dining room. This small dining room features a series of paintings by [Australian indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians "Indigenous Australians") artists. These rooms lead back to the "State Entrance Hall". [thumb\|Aerial view of Government House and [Lake Burley Griffin](/wiki/Lake_Burley_Griffin "Lake Burley Griffin") adjacent to it](/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Government_House%2C_Canberra_2.JPG "Aerial view of Government House, Canberra 2.JPG") On the lakefront side of the house is the "State Dining Room". It features a large bay window overlooking Lake Burley Griffin, which leads out on to a terrace. Also on the ground floor, and commanding views of the lake, are the governor\-general's study, where the vice\-regal incumbent works and receives visitors, and a sitting room with an attached vestibule which links with a number of offices and service rooms. The upper floors of Government House contain the governor\-general's private residence and guest rooms. The furnishings and decoration of Government House represent a wide spectrum of Australian artists and craftspeople, ranging from colonial times to the present day and expressing a rich variety of styles. It also houses a large collection of artworks by Australian indigenous artists. Cultural institutions including the [National Gallery of Australia](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Australia "National Gallery of Australia"), the [National Library of Australia](/wiki/National_Library_of_Australia "National Library of Australia") and [The Australiana Fund](/wiki/The_Australiana_Fund "The Australiana Fund"), have lent much of the furniture and art objects gracing the house. Artists with works displayed in Government House include [E. Phillips Fox](/wiki/E._Phillips_Fox "E. Phillips Fox"), [Tom Roberts](/wiki/Tom_Roberts "Tom Roberts"), Sir [Arthur Streeton](/wiki/Arthur_Streeton "Arthur Streeton"), Sir [William Dargie](/wiki/William_Dargie "William Dargie"), [Margaret Preston](/wiki/Margaret_Preston "Margaret Preston"), [Rupert Bunny](/wiki/Rupert_Bunny "Rupert Bunny"), [Nicholas Chevalier](/wiki/Nicholas_Chevalier "Nicholas Chevalier"), [W. B. McInnes](/wiki/William_Beckwith_McInnes "William Beckwith McInnes"), [Elioth Gruner](/wiki/Elioth_Gruner "Elioth Gruner"), Sir [Lionel Lindsay](/wiki/Lionel_Lindsay "Lionel Lindsay"), Sir [Bertram Mackennal](/wiki/Bertram_Mackennal "Bertram Mackennal"), Sir [Hans Heysen](/wiki/Hans_Heysen "Hans Heysen"), [Lloyd Rees](/wiki/Lloyd_Rees "Lloyd Rees"), [Fred Williams](/wiki/Fred_Williams_%28artist%29 "Fred Williams (artist)"), [Arthur Boyd](/wiki/Arthur_Boyd "Arthur Boyd"), Sir [Sidney Nolan](/wiki/Sidney_Nolan "Sidney Nolan"), [Leonard French](/wiki/Leonard_French "Leonard French"), [Justin O'Brien](/wiki/Justin_O%27Brien "Justin O'Brien"), [Ray Crooke](/wiki/Ray_Crooke "Ray Crooke"), [John Dowie](/wiki/John_Dowie_%28artist%29 "John Dowie (artist)"), Johnny Warangkula Tjupurrula, [Margaret Olley](/wiki/Margaret_Olley "Margaret Olley"), [Pro Hart](/wiki/Pro_Hart "Pro Hart"), Yala Yala Gibbs Tjungarrayi, Charlie Tjararu Tjungarrayi and Paddy Japaljarri Sims. ### Gardens Extensive landscaped grounds surround the house. They were first devised and put in place by the horticulturalist [Charles Weston](/wiki/Charles_Weston_%28horticulturalist%29 "Charles Weston (horticulturalist)"). Many of the trees in the gardens have been planted by visiting dignitaries. The grounds include extensive plantations of trees and sweeping lawns, which provide vistas towards [Black Mountain](/wiki/Black_Mountain_%28Australian_Capital_Territory%29 "Black Mountain (Australian Capital Territory)") in the north and the [Brindabella Ranges](/wiki/Brindabella_Ranges "Brindabella Ranges") in the south. [thumb\|left\|The English Garden on the grounds of Government House, laid out by [Lady Gowrie](/wiki/Zara_Hore-Ruthven%2C_Countess_of_Gowrie "Zara Hore-Ruthven, Countess of Gowrie")](/wiki/File:LadyGowrieGarden.jpg "LadyGowrieGarden.jpg") The "Wild Garden" or "English Garden" was laid out by [Lady Gowrie](/wiki/Zara_Hore-Ruthven%2C_Countess_of_Gowrie "Zara Hore-Ruthven, Countess of Gowrie"), and includes a memorial to [Patrick Hore\-Ruthven](/wiki/Patrick_Hore-Ruthven "Patrick Hore-Ruthven"), the only surviving son of governor\-general [Lord](/wiki/Alexander_Hore-Ruthven%2C_1st_Earl_of_Gowrie "Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie") and Lady Gowrie, who was killed in the Second World War. The design of this garden was influenced by the work of [Edna Walling](/wiki/Edna_Walling "Edna Walling") and [Paul Sorenson](/wiki/Paul_Sorensen_%28landscape_gardener%29 "Paul Sorensen (landscape gardener)"). Other gardens have been laid out by successive governors\-general and their spouses. The lakeside lawn and terraces, for instance, were developed at the time Lake Burley Griffin was filled with water in the early 1960s, during the vice\-regal tenure of [Lord De L'Isle](/wiki/William_Sidney%2C_1st_Viscount_De_L%27Isle "William Sidney, 1st Viscount De L'Isle"). Further developments to the terraces were undertaken during the term of Sir [Ninian Stephen](/wiki/Ninian_Stephen "Ninian Stephen") in the 1980s. A [rhododendron](/wiki/Rhododendron "Rhododendron") grove was designed and planted in the 1970s by Otto Ruzicka, and is called the "Hasluck Garden" after governor\-general [Sir Paul](/wiki/Paul_Hasluck "Paul Hasluck") and his vice\-regal consort, [Dame Alexandra Hasluck](/wiki/Alexandra_Hasluck "Alexandra Hasluck"). In addition, large numbers of bulbs were planted along the eastern side of the "Vista Lawn" to the south of the house in the 1990s at the suggestion of Dallas Hayden, wife of governor\-general [Bill Hayden](/wiki/Bill_Hayden "Bill Hayden"). The Bravery Garden was established in the grounds of Government House, suggested by Sir William and Lady Deane and inspired by John Thurgar {{post\-nominals\|country\=AUS\|sep\=,\|OAM\|MBE}} and Hedonna Thurgar, founders of the Australian Bravery Association. The garden displays different Australian civilian and military decorations, including the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross "Victoria Cross"), and the civilian equivalent, the Cross of Valour, all nestled in plantings of mostly Australian and New Zealand plants. In 2014 a hedge of 'Gallipoli Centenary Rose' was planted. [thumb\|The Vista Lawn is a {{convert\|450\|m\|ft}} lawn that faces the southern entrance of the residence.](/wiki/File:Government_House%2C_Canberra.jpg "Government House, Canberra.jpg") About {{convert\|100\|m}} south of the house there is a slight depression in Yarralumla's "Vista Lawn". It marks the location of a filled\-in brick and cement vault which once contained the bodies of two of the property's colonial\-era inhabitants, Elizabeth Gibbes ({{circa\|1790}}\-1874\) and her husband, Colonel [John George Nathaniel Gibbes](/wiki/John_George_Nathaniel_Gibbes "John George Nathaniel Gibbes") (1787\-1873\). Originally, the subterranean vault was surrounded by a stand of yews and hawthorns. In 1880, the coffins containing the remains of the Colonel and Mrs Gibbes were removed from the vault by their son "Gussie" Gibbes and reinterred at [St John the Baptist Church, Reid](/wiki/St_John_the_Baptist_Church%2C_Reid "St John the Baptist Church, Reid"). In the same churchyard, just a few paces from the Gibbes' burial plot, lies the grave of Lord Dunrossil (1893\-1961\), Australia's 14th governor\-general, who died during his Yarralumla tenure.{{cite book \|title\=Rural Graves in the Australian Capital Territory: A Historical Context and Interpretation \|first\=Anne \|last\=Claoué\-Long \|publisher\=\[\[National Trust of Australia]] \|location\=Canberra \|year\=2006 }}
[ "Grounds\n-------", "[thumb\\|Iron gates decorated with the [royal arms](/wiki/Royal_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom\") and the [coat of arms of Australia](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Australia \"Coat of arms of Australia\") at the property's entrance](/wiki/File:Entrance_to_Government_House_Canberra-1_%285660272727%29.jpg \"Entrance to Government House Canberra-1 (5660272727).jpg\")\nGovernment House is situated in the south\\-western part of [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\"), in the suburb of [Yarralumla](/wiki/Yarralumla%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory\"). It is located on the shores of [Lake Burley Griffin](/wiki/Lake_Burley_Griffin \"Lake Burley Griffin\") on a north–south orientation and is reached by Dunrossil Drive — named after the only Australian governor\\-general to die in office, [Lord Dunrossil](/wiki/William_Morrison%2C_1st_Viscount_Dunrossil \"William Morrison, 1st Viscount Dunrossil\"). At the entrance to the grounds are iron gates, decorated with the Royal and Commonwealth coats of arms, and a gatekeeper's cottage. The curving drive leads to the house through ornamental lawns and gardens.", "### Residence", "Government House consists of a central brick block, erected by Frederick Campbell in 1890–1891 on the remnants of an 1830s homestead. The house was enlarged in 1899 and again during the 1920s. Further additions were made to it in the 1930s and 1940s. All of these structures were rendered with a layer of cement and painted cream. The roof tiles are green.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The \"State Entrance\" and the main doorway to Government House is covered by a [porte\\-cochère](/wiki/Porte-coch%C3%A8re \"Porte-cochère\")](/wiki/File:Government_House_in_2011.jpg \"Government House in 2011.jpg\")\nThe \"State Entrance\" to Government House is located on its eastern facade, and is protected by a [porte\\-cochère](/wiki/Porte-coch%C3%A8re \"Porte-cochère\"), within which there is a set of steps leading up to the main entry doors.", "Running along the centre of the house is the wood\\-panelled \"State Entrance Hall\", lined with Australian artworks and furniture, including a study by multiple [Archibald Prize](/wiki/Archibald_Prize \"Archibald Prize\")\\-winner Sir [William Dargie](/wiki/William_Dargie \"William Dargie\") for the \"[Wattle Portrait](/wiki/Wattle_Queen \"Wattle Queen\")\" of Queen Elizabeth II and a study for a portrait, again by Dargie, of [Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh](/wiki/Prince_Philip%2C_Duke_of_Edinburgh \"Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh\").", "Official ceremonies, such as the swearing\\-in of Cabinet ministers, the presentation of honours and the holding of receptions, take place in the drawing room, which is hung with paintings by Australian artists and contains examples of early Australian furniture.", "The drawing room leads through to the private entrance, which is composed of a series of rooms leading from the south façade (with views of the [Brindabella Ranges](/wiki/Brindabella_Ranges \"Brindabella Ranges\")) through to the \"State Entrance Hall\". Again, these rooms are hung with paintings by Australian artists and contain antique furniture and other items of interest.\n[thumb\\|The High Commissioner for Tonga presents credentials to Governor\\-General [Quentin Bryce](/wiki/Quentin_Bryce \"Quentin Bryce\") in the drawing room.](/wiki/File:The_High_Commissioner_for_Tonga%2C_HRH_Princess_Angelika_Latufuipeka_Tuku%27aho%2C_presents_credentials_to_the_Governor-General._01.jpg \"The High Commissioner for Tonga, HRH Princess Angelika Latufuipeka Tuku'aho, presents credentials to the Governor-General. 01.jpg\")\nBeyond the private entrance are a morning room and a small dining room. This small dining room features a series of paintings by [Australian indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians \"Indigenous Australians\") artists. These rooms lead back to the \"State Entrance Hall\".\n[thumb\\|Aerial view of Government House and [Lake Burley Griffin](/wiki/Lake_Burley_Griffin \"Lake Burley Griffin\") adjacent to it](/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Government_House%2C_Canberra_2.JPG \"Aerial view of Government House, Canberra 2.JPG\")\nOn the lakefront side of the house is the \"State Dining Room\". It features a large bay window overlooking Lake Burley Griffin, which leads out on to a terrace. Also on the ground floor, and commanding views of the lake, are the governor\\-general's study, where the vice\\-regal incumbent works and receives visitors, and a sitting room with an attached vestibule which links with a number of offices and service rooms.", "The upper floors of Government House contain the governor\\-general's private residence and guest rooms.", "The furnishings and decoration of Government House represent a wide spectrum of Australian artists and craftspeople, ranging from colonial times to the present day and expressing a rich variety of styles. It also houses a large collection of artworks by Australian indigenous artists. Cultural institutions including the [National Gallery of Australia](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Australia \"National Gallery of Australia\"), the [National Library of Australia](/wiki/National_Library_of_Australia \"National Library of Australia\") and [The Australiana Fund](/wiki/The_Australiana_Fund \"The Australiana Fund\"), have lent much of the furniture and art objects gracing the house.", "Artists with works displayed in Government House include [E. Phillips Fox](/wiki/E._Phillips_Fox \"E. Phillips Fox\"), [Tom Roberts](/wiki/Tom_Roberts \"Tom Roberts\"), Sir [Arthur Streeton](/wiki/Arthur_Streeton \"Arthur Streeton\"), Sir [William Dargie](/wiki/William_Dargie \"William Dargie\"), [Margaret Preston](/wiki/Margaret_Preston \"Margaret Preston\"), [Rupert Bunny](/wiki/Rupert_Bunny \"Rupert Bunny\"), [Nicholas Chevalier](/wiki/Nicholas_Chevalier \"Nicholas Chevalier\"), [W. B. McInnes](/wiki/William_Beckwith_McInnes \"William Beckwith McInnes\"), [Elioth Gruner](/wiki/Elioth_Gruner \"Elioth Gruner\"), Sir [Lionel Lindsay](/wiki/Lionel_Lindsay \"Lionel Lindsay\"), Sir [Bertram Mackennal](/wiki/Bertram_Mackennal \"Bertram Mackennal\"), Sir [Hans Heysen](/wiki/Hans_Heysen \"Hans Heysen\"), [Lloyd Rees](/wiki/Lloyd_Rees \"Lloyd Rees\"), [Fred Williams](/wiki/Fred_Williams_%28artist%29 \"Fred Williams (artist)\"), [Arthur Boyd](/wiki/Arthur_Boyd \"Arthur Boyd\"), Sir [Sidney Nolan](/wiki/Sidney_Nolan \"Sidney Nolan\"), [Leonard French](/wiki/Leonard_French \"Leonard French\"), [Justin O'Brien](/wiki/Justin_O%27Brien \"Justin O'Brien\"), [Ray Crooke](/wiki/Ray_Crooke \"Ray Crooke\"), [John Dowie](/wiki/John_Dowie_%28artist%29 \"John Dowie (artist)\"), Johnny Warangkula Tjupurrula, [Margaret Olley](/wiki/Margaret_Olley \"Margaret Olley\"), [Pro Hart](/wiki/Pro_Hart \"Pro Hart\"), Yala Yala Gibbs Tjungarrayi, Charlie Tjararu Tjungarrayi and Paddy Japaljarri Sims.", "### Gardens", "Extensive landscaped grounds surround the house. They were first devised and put in place by the horticulturalist [Charles Weston](/wiki/Charles_Weston_%28horticulturalist%29 \"Charles Weston (horticulturalist)\"). Many of the trees in the gardens have been planted by visiting dignitaries. The grounds include extensive plantations of trees and sweeping lawns, which provide vistas towards [Black Mountain](/wiki/Black_Mountain_%28Australian_Capital_Territory%29 \"Black Mountain (Australian Capital Territory)\") in the north and the [Brindabella Ranges](/wiki/Brindabella_Ranges \"Brindabella Ranges\") in the south.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The English Garden on the grounds of Government House, laid out by [Lady Gowrie](/wiki/Zara_Hore-Ruthven%2C_Countess_of_Gowrie \"Zara Hore-Ruthven, Countess of Gowrie\")](/wiki/File:LadyGowrieGarden.jpg \"LadyGowrieGarden.jpg\")\nThe \"Wild Garden\" or \"English Garden\" was laid out by [Lady Gowrie](/wiki/Zara_Hore-Ruthven%2C_Countess_of_Gowrie \"Zara Hore-Ruthven, Countess of Gowrie\"), and includes a memorial to [Patrick Hore\\-Ruthven](/wiki/Patrick_Hore-Ruthven \"Patrick Hore-Ruthven\"), the only surviving son of governor\\-general [Lord](/wiki/Alexander_Hore-Ruthven%2C_1st_Earl_of_Gowrie \"Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie\") and Lady Gowrie, who was killed in the Second World War. The design of this garden was influenced by the work of [Edna Walling](/wiki/Edna_Walling \"Edna Walling\") and [Paul Sorenson](/wiki/Paul_Sorensen_%28landscape_gardener%29 \"Paul Sorensen (landscape gardener)\"). Other gardens have been laid out by successive governors\\-general and their spouses. The lakeside lawn and terraces, for instance, were developed at the time Lake Burley Griffin was filled with water in the early 1960s, during the vice\\-regal tenure of [Lord De L'Isle](/wiki/William_Sidney%2C_1st_Viscount_De_L%27Isle \"William Sidney, 1st Viscount De L'Isle\"). Further developments to the terraces were undertaken during the term of Sir [Ninian Stephen](/wiki/Ninian_Stephen \"Ninian Stephen\") in the 1980s.", "A [rhododendron](/wiki/Rhododendron \"Rhododendron\") grove was designed and planted in the 1970s by Otto Ruzicka, and is called the \"Hasluck Garden\" after governor\\-general [Sir Paul](/wiki/Paul_Hasluck \"Paul Hasluck\") and his vice\\-regal consort, [Dame Alexandra Hasluck](/wiki/Alexandra_Hasluck \"Alexandra Hasluck\").", "In addition, large numbers of bulbs were planted along the eastern side of the \"Vista Lawn\" to the south of the house in the 1990s at the suggestion of Dallas Hayden, wife of governor\\-general [Bill Hayden](/wiki/Bill_Hayden \"Bill Hayden\"). The Bravery Garden was established in the grounds of Government House, suggested by Sir William and Lady Deane and inspired by John Thurgar {{post\\-nominals\\|country\\=AUS\\|sep\\=,\\|OAM\\|MBE}} and Hedonna Thurgar, founders of the Australian Bravery Association. The garden displays different Australian civilian and military decorations, including the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\"), and the civilian equivalent, the Cross of Valour, all nestled in plantings of mostly Australian and New Zealand plants. In 2014 a hedge of 'Gallipoli Centenary Rose' was planted. \n[thumb\\|The Vista Lawn is a {{convert\\|450\\|m\\|ft}} lawn that faces the southern entrance of the residence.](/wiki/File:Government_House%2C_Canberra.jpg \"Government House, Canberra.jpg\")\nAbout {{convert\\|100\\|m}} south of the house there is a slight depression in Yarralumla's \"Vista Lawn\". It marks the location of a filled\\-in brick and cement vault which once contained the bodies of two of the property's colonial\\-era inhabitants, Elizabeth Gibbes ({{circa\\|1790}}\\-1874\\) and her husband, Colonel [John George Nathaniel Gibbes](/wiki/John_George_Nathaniel_Gibbes \"John George Nathaniel Gibbes\") (1787\\-1873\\). Originally, the subterranean vault was surrounded by a stand of yews and hawthorns. In 1880, the coffins containing the remains of the Colonel and Mrs Gibbes were removed from the vault by their son \"Gussie\" Gibbes and reinterred at [St John the Baptist Church, Reid](/wiki/St_John_the_Baptist_Church%2C_Reid \"St John the Baptist Church, Reid\"). In the same churchyard, just a few paces from the Gibbes' burial plot, lies the grave of Lord Dunrossil (1893\\-1961\\), Australia's 14th governor\\-general, who died during his Yarralumla tenure.{{cite book \\|title\\=Rural Graves in the Australian Capital Territory: A Historical Context and Interpretation \\|first\\=Anne \\|last\\=Claoué\\-Long \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Trust of Australia]] \\|location\\=Canberra \\|year\\=2006 }}", "" ]
### Residence Government House consists of a central brick block, erected by Frederick Campbell in 1890–1891 on the remnants of an 1830s homestead. The house was enlarged in 1899 and again during the 1920s. Further additions were made to it in the 1930s and 1940s. All of these structures were rendered with a layer of cement and painted cream. The roof tiles are green. [thumb\|left\|The "State Entrance" and the main doorway to Government House is covered by a [porte\-cochère](/wiki/Porte-coch%C3%A8re "Porte-cochère")](/wiki/File:Government_House_in_2011.jpg "Government House in 2011.jpg") The "State Entrance" to Government House is located on its eastern facade, and is protected by a [porte\-cochère](/wiki/Porte-coch%C3%A8re "Porte-cochère"), within which there is a set of steps leading up to the main entry doors. Running along the centre of the house is the wood\-panelled "State Entrance Hall", lined with Australian artworks and furniture, including a study by multiple [Archibald Prize](/wiki/Archibald_Prize "Archibald Prize")\-winner Sir [William Dargie](/wiki/William_Dargie "William Dargie") for the "[Wattle Portrait](/wiki/Wattle_Queen "Wattle Queen")" of Queen Elizabeth II and a study for a portrait, again by Dargie, of [Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh](/wiki/Prince_Philip%2C_Duke_of_Edinburgh "Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh"). Official ceremonies, such as the swearing\-in of Cabinet ministers, the presentation of honours and the holding of receptions, take place in the drawing room, which is hung with paintings by Australian artists and contains examples of early Australian furniture. The drawing room leads through to the private entrance, which is composed of a series of rooms leading from the south façade (with views of the [Brindabella Ranges](/wiki/Brindabella_Ranges "Brindabella Ranges")) through to the "State Entrance Hall". Again, these rooms are hung with paintings by Australian artists and contain antique furniture and other items of interest. [thumb\|The High Commissioner for Tonga presents credentials to Governor\-General [Quentin Bryce](/wiki/Quentin_Bryce "Quentin Bryce") in the drawing room.](/wiki/File:The_High_Commissioner_for_Tonga%2C_HRH_Princess_Angelika_Latufuipeka_Tuku%27aho%2C_presents_credentials_to_the_Governor-General._01.jpg "The High Commissioner for Tonga, HRH Princess Angelika Latufuipeka Tuku'aho, presents credentials to the Governor-General. 01.jpg") Beyond the private entrance are a morning room and a small dining room. This small dining room features a series of paintings by [Australian indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians "Indigenous Australians") artists. These rooms lead back to the "State Entrance Hall". [thumb\|Aerial view of Government House and [Lake Burley Griffin](/wiki/Lake_Burley_Griffin "Lake Burley Griffin") adjacent to it](/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Government_House%2C_Canberra_2.JPG "Aerial view of Government House, Canberra 2.JPG") On the lakefront side of the house is the "State Dining Room". It features a large bay window overlooking Lake Burley Griffin, which leads out on to a terrace. Also on the ground floor, and commanding views of the lake, are the governor\-general's study, where the vice\-regal incumbent works and receives visitors, and a sitting room with an attached vestibule which links with a number of offices and service rooms. The upper floors of Government House contain the governor\-general's private residence and guest rooms. The furnishings and decoration of Government House represent a wide spectrum of Australian artists and craftspeople, ranging from colonial times to the present day and expressing a rich variety of styles. It also houses a large collection of artworks by Australian indigenous artists. Cultural institutions including the [National Gallery of Australia](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Australia "National Gallery of Australia"), the [National Library of Australia](/wiki/National_Library_of_Australia "National Library of Australia") and [The Australiana Fund](/wiki/The_Australiana_Fund "The Australiana Fund"), have lent much of the furniture and art objects gracing the house. Artists with works displayed in Government House include [E. Phillips Fox](/wiki/E._Phillips_Fox "E. Phillips Fox"), [Tom Roberts](/wiki/Tom_Roberts "Tom Roberts"), Sir [Arthur Streeton](/wiki/Arthur_Streeton "Arthur Streeton"), Sir [William Dargie](/wiki/William_Dargie "William Dargie"), [Margaret Preston](/wiki/Margaret_Preston "Margaret Preston"), [Rupert Bunny](/wiki/Rupert_Bunny "Rupert Bunny"), [Nicholas Chevalier](/wiki/Nicholas_Chevalier "Nicholas Chevalier"), [W. B. McInnes](/wiki/William_Beckwith_McInnes "William Beckwith McInnes"), [Elioth Gruner](/wiki/Elioth_Gruner "Elioth Gruner"), Sir [Lionel Lindsay](/wiki/Lionel_Lindsay "Lionel Lindsay"), Sir [Bertram Mackennal](/wiki/Bertram_Mackennal "Bertram Mackennal"), Sir [Hans Heysen](/wiki/Hans_Heysen "Hans Heysen"), [Lloyd Rees](/wiki/Lloyd_Rees "Lloyd Rees"), [Fred Williams](/wiki/Fred_Williams_%28artist%29 "Fred Williams (artist)"), [Arthur Boyd](/wiki/Arthur_Boyd "Arthur Boyd"), Sir [Sidney Nolan](/wiki/Sidney_Nolan "Sidney Nolan"), [Leonard French](/wiki/Leonard_French "Leonard French"), [Justin O'Brien](/wiki/Justin_O%27Brien "Justin O'Brien"), [Ray Crooke](/wiki/Ray_Crooke "Ray Crooke"), [John Dowie](/wiki/John_Dowie_%28artist%29 "John Dowie (artist)"), Johnny Warangkula Tjupurrula, [Margaret Olley](/wiki/Margaret_Olley "Margaret Olley"), [Pro Hart](/wiki/Pro_Hart "Pro Hart"), Yala Yala Gibbs Tjungarrayi, Charlie Tjararu Tjungarrayi and Paddy Japaljarri Sims.
[ "### Residence", "Government House consists of a central brick block, erected by Frederick Campbell in 1890–1891 on the remnants of an 1830s homestead. The house was enlarged in 1899 and again during the 1920s. Further additions were made to it in the 1930s and 1940s. All of these structures were rendered with a layer of cement and painted cream. The roof tiles are green.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The \"State Entrance\" and the main doorway to Government House is covered by a [porte\\-cochère](/wiki/Porte-coch%C3%A8re \"Porte-cochère\")](/wiki/File:Government_House_in_2011.jpg \"Government House in 2011.jpg\")\nThe \"State Entrance\" to Government House is located on its eastern facade, and is protected by a [porte\\-cochère](/wiki/Porte-coch%C3%A8re \"Porte-cochère\"), within which there is a set of steps leading up to the main entry doors.", "Running along the centre of the house is the wood\\-panelled \"State Entrance Hall\", lined with Australian artworks and furniture, including a study by multiple [Archibald Prize](/wiki/Archibald_Prize \"Archibald Prize\")\\-winner Sir [William Dargie](/wiki/William_Dargie \"William Dargie\") for the \"[Wattle Portrait](/wiki/Wattle_Queen \"Wattle Queen\")\" of Queen Elizabeth II and a study for a portrait, again by Dargie, of [Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh](/wiki/Prince_Philip%2C_Duke_of_Edinburgh \"Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh\").", "Official ceremonies, such as the swearing\\-in of Cabinet ministers, the presentation of honours and the holding of receptions, take place in the drawing room, which is hung with paintings by Australian artists and contains examples of early Australian furniture.", "The drawing room leads through to the private entrance, which is composed of a series of rooms leading from the south façade (with views of the [Brindabella Ranges](/wiki/Brindabella_Ranges \"Brindabella Ranges\")) through to the \"State Entrance Hall\". Again, these rooms are hung with paintings by Australian artists and contain antique furniture and other items of interest.\n[thumb\\|The High Commissioner for Tonga presents credentials to Governor\\-General [Quentin Bryce](/wiki/Quentin_Bryce \"Quentin Bryce\") in the drawing room.](/wiki/File:The_High_Commissioner_for_Tonga%2C_HRH_Princess_Angelika_Latufuipeka_Tuku%27aho%2C_presents_credentials_to_the_Governor-General._01.jpg \"The High Commissioner for Tonga, HRH Princess Angelika Latufuipeka Tuku'aho, presents credentials to the Governor-General. 01.jpg\")\nBeyond the private entrance are a morning room and a small dining room. This small dining room features a series of paintings by [Australian indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians \"Indigenous Australians\") artists. These rooms lead back to the \"State Entrance Hall\".\n[thumb\\|Aerial view of Government House and [Lake Burley Griffin](/wiki/Lake_Burley_Griffin \"Lake Burley Griffin\") adjacent to it](/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Government_House%2C_Canberra_2.JPG \"Aerial view of Government House, Canberra 2.JPG\")\nOn the lakefront side of the house is the \"State Dining Room\". It features a large bay window overlooking Lake Burley Griffin, which leads out on to a terrace. Also on the ground floor, and commanding views of the lake, are the governor\\-general's study, where the vice\\-regal incumbent works and receives visitors, and a sitting room with an attached vestibule which links with a number of offices and service rooms.", "The upper floors of Government House contain the governor\\-general's private residence and guest rooms.", "The furnishings and decoration of Government House represent a wide spectrum of Australian artists and craftspeople, ranging from colonial times to the present day and expressing a rich variety of styles. It also houses a large collection of artworks by Australian indigenous artists. Cultural institutions including the [National Gallery of Australia](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Australia \"National Gallery of Australia\"), the [National Library of Australia](/wiki/National_Library_of_Australia \"National Library of Australia\") and [The Australiana Fund](/wiki/The_Australiana_Fund \"The Australiana Fund\"), have lent much of the furniture and art objects gracing the house.", "Artists with works displayed in Government House include [E. Phillips Fox](/wiki/E._Phillips_Fox \"E. Phillips Fox\"), [Tom Roberts](/wiki/Tom_Roberts \"Tom Roberts\"), Sir [Arthur Streeton](/wiki/Arthur_Streeton \"Arthur Streeton\"), Sir [William Dargie](/wiki/William_Dargie \"William Dargie\"), [Margaret Preston](/wiki/Margaret_Preston \"Margaret Preston\"), [Rupert Bunny](/wiki/Rupert_Bunny \"Rupert Bunny\"), [Nicholas Chevalier](/wiki/Nicholas_Chevalier \"Nicholas Chevalier\"), [W. B. McInnes](/wiki/William_Beckwith_McInnes \"William Beckwith McInnes\"), [Elioth Gruner](/wiki/Elioth_Gruner \"Elioth Gruner\"), Sir [Lionel Lindsay](/wiki/Lionel_Lindsay \"Lionel Lindsay\"), Sir [Bertram Mackennal](/wiki/Bertram_Mackennal \"Bertram Mackennal\"), Sir [Hans Heysen](/wiki/Hans_Heysen \"Hans Heysen\"), [Lloyd Rees](/wiki/Lloyd_Rees \"Lloyd Rees\"), [Fred Williams](/wiki/Fred_Williams_%28artist%29 \"Fred Williams (artist)\"), [Arthur Boyd](/wiki/Arthur_Boyd \"Arthur Boyd\"), Sir [Sidney Nolan](/wiki/Sidney_Nolan \"Sidney Nolan\"), [Leonard French](/wiki/Leonard_French \"Leonard French\"), [Justin O'Brien](/wiki/Justin_O%27Brien \"Justin O'Brien\"), [Ray Crooke](/wiki/Ray_Crooke \"Ray Crooke\"), [John Dowie](/wiki/John_Dowie_%28artist%29 \"John Dowie (artist)\"), Johnny Warangkula Tjupurrula, [Margaret Olley](/wiki/Margaret_Olley \"Margaret Olley\"), [Pro Hart](/wiki/Pro_Hart \"Pro Hart\"), Yala Yala Gibbs Tjungarrayi, Charlie Tjararu Tjungarrayi and Paddy Japaljarri Sims.", "" ]
History ------- **Development** The garden is situated on the land of the [Chochenyo](/wiki/Chochenyo "Chochenyo") speaking [Ohlone](/wiki/Ohlone "Ohlone") people called xučyun (Huichin). In the 1870s, a few years after the founding of the University of California, Berkeley, Dr. Eugene W. Hilgard, the university's first Dean of Agriculture, established a garden of plants on the land which is now [Moffit Library](/wiki/Moffitt_Library "Moffitt Library"). The University of California Botanical Garden was initially established in 1890 near Haviland Hall on the north side of campus by [E.L. Greene](/wiki/Edward_Lee_Greene "Edward Lee Greene"), the first chairman of the Department of Botany, to preserve the trees, shrubs, and plants native to the [Pacific Coast](/wiki/Pacific_coast "Pacific coast"). Modeled after the famous [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace%2C_London "Crystal Palace, London") in London, the garden's first formal glasshouse\-style conservatory was built in 1894 by Lord and Burnham for US$16,000 and housed palm trees and other tropical plants but was later demolished in 1924 to make space for more parking and the construction of Haviland Hall. The garden grew to house six hundred different plant species within the first two years. In 1909, Strawberry Canyon was purchased by the university and in 1925, the garden was relocated to its current residence in Strawberry Canyon under the directorship of [Thomas Harper Goodspeed](/wiki/Thomas_Harper_Goodspeed "Thomas Harper Goodspeed"), the university's Dean of Agriculture, where he stated “the eastward moving air draft from the Golden Gate … with consequent moderating influences on summer temperature and humidity, permit an association of plants, birds, and mammals not duplicated elsewhere in middle western California.”{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-10\-12 \|title\=1925 – Move to Strawberry Canyon \- UC Botanical Garden \|url\=https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/timeline/1928 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-23 \|language\=en\-US}} Goodspeed and [J.W. Gregg](/wiki/John_Walter_Gregory "John Walter Gregory"), a professor in the Department of Landscape Design, are credited to have supervised the construction of the garden and its layout in Strawberry Canyon. In 1932, James West established a rock garden in a collection now known as the "Deserts of the Americas" collection. From October 5, 1933, to May 31, 1934, over 200 young men, as a part of the Civilian Conservation Corps Company 751, built road and dam infrastructure, which aided in many of the garden's future projects. Goodspeed became the official Director of the garden in 1934 and remained the Director until 1957, where he led efforts to cultivate tobacco ([Nicotiana](/wiki/Nicotiana "Nicotiana")), the Rhododendron Dell, the New World Desert collection, and the California Redwood Grove (now Stephen J. Mather Redwood Grove). Expeditions to China, the Andes, Southern Africa, Bolivia, Peru, Mesoamerica, Australia, New Zealand were conducted by Berkeley researchers and paleontologists to expand the garden's collections.{{Cite web \|title\=University of California Botanical Garden at Berkeley \|url\=https://theclio.com/entry/95728 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-23 \|website\=Clio \|language\=en}} In 1976, The Friends of the Botanical Garden was established to aid with fundraising, volunteering, and public outreach in efforts to support the garden. The group was later dissolved in 1997 but an active group of 250 volunteers continue to aid in similar efforts today. In 2015, the garden celebrated its 125th anniversary with the renovation of the Redwood Amphitheater located in the garden.{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-12\-06 \|title\=The Garden \- UC Botanical Garden \|url\=https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/the\-garden \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-23 \|language\=en\-US}} **Recent History** After the Golden Gate Exhibition on Treasure Island closed in 1939, the Japanese exhibit was donated to the garden and relocated to Strawberry Canyon from San Francisco. For decades, two newt species, [California newt](/wiki/California_newt "California newt") (*Taricha torosa*) and [rough\-skinned newt](/wiki/Rough-skinned_newt "Rough-skinned newt") (*Taricha granulosa*), have lived and laid eggs in the Japanese Pool, an 80\-year\-old pond. In early 2023, leaks in the pond were threatening the existence of newts since newts would get lodged into the pond's cracks as water drained and attempt to get freed but eventually drown. In a statement, UC Botanical Garden Director Lewis Feldman said "\[newts are] part of the diversity of nature,” and “their disappearance will probably impact on the garden in ways that we probably now can’t understand.”{{Cite web \|last\=Kwok \|first\=Iris \|date\=2023\-06\-01 \|title\=Squished newts are drowning at bottom of leaky UC Botanical Garden pond \|url\=http://www.berkeleyside.org/2023/06/01/squished\-newts\-uc\-botanical\-garden\-berkeley \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-23 \|website\=Berkeleyside \|language\=en\-US}} In summer 2023, the garden successfully raised US$150,000 to empty the pond, seal the cracks, plug the sinkholes, and resurface the basin of the pond.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-05\-23 \|title\=Save Our Newts Campaign \- UC Botanical Garden \|url\=https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/save\-our\-newts \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-23 \|language\=en\-US}}
[ "History\n-------", "**Development**", "The garden is situated on the land of the [Chochenyo](/wiki/Chochenyo \"Chochenyo\") speaking [Ohlone](/wiki/Ohlone \"Ohlone\") people called xučyun (Huichin). In the 1870s, a few years after the founding of the University of California, Berkeley, Dr. Eugene W. Hilgard, the university's first Dean of Agriculture, established a garden of plants on the land which is now [Moffit Library](/wiki/Moffitt_Library \"Moffitt Library\").", "The University of California Botanical Garden was initially established in 1890 near Haviland Hall on the north side of campus by [E.L. Greene](/wiki/Edward_Lee_Greene \"Edward Lee Greene\"), the first chairman of the Department of Botany, to preserve the trees, shrubs, and plants native to the [Pacific Coast](/wiki/Pacific_coast \"Pacific coast\"). Modeled after the famous [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace%2C_London \"Crystal Palace, London\") in London, the garden's first formal glasshouse\\-style conservatory was built in 1894 by Lord and Burnham for US$16,000 and housed palm trees and other tropical plants but was later demolished in 1924 to make space for more parking and the construction of Haviland Hall. The garden grew to house six hundred different plant species within the first two years.", "In 1909, Strawberry Canyon was purchased by the university and in 1925, the garden was relocated to its current residence in Strawberry Canyon under the directorship of [Thomas Harper Goodspeed](/wiki/Thomas_Harper_Goodspeed \"Thomas Harper Goodspeed\"), the university's Dean of Agriculture, where he stated “the eastward moving air draft from the Golden Gate … with consequent moderating influences on summer temperature and humidity, permit an association of plants, birds, and mammals not duplicated elsewhere in middle western California.”{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-10\\-12 \\|title\\=1925 – Move to Strawberry Canyon \\- UC Botanical Garden \\|url\\=https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/timeline/1928 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-23 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Goodspeed and [J.W. Gregg](/wiki/John_Walter_Gregory \"John Walter Gregory\"), a professor in the Department of Landscape Design, are credited to have supervised the construction of the garden and its layout in Strawberry Canyon.", "In 1932, James West established a rock garden in a collection now known as the \"Deserts of the Americas\" collection. From October 5, 1933, to May 31, 1934, over 200 young men, as a part of the Civilian Conservation Corps Company 751, built road and dam infrastructure, which aided in many of the garden's future projects. Goodspeed became the official Director of the garden in 1934 and remained the Director until 1957, where he led efforts to cultivate tobacco ([Nicotiana](/wiki/Nicotiana \"Nicotiana\")), the Rhododendron Dell, the New World Desert collection, and the California Redwood Grove (now Stephen J. Mather Redwood Grove). Expeditions to China, the Andes, Southern Africa, Bolivia, Peru, Mesoamerica, Australia, New Zealand were conducted by Berkeley researchers and paleontologists to expand the garden's collections.{{Cite web \\|title\\=University of California Botanical Garden at Berkeley \\|url\\=https://theclio.com/entry/95728 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-23 \\|website\\=Clio \\|language\\=en}}", "In 1976, The Friends of the Botanical Garden was established to aid with fundraising, volunteering, and public outreach in efforts to support the garden. The group was later dissolved in 1997 but an active group of 250 volunteers continue to aid in similar efforts today.", "In 2015, the garden celebrated its 125th anniversary with the renovation of the Redwood Amphitheater located in the garden.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-12\\-06 \\|title\\=The Garden \\- UC Botanical Garden \\|url\\=https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/the\\-garden \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-23 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "**Recent History**", "After the Golden Gate Exhibition on Treasure Island closed in 1939, the Japanese exhibit was donated to the garden and relocated to Strawberry Canyon from San Francisco. For decades, two newt species, [California newt](/wiki/California_newt \"California newt\") (*Taricha torosa*) and [rough\\-skinned newt](/wiki/Rough-skinned_newt \"Rough-skinned newt\") (*Taricha granulosa*), have lived and laid eggs in the Japanese Pool, an 80\\-year\\-old pond.", "In early 2023, leaks in the pond were threatening the existence of newts since newts would get lodged into the pond's cracks as water drained and attempt to get freed but eventually drown. In a statement, UC Botanical Garden Director Lewis Feldman said \"\\[newts are] part of the diversity of nature,” and “their disappearance will probably impact on the garden in ways that we probably now can’t understand.”{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kwok \\|first\\=Iris \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-01 \\|title\\=Squished newts are drowning at bottom of leaky UC Botanical Garden pond \\|url\\=http://www.berkeleyside.org/2023/06/01/squished\\-newts\\-uc\\-botanical\\-garden\\-berkeley \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-23 \\|website\\=Berkeleyside \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In summer 2023, the garden successfully raised US$150,000 to empty the pond, seal the cracks, plug the sinkholes, and resurface the basin of the pond.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-23 \\|title\\=Save Our Newts Campaign \\- UC Botanical Garden \\|url\\=https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/save\\-our\\-newts \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-23 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "" ]
Collections ----------- The garden has more than 20,000 accessions, representing 324 plant families, 12,000 different [species](/wiki/Species "Species") and [subspecies](/wiki/Subspecies "Subspecies"), and 2,885 [genera](/wiki/Genera "Genera"). Outdoor collections are, in general, arranged geographically and nearly all specimens were collected in the wild. The major family collections include: [cactus](/wiki/Cactus "Cactus") (2,669 plants), [lily](/wiki/Lily "Lily") (1,193 plants), [sunflower](/wiki/Sunflower "Sunflower") (1,151 plants), erica (897 plants), and [orchid](/wiki/Orchid "Orchid") (950 plants). Other families include about 500 types of [ferns](/wiki/Fern "Fern") and fern allies, [Chinese medicinal](/wiki/Chinese_medicine "Chinese medicine") herbs, plants of economic importance, old [rose](/wiki/Rose "Rose") cultivars, and California native plants. Sets of greenhouses contain [succulents](/wiki/Succulent "Succulent"), [epiphytes](/wiki/Epiphyte "Epiphyte"), ferns, [carnivorous plants](/wiki/Carnivorous_plants "Carnivorous plants"), and tropicals. ### Geographic layout The garden collections are geographically organized, and include: South Africa – featuring [South African](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") plants, including: lilies, [Proteas](/wiki/Protea "Protea"), [ice plants](/wiki/Carpobrotus_edulis "Carpobrotus edulis"), [Aloes](/wiki/Aloe "Aloe"), and *[Encephalartos](/wiki/Encephalartos "Encephalartos")*. Asia — featuring a [Rhododendron](/wiki/Rhododendron "Rhododendron") collection (259 taxa, 397 accessions), including many mature trees. (Rhododendrons too tender for most North American climates.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2019}})) Also present are specimens of the [redwood](/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens "Sequoia sempervirens") family, including the original dawn redwoods ([Metasequoia](/wiki/Metasequoia "Metasequoia")), and dozens of unusual shrubs, vines, and herbaceous species recently collected from China.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2019}} Australasia – plants from Australia and New Zealand; with southern [beeches](/wiki/Beech "Beech"), [banksias](/wiki/Banksia "Banksia"), [myrtles](/wiki/Myrtaceae "Myrtaceae") such as [eucalyptus](/wiki/Eucalyptus "Eucalyptus"), [cycads](/wiki/Cycads "Cycads"), and [phormiums](/wiki/Phormium "Phormium"). California Native – over 4,000 accessions, including nearly one\-half of the state's native vascular plant species and 174 taxa on the [California Native Plant Society](/wiki/California_Native_Plant_Society "California Native Plant Society")'s list of rare and endangered species –Prominent genera are: [manzanitas](/wiki/Manzanita "Manzanita") (*[Arctostaphylos](/wiki/Arctostaphylos "Arctostaphylos") spp.*) with 81 taxa (252 accessions), California\-Lilacs (*[Ceanothus](/wiki/Ceanothus "Ceanothus") spp.*) with 55 taxa (164 accessions), and an almost complete collection of California bulbous [monocots](/wiki/Monocot "Monocot") in the [Lily](/wiki/Lily "Lily") and [Amaryllis](/wiki/Amaryllis "Amaryllis") families (*[Fritillaria](/wiki/Fritillaria "Fritillaria")*, *[Calochortus](/wiki/Calochortus "Calochortus")*, *[Lilium](/wiki/Lilium "Lilium")*, *[Erythronium](/wiki/Erythronium "Erythronium")*, *[Allium](/wiki/Allium "Allium")*, *[Brodiaea](/wiki/Brodiaea "Brodiaea")*) with 118 taxa (234 accessions) [Chinese Medicinal](/wiki/Chinese_medicine "Chinese medicine") Herb Garden – selections from the pharmacopeia of modern China. [250px\|thumb\|[Cactus garden](/wiki/Cactus_garden "Cactus garden") specimens.](/wiki/File:University_of_California_Botanical_Garden_-_DSC08881.JPG "University of California Botanical Garden - DSC08881.JPG") [250px\|thumb\|Blooming *[Nolina](/wiki/Nolina "Nolina") siberica* specimen.](/wiki/File:Nolina_siberica_1.jpg "Nolina siberica 1.jpg") Mediterranean – exhibits flora from the region's countries, including: Morocco, Spain, Portugal, the [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands"), Turkey, and Syria, on a hillside with views across the San Francisco Bay. Deserts of the Americas{{Cite web\|url\=https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/collections/deserts\-americas\|title\=Deserts of the Americas\|website\=UC Botanical Garden\|date\=May 10, 2016 \|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-20}} – bristles with cacti and other succulents from North and Central America, plus the high deserts of the Andes. Eastern North America – includes deciduous trees such as tulip tree ([Liriodendron](/wiki/Liriodendron "Liriodendron")), bald cypress ([Taxodium](/wiki/Taxodium "Taxodium")), and dogwoods ([Cornus](/wiki/Cornus_%28genus%29 "Cornus (genus)")). [Meso American](/wiki/Meso_America "Meso America") – shows the diversity of Central American habitats with genera found in both mountain and desert areas such as [Agaves](/wiki/Agave "Agave"), oaks ([Quercus](/wiki/Quercus "Quercus")), [pines](/wiki/Pine "Pine"), and a range of brightly flowered [Salvias](/wiki/Salvia "Salvia"). South America – with a grove of [monkey puzzle trees](/wiki/Araucaria_araucana "Araucaria araucana") (*[Araucaria](/wiki/Araucaria "Araucaria") araucana*), a collection of [fuchsias](/wiki/Fuchsia "Fuchsia"), and several species of [southern beech](/wiki/Nothofagus "Nothofagus"). The garden also has a selection of cultivars of *[Lapageria](/wiki/Lapageria "Lapageria")*. Greenhouses The garden's [greenhouses](/wiki/Greenhouse "Greenhouse") include: * the Arid House, presenting seasonal exhibits of cacti and succulents. * the [fern](/wiki/Fern "Fern") and [carnivorous plants](/wiki/Carnivorous_plant "Carnivorous plant") house display diverse ferns and unusual insect\-eating plants. * the tropical house (currently being renovated) features tropical plants of economic value, and many curiosities such as the giant corpse lily [Amorphophallus](/wiki/Amorphophallus "Amorphophallus"). **Asian Plant Collection** The UC Botanical Garden is home to the renowned Asian plant collection—a repository of some of the world's rarest and most precious flora. This botanical gem, however, was damaged by a colossal redwood tree's toppling during a powerful storm. Along with the Asian section “the top half of the garden’s only Parana pine tree, a critically endangered species from Brazil \[,] a prized eucalyptus from Australia’s Queensland region and a gum\-leaf cone bush from Southern Africa” were also damaged.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-04\-08 \|title\=After the storms: UC Botanical Garden's rescue operation to save a paradise lost \|url\=https://www.mercurynews.com/2023/04/08/after\-the\-storms\-uc\-botanical\-gardens\-rescue\-operation\-to\-save\-a\-paradise\-lost/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-16 \|website\=The Mercury News \|language\=en\-US}} In response, a team of experts swiftly converged on the site, located high in the hills above the UC Berkeley campus, with the urgent mission of rescuing and rehabilitating the battered plants to salvage what could be preserved. This effort was motivated by the exceptional difficulty in replacing these specimens, as many were originally sourced from the wild, making their preservation crucial. The UC Botanical Garden's Asian collection stands as both a unique botanical resource and a site of serene beauty. It holds historic significance, with its origins dating back to the early 1900s when plants were gathered from expeditions to western China and Tibet by explorers like [George Forrest](/wiki/George_Forrest_%28botanist%29 "George Forrest (botanist)") and [Joseph Rock](/wiki/Joseph_Rock "Joseph Rock"). What distinguishes this garden is its comprehensive documentation of each plant's provenance, contributing to its scientific value. In addition to the Asian section, several other Bay Area botanical gardens also experienced losses from the same devastating storm, highlighting the vulnerability of these curated collections to the unpredictable forces of nature. The arduous process of recovery involves the removal of debris to access damaged plant beds and then careful assessment and restoration work. Notably, the fate of these plants is uncertain, as they may not exhibit immediate signs of distress, and recovery is an ongoing process. Some plants are pruned for rehabilitation, while others are transported back to the garden's nursery, where cuttings are cultivated to create a new generation of the lost plant s.
[ "Collections\n-----------", "The garden has more than 20,000 accessions, representing 324 plant families, 12,000 different [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") and [subspecies](/wiki/Subspecies \"Subspecies\"), and 2,885 [genera](/wiki/Genera \"Genera\"). Outdoor collections are, in general, arranged geographically and nearly all specimens were collected in the wild.", "The major family collections include: [cactus](/wiki/Cactus \"Cactus\") (2,669 plants), [lily](/wiki/Lily \"Lily\") (1,193 plants), [sunflower](/wiki/Sunflower \"Sunflower\") (1,151 plants), erica (897 plants), and [orchid](/wiki/Orchid \"Orchid\") (950 plants). Other families include about 500 types of [ferns](/wiki/Fern \"Fern\") and fern allies, [Chinese medicinal](/wiki/Chinese_medicine \"Chinese medicine\") herbs, plants of economic importance, old [rose](/wiki/Rose \"Rose\") cultivars, and California native plants. Sets of greenhouses contain [succulents](/wiki/Succulent \"Succulent\"), [epiphytes](/wiki/Epiphyte \"Epiphyte\"), ferns, [carnivorous plants](/wiki/Carnivorous_plants \"Carnivorous plants\"), and tropicals.", "### Geographic layout", "The garden collections are geographically organized, and include:\nSouth Africa\n– featuring [South African](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") plants, including: lilies, [Proteas](/wiki/Protea \"Protea\"), [ice plants](/wiki/Carpobrotus_edulis \"Carpobrotus edulis\"), [Aloes](/wiki/Aloe \"Aloe\"), and *[Encephalartos](/wiki/Encephalartos \"Encephalartos\")*.\nAsia\n— featuring a [Rhododendron](/wiki/Rhododendron \"Rhododendron\") collection (259 taxa, 397 accessions), including many mature trees. (Rhododendrons too tender for most North American climates.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2019}})) Also present are specimens of the [redwood](/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens \"Sequoia sempervirens\") family, including the original dawn redwoods ([Metasequoia](/wiki/Metasequoia \"Metasequoia\")), and dozens of unusual shrubs, vines, and herbaceous species recently collected from China.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2019}}\nAustralasia\n– plants from Australia and New Zealand; with southern [beeches](/wiki/Beech \"Beech\"), [banksias](/wiki/Banksia \"Banksia\"), [myrtles](/wiki/Myrtaceae \"Myrtaceae\") such as [eucalyptus](/wiki/Eucalyptus \"Eucalyptus\"), [cycads](/wiki/Cycads \"Cycads\"), and [phormiums](/wiki/Phormium \"Phormium\").\nCalifornia Native\n– over 4,000 accessions, including nearly one\\-half of the state's native vascular plant species and 174 taxa on the [California Native Plant Society](/wiki/California_Native_Plant_Society \"California Native Plant Society\")'s list of rare and endangered species\n–Prominent genera are: [manzanitas](/wiki/Manzanita \"Manzanita\") (*[Arctostaphylos](/wiki/Arctostaphylos \"Arctostaphylos\") spp.*) with 81 taxa (252 accessions), California\\-Lilacs (*[Ceanothus](/wiki/Ceanothus \"Ceanothus\") spp.*) with 55 taxa (164 accessions), and an almost complete collection of California bulbous [monocots](/wiki/Monocot \"Monocot\") in the [Lily](/wiki/Lily \"Lily\") and [Amaryllis](/wiki/Amaryllis \"Amaryllis\") families (*[Fritillaria](/wiki/Fritillaria \"Fritillaria\")*, *[Calochortus](/wiki/Calochortus \"Calochortus\")*, *[Lilium](/wiki/Lilium \"Lilium\")*, *[Erythronium](/wiki/Erythronium \"Erythronium\")*, *[Allium](/wiki/Allium \"Allium\")*, *[Brodiaea](/wiki/Brodiaea \"Brodiaea\")*) with 118 taxa (234 accessions)\n[Chinese Medicinal](/wiki/Chinese_medicine \"Chinese medicine\") Herb Garden\n– selections from the pharmacopeia of modern China.\n[250px\\|thumb\\|[Cactus garden](/wiki/Cactus_garden \"Cactus garden\") specimens.](/wiki/File:University_of_California_Botanical_Garden_-_DSC08881.JPG \"University of California Botanical Garden - DSC08881.JPG\")\n[250px\\|thumb\\|Blooming *[Nolina](/wiki/Nolina \"Nolina\") siberica* specimen.](/wiki/File:Nolina_siberica_1.jpg \"Nolina siberica 1.jpg\")\nMediterranean\n– exhibits flora from the region's countries, including: Morocco, Spain, Portugal, the [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\"), Turkey, and Syria, on a hillside with views across the San Francisco Bay.\nDeserts of the Americas{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://botanicalgarden.berkeley.edu/collections/deserts\\-americas\\|title\\=Deserts of the Americas\\|website\\=UC Botanical Garden\\|date\\=May 10, 2016 \\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-20}}", "– bristles with cacti and other succulents from North and Central America, plus the high deserts of the Andes.\n Eastern North America\n– includes deciduous trees such as tulip tree ([Liriodendron](/wiki/Liriodendron \"Liriodendron\")), bald cypress ([Taxodium](/wiki/Taxodium \"Taxodium\")), and dogwoods ([Cornus](/wiki/Cornus_%28genus%29 \"Cornus (genus)\")).\n [Meso American](/wiki/Meso_America \"Meso America\")\n– shows the diversity of Central American habitats with genera found in both mountain and desert areas such as [Agaves](/wiki/Agave \"Agave\"), oaks ([Quercus](/wiki/Quercus \"Quercus\")), [pines](/wiki/Pine \"Pine\"), and a range of brightly flowered [Salvias](/wiki/Salvia \"Salvia\").\n South America\n– with a grove of [monkey puzzle trees](/wiki/Araucaria_araucana \"Araucaria araucana\") (*[Araucaria](/wiki/Araucaria \"Araucaria\") araucana*), a collection of [fuchsias](/wiki/Fuchsia \"Fuchsia\"), and several species of [southern beech](/wiki/Nothofagus \"Nothofagus\"). The garden also has a selection of cultivars of *[Lapageria](/wiki/Lapageria \"Lapageria\")*.", "Greenhouses\nThe garden's [greenhouses](/wiki/Greenhouse \"Greenhouse\") include:\n* the Arid House, presenting seasonal exhibits of cacti and succulents.\n* the [fern](/wiki/Fern \"Fern\") and [carnivorous plants](/wiki/Carnivorous_plant \"Carnivorous plant\") house display diverse ferns and unusual insect\\-eating plants.\n* the tropical house (currently being renovated) features tropical plants of economic value, and many curiosities such as the giant corpse lily [Amorphophallus](/wiki/Amorphophallus \"Amorphophallus\").\n**Asian Plant Collection**", "The UC Botanical Garden is home to the renowned Asian plant collection—a repository of some of the world's rarest and most precious flora. This botanical gem, however, was damaged by a colossal redwood tree's toppling during a powerful storm. Along with the Asian section “the top half of the garden’s only Parana pine tree, a critically endangered species from Brazil \\[,] a prized eucalyptus from Australia’s Queensland region and a gum\\-leaf cone bush from Southern Africa” were also damaged.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-08 \\|title\\=After the storms: UC Botanical Garden's rescue operation to save a paradise lost \\|url\\=https://www.mercurynews.com/2023/04/08/after\\-the\\-storms\\-uc\\-botanical\\-gardens\\-rescue\\-operation\\-to\\-save\\-a\\-paradise\\-lost/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=The Mercury News \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In response, a team of experts swiftly converged on the site, located high in the hills above the UC Berkeley campus, with the urgent mission of rescuing and rehabilitating the battered plants to salvage what could be preserved. This effort was motivated by the exceptional difficulty in replacing these specimens, as many were originally sourced from the wild, making their preservation crucial.", "The UC Botanical Garden's Asian collection stands as both a unique botanical resource and a site of serene beauty. It holds historic significance, with its origins dating back to the early 1900s when plants were gathered from expeditions to western China and Tibet by explorers like [George Forrest](/wiki/George_Forrest_%28botanist%29 \"George Forrest (botanist)\") and [Joseph Rock](/wiki/Joseph_Rock \"Joseph Rock\"). What distinguishes this garden is its comprehensive documentation of each plant's provenance, contributing to its scientific value. In addition to the Asian section, several other Bay Area botanical gardens also experienced losses from the same devastating storm, highlighting the vulnerability of these curated collections to the unpredictable forces of nature.", "The arduous process of recovery involves the removal of debris to access damaged plant beds and then careful assessment and restoration work. Notably, the fate of these plants is uncertain, as they may not exhibit immediate signs of distress, and recovery is an ongoing process. Some plants are pruned for rehabilitation, while others are transported back to the garden's nursery, where cuttings are cultivated to create a new generation of the lost plant s.", "" ]
Ebbitt House: 1856 to 1925 -------------------------- ### First Ebbitt House The building which later was owned by William E. Ebbitt was located on the southeast corner of F Street NW and [14th Street NW](/wiki/14th_Street_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "14th Street (Washington, D.C.)") in the city of Washington, D.C. In June 1798, William Crawford obtained title to four parcels of land on the southeast corner of [14th](/wiki/14th_Street_Northwest_and_Southwest_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "14th Street Northwest and Southwest (Washington, D.C.)") and F streets.Larner, p. 101\.At the time, the District of Columbia was not divided into quadrants, and the streets had yet to be described as northwest, southeast, etc. The four parcels lay west\-to\-east along 14th Street. In 1800, Crawford built two four\-story [Federal\-style](/wiki/Federal_architecture "Federal architecture") houses on the two easternmost parcels of this property.Goode, p. 210\. The garden of the houses extended west onto the two empty lots on the corner, and down the hill in the rear almost to [Pennsylvania Avenue](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Avenue_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)").Henry, p. 90\. In 1833, Bushrod W. Reed relocated to the District of Columbia from [Westmoreland County, Virginia](/wiki/Westmoreland_County%2C_Virginia "Westmoreland County, Virginia"), purchased the two easternmost lots from Crawford, and between 1833 and 1836 built a double\-wide, four\-story, Federal\-style building on the corner next to the Crawford homes.Larner, p. 100\.Brown, George Rothwell. "Ebbitt Hotel, Gone, Had Its Beginning in Boarding House." *The Washington Post*. April 8, 1926\. Crawford's daughter, Sarah, married Richard Forrest, one of the first eight clerks appointed in 1801 by [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") in the [United States Department of State](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State "United States Department of State"). William Crawford installed Richard and Sarah Forrest in his houses, and they inherited them upon his death. Richard Forrest died in 1828, and Sarah died in 1832\.Barnes, p. 89\. Although it is unclear what happened to the property after Sarah Crawford's death, some time prior to 1856 it was purchased by William J. Smith.Larner, p. 101\-102\. Smith joined the two houses into a single unit, and named them "Frenchman's Hotel" because he employed a [French](/wiki/French_people "French people") immigrant as the manager of the facility.Eskew, p. 156\. [thumb\|left\|Ebbitt House in 1865, after the Reed and Ebbitt properties were joined](/wiki/File:Ebbitt_House_Washington_DC_1865.jpg "Ebbitt House Washington DC 1865.jpg") In 1856, William E. Ebbitt purchased Frenchman's Hotel from Smith, turned it into a [boarding house](/wiki/Boarding_house "Boarding house"), and renamed it Ebbitt House. During this time, the boarding house also took in guests from the [Willard Hotel](/wiki/Willard_InterContinental_Washington "Willard InterContinental Washington").Eskew, p. 170\.There was a family connection between Ebbitt House and the Willard Hotel. Richard Forrest's eldest son, Julius, married Sophia Ogle, daughter of Benjamin Ogle. Benjamin Ogle was the maternal grandfather of [Benjamin Ogle Tayloe](/wiki/Benjamin_Ogle_Tayloe "Benjamin Ogle Tayloe"), the man who owned the Willard Hotel. See: Watson, p. 1; Barnes, p. 89\. On September 1, 1863, Ebbitt sold the boarding house to his son\-in\-law, Albert H. Craney.Larner, p. 102\. Exactly a year later, Craney sold the property to Caleb C. Willard, brother of Willard Hotel owner Henry A. Willard. Willard converted the boarding house into a hotel. The same year, Willard purchased Bushrod Reed's property as well. He joined the Ebbitt and Reed properties into a single unit enclosing a {{convert\|4\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} wide alley between the two and built bathrooms with oval windows in the space above. A three\-story house on 14th Street adjacent to Ebbitt House was occupied by the Reed family as well, although by 1864 it had been purchased by Willard, who raised the roof.Larner, p. 102\-103\. At that time it was not yet part of the hotel; Willard leased the building to the *[New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* for use as office space. Two single\-story buildings south of the Reed home were also built and owned by Reed. By 1865, they were used as offices by *[The Philadelphia Inquirer](/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer "The Philadelphia Inquirer")*, *[New York Evening Post](/wiki/New_York_Evening_Post "New York Evening Post"),* and other newspapers. Next to the one\-story buildings was Farnham House. It was originally owned and built by [David Burnes](/wiki/David_Burnes "David Burnes"), whose plantation had covered much of the downtown area that would be developed as Washington, D.C. Burnes gave Farnham House to his daughter [Marcia](/wiki/Marcia_Van_Ness "Marcia Van Ness"), who in turn sold it to William H. Dorsey in 1802\. On May 16, 1818, Dorsey sold the house to William Blanchard. Blanchard's daughter, Jane Farnham, inherited the property on June 10, 1850, after his death. By 1865, it housed the D.C. offices of the *[New York Herald](/wiki/New_York_Herald "New York Herald").* Given the numerous newspapers with offices along 14th Street between E and F Streets, the area was nicknamed "Newspaper Row," a name it would hold into the 1930s.Peck, p. 25\-26; Evelyn, Dickson, and Ackerman, p. 74\. Farnham sold her house at auction to Caleb Willard on October 4, 1866, for $74,000\.Larner, p. 102\-103\. For many years prior to the construction of the Ebbitt House stables in 1872, a large house known as Bull's Head stood at the rear of the hotel. The house marked the northeast corner of [Murder Bay](/wiki/Murder_Bay "Murder Bay"). Bull's Head housed prostitutes and contained a large, lower\-class gambling den."Story of Murder Bay." *The Washington Post*. July 8, 1888\.Savage, p. 100\-101; Gutheim and Lee, p. 73; Lowry, p. 61\-65; Evelyn, Dickson, and Ackerman, p. 63\-64\. ### Second Ebbitt House Willard razed Ebbitt House in 1872, doubled its size, and built a six\-story, [Second Empire\-style](/wiki/Second_Empire_%28architecture%29 "Second Empire (architecture)") hotel with a [mansard roof](/wiki/Mansard_roof "Mansard roof")."Keeping Hotel To\-Day." *The Washington Post*. March 6, 1892\. The hotel had 300 rooms, canopied windows, and an elevator.[Townsend, p. 576\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=WHoFAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Ebbitt+House%22&pg=PA576) The dining room was two stories high, with floor to ceiling windows, white marble floor, white painted walls, and a fresco on the ceiling.[Porteus, p. 41\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZY8LAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Ebbitt+House%22+dining+room&pg=PA41) The dining room was in the rear of the hotel, on the site of what used to be Farnham House, which in photographs from the period shows as the last three windows on 14th Street.Larner, p. 103\. The massive chandeliers led the dining room to be called "the Crystal Room." The paneled bar was reached by passing through the lobby and down a flight of stairs into the basement.Otero, p. 289\. In the late 1800s, this hotel was considered one of the most fashionable in the city; its lodgings and restaurant were patronized by politicians and high\-ranking military officers. [Major General](/wiki/Major_general_%28United_States%29 "Major general (United States)") [Winfield Scott Hancock](/wiki/Winfield_Scott_Hancock "Winfield Scott Hancock"), [Commanding General of the United States Army](/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army "Commanding General of the United States Army") [William Tecumseh Sherman](/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman "William Tecumseh Sherman"), and [Rear Admiral](/wiki/Rear_admiral_%28United_States%29 "Rear admiral (United States)") [Samuel Rhoads Franklin](/wiki/Samuel_Rhoads_Franklin "Samuel Rhoads Franklin") all lived there for a time.[Franklin, p. 292\-293\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=2xfpxat8OGUC&dq=%22Ebbitt%20House%22%20bar&pg=PA292) It is well\-documented that President [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant "Ulysses S. Grant") and President [Andrew Johnson](/wiki/Andrew_Johnson "Andrew Johnson") both dined in the restaurant frequently,Zon, p. 5\. as did [abolitionist](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States "Abolitionism in the United States") clergyman [Henry Ward Beecher](/wiki/Henry_Ward_Beecher "Henry Ward Beecher").[Barrows, p. 454\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=VzQ3AAAAMAAJ&dq=%22Ebbitt+House%22+dining+room&pg=PA454) Future president [William McKinley](/wiki/William_McKinley "William McKinley") and his wife lived there from 1877 to 1890, during his entire congressional career.Hodgson, p. 279\. He dined almost nightly with his wife in the restaurant.[Corning, p. 138\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=YiN3AAAAMAAJ&dq=%22Ebbitt+House%22+dining+room&pg=PA138) His close friend, Representative and later President [James A. Garfield](/wiki/James_A._Garfield "James A. Garfield"), visited McKinley often in the hotel.Phillips, p. 26\. McKinley departed from the hotel for his presidential inaugural. Presidents [Grover Cleveland](/wiki/Grover_Cleveland "Grover Cleveland"), [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt "Theodore Roosevelt"), and [Warren G. Harding](/wiki/Warren_G._Harding "Warren G. Harding") all drank in the bar there. [Chief Justice of the United States](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States "Chief Justice of the United States") [Salmon P. Chase](/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase "Salmon P. Chase") lived there while working in the capital and died there in October 1886\."The Removal of Chief Justice Chase's Body." *The Washington Post*. October 13, 1886\. Rear Admiral [John Lee Davis](/wiki/John_L._Davis "John L. Davis") also lived and died there."Admiral Davis Dead." *The Washington Post*. March 13, 1889\. [William Howard Taft](/wiki/William_Howard_Taft "William Howard Taft") lived there from 1890 to 1892 when he was [United States Solicitor General](/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General "United States Solicitor General"). [thumb\|Ebbitt House in 1903\. The first two stories of the building in the rear constituted the restaurant.](/wiki/File:Ebbitt_House_Washington_DC_1903.jpg "Ebbitt House Washington DC 1903.jpg") Ebbitt House struggled to compete against the larger and more lavish Willard Hotel, and the Raleigh Hotel, built in 1893\.Goode, p. 210, 218\. From the late 1860s until the 1910s, it was considered "Army and Navy Headquarters" because of the number of military personnel who lived there and the large number of veterans' meetings held there."New Manager for Ebbitt." *The Washington Post*. May 17, 1910\. In November 1889, Caleb Willard hired Henry C. Burch and Charles E. Gibbs, both veteran hotel managers in the city, to run Ebbitt House."The Ebbitt in New Hands." *The Washington Post*. November 17, 1889\."H.C. Burch Dead." *New York Times.* November 26, 1906\. Over the next two years, Burch and Gibbs completely refurnished all the rooms, adding new furniture and [Belgian](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium") carpets, re\-[papered](/wiki/Wallpaper "Wallpaper") or added painted [frescoes](/wiki/Fresco "Fresco") to the ceilings, and installed new furniture in the hallways. On the east side was the now\-famous Red Parlor, a gentleman's lounge fitted with rich red and gold draperies, fabric wall coverings, and upholstered furniture. The restaurant, called "cheerful and sunny" by the *Washington Post,* fronted onto 14th Street NW, was lit with crystal chandeliers, and could seat up to 225 people. It was completely remodeled by Burch and Gibbs. Guests dined at tables set with tablecloths imported from [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"), using [Haviland \& Co.](/wiki/Haviland_%26_Co. "Haviland & Co.") [Limoges porcelain](/wiki/Limoges_porcelain "Limoges porcelain") china, silver\-handled knives and forks manufactured by [Reed \& Barton](/wiki/Reed_%26_Barton "Reed & Barton"), and [Bohemian](/wiki/Bohemia "Bohemia") glassware. Cut\-glass flower vases, finger bowls, and water bottles were used for serving. Diners sat in high\-backed leather chairs. At breakfast, the waiters wore brown [cutaway jackets](/wiki/Tailcoat%23Morning_coat "Tailcoat#Morning coat"), vests, and pants with a gold stripe, while in the evening they changed into black tuxedos. The kitchen was renovated. New steam tables and massive coffee urns manufactured by Brambull, Deane \& Co. of New York City were installed. The menu — served buffet\-style — included [Blue Point](/wiki/Blue_Point%2C_New_York "Blue Point, New York") [oysters](/wiki/Oyster "Oyster"), [green sea turtle](/wiki/Green_sea_turtle "Green sea turtle"), [Kennebec River](/wiki/Kennebec_River "Kennebec River") [salmon](/wiki/Salmon "Salmon"), [mutton](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton "Lamb and mutton"), chicken, [hominy](/wiki/Hominy "Hominy") [fritters](/wiki/Fritter "Fritter"), stewed [diamondback terrapin](/wiki/Diamondback_terrapin "Diamondback terrapin"), [canvasback](/wiki/Canvasback "Canvasback") [duck](/wiki/Duck "Duck"), [English pheasant](/wiki/Common_Pheasant "Common Pheasant"), and a variety of vegetables, fruits, cheese, [crackers](/wiki/Cracker_%28food%29 "Cracker (food)"), nuts, pies, and puddings. Wines, whiskeys, and brandies were served from two large storerooms."Ebbitt House Changes." *The Washington Post*. November 26, 1891\. Despite the success of the changes, Gibbs left Ebbitt House in 1893 after purchasing [Wormley's Hotel](/wiki/Wormley%27s_Hotel "Wormley's Hotel").Ingham and Feldman, p. 710\. Burch became the sole manager of the hotel."Sole Manager of the Ebbitt." *The Washington Post*. October 8, 1893\. He conducted extensive renovations to the exterior of the hotel in 1895\. An enormous two\-story mansard roof, with central and corner pavilions influenced by the [French Beaux\-Arts movement](/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture "Beaux-Arts architecture"), was added to the top floor, replacing the original single\-story, restrained mansard roof.Goode, p. 211\. Ebbitt House slowly declined. In 1907, John Helmus, who oversaw the serving staff and bar for 39 years, died."Hotel Loses Old Employee." *The Washington Post*. October 22, 1907\. Caleb Willard, now one of the most famous and wealthiest men in Washington, D.C., died on August 2, 1905\."Caleb Willard Dead." *The Washington Post*. August 3, 1905\. H.C. Burch died the following year. Willard's estate rented Ebbitt House to George R. Shutt, who had formerly managed the [National Hotel](/wiki/National_Hotel_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "National Hotel (Washington, D.C.)") at 6th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW.Goode, p. 202\-203\. Shutt said it was his intention to move all the stores occupying the 14th Street side of the building to the south side, and to add a large [café](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9 "Café") in its place. He also planned to add a women\-only restaurant to the lobby, at a time when many public facilities excluded women."Rents Ebbitt House." *The Washington Post*. August 25, 1909; "To Remodel Ebbitt House." *The Washington Post*. September 5, 1909\. Lucy Parker Willard, widow of Caleb Willard, died on January 12, 1910\."Mrs. Willard Is Dead." *The Washington Post*. January 13, 1910\. Shutt took over management of the hotel on May 16, 1910\. Shutt's plans had changed somewhat in the intervening nine months. He decided to devote the whole 14th Street side to the restaurant, as well as to renovate the kitchen. A new [head chef](/wiki/Chef%23Chef_de_cuisine "Chef#Chef de cuisine") and assistant chefs had already been hired. The women's café was moved into the basement, where it occupied a portion of the old restaurant. The office space was enlarged. The restrooms were moved into the basement so they could be enlarged with lounges. An [air conditioning](/wiki/HVAC "HVAC") plant was installed, elevators replaced, sleeping rooms enlarged, and bathrooms added to all sleeping rooms. What was known as the "New Ebbitt Café" opened in November 1910\. It was widely considered the most luxurious restaurant in the city when it opened. The floors were colorful [mosaic](/wiki/Mosaic "Mosaic") tiles, the furnishings were expensive, and the café profusely decorated with [palms](/wiki/Arecaceae "Arecaceae") and [ferns](/wiki/Fern "Fern")."Ebbitt Cafe Is Ready." *The Washington Post*. November 24, 1910\. ### Razing of the second Ebbitt House [thumb\|Ebbitt House was razed to construct the National Press Building (*depicted*).](/wiki/File:Nationalpressbuilding1_crop.jpg "Nationalpressbuilding1 crop.jpg")The hotel continued to decline. A fire broke out in the kitchen on August 12, 1913, doing extensive damage. Two fire companies had to respond to the blaze, which did $5,000 worth of damage."Blaze in Ebbitt House." *The Washington Post*. August 13, 1913\. Three months later, city officials accused Shutt of selling liquor in the bar to underage children. A jury could not reach agreement on the charges in December 1913,"Jury In Ebbitt House Case Fails to Agree." *The Washington Post*. December 13, 1913\. but the charges were not dismissed until September 1914\."Ebbitt House Case Dropped." *The Washington Post*. September 26, 1914\. The renovations were not enough. Shutt died in 1919, and his widow attempted to run the hotel. Mrs. Shutt eventually turned the hotel over to Augustus Gumpert.Whitehead, Frank Insco. "Landmark Passes As Ebbitt House Doors Are Closed." *The Washington Post*. May 10, 1925\. [Prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States "Prohibition in the United States") began in the District of Columbia on November 1, 1917\. The night before, Ebbitt Grill ran out of liquor by 10:45 P.M. While Prohibition lasted, Ebbitt Grill was known as part of "Rum Row"—former bars in an area bounded by 13th and 14th streets NW and E and F streets NW which continued to sell alcohol furtively.Zak, Dan. "Three Bars With Ties to D.C.'s Prohibition Past." *The Washington Post*. December 7, 2008\. In 1923, the Willard estate, which had retained ownership since Lucy Willard's death in 1910, decided to sell the hotel. The new owners refused to renew Gumpert's lease on a yearly basis. They insisted on a month\-to\-month lease, but Gumpert could not come to agreement with his vendors, who required a yearly lease to ensure a steady stream of income. Gumpert and the new owners both agreed the hotel should close. Ebbitt House and its restaurant were razed in 1926 to make way for the National Press Club building.Reed, p. 100\. Ebbitt House closed to the public at noon on Friday, May 1, 1925, and the furnishings were auctioned off on Tuesday, May 5\."Ebbitt to Close Friday." *The Washington Post*. April 30, 1925\. By this time, the hotel was so run down that the furnishings often went for a fraction of their replacement value, most going for less than a dollar."Ebbitt House Auction Draws Curious Crowd." *The Washington Post*. May 6, 1925\. It was not clear if a new Ebbitt House hotel would be built. In July 1925, *The Washington Post* reported that Gumpert was constructing a new 10\-story, 125\-room Ebbitt House hotel at 10th and H Streets NW. The old hotel continued to stand, and rumors said the building would be turned into a [department store](/wiki/Department_store "Department store") or a [movie theater](/wiki/Movie_theater "Movie theater")."New Ebbitt Hotel Under Construction." *The Washington Post*. July 26, 1925\. However, in November 1925, the owners announced that the building would be razed to make way for the [National Press Club Building](/wiki/National_Press_Club_%28USA%29 "National Press Club (USA)")."Passing of the Ebbitt." *The Washington Post*. November 24, 1925\. Demolition of the building began at 1:00 P.M. on January 6, 1926, as National Press Club President Henry L. Sweinhart ceremoniously removed a brick from the existing building."Press Club to Start Ebbitt House Razing." *The Washington Post*. January 6, 1926\.
[ "Ebbitt House: 1856 to 1925\n--------------------------", "### First Ebbitt House", "The building which later was owned by William E. Ebbitt was located on the southeast corner of F Street NW and [14th Street NW](/wiki/14th_Street_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"14th Street (Washington, D.C.)\") in the city of Washington, D.C. In June 1798, William Crawford obtained title to four parcels of land on the southeast corner of [14th](/wiki/14th_Street_Northwest_and_Southwest_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"14th Street Northwest and Southwest (Washington, D.C.)\") and F streets.Larner, p. 101\\.At the time, the District of Columbia was not divided into quadrants, and the streets had yet to be described as northwest, southeast, etc. The four parcels lay west\\-to\\-east along 14th Street. In 1800, Crawford built two four\\-story [Federal\\-style](/wiki/Federal_architecture \"Federal architecture\") houses on the two easternmost parcels of this property.Goode, p. 210\\. The garden of the houses extended west onto the two empty lots on the corner, and down the hill in the rear almost to [Pennsylvania Avenue](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Avenue_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)\").Henry, p. 90\\. In 1833, Bushrod W. Reed relocated to the District of Columbia from [Westmoreland County, Virginia](/wiki/Westmoreland_County%2C_Virginia \"Westmoreland County, Virginia\"), purchased the two easternmost lots from Crawford, and between 1833 and 1836 built a double\\-wide, four\\-story, Federal\\-style building on the corner next to the Crawford homes.Larner, p. 100\\.Brown, George Rothwell. \"Ebbitt Hotel, Gone, Had Its Beginning in Boarding House.\" *The Washington Post*. April 8, 1926\\. Crawford's daughter, Sarah, married Richard Forrest, one of the first eight clerks appointed in 1801 by [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\") in the [United States Department of State](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State \"United States Department of State\"). William Crawford installed Richard and Sarah Forrest in his houses, and they inherited them upon his death. Richard Forrest died in 1828, and Sarah died in 1832\\.Barnes, p. 89\\. Although it is unclear what happened to the property after Sarah Crawford's death, some time prior to 1856 it was purchased by William J. Smith.Larner, p. 101\\-102\\. Smith joined the two houses into a single unit, and named them \"Frenchman's Hotel\" because he employed a [French](/wiki/French_people \"French people\") immigrant as the manager of the facility.Eskew, p. 156\\.", "[thumb\\|left\\|Ebbitt House in 1865, after the Reed and Ebbitt properties were joined](/wiki/File:Ebbitt_House_Washington_DC_1865.jpg \"Ebbitt House Washington DC 1865.jpg\")\nIn 1856, William E. Ebbitt purchased Frenchman's Hotel from Smith, turned it into a [boarding house](/wiki/Boarding_house \"Boarding house\"), and renamed it Ebbitt House. During this time, the boarding house also took in guests from the [Willard Hotel](/wiki/Willard_InterContinental_Washington \"Willard InterContinental Washington\").Eskew, p. 170\\.There was a family connection between Ebbitt House and the Willard Hotel. Richard Forrest's eldest son, Julius, married Sophia Ogle, daughter of Benjamin Ogle. Benjamin Ogle was the maternal grandfather of [Benjamin Ogle Tayloe](/wiki/Benjamin_Ogle_Tayloe \"Benjamin Ogle Tayloe\"), the man who owned the Willard Hotel. See: Watson, p. 1; Barnes, p. 89\\. On September 1, 1863, Ebbitt sold the boarding house to his son\\-in\\-law, Albert H. Craney.Larner, p. 102\\. Exactly a year later, Craney sold the property to Caleb C. Willard, brother of Willard Hotel owner Henry A. Willard. Willard converted the boarding house into a hotel. The same year, Willard purchased Bushrod Reed's property as well. He joined the Ebbitt and Reed properties into a single unit enclosing a {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} wide alley between the two and built bathrooms with oval windows in the space above.", "A three\\-story house on 14th Street adjacent to Ebbitt House was occupied by the Reed family as well, although by 1864 it had been purchased by Willard, who raised the roof.Larner, p. 102\\-103\\. At that time it was not yet part of the hotel; Willard leased the building to the *[New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* for use as office space. Two single\\-story buildings south of the Reed home were also built and owned by Reed. By 1865, they were used as offices by *[The Philadelphia Inquirer](/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\")*, *[New York Evening Post](/wiki/New_York_Evening_Post \"New York Evening Post\"),* and other newspapers. Next to the one\\-story buildings was Farnham House. It was originally owned and built by [David Burnes](/wiki/David_Burnes \"David Burnes\"), whose plantation had covered much of the downtown area that would be developed as Washington, D.C. Burnes gave Farnham House to his daughter [Marcia](/wiki/Marcia_Van_Ness \"Marcia Van Ness\"), who in turn sold it to William H. Dorsey in 1802\\. On May 16, 1818, Dorsey sold the house to William Blanchard. Blanchard's daughter, Jane Farnham, inherited the property on June 10, 1850, after his death. By 1865, it housed the D.C. offices of the *[New York Herald](/wiki/New_York_Herald \"New York Herald\").* Given the numerous newspapers with offices along 14th Street between E and F Streets, the area was nicknamed \"Newspaper Row,\" a name it would hold into the 1930s.Peck, p. 25\\-26; Evelyn, Dickson, and Ackerman, p. 74\\. Farnham sold her house at auction to Caleb Willard on October 4, 1866, for $74,000\\.Larner, p. 102\\-103\\.", "For many years prior to the construction of the Ebbitt House stables in 1872, a large house known as Bull's Head stood at the rear of the hotel. The house marked the northeast corner of [Murder Bay](/wiki/Murder_Bay \"Murder Bay\"). Bull's Head housed prostitutes and contained a large, lower\\-class gambling den.\"Story of Murder Bay.\" *The Washington Post*. July 8, 1888\\.Savage, p. 100\\-101; Gutheim and Lee, p. 73; Lowry, p. 61\\-65; Evelyn, Dickson, and Ackerman, p. 63\\-64\\.", "### Second Ebbitt House", "Willard razed Ebbitt House in 1872, doubled its size, and built a six\\-story, [Second Empire\\-style](/wiki/Second_Empire_%28architecture%29 \"Second Empire (architecture)\") hotel with a [mansard roof](/wiki/Mansard_roof \"Mansard roof\").\"Keeping Hotel To\\-Day.\" *The Washington Post*. March 6, 1892\\. The hotel had 300 rooms, canopied windows, and an elevator.[Townsend, p. 576\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=WHoFAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Ebbitt+House%22&pg=PA576) The dining room was two stories high, with floor to ceiling windows, white marble floor, white painted walls, and a fresco on the ceiling.[Porteus, p. 41\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZY8LAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Ebbitt+House%22+dining+room&pg=PA41) The dining room was in the rear of the hotel, on the site of what used to be Farnham House, which in photographs from the period shows as the last three windows on 14th Street.Larner, p. 103\\. The massive chandeliers led the dining room to be called \"the Crystal Room.\" The paneled bar was reached by passing through the lobby and down a flight of stairs into the basement.Otero, p. 289\\.", "In the late 1800s, this hotel was considered one of the most fashionable in the city; its lodgings and restaurant were patronized by politicians and high\\-ranking military officers. [Major General](/wiki/Major_general_%28United_States%29 \"Major general (United States)\") [Winfield Scott Hancock](/wiki/Winfield_Scott_Hancock \"Winfield Scott Hancock\"), [Commanding General of the United States Army](/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army \"Commanding General of the United States Army\") [William Tecumseh Sherman](/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman \"William Tecumseh Sherman\"), and [Rear Admiral](/wiki/Rear_admiral_%28United_States%29 \"Rear admiral (United States)\") [Samuel Rhoads Franklin](/wiki/Samuel_Rhoads_Franklin \"Samuel Rhoads Franklin\") all lived there for a time.[Franklin, p. 292\\-293\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=2xfpxat8OGUC&dq=%22Ebbitt%20House%22%20bar&pg=PA292) It is well\\-documented that President [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant \"Ulysses S. Grant\") and President [Andrew Johnson](/wiki/Andrew_Johnson \"Andrew Johnson\") both dined in the restaurant frequently,Zon, p. 5\\. as did [abolitionist](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States \"Abolitionism in the United States\") clergyman [Henry Ward Beecher](/wiki/Henry_Ward_Beecher \"Henry Ward Beecher\").[Barrows, p. 454\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=VzQ3AAAAMAAJ&dq=%22Ebbitt+House%22+dining+room&pg=PA454) Future president [William McKinley](/wiki/William_McKinley \"William McKinley\") and his wife lived there from 1877 to 1890, during his entire congressional career.Hodgson, p. 279\\. He dined almost nightly with his wife in the restaurant.[Corning, p. 138\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=YiN3AAAAMAAJ&dq=%22Ebbitt+House%22+dining+room&pg=PA138) His close friend, Representative and later President [James A. Garfield](/wiki/James_A._Garfield \"James A. Garfield\"), visited McKinley often in the hotel.Phillips, p. 26\\. McKinley departed from the hotel for his presidential inaugural. Presidents [Grover Cleveland](/wiki/Grover_Cleveland \"Grover Cleveland\"), [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt \"Theodore Roosevelt\"), and [Warren G. Harding](/wiki/Warren_G._Harding \"Warren G. Harding\") all drank in the bar there. [Chief Justice of the United States](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States \"Chief Justice of the United States\") [Salmon P. Chase](/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase \"Salmon P. Chase\") lived there while working in the capital and died there in October 1886\\.\"The Removal of Chief Justice Chase's Body.\" *The Washington Post*. October 13, 1886\\. Rear Admiral [John Lee Davis](/wiki/John_L._Davis \"John L. Davis\") also lived and died there.\"Admiral Davis Dead.\" *The Washington Post*. March 13, 1889\\. [William Howard Taft](/wiki/William_Howard_Taft \"William Howard Taft\") lived there from 1890 to 1892 when he was [United States Solicitor General](/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General \"United States Solicitor General\").", "[thumb\\|Ebbitt House in 1903\\. The first two stories of the building in the rear constituted the restaurant.](/wiki/File:Ebbitt_House_Washington_DC_1903.jpg \"Ebbitt House Washington DC 1903.jpg\")\nEbbitt House struggled to compete against the larger and more lavish Willard Hotel, and the Raleigh Hotel, built in 1893\\.Goode, p. 210, 218\\. From the late 1860s until the 1910s, it was considered \"Army and Navy Headquarters\" because of the number of military personnel who lived there and the large number of veterans' meetings held there.\"New Manager for Ebbitt.\" *The Washington Post*. May 17, 1910\\. In November 1889, Caleb Willard hired Henry C. Burch and Charles E. Gibbs, both veteran hotel managers in the city, to run Ebbitt House.\"The Ebbitt in New Hands.\" *The Washington Post*. November 17, 1889\\.\"H.C. Burch Dead.\" *New York Times.* November 26, 1906\\. Over the next two years, Burch and Gibbs completely refurnished all the rooms, adding new furniture and [Belgian](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\") carpets, re\\-[papered](/wiki/Wallpaper \"Wallpaper\") or added painted [frescoes](/wiki/Fresco \"Fresco\") to the ceilings, and installed new furniture in the hallways. On the east side was the now\\-famous Red Parlor, a gentleman's lounge fitted with rich red and gold draperies, fabric wall coverings, and upholstered furniture. The restaurant, called \"cheerful and sunny\" by the *Washington Post,* fronted onto 14th Street NW, was lit with crystal chandeliers, and could seat up to 225 people. It was completely remodeled by Burch and Gibbs. Guests dined at tables set with tablecloths imported from [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"), using [Haviland \\& Co.](/wiki/Haviland_%26_Co. \"Haviland & Co.\") [Limoges porcelain](/wiki/Limoges_porcelain \"Limoges porcelain\") china, silver\\-handled knives and forks manufactured by [Reed \\& Barton](/wiki/Reed_%26_Barton \"Reed & Barton\"), and [Bohemian](/wiki/Bohemia \"Bohemia\") glassware. Cut\\-glass flower vases, finger bowls, and water bottles were used for serving. Diners sat in high\\-backed leather chairs. At breakfast, the waiters wore brown [cutaway jackets](/wiki/Tailcoat%23Morning_coat \"Tailcoat#Morning coat\"), vests, and pants with a gold stripe, while in the evening they changed into black tuxedos. The kitchen was renovated. New steam tables and massive coffee urns manufactured by Brambull, Deane \\& Co. of New York City were installed. The menu — served buffet\\-style — included [Blue Point](/wiki/Blue_Point%2C_New_York \"Blue Point, New York\") [oysters](/wiki/Oyster \"Oyster\"), [green sea turtle](/wiki/Green_sea_turtle \"Green sea turtle\"), [Kennebec River](/wiki/Kennebec_River \"Kennebec River\") [salmon](/wiki/Salmon \"Salmon\"), [mutton](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton \"Lamb and mutton\"), chicken, [hominy](/wiki/Hominy \"Hominy\") [fritters](/wiki/Fritter \"Fritter\"), stewed [diamondback terrapin](/wiki/Diamondback_terrapin \"Diamondback terrapin\"), [canvasback](/wiki/Canvasback \"Canvasback\") [duck](/wiki/Duck \"Duck\"), [English pheasant](/wiki/Common_Pheasant \"Common Pheasant\"), and a variety of vegetables, fruits, cheese, [crackers](/wiki/Cracker_%28food%29 \"Cracker (food)\"), nuts, pies, and puddings. Wines, whiskeys, and brandies were served from two large storerooms.\"Ebbitt House Changes.\" *The Washington Post*. November 26, 1891\\. Despite the success of the changes, Gibbs left Ebbitt House in 1893 after purchasing [Wormley's Hotel](/wiki/Wormley%27s_Hotel \"Wormley's Hotel\").Ingham and Feldman, p. 710\\. Burch became the sole manager of the hotel.\"Sole Manager of the Ebbitt.\" *The Washington Post*. October 8, 1893\\. He conducted extensive renovations to the exterior of the hotel in 1895\\. An enormous two\\-story mansard roof, with central and corner pavilions influenced by the [French Beaux\\-Arts movement](/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture \"Beaux-Arts architecture\"), was added to the top floor, replacing the original single\\-story, restrained mansard roof.Goode, p. 211\\.", "Ebbitt House slowly declined. In 1907, John Helmus, who oversaw the serving staff and bar for 39 years, died.\"Hotel Loses Old Employee.\" *The Washington Post*. October 22, 1907\\. Caleb Willard, now one of the most famous and wealthiest men in Washington, D.C., died on August 2, 1905\\.\"Caleb Willard Dead.\" *The Washington Post*. August 3, 1905\\. H.C. Burch died the following year. Willard's estate rented Ebbitt House to George R. Shutt, who had formerly managed the [National Hotel](/wiki/National_Hotel_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"National Hotel (Washington, D.C.)\") at 6th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW.Goode, p. 202\\-203\\. Shutt said it was his intention to move all the stores occupying the 14th Street side of the building to the south side, and to add a large [café](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9 \"Café\") in its place. He also planned to add a women\\-only restaurant to the lobby, at a time when many public facilities excluded women.\"Rents Ebbitt House.\" *The Washington Post*. August 25, 1909; \"To Remodel Ebbitt House.\" *The Washington Post*. September 5, 1909\\. Lucy Parker Willard, widow of Caleb Willard, died on January 12, 1910\\.\"Mrs. Willard Is Dead.\" *The Washington Post*. January 13, 1910\\.", "Shutt took over management of the hotel on May 16, 1910\\. Shutt's plans had changed somewhat in the intervening nine months. He decided to devote the whole 14th Street side to the restaurant, as well as to renovate the kitchen. A new [head chef](/wiki/Chef%23Chef_de_cuisine \"Chef#Chef de cuisine\") and assistant chefs had already been hired. The women's café was moved into the basement, where it occupied a portion of the old restaurant. The office space was enlarged. The restrooms were moved into the basement so they could be enlarged with lounges. An [air conditioning](/wiki/HVAC \"HVAC\") plant was installed, elevators replaced, sleeping rooms enlarged, and bathrooms added to all sleeping rooms. What was known as the \"New Ebbitt Café\" opened in November 1910\\. It was widely considered the most luxurious restaurant in the city when it opened. The floors were colorful [mosaic](/wiki/Mosaic \"Mosaic\") tiles, the furnishings were expensive, and the café profusely decorated with [palms](/wiki/Arecaceae \"Arecaceae\") and [ferns](/wiki/Fern \"Fern\").\"Ebbitt Cafe Is Ready.\" *The Washington Post*. November 24, 1910\\.", "### Razing of the second Ebbitt House", "[thumb\\|Ebbitt House was razed to construct the National Press Building (*depicted*).](/wiki/File:Nationalpressbuilding1_crop.jpg \"Nationalpressbuilding1 crop.jpg\")The hotel continued to decline. A fire broke out in the kitchen on August 12, 1913, doing extensive damage. Two fire companies had to respond to the blaze, which did $5,000 worth of damage.\"Blaze in Ebbitt House.\" *The Washington Post*. August 13, 1913\\. Three months later, city officials accused Shutt of selling liquor in the bar to underage children. A jury could not reach agreement on the charges in December 1913,\"Jury In Ebbitt House Case Fails to Agree.\" *The Washington Post*. December 13, 1913\\. but the charges were not dismissed until September 1914\\.\"Ebbitt House Case Dropped.\" *The Washington Post*. September 26, 1914\\.", "The renovations were not enough. Shutt died in 1919, and his widow attempted to run the hotel. Mrs. Shutt eventually turned the hotel over to Augustus Gumpert.Whitehead, Frank Insco. \"Landmark Passes As Ebbitt House Doors Are Closed.\" *The Washington Post*. May 10, 1925\\. [Prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States \"Prohibition in the United States\") began in the District of Columbia on November 1, 1917\\. The night before, Ebbitt Grill ran out of liquor by 10:45 P.M. While Prohibition lasted, Ebbitt Grill was known as part of \"Rum Row\"—former bars in an area bounded by 13th and 14th streets NW and E and F streets NW which continued to sell alcohol furtively.Zak, Dan. \"Three Bars With Ties to D.C.'s Prohibition Past.\" *The Washington Post*. December 7, 2008\\. In 1923, the Willard estate, which had retained ownership since Lucy Willard's death in 1910, decided to sell the hotel. The new owners refused to renew Gumpert's lease on a yearly basis. They insisted on a month\\-to\\-month lease, but Gumpert could not come to agreement with his vendors, who required a yearly lease to ensure a steady stream of income. Gumpert and the new owners both agreed the hotel should close.", "Ebbitt House and its restaurant were razed in 1926 to make way for the National Press Club building.Reed, p. 100\\. Ebbitt House closed to the public at noon on Friday, May 1, 1925, and the furnishings were auctioned off on Tuesday, May 5\\.\"Ebbitt to Close Friday.\" *The Washington Post*. April 30, 1925\\. By this time, the hotel was so run down that the furnishings often went for a fraction of their replacement value, most going for less than a dollar.\"Ebbitt House Auction Draws Curious Crowd.\" *The Washington Post*. May 6, 1925\\.", "It was not clear if a new Ebbitt House hotel would be built. In July 1925, *The Washington Post* reported that Gumpert was constructing a new 10\\-story, 125\\-room Ebbitt House hotel at 10th and H Streets NW. The old hotel continued to stand, and rumors said the building would be turned into a [department store](/wiki/Department_store \"Department store\") or a [movie theater](/wiki/Movie_theater \"Movie theater\").\"New Ebbitt Hotel Under Construction.\" *The Washington Post*. July 26, 1925\\. However, in November 1925, the owners announced that the building would be razed to make way for the [National Press Club Building](/wiki/National_Press_Club_%28USA%29 \"National Press Club (USA)\").\"Passing of the Ebbitt.\" *The Washington Post*. November 24, 1925\\. Demolition of the building began at 1:00 P.M. on January 6, 1926, as National Press Club President Henry L. Sweinhart ceremoniously removed a brick from the existing building.\"Press Club to Start Ebbitt House Razing.\" *The Washington Post*. January 6, 1926\\.", "" ]
Old Ebbitt Grill: 1926 to 1983 ------------------------------ [thumb\|300px\|Looking south through the main bar of the Old Ebbitt Grill at 1427 F Street NW in 1967\. Note the image hanging on the wall on the right, depicting the original 1856 Ebbitt House.](/wiki/File:Old_Ebbitt_Grill_Old_F_Street_Location_first_floor_looking_south_1967.jpg "Old Ebbitt Grill Old F Street Location first floor looking south 1967.jpg") The history of the restaurant between its establishment in 1926 and the 1980s is not well documented. The media reported on Old Ebbitt Grill only a few times. For example, after the repeal of [Prohibition in the United States](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States "Prohibition in the United States"), Ebbitt Grill sought a liquor license in May 1934\."Special Notices." *The Washington Post*. Mar 20, 1934\. ### Lofstrand years The Ebbitt House bar, its paneling, and decorations were removed before the hotel's demolition and installed at a new location at 1427 F Street NW. The media reported the restaurant's name as "Ebbitt's Grill""Restaurant Office Looted." *The Washington Post*. July 5, 1934\. and "Old Ebbitt Grill"."Christmas Greetings." *The Washington Post*. December 25, 1934\. Anders R. Lofstrand, Sr. was the proprietor."Special Notices." *The Washington Post*. March 20, 1934\. Lofstrand was a veteran bar and club entrepreneur in the city and in southern Maryland. He helped incorporate the Calvert Club, a private gentleman's drinking establishment dedicated to the memory of [Leonard Calvert](/wiki/Leonard_Calvert "Leonard Calvert"), 2nd [Baron Baltimore](/wiki/Baron_Baltimore "Baron Baltimore") in 1914\."Few in Calvert Club." *The Washington Post*. March 29, 1914\. He and his wife, Elizabeth, later purchased Southlawn Farm, which is now a part of the city of [Rockville, Maryland](/wiki/Rockville%2C_Maryland "Rockville, Maryland"), in 1944, and in 1946 built a factory on it.[City of Rockville Historic District Commission. Staff Report. "610 Lofstrand Lane." Application HDC2010\-00507\. April 23, 2010, p. 7\.](http://www.rockvillemd.gov/government/commissions/hdc/2010/HDC2010-00507.pdf) Accessed 2012\-04\-15\. His son, Anders R. Lofstrand, Jr., invented a machine to wash drinking glasses at Old Ebbitt Grill."Anders R. Lofstrand, Ex\-State Senator, 42\." *The Washington Post*. March 10, 1955\. The junior Lofstrand later invented and patented the [forearm crutch](/wiki/Crutch%23Types "Crutch#Types") in 1945\. He and his father founded the Lofstrand Co., a diversified manufacturer, which was a major defense contractor in the 1940s and 1950s. Anders Lofstrand, Jr., was also a Maryland state senator. He died months after losing re\-election in 1954\. ### Bechas years Anders Lofstrand, Sr. died in 1955, and in April 1961 Old Ebbitt Grill was sold to Peter Bechas,Curry, William N. "Tax Evasion in the District Is Punishable By a Wristslap." *The Washington Post*. April 12, 1970\. the former head waiter at the Willard Hotel from 1955 to 1958\."Peter G. Bechas, Area Restaurant Owner." *The Washington Post*. October 13, 1988\. Bechas' ownership of the restaurant was marred by repeated tax problems. Between April 1961 and April 1970, the restaurant paid its sales tax in only six of 105 months. Bechas was successfully prosecuted for failure to pay sales taxes in 1963 and 1966, and was prosecuted again in 1970\. The business also failed to deposit [withholding taxes](/wiki/Withholding_tax "Withholding tax") on employee wages with the city. The restaurant had little reputation by 1969, and was primarily known for its pork chops, seafood, and steaks, and as one of the few D.C. restaurants to serve dinner until 12:30 A.M.Kramer, Joan. "Joining the Night Owls for Dinner." *The Washington Post*. November 30, 1969\. In July 1969, Old Ebbitt Grill was one of 171 firms in the city cited for non\-payment of taxes."City Lists 171 Accused." *The Washington Post*. July 20, 1969\. A tax claim was also filed by the federal government, and the business was unable to satisfy the claim. On June 5, 1970, Old Ebbitt Grill was closed by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) for failure to pay $10,995\.15 in taxes going back to 1965\.Ward, Alex. "U.S. Order Shuts Old Ebbitt Grill, Claims Owner Owes $11,000 in Tax." *The Washington Post*. June 6, 1970\. ### Purchase by Clyde's Restaurant Group Old Ebbitt Grill was purchased on June 16, 1970, at a [tax sale](/wiki/Tax_sale "Tax sale") by [Stuart C. Davidson](/wiki/Stuart_C._Davidson "Stuart C. Davidson") and John Laytham, co\-owners of the restaurant [Clyde's of Georgetown](/wiki/Clyde%27s_Restaurant_Group "Clyde's Restaurant Group").Dempsey, Mike. "The NRN 50 All\-American Icons: Old Ebbitt Grill." *Nation's Restaurant News.* January 25, 2010\. Clyde's was founded in 1963 by Davidson, then an investment banker, after new legislation made it legal to serve liquor to patrons standing at bars. Since 1917, the liquor law had required that alcohol only be consumed while sitting at tables.[Martin, Douglas. "Stuart C. Davidson, 78, Owner of Legendary Washington Bar." *New York Times.* August 8, 2001\.](https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/08/us/stuart-c-davidson-78-owner-of-legendary-washington-bar.html) Accessed 2012\-12\-29\. Davidson and Laytham bid in the tax sale hoping to buy [beer steins](/wiki/Beer_stein "Beer stein") and the mahogany bar, but ended up with the entire restaurant.[Kelly, John. "At Clyde's, Treat Yourself to a Good Lunch and Cause." *The Washington Post*. June 3, 2009\.](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/02/AR2009060203405.html) Accessed 2012\-12\-29\. The IRS offered the entire restaurant for sale after an auction of individual items failed to raise more than $6,639\. The sale price was $11,250\.Kernan, Michael. "Old Ebbitt Auction." *The Washington Post*. June 17, 1970\. Among the items they purchased were a 200\-year\-old clock which used carved wooden gears for its mechanism, a carved wooden grizzly bear once owned by [Alexander Hamilton](/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton "Alexander Hamilton"), crystal decanters dating to 1575, and stuffed boar's head, swordfish, alligator, and walrus head.Zito, Tort. "Reopening Day: New Shine for the Old Ebbitt." *The Washington Post*. October 14, 1970\. The new Old Ebbitt Grill improved its menu. It reopened at the same location on October 13, 1970\. The mahogany bar was slightly lowered, new HVAC installed, and a general $130,000 refurbishment completed.Romano, Carlin and Mastrangelo, Joseph. "A Bash to Call Its Own." *The Washington Post*. July 11, 1979\. Clyde's and Old Ebbitt Grill shared the same menus, which lowered costs and led to improved training for kitchen staff.Dresden, Donald. "Cruisin' for Burgers." *The Washington Post*. July 3, 1977\. In June 1974, a *Washington Post* food review declared Old Ebbitt's fare to be "American, plain, and not bad"."Old Ebbitt Grill." *The Washington Post*. June 2, 1974\. By 1977, *Washington Post* food critic Donald Dresden was praising the restaurants [bacon cheeseburgers](/wiki/Cheeseburger "Cheeseburger") and innovative menu items: "Imitators are still trying to top Clyde's and the Ebbitt's bacon cheeseburgers and the disc\-shaped deep\-fried potatoes that come with—but they'll have to keep trying still." The new owners retained Old Ebbitt's dark paneling, shelves of beer steins, mounted game trophies, and spittoons, which it had long showcased. The decor was made more whimsical, however, leading *Washington Post* architectural critic [Wolf Von Eckardt](/wiki/Wolf_Von_Eckardt "Wolf Von Eckardt") to declare in 1978 that the Grill was "one of the most charming rendezvous on the Eastern Seaboard".Von Eckardt, Wolf "Big Stakes In a New City Game." *The Washington Post*. March 4, 1978\. The restaurant featured bare, unpolished wood flooring throughout, with a [fern bar](/wiki/Fern_bar "Fern bar") on the second floor. *Washington Post* reporter Pamela Kessler said in 1981, "The restaurant feels like old Philadelphia, rather than a slicker, parvenu Washington". Old Ebbitt Grill gained notoriety in 1977 as the location where a Soviet spy ring operated. In 1976, Vladimir I. Alekseyev, a reporter for the Soviet Union's news agency, [TASS](/wiki/Telegraph_Agency_of_the_Soviet_Union "Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union"), contacted [United States Information Agency](/wiki/United_States_Information_Agency "United States Information Agency") employee Ronald L. Humphrey—who was already acting as a spy for the [North Vietnamese](/wiki/North_Vietnam "North Vietnam") government."2 Sentenced to Jail Term As Viet Spies." *Associated Press.* July 8, 1978\. Humphreys had already been identified by the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") (FBI) and was facing prosecution for his actions. Humphrey and his attorney told the FBI about the contact immediately, and Humphrey agreed to act as a [double agent](/wiki/Double_agent "Double agent"). Alekseyev and Humphrey met at Old Ebbitt Grill in December 1976\. The United States expelled Alekseyev on February 6, 1977\.Dickey, Christopher. "Court Told Humphrey Reported Soviet Spy Offer." *The Washington Post*. March 22, 1978\. The restaurant continued to improve through the late 1970s and into the early 1980s. In 1978, it was one of the few establishments in Washington, D.C., to serve [Guinness Stout](/wiki/Guinness%23Varieties "Guinness#Varieties") on tap."Eateries." *The Washington Post*. October 20, 1978\. In 1979, *Washington Post* restaurant reviewer Lon Tuck noted that Old Ebbitt's Omelet Room was one of the most famous locations in the city.Tuck, Lon. "'WWR' and Ford: Celebrating a Union." *The Washington Post*. June 8, 1979\. Its trademark omelets were the "Old Ebbitt", made with sharp [cheddar cheese](/wiki/Cheddar_cheese "Cheddar cheese") and [Bermuda onions](/wiki/Sweet_onion "Sweet onion"), and another made with [chili](/wiki/Chili_con_carne "Chili con carne") and served with a [garden salad](/wiki/Garden_salad "Garden salad") with [Roquefort](/wiki/Roquefort "Roquefort") [blue cheese dressing](/wiki/Blue_cheese_dressing "Blue cheese dressing").Kessler, Pamela. "Out to Dinner and a Show." *The Washington Post*. November 27, 1981\. *Washington Post* reporter Pamela Kessler observed in 1981 that its signature dishes included chili, [blue cheese](/wiki/Blue_cheese "Blue cheese") and [Welsh rarebit](/wiki/Welsh_rarebit "Welsh rarebit") hamburgers, [quiche Lorraine](/wiki/Quiche%23Quiche_lorraine "Quiche#Quiche lorraine"), a [Reuben sandwich](/wiki/Reuben_sandwich "Reuben sandwich"), and steaks. Its [crab cakes](/wiki/Crab_cake "Crab cake") were poorly reviewed as too bland and heavy with bread.Davis, Melissa. "Let Them Eat Crab Cakes." *The Washington Post*. September 9, 1979\. It was one of the few dining places in the city to stay open until 1:00 A.M. ### Demolition of 1427 F Street Old Ebbitt Grill was demolished in 1983 during redevelopment of the site. The restaurant was first threatened with demolition in 1962\. Around the corner from the restaurant on 15th Street NW and across the street from the [U.S. Treasury Building](/wiki/Treasury_Building_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "Treasury Building (Washington, D.C.)") stood the nearly block\-long [Keith\-Albee Building](/wiki/Chase%27s_Theater_and_Riggs_Building "Chase's Theater and Riggs Building") designed by noted architect [Jules Henri de Sibour](/wiki/Jules_Henri_de_Sibour "Jules Henri de Sibour") and [Rhodes' Tavern](/wiki/Rhodes%27_Tavern "Rhodes' Tavern"), the first polling place in the city, the first city town hall, and the place where citizens of the District of Columbia first petitioned Congress for the right to vote.Goode, p. 196\-197\. Developer [Morris Cafritz](/wiki/Morris_Cafritz "Morris Cafritz"), who purchased the Keith\-Albee Building and Rhodes' Tavern in 1956, wanted to tear down the entire half\-block to construct a new office building.Von Eckardt, Wolf. "Treasury's Losing Regal Old Friend." *The Washington Post*. July 22, 1962\. He did not proceed at the time, but the threat of demolition was a catalyst to a committee of citizens known as the "Landmarks Committee" recommending in 1970 that the city enact legislation protecting the two structures and Old Ebbitt Grill.Eisen, Jack. "Panel Asks Buildings Be Preserved." *The Washington Post*. November 9, 1970\. No legislation was enacted, however. In 1977, developer [Oliver T. Carr](/wiki/Oliver_T._Carr "Oliver T. Carr") proposed tearing down the entire block between F and G streets NW and 14th and 15th streets NW and constructing a 12\-story hotel and office building complex to be called Metropolitan Square. Demolition would include Old Ebbitt Grill and Rhodes' Tavern. Carr had already negotiated to move the Old Ebbitt Grill to a new location within the new structure.McCombs, Phil and Oman, Anne H. "$40 Million Mall Is Planned." *The Washington Post*. November 12, 1977\. There was little opposition to the demolition of most of the block, which included the Old Ebbitt Grill site. A series of lawsuits, petitions, and intervention by city and federal officials occurred. As demolition proceeded, Old Ebbitt Grill hosted a large party which won notice in *The Washington Post*. Attendance was so large, the party spilled out into the street. Music was provided by [Federal Jazz Commission](/wiki/Federal_Jazz_Commission "Federal Jazz Commission"), a traditional "classic" jazz band which made music indoors and out. In February 1980, Carr agreed to preserve the facades of the Keith\-Albee and National Metropolitan Bank buildings as part of the Metropolitan Square development.Wheeler, Linda. "City Allows Demolition of Historic Tavern." *The Washington Post*. February 12, 1980\. Whether the city gave the Oliver T. Carr Co. any financial incentives for saving the facade is in dispute. Joseph N. Grano, Jr., campaign coordinator for the Save Historic Rhodes Tavern Initiative Committee, asserted it did. [Robert O. Carr](/wiki/Robert_O._Carr "Robert O. Carr"), executive vice president of the Oliver T. Carr Co., asserts it did not. See: Grano, Jr., Joseph N. "Rhodes Tavern Should Be Saved." *The Washington Post*. November 3, 1983; Carr, Robert O. "Metropolitan Square Should Be Completed." *The Washington Post*. November 3, 1983\. In August 1980, Carr announced that Old Ebbitt Grill would reopen in a corner location near to its old 1427 F Street NW spot. The restaurant said it would lease {{convert\|13492\|sqft\|m2}} of space on two levels, with the bar, main restaurant, and [oyster bar](/wiki/Oyster_bar "Oyster bar") on the main level. Old Ebbitt intended to close its doors in April 1983 and reopen a few weeks later in the new location in May.Bucklin, Randolph E. "Old Ebbitt to Be Moved Next Door." *The Washington Post*. August 18, 1982\. The time frame for closure proved optimistic. Old Ebbitt Grill did not close its doors at 1427 F Street until September 12, 1983\.Weil, Martin. "Staff, Patrons Toast Old Ebbitt's Demise As They Await Its Rebirth on 15th Street." *The Washington Post*. September 12, 1983\. 1427 F Street NW was demolished in early December 1983\.Eisen, Jack. "Old Ebbitt Grill Razed." *The Washington Post*. December 8, 1983\.
[ "Old Ebbitt Grill: 1926 to 1983\n------------------------------", "[thumb\\|300px\\|Looking south through the main bar of the Old Ebbitt Grill at 1427 F Street NW in 1967\\. Note the image hanging on the wall on the right, depicting the original 1856 Ebbitt House.](/wiki/File:Old_Ebbitt_Grill_Old_F_Street_Location_first_floor_looking_south_1967.jpg \"Old Ebbitt Grill Old F Street Location first floor looking south 1967.jpg\")\nThe history of the restaurant between its establishment in 1926 and the 1980s is not well documented. The media reported on Old Ebbitt Grill only a few times. For example, after the repeal of [Prohibition in the United States](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States \"Prohibition in the United States\"), Ebbitt Grill sought a liquor license in May 1934\\.\"Special Notices.\" *The Washington Post*. Mar 20, 1934\\.", "### Lofstrand years", "The Ebbitt House bar, its paneling, and decorations were removed before the hotel's demolition and installed at a new location at 1427 F Street NW. The media reported the restaurant's name as \"Ebbitt's Grill\"\"Restaurant Office Looted.\" *The Washington Post*. July 5, 1934\\. and \"Old Ebbitt Grill\".\"Christmas Greetings.\" *The Washington Post*. December 25, 1934\\. Anders R. Lofstrand, Sr. was the proprietor.\"Special Notices.\" *The Washington Post*. March 20, 1934\\. Lofstrand was a veteran bar and club entrepreneur in the city and in southern Maryland. He helped incorporate the Calvert Club, a private gentleman's drinking establishment dedicated to the memory of [Leonard Calvert](/wiki/Leonard_Calvert \"Leonard Calvert\"), 2nd [Baron Baltimore](/wiki/Baron_Baltimore \"Baron Baltimore\") in 1914\\.\"Few in Calvert Club.\" *The Washington Post*. March 29, 1914\\. He and his wife, Elizabeth, later purchased Southlawn Farm, which is now a part of the city of [Rockville, Maryland](/wiki/Rockville%2C_Maryland \"Rockville, Maryland\"), in 1944, and in 1946 built a factory on it.[City of Rockville Historic District Commission. Staff Report. \"610 Lofstrand Lane.\" Application HDC2010\\-00507\\. April 23, 2010, p. 7\\.](http://www.rockvillemd.gov/government/commissions/hdc/2010/HDC2010-00507.pdf) Accessed 2012\\-04\\-15\\. His son, Anders R. Lofstrand, Jr., invented a machine to wash drinking glasses at Old Ebbitt Grill.\"Anders R. Lofstrand, Ex\\-State Senator, 42\\.\" *The Washington Post*. March 10, 1955\\. The junior Lofstrand later invented and patented the [forearm crutch](/wiki/Crutch%23Types \"Crutch#Types\") in 1945\\. He and his father founded the Lofstrand Co., a diversified manufacturer, which was a major defense contractor in the 1940s and 1950s. Anders Lofstrand, Jr., was also a Maryland state senator. He died months after losing re\\-election in 1954\\.", "### Bechas years", "Anders Lofstrand, Sr. died in 1955, and in April 1961 Old Ebbitt Grill was sold to Peter Bechas,Curry, William N. \"Tax Evasion in the District Is Punishable By a Wristslap.\" *The Washington Post*. April 12, 1970\\. the former head waiter at the Willard Hotel from 1955 to 1958\\.\"Peter G. Bechas, Area Restaurant Owner.\" *The Washington Post*. October 13, 1988\\. Bechas' ownership of the restaurant was marred by repeated tax problems. Between April 1961 and April 1970, the restaurant paid its sales tax in only six of 105 months. Bechas was successfully prosecuted for failure to pay sales taxes in 1963 and 1966, and was prosecuted again in 1970\\. The business also failed to deposit [withholding taxes](/wiki/Withholding_tax \"Withholding tax\") on employee wages with the city.", "The restaurant had little reputation by 1969, and was primarily known for its pork chops, seafood, and steaks, and as one of the few D.C. restaurants to serve dinner until 12:30 A.M.Kramer, Joan. \"Joining the Night Owls for Dinner.\" *The Washington Post*. November 30, 1969\\. In July 1969, Old Ebbitt Grill was one of 171 firms in the city cited for non\\-payment of taxes.\"City Lists 171 Accused.\" *The Washington Post*. July 20, 1969\\. A tax claim was also filed by the federal government, and the business was unable to satisfy the claim. On June 5, 1970, Old Ebbitt Grill was closed by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) for failure to pay $10,995\\.15 in taxes going back to 1965\\.Ward, Alex. \"U.S. Order Shuts Old Ebbitt Grill, Claims Owner Owes $11,000 in Tax.\" *The Washington Post*. June 6, 1970\\.", "### Purchase by Clyde's Restaurant Group", "Old Ebbitt Grill was purchased on June 16, 1970, at a [tax sale](/wiki/Tax_sale \"Tax sale\") by [Stuart C. Davidson](/wiki/Stuart_C._Davidson \"Stuart C. Davidson\") and John Laytham, co\\-owners of the restaurant [Clyde's of Georgetown](/wiki/Clyde%27s_Restaurant_Group \"Clyde's Restaurant Group\").Dempsey, Mike. \"The NRN 50 All\\-American Icons: Old Ebbitt Grill.\" *Nation's Restaurant News.* January 25, 2010\\. Clyde's was founded in 1963 by Davidson, then an investment banker, after new legislation made it legal to serve liquor to patrons standing at bars. Since 1917, the liquor law had required that alcohol only be consumed while sitting at tables.[Martin, Douglas. \"Stuart C. Davidson, 78, Owner of Legendary Washington Bar.\" *New York Times.* August 8, 2001\\.](https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/08/us/stuart-c-davidson-78-owner-of-legendary-washington-bar.html) Accessed 2012\\-12\\-29\\. Davidson and Laytham bid in the tax sale hoping to buy [beer steins](/wiki/Beer_stein \"Beer stein\") and the mahogany bar, but ended up with the entire restaurant.[Kelly, John. \"At Clyde's, Treat Yourself to a Good Lunch and Cause.\" *The Washington Post*. June 3, 2009\\.](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/02/AR2009060203405.html) Accessed 2012\\-12\\-29\\. The IRS offered the entire restaurant for sale after an auction of individual items failed to raise more than $6,639\\. The sale price was $11,250\\.Kernan, Michael. \"Old Ebbitt Auction.\" *The Washington Post*. June 17, 1970\\. Among the items they purchased were a 200\\-year\\-old clock which used carved wooden gears for its mechanism, a carved wooden grizzly bear once owned by [Alexander Hamilton](/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton \"Alexander Hamilton\"), crystal decanters dating to 1575, and stuffed boar's head, swordfish, alligator, and walrus head.Zito, Tort. \"Reopening Day: New Shine for the Old Ebbitt.\" *The Washington Post*. October 14, 1970\\.", "The new Old Ebbitt Grill improved its menu. It reopened at the same location on October 13, 1970\\. The mahogany bar was slightly lowered, new HVAC installed, and a general $130,000 refurbishment completed.Romano, Carlin and Mastrangelo, Joseph. \"A Bash to Call Its Own.\" *The Washington Post*. July 11, 1979\\. Clyde's and Old Ebbitt Grill shared the same menus, which lowered costs and led to improved training for kitchen staff.Dresden, Donald. \"Cruisin' for Burgers.\" *The Washington Post*. July 3, 1977\\. In June 1974, a *Washington Post* food review declared Old Ebbitt's fare to be \"American, plain, and not bad\".\"Old Ebbitt Grill.\" *The Washington Post*. June 2, 1974\\. By 1977, *Washington Post* food critic Donald Dresden was praising the restaurants [bacon cheeseburgers](/wiki/Cheeseburger \"Cheeseburger\") and innovative menu items: \"Imitators are still trying to top Clyde's and the Ebbitt's bacon cheeseburgers and the disc\\-shaped deep\\-fried potatoes that come with—but they'll have to keep trying still.\" The new owners retained Old Ebbitt's dark paneling, shelves of beer steins, mounted game trophies, and spittoons, which it had long showcased. The decor was made more whimsical, however, leading *Washington Post* architectural critic [Wolf Von Eckardt](/wiki/Wolf_Von_Eckardt \"Wolf Von Eckardt\") to declare in 1978 that the Grill was \"one of the most charming rendezvous on the Eastern Seaboard\".Von Eckardt, Wolf \"Big Stakes In a New City Game.\" *The Washington Post*. March 4, 1978\\. The restaurant featured bare, unpolished wood flooring throughout, with a [fern bar](/wiki/Fern_bar \"Fern bar\") on the second floor. *Washington Post* reporter Pamela Kessler said in 1981, \"The restaurant feels like old Philadelphia, rather than a slicker, parvenu Washington\".", "Old Ebbitt Grill gained notoriety in 1977 as the location where a Soviet spy ring operated. In 1976, Vladimir I. Alekseyev, a reporter for the Soviet Union's news agency, [TASS](/wiki/Telegraph_Agency_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union\"), contacted [United States Information Agency](/wiki/United_States_Information_Agency \"United States Information Agency\") employee Ronald L. Humphrey—who was already acting as a spy for the [North Vietnamese](/wiki/North_Vietnam \"North Vietnam\") government.\"2 Sentenced to Jail Term As Viet Spies.\" *Associated Press.* July 8, 1978\\. Humphreys had already been identified by the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") (FBI) and was facing prosecution for his actions. Humphrey and his attorney told the FBI about the contact immediately, and Humphrey agreed to act as a [double agent](/wiki/Double_agent \"Double agent\"). Alekseyev and Humphrey met at Old Ebbitt Grill in December 1976\\. The United States expelled Alekseyev on February 6, 1977\\.Dickey, Christopher. \"Court Told Humphrey Reported Soviet Spy Offer.\" *The Washington Post*. March 22, 1978\\.", "The restaurant continued to improve through the late 1970s and into the early 1980s. In 1978, it was one of the few establishments in Washington, D.C., to serve [Guinness Stout](/wiki/Guinness%23Varieties \"Guinness#Varieties\") on tap.\"Eateries.\" *The Washington Post*. October 20, 1978\\. In 1979, *Washington Post* restaurant reviewer Lon Tuck noted that Old Ebbitt's Omelet Room was one of the most famous locations in the city.Tuck, Lon. \"'WWR' and Ford: Celebrating a Union.\" *The Washington Post*. June 8, 1979\\. Its trademark omelets were the \"Old Ebbitt\", made with sharp [cheddar cheese](/wiki/Cheddar_cheese \"Cheddar cheese\") and [Bermuda onions](/wiki/Sweet_onion \"Sweet onion\"), and another made with [chili](/wiki/Chili_con_carne \"Chili con carne\") and served with a [garden salad](/wiki/Garden_salad \"Garden salad\") with [Roquefort](/wiki/Roquefort \"Roquefort\") [blue cheese dressing](/wiki/Blue_cheese_dressing \"Blue cheese dressing\").Kessler, Pamela. \"Out to Dinner and a Show.\" *The Washington Post*. November 27, 1981\\. *Washington Post* reporter Pamela Kessler observed in 1981 that its signature dishes included chili, [blue cheese](/wiki/Blue_cheese \"Blue cheese\") and [Welsh rarebit](/wiki/Welsh_rarebit \"Welsh rarebit\") hamburgers, [quiche Lorraine](/wiki/Quiche%23Quiche_lorraine \"Quiche#Quiche lorraine\"), a [Reuben sandwich](/wiki/Reuben_sandwich \"Reuben sandwich\"), and steaks. Its [crab cakes](/wiki/Crab_cake \"Crab cake\") were poorly reviewed as too bland and heavy with bread.Davis, Melissa. \"Let Them Eat Crab Cakes.\" *The Washington Post*. September 9, 1979\\. It was one of the few dining places in the city to stay open until 1:00 A.M.", "### Demolition of 1427 F Street", "Old Ebbitt Grill was demolished in 1983 during redevelopment of the site.", "The restaurant was first threatened with demolition in 1962\\. Around the corner from the restaurant on 15th Street NW and across the street from the [U.S. Treasury Building](/wiki/Treasury_Building_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"Treasury Building (Washington, D.C.)\") stood the nearly block\\-long [Keith\\-Albee Building](/wiki/Chase%27s_Theater_and_Riggs_Building \"Chase's Theater and Riggs Building\") designed by noted architect [Jules Henri de Sibour](/wiki/Jules_Henri_de_Sibour \"Jules Henri de Sibour\") and [Rhodes' Tavern](/wiki/Rhodes%27_Tavern \"Rhodes' Tavern\"), the first polling place in the city, the first city town hall, and the place where citizens of the District of Columbia first petitioned Congress for the right to vote.Goode, p. 196\\-197\\. Developer [Morris Cafritz](/wiki/Morris_Cafritz \"Morris Cafritz\"), who purchased the Keith\\-Albee Building and Rhodes' Tavern in 1956, wanted to tear down the entire half\\-block to construct a new office building.Von Eckardt, Wolf. \"Treasury's Losing Regal Old Friend.\" *The Washington Post*. July 22, 1962\\.", "He did not proceed at the time, but the threat of demolition was a catalyst to a committee of citizens known as the \"Landmarks Committee\" recommending in 1970 that the city enact legislation protecting the two structures and Old Ebbitt Grill.Eisen, Jack. \"Panel Asks Buildings Be Preserved.\" *The Washington Post*. November 9, 1970\\. No legislation was enacted, however.", "In 1977, developer [Oliver T. Carr](/wiki/Oliver_T._Carr \"Oliver T. Carr\") proposed tearing down the entire block between F and G streets NW and 14th and 15th streets NW and constructing a 12\\-story hotel and office building complex to be called Metropolitan Square. Demolition would include Old Ebbitt Grill and Rhodes' Tavern. Carr had already negotiated to move the Old Ebbitt Grill to a new location within the new structure.McCombs, Phil and Oman, Anne H. \"$40 Million Mall Is Planned.\" *The Washington Post*. November 12, 1977\\. There was little opposition to the demolition of most of the block, which included the Old Ebbitt Grill site. A series of lawsuits, petitions, and intervention by city and federal officials occurred. As demolition proceeded, Old Ebbitt Grill hosted a large party which won notice in *The Washington Post*. Attendance was so large, the party spilled out into the street. Music was provided by [Federal Jazz Commission](/wiki/Federal_Jazz_Commission \"Federal Jazz Commission\"), a traditional \"classic\" jazz band which made music indoors and out. In February 1980, Carr agreed to preserve the facades of the Keith\\-Albee and National Metropolitan Bank buildings as part of the Metropolitan Square development.Wheeler, Linda. \"City Allows Demolition of Historic Tavern.\" *The Washington Post*. February 12, 1980\\. Whether the city gave the Oliver T. Carr Co. any financial incentives for saving the facade is in dispute. Joseph N. Grano, Jr., campaign coordinator for the Save Historic Rhodes Tavern Initiative Committee, asserted it did. [Robert O. Carr](/wiki/Robert_O._Carr \"Robert O. Carr\"), executive vice president of the Oliver T. Carr Co., asserts it did not. See: Grano, Jr., Joseph N. \"Rhodes Tavern Should Be Saved.\" *The Washington Post*. November 3, 1983; Carr, Robert O. \"Metropolitan Square Should Be Completed.\" *The Washington Post*. November 3, 1983\\. In August 1980, Carr announced that Old Ebbitt Grill would reopen in a corner location near to its old 1427 F Street NW spot. The restaurant said it would lease {{convert\\|13492\\|sqft\\|m2}} of space on two levels, with the bar, main restaurant, and [oyster bar](/wiki/Oyster_bar \"Oyster bar\") on the main level. Old Ebbitt intended to close its doors in April 1983 and reopen a few weeks later in the new location in May.Bucklin, Randolph E. \"Old Ebbitt to Be Moved Next Door.\" *The Washington Post*. August 18, 1982\\.", "The time frame for closure proved optimistic. Old Ebbitt Grill did not close its doors at 1427 F Street until September 12, 1983\\.Weil, Martin. \"Staff, Patrons Toast Old Ebbitt's Demise As They Await Its Rebirth on 15th Street.\" *The Washington Post*. September 12, 1983\\. 1427 F Street NW was demolished in early December 1983\\.Eisen, Jack. \"Old Ebbitt Grill Razed.\" *The Washington Post*. December 8, 1983\\.", "" ]
Old Ebbitt Grill: 1984 to present --------------------------------- ### 1980s [thumb\|left\|300px\|Northwest corner of Metropolitan Square, showing the Keith\-Albee facade and the new structure built behind it. The blue awnings shade the windows of Old Ebbitt Grill.](/wiki/File:Metropolitan_Square_-_Washington_DC_-_north_facade.JPG "Metropolitan Square - Washington DC - north facade.JPG") Old Ebbitt Grill reopened at 675 15th Street NW in early October 1983\. Clyde's Restaurant Group spent $4\.4 million constructing and outfitting the interior.Joynt, Carol Ross. "A Q\&A With John Laytham, CEO of Clyde's Restaurant Group." *Washingtonian.* January 5, 2012\. The architectural firm of Andrews \& Chatelain designed the interior.Horwitz, Sari. "Zephyr Hopes to Exploit Mystique of Luxury Train Travel." *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1984\. Architect John Richards Andrews did most of the design work. See: "John Andrews Dies at 66; Longtime Area Architect." *The Washington Post*. July 8, 1995\. The interior decoration was designed to mimic the bar at 1427 F Street, and included the game trophies, some of which were originals, not recreations, and rumored to have been shot by President [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt "Theodore Roosevelt")."Then \& Again." *The Washington Post*. October 21, 2007\. Old Ebbitt's famous mahogany bar was not installed in the new location. A replica was crafted instead. The walls were paneled in mahogany and the ceilings decorated with [murals](/wiki/Mural "Mural") and [stencils](/wiki/Stencil "Stencil"). The restaurant had seating for 200 at tables and in booths. The booths had green leather seats and velvet\-covered walls, and were separated from one another by etched glass dividers. The long bar still sported mounted game animal trophies overhead, the fixtures were of marble or brass, and the curtains of lace. An oyster bar was added to the rear of the restaurant on the main floor. The kitchen featured a special charcoal\-burning grill, and the wine cellar featured a Cruvinet wine dispensing system.[Richman, Phyllis](/wiki/Phyllis_Richman "Phyllis Richman"). "Old Ebbitt Grill." *The Washington Post*. February 5, 1984\.Cruvinet is the name of a company which invented a system for dispensing wine similar to the way beer is dispensed on tap. Cruvinet systems, which can be mobile or installed and can accommodate anywhere from two to 120 bottles, immediately recork a bottle of wine. Nitrogen gas is pumped through a valve in the replacement cork to prevent oxidation. This allows a bottle of wine to remain open for up to two weeks without spoiling. The system was invented in 1978, although many different companies make "wine bar systems" today. See: [Chamberlain, Chris. "Cruvinet: It's Like Wine on Tap."](http://www.nashvillescene.com/bites/archives/2010/12/21/wine-wednesday-cruvinet-its-like-wine-on-tap) *[Nashville Scene](/wiki/Nashville_Scene "Nashville Scene").* December 21, 2010\. Accessed 2012\-12\-31\. Gas lamps were used in the main bar and booth area."Readers' Guide." *The Washington Post*. September 23, 1984\. A year after the Grill opened, *The Washington Post* said it had the best dining ambience of any restaurant in the city."Superlatives to Eat By." *The Washington Post*. March 24, 1985\. The restaurant also instituted a "back waiter" system. Back waiters were trained to balance plates of food on their arms, so they could get them to tables faster without the need to load and unload trays. Back waiters were required to have excellent physical strength and good balance. The back waiter system was created so that waiters continued to wait on tables rather than spending time in the kitchen waiting for orders to be filled."Stepping Up to the Plates." *The Washington Post*. September 3, 2003\. The Omelet Room did not make the transition to the new location. National health campaigns against high cholesterol had reduced demand for foods heavy in eggs.Kelly, John. "At Clyde's, Treat Yourself to a Good Lunch and Cause." *The Washington Post*. June 3, 2009\. Instead, the basement contained a large private dining room. The new restaurant was immediately popular.Pyatt, Jr., Rudolph A. "Can Rhodes Tavern Be Resolved?" *The Washington Post*. December 23, 1983\. *Washington Post* food critic [Phyllis Richman](/wiki/Phyllis_Richman "Phyllis Richman") declared the restaurant's signature hamburger its best entree. She found the appetizers and salads excellent, but considered the pasta dishes hit\-or\-miss and disparaged the main entrees. Within a year, the restaurant was mostly being patronized by [yuppies](/wiki/Yuppie "Yuppie"), lawyers, and tourists."Apres Show: More Food For Thought." *The Washington Post*. January 25, 1985; Sommers, Pamela. "Hot Spots for the Eat of the Night." *The Washington Post*. October 4, 1985\.Richman, Phyllis. "Old Ebbitt Grill." *The Washington Post*. September 22, 1985\. A 1986 food review in *The Washington Post* concluded that Old Ebbitt Grill had the worst omelets and pancakes in the city, but the best appetizers. Its main claim to fame was its hefty portions and moderate prices. Old Ebbitt Grill was the site of a discussion among administration officials hoping to protect President Reagan from fallout related to the [Iran–Contra affair](/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair "Iran–Contra affair") of 1986\. Beginning in 1984, officials in the [Reagan administration](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") sought to sell conventional weapons to [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") via [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") in exchange for Iran using its influence to win the release of American hostages being held by [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah") and other terrorist groups in [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), which was then in the throes of a civil war. In December 1985, [Oliver North](/wiki/Oliver_North "Oliver North"), a [Lieutenant Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant colonel (United States)") in the [Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") who was serving as a military aide to the [National Security Council](/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council "United States National Security Council"), proposed selling the weapons directly to Iran at a $15 million mark\-up. He would use the excess funds to supply arms and supplies to the [Contras](/wiki/Contras "Contras"). The Contras were [guerrilla](/wiki/Guerrilla "Guerrilla") fighters opposed to the communist government of Nicaragua led by [Daniel Ortega](/wiki/Daniel_Ortega "Daniel Ortega"). The United States was barred by the [Boland Amendment](/wiki/Boland_Amendment "Boland Amendment") from supporting the Contras. The Iran\-Contra affair was exposed by the press on November 3, 1986, and on November 13, President Reagan publicly admitted that an arms\-for\-hostages deal existed. However, the diversion of funds to the Contras was not yet exposed. On November 22, [Assistant Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General "United States Assistant Attorney General") [William Bradford Reynolds](/wiki/William_Bradford_Reynolds "William Bradford Reynolds") discovered an April 1986 draft memo from North to [National Security Advisor](/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_%28United_States%29 "National Security Advisor (United States)") [John Poindexter](/wiki/John_Poindexter "John Poindexter"), who was at the time also serving as a [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_admiral_%28United_States%29 "Vice admiral (United States)") in the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy"), which suggested that $12 million in Iranian weapons sales be used to help the Contras. Reynolds discovered the document in North's files during a meeting with North in his White House office. Reynolds smuggled the document out of North's office and took it to a luncheon meeting at Old Ebbitt with [Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General "United States Attorney General") [Edwin Meese](/wiki/Edwin_Meese "Edwin Meese"). When shown the document, Meese allegedly said, "Oh, darn." Assistant Attorney General [Charles J. Cooper](/wiki/Charles_J._Cooper "Charles J. Cooper"), a young appointee in the Office of Legal Counsel, also at the lunch, said the memo was a "bomb."Pincus, Walter and Morgan, Dan. "High\-Level Iran Cover\-Up Shown in Testimony, Documents." *The Washington Post*. June 26, 1987\. In the late 1980s, Old Ebbitt Grill became a popular hangout for actors and crew from the nearby [National Theatre](/wiki/National_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "National Theatre (Washington, D.C.)") and [Warner Theatre](/wiki/Warner_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "Warner Theatre (Washington, D.C.)"). Choreographer and director [Bob Fosse](/wiki/Bob_Fosse "Bob Fosse") was preparing to host a party at Old Ebbitt Grill when he collapsed outside the restaurant and died of a heart attack on September 23, 1987\. His revival of *[Sweet Charity](/wiki/Sweet_Charity "Sweet Charity")*, which he choreographed, had just debuted at the National Theatre.Hall, Charles W. "Bob Fosse Dies After Collapsing On D.C. Street." *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1987\. Old Ebbitt began hanging posters in the lobby of current theatrical performances.Brown, Joe. "Dramatic Discoveries." *The Washington Post*. May 7, 1989\. President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") and [First Lady](/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States "First Lady of the United States") [Barbara Bush](/wiki/Barbara_Bush "Barbara Bush") met the singer and actor [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 "Sting (musician)") at Old Ebbitt Grill in September 1989 after his Washington debut in the title role in *[Three Penny Opera](/wiki/Three_Penny_Opera "Three Penny Opera").*{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/09/15/at\-the\-sting\-along/7593d712\-7346\-48b7\-86a4\-3d9d7e344cbc/\|last\=Conroy\|first\=Sarah Booth\|title\=At the {{proper name\|Sting}}\-Along.\|newspaper\=The Washington Post.\|date\=September 15, 1989\|access\-date\=May 3, 2019}} The [Rolling Stones](/wiki/Rolling_Stones "Rolling Stones") dined at the restaurant a few weeks later after a concert in the city.Conconi, Chuck. "Personalities." *The Washington Post*. September 26, 1989\. In 1991, playwright [Neil Simon](/wiki/Neil_Simon "Neil Simon"), director [Gene Saks](/wiki/Gene_Saks "Gene Saks") and the cast of the play *[Lost in Yonkers](/wiki/Lost_in_Yonkers "Lost in Yonkers")* held the opening night after\-party on January 17 at Old Ebbitt Grill. Just minutes before the curtain rose on the Washington debut of the play, the cast learned that the United States had declared war on Iraq and begun the [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War").Conconi, Chuck. "Personalities." *The Washington Post*. January 18, 1991\. After the world premier of the motion picture *[The River Wild](/wiki/The_River_Wild "The River Wild")* in August 1994 in Washington, D.C., a reception for the stars was held at Old Ebbitt."Fall Frolics." *The Washington Post*. August 28, 1994\. ### 1990s [thumb\|The famous mahogany bar at Old Ebbitt Grill](/wiki/File:Old_Ebbitt_Grill_bar.jpg "Old Ebbitt Grill bar.jpg") In the early 1990s, Old Ebbitt Grill was financially one of the best\-performing restaurants in the city. In July 1992, the *[Washington Business Journal](/wiki/Washington_Business_Journal "Washington Business Journal")* said the 390\-seat Old Ebbitt Grill grossed more money than any other restaurant in the D.C. metropolitan area.McKeon, Nancy. "Lite." *The Washington Post*. August 23, 1992\. It spent $17,000 a month on table linens.Singletary, Michelle. "Failures Eat Into Restaurant Community." *The Washington Post*. March 11, 1992\. The *Washington Post's* Phyllis Richman claimed the combination of superb hamburgers with seasonal foods such as fresh Alaskan halibut, corn on the cob in the summer, and locally grown vegetables and berries, was what drew customers.Richman, Phyllis. "Potomac Fever." *The Washington Post*. September 19, 1993\. In May 1994, Old Ebbitt Grill added a take\-out service, Ebbitt Express, in the atrium section of its restaurant.Richman, Phyllis C. "Star Service Up on the Roof." *The Washington Post*. May 13, 1994\. In 1995, business dropped after [Pennsylvania Avenue](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Avenue_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)") NW was closed to street traffic and curbside parking was eliminated in front of the restaurant on 15th Street NW for security reasons following the bombing by an American domestic terrorist of the Oklahoma Federal Building.Fehr, Stephen C. and Haggerty, Maryann. "Barricades a Blow to Business." *The Washington Post*. May 28, 1995\. Some of the business was made up by Ebbitt Express, which by December 1997 was serving 600 meals a day—twice as many as projected.Salmon, Jacqueline. "The New Workplace Motto: Let's Not Do Lunch." *The Washington Post*. December 3, 1997\. Old Ebbitt Grill's oyster bar closed in 1992 after diners fell ill from eating raw oysters infected with the deadly *[Vibrio vulnificus](/wiki/Vibrio_vulnificus "Vibrio vulnificus")* bacteria. The restaurant established a procedure for an independent laboratory to test its oysters for the bacteria prior to consumption. In November 1994, Old Ebbitt Grill reopened its oyster bar to much press attention.Zibart, Eve. "O Chestnut Tree." *The Washington Post*. November 11, 1994\. *Washington Post* food critic Eve Zibart, writing in August 1995, said that its highly polished woodwork, counter facing the ice bed and shuckers, and excellent selection of oysters made it a "first\-class raw bar".Zibart, Eve. "The Raw Truth About Shellfish." *The Washington Post*. August 11, 1995\. Shortly after the oyster bar reopened, Old Ebbitt Grill lost its long\-time chef, Juan Bosio. The restaurant hired Robert McGowan, formerly a chef at [Sardi's](/wiki/Sardi%27s "Sardi's") in New York City."On The Fridge." *The Washington Post*. December 13, 1995\. ### 2000s Security changes in Washington, D.C., after the [September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") significantly affected Old Ebbitt Grill for a while. The restaurant was forced to close for two days when streets near the White House were closed.Sietsema, Tom. "On the Fridge." *The Washington Post*. September 19, 2001\. Over the next two weeks, the restaurant lost half its business, which normally ran 2,000 customers a day, most of them politicians and businesspeople.Sugarman, Carole. "Food \& Drink: Changing Needs?" *The Washington Post*. September 26, 2001; Timberg, Craig. "Fined, Mayor Revives Fundraising." *The Washington Post*. August 22, 2002\. After First Lady [Laura Bush](/wiki/Laura_Bush "Laura Bush") began patronizing the restaurant,Reel, Monte. "The President Who Lives Apart." *The Washington Post*. January 26, 2003\. business soon returned to normal. The [Beltway sniper attacks](/wiki/Beltway_sniper_attacks "Beltway sniper attacks") of fall 2002 did not affect business, which continued to hold steady through February 2003, a time of high alert and anxiety.Irwin, Neil and Hedgpeth, Dana. "High Alert, High Anxiety." *The Washington Post*. February 17, 2003\. Due to security restrictions in 2004, Old Ebbitt Grill was nearly prevented from its traditional practice of selling coffee and hot chocolate to spectators watching the [inaugural parade](/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama "First inauguration of Barack Obama"), in this case for the landmark election of [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") as President of the United States. That year the [Democratic Leadership Council](/wiki/Democratic_Leadership_Council "Democratic Leadership Council") rented the entire restaurant for a private party on Inauguration Day.Nakamura, David and Boschma, Janie. "Comfortable Perches Along Pennsylvania Avenue Are Much in Demand." *The Washington Post*. January 16, 2009\. In 2003, Old Ebbitt Grill was busiest on weekends in the spring, when high school student tourist business was at its highest in the city.Schulte, Brigid. "To Tan, a Place in the Sun Not Needed." *The Washington Post*. June 1, 2003\. The restaurant was praised by *The Washington Post* for being able to accommodate large groups, offering a variety of plain and upscale food, providing friendly service, and having the best raw bar in the city.Sietsema, Tom. "Seeing Stars." *The Washington Post*. October 19, 2003\. The restaurant was also criticized by the newspaper for being too noisy for conversation,"Visitors to the Mall Have Plenty of Dining Options While Sightseeing." *The Washington Post*. May 22, 2003\. and providing bland hamburgers, salads, and breakfast. By 2008, however, Old Ebbitt Grill's reviews had improved. *Post* food critic Tom Sietsema continued to laud the friendly service. He also praised the Breakfast Club, a deep\-fried ham, French toast, and bacon breakfast sandwich. He appreciated small touches such as coat hooks near booths and pepper mills on tables and found the staff's honesty about menu choices refreshing.Sietsema, Tom. "The Bacon\-and\-Eggs Brigade." *The Washington Post*. November 30, 2008\. In 2009, Old Ebbitt Grill had the fourth or fifth\-highest volume of restaurant customers in the United States. Due to its proximity to the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House"), it was a favorite of [United States Secret Service](/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service "United States Secret Service") personnel as well as tourists.Roig\-Franzia, Manuel. "Lunch at the 'Power Section'." *The Washington Post*. September 20, 2009\. In 2010, after the [Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear](/wiki/Rally_to_Restore_Sanity_and/or_Fear "Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear"), comedian [Stephen Colbert](/wiki/Stephen_Colbert "Stephen Colbert") hosted a [Comedy Central](/wiki/Comedy_Central "Comedy Central") after\-party at Old Ebbitt Grill. In attendance were [Wyatt Cenac](/wiki/Wyatt_Cenac "Wyatt Cenac"), [Rosario Dawson](/wiki/Rosario_Dawson "Rosario Dawson"), [Mick Foley](/wiki/Mick_Foley "Mick Foley"), [Tim Meadows](/wiki/Tim_Meadows "Tim Meadows"), John Oliver, then a Colbert show regular, and [Jamie Hyneman](/wiki/Jamie_Hyneman "Jamie Hyneman") and [Adam Savage](/wiki/Adam_Savage "Adam Savage"), the hosts of the *[MythBusters](/wiki/MythBusters "MythBusters")* television series.Argetsinger, Amy and Roberts, Roxanne. "Thinking About Drapes In Case It's Curtains For Madam Speaker." *The Washington Post*. November 2, 2010\. ### 2010s In January 2012, Clyde's Restaurant Group chief executive officer John Laytham claimed that Old Ebbitt Grill was the third or fourth highest grossing restaurant in the country. Laytham said the restaurant turned away 800 to 900 customers a day and did $26 million in sales in 2011\. In April 2012, sales were still 1 percent ahead of 2011\."Reality Check: US Restaurateurs Say Cons Sent Mostly Static." *The Main Wire.* April 17, 2012\. After a slow summer, business at the restaurant had slowed so much that sales were steady compared to 2011\."Reality Check: US Restaurateurs Say Consumer Sent Still Stuck." *The Main Wire.* September 21, 2012\. In 2011, *The Washington Post* listed Old Ebbitt Grill as one of the top three raw bars in the city."Where to Shell Out For Oysters in D.C." *The Washington Post*. February 19, 2011\. *Post* food reviewer Tom Sietsema, however, had little good to say about the entrees (nearly all of which he found disappointing) and the service (which he found to be tardy and focused more on getting customers to buy more food). The busy atmosphere, he argued, was not conducive to a positive dining experience.Sietsema, Tom. "Worth Taking a Second Look." *The Washington Post*. May 20, 2011\. Old Ebbitt Grill said in December 2012 that it was already booked for a private event for the [second inauguration of Barack Obama](/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama "Second inauguration of Barack Obama").Chen, Aimee and Mendelson, Will. "No Rush Yet on Inaugural Tickets and Hotel Rooms." *Asbury Park Daily Herald.* December 3, 2012\. *Restaurant Business Magazine* reported in October 2014 that Old Ebbitt Grill ranked third in the nation in revenue for 2013\. The industry trade [publication of record](/wiki/Newspaper_of_record "Newspaper of record") said the restaurant had $26\.7 million in revenues in 2013, serving 600,000 meals. Only [Tao Asian Bistro](/wiki/Tao_Asian_Bistro "Tao Asian Bistro") in Las Vegas with $64\.6 million in revenues and [Joe's Stone Crab](/wiki/Joe%27s_Stone_Crab "Joe's Stone Crab") in Miami, with $35\.3 million in revenues, ranked higher.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/blog/top\-shelf/2014/10/old\-ebbitt\-grill\-among\-topgrossing\-independent.html\|last\=Clabaugh\|first\=Jeff\|title\=Old Ebbitt Grill Among Top\-Grossing Independent Restaurants\|newspaper\=Washington Business Journal\|date\=October 14, 2014\|access\-date\=October 15, 2014}} In July 2019, Clyde's Restaurant Group was acquired by [Graham Holdings](/wiki/Graham_Holdings "Graham Holdings").{{cite news \|last1\=Maynard \|first1\=Michelle \|title\=From News To Nightcaps: Washington's Graham Family Buys The Clyde's Group \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michelinemaynard/2019/08/01/from\-news\-to\-booze\-washingtons\-\-graham\-family\-buys\-the\-clydes\-group/ \|work\=Forbes \|date\=August 1, 2019}}
[ "Old Ebbitt Grill: 1984 to present\n---------------------------------", "### 1980s", "[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Northwest corner of Metropolitan Square, showing the Keith\\-Albee facade and the new structure built behind it. The blue awnings shade the windows of Old Ebbitt Grill.](/wiki/File:Metropolitan_Square_-_Washington_DC_-_north_facade.JPG \"Metropolitan Square - Washington DC - north facade.JPG\")\nOld Ebbitt Grill reopened at 675 15th Street NW in early October 1983\\. Clyde's Restaurant Group spent $4\\.4 million constructing and outfitting the interior.Joynt, Carol Ross. \"A Q\\&A With John Laytham, CEO of Clyde's Restaurant Group.\" *Washingtonian.* January 5, 2012\\. The architectural firm of Andrews \\& Chatelain designed the interior.Horwitz, Sari. \"Zephyr Hopes to Exploit Mystique of Luxury Train Travel.\" *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1984\\. Architect John Richards Andrews did most of the design work. See: \"John Andrews Dies at 66; Longtime Area Architect.\" *The Washington Post*. July 8, 1995\\. The interior decoration was designed to mimic the bar at 1427 F Street, and included the game trophies, some of which were originals, not recreations, and rumored to have been shot by President [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt \"Theodore Roosevelt\").\"Then \\& Again.\" *The Washington Post*. October 21, 2007\\. Old Ebbitt's famous mahogany bar was not installed in the new location. A replica was crafted instead. The walls were paneled in mahogany and the ceilings decorated with [murals](/wiki/Mural \"Mural\") and [stencils](/wiki/Stencil \"Stencil\"). The restaurant had seating for 200 at tables and in booths. The booths had green leather seats and velvet\\-covered walls, and were separated from one another by etched glass dividers. The long bar still sported mounted game animal trophies overhead, the fixtures were of marble or brass, and the curtains of lace. An oyster bar was added to the rear of the restaurant on the main floor. The kitchen featured a special charcoal\\-burning grill, and the wine cellar featured a Cruvinet wine dispensing system.[Richman, Phyllis](/wiki/Phyllis_Richman \"Phyllis Richman\"). \"Old Ebbitt Grill.\" *The Washington Post*. February 5, 1984\\.Cruvinet is the name of a company which invented a system for dispensing wine similar to the way beer is dispensed on tap. Cruvinet systems, which can be mobile or installed and can accommodate anywhere from two to 120 bottles, immediately recork a bottle of wine. Nitrogen gas is pumped through a valve in the replacement cork to prevent oxidation. This allows a bottle of wine to remain open for up to two weeks without spoiling. The system was invented in 1978, although many different companies make \"wine bar systems\" today. See: [Chamberlain, Chris. \"Cruvinet: It's Like Wine on Tap.\"](http://www.nashvillescene.com/bites/archives/2010/12/21/wine-wednesday-cruvinet-its-like-wine-on-tap) *[Nashville Scene](/wiki/Nashville_Scene \"Nashville Scene\").* December 21, 2010\\. Accessed 2012\\-12\\-31\\. Gas lamps were used in the main bar and booth area.\"Readers' Guide.\" *The Washington Post*. September 23, 1984\\. A year after the Grill opened, *The Washington Post* said it had the best dining ambience of any restaurant in the city.\"Superlatives to Eat By.\" *The Washington Post*. March 24, 1985\\.", "The restaurant also instituted a \"back waiter\" system. Back waiters were trained to balance plates of food on their arms, so they could get them to tables faster without the need to load and unload trays. Back waiters were required to have excellent physical strength and good balance. The back waiter system was created so that waiters continued to wait on tables rather than spending time in the kitchen waiting for orders to be filled.\"Stepping Up to the Plates.\" *The Washington Post*. September 3, 2003\\.", "The Omelet Room did not make the transition to the new location. National health campaigns against high cholesterol had reduced demand for foods heavy in eggs.Kelly, John. \"At Clyde's, Treat Yourself to a Good Lunch and Cause.\" *The Washington Post*. June 3, 2009\\. Instead, the basement contained a large private dining room.", "The new restaurant was immediately popular.Pyatt, Jr., Rudolph A. \"Can Rhodes Tavern Be Resolved?\" *The Washington Post*. December 23, 1983\\. *Washington Post* food critic [Phyllis Richman](/wiki/Phyllis_Richman \"Phyllis Richman\") declared the restaurant's signature hamburger its best entree. She found the appetizers and salads excellent, but considered the pasta dishes hit\\-or\\-miss and disparaged the main entrees. Within a year, the restaurant was mostly being patronized by [yuppies](/wiki/Yuppie \"Yuppie\"), lawyers, and tourists.\"Apres Show: More Food For Thought.\" *The Washington Post*. January 25, 1985; Sommers, Pamela. \"Hot Spots for the Eat of the Night.\" *The Washington Post*. October 4, 1985\\.Richman, Phyllis. \"Old Ebbitt Grill.\" *The Washington Post*. September 22, 1985\\. A 1986 food review in *The Washington Post* concluded that Old Ebbitt Grill had the worst omelets and pancakes in the city, but the best appetizers. Its main claim to fame was its hefty portions and moderate prices.", "Old Ebbitt Grill was the site of a discussion among administration officials hoping to protect President Reagan from fallout related to the [Iran–Contra affair](/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair \"Iran–Contra affair\") of 1986\\. Beginning in 1984, officials in the [Reagan administration](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") sought to sell conventional weapons to [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") via [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") in exchange for Iran using its influence to win the release of American hostages being held by [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah \"Hezbollah\") and other terrorist groups in [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), which was then in the throes of a civil war. In December 1985, [Oliver North](/wiki/Oliver_North \"Oliver North\"), a [Lieutenant Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant colonel (United States)\") in the [Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") who was serving as a military aide to the [National Security Council](/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council \"United States National Security Council\"), proposed selling the weapons directly to Iran at a $15 million mark\\-up. He would use the excess funds to supply arms and supplies to the [Contras](/wiki/Contras \"Contras\"). The Contras were [guerrilla](/wiki/Guerrilla \"Guerrilla\") fighters opposed to the communist government of Nicaragua led by [Daniel Ortega](/wiki/Daniel_Ortega \"Daniel Ortega\"). The United States was barred by the [Boland Amendment](/wiki/Boland_Amendment \"Boland Amendment\") from supporting the Contras.", "The Iran\\-Contra affair was exposed by the press on November 3, 1986, and on November 13, President Reagan publicly admitted that an arms\\-for\\-hostages deal existed. However, the diversion of funds to the Contras was not yet exposed. On November 22, [Assistant Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General \"United States Assistant Attorney General\") [William Bradford Reynolds](/wiki/William_Bradford_Reynolds \"William Bradford Reynolds\") discovered an April 1986 draft memo from North to [National Security Advisor](/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_%28United_States%29 \"National Security Advisor (United States)\") [John Poindexter](/wiki/John_Poindexter \"John Poindexter\"), who was at the time also serving as a [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_admiral_%28United_States%29 \"Vice admiral (United States)\") in the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"), which suggested that $12 million in Iranian weapons sales be used to help the Contras. Reynolds discovered the document in North's files during a meeting with North in his White House office. Reynolds smuggled the document out of North's office and took it to a luncheon meeting at Old Ebbitt with [Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General \"United States Attorney General\") [Edwin Meese](/wiki/Edwin_Meese \"Edwin Meese\"). When shown the document, Meese allegedly said, \"Oh, darn.\" Assistant Attorney General [Charles J. Cooper](/wiki/Charles_J._Cooper \"Charles J. Cooper\"), a young appointee in the Office of Legal Counsel, also at the lunch, said the memo was a \"bomb.\"Pincus, Walter and Morgan, Dan. \"High\\-Level Iran Cover\\-Up Shown in Testimony, Documents.\" *The Washington Post*. June 26, 1987\\.", "In the late 1980s, Old Ebbitt Grill became a popular hangout for actors and crew from the nearby [National Theatre](/wiki/National_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"National Theatre (Washington, D.C.)\") and [Warner Theatre](/wiki/Warner_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"Warner Theatre (Washington, D.C.)\"). Choreographer and director [Bob Fosse](/wiki/Bob_Fosse \"Bob Fosse\") was preparing to host a party at Old Ebbitt Grill when he collapsed outside the restaurant and died of a heart attack on September 23, 1987\\. His revival of *[Sweet Charity](/wiki/Sweet_Charity \"Sweet Charity\")*, which he choreographed, had just debuted at the National Theatre.Hall, Charles W. \"Bob Fosse Dies After Collapsing On D.C. Street.\" *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1987\\. Old Ebbitt began hanging posters in the lobby of current theatrical performances.Brown, Joe. \"Dramatic Discoveries.\" *The Washington Post*. May 7, 1989\\.", "President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") and [First Lady](/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States \"First Lady of the United States\") [Barbara Bush](/wiki/Barbara_Bush \"Barbara Bush\") met the singer and actor [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 \"Sting (musician)\") at Old Ebbitt Grill in September 1989 after his Washington debut in the title role in *[Three Penny Opera](/wiki/Three_Penny_Opera \"Three Penny Opera\").*{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/09/15/at\\-the\\-sting\\-along/7593d712\\-7346\\-48b7\\-86a4\\-3d9d7e344cbc/\\|last\\=Conroy\\|first\\=Sarah Booth\\|title\\=At the {{proper name\\|Sting}}\\-Along.\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post.\\|date\\=September 15, 1989\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2019}} The [Rolling Stones](/wiki/Rolling_Stones \"Rolling Stones\") dined at the restaurant a few weeks later after a concert in the city.Conconi, Chuck. \"Personalities.\" *The Washington Post*. September 26, 1989\\. In 1991, playwright [Neil Simon](/wiki/Neil_Simon \"Neil Simon\"), director [Gene Saks](/wiki/Gene_Saks \"Gene Saks\") and the cast of the play *[Lost in Yonkers](/wiki/Lost_in_Yonkers \"Lost in Yonkers\")* held the opening night after\\-party on January 17 at Old Ebbitt Grill. Just minutes before the curtain rose on the Washington debut of the play, the cast learned that the United States had declared war on Iraq and begun the [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\").Conconi, Chuck. \"Personalities.\" *The Washington Post*. January 18, 1991\\. After the world premier of the motion picture *[The River Wild](/wiki/The_River_Wild \"The River Wild\")* in August 1994 in Washington, D.C., a reception for the stars was held at Old Ebbitt.\"Fall Frolics.\" *The Washington Post*. August 28, 1994\\.", "### 1990s", "[thumb\\|The famous mahogany bar at Old Ebbitt Grill](/wiki/File:Old_Ebbitt_Grill_bar.jpg \"Old Ebbitt Grill bar.jpg\")\nIn the early 1990s, Old Ebbitt Grill was financially one of the best\\-performing restaurants in the city. In July 1992, the *[Washington Business Journal](/wiki/Washington_Business_Journal \"Washington Business Journal\")* said the 390\\-seat Old Ebbitt Grill grossed more money than any other restaurant in the D.C. metropolitan area.McKeon, Nancy. \"Lite.\" *The Washington Post*. August 23, 1992\\. It spent $17,000 a month on table linens.Singletary, Michelle. \"Failures Eat Into Restaurant Community.\" *The Washington Post*. March 11, 1992\\. The *Washington Post's* Phyllis Richman claimed the combination of superb hamburgers with seasonal foods such as fresh Alaskan halibut, corn on the cob in the summer, and locally grown vegetables and berries, was what drew customers.Richman, Phyllis. \"Potomac Fever.\" *The Washington Post*. September 19, 1993\\. In May 1994, Old Ebbitt Grill added a take\\-out service, Ebbitt Express, in the atrium section of its restaurant.Richman, Phyllis C. \"Star Service Up on the Roof.\" *The Washington Post*. May 13, 1994\\.", "In 1995, business dropped after [Pennsylvania Avenue](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Avenue_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)\") NW was closed to street traffic and curbside parking was eliminated in front of the restaurant on 15th Street NW for security reasons following the bombing by an American domestic terrorist of the Oklahoma Federal Building.Fehr, Stephen C. and Haggerty, Maryann. \"Barricades a Blow to Business.\" *The Washington Post*. May 28, 1995\\. Some of the business was made up by Ebbitt Express, which by December 1997 was serving 600 meals a day—twice as many as projected.Salmon, Jacqueline. \"The New Workplace Motto: Let's Not Do Lunch.\" *The Washington Post*. December 3, 1997\\.", "Old Ebbitt Grill's oyster bar closed in 1992 after diners fell ill from eating raw oysters infected with the deadly *[Vibrio vulnificus](/wiki/Vibrio_vulnificus \"Vibrio vulnificus\")* bacteria. The restaurant established a procedure for an independent laboratory to test its oysters for the bacteria prior to consumption. In November 1994, Old Ebbitt Grill reopened its oyster bar to much press attention.Zibart, Eve. \"O Chestnut Tree.\" *The Washington Post*. November 11, 1994\\. *Washington Post* food critic Eve Zibart, writing in August 1995, said that its highly polished woodwork, counter facing the ice bed and shuckers, and excellent selection of oysters made it a \"first\\-class raw bar\".Zibart, Eve. \"The Raw Truth About Shellfish.\" *The Washington Post*. August 11, 1995\\. Shortly after the oyster bar reopened, Old Ebbitt Grill lost its long\\-time chef, Juan Bosio. The restaurant hired Robert McGowan, formerly a chef at [Sardi's](/wiki/Sardi%27s \"Sardi's\") in New York City.\"On The Fridge.\" *The Washington Post*. December 13, 1995\\.", "### 2000s", "Security changes in Washington, D.C., after the [September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") significantly affected Old Ebbitt Grill for a while. The restaurant was forced to close for two days when streets near the White House were closed.Sietsema, Tom. \"On the Fridge.\" *The Washington Post*. September 19, 2001\\. Over the next two weeks, the restaurant lost half its business, which normally ran 2,000 customers a day, most of them politicians and businesspeople.Sugarman, Carole. \"Food \\& Drink: Changing Needs?\" *The Washington Post*. September 26, 2001; Timberg, Craig. \"Fined, Mayor Revives Fundraising.\" *The Washington Post*. August 22, 2002\\. After First Lady [Laura Bush](/wiki/Laura_Bush \"Laura Bush\") began patronizing the restaurant,Reel, Monte. \"The President Who Lives Apart.\" *The Washington Post*. January 26, 2003\\. business soon returned to normal.", "The [Beltway sniper attacks](/wiki/Beltway_sniper_attacks \"Beltway sniper attacks\") of fall 2002 did not affect business, which continued to hold steady through February 2003, a time of high alert and anxiety.Irwin, Neil and Hedgpeth, Dana. \"High Alert, High Anxiety.\" *The Washington Post*. February 17, 2003\\.", "Due to security restrictions in 2004, Old Ebbitt Grill was nearly prevented from its traditional practice of selling coffee and hot chocolate to spectators watching the [inaugural parade](/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama \"First inauguration of Barack Obama\"), in this case for the landmark election of [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") as President of the United States. That year the [Democratic Leadership Council](/wiki/Democratic_Leadership_Council \"Democratic Leadership Council\") rented the entire restaurant for a private party on Inauguration Day.Nakamura, David and Boschma, Janie. \"Comfortable Perches Along Pennsylvania Avenue Are Much in Demand.\" *The Washington Post*. January 16, 2009\\.", "In 2003, Old Ebbitt Grill was busiest on weekends in the spring, when high school student tourist business was at its highest in the city.Schulte, Brigid. \"To Tan, a Place in the Sun Not Needed.\" *The Washington Post*. June 1, 2003\\. The restaurant was praised by *The Washington Post* for being able to accommodate large groups, offering a variety of plain and upscale food, providing friendly service, and having the best raw bar in the city.Sietsema, Tom. \"Seeing Stars.\" *The Washington Post*. October 19, 2003\\. The restaurant was also criticized by the newspaper for being too noisy for conversation,\"Visitors to the Mall Have Plenty of Dining Options While Sightseeing.\" *The Washington Post*. May 22, 2003\\. and providing bland hamburgers, salads, and breakfast.", "By 2008, however, Old Ebbitt Grill's reviews had improved. *Post* food critic Tom Sietsema continued to laud the friendly service. He also praised the Breakfast Club, a deep\\-fried ham, French toast, and bacon breakfast sandwich. He appreciated small touches such as coat hooks near booths and pepper mills on tables and found the staff's honesty about menu choices refreshing.Sietsema, Tom. \"The Bacon\\-and\\-Eggs Brigade.\" *The Washington Post*. November 30, 2008\\.", "In 2009, Old Ebbitt Grill had the fourth or fifth\\-highest volume of restaurant customers in the United States. Due to its proximity to the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\"), it was a favorite of [United States Secret Service](/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service \"United States Secret Service\") personnel as well as tourists.Roig\\-Franzia, Manuel. \"Lunch at the 'Power Section'.\" *The Washington Post*. September 20, 2009\\. In 2010, after the [Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear](/wiki/Rally_to_Restore_Sanity_and/or_Fear \"Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear\"), comedian [Stephen Colbert](/wiki/Stephen_Colbert \"Stephen Colbert\") hosted a [Comedy Central](/wiki/Comedy_Central \"Comedy Central\") after\\-party at Old Ebbitt Grill. In attendance were [Wyatt Cenac](/wiki/Wyatt_Cenac \"Wyatt Cenac\"), [Rosario Dawson](/wiki/Rosario_Dawson \"Rosario Dawson\"), [Mick Foley](/wiki/Mick_Foley \"Mick Foley\"), [Tim Meadows](/wiki/Tim_Meadows \"Tim Meadows\"), John Oliver, then a Colbert show regular, and [Jamie Hyneman](/wiki/Jamie_Hyneman \"Jamie Hyneman\") and [Adam Savage](/wiki/Adam_Savage \"Adam Savage\"), the hosts of the *[MythBusters](/wiki/MythBusters \"MythBusters\")* television series.Argetsinger, Amy and Roberts, Roxanne. \"Thinking About Drapes In Case It's Curtains For Madam Speaker.\" *The Washington Post*. November 2, 2010\\.", "### 2010s", "In January 2012, Clyde's Restaurant Group chief executive officer John Laytham claimed that Old Ebbitt Grill was the third or fourth highest grossing restaurant in the country. Laytham said the restaurant turned away 800 to 900 customers a day and did $26 million in sales in 2011\\. In April 2012, sales were still 1 percent ahead of 2011\\.\"Reality Check: US Restaurateurs Say Cons Sent Mostly Static.\" *The Main Wire.* April 17, 2012\\. After a slow summer, business at the restaurant had slowed so much that sales were steady compared to 2011\\.\"Reality Check: US Restaurateurs Say Consumer Sent Still Stuck.\" *The Main Wire.* September 21, 2012\\.", "In 2011, *The Washington Post* listed Old Ebbitt Grill as one of the top three raw bars in the city.\"Where to Shell Out For Oysters in D.C.\" *The Washington Post*. February 19, 2011\\. *Post* food reviewer Tom Sietsema, however, had little good to say about the entrees (nearly all of which he found disappointing) and the service (which he found to be tardy and focused more on getting customers to buy more food). The busy atmosphere, he argued, was not conducive to a positive dining experience.Sietsema, Tom. \"Worth Taking a Second Look.\" *The Washington Post*. May 20, 2011\\.", "Old Ebbitt Grill said in December 2012 that it was already booked for a private event for the [second inauguration of Barack Obama](/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama \"Second inauguration of Barack Obama\").Chen, Aimee and Mendelson, Will. \"No Rush Yet on Inaugural Tickets and Hotel Rooms.\" *Asbury Park Daily Herald.* December 3, 2012\\.", "*Restaurant Business Magazine* reported in October 2014 that Old Ebbitt Grill ranked third in the nation in revenue for 2013\\. The industry trade [publication of record](/wiki/Newspaper_of_record \"Newspaper of record\") said the restaurant had $26\\.7 million in revenues in 2013, serving 600,000 meals. Only [Tao Asian Bistro](/wiki/Tao_Asian_Bistro \"Tao Asian Bistro\") in Las Vegas with $64\\.6 million in revenues and [Joe's Stone Crab](/wiki/Joe%27s_Stone_Crab \"Joe's Stone Crab\") in Miami, with $35\\.3 million in revenues, ranked higher.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/blog/top\\-shelf/2014/10/old\\-ebbitt\\-grill\\-among\\-topgrossing\\-independent.html\\|last\\=Clabaugh\\|first\\=Jeff\\|title\\=Old Ebbitt Grill Among Top\\-Grossing Independent Restaurants\\|newspaper\\=Washington Business Journal\\|date\\=October 14, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2014}}", "In July 2019, Clyde's Restaurant Group was acquired by [Graham Holdings](/wiki/Graham_Holdings \"Graham Holdings\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Maynard \\|first1\\=Michelle \\|title\\=From News To Nightcaps: Washington's Graham Family Buys The Clyde's Group \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michelinemaynard/2019/08/01/from\\-news\\-to\\-booze\\-washingtons\\-\\-graham\\-family\\-buys\\-the\\-clydes\\-group/ \\|work\\=Forbes \\|date\\=August 1, 2019}}", "" ]
### 1980s [thumb\|left\|300px\|Northwest corner of Metropolitan Square, showing the Keith\-Albee facade and the new structure built behind it. The blue awnings shade the windows of Old Ebbitt Grill.](/wiki/File:Metropolitan_Square_-_Washington_DC_-_north_facade.JPG "Metropolitan Square - Washington DC - north facade.JPG") Old Ebbitt Grill reopened at 675 15th Street NW in early October 1983\. Clyde's Restaurant Group spent $4\.4 million constructing and outfitting the interior.Joynt, Carol Ross. "A Q\&A With John Laytham, CEO of Clyde's Restaurant Group." *Washingtonian.* January 5, 2012\. The architectural firm of Andrews \& Chatelain designed the interior.Horwitz, Sari. "Zephyr Hopes to Exploit Mystique of Luxury Train Travel." *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1984\. Architect John Richards Andrews did most of the design work. See: "John Andrews Dies at 66; Longtime Area Architect." *The Washington Post*. July 8, 1995\. The interior decoration was designed to mimic the bar at 1427 F Street, and included the game trophies, some of which were originals, not recreations, and rumored to have been shot by President [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt "Theodore Roosevelt")."Then \& Again." *The Washington Post*. October 21, 2007\. Old Ebbitt's famous mahogany bar was not installed in the new location. A replica was crafted instead. The walls were paneled in mahogany and the ceilings decorated with [murals](/wiki/Mural "Mural") and [stencils](/wiki/Stencil "Stencil"). The restaurant had seating for 200 at tables and in booths. The booths had green leather seats and velvet\-covered walls, and were separated from one another by etched glass dividers. The long bar still sported mounted game animal trophies overhead, the fixtures were of marble or brass, and the curtains of lace. An oyster bar was added to the rear of the restaurant on the main floor. The kitchen featured a special charcoal\-burning grill, and the wine cellar featured a Cruvinet wine dispensing system.[Richman, Phyllis](/wiki/Phyllis_Richman "Phyllis Richman"). "Old Ebbitt Grill." *The Washington Post*. February 5, 1984\.Cruvinet is the name of a company which invented a system for dispensing wine similar to the way beer is dispensed on tap. Cruvinet systems, which can be mobile or installed and can accommodate anywhere from two to 120 bottles, immediately recork a bottle of wine. Nitrogen gas is pumped through a valve in the replacement cork to prevent oxidation. This allows a bottle of wine to remain open for up to two weeks without spoiling. The system was invented in 1978, although many different companies make "wine bar systems" today. See: [Chamberlain, Chris. "Cruvinet: It's Like Wine on Tap."](http://www.nashvillescene.com/bites/archives/2010/12/21/wine-wednesday-cruvinet-its-like-wine-on-tap) *[Nashville Scene](/wiki/Nashville_Scene "Nashville Scene").* December 21, 2010\. Accessed 2012\-12\-31\. Gas lamps were used in the main bar and booth area."Readers' Guide." *The Washington Post*. September 23, 1984\. A year after the Grill opened, *The Washington Post* said it had the best dining ambience of any restaurant in the city."Superlatives to Eat By." *The Washington Post*. March 24, 1985\. The restaurant also instituted a "back waiter" system. Back waiters were trained to balance plates of food on their arms, so they could get them to tables faster without the need to load and unload trays. Back waiters were required to have excellent physical strength and good balance. The back waiter system was created so that waiters continued to wait on tables rather than spending time in the kitchen waiting for orders to be filled."Stepping Up to the Plates." *The Washington Post*. September 3, 2003\. The Omelet Room did not make the transition to the new location. National health campaigns against high cholesterol had reduced demand for foods heavy in eggs.Kelly, John. "At Clyde's, Treat Yourself to a Good Lunch and Cause." *The Washington Post*. June 3, 2009\. Instead, the basement contained a large private dining room. The new restaurant was immediately popular.Pyatt, Jr., Rudolph A. "Can Rhodes Tavern Be Resolved?" *The Washington Post*. December 23, 1983\. *Washington Post* food critic [Phyllis Richman](/wiki/Phyllis_Richman "Phyllis Richman") declared the restaurant's signature hamburger its best entree. She found the appetizers and salads excellent, but considered the pasta dishes hit\-or\-miss and disparaged the main entrees. Within a year, the restaurant was mostly being patronized by [yuppies](/wiki/Yuppie "Yuppie"), lawyers, and tourists."Apres Show: More Food For Thought." *The Washington Post*. January 25, 1985; Sommers, Pamela. "Hot Spots for the Eat of the Night." *The Washington Post*. October 4, 1985\.Richman, Phyllis. "Old Ebbitt Grill." *The Washington Post*. September 22, 1985\. A 1986 food review in *The Washington Post* concluded that Old Ebbitt Grill had the worst omelets and pancakes in the city, but the best appetizers. Its main claim to fame was its hefty portions and moderate prices. Old Ebbitt Grill was the site of a discussion among administration officials hoping to protect President Reagan from fallout related to the [Iran–Contra affair](/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair "Iran–Contra affair") of 1986\. Beginning in 1984, officials in the [Reagan administration](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") sought to sell conventional weapons to [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") via [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") in exchange for Iran using its influence to win the release of American hostages being held by [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah") and other terrorist groups in [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), which was then in the throes of a civil war. In December 1985, [Oliver North](/wiki/Oliver_North "Oliver North"), a [Lieutenant Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant colonel (United States)") in the [Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") who was serving as a military aide to the [National Security Council](/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council "United States National Security Council"), proposed selling the weapons directly to Iran at a $15 million mark\-up. He would use the excess funds to supply arms and supplies to the [Contras](/wiki/Contras "Contras"). The Contras were [guerrilla](/wiki/Guerrilla "Guerrilla") fighters opposed to the communist government of Nicaragua led by [Daniel Ortega](/wiki/Daniel_Ortega "Daniel Ortega"). The United States was barred by the [Boland Amendment](/wiki/Boland_Amendment "Boland Amendment") from supporting the Contras. The Iran\-Contra affair was exposed by the press on November 3, 1986, and on November 13, President Reagan publicly admitted that an arms\-for\-hostages deal existed. However, the diversion of funds to the Contras was not yet exposed. On November 22, [Assistant Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General "United States Assistant Attorney General") [William Bradford Reynolds](/wiki/William_Bradford_Reynolds "William Bradford Reynolds") discovered an April 1986 draft memo from North to [National Security Advisor](/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_%28United_States%29 "National Security Advisor (United States)") [John Poindexter](/wiki/John_Poindexter "John Poindexter"), who was at the time also serving as a [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_admiral_%28United_States%29 "Vice admiral (United States)") in the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy"), which suggested that $12 million in Iranian weapons sales be used to help the Contras. Reynolds discovered the document in North's files during a meeting with North in his White House office. Reynolds smuggled the document out of North's office and took it to a luncheon meeting at Old Ebbitt with [Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General "United States Attorney General") [Edwin Meese](/wiki/Edwin_Meese "Edwin Meese"). When shown the document, Meese allegedly said, "Oh, darn." Assistant Attorney General [Charles J. Cooper](/wiki/Charles_J._Cooper "Charles J. Cooper"), a young appointee in the Office of Legal Counsel, also at the lunch, said the memo was a "bomb."Pincus, Walter and Morgan, Dan. "High\-Level Iran Cover\-Up Shown in Testimony, Documents." *The Washington Post*. June 26, 1987\. In the late 1980s, Old Ebbitt Grill became a popular hangout for actors and crew from the nearby [National Theatre](/wiki/National_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "National Theatre (Washington, D.C.)") and [Warner Theatre](/wiki/Warner_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "Warner Theatre (Washington, D.C.)"). Choreographer and director [Bob Fosse](/wiki/Bob_Fosse "Bob Fosse") was preparing to host a party at Old Ebbitt Grill when he collapsed outside the restaurant and died of a heart attack on September 23, 1987\. His revival of *[Sweet Charity](/wiki/Sweet_Charity "Sweet Charity")*, which he choreographed, had just debuted at the National Theatre.Hall, Charles W. "Bob Fosse Dies After Collapsing On D.C. Street." *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1987\. Old Ebbitt began hanging posters in the lobby of current theatrical performances.Brown, Joe. "Dramatic Discoveries." *The Washington Post*. May 7, 1989\. President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") and [First Lady](/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States "First Lady of the United States") [Barbara Bush](/wiki/Barbara_Bush "Barbara Bush") met the singer and actor [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 "Sting (musician)") at Old Ebbitt Grill in September 1989 after his Washington debut in the title role in *[Three Penny Opera](/wiki/Three_Penny_Opera "Three Penny Opera").*{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/09/15/at\-the\-sting\-along/7593d712\-7346\-48b7\-86a4\-3d9d7e344cbc/\|last\=Conroy\|first\=Sarah Booth\|title\=At the {{proper name\|Sting}}\-Along.\|newspaper\=The Washington Post.\|date\=September 15, 1989\|access\-date\=May 3, 2019}} The [Rolling Stones](/wiki/Rolling_Stones "Rolling Stones") dined at the restaurant a few weeks later after a concert in the city.Conconi, Chuck. "Personalities." *The Washington Post*. September 26, 1989\. In 1991, playwright [Neil Simon](/wiki/Neil_Simon "Neil Simon"), director [Gene Saks](/wiki/Gene_Saks "Gene Saks") and the cast of the play *[Lost in Yonkers](/wiki/Lost_in_Yonkers "Lost in Yonkers")* held the opening night after\-party on January 17 at Old Ebbitt Grill. Just minutes before the curtain rose on the Washington debut of the play, the cast learned that the United States had declared war on Iraq and begun the [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War").Conconi, Chuck. "Personalities." *The Washington Post*. January 18, 1991\. After the world premier of the motion picture *[The River Wild](/wiki/The_River_Wild "The River Wild")* in August 1994 in Washington, D.C., a reception for the stars was held at Old Ebbitt."Fall Frolics." *The Washington Post*. August 28, 1994\.
[ "### 1980s", "[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Northwest corner of Metropolitan Square, showing the Keith\\-Albee facade and the new structure built behind it. The blue awnings shade the windows of Old Ebbitt Grill.](/wiki/File:Metropolitan_Square_-_Washington_DC_-_north_facade.JPG \"Metropolitan Square - Washington DC - north facade.JPG\")\nOld Ebbitt Grill reopened at 675 15th Street NW in early October 1983\\. Clyde's Restaurant Group spent $4\\.4 million constructing and outfitting the interior.Joynt, Carol Ross. \"A Q\\&A With John Laytham, CEO of Clyde's Restaurant Group.\" *Washingtonian.* January 5, 2012\\. The architectural firm of Andrews \\& Chatelain designed the interior.Horwitz, Sari. \"Zephyr Hopes to Exploit Mystique of Luxury Train Travel.\" *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1984\\. Architect John Richards Andrews did most of the design work. See: \"John Andrews Dies at 66; Longtime Area Architect.\" *The Washington Post*. July 8, 1995\\. The interior decoration was designed to mimic the bar at 1427 F Street, and included the game trophies, some of which were originals, not recreations, and rumored to have been shot by President [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt \"Theodore Roosevelt\").\"Then \\& Again.\" *The Washington Post*. October 21, 2007\\. Old Ebbitt's famous mahogany bar was not installed in the new location. A replica was crafted instead. The walls were paneled in mahogany and the ceilings decorated with [murals](/wiki/Mural \"Mural\") and [stencils](/wiki/Stencil \"Stencil\"). The restaurant had seating for 200 at tables and in booths. The booths had green leather seats and velvet\\-covered walls, and were separated from one another by etched glass dividers. The long bar still sported mounted game animal trophies overhead, the fixtures were of marble or brass, and the curtains of lace. An oyster bar was added to the rear of the restaurant on the main floor. The kitchen featured a special charcoal\\-burning grill, and the wine cellar featured a Cruvinet wine dispensing system.[Richman, Phyllis](/wiki/Phyllis_Richman \"Phyllis Richman\"). \"Old Ebbitt Grill.\" *The Washington Post*. February 5, 1984\\.Cruvinet is the name of a company which invented a system for dispensing wine similar to the way beer is dispensed on tap. Cruvinet systems, which can be mobile or installed and can accommodate anywhere from two to 120 bottles, immediately recork a bottle of wine. Nitrogen gas is pumped through a valve in the replacement cork to prevent oxidation. This allows a bottle of wine to remain open for up to two weeks without spoiling. The system was invented in 1978, although many different companies make \"wine bar systems\" today. See: [Chamberlain, Chris. \"Cruvinet: It's Like Wine on Tap.\"](http://www.nashvillescene.com/bites/archives/2010/12/21/wine-wednesday-cruvinet-its-like-wine-on-tap) *[Nashville Scene](/wiki/Nashville_Scene \"Nashville Scene\").* December 21, 2010\\. Accessed 2012\\-12\\-31\\. Gas lamps were used in the main bar and booth area.\"Readers' Guide.\" *The Washington Post*. September 23, 1984\\. A year after the Grill opened, *The Washington Post* said it had the best dining ambience of any restaurant in the city.\"Superlatives to Eat By.\" *The Washington Post*. March 24, 1985\\.", "The restaurant also instituted a \"back waiter\" system. Back waiters were trained to balance plates of food on their arms, so they could get them to tables faster without the need to load and unload trays. Back waiters were required to have excellent physical strength and good balance. The back waiter system was created so that waiters continued to wait on tables rather than spending time in the kitchen waiting for orders to be filled.\"Stepping Up to the Plates.\" *The Washington Post*. September 3, 2003\\.", "The Omelet Room did not make the transition to the new location. National health campaigns against high cholesterol had reduced demand for foods heavy in eggs.Kelly, John. \"At Clyde's, Treat Yourself to a Good Lunch and Cause.\" *The Washington Post*. June 3, 2009\\. Instead, the basement contained a large private dining room.", "The new restaurant was immediately popular.Pyatt, Jr., Rudolph A. \"Can Rhodes Tavern Be Resolved?\" *The Washington Post*. December 23, 1983\\. *Washington Post* food critic [Phyllis Richman](/wiki/Phyllis_Richman \"Phyllis Richman\") declared the restaurant's signature hamburger its best entree. She found the appetizers and salads excellent, but considered the pasta dishes hit\\-or\\-miss and disparaged the main entrees. Within a year, the restaurant was mostly being patronized by [yuppies](/wiki/Yuppie \"Yuppie\"), lawyers, and tourists.\"Apres Show: More Food For Thought.\" *The Washington Post*. January 25, 1985; Sommers, Pamela. \"Hot Spots for the Eat of the Night.\" *The Washington Post*. October 4, 1985\\.Richman, Phyllis. \"Old Ebbitt Grill.\" *The Washington Post*. September 22, 1985\\. A 1986 food review in *The Washington Post* concluded that Old Ebbitt Grill had the worst omelets and pancakes in the city, but the best appetizers. Its main claim to fame was its hefty portions and moderate prices.", "Old Ebbitt Grill was the site of a discussion among administration officials hoping to protect President Reagan from fallout related to the [Iran–Contra affair](/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair \"Iran–Contra affair\") of 1986\\. Beginning in 1984, officials in the [Reagan administration](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") sought to sell conventional weapons to [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") via [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") in exchange for Iran using its influence to win the release of American hostages being held by [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah \"Hezbollah\") and other terrorist groups in [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), which was then in the throes of a civil war. In December 1985, [Oliver North](/wiki/Oliver_North \"Oliver North\"), a [Lieutenant Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant colonel (United States)\") in the [Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") who was serving as a military aide to the [National Security Council](/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council \"United States National Security Council\"), proposed selling the weapons directly to Iran at a $15 million mark\\-up. He would use the excess funds to supply arms and supplies to the [Contras](/wiki/Contras \"Contras\"). The Contras were [guerrilla](/wiki/Guerrilla \"Guerrilla\") fighters opposed to the communist government of Nicaragua led by [Daniel Ortega](/wiki/Daniel_Ortega \"Daniel Ortega\"). The United States was barred by the [Boland Amendment](/wiki/Boland_Amendment \"Boland Amendment\") from supporting the Contras.", "The Iran\\-Contra affair was exposed by the press on November 3, 1986, and on November 13, President Reagan publicly admitted that an arms\\-for\\-hostages deal existed. However, the diversion of funds to the Contras was not yet exposed. On November 22, [Assistant Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General \"United States Assistant Attorney General\") [William Bradford Reynolds](/wiki/William_Bradford_Reynolds \"William Bradford Reynolds\") discovered an April 1986 draft memo from North to [National Security Advisor](/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_%28United_States%29 \"National Security Advisor (United States)\") [John Poindexter](/wiki/John_Poindexter \"John Poindexter\"), who was at the time also serving as a [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_admiral_%28United_States%29 \"Vice admiral (United States)\") in the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"), which suggested that $12 million in Iranian weapons sales be used to help the Contras. Reynolds discovered the document in North's files during a meeting with North in his White House office. Reynolds smuggled the document out of North's office and took it to a luncheon meeting at Old Ebbitt with [Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General \"United States Attorney General\") [Edwin Meese](/wiki/Edwin_Meese \"Edwin Meese\"). When shown the document, Meese allegedly said, \"Oh, darn.\" Assistant Attorney General [Charles J. Cooper](/wiki/Charles_J._Cooper \"Charles J. Cooper\"), a young appointee in the Office of Legal Counsel, also at the lunch, said the memo was a \"bomb.\"Pincus, Walter and Morgan, Dan. \"High\\-Level Iran Cover\\-Up Shown in Testimony, Documents.\" *The Washington Post*. June 26, 1987\\.", "In the late 1980s, Old Ebbitt Grill became a popular hangout for actors and crew from the nearby [National Theatre](/wiki/National_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"National Theatre (Washington, D.C.)\") and [Warner Theatre](/wiki/Warner_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"Warner Theatre (Washington, D.C.)\"). Choreographer and director [Bob Fosse](/wiki/Bob_Fosse \"Bob Fosse\") was preparing to host a party at Old Ebbitt Grill when he collapsed outside the restaurant and died of a heart attack on September 23, 1987\\. His revival of *[Sweet Charity](/wiki/Sweet_Charity \"Sweet Charity\")*, which he choreographed, had just debuted at the National Theatre.Hall, Charles W. \"Bob Fosse Dies After Collapsing On D.C. Street.\" *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1987\\. Old Ebbitt began hanging posters in the lobby of current theatrical performances.Brown, Joe. \"Dramatic Discoveries.\" *The Washington Post*. May 7, 1989\\.", "President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") and [First Lady](/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States \"First Lady of the United States\") [Barbara Bush](/wiki/Barbara_Bush \"Barbara Bush\") met the singer and actor [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 \"Sting (musician)\") at Old Ebbitt Grill in September 1989 after his Washington debut in the title role in *[Three Penny Opera](/wiki/Three_Penny_Opera \"Three Penny Opera\").*{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/09/15/at\\-the\\-sting\\-along/7593d712\\-7346\\-48b7\\-86a4\\-3d9d7e344cbc/\\|last\\=Conroy\\|first\\=Sarah Booth\\|title\\=At the {{proper name\\|Sting}}\\-Along.\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post.\\|date\\=September 15, 1989\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2019}} The [Rolling Stones](/wiki/Rolling_Stones \"Rolling Stones\") dined at the restaurant a few weeks later after a concert in the city.Conconi, Chuck. \"Personalities.\" *The Washington Post*. September 26, 1989\\. In 1991, playwright [Neil Simon](/wiki/Neil_Simon \"Neil Simon\"), director [Gene Saks](/wiki/Gene_Saks \"Gene Saks\") and the cast of the play *[Lost in Yonkers](/wiki/Lost_in_Yonkers \"Lost in Yonkers\")* held the opening night after\\-party on January 17 at Old Ebbitt Grill. Just minutes before the curtain rose on the Washington debut of the play, the cast learned that the United States had declared war on Iraq and begun the [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\").Conconi, Chuck. \"Personalities.\" *The Washington Post*. January 18, 1991\\. After the world premier of the motion picture *[The River Wild](/wiki/The_River_Wild \"The River Wild\")* in August 1994 in Washington, D.C., a reception for the stars was held at Old Ebbitt.\"Fall Frolics.\" *The Washington Post*. August 28, 1994\\.", "" ]
### 2000s Security changes in Washington, D.C., after the [September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") significantly affected Old Ebbitt Grill for a while. The restaurant was forced to close for two days when streets near the White House were closed.Sietsema, Tom. "On the Fridge." *The Washington Post*. September 19, 2001\. Over the next two weeks, the restaurant lost half its business, which normally ran 2,000 customers a day, most of them politicians and businesspeople.Sugarman, Carole. "Food \& Drink: Changing Needs?" *The Washington Post*. September 26, 2001; Timberg, Craig. "Fined, Mayor Revives Fundraising." *The Washington Post*. August 22, 2002\. After First Lady [Laura Bush](/wiki/Laura_Bush "Laura Bush") began patronizing the restaurant,Reel, Monte. "The President Who Lives Apart." *The Washington Post*. January 26, 2003\. business soon returned to normal. The [Beltway sniper attacks](/wiki/Beltway_sniper_attacks "Beltway sniper attacks") of fall 2002 did not affect business, which continued to hold steady through February 2003, a time of high alert and anxiety.Irwin, Neil and Hedgpeth, Dana. "High Alert, High Anxiety." *The Washington Post*. February 17, 2003\. Due to security restrictions in 2004, Old Ebbitt Grill was nearly prevented from its traditional practice of selling coffee and hot chocolate to spectators watching the [inaugural parade](/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama "First inauguration of Barack Obama"), in this case for the landmark election of [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") as President of the United States. That year the [Democratic Leadership Council](/wiki/Democratic_Leadership_Council "Democratic Leadership Council") rented the entire restaurant for a private party on Inauguration Day.Nakamura, David and Boschma, Janie. "Comfortable Perches Along Pennsylvania Avenue Are Much in Demand." *The Washington Post*. January 16, 2009\. In 2003, Old Ebbitt Grill was busiest on weekends in the spring, when high school student tourist business was at its highest in the city.Schulte, Brigid. "To Tan, a Place in the Sun Not Needed." *The Washington Post*. June 1, 2003\. The restaurant was praised by *The Washington Post* for being able to accommodate large groups, offering a variety of plain and upscale food, providing friendly service, and having the best raw bar in the city.Sietsema, Tom. "Seeing Stars." *The Washington Post*. October 19, 2003\. The restaurant was also criticized by the newspaper for being too noisy for conversation,"Visitors to the Mall Have Plenty of Dining Options While Sightseeing." *The Washington Post*. May 22, 2003\. and providing bland hamburgers, salads, and breakfast. By 2008, however, Old Ebbitt Grill's reviews had improved. *Post* food critic Tom Sietsema continued to laud the friendly service. He also praised the Breakfast Club, a deep\-fried ham, French toast, and bacon breakfast sandwich. He appreciated small touches such as coat hooks near booths and pepper mills on tables and found the staff's honesty about menu choices refreshing.Sietsema, Tom. "The Bacon\-and\-Eggs Brigade." *The Washington Post*. November 30, 2008\. In 2009, Old Ebbitt Grill had the fourth or fifth\-highest volume of restaurant customers in the United States. Due to its proximity to the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House"), it was a favorite of [United States Secret Service](/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service "United States Secret Service") personnel as well as tourists.Roig\-Franzia, Manuel. "Lunch at the 'Power Section'." *The Washington Post*. September 20, 2009\. In 2010, after the [Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear](/wiki/Rally_to_Restore_Sanity_and/or_Fear "Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear"), comedian [Stephen Colbert](/wiki/Stephen_Colbert "Stephen Colbert") hosted a [Comedy Central](/wiki/Comedy_Central "Comedy Central") after\-party at Old Ebbitt Grill. In attendance were [Wyatt Cenac](/wiki/Wyatt_Cenac "Wyatt Cenac"), [Rosario Dawson](/wiki/Rosario_Dawson "Rosario Dawson"), [Mick Foley](/wiki/Mick_Foley "Mick Foley"), [Tim Meadows](/wiki/Tim_Meadows "Tim Meadows"), John Oliver, then a Colbert show regular, and [Jamie Hyneman](/wiki/Jamie_Hyneman "Jamie Hyneman") and [Adam Savage](/wiki/Adam_Savage "Adam Savage"), the hosts of the *[MythBusters](/wiki/MythBusters "MythBusters")* television series.Argetsinger, Amy and Roberts, Roxanne. "Thinking About Drapes In Case It's Curtains For Madam Speaker." *The Washington Post*. November 2, 2010\.
[ "### 2000s", "Security changes in Washington, D.C., after the [September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") significantly affected Old Ebbitt Grill for a while. The restaurant was forced to close for two days when streets near the White House were closed.Sietsema, Tom. \"On the Fridge.\" *The Washington Post*. September 19, 2001\\. Over the next two weeks, the restaurant lost half its business, which normally ran 2,000 customers a day, most of them politicians and businesspeople.Sugarman, Carole. \"Food \\& Drink: Changing Needs?\" *The Washington Post*. September 26, 2001; Timberg, Craig. \"Fined, Mayor Revives Fundraising.\" *The Washington Post*. August 22, 2002\\. After First Lady [Laura Bush](/wiki/Laura_Bush \"Laura Bush\") began patronizing the restaurant,Reel, Monte. \"The President Who Lives Apart.\" *The Washington Post*. January 26, 2003\\. business soon returned to normal.", "The [Beltway sniper attacks](/wiki/Beltway_sniper_attacks \"Beltway sniper attacks\") of fall 2002 did not affect business, which continued to hold steady through February 2003, a time of high alert and anxiety.Irwin, Neil and Hedgpeth, Dana. \"High Alert, High Anxiety.\" *The Washington Post*. February 17, 2003\\.", "Due to security restrictions in 2004, Old Ebbitt Grill was nearly prevented from its traditional practice of selling coffee and hot chocolate to spectators watching the [inaugural parade](/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama \"First inauguration of Barack Obama\"), in this case for the landmark election of [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") as President of the United States. That year the [Democratic Leadership Council](/wiki/Democratic_Leadership_Council \"Democratic Leadership Council\") rented the entire restaurant for a private party on Inauguration Day.Nakamura, David and Boschma, Janie. \"Comfortable Perches Along Pennsylvania Avenue Are Much in Demand.\" *The Washington Post*. January 16, 2009\\.", "In 2003, Old Ebbitt Grill was busiest on weekends in the spring, when high school student tourist business was at its highest in the city.Schulte, Brigid. \"To Tan, a Place in the Sun Not Needed.\" *The Washington Post*. June 1, 2003\\. The restaurant was praised by *The Washington Post* for being able to accommodate large groups, offering a variety of plain and upscale food, providing friendly service, and having the best raw bar in the city.Sietsema, Tom. \"Seeing Stars.\" *The Washington Post*. October 19, 2003\\. The restaurant was also criticized by the newspaper for being too noisy for conversation,\"Visitors to the Mall Have Plenty of Dining Options While Sightseeing.\" *The Washington Post*. May 22, 2003\\. and providing bland hamburgers, salads, and breakfast.", "By 2008, however, Old Ebbitt Grill's reviews had improved. *Post* food critic Tom Sietsema continued to laud the friendly service. He also praised the Breakfast Club, a deep\\-fried ham, French toast, and bacon breakfast sandwich. He appreciated small touches such as coat hooks near booths and pepper mills on tables and found the staff's honesty about menu choices refreshing.Sietsema, Tom. \"The Bacon\\-and\\-Eggs Brigade.\" *The Washington Post*. November 30, 2008\\.", "In 2009, Old Ebbitt Grill had the fourth or fifth\\-highest volume of restaurant customers in the United States. Due to its proximity to the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\"), it was a favorite of [United States Secret Service](/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service \"United States Secret Service\") personnel as well as tourists.Roig\\-Franzia, Manuel. \"Lunch at the 'Power Section'.\" *The Washington Post*. September 20, 2009\\. In 2010, after the [Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear](/wiki/Rally_to_Restore_Sanity_and/or_Fear \"Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear\"), comedian [Stephen Colbert](/wiki/Stephen_Colbert \"Stephen Colbert\") hosted a [Comedy Central](/wiki/Comedy_Central \"Comedy Central\") after\\-party at Old Ebbitt Grill. In attendance were [Wyatt Cenac](/wiki/Wyatt_Cenac \"Wyatt Cenac\"), [Rosario Dawson](/wiki/Rosario_Dawson \"Rosario Dawson\"), [Mick Foley](/wiki/Mick_Foley \"Mick Foley\"), [Tim Meadows](/wiki/Tim_Meadows \"Tim Meadows\"), John Oliver, then a Colbert show regular, and [Jamie Hyneman](/wiki/Jamie_Hyneman \"Jamie Hyneman\") and [Adam Savage](/wiki/Adam_Savage \"Adam Savage\"), the hosts of the *[MythBusters](/wiki/MythBusters \"MythBusters\")* television series.Argetsinger, Amy and Roberts, Roxanne. \"Thinking About Drapes In Case It's Curtains For Madam Speaker.\" *The Washington Post*. November 2, 2010\\.", "" ]
Structure --------- The church is built in local [ashlar](/wiki/Ashlar "Ashlar") [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone") with a grey slate roof in the [Classical](/wiki/Classical_architecture "Classical architecture") style. ### Exterior [thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|right\|[Aquatint](/wiki/Aquatint "Aquatint") of Horbury Church from 1791](/wiki/File:Elevation_of_the_Church_at_Horbury_near_Wakefield_by_T._Malton_1791.jpg "Elevation of the Church at Horbury near Wakefield by T. Malton 1791.jpg") The church has a square west tower in four reducing stages surmounted by a [colonnaded](/wiki/Colonnade "Colonnade") [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 "Rotunda (architecture)") with a small fluted, conical [spire](/wiki/Spire "Spire"). The first stage is constructed of smooth ashlar stone with round\-arched and square blind windows. The second stage is [rusticated](/wiki/Rustication_%28architecture%29 "Rustication (architecture)") with a clock to the four faces. A round\-arched bell\-chamber is on the third stage and the fourth stage is similar with columns. The five\-bay [nave](/wiki/Nave "Nave") has octagonal ends and three\-bay north and south wings. The nave has tall, round\-arched windows. The south wing has four [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") columns supporting a [pediment](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment") in the form of a [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico") over a central double\-door which also has a pediment. There are round\-arched windows at ground\-floor level and square windows above. The north wing is plain with central entrance with an [architrave](/wiki/Architrave "Architrave") and pediment. The [vestry](/wiki/Vestry "Vestry") is to the north\-east and has a round\-arched entrance and door flanked by tapering [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster") supporting a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") and [cornice](/wiki/Cornice "Cornice"). There is a chapel to south\-east. The pediment is inscribed: *HANC AEDEM SACRAH PIETATIS IN DEUM ET AMORIS IN SOLUM NATALE MONIMENTUM PROPRIIS SUMPTIBUS EXTRUXIT JOANNES CARR ARCHITECTUS ANNO CHRISTI MDCCXC1 GLORIA DEO IN EXCELSIS* ### Interior Inside, the bay divisions are marked by fluted [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order "Corinthian order") pilasters. A west gallery with a panelled front containing the organ is supported by [Tuscan](/wiki/Tuscan_order "Tuscan order") columns. The shallow [vaulted](/wiki/Vault_%28architecture%29 "Vault (architecture)") ceiling has an elaborate [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") terminating in shallow segmental coving. ### Fixtures and fittings The tower contains eight bells, five cast in 1792 by Thomas Mears, and three in 1899 by Mears \& Stainbank at the [Whitechapel Bell Foundry](/wiki/Whitechapel_Bell_Foundry "Whitechapel Bell Foundry").{{Citation \|title\=Horbury—SS Peter \& Leonard\|url\=http://dove.cccbr.org.uk/detail.php?searchString\=Horbury\&Submit\=\+\+Go\+\+\&DoveID\=HORBURY\|work\=\[\[Dove's Guide for Church Bell Ringers]]\|date\=13 February 2007\|accessdate\=28 July 2010 }} The church is furnished with straight\-backed panelled [pews](/wiki/Pews "Pews") with rounded ends. The [communion rail](/wiki/Communion_rail "Communion rail") is made from green/brown marble. An octagonal panelled [pulpit](/wiki/Pulpit "Pulpit") dated 1917 was given in memory of Richard and Martha Ann Popplewell. There are memorials to John Carr and his family in the chancel. Carr was buried in a [vault](/wiki/Burial_vault_%28tomb%29 "Burial vault (tomb)") along with some of his nephew's family – John Carr of Carr Lodge, [Horbury](/wiki/Horbury "Horbury"), his wife, Hannah Maria (Marsden) and one of their granddaughters, that had been forgotten until its discovery in 1950, when repairs were made to the vestry floor.{{Harvnb\|Arundale\|1951\|p\=35}} Above the door contains a [Funerary hatchment](/wiki/Funerary_hatchment "Funerary hatchment") for John Carr of Carr Lodge. This contains a black dexter for John Carr and a white one for his wife, Hannah Maria (Marsden) daughter of William Marsden of [Wakefield](/wiki/Wakefield "Wakefield").
[ "Structure\n---------", "The church is built in local [ashlar](/wiki/Ashlar \"Ashlar\") [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\") with a grey slate roof in the [Classical](/wiki/Classical_architecture \"Classical architecture\") style.", "### Exterior", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|right\\|[Aquatint](/wiki/Aquatint \"Aquatint\") of Horbury Church from 1791](/wiki/File:Elevation_of_the_Church_at_Horbury_near_Wakefield_by_T._Malton_1791.jpg \"Elevation of the Church at Horbury near Wakefield by T. Malton 1791.jpg\")\nThe church has a square west tower in four reducing stages surmounted by a [colonnaded](/wiki/Colonnade \"Colonnade\") [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 \"Rotunda (architecture)\") with a small fluted, conical [spire](/wiki/Spire \"Spire\"). The first stage is constructed of smooth ashlar stone with round\\-arched and square blind windows. The second stage is [rusticated](/wiki/Rustication_%28architecture%29 \"Rustication (architecture)\") with a clock to the four faces. A round\\-arched bell\\-chamber is on the third stage and the fourth stage is similar with columns.", "The five\\-bay [nave](/wiki/Nave \"Nave\") has octagonal ends and three\\-bay north and south wings. The nave has tall, round\\-arched windows. The south wing has four [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") columns supporting a [pediment](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\") in the form of a [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\") over a central double\\-door which also has a pediment. There are round\\-arched windows at ground\\-floor level and square windows above. The north wing is plain with central entrance with an [architrave](/wiki/Architrave \"Architrave\") and pediment. The [vestry](/wiki/Vestry \"Vestry\") is to the north\\-east and has a round\\-arched entrance and door flanked by tapering [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\") supporting a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") and [cornice](/wiki/Cornice \"Cornice\"). There is a chapel to south\\-east.", "The pediment is inscribed: *HANC AEDEM SACRAH PIETATIS IN DEUM ET AMORIS IN SOLUM NATALE MONIMENTUM PROPRIIS SUMPTIBUS EXTRUXIT JOANNES CARR ARCHITECTUS ANNO CHRISTI MDCCXC1 GLORIA DEO IN EXCELSIS*", "### Interior", "Inside, the bay divisions are marked by fluted [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order \"Corinthian order\") pilasters. A west gallery with a panelled front containing the organ is supported by [Tuscan](/wiki/Tuscan_order \"Tuscan order\") columns. The shallow [vaulted](/wiki/Vault_%28architecture%29 \"Vault (architecture)\") ceiling has an elaborate [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") terminating in shallow segmental coving.", "### Fixtures and fittings", "The tower contains eight bells, five cast in 1792 by Thomas Mears, and three in 1899 by Mears \\& Stainbank at the [Whitechapel Bell Foundry](/wiki/Whitechapel_Bell_Foundry \"Whitechapel Bell Foundry\").{{Citation \\|title\\=Horbury—SS Peter \\& Leonard\\|url\\=http://dove.cccbr.org.uk/detail.php?searchString\\=Horbury\\&Submit\\=\\+\\+Go\\+\\+\\&DoveID\\=HORBURY\\|work\\=\\[\\[Dove's Guide for Church Bell Ringers]]\\|date\\=13 February 2007\\|accessdate\\=28 July 2010 }}", "The church is furnished with straight\\-backed panelled [pews](/wiki/Pews \"Pews\") with rounded ends. The [communion rail](/wiki/Communion_rail \"Communion rail\") is made from green/brown marble. An octagonal panelled [pulpit](/wiki/Pulpit \"Pulpit\") dated 1917 was given in memory of Richard and Martha Ann Popplewell.", "There are memorials to John Carr and his family in the chancel. Carr was buried in a [vault](/wiki/Burial_vault_%28tomb%29 \"Burial vault (tomb)\") along with some of his nephew's family – John Carr of Carr Lodge, [Horbury](/wiki/Horbury \"Horbury\"), his wife, Hannah Maria (Marsden) and one of their granddaughters, that had been forgotten until its discovery in 1950, when repairs were made to the vestry floor.{{Harvnb\\|Arundale\\|1951\\|p\\=35}}", "Above the door contains a [Funerary hatchment](/wiki/Funerary_hatchment \"Funerary hatchment\") for John Carr of Carr Lodge. This contains a black dexter for John Carr and a white one for his wife, Hannah Maria (Marsden) daughter of William Marsden of [Wakefield](/wiki/Wakefield \"Wakefield\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Zmuda occasionally portrayed Kaufman's [Tony Clifton](/wiki/Tony_Clifton "Tony Clifton") character on stage and for television appearances. In a 2006 interview, Zmuda told the *[Opie and Anthony Show](/wiki/Opie_and_Anthony_Show "Opie and Anthony Show")* that he was masquerading as Tony Clifton with David Letterman, and that Letterman did not find out until years later. In 1986, Zmuda founded the American version of *[Comic Relief](/wiki/Comic_Relief_USA "Comic Relief USA")*, an annual event that raises money to help the homeless in the United States. The event was televised on [HBO](/wiki/Home_Box_Office "Home Box Office"), and was hosted by comedians [Robin Williams](/wiki/Robin_Williams "Robin Williams"), [Billy Crystal](/wiki/Billy_Crystal "Billy Crystal") and [Whoopi Goldberg](/wiki/Whoopi_Goldberg "Whoopi Goldberg"). In 1999, Zmuda wrote a book about Kaufman's life, titled *[Andy Kaufman Revealed!](/wiki/Andy_Kaufman_Revealed%21 "Andy Kaufman Revealed!")*, which purported to unveil many tricks and hoaxes that the two pulled off in front of audiences and television cameras in the 1980s. One critic praised the book as "the ultimate insider's look at Kaufman's life",[Locked in the Punch](http://www2.citypaper.com/arts/review.asp?rid=5226) Baltimore City Paper, December 22, 1999 while some of Kaufman's fans and members of Kaufman's family criticized it for inaccuracies about Kaufman. Later that year, [Miloš Forman](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Forman "Miloš Forman") directed *[Man on the Moon](/wiki/Man_on_the_Moon_%28film%29 "Man on the Moon (film)")*, the story of Kaufman's life. Zmuda created the "Tony Clifton" makeup for the film, and made a brief appearance portraying comedian [Jack Burns](/wiki/Jack_Burns "Jack Burns"), one of the producers, who gets into a brawl on stage during one of Kaufman's appearances on the 1980–82 [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") late night comedy show, *[Fridays](/wiki/Fridays_%28TV_series%29 "Fridays (TV series)")*. Zmuda was also *Man on the Moon*{{'}}s co\-executive producer. On camera, the character of Bob Zmuda was played by [Paul Giamatti](/wiki/Paul_Giamatti "Paul Giamatti"). Stanley Kaufman, Andy's father, criticized Zmuda's influence on the film shortly after its release, writing in the form of Andy speaking from beyond the grave.[andykaufman.jvlnet.com/realmotm.htm The Real Man on the Moon Talks](http://andykaufman.jvlnet.com/realmotm.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111075409/http://andykaufman.jvlnet.com/realmotm.htm \|date\=January 11, 2010 }}, The Andy Kaufman Home Page [Sam Simon](/wiki/Sam_Simon "Sam Simon"), executive producer on *Taxi*, revealed in a 2013 interview with Marc Maron for the [WTF Podcast](/wiki/WTF_with_Marc_Maron "WTF with Marc Maron") that the portrayal of Andy on the show was "a complete fiction" largely created by Bob Zmuda, who he maintained has a "vested interest" in creating stories about Kaufman. In the interview Simon stated that Kaufman was "completely professional" and that he "told you Tony Clifton was he", but conceded that Kaufman would have "loved" Zmuda's version of events.[WTF Podcast: Sam Simon interview](http://www.wtfpod.com/podcast/episodes/episode_389_-_sam_simon) In 2014, Zmuda co\-authored another book with new anecdotes about Kaufman's desire to fake his death entitled *Andy Kaufman: The Truth, Finally*, which states that Kaufman's death was indeed a prank. Zmuda says that Kaufman is still alive and that Kaufman would soon be revealing himself as his upper limit on the prank was thirty years. Zmuda now states that Kaufman offered to leave him money since Zmuda's career was largely dependent on Kaufman performing but he turned it down because he believed it would implicate him in a crime. The terms of the book deal were not disclosed.{{cite news\|url\=https://nypost.com/2014/09/28/why\-andy\-kaufman\-might\-still\-be\-alive/\|title\=Friend: Andy Kaufman is still alive\|access\-date\=2014\-10\-05\|author\=Getlen, Larry\|newspaper\=New York Post}} On November 7, 2014, Bob Zmuda appeared as a guest on [Greg Fitzsimmons](/wiki/Greg_Fitzsimmons "Greg Fitzsimmons")' podcast, *Fitzdog Radio*. During the interview, Zmuda claimed to have invested $50,000 in the new book. He stormed off the podcast after Fitzsimmons doubted Zmuda's intentions regarding claims of Kaufman's staged death.[FitzDog Radio: Bob Zmuda interview](http://gregfitz.libsyn.com/bob-zmuda) On November 16, 2014, a post on the Tony Clifton Facebook page claimed that Zmuda had died at the [Moonlite BunnyRanch](/wiki/Moonlite_BunnyRanch "Moonlite BunnyRanch"), sourcing the information to a [UPI](/wiki/UPI "UPI") article. The same day, the BunnyRanch tweeted that they had been asked by Zmuda's management not to comment,[@BunnyRanch tweet](https://twitter.com/bunnyranch/status/534226481296441344) with a link to the hoax Facebook story. Two days later, comedy news website The Interrobang posted a story with photos, verifying that Zmuda was not dead.Gurian, Jeffrey. [Absolute Proof: Bob Zmuda Not Dead](http://theinterrobang.com/proof-bob-zmuda-not-dead/), The Interrobang. Later that day, UPI posted a story, confirming the hoax.Hooper, Ben. [Fake UPI article used for Bob Zmuda death hoax](http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2014/11/18/Fake-UPI-article-used-for-Bob-Zmuda-death-hoax/1771416337350/,), UPI.com.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Zmuda occasionally portrayed Kaufman's [Tony Clifton](/wiki/Tony_Clifton \"Tony Clifton\") character on stage and for television appearances. In a 2006 interview, Zmuda told the *[Opie and Anthony Show](/wiki/Opie_and_Anthony_Show \"Opie and Anthony Show\")* that he was masquerading as Tony Clifton with David Letterman, and that Letterman did not find out until years later.", "In 1986, Zmuda founded the American version of *[Comic Relief](/wiki/Comic_Relief_USA \"Comic Relief USA\")*, an annual event that raises money to help the homeless in the United States. The event was televised on [HBO](/wiki/Home_Box_Office \"Home Box Office\"), and was hosted by comedians [Robin Williams](/wiki/Robin_Williams \"Robin Williams\"), [Billy Crystal](/wiki/Billy_Crystal \"Billy Crystal\") and [Whoopi Goldberg](/wiki/Whoopi_Goldberg \"Whoopi Goldberg\").", "In 1999, Zmuda wrote a book about Kaufman's life, titled *[Andy Kaufman Revealed!](/wiki/Andy_Kaufman_Revealed%21 \"Andy Kaufman Revealed!\")*, which purported to unveil many tricks and hoaxes that the two pulled off in front of audiences and television cameras in the 1980s. One critic praised the book as \"the ultimate insider's look at Kaufman's life\",[Locked in the Punch](http://www2.citypaper.com/arts/review.asp?rid=5226) Baltimore City Paper, December 22, 1999 while some of Kaufman's fans and members of Kaufman's family criticized it for inaccuracies about Kaufman.", "Later that year, [Miloš Forman](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Forman \"Miloš Forman\") directed *[Man on the Moon](/wiki/Man_on_the_Moon_%28film%29 \"Man on the Moon (film)\")*, the story of Kaufman's life. Zmuda created the \"Tony Clifton\" makeup for the film, and made a brief appearance portraying comedian [Jack Burns](/wiki/Jack_Burns \"Jack Burns\"), one of the producers, who gets into a brawl on stage during one of Kaufman's appearances on the 1980–82 [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") late night comedy show, *[Fridays](/wiki/Fridays_%28TV_series%29 \"Fridays (TV series)\")*. Zmuda was also *Man on the Moon*{{'}}s co\\-executive producer. On camera, the character of Bob Zmuda was played by [Paul Giamatti](/wiki/Paul_Giamatti \"Paul Giamatti\"). Stanley Kaufman, Andy's father, criticized Zmuda's influence on the film shortly after its release, writing in the form of Andy speaking from beyond the grave.[andykaufman.jvlnet.com/realmotm.htm The Real Man on the Moon Talks](http://andykaufman.jvlnet.com/realmotm.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111075409/http://andykaufman.jvlnet.com/realmotm.htm \\|date\\=January 11, 2010 }}, The Andy Kaufman Home Page", "[Sam Simon](/wiki/Sam_Simon \"Sam Simon\"), executive producer on *Taxi*, revealed in a 2013 interview with Marc Maron for the [WTF Podcast](/wiki/WTF_with_Marc_Maron \"WTF with Marc Maron\") that the portrayal of Andy on the show was \"a complete fiction\" largely created by Bob Zmuda, who he maintained has a \"vested interest\" in creating stories about Kaufman. In the interview Simon stated that Kaufman was \"completely professional\" and that he \"told you Tony Clifton was he\", but conceded that Kaufman would have \"loved\" Zmuda's version of events.[WTF Podcast: Sam Simon interview](http://www.wtfpod.com/podcast/episodes/episode_389_-_sam_simon)", "In 2014, Zmuda co\\-authored another book with new anecdotes about Kaufman's desire to fake his death entitled *Andy Kaufman: The Truth, Finally*, which states that Kaufman's death was indeed a prank. Zmuda says that Kaufman is still alive and that Kaufman would soon be revealing himself as his upper limit on the prank was thirty years. Zmuda now states that Kaufman offered to leave him money since Zmuda's career was largely dependent on Kaufman performing but he turned it down because he believed it would implicate him in a crime. The terms of the book deal were not disclosed.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://nypost.com/2014/09/28/why\\-andy\\-kaufman\\-might\\-still\\-be\\-alive/\\|title\\=Friend: Andy Kaufman is still alive\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-05\\|author\\=Getlen, Larry\\|newspaper\\=New York Post}}", "On November 7, 2014, Bob Zmuda appeared as a guest on [Greg Fitzsimmons](/wiki/Greg_Fitzsimmons \"Greg Fitzsimmons\")' podcast, *Fitzdog Radio*. During the interview, Zmuda claimed to have invested $50,000 in the new book. He stormed off the podcast after Fitzsimmons doubted Zmuda's intentions regarding claims of Kaufman's staged death.[FitzDog Radio: Bob Zmuda interview](http://gregfitz.libsyn.com/bob-zmuda)", "On November 16, 2014, a post on the Tony Clifton Facebook page claimed that Zmuda had died at the [Moonlite BunnyRanch](/wiki/Moonlite_BunnyRanch \"Moonlite BunnyRanch\"), sourcing the information to a [UPI](/wiki/UPI \"UPI\") article. The same day, the BunnyRanch tweeted that they had been asked by Zmuda's management not to comment,[@BunnyRanch tweet](https://twitter.com/bunnyranch/status/534226481296441344) with a link to the hoax Facebook story.", "Two days later, comedy news website The Interrobang posted a story with photos, verifying that Zmuda was not dead.Gurian, Jeffrey. [Absolute Proof: Bob Zmuda Not Dead](http://theinterrobang.com/proof-bob-zmuda-not-dead/), The Interrobang. Later that day, UPI posted a story, confirming the hoax.Hooper, Ben. [Fake UPI article used for Bob Zmuda death hoax](http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2014/11/18/Fake-UPI-article-used-for-Bob-Zmuda-death-hoax/1771416337350/,), UPI.com.", "" ]
History ------- *Waukesha* was named after [Waukesha County, Wisconsin](/wiki/Waukesha_County%2C_Wisconsin "Waukesha County, Wisconsin"). She was laid down as a [Type C2\-S\-AJ3 ship](/wiki/Type_C2_ship "Type C2 ship") under a [Maritime Commission](/wiki/Maritime_Commission "Maritime Commission") contract (MC hull 1395\) on 3 July 1944, at [Wilmington, North Carolina](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_North_Carolina "Wilmington, North Carolina"), by the [North Carolina Shipbuilding Company](/wiki/North_Carolina_Shipbuilding_Company "North Carolina Shipbuilding Company"); launched on 6 September 1944; sponsored by Mrs. H. V. Mason; converted to an attack cargo ship by the Todd\-Erie Shipyard of New York City; and [commissioned](/wiki/Ship_commissioning "Ship commissioning") at the New York Navy Yard. ### World War II, 1945 Following shakedown in [Chesapeake Bay](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay "Chesapeake Bay"), *Waukesha* got underway for the Pacific on 27 March 1945\. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal") in company with sister ship {{USS\|Vinton\|AKA\-83\|3}} on 2 April and arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") on the 17th. She conducted exercises and maneuvers in the Hawaiian area before getting underway on 11 May and proceeding via [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok") and [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi "Ulithi") to [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"). The cargo ship arrived at [Buckner Bay](/wiki/Buckner_Bay "Buckner Bay") on 13 July, with Convoy OKU\-17, dropped anchor, and commenced unloading her cargo. Twice the operation was interrupted by fierce typhoons which whirled into Buckner Bay and forced the ships at anchor to get underway and make for the relative safety of the open sea. In addition, Japanese nuisance raids continued nightly, keeping all hands at [general quarters](/wiki/General_quarters "General quarters") for long periods. Her next orders — to proceed to [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") — were cancelled when the ship received news that the Japanese were entertaining thoughts of surrender in the aftermath of the [explosions of two atomic bombs](/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki"). Crew members aboard the ship initially did not believe that the Japanese were considering surrender, and did not know of such actions due to missing a routine newsletter that declared the surrender official. The attack cargo ship instead steered a course for [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") and arrived at Apra Harbor on the 12th. Two days later, she embarked men and material of the [14th Marine Regiment](/wiki/14th_Marine_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "14th Marine Regiment (United States)"). She was ready for sea on the following day, 15 August 1945, the day on which the Japanese accepted the terms of the [Potsdam Declaration](/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration "Potsdam Declaration"). ### Post\-war activities, 1945–1946 "[V\-J Day](/wiki/Victory_over_Japan_Day "Victory over Japan Day")" only marked the beginning of another phase of *Waukesha*{{'}}s brief Navy career — the occupation of the Japanese home islands. She rendezvoused with units of the [3rd Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Third_Fleet "United States Third Fleet") off [Honshū](/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB "Honshū") and entered Tokyo Bay on the 27th, anchoring off the bomb\-scarred [Yokosuka Naval Base](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka "United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka") on the 30th to commence offloading her men and equipment to support the occupation. *Waukesha* returned to [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan "Saipan") on 5 September and embarked men of the [2nd Marine Division](/wiki/2nd_Marine_Division_%28United_States%29 "2nd Marine Division (United States)"); transferred some of her own men to other ships for transportation back to the United States; and took on supplies for a second trip to Japanese ports. She arrived at [Nagasaki](/wiki/Nagasaki%2C_Nagasaki "Nagasaki, Nagasaki") and tied up at [Dejima](/wiki/Dejima "Dejima") Wharf on the 24th, to disembark her marines of the occupation force. Underway for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") four days later, the ship transferred four landing boats to {{USS\|Oconto\|APA\-187\|3}} at Subic Bay on 4 October and then obtained five boats from the Army Boat Pool in [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf "Lingayen Gulf") before moving to [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila"). Loading cargo occupied the ship in the Philippines before she sailed for [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") for her third and final visit to that country's ports, carrying cargo to Honshū and reaching [Kii Suido](/wiki/Kii_Suido "Kii Suido") on 23 October. Shifting to [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya "Nagoya") on 1 November, *Waukesha* embarked demobilized sailors, soldiers, and marines to transport them home in "[Operation Magic Carpet](/wiki/Operation_Magic_Carpet "Operation Magic Carpet")." After departing [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya "Nagoya") on the 9th, she made port at [Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle"), on the 21st and unloaded her passengers before proceeding south for [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"). The ship later made more Far Eastern cruises and called at [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island") en route to [Qingdao](/wiki/Qingdao "Qingdao"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), where she arrived on 2 March 1946\. Remaining until 8 March, the attack cargo ship set course, via [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"), for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), California, which she reached on 15 April 1946\. *Waukesha* departed San Diego on 30 April and steamed, via the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal"), to the east coast. She arrived at [Norfolk](/wiki/Naval_Station_Norfolk "Naval Station Norfolk"), Virginia, on 24 May. ### Decommissioning and fate Decommissioned and returned to the [United States Maritime Commission](/wiki/United_States_Maritime_Commission "United States Maritime Commission")'s [War Shipping Administration](/wiki/War_Shipping_Administration "War Shipping Administration") on 10 July 1946, the attack cargo ship was struck from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") on 31 July 1946\. Acquired by the Luckenbach Steamship Co. of New York City in 1947, the erstwhile warship was renamed SS *Mary Luckenbach*. At 17:05 on 25 August 1950, *Mary Luckenbach* collided with the [hospital ship](/wiki/Hospital_ship "Hospital ship") {{USS\|Benevolence\|AH\-13}} just off [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"). *Benevolence* sank in 15 minutes with a loss of 23 lives out of 505 aboard. Among those lost was the prospective commanding officer of the newly recommissioned *Benevolence*, [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28United_States_O-6%29 "Captain (United States O-6)") William "Pineapple Bill" Murray. *Mary Luckenbach* operated with the same firm until 1959, when the ship was sold and renamed SS *Bayou State*. She sailed under the flag of the [States Marine Lines](/wiki/States_Marine_Lines "States Marine Lines") of New York until 1970\. She was sold to Taiwan Shipbreakers and arrived at [Kaohhiung, Taiwan](/wiki/Kaohsiung "Kaohsiung") on 29 September 1970 and scrapped, beginning in October of the same year.
[ "History\n-------", "*Waukesha* was named after [Waukesha County, Wisconsin](/wiki/Waukesha_County%2C_Wisconsin \"Waukesha County, Wisconsin\"). She was laid down as a [Type C2\\-S\\-AJ3 ship](/wiki/Type_C2_ship \"Type C2 ship\") under a [Maritime Commission](/wiki/Maritime_Commission \"Maritime Commission\") contract (MC hull 1395\\) on 3 July 1944, at [Wilmington, North Carolina](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_North_Carolina \"Wilmington, North Carolina\"), by the [North Carolina Shipbuilding Company](/wiki/North_Carolina_Shipbuilding_Company \"North Carolina Shipbuilding Company\"); launched on 6 September 1944; sponsored by Mrs. H. V. Mason; converted to an attack cargo ship by the Todd\\-Erie Shipyard of New York City; and [commissioned](/wiki/Ship_commissioning \"Ship commissioning\") at the New York Navy Yard.", "### World War II, 1945", "Following shakedown in [Chesapeake Bay](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay \"Chesapeake Bay\"), *Waukesha* got underway for the Pacific on 27 March 1945\\. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") in company with sister ship {{USS\\|Vinton\\|AKA\\-83\\|3}} on 2 April and arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") on the 17th. She conducted exercises and maneuvers in the Hawaiian area before getting underway on 11 May and proceeding via [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\") and [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\") to [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\").", "The cargo ship arrived at [Buckner Bay](/wiki/Buckner_Bay \"Buckner Bay\") on 13 July, with Convoy OKU\\-17, dropped anchor, and commenced unloading her cargo. Twice the operation was interrupted by fierce typhoons which whirled into Buckner Bay and forced the ships at anchor to get underway and make for the relative safety of the open sea. In addition, Japanese nuisance raids continued nightly, keeping all hands at [general quarters](/wiki/General_quarters \"General quarters\") for long periods.", "Her next orders — to proceed to [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") — were cancelled when the ship received news that the Japanese were entertaining thoughts of surrender in the aftermath of the [explosions of two atomic bombs](/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki \"Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\"). Crew members aboard the ship initially did not believe that the Japanese were considering surrender, and did not know of such actions due to missing a routine newsletter that declared the surrender official. The attack cargo ship instead steered a course for [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") and arrived at Apra Harbor on the 12th. Two days later, she embarked men and material of the [14th Marine Regiment](/wiki/14th_Marine_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"14th Marine Regiment (United States)\"). She was ready for sea on the following day, 15 August 1945, the day on which the Japanese accepted the terms of the [Potsdam Declaration](/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration \"Potsdam Declaration\").", "### Post\\-war activities, 1945–1946", "\"[V\\-J Day](/wiki/Victory_over_Japan_Day \"Victory over Japan Day\")\" only marked the beginning of another phase of *Waukesha*{{'}}s brief Navy career — the occupation of the Japanese home islands. She rendezvoused with units of the [3rd Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Third_Fleet \"United States Third Fleet\") off [Honshū](/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB \"Honshū\") and entered Tokyo Bay on the 27th, anchoring off the bomb\\-scarred [Yokosuka Naval Base](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka \"United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka\") on the 30th to commence offloading her men and equipment to support the occupation.", "*Waukesha* returned to [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\") on 5 September and embarked men of the [2nd Marine Division](/wiki/2nd_Marine_Division_%28United_States%29 \"2nd Marine Division (United States)\"); transferred some of her own men to other ships for transportation back to the United States; and took on supplies for a second trip to Japanese ports. She arrived at [Nagasaki](/wiki/Nagasaki%2C_Nagasaki \"Nagasaki, Nagasaki\") and tied up at [Dejima](/wiki/Dejima \"Dejima\") Wharf on the 24th, to disembark her marines of the occupation force.", "Underway for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") four days later, the ship transferred four landing boats to {{USS\\|Oconto\\|APA\\-187\\|3}} at Subic Bay on 4 October and then obtained five boats from the Army Boat Pool in [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf \"Lingayen Gulf\") before moving to [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\"). Loading cargo occupied the ship in the Philippines before she sailed for [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") for her third and final visit to that country's ports, carrying cargo to Honshū and reaching [Kii Suido](/wiki/Kii_Suido \"Kii Suido\") on 23 October.", "Shifting to [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya \"Nagoya\") on 1 November, *Waukesha* embarked demobilized sailors, soldiers, and marines to transport them home in \"[Operation Magic Carpet](/wiki/Operation_Magic_Carpet \"Operation Magic Carpet\").\" After departing [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya \"Nagoya\") on the 9th, she made port at [Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\"), on the 21st and unloaded her passengers before proceeding south for [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"). The ship later made more Far Eastern cruises and called at [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\") en route to [Qingdao](/wiki/Qingdao \"Qingdao\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), where she arrived on 2 March 1946\\. Remaining until 8 March, the attack cargo ship set course, via [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"), for [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), California, which she reached on 15 April 1946\\. *Waukesha* departed San Diego on 30 April and steamed, via the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\"), to the east coast. She arrived at [Norfolk](/wiki/Naval_Station_Norfolk \"Naval Station Norfolk\"), Virginia, on 24 May.", "### Decommissioning and fate", "Decommissioned and returned to the [United States Maritime Commission](/wiki/United_States_Maritime_Commission \"United States Maritime Commission\")'s [War Shipping Administration](/wiki/War_Shipping_Administration \"War Shipping Administration\") on 10 July 1946, the attack cargo ship was struck from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") on 31 July 1946\\.", "Acquired by the Luckenbach Steamship Co. of New York City in 1947, the erstwhile warship was renamed SS *Mary Luckenbach*. At 17:05 on 25 August 1950, *Mary Luckenbach* collided with the [hospital ship](/wiki/Hospital_ship \"Hospital ship\") {{USS\\|Benevolence\\|AH\\-13}} just off [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"). *Benevolence* sank in 15 minutes with a loss of 23 lives out of 505 aboard. Among those lost was the prospective commanding officer of the newly recommissioned *Benevolence*, [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28United_States_O-6%29 \"Captain (United States O-6)\") William \"Pineapple Bill\" Murray.", "*Mary Luckenbach* operated with the same firm until 1959, when the ship was sold and renamed SS *Bayou State*. She sailed under the flag of the [States Marine Lines](/wiki/States_Marine_Lines \"States Marine Lines\") of New York until 1970\\. She was sold to Taiwan Shipbreakers and arrived at [Kaohhiung, Taiwan](/wiki/Kaohsiung \"Kaohsiung\") on 29 September 1970 and scrapped, beginning in October of the same year.", "" ]
History ------- ### 1985–2000 The Caymanian football team played its first international match on 3 March 1985, against [Dominica](/wiki/Dominica_national_football_team "Dominica national football team"), in [Roseau](/wiki/Roseau "Roseau"), as part of the [1985 CFU Championship](/wiki/1985_CFU_Championship "1985 CFU Championship"). They lost that match 2–1 with [Lee Ramoon](/wiki/Lee_Ramoon "Lee Ramoon") \- who would go on to become the team's top scorer \- opening the scoring. They qualified for the [1991 Caribbean Cup](/wiki/1991_Caribbean_Cup "1991 Caribbean Cup"), falling in the first round. They returned to the tournament in [1994](/wiki/1994_Caribbean_Cup "1994 Caribbean Cup"), suffering the same fate. However, the following year, the Cayman Islands jointly organized with Jamaica the [1995 Caribbean Cup](/wiki/1995_Caribbean_Cup "1995 Caribbean Cup"), reaching the semi\-finals. It fell to [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago_national_football_team "Trinidad and Tobago national football team") by a scandalous 2–9\. In the match for 3rd place, they were defeated by [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_football_team "Cuba national football team") 0–3\. They would qualify again in [1998](/wiki/1998_Caribbean_Cup "1998 Caribbean Cup") although they failed to get past the group stage. They have not played a Caribbean Cup final phase since then. The Cayman Islands participated in their first World Cup qualifying tie in the [1998](/wiki/1998_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 "1998 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)") where they succumbed in the first round at the hands of [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_football_team "Cuba national football team"), who eliminated them after winning twice 0–1 and 0–5\. ### 2000–2010 In 2000, given the status of the [Cayman Islands](/wiki/Cayman_Islands "Cayman Islands") as one of the [British overseas territories](/wiki/British_overseas_territories "British overseas territories"), the national team attempted to use this as a loophole to call up a number of uncapped players possessing [British passports](/wiki/British_passport "British passport") but who had no specific links to the islands. Barry McIntosh, a football agent, was called in to scout players for an upcoming [FIFA World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup "FIFA World Cup") qualifier against [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_football_team "Cuba national football team") and ultimately he secured eight players i.e. [Wayne Allison](/wiki/Wayne_Allison "Wayne Allison") ([Tranmere Rovers](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers "Tranmere Rovers")), [Ged Brannan](/wiki/Ged_Brannan "Ged Brannan") ([Motherwell](/wiki/Motherwell_F.C. "Motherwell F.C.")), [David Barnett](/wiki/Dave_Barnett_%28footballer%29 "Dave Barnett (footballer)") ([Lincoln City](/wiki/Lincoln_City_F.C. "Lincoln City F.C.")), [Martin O'Connor](/wiki/Martin_O%27Connor_%28footballer%29 "Martin O'Connor (footballer)") ([Birmingham City](/wiki/Birmingham_City_F.C. "Birmingham City F.C.")), [Dwayne Plummer](/wiki/Dwayne_Plummer "Dwayne Plummer") ([Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. "Bristol City F.C.")), [Barry Hayles](/wiki/Barry_Hayles "Barry Hayles") ([Fulham](/wiki/Fulham_F.C. "Fulham F.C.")), [Neville Roach](/wiki/Neville_Roach "Neville Roach") ([Southend United](/wiki/Southend_United "Southend United")) and Neil Sharpe ([Boreham Wood](/wiki/Boreham_Wood_F.C. "Boreham Wood F.C.")). With the exception of Allison the players all appeared in a 5–0 friendly defeat against [D.C. United](/wiki/D.C._United "D.C. United") but before they could appear in any official internationals [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA "FIFA") stepped in and barred the players from representing the Cayman Islands due to their failure to satisfy the existing rules for national team eligibility.[Footballers whose loved ones have told them who to play for](https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/mar/05/theknowledge.sport) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630185957/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/mar/05/theknowledge.sport \|date\=30 June 2018 }}, *The Guardian*, 5 March 2008 Of the eight players only Hayles went on to play international football, appearing for [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica_national_football_team "Jamaica national football team") ten times. In the first round of the [2002 qualifiers](/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 "2002 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)"), Cayman Islands was once again eliminated by [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_football_team "Cuba national football team"), winning 4–0 in Havana and drawing 0–0 in George Town. History repeated itself four years later, in the [2006 qualifiers](/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 "2002 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)"), since the Cubans eliminated the Caymanian team from the World Cup for the third time in a row (1–2 in George Town and 4–0 in Havana). Things didn't change significantly for the [2010 qualifiers](/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 "2010 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)"), only this time it was [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda_national_football_team "Bermuda national football team") that eliminated the Cayman Islands in the first round, 4–2 on aggregate. Regardless, this tie saw the Caymanians earn their first points away from home, earning a 1–1 draw at Hamilton on 3 February 2008, with [Allean Grant](/wiki/Allean_Grant "Allean Grant") scoring in the 87th minute. ### 2010–present Qualifying directly into the second round of the [2014 qualifiers](/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 "2014 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)"), the Cayman Islands were drawn in group A along with their peers from [El Salvador](/wiki/El_Salvador_national_football_team "El Salvador national football team"), the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic_national_football_team "Dominican Republic national football team") and [Suriname](/wiki/Suriname_national_football_team "Suriname national football team"). They lost 5 games out of 6, rescuing a 1–1 draw on the last day, on 14 November 2011, against the Dominicans. The Caymanian team did not play any match again in the next few years, since declining their participation in the 2012 and 2014 Caribbean Cups. But they returned to the [2018 qualifiers](/wiki/2018_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 "2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)"), facing [Belize](/wiki/Belize_national_football_team "Belize national football team") in the first round. The first leg in Belmopan finished 0–0 and the second leg in George Town finished 1–1\. The 1–1 aggregate score meant the Cayman Islands were eliminated on the away goal rule. With this unbeaten elimination, Cayman Islands can say that they are one of the few teams in the world that did not qualify for a FIFA World Cup despite not losing a single match.
[ "History\n-------", "### 1985–2000", "The Caymanian football team played its first international match on 3 March 1985, against [Dominica](/wiki/Dominica_national_football_team \"Dominica national football team\"), in [Roseau](/wiki/Roseau \"Roseau\"), as part of the [1985 CFU Championship](/wiki/1985_CFU_Championship \"1985 CFU Championship\"). They lost that match 2–1 with [Lee Ramoon](/wiki/Lee_Ramoon \"Lee Ramoon\") \\- who would go on to become the team's top scorer \\- opening the scoring.", "They qualified for the [1991 Caribbean Cup](/wiki/1991_Caribbean_Cup \"1991 Caribbean Cup\"), falling in the first round. They returned to the tournament in [1994](/wiki/1994_Caribbean_Cup \"1994 Caribbean Cup\"), suffering the same fate. However, the following year, the Cayman Islands jointly organized with Jamaica the [1995 Caribbean Cup](/wiki/1995_Caribbean_Cup \"1995 Caribbean Cup\"), reaching the semi\\-finals. It fell to [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago_national_football_team \"Trinidad and Tobago national football team\") by a scandalous 2–9\\. In the match for 3rd place, they were defeated by [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_football_team \"Cuba national football team\") 0–3\\. They would qualify again in [1998](/wiki/1998_Caribbean_Cup \"1998 Caribbean Cup\") although they failed to get past the group stage. They have not played a Caribbean Cup final phase since then.", "The Cayman Islands participated in their first World Cup qualifying tie in the [1998](/wiki/1998_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 \"1998 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)\") where they succumbed in the first round at the hands of [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_football_team \"Cuba national football team\"), who eliminated them after winning twice 0–1 and 0–5\\.", "### 2000–2010", "In 2000, given the status of the [Cayman Islands](/wiki/Cayman_Islands \"Cayman Islands\") as one of the [British overseas territories](/wiki/British_overseas_territories \"British overseas territories\"), the national team attempted to use this as a loophole to call up a number of uncapped players possessing [British passports](/wiki/British_passport \"British passport\") but who had no specific links to the islands. Barry McIntosh, a football agent, was called in to scout players for an upcoming [FIFA World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup \"FIFA World Cup\") qualifier against [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_football_team \"Cuba national football team\") and ultimately he secured eight players i.e. [Wayne Allison](/wiki/Wayne_Allison \"Wayne Allison\") ([Tranmere Rovers](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers \"Tranmere Rovers\")), [Ged Brannan](/wiki/Ged_Brannan \"Ged Brannan\") ([Motherwell](/wiki/Motherwell_F.C. \"Motherwell F.C.\")), [David Barnett](/wiki/Dave_Barnett_%28footballer%29 \"Dave Barnett (footballer)\") ([Lincoln City](/wiki/Lincoln_City_F.C. \"Lincoln City F.C.\")), [Martin O'Connor](/wiki/Martin_O%27Connor_%28footballer%29 \"Martin O'Connor (footballer)\") ([Birmingham City](/wiki/Birmingham_City_F.C. \"Birmingham City F.C.\")), [Dwayne Plummer](/wiki/Dwayne_Plummer \"Dwayne Plummer\") ([Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. \"Bristol City F.C.\")), [Barry Hayles](/wiki/Barry_Hayles \"Barry Hayles\") ([Fulham](/wiki/Fulham_F.C. \"Fulham F.C.\")), [Neville Roach](/wiki/Neville_Roach \"Neville Roach\") ([Southend United](/wiki/Southend_United \"Southend United\")) and Neil Sharpe ([Boreham Wood](/wiki/Boreham_Wood_F.C. \"Boreham Wood F.C.\")). With the exception of Allison the players all appeared in a 5–0 friendly defeat against [D.C. United](/wiki/D.C._United \"D.C. United\") but before they could appear in any official internationals [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA \"FIFA\") stepped in and barred the players from representing the Cayman Islands due to their failure to satisfy the existing rules for national team eligibility.[Footballers whose loved ones have told them who to play for](https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/mar/05/theknowledge.sport) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630185957/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/mar/05/theknowledge.sport \\|date\\=30 June 2018 }}, *The Guardian*, 5 March 2008 Of the eight players only Hayles went on to play international football, appearing for [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica_national_football_team \"Jamaica national football team\") ten times.", "In the first round of the [2002 qualifiers](/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 \"2002 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)\"), Cayman Islands was once again eliminated by [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba_national_football_team \"Cuba national football team\"), winning 4–0 in Havana and drawing 0–0 in George Town. History repeated itself four years later, in the [2006 qualifiers](/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 \"2002 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)\"), since the Cubans eliminated the Caymanian team from the World Cup for the third time in a row (1–2 in George Town and 4–0 in Havana).", "Things didn't change significantly for the [2010 qualifiers](/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 \"2010 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)\"), only this time it was [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda_national_football_team \"Bermuda national football team\") that eliminated the Cayman Islands in the first round, 4–2 on aggregate. Regardless, this tie saw the Caymanians earn their first points away from home, earning a 1–1 draw at Hamilton on 3 February 2008, with [Allean Grant](/wiki/Allean_Grant \"Allean Grant\") scoring in the 87th minute.", "### 2010–present", "Qualifying directly into the second round of the [2014 qualifiers](/wiki/2014_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 \"2014 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)\"), the Cayman Islands were drawn in group A along with their peers from [El Salvador](/wiki/El_Salvador_national_football_team \"El Salvador national football team\"), the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic_national_football_team \"Dominican Republic national football team\") and [Suriname](/wiki/Suriname_national_football_team \"Suriname national football team\"). They lost 5 games out of 6, rescuing a 1–1 draw on the last day, on 14 November 2011, against the Dominicans. The Caymanian team did not play any match again in the next few years, since declining their participation in the 2012 and 2014 Caribbean Cups. But they returned to the [2018 qualifiers](/wiki/2018_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28CONCACAF%29 \"2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)\"), facing [Belize](/wiki/Belize_national_football_team \"Belize national football team\") in the first round. The first leg in Belmopan finished 0–0 and the second leg in George Town finished 1–1\\. The 1–1 aggregate score meant the Cayman Islands were eliminated on the away goal rule. With this unbeaten elimination, Cayman Islands can say that they are one of the few teams in the world that did not qualify for a FIFA World Cup despite not losing a single match.", "" ]
Background ---------- ### Pre\-Revlon legal framework {{Empty section\|date\=January 2011}} ### Facts CEO [Ronald Perelman](/wiki/Ronald_Perelman "Ronald Perelman") of [Pantry Pride](/wiki/Pantry_Pride "Pantry Pride") approached the [Revlon](/wiki/Revlon "Revlon") corporation, proposing either a negotiated transaction or, if necessary, a [hostile](/wiki/Takeover%23Hostile "Takeover#Hostile") [tender offer](/wiki/Tender_offer "Tender offer"), at a price of between $42 and $45 per share. Revlon's board rejected the negotiated transaction, fearing that the acquisition would be financed by [junk bonds](/wiki/High-yield_debt "High-yield debt") and result in the corporation's dissolution. To prevent the [hostile](/wiki/Takeover%23Hostile "Takeover#Hostile") [tender offer](/wiki/Tender_offer "Tender offer"), the Revlon board promptly undertook defensive action. Most notably, it adopted a Note Purchase Rights Plan, a variation on the traditional [poison pill](/wiki/Shareholder_rights_plan "Shareholder rights plan") that, when triggered, resulted in the issuance of debt rather than equity rights to existing shareholders other than the unapproved bidder. Shortly thereafter, Pantry Pride declared a hostile cash tender offer for any or all Revlon shares at a price of $47\.50, subject to its ability to secure financing and to the redemption of the rights issued to shareholders under the newly adopted Rights Plan. The Revlon board responded by advising shareholders to reject the offer as inadequate, and it commenced its own offer to repurchase a significant percentage of its own outstanding shares in exchange for senior subordinated notes and convertible preferred stock valued at $100 per share. The offer was quickly oversubscribed and in exchange for 10 million of its own tendered shares, the company issued notes that contained covenants restricting Revlon's ability to incur debt, sell assets or issue dividends going forward. The successful consummation of the Revlon repurchase program effectively thwarted Pantry Pride's outstanding tender offer. A few weeks later, however, Pantry Pride issued a new one that, taking into account the completed exchange offer, reflected value essentially equivalent to its first offer. Following rejection of this offer by the Revlon board, Pantry Pride repeatedly revised its offer over the course of the next several weeks, raising the offer price to $50, and later to $53 per share. During this same period, the Revlon board had commenced discussions with Forstmann, Little regarding a possible leveraged buyout led by Forstmann as an alternative to the acquisition by Pantry Pride. It quickly reached agreement in principle on a transaction at a price of $56\. The terms of the proposed deal importantly included a waiver of the restrictive covenants contained in the notes issued by Revlon in the earlier repurchase. The announcement of the proposed deal, and in particular the anticipated waiver of the covenants, sent the trading value of the notes into a steep decline, engendering threats of litigation from now irate noteholders. Pantry Pride promptly raised the price of its offer to $56\.25 per share. It further announced publicly that it would top any ensuing bid that Forstmann might make, if only by a fraction. In light of this, Forstmann expressed reluctance to reenter the bidding without significant assurances from Revlon that any resulting deal would close. The Revlon board assuaged Forstmann's concern. Less than a week following Pantry Pride's $56\.25 offer, it struck a deal with Forstmann pursuant to which Forstmann would pay $57\.25 per share conditioned on its receipt of a lock\-up option to purchase one of Revlon's important business divisions at a discounted price should another acquirer secure 40% or more of Revlon's outstanding stock, a $25 million termination fee, a restrictive no\-shop provision precluding the Revlon board from negotiating with Pantry Pride or any other rival bidder except under very narrow circumstances, removal of the Note Purchase Rights, and waiver of the restrictive covenants contained in the recently issued notes. Forstmann for its part agreed to support the par value of the Notes, still falling in value in the market, by exchanging them for new notes, presumably at the initial values of the Notes when they had been first issued. ### Pantry Pride seeks injunction Pantry Pride raised its offer to $58 per share. Simultaneously, it filed a claim in the Court of Chancery, seeking interim injunctive relief to nullify the asset option, the no\-shop, the termination fee and the Rights. It argued that the board had breached its fiduciary duty by foreclosing Revlon stockholders from accepting its higher cash offer. ### Chancery court The Court of Chancery granted the requested relief, finding the Revlon directors had acted to lock up the Forstmann deal by way of the challenged deal provisions out of concern for their potential liability to Revlon's disaffected and potentially litigious noteholders, a concern that would be allayed by Forstmanns agreement to restore the full value of the notes in connection with the new deal. The Court of Chancery found that, by thus pursuing their personal interests rather than maximizing the sale price for the benefit of the shareholders, the Revlon directors had breached their duty of loyalty.
[ "Background\n----------", "### Pre\\-Revlon legal framework", "{{Empty section\\|date\\=January 2011}}", "### Facts", "CEO [Ronald Perelman](/wiki/Ronald_Perelman \"Ronald Perelman\") of [Pantry Pride](/wiki/Pantry_Pride \"Pantry Pride\") approached the [Revlon](/wiki/Revlon \"Revlon\") corporation, proposing either a negotiated transaction or, if necessary, a [hostile](/wiki/Takeover%23Hostile \"Takeover#Hostile\") [tender offer](/wiki/Tender_offer \"Tender offer\"), at a price of between $42 and $45 per share. Revlon's board rejected the negotiated transaction, fearing that the acquisition would be financed by [junk bonds](/wiki/High-yield_debt \"High-yield debt\") and result in the corporation's dissolution.", "To prevent the [hostile](/wiki/Takeover%23Hostile \"Takeover#Hostile\") [tender offer](/wiki/Tender_offer \"Tender offer\"), the Revlon board promptly undertook defensive action. Most notably, it adopted a Note Purchase Rights Plan, a variation on the traditional [poison pill](/wiki/Shareholder_rights_plan \"Shareholder rights plan\") that, when triggered, resulted in the issuance of debt rather than equity rights to existing shareholders other than the unapproved bidder.", "Shortly thereafter, Pantry Pride declared a hostile cash tender offer for any or all Revlon shares at a price of $47\\.50, subject to its ability to secure financing and to the redemption of the rights issued to shareholders under the newly adopted Rights Plan.", "The Revlon board responded by advising shareholders to reject the offer as inadequate, and it commenced its own offer to repurchase a significant percentage of its own outstanding shares in exchange for senior subordinated notes and convertible preferred stock valued at $100 per share. The offer was quickly oversubscribed and in exchange for 10 million of its own tendered shares, the company issued notes that contained covenants restricting Revlon's ability to incur debt, sell assets or issue dividends going forward.", "The successful consummation of the Revlon repurchase program effectively thwarted Pantry Pride's outstanding tender offer. A few weeks later, however, Pantry Pride issued a new one that, taking into account the completed exchange offer, reflected value essentially equivalent to its first offer. Following rejection of this offer by the Revlon board, Pantry Pride repeatedly revised its offer over the course of the next several weeks, raising the offer price to $50, and later to $53 per share.", "During this same period, the Revlon board had commenced discussions with Forstmann, Little regarding a possible leveraged buyout led by Forstmann as an alternative to the acquisition by Pantry Pride. It quickly reached agreement in principle on a transaction at a price of $56\\. The terms of the proposed deal importantly included a waiver of the restrictive covenants contained in the notes issued by Revlon in the earlier repurchase. The announcement of the proposed deal, and in particular the anticipated waiver of the covenants, sent the trading value of the notes into a steep decline, engendering threats of litigation from now irate noteholders.", "Pantry Pride promptly raised the price of its offer to $56\\.25 per share. It further announced publicly that it would top any ensuing bid that Forstmann might make, if only by a fraction. In light of this, Forstmann expressed reluctance to reenter the bidding without significant assurances from Revlon that any resulting deal would close. The Revlon board assuaged Forstmann's concern. Less than a week following Pantry Pride's $56\\.25 offer, it struck a deal with Forstmann pursuant to which Forstmann would pay $57\\.25 per share conditioned on its receipt of a lock\\-up option to purchase one of Revlon's important business divisions at a discounted price should another acquirer secure 40% or more of Revlon's outstanding stock, a $25 million termination fee, a restrictive no\\-shop provision precluding the Revlon board from negotiating with Pantry Pride or any other rival bidder except under very narrow circumstances, removal of the Note Purchase Rights, and waiver of the restrictive covenants contained in the recently issued notes. Forstmann for its part agreed to support the par value of the Notes, still falling in value in the market, by exchanging them for new notes, presumably at the initial values of the Notes when they had been first issued.", "### Pantry Pride seeks injunction", "Pantry Pride raised its offer to $58 per share. Simultaneously, it filed a claim in the Court of Chancery, seeking interim injunctive relief to nullify the asset option, the no\\-shop, the termination fee and the Rights. It argued that the board had breached its fiduciary duty by foreclosing Revlon stockholders from accepting its higher cash offer.", "### Chancery court", "The Court of Chancery granted the requested relief, finding the Revlon directors had acted to lock up the Forstmann deal by way of the challenged deal provisions out of concern for their potential liability to Revlon's disaffected and potentially litigious noteholders, a concern that would be allayed by Forstmanns agreement to restore the full value of the notes in connection with the new deal. The Court of Chancery found that, by thus pursuing their personal interests rather than maximizing the sale price for the benefit of the shareholders, the Revlon directors had breached their duty of loyalty.", "" ]
### Facts CEO [Ronald Perelman](/wiki/Ronald_Perelman "Ronald Perelman") of [Pantry Pride](/wiki/Pantry_Pride "Pantry Pride") approached the [Revlon](/wiki/Revlon "Revlon") corporation, proposing either a negotiated transaction or, if necessary, a [hostile](/wiki/Takeover%23Hostile "Takeover#Hostile") [tender offer](/wiki/Tender_offer "Tender offer"), at a price of between $42 and $45 per share. Revlon's board rejected the negotiated transaction, fearing that the acquisition would be financed by [junk bonds](/wiki/High-yield_debt "High-yield debt") and result in the corporation's dissolution. To prevent the [hostile](/wiki/Takeover%23Hostile "Takeover#Hostile") [tender offer](/wiki/Tender_offer "Tender offer"), the Revlon board promptly undertook defensive action. Most notably, it adopted a Note Purchase Rights Plan, a variation on the traditional [poison pill](/wiki/Shareholder_rights_plan "Shareholder rights plan") that, when triggered, resulted in the issuance of debt rather than equity rights to existing shareholders other than the unapproved bidder. Shortly thereafter, Pantry Pride declared a hostile cash tender offer for any or all Revlon shares at a price of $47\.50, subject to its ability to secure financing and to the redemption of the rights issued to shareholders under the newly adopted Rights Plan. The Revlon board responded by advising shareholders to reject the offer as inadequate, and it commenced its own offer to repurchase a significant percentage of its own outstanding shares in exchange for senior subordinated notes and convertible preferred stock valued at $100 per share. The offer was quickly oversubscribed and in exchange for 10 million of its own tendered shares, the company issued notes that contained covenants restricting Revlon's ability to incur debt, sell assets or issue dividends going forward. The successful consummation of the Revlon repurchase program effectively thwarted Pantry Pride's outstanding tender offer. A few weeks later, however, Pantry Pride issued a new one that, taking into account the completed exchange offer, reflected value essentially equivalent to its first offer. Following rejection of this offer by the Revlon board, Pantry Pride repeatedly revised its offer over the course of the next several weeks, raising the offer price to $50, and later to $53 per share. During this same period, the Revlon board had commenced discussions with Forstmann, Little regarding a possible leveraged buyout led by Forstmann as an alternative to the acquisition by Pantry Pride. It quickly reached agreement in principle on a transaction at a price of $56\. The terms of the proposed deal importantly included a waiver of the restrictive covenants contained in the notes issued by Revlon in the earlier repurchase. The announcement of the proposed deal, and in particular the anticipated waiver of the covenants, sent the trading value of the notes into a steep decline, engendering threats of litigation from now irate noteholders. Pantry Pride promptly raised the price of its offer to $56\.25 per share. It further announced publicly that it would top any ensuing bid that Forstmann might make, if only by a fraction. In light of this, Forstmann expressed reluctance to reenter the bidding without significant assurances from Revlon that any resulting deal would close. The Revlon board assuaged Forstmann's concern. Less than a week following Pantry Pride's $56\.25 offer, it struck a deal with Forstmann pursuant to which Forstmann would pay $57\.25 per share conditioned on its receipt of a lock\-up option to purchase one of Revlon's important business divisions at a discounted price should another acquirer secure 40% or more of Revlon's outstanding stock, a $25 million termination fee, a restrictive no\-shop provision precluding the Revlon board from negotiating with Pantry Pride or any other rival bidder except under very narrow circumstances, removal of the Note Purchase Rights, and waiver of the restrictive covenants contained in the recently issued notes. Forstmann for its part agreed to support the par value of the Notes, still falling in value in the market, by exchanging them for new notes, presumably at the initial values of the Notes when they had been first issued.
[ "### Facts", "CEO [Ronald Perelman](/wiki/Ronald_Perelman \"Ronald Perelman\") of [Pantry Pride](/wiki/Pantry_Pride \"Pantry Pride\") approached the [Revlon](/wiki/Revlon \"Revlon\") corporation, proposing either a negotiated transaction or, if necessary, a [hostile](/wiki/Takeover%23Hostile \"Takeover#Hostile\") [tender offer](/wiki/Tender_offer \"Tender offer\"), at a price of between $42 and $45 per share. Revlon's board rejected the negotiated transaction, fearing that the acquisition would be financed by [junk bonds](/wiki/High-yield_debt \"High-yield debt\") and result in the corporation's dissolution.", "To prevent the [hostile](/wiki/Takeover%23Hostile \"Takeover#Hostile\") [tender offer](/wiki/Tender_offer \"Tender offer\"), the Revlon board promptly undertook defensive action. Most notably, it adopted a Note Purchase Rights Plan, a variation on the traditional [poison pill](/wiki/Shareholder_rights_plan \"Shareholder rights plan\") that, when triggered, resulted in the issuance of debt rather than equity rights to existing shareholders other than the unapproved bidder.", "Shortly thereafter, Pantry Pride declared a hostile cash tender offer for any or all Revlon shares at a price of $47\\.50, subject to its ability to secure financing and to the redemption of the rights issued to shareholders under the newly adopted Rights Plan.", "The Revlon board responded by advising shareholders to reject the offer as inadequate, and it commenced its own offer to repurchase a significant percentage of its own outstanding shares in exchange for senior subordinated notes and convertible preferred stock valued at $100 per share. The offer was quickly oversubscribed and in exchange for 10 million of its own tendered shares, the company issued notes that contained covenants restricting Revlon's ability to incur debt, sell assets or issue dividends going forward.", "The successful consummation of the Revlon repurchase program effectively thwarted Pantry Pride's outstanding tender offer. A few weeks later, however, Pantry Pride issued a new one that, taking into account the completed exchange offer, reflected value essentially equivalent to its first offer. Following rejection of this offer by the Revlon board, Pantry Pride repeatedly revised its offer over the course of the next several weeks, raising the offer price to $50, and later to $53 per share.", "During this same period, the Revlon board had commenced discussions with Forstmann, Little regarding a possible leveraged buyout led by Forstmann as an alternative to the acquisition by Pantry Pride. It quickly reached agreement in principle on a transaction at a price of $56\\. The terms of the proposed deal importantly included a waiver of the restrictive covenants contained in the notes issued by Revlon in the earlier repurchase. The announcement of the proposed deal, and in particular the anticipated waiver of the covenants, sent the trading value of the notes into a steep decline, engendering threats of litigation from now irate noteholders.", "Pantry Pride promptly raised the price of its offer to $56\\.25 per share. It further announced publicly that it would top any ensuing bid that Forstmann might make, if only by a fraction. In light of this, Forstmann expressed reluctance to reenter the bidding without significant assurances from Revlon that any resulting deal would close. The Revlon board assuaged Forstmann's concern. Less than a week following Pantry Pride's $56\\.25 offer, it struck a deal with Forstmann pursuant to which Forstmann would pay $57\\.25 per share conditioned on its receipt of a lock\\-up option to purchase one of Revlon's important business divisions at a discounted price should another acquirer secure 40% or more of Revlon's outstanding stock, a $25 million termination fee, a restrictive no\\-shop provision precluding the Revlon board from negotiating with Pantry Pride or any other rival bidder except under very narrow circumstances, removal of the Note Purchase Rights, and waiver of the restrictive covenants contained in the recently issued notes. Forstmann for its part agreed to support the par value of the Notes, still falling in value in the market, by exchanging them for new notes, presumably at the initial values of the Notes when they had been first issued.", "" ]
Judgment -------- The Delaware Supreme Court affirmed the judgment below. First, the Court reviewed Pantry Pride's challenges to the Revlon board's defensive actions: the adoption of a poison pill and the consummation of the repurchase program. Referencing its recent decision in *[Unocal v. Mesa Petroleum](/wiki/Unocal_v._Mesa_Petroleum "Unocal v. Mesa Petroleum")*, the Court observed initially that the business judgment rule, while generally applicable to a board's approval of a proposed merger, does not apply to a board's decision to implement anti\-takeover measures, given the omnipresent specter that the board, in so doing, is serving its own interests in remaining in office at the expense of the interests of shareholders in securing maximum value.{{cite court \|litigants\=Unocal Corp. v. Mesa Petroleum Co. \|vol\=493 \|reporter\=A.2d \|opinion\=946 \|pinpoint\=954 \|court\=Del. \|date\=1985 \|url\=https://law.justia.com/cases/delaware/supreme\-court/1985/493\-a\-2d\-946\-9\.html \|accessdate\=2018\-02\-11 \|quote\=}} Rather, it is the directors' threshold burden to establish that they had a reasonable basis for perceiving the need for defensive actions (typically by showing good faith and reasonable investigation) and that the action taken was reasonable in relation to the threat posed. Applying this test, the Court found, first, that the Revlon board had acted reasonably and proportionately in adopting the Note Purchase Rights Plan in the face of a demonstrably inadequate offer of $45 per share, particularly since it retained the flexibility to redeem the rights in the event an acceptable offer should later appear and since the effect of such an action was to create bargaining leverage that resulted in significantly more favorable offers. It reached the same conclusion with respect to the exchange offer, for many of the same reasons. However, a different legal standard applied once the board authorized the negotiations of a merger with Forstmann, the break\-up of the company or its sale to one suitor or another became inevitable, and the board clearly recognized that the company was for sale. Now it was no longer charged with protecting the shareholders and the corporate entity from perceived threats to its ability to continue to perform, but instead became obligated to the maximize the company's immediate monetized value for the benefit of shareholders. It was this new and far more narrow duty that the Revlon directors were found to have violated. By having agreed to structure the most recent Forstmann transaction in a way that effectively destroyed the ongoing bidding contest between Forstmann and Pantry Pride, the Revlon board was held to have acted contrary to its newly acquired, auctioneer\-like obligation to pursue and secure the highest purchase price available for shareholders. The Court was not swayed by defendants' claims that its concessions to Forstmann in fact resulted in a higher price than would otherwise have been available, while simultaneously enhancing the interests of noteholders by shoring up the sagging market for its outstanding notes. * As to the former, the Court noted that the price ultimately offered by Forstmann was not materially better than what was already on the table from Pantry Pride once the [time value of money](/wiki/Time_value_of_money "Time value of money") was taken into account.(Acceptance of the Pantry Pride tender offer would have resulted in immediate payment to the Revlon stockholders. The Forstmann deal contemplated a delay in payment pending shareholder approval and consummation of the merger, thus, in the Courts view, erasing most if not all of the $1 face value difference in price.) Thus, the board ended the auction with very little actual improvement in the final bid. * As to the claim of having benefitted the noteholders, the Court held that the primary beneficiaries of the decision to lock\-up the Forstmann offer were the directors themselves since the primary effect of supporting the notes was to reduce the likelihood of ensuing litigation against them, already threatened, for having depressed the value of the notes by waiving the restrictive covenants. In all events, the Court observed, the interests of noteholders, or any corporate constituency other than stockholders for that matter, are not the proper beneficiaries of a directors fiduciary responsibilities, and may be pursued only to the extent doing so results in a related benefit to stockholders, the only constituency to which such fiduciary responsibilities run under Delaware law. Here, the Court held, the effect of the board's effort to benefit noteholders was contrary to the interests of stockholders in that it resulted in the destruction of an active auction process that promised upon conclusion greater value for stockholders than that secured. ### During a merger, the board of the target company primarily has a duty to maximize the company's value at sale. The opinion provides two main passages meant to guide the actions of future boards, regarding when duties attach that lead to enhanced judicial scrutiny. The first of these passages explains that > When Pantry Pride increased its offer to $50 per share, and then to $53, it became apparent to all that the break\-up of the company was inevitable. The Revlon board's authorization permitting management to negotiate a merger \[\*513] or buyout with a third party was a recognition that the company was for sale. The duty of the board had thus changed from the preservation of Revlon as a corporate entity to the maximization of the company's value at a sale for the stockholders' benefit. This significantly altered the board's responsibilities under the Unocal standards. It no longer faced threats to corporate policy and effectiveness, or to the stockholders' interests, from a grossly inadequate bid. The whole question of defensive measures became moot. The directors' role changed from defenders of the corporate bastion to auctioneers charged with getting the best price for the stockholders at a sale of the company.*Revlon*, 506 A.2d at 182 (emphasis added). Even in light of this language, it is clear that Revlon does not require an auction. See Gilson \& Kraakman, supra note 44, at 58\-59 (stating that Revlon only mandates "that shareholders must retain the freedom to choose between management's preferred transaction and a competing offer"); Barry Reder, The Obligation of a Director of a Delaware Corporation to Act as an Auctioneer, 44 Bus. Law. 275, 282 (1989\) (noting an auction "is not universally necessary under Revlon"); see also infra notes 70\-86 and accompanying text (discussing Chancellor Allen's view that all that is required when there is a "change in corporate control" is the board act in good faith to get the best price for the shareholders). The other portion of the opinion which provides guidance can be found in the following: > The Revlon board argued that it acted in good faith in protecting the noteholders because Unocal permits consideration of other corporate constituencies ... However, such concern for non\-stockholder interests is inappropriate when an auction among active bidders is in progress, and the object no longer is to protect or maintain the corporate enterprise but to sell it to the highest bidder. Given that factual and legal backdrop, the court concluded that the Revlon board impermissibly ended the "intense bidding contest on an insubstantial basis."*Revlon*, 506 A.2d at 184\. As a result, not only did the board's activities fail the new Revlon standard, but they also failed the Unocal standard.See id. (stating that both the termination of the bidding process and the desire of the directors to insulate themselves from liability to the noteholders represent actions which "cannot withstand the enhanced scrutiny which Unocal requires of director conduct"). Thus, this language seems to imply that Revlon creates duties on the board which can be described as "enhanced Unocal duties." Craig W. Palm \& Mark A. Kearney, A Primer on the Basics of Directors' Duties in Delaware: The Rules of the Game (Part II), 42 Vill. L. Rev. 1043, 1066 (1997\). This opinion was written by Justice Andrew G.T. Moore.
[ "Judgment\n--------", "The Delaware Supreme Court affirmed the judgment below.", "First, the Court reviewed Pantry Pride's challenges to the Revlon board's defensive actions: the adoption of a poison pill and the consummation of the repurchase program. Referencing its recent decision in *[Unocal v. Mesa Petroleum](/wiki/Unocal_v._Mesa_Petroleum \"Unocal v. Mesa Petroleum\")*, the Court observed initially that the business judgment rule, while generally applicable to a board's approval of a proposed merger, does not apply to a board's decision to implement anti\\-takeover measures, given the omnipresent specter that the board, in so doing, is serving its own interests in remaining in office at the expense of the interests of shareholders in securing maximum value.{{cite court \\|litigants\\=Unocal Corp. v. Mesa Petroleum Co. \\|vol\\=493 \\|reporter\\=A.2d \\|opinion\\=946 \\|pinpoint\\=954 \\|court\\=Del. \\|date\\=1985 \\|url\\=https://law.justia.com/cases/delaware/supreme\\-court/1985/493\\-a\\-2d\\-946\\-9\\.html \\|accessdate\\=2018\\-02\\-11 \\|quote\\=}} Rather, it is the directors' threshold burden to establish that they had a reasonable basis for perceiving the need for defensive actions (typically by showing good faith and reasonable investigation) and that the action taken was reasonable in relation to the threat posed.", "Applying this test, the Court found, first, that the Revlon board had acted reasonably and proportionately in adopting the Note Purchase Rights Plan in the face of a demonstrably inadequate offer of $45 per share, particularly since it retained the flexibility to redeem the rights in the event an acceptable offer should later appear and since the effect of such an action was to create bargaining leverage that resulted in significantly more favorable offers. It reached the same conclusion with respect to the exchange offer, for many of the same reasons.", "However, a different legal standard applied once the board authorized the negotiations of a merger with Forstmann, the break\\-up of the company or its sale to one suitor or another became inevitable, and the board clearly recognized that the company was for sale. Now it was no longer charged with protecting the shareholders and the corporate entity from perceived threats to its ability to continue to perform, but instead became obligated to the maximize the company's immediate monetized value for the benefit of shareholders.", "It was this new and far more narrow duty that the Revlon directors were found to have violated. By having agreed to structure the most recent Forstmann transaction in a way that effectively destroyed the ongoing bidding contest between Forstmann and Pantry Pride, the Revlon board was held to have acted contrary to its newly acquired, auctioneer\\-like obligation to pursue and secure the highest purchase price available for shareholders.", "The Court was not swayed by defendants' claims that its concessions to Forstmann in fact resulted in a higher price than would otherwise have been available, while simultaneously enhancing the interests of noteholders by shoring up the sagging market for its outstanding notes.\n* As to the former, the Court noted that the price ultimately offered by Forstmann was not materially better than what was already on the table from Pantry Pride once the [time value of money](/wiki/Time_value_of_money \"Time value of money\") was taken into account.(Acceptance of the Pantry Pride tender offer would have resulted in immediate payment to the Revlon stockholders. The Forstmann deal contemplated a delay in payment pending shareholder approval and consummation of the merger, thus, in the Courts view, erasing most if not all of the $1 face value difference in price.) Thus, the board ended the auction with very little actual improvement in the final bid.\n* As to the claim of having benefitted the noteholders, the Court held that the primary beneficiaries of the decision to lock\\-up the Forstmann offer were the directors themselves since the primary effect of supporting the notes was to reduce the likelihood of ensuing litigation against them, already threatened, for having depressed the value of the notes by waiving the restrictive covenants. In all events, the Court observed, the interests of noteholders, or any corporate constituency other than stockholders for that matter, are not the proper beneficiaries of a directors fiduciary responsibilities, and may be pursued only to the extent doing so results in a related benefit to stockholders, the only constituency to which such fiduciary responsibilities run under Delaware law. Here, the Court held, the effect of the board's effort to benefit noteholders was contrary to the interests of stockholders in that it resulted in the destruction of an active auction process that promised upon conclusion greater value for stockholders than that secured.", "### During a merger, the board of the target company primarily has a duty to maximize the company's value at sale.", "The opinion provides two main passages meant to guide the actions of future boards, regarding when duties attach that lead to enhanced judicial scrutiny. The first of these passages explains that", "> When Pantry Pride increased its offer to $50 per share, and then to $53, it became apparent to all that the break\\-up of the company was inevitable. The Revlon board's authorization permitting management to negotiate a merger \\[\\*513] or buyout with a third party was a recognition that the company was for sale. The duty of the board had thus changed from the preservation of Revlon as a corporate entity to the maximization of the company's value at a sale for the stockholders' benefit. This significantly altered the board's responsibilities under the Unocal standards. It no longer faced threats to corporate policy and effectiveness, or to the stockholders' interests, from a grossly inadequate bid. The whole question of defensive measures became moot. The directors' role changed from defenders of the corporate bastion to auctioneers charged with getting the best price for the stockholders at a sale of the company.*Revlon*, 506 A.2d at 182 (emphasis added). Even in light of this language, it is clear that Revlon does not require an auction. See Gilson \\& Kraakman, supra note 44, at 58\\-59 (stating that Revlon only mandates \"that shareholders must retain the freedom to choose between management's preferred transaction and a competing offer\"); Barry Reder, The Obligation of a Director of a Delaware Corporation to Act as an Auctioneer, 44 Bus. Law. 275, 282 (1989\\) (noting an auction \"is not universally necessary under Revlon\"); see also infra notes 70\\-86 and accompanying text (discussing Chancellor Allen's view that all that is required when there is a \"change in corporate control\" is the board act in good faith to get the best price for the shareholders).", "", "The other portion of the opinion which provides guidance can be found in the following:", "> The Revlon board argued that it acted in good faith in protecting the noteholders because Unocal permits consideration of other corporate constituencies ... However, such concern for non\\-stockholder interests is inappropriate when an auction among active bidders is in progress, and the object no longer is to protect or maintain the corporate enterprise but to sell it to the highest bidder.", "", "Given that factual and legal backdrop, the court concluded that the Revlon board impermissibly ended the \"intense bidding contest on an insubstantial basis.\"*Revlon*, 506 A.2d at 184\\. As a result, not only did the board's activities fail the new Revlon standard, but they also failed the Unocal standard.See id. (stating that both the termination of the bidding process and the desire of the directors to insulate themselves from liability to the noteholders represent actions which \"cannot withstand the enhanced scrutiny which Unocal requires of director conduct\"). Thus, this language seems to imply that Revlon creates duties on the board which can be described as \"enhanced Unocal duties.\" Craig W. Palm \\& Mark A. Kearney, A Primer on the Basics of Directors' Duties in Delaware: The Rules of the Game (Part II), 42 Vill. L. Rev. 1043, 1066 (1997\\).", "This opinion was written by Justice Andrew G.T. Moore.", "" ]
History ------- ### Origins In his introduction to the reference *[Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers](/wiki/Literary_Swordsmen_and_Sorcerers "Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers")* by [L. Sprague de Camp](/wiki/L._Sprague_de_Camp "L. Sprague de Camp"), [Lin Carter](/wiki/Lin_Carter "Lin Carter") notes that the heritage of sword and sorcery is illustrious, and can be traced back to mythology, including the labors of [Hercules](/wiki/Hercules "Hercules"), as well as to classical epics such as [Homer](/wiki/Homer "Homer")'s *[Odyssey](/wiki/Odyssey "Odyssey")*, the [Norse sagas](/wiki/Norse_sagas "Norse sagas"), and [Arthurian legend](/wiki/Arthurian_legend "Arthurian legend").{{cite book\|last1\=de Camp\|first1\=L. Sprague\|title\=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: the Makers of Heroic Fantasy\|date\=1976\|isbn\=0\-87054\-076\-9\|publisher\=Arkham House\|page\=xi\|location\=Sauk City, Wisconsin}} It also has been influenced by [historical fiction](/wiki/Historical_fiction "Historical fiction"). For instance, the work of [Sir Walter Scott](/wiki/Sir_Walter_Scott "Sir Walter Scott") was influenced by Scottish folklore and ballads.{{cite book\|last1\=Moorcock\|first1\=Michael \|title\=Wizardry \& Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy\|date\=2004 \|publisher\=MonkeyBrain\|location\=Austin, Tex.\|isbn\=1\-932265\-07\-4\|page\=79\|edition\=rev.}} But few of Scott's stories contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away.{{cite book \|last1\=Clute \|first1\=John \|last2\=Grant \|first2\=John \|last3\=Ashley \|first3\=Mike \|last4\=Hartwell \|first4\=David G. \|last5\=Westfahl \|first5\=Gary \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \|date\=1999 \|publisher\=St. Martin's Griffin \|location\=New York \|isbn\=0\-312\-19869\-8 \|page\=845 \|edition\=1st St. Martin's Griffin}} Its themes of adventure in a strange society were influenced by adventures set in foreign lands by [Sir H. Rider Haggard](/wiki/Sir_H._Rider_Haggard "Sir H. Rider Haggard") and [Edgar Rice Burroughs](/wiki/Edgar_Rice_Burroughs "Edgar Rice Burroughs").{{cite book\|last1\=Moorcock\|first1\=Michael \|title\=Wizardry \& Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy\|date\=2004\|publisher\=MonkeyBrain\|location\=Austin, Tex.\|isbn\=1\-932265\-07\-4\|pages\=80–81\|edition\=rev.}} Haggard's works, such as *[King Solomon's Mines](/wiki/King_Solomon%27s_Mines "King Solomon's Mines")* (1885\) and *[She: A History of Adventure](/wiki/She:A_History_of_Adventure "A History of Adventure")* (1887\) included many fantastic elements.{{cite book\|last1\=Clute\|first1\=John \|last2\=Grant\|first2\=John\|last3\=Ashley\|first3\=Mike\|last4\=Hartwell\|first4\=David G.\|last5\=Westfahl\|first5\=Gary \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \|date\=1999\|publisher\=St. Martin's Griffin \|location\=New York\|isbn\=0\-312\-19869\-8\|pages\=444–445\|edition\=1st St. Martin's Griffin}} Some of Haggard's characters, such as Umslopogaas, an axe\-wielding Zulu warrior who encountered supernatural phenomena and loved to fight, bore similarities to sword and sorcery heroes.{{cite book\|last1\=Murphy\|first1\=Brian\|title\=Flame and Crimson: A History of Sword\-and\-Sorcery\|date\=2019\|publisher\=Pulp Hero Press\|location\=Pismo Beach, CA\|isbn\=9781683902447\|page\= Chapter Two: Origins}} Haggard also wrote *[Eric Brighteyes](/wiki/Eric_Brighteyes "Eric Brighteyes")* (1891\), a violent [historical novel](/wiki/Historical_fiction "Historical fiction") based on the [Icelandic Sagas](/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders "Sagas of Icelanders"); some writers, (such as [David Pringle](/wiki/David_Pringle "David Pringle")) have stated that *Eric Brighteyes* resembles a modern sword and sorcery novel. Sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the [swashbuckling](/wiki/Swashbuckling "Swashbuckling") tales of [Alexandre Dumas, père](/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas%2C_p%C3%A8re "Alexandre Dumas, père") (*[The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers "The Three Musketeers")* (1844\), etc.), [Rafael Sabatini](/wiki/Rafael_Sabatini "Rafael Sabatini") (*[Scaramouche](/wiki/Scaramouche_%28novel%29 "Scaramouche (novel)")* (1921\), etc.) and their [pulp magazine](/wiki/Pulp_magazine "Pulp magazine") imitators, such as [Talbot Mundy](/wiki/Talbot_Mundy "Talbot Mundy"), [Harold Lamb](/wiki/Harold_Lamb "Harold Lamb"), and [H. Bedford\-Jones](/wiki/H._Bedford-Jones "H. Bedford-Jones"), who all influenced Howard. {{cite book \|last\=Shanks \|first\=Jeffrey \|date\=2013 \|editor\-last\=Hoppenstand \|editor\-first\=Gary \|title\=Pulp Fiction of the 1920s and 1930s \|publisher\=Salem Press \|pages\=6–18 \|chapter\=History, Horror, and Heroic Fantasy: Robert E. Howard and the Creation of the Sword\-and\-Sorcery Subgenre \|isbn\=9781429838436}} Mundy in particular, proved influential: early sword and sorcery writers such as Robert E. Howard, [C. L. Moore](/wiki/C._L._Moore "C. L. Moore") and [Fritz Leiber](/wiki/Fritz_Leiber "Fritz Leiber") were admirers of Mundy's fiction.Holmes, Morgan T. "Gothic to Cosmic: Sword and Sorcery in *Weird Tales*" in Everett, Justin and Shanks, Jeffrey H. (Editors). *The Unique Legacy of Weird Tales : the Evolution of Modern Fantasy and Horror*. Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland, 2015 {{ISBN\|9781442256224}} (p.65\) However, these historical "swashbucklers" lack the supernatural element (even though Dumas' fiction contained many [fantasy tropes](/wiki/Fantasy_tropes "Fantasy tropes")) which defines the genre.{{cite book \|last1\=Clute \|first1\=John \|last2\=Grant \|first2\=John \|last3\=Ashley \|first3\=Mike \|last4\=Hartwell \|first4\=David G. \|last5\=Westfahl \|first5\=Gary \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \|date\=1999 \|publisher\=St. Martin's Griffin \|location\=New York \|isbn\=0\-312\-19869\-8 \|page\=300 \|edition\=1st St. Martin's Griffin}} Another influence was early fantasy fiction. This type of fiction includes the short stories of [Lord Dunsany](/wiki/Edward_Plunkett%2C_18th_Baron_of_Dunsany "Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany")'s such as "[The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth](/wiki/The_Fortress_Unvanquishable%2C_Save_for_Sacnoth "The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth")" (1910\) and "The Distressing Tale of Thangobrind the Jeweller" (1911\). These works of Dunsany's feature warriors who clash with monsters and wizards in realms of Dunsany's creation. *[The Worm Ouroboros](/wiki/The_Worm_Ouroboros "The Worm Ouroboros")* (1922\) by [E. R. Eddison](/wiki/E._R._Eddison "E. R. Eddison"), a heroic romance written in a mock\-archaic style, was an inspiration to later writers of sword and sorcery such as Fritz Leiber. The "Poictesme" novels of [James Branch Cabell](/wiki/James_Branch_Cabell "James Branch Cabell") (such as *[Jurgen: A Comedy of Justice](/wiki/Jurgen:A_Comedy_of_Justice "A Comedy of Justice")* (1919\)) have been cited as a stimulus to early sword and sorcery writing. Cabell's novels depict picaresque exploits in imaginary lands, and were an influence on Leiber and Jack Vance.{{Cite book\|title\=This is Me, Jack Vance\|author\=Jack Vance\|page\=65\|isbn\=978\-1\-59606\-245\-0\|year\=2009\|publisher\=Subterranean Press}} [A. Merritt](/wiki/A._Merritt "A. Merritt")'s novels *[The Ship of Ishtar](/wiki/The_Ship_of_Ishtar "The Ship of Ishtar")* (1924\) and *[Dwellers in the Mirage](/wiki/Dwellers_in_the_Mirage "Dwellers in the Mirage")* (1932\) have also been cited as influences on sword and sorcery, as they feature men from the then\-contemporary world being drawn into dangerous adventures involving swordplay and magic.{{Cite web \|title\=not reached \|url\=http://www.swordandsorcery.org/Timeline.aspArchived\+15\+February\+2010\+at\+the\+Wayback\+Machine \|access\-date\=September 24, 2024 \|website\=www.swordandsorcery.org}} All these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.{{cite book \|last1\=Moorcock \|first1\=Michael \|title\=Wizardry \& Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy \|date\=2004 \|publisher\=MonkeyBrain \|location\=Austin, Texas \|isbn\=1\-932265\-07\-4 \|page\=82 \|edition\=rev.}} Also, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as Howard and [Clark Ashton Smith](/wiki/Clark_Ashton_Smith "Clark Ashton Smith"), were influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the [Arabian Nights](/wiki/Arabian_Nights "Arabian Nights"), whose stories of magical monsters and evil [sorcerers](/wiki/Magician_%28fantasy%29 "Magician (fantasy)") were an influence on the genre\-to\-be.{{cite book \|last1\=de Camp \|first1\=L. Sprague \|title\=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy \|date\=1976 \|publisher\=Arkham House \|location\=Sauk City, Wisconsin \|isbn\=0\-8705\-4\-076\-9 \|edition\=1st \|page\=10}} Sword and sorcery's frequent depictions of smoky taverns and fetid back alleys draw upon the [picaresque](/wiki/Picaresque "Picaresque") genre; for example, Rachel Bingham notes that [Fritz Leiber](/wiki/Fritz_Leiber "Fritz Leiber")'s city of [Lankhmar](/wiki/Lankhmar "Lankhmar") bears considerable similarity to 16th century [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville") as depicted in [Miguel de Cervantes](/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes "Miguel de Cervantes")' tale "[Rinconete y Cortadillo](/wiki/Rinconete_y_Cortadillo "Rinconete y Cortadillo")".Dr. Rachel B. Bingham, "The Enduring Influence of Cervantes" in "Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Spanish Literature and Culture" (published in Spanish, French and English) Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the [pulp](/wiki/Pulp_magazines "Pulp magazines") fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "[weird fiction](/wiki/Weird_fiction "Weird fiction")".{{cite web \|url\=http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet\-archive/tales\-from\-the\-brass\-bikini\-feminist\-sword\-and\-sorcery\-november\-2011\-bs\-r \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228100610/http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet\-archive/tales\-from\-the\-brass\-bikini\-feminist\-sword\-and\-sorcery\-november\-2011\-bs\-r \|archive\-date\=2011\-12\-28 \|last\=Stiles \|first\=Paula R. \|title\=Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery \|work\=Broad Universe \|date\=November 2011 \|access\-date\=20 June 2012}} The magazine *[Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales "Weird Tales")*, which published Howard's [Conan](/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian "Conan the Barbarian") stories and [C. L. Moore](/wiki/C._L._Moore "C. L. Moore")'s [Jirel of Joiry](/wiki/Jirel_of_Joiry "Jirel of Joiry") tales, as well as key influences like [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft "H. P. Lovecraft") and Smith, was especially important.{{cite book\|last1\=de Camp\|first1\=L. Sprague\|title\=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy\|date\=1976\|publisher\=Arkham House\|location\=Sauk City, Wisconsin\|isbn\=0\-8705\-4\-076\-9\|edition\=1st\|page\=ix: Chapter IV (Lovecraft), Chapter VIII (Smith)}} Lovecraft's fiction (especially his "Dream Cycle" of Dunsany\-inspired fantasy stories) was a source of inspiration for the first generation of sword and sorcery writers. The 1929 *Weird Tales* story "[The Shadow Kingdom](/wiki/The_Shadow_Kingdom "The Shadow Kingdom")" by Robert E. Howard is often regarded as the first true "sword and sorcery" tale, because it pits a heroic warrior ([Kull of Atlantis](/wiki/Kull_of_Atlantis "Kull of Atlantis")) against supernatural evil, in an imaginary world of the writer's devising. Howard published only three stories featuring Kull in *Weird Tales*. He revised an unsold Kull story, "[By This Axe I Rule!](/wiki/By_This_Axe_I_Rule%21 "By This Axe I Rule!")" into "[The Phoenix on the Sword](/wiki/The_Phoenix_on_the_Sword "The Phoenix on the Sword")", which introduced a new character, [Conan the Barbarian](/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian "Conan the Barbarian"). When "The Phoenix on the Sword" was published in 1932, it proved popular with the *Weird Tales* readers, and Howard wrote more tales of Conan, of which 17 were published in the magazine. ### Development The success of Howard's work encouraged other *Weird Tales* writers to create similar tales of adventure in imagined lands. [Clark Ashton Smith](/wiki/Clark_Ashton_Smith "Clark Ashton Smith") wrote his tales of the [Hyperborean cycle](/wiki/Hyperborean_cycle "Hyperborean cycle") and [Zothique](/wiki/Zothique "Zothique") for *Weird Tales* in the 1930s. These stories revolved around the exploits of warriors and sorcerers in lands of the remote past or remote future, and often had downbeat endings. [C. L. Moore](/wiki/C._L._Moore "C. L. Moore"), inspired by Howard, Smith and H. P. Lovecraft, created the *[Jirel of Joiry](/wiki/Jirel_of_Joiry "Jirel of Joiry")* stories for *Weird Tales*, which brought in the first sword and sorcery heroine. Moore's future husband [Henry Kuttner](/wiki/Henry_Kuttner "Henry Kuttner") created [Elak of Atlantis](/wiki/Elak_of_Atlantis "Elak of Atlantis"), a Howard\-inspired warrior hero, for *Weird Tales* in 1938\. Following a change of ownership in 1940, *Weird Tales* ceased to publish sword and sorcery stories.Weinberg, Robert (1999b) \[1977]. "The Stories". In Weinberg, Robert (ed.). The Weird Tales Story. (1999\) Berkeley Heights, New Jersey: Wildside Press. (pp. 43\) ISBN 1\-58715\-101\-4\. However, the pulp magazine *[Unknown Worlds](/wiki/Unknown_%28magazine%29 "Unknown (magazine)")* continued to publish sword and sorcery fiction by [Fritz Leiber](/wiki/Fritz_Leiber "Fritz Leiber") and [Norvell W. Page](/wiki/Norvell_W._Page "Norvell W. Page").[Mike Ashley](/wiki/Mike_Ashley_%28writer%29 "Mike Ashley (writer)"), "Page, Norvell W(ooten)", in *St. James Guide To Fantasy Writers*, ed. [David Pringle](/wiki/David_Pringle "David Pringle"), St James Press, 1996, {{ISBN\|1\-55862\-205\-5}}, (pp. 465–466\) Leiber's stories revolved around a duo of heroes called [Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser](/wiki/Fafhrd_and_the_Gray_Mouser "Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser"), and dealt with their adventures in the world of Nehwon ("No\-When" backwards). Leiber's stories featured more emphasis on characterisation and humour than previous sword and sorcery fiction, and his characters became popular with *Unknown's* readers. Don D'Ammassa, *Encyclopedia of Fantasy and Horror Fiction*, Facts on File, New York, 2013 {{ISBN\|9781438140636}} (p.112\) Page's sword and sorcery tales centred on [Prester John](/wiki/Prester_John "Prester John"), a Howard\-inspired gladiator adventurer, whose exploits took place in Central Asia in the first century CE. With the diminution of pulp magazine sales in the late 1940s, the focus of sword and sorcery shifted to small\-press books. [Arkham House](/wiki/Arkham_House "Arkham House") published collections by Robert E. Howard, Clark Ashton Smith and Fritz Leiber that included some of their sword and sorcery work.Tibbetts, John C. *The Gothic Imagination : Conversations on Fantasy, Horror, and Science Fiction in the Media* Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2011 {{ISBN\|9780230118164}}, (p.60\) Writer [Jack Vance](/wiki/Jack_Vance "Jack Vance") published the book *[The Dying Earth](/wiki/The_Dying_Earth "The Dying Earth")* in 1950\. *[The Dying Earth](/wiki/The_Dying_Earth "The Dying Earth")* described the adventures of rogues and wizards on a decadent far\-future Earth, where magic had replaced science. ### Rise in popularity {{More citations needed section\|date\=November 2015}} In the 1960s, American paperback publisher [Lancer Books](/wiki/Lancer_Books "Lancer Books") began to reissue Robert E. Howard's *Conan* stories in paperback, with cover illustrations by artist [Frank Frazetta](/wiki/Frank_Frazetta "Frank Frazetta"). These editions became surprise bestsellers, selling millions of copies to a largely young readership. Sammon, Paul. *Conan the phenomenon : the legacy of Robert E. Howard's fantasy icon*. Dark Horse Books, Milwaukie, OR, 2013 (p.45\) {{ISBN\|9781616551889}} The commercial success of the Conan books encouraged other publishers to put out new and reprinted books in the style of Howard's work. From the 1960s until the 1980s, under the guiding force of Carter, a select group of writers formed the [Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America](/wiki/Swordsmen_and_Sorcerers%27_Guild_of_America "Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America") (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981, five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published. Edited by Carter, these were collectively known as *[Flashing Swords!](/wiki/Flashing_Swords%21 "Flashing Swords!")*. Because of these and other anthologies, such as the [Ballantine Adult Fantasy](/wiki/Ballantine_Adult_Fantasy "Ballantine Adult Fantasy") series, his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S\&S in particular.{{cite book\|last1\=Clute\|first1\=John\|last2\=Grant\|first2\=John\|last3\=Ashley\|first3\=Mike\|last4\=Hartwell\|first4\=David G.\|last5\=Westfahl\|first5\=Gary\|title\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy\|date\=1999\|publisher\=St. Martin's Griffin\|location\=New York\|isbn\=0\-312\-19869\-8\|page\=171\|edition\=1st St. Martin's Griffin}} Despite such authors' efforts, some critics use sword and sorcery as a dismissive or pejorative term. During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film *[Conan the Barbarian](/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian_%281982_film%29 "Conan the Barbarian (1982 film)")*, many fantasy films, some cheaply made, were released in a subgenre that would be called "sword \& sorcery". Examples of these films would include *[*The Beastmaster* (film)](/wiki/The_Beastmaster_%28film%29 "The Beastmaster (film)")* (1982\), *[The Sword and the Sorcerer](/wiki/The_Sword_and_the_Sorcerer "The Sword and the Sorcerer")* (1982\), two Italian Hercules films starring [Lou Ferrigno](/wiki/Lou_Ferrigno "Lou Ferrigno"), *[*Krull* (film)](/wiki/Krull_%28film%29 "Krull (film)")* (1983\), a Conan sequel, *[Conan the Destroyer](/wiki/Conan_the_Destroyer "Conan the Destroyer")* (1984\) and *[Red Sonja](/wiki/Red_Sonja_%281985_film%29 "Red Sonja (1985 film)")*, which, like the Conan films, also starred [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger "Arnold Schwarzenegger"). One could potentially include the earlier releases of *[Hawk the Slayer](/wiki/Hawk_the_Slayer "Hawk the Slayer")* (1980\) and *[Clash of the Titans](/wiki/Clash_of_the_Titans_%281981_film%29 "Clash of the Titans (1981 film)")* (1981\) which whetted the public’s appetites for such films and the live action adaptation of the Conan\-inspired toy range (and subsequent cartoon series) *[*Masters of the Universe*](/wiki/Masters_of_the_Universe_%28film%29 "Masters of the Universe (film)")*, which essentially ended the subgenre’s 80s run. After the cinema and literary boom of the early\-to\-mid 1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. There was, though, another resurgence in sword and sorcery at the end of the 20th century. Sometimes called the "new" or "literary" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the genre's typical scope. Stories may feature the wide\-ranging struggles of national or world\-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S\&S, and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include [Steven Erikson](/wiki/Steven_Erikson "Steven Erikson"), [Joe Abercrombie](/wiki/Joe_Abercrombie "Joe Abercrombie"), and [Scott Lynch](/wiki/Scott_Lynch "Scott Lynch"), magazines such as [*Black Gate*](/wiki/Black_Gate_%28magazine%29 "Black Gate (magazine)") and the ezines *Flashing Swords*{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2023}} (not to be confused with the [Lin Carter](/wiki/Lin_Carter "Lin Carter") anthologies), and *[Beneath Ceaseless Skies](/wiki/Beneath_Ceaseless_Skies "Beneath Ceaseless Skies")* publish short fiction in the style.[http://www.beneath\-ceaseless\-skies.com/page.php?p\=about](http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508103934/http://www.beneath\-ceaseless\-skies.com/page.php?p\=about\|date\=8 May 2012}} According to the literary critic Higashi Masao regarding Japanese works *[Guin Saga](/wiki/Guin_Saga "Guin Saga")* and *[Sorcerous Stabber Orphen](/wiki/Sorcerous_Stabber_Orphen "Sorcerous Stabber Orphen")*, they were initially planned by their authors as novels that could be classified as belonging to the European sword and sorcery [subgenre](/wiki/Subgenre "Subgenre") but had various major elements that distanced themselves from the typical novels in the genre.{{cite book\|last\=Higashi\|first\=Masao\|editor1\-last\=Ai \|editor1\-first\=Ishidou \|title\=Encyclopedia of Japanese fantasy writers\|year\=2009\| language\=ja \|publisher\=Kokusho Kankōkai\|isbn\= 9784336051424\|pages\=45}} In the 1990s, sword and sorcery boomed in popularity in [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") and other parts of the world.{{Cite web \|title\=Science fiction \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/art/science\-fiction \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-24 \|publisher\=\[\[Encyclopedia Britannica]] \|language\=en}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Origins", "In his introduction to the reference *[Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers](/wiki/Literary_Swordsmen_and_Sorcerers \"Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers\")* by [L. Sprague de Camp](/wiki/L._Sprague_de_Camp \"L. Sprague de Camp\"), [Lin Carter](/wiki/Lin_Carter \"Lin Carter\") notes that the heritage of sword and sorcery is illustrious, and can be traced back to mythology, including the labors of [Hercules](/wiki/Hercules \"Hercules\"), as well as to classical epics such as [Homer](/wiki/Homer \"Homer\")'s *[Odyssey](/wiki/Odyssey \"Odyssey\")*, the [Norse sagas](/wiki/Norse_sagas \"Norse sagas\"), and [Arthurian legend](/wiki/Arthurian_legend \"Arthurian legend\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=de Camp\\|first1\\=L. Sprague\\|title\\=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: the Makers of Heroic Fantasy\\|date\\=1976\\|isbn\\=0\\-87054\\-076\\-9\\|publisher\\=Arkham House\\|page\\=xi\\|location\\=Sauk City, Wisconsin}}", "It also has been influenced by [historical fiction](/wiki/Historical_fiction \"Historical fiction\"). For instance, the work of [Sir Walter Scott](/wiki/Sir_Walter_Scott \"Sir Walter Scott\") was influenced by Scottish folklore and ballads.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Moorcock\\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Wizardry \\& Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy\\|date\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=MonkeyBrain\\|location\\=Austin, Tex.\\|isbn\\=1\\-932265\\-07\\-4\\|page\\=79\\|edition\\=rev.}} But few of Scott's stories contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Clute \\|first1\\=John \\|last2\\=Grant \\|first2\\=John \\|last3\\=Ashley \\|first3\\=Mike \\|last4\\=Hartwell \\|first4\\=David G. \\|last5\\=Westfahl \\|first5\\=Gary \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \\|date\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Griffin \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=0\\-312\\-19869\\-8 \\|page\\=845 \\|edition\\=1st St. Martin's Griffin}} Its themes of adventure in a strange society were influenced by adventures set in foreign lands by [Sir H. Rider Haggard](/wiki/Sir_H._Rider_Haggard \"Sir H. Rider Haggard\") and [Edgar Rice Burroughs](/wiki/Edgar_Rice_Burroughs \"Edgar Rice Burroughs\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=Moorcock\\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Wizardry \\& Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy\\|date\\=2004\\|publisher\\=MonkeyBrain\\|location\\=Austin, Tex.\\|isbn\\=1\\-932265\\-07\\-4\\|pages\\=80–81\\|edition\\=rev.}} Haggard's works, such as *[King Solomon's Mines](/wiki/King_Solomon%27s_Mines \"King Solomon's Mines\")* (1885\\) and *[She: A History of Adventure](/wiki/She:A_History_of_Adventure \"A History of Adventure\")* (1887\\) included many fantastic elements.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Clute\\|first1\\=John \\|last2\\=Grant\\|first2\\=John\\|last3\\=Ashley\\|first3\\=Mike\\|last4\\=Hartwell\\|first4\\=David G.\\|last5\\=Westfahl\\|first5\\=Gary \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \\|date\\=1999\\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Griffin \\|location\\=New York\\|isbn\\=0\\-312\\-19869\\-8\\|pages\\=444–445\\|edition\\=1st St. Martin's Griffin}} Some of Haggard's characters, such as Umslopogaas, an axe\\-wielding Zulu warrior who encountered supernatural phenomena and loved to fight, bore similarities to sword and sorcery heroes.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Murphy\\|first1\\=Brian\\|title\\=Flame and Crimson: A History of Sword\\-and\\-Sorcery\\|date\\=2019\\|publisher\\=Pulp Hero Press\\|location\\=Pismo Beach, CA\\|isbn\\=9781683902447\\|page\\= Chapter Two: Origins}} Haggard also wrote *[Eric Brighteyes](/wiki/Eric_Brighteyes \"Eric Brighteyes\")* (1891\\), a violent [historical novel](/wiki/Historical_fiction \"Historical fiction\") based on the [Icelandic Sagas](/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders \"Sagas of Icelanders\"); some writers, (such as [David Pringle](/wiki/David_Pringle \"David Pringle\")) have stated that *Eric Brighteyes* resembles a modern sword and sorcery novel.", "Sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the [swashbuckling](/wiki/Swashbuckling \"Swashbuckling\") tales of [Alexandre Dumas, père](/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas%2C_p%C3%A8re \"Alexandre Dumas, père\") (*[The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers \"The Three Musketeers\")* (1844\\), etc.), [Rafael Sabatini](/wiki/Rafael_Sabatini \"Rafael Sabatini\") (*[Scaramouche](/wiki/Scaramouche_%28novel%29 \"Scaramouche (novel)\")* (1921\\), etc.) and their [pulp magazine](/wiki/Pulp_magazine \"Pulp magazine\") imitators, such as [Talbot Mundy](/wiki/Talbot_Mundy \"Talbot Mundy\"), [Harold Lamb](/wiki/Harold_Lamb \"Harold Lamb\"), and [H. Bedford\\-Jones](/wiki/H._Bedford-Jones \"H. Bedford-Jones\"), who all influenced Howard. {{cite book \\|last\\=Shanks \\|first\\=Jeffrey \\|date\\=2013 \\|editor\\-last\\=Hoppenstand \\|editor\\-first\\=Gary \\|title\\=Pulp Fiction of the 1920s and 1930s \\|publisher\\=Salem Press \\|pages\\=6–18 \\|chapter\\=History, Horror, and Heroic Fantasy: Robert E. Howard and the Creation of the Sword\\-and\\-Sorcery Subgenre \\|isbn\\=9781429838436}} Mundy in particular, proved influential: early sword and sorcery writers such as Robert E. Howard, [C. L. Moore](/wiki/C._L._Moore \"C. L. Moore\") and [Fritz Leiber](/wiki/Fritz_Leiber \"Fritz Leiber\") were admirers of Mundy's fiction.Holmes, Morgan T. \"Gothic to Cosmic: Sword and Sorcery in *Weird Tales*\" in Everett, Justin and Shanks, Jeffrey H. (Editors). *The Unique Legacy of Weird Tales : the Evolution of Modern Fantasy and Horror*. Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland, 2015 {{ISBN\\|9781442256224}} (p.65\\) However, these historical \"swashbucklers\" lack the supernatural element (even though Dumas' fiction contained many [fantasy tropes](/wiki/Fantasy_tropes \"Fantasy tropes\")) which defines the genre.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Clute \\|first1\\=John \\|last2\\=Grant \\|first2\\=John \\|last3\\=Ashley \\|first3\\=Mike \\|last4\\=Hartwell \\|first4\\=David G. \\|last5\\=Westfahl \\|first5\\=Gary \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy \\|date\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Griffin \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=0\\-312\\-19869\\-8 \\|page\\=300 \\|edition\\=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}", "Another influence was early fantasy fiction. This type of fiction includes the short stories of [Lord Dunsany](/wiki/Edward_Plunkett%2C_18th_Baron_of_Dunsany \"Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany\")'s such as \"[The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth](/wiki/The_Fortress_Unvanquishable%2C_Save_for_Sacnoth \"The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth\")\" (1910\\) and \"The Distressing Tale of Thangobrind the Jeweller\" (1911\\). These works of Dunsany's feature warriors who clash with monsters and wizards in realms of Dunsany's creation. *[The Worm Ouroboros](/wiki/The_Worm_Ouroboros \"The Worm Ouroboros\")* (1922\\) by [E. R. Eddison](/wiki/E._R._Eddison \"E. R. Eddison\"), a heroic romance written in a mock\\-archaic style, was an inspiration to later writers of sword and sorcery such as Fritz Leiber. The \"Poictesme\" novels of [James Branch Cabell](/wiki/James_Branch_Cabell \"James Branch Cabell\") (such as *[Jurgen: A Comedy of Justice](/wiki/Jurgen:A_Comedy_of_Justice \"A Comedy of Justice\")* (1919\\)) have been cited as a stimulus to early sword and sorcery writing. Cabell's novels depict picaresque exploits in imaginary lands, and were an influence on Leiber and Jack Vance.{{Cite book\\|title\\=This is Me, Jack Vance\\|author\\=Jack Vance\\|page\\=65\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59606\\-245\\-0\\|year\\=2009\\|publisher\\=Subterranean Press}} [A. Merritt](/wiki/A._Merritt \"A. Merritt\")'s novels *[The Ship of Ishtar](/wiki/The_Ship_of_Ishtar \"The Ship of Ishtar\")* (1924\\) and *[Dwellers in the Mirage](/wiki/Dwellers_in_the_Mirage \"Dwellers in the Mirage\")* (1932\\) have also been cited as influences on sword and sorcery, as they feature men from the then\\-contemporary world being drawn into dangerous adventures involving swordplay and magic.{{Cite web \\|title\\=not reached \\|url\\=http://www.swordandsorcery.org/Timeline.aspArchived\\+15\\+February\\+2010\\+at\\+the\\+Wayback\\+Machine \\|access\\-date\\=September 24, 2024 \\|website\\=www.swordandsorcery.org}} All these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Moorcock \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Wizardry \\& Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy \\|date\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=MonkeyBrain \\|location\\=Austin, Texas \\|isbn\\=1\\-932265\\-07\\-4 \\|page\\=82 \\|edition\\=rev.}}", "Also, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as Howard and [Clark Ashton Smith](/wiki/Clark_Ashton_Smith \"Clark Ashton Smith\"), were influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the [Arabian Nights](/wiki/Arabian_Nights \"Arabian Nights\"), whose stories of magical monsters and evil [sorcerers](/wiki/Magician_%28fantasy%29 \"Magician (fantasy)\") were an influence on the genre\\-to\\-be.{{cite book \\|last1\\=de Camp \\|first1\\=L. Sprague \\|title\\=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy \\|date\\=1976 \\|publisher\\=Arkham House \\|location\\=Sauk City, Wisconsin \\|isbn\\=0\\-8705\\-4\\-076\\-9 \\|edition\\=1st \\|page\\=10}}", "Sword and sorcery's frequent depictions of smoky taverns and fetid back alleys draw upon the [picaresque](/wiki/Picaresque \"Picaresque\") genre; for example, Rachel Bingham notes that [Fritz Leiber](/wiki/Fritz_Leiber \"Fritz Leiber\")'s city of [Lankhmar](/wiki/Lankhmar \"Lankhmar\") bears considerable similarity to 16th century [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\") as depicted in [Miguel de Cervantes](/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes \"Miguel de Cervantes\")' tale \"[Rinconete y Cortadillo](/wiki/Rinconete_y_Cortadillo \"Rinconete y Cortadillo\")\".Dr. Rachel B. Bingham, \"The Enduring Influence of Cervantes\" in \"Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Spanish Literature and Culture\" (published in Spanish, French and English)", "Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the [pulp](/wiki/Pulp_magazines \"Pulp magazines\") fantasy magazines, where it emerged from \"[weird fiction](/wiki/Weird_fiction \"Weird fiction\")\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet\\-archive/tales\\-from\\-the\\-brass\\-bikini\\-feminist\\-sword\\-and\\-sorcery\\-november\\-2011\\-bs\\-r \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228100610/http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet\\-archive/tales\\-from\\-the\\-brass\\-bikini\\-feminist\\-sword\\-and\\-sorcery\\-november\\-2011\\-bs\\-r \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-12\\-28 \\|last\\=Stiles \\|first\\=Paula R. \\|title\\=Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery \\|work\\=Broad Universe \\|date\\=November 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2012}} The magazine *[Weird Tales](/wiki/Weird_Tales \"Weird Tales\")*, which published Howard's [Conan](/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian \"Conan the Barbarian\") stories and [C. L. Moore](/wiki/C._L._Moore \"C. L. Moore\")'s [Jirel of Joiry](/wiki/Jirel_of_Joiry \"Jirel of Joiry\") tales, as well as key influences like [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft \"H. P. Lovecraft\") and Smith, was especially important.{{cite book\\|last1\\=de Camp\\|first1\\=L. Sprague\\|title\\=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy\\|date\\=1976\\|publisher\\=Arkham House\\|location\\=Sauk City, Wisconsin\\|isbn\\=0\\-8705\\-4\\-076\\-9\\|edition\\=1st\\|page\\=ix: Chapter IV (Lovecraft), Chapter VIII (Smith)}} Lovecraft's fiction (especially his \"Dream Cycle\" of Dunsany\\-inspired fantasy stories) was a source of inspiration for the first generation of sword and sorcery writers.", "The 1929 *Weird Tales* story \"[The Shadow Kingdom](/wiki/The_Shadow_Kingdom \"The Shadow Kingdom\")\" by Robert E. Howard is often regarded as the first true \"sword and sorcery\" tale, because it pits a heroic warrior ([Kull of Atlantis](/wiki/Kull_of_Atlantis \"Kull of Atlantis\")) against supernatural evil, in an imaginary world of the writer's devising.", "Howard published only three stories featuring Kull in *Weird Tales*. He revised an unsold Kull story, \"[By This Axe I Rule!](/wiki/By_This_Axe_I_Rule%21 \"By This Axe I Rule!\")\" into \"[The Phoenix on the Sword](/wiki/The_Phoenix_on_the_Sword \"The Phoenix on the Sword\")\", which introduced a new character, [Conan the Barbarian](/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian \"Conan the Barbarian\"). When \"The Phoenix on the Sword\" was published in 1932, it proved popular with the *Weird Tales* readers, and Howard wrote more tales of Conan, of which 17 were published in the magazine.", "### Development", "The success of Howard's work encouraged other *Weird Tales* writers to create similar tales of adventure in imagined lands. [Clark Ashton Smith](/wiki/Clark_Ashton_Smith \"Clark Ashton Smith\") wrote his tales of the [Hyperborean cycle](/wiki/Hyperborean_cycle \"Hyperborean cycle\") and [Zothique](/wiki/Zothique \"Zothique\") for *Weird Tales* in the 1930s. These stories revolved around the exploits of warriors and sorcerers in lands of the remote past or remote future, and often had downbeat endings. [C. L. Moore](/wiki/C._L._Moore \"C. L. Moore\"), inspired by Howard, Smith and H. P. Lovecraft, created the *[Jirel of Joiry](/wiki/Jirel_of_Joiry \"Jirel of Joiry\")* stories for *Weird Tales*, which brought in the first sword and sorcery heroine. Moore's future husband [Henry Kuttner](/wiki/Henry_Kuttner \"Henry Kuttner\") created [Elak of Atlantis](/wiki/Elak_of_Atlantis \"Elak of Atlantis\"), a Howard\\-inspired warrior hero, for *Weird Tales* in 1938\\.", "Following a change of ownership in 1940, *Weird Tales* ceased to publish sword and sorcery stories.Weinberg, Robert (1999b) \\[1977]. \"The Stories\". In Weinberg, Robert (ed.). The Weird Tales Story. (1999\\) Berkeley Heights, New Jersey: Wildside Press. (pp. 43\\) ISBN 1\\-58715\\-101\\-4\\. However, the pulp magazine *[Unknown Worlds](/wiki/Unknown_%28magazine%29 \"Unknown (magazine)\")* continued to publish sword and sorcery fiction by [Fritz Leiber](/wiki/Fritz_Leiber \"Fritz Leiber\") and [Norvell W. Page](/wiki/Norvell_W._Page \"Norvell W. Page\").[Mike Ashley](/wiki/Mike_Ashley_%28writer%29 \"Mike Ashley (writer)\"), \"Page, Norvell W(ooten)\", in *St. James Guide To Fantasy Writers*, ed. [David Pringle](/wiki/David_Pringle \"David Pringle\"), St James Press, 1996, {{ISBN\\|1\\-55862\\-205\\-5}}, (pp. 465–466\\) Leiber's stories revolved around a duo of heroes called [Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser](/wiki/Fafhrd_and_the_Gray_Mouser \"Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser\"), and dealt with their adventures in the world of Nehwon (\"No\\-When\" backwards). Leiber's stories featured more emphasis on characterisation and humour than previous sword and sorcery fiction, and his characters became popular with *Unknown's* readers. Don D'Ammassa, *Encyclopedia of Fantasy and Horror Fiction*, Facts on File, New York, 2013 {{ISBN\\|9781438140636}} (p.112\\) Page's sword and sorcery tales centred on [Prester John](/wiki/Prester_John \"Prester John\"), a Howard\\-inspired gladiator adventurer, whose exploits took place in Central Asia in the first century CE.", "With the diminution of pulp magazine sales in the late 1940s, the focus of sword and sorcery shifted to small\\-press books. [Arkham House](/wiki/Arkham_House \"Arkham House\") published collections by Robert E. Howard, Clark Ashton Smith and Fritz Leiber that included some of their sword and sorcery work.Tibbetts, John C. *The Gothic Imagination : Conversations on Fantasy, Horror, and Science Fiction in the Media* Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2011 {{ISBN\\|9780230118164}}, (p.60\\) Writer [Jack Vance](/wiki/Jack_Vance \"Jack Vance\") published the book *[The Dying Earth](/wiki/The_Dying_Earth \"The Dying Earth\")* in 1950\\. *[The Dying Earth](/wiki/The_Dying_Earth \"The Dying Earth\")* described the adventures of rogues and wizards on a decadent far\\-future Earth, where magic had replaced science.", "### Rise in popularity", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=November 2015}}", "In the 1960s, American paperback publisher [Lancer Books](/wiki/Lancer_Books \"Lancer Books\") began to reissue Robert E. Howard's *Conan* stories in paperback, with cover illustrations by artist [Frank Frazetta](/wiki/Frank_Frazetta \"Frank Frazetta\"). These editions became surprise bestsellers, selling millions of copies to a largely young readership. Sammon, Paul. *Conan the phenomenon : the legacy of Robert E. Howard's fantasy icon*. Dark Horse Books, Milwaukie, OR, 2013 (p.45\\) {{ISBN\\|9781616551889}} The commercial success of the Conan books encouraged other publishers to put out new and reprinted books in the style of Howard's work.", "From the 1960s until the 1980s, under the guiding force of Carter, a select group of writers formed the [Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America](/wiki/Swordsmen_and_Sorcerers%27_Guild_of_America \"Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America\") (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981, five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published. Edited by Carter, these were collectively known as *[Flashing Swords!](/wiki/Flashing_Swords%21 \"Flashing Swords!\")*. Because of these and other anthologies, such as the [Ballantine Adult Fantasy](/wiki/Ballantine_Adult_Fantasy \"Ballantine Adult Fantasy\") series, his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S\\&S in particular.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Clute\\|first1\\=John\\|last2\\=Grant\\|first2\\=John\\|last3\\=Ashley\\|first3\\=Mike\\|last4\\=Hartwell\\|first4\\=David G.\\|last5\\=Westfahl\\|first5\\=Gary\\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy\\|date\\=1999\\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Griffin\\|location\\=New York\\|isbn\\=0\\-312\\-19869\\-8\\|page\\=171\\|edition\\=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}", "Despite such authors' efforts, some critics use sword and sorcery as a dismissive or pejorative term. During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film *[Conan the Barbarian](/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian_%281982_film%29 \"Conan the Barbarian (1982 film)\")*, many fantasy films, some cheaply made, were released in a subgenre that would be called \"sword \\& sorcery\".", "Examples of these films would include *[*The Beastmaster* (film)](/wiki/The_Beastmaster_%28film%29 \"The Beastmaster (film)\")* (1982\\), *[The Sword and the Sorcerer](/wiki/The_Sword_and_the_Sorcerer \"The Sword and the Sorcerer\")* (1982\\), two Italian Hercules films starring [Lou Ferrigno](/wiki/Lou_Ferrigno \"Lou Ferrigno\"), *[*Krull* (film)](/wiki/Krull_%28film%29 \"Krull (film)\")* (1983\\), a Conan sequel, *[Conan the Destroyer](/wiki/Conan_the_Destroyer \"Conan the Destroyer\")* (1984\\) and *[Red Sonja](/wiki/Red_Sonja_%281985_film%29 \"Red Sonja (1985 film)\")*, which, like the Conan films, also starred [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger \"Arnold Schwarzenegger\"). One could potentially include the earlier releases of *[Hawk the Slayer](/wiki/Hawk_the_Slayer \"Hawk the Slayer\")* (1980\\) and *[Clash of the Titans](/wiki/Clash_of_the_Titans_%281981_film%29 \"Clash of the Titans (1981 film)\")* (1981\\) which whetted the public’s appetites for such films and the live action adaptation of the Conan\\-inspired toy range (and subsequent cartoon series) *[*Masters of the Universe*](/wiki/Masters_of_the_Universe_%28film%29 \"Masters of the Universe (film)\")*, which essentially ended the subgenre’s 80s run.", "After the cinema and literary boom of the early\\-to\\-mid 1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. There was, though, another resurgence in sword and sorcery at the end of the 20th century. Sometimes called the \"new\" or \"literary\" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the genre's typical scope. Stories may feature the wide\\-ranging struggles of national or world\\-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S\\&S, and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include [Steven Erikson](/wiki/Steven_Erikson \"Steven Erikson\"), [Joe Abercrombie](/wiki/Joe_Abercrombie \"Joe Abercrombie\"), and [Scott Lynch](/wiki/Scott_Lynch \"Scott Lynch\"), magazines such as [*Black Gate*](/wiki/Black_Gate_%28magazine%29 \"Black Gate (magazine)\") and the ezines *Flashing Swords*{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2023}} (not to be confused with the [Lin Carter](/wiki/Lin_Carter \"Lin Carter\") anthologies), and *[Beneath Ceaseless Skies](/wiki/Beneath_Ceaseless_Skies \"Beneath Ceaseless Skies\")* publish short fiction in the style.[http://www.beneath\\-ceaseless\\-skies.com/page.php?p\\=about](http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508103934/http://www.beneath\\-ceaseless\\-skies.com/page.php?p\\=about\\|date\\=8 May 2012}} According to the literary critic Higashi Masao regarding Japanese works *[Guin Saga](/wiki/Guin_Saga \"Guin Saga\")* and *[Sorcerous Stabber Orphen](/wiki/Sorcerous_Stabber_Orphen \"Sorcerous Stabber Orphen\")*, they were initially planned by their authors as novels that could be classified as belonging to the European sword and sorcery [subgenre](/wiki/Subgenre \"Subgenre\") but had various major elements that distanced themselves from the typical novels in the genre.{{cite book\\|last\\=Higashi\\|first\\=Masao\\|editor1\\-last\\=Ai \\|editor1\\-first\\=Ishidou \\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Japanese fantasy writers\\|year\\=2009\\| language\\=ja \\|publisher\\=Kokusho Kankōkai\\|isbn\\= 9784336051424\\|pages\\=45}}", "In the 1990s, sword and sorcery boomed in popularity in [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\") and other parts of the world.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Science fiction \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/art/science\\-fiction \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-24 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia Britannica]] \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
Route ----- [thumb\|the 39,270 nautical mile\- 9 leg\- race around the world](/wiki/File:Route_Volvo_Ocean_Race_2011-2012.svg "Route Volvo Ocean Race 2011-2012.svg") The race used a scoring system where the overall winner was the team with the most points at the end of the race. All races counted with no discards allowed. The boats were awarded points in every race, six to one in in\-port races and 30 to 5 points (30, 25, 20, 15, 10 and 5\) for ocean races (legs). The race had a total of nine ocean legs and ten in\-port races. Due to [piracy](/wiki/Piracy_in_Somalia "Piracy in Somalia") the legs to and from [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi") were given two scores with the same total as the other legs. The scores were to be divided 80\+20% and 20\+80% respectively. {{citation needed\|date\=November 2011}} In addition to the ocean and in\-port races, there were no\-score pro\-am races in every port where sponsors and guests were given an experience as close to that of true professional sailing as possible.[Volvo Ocean Race 2011\-12 racing schedule](http://www.volvooceanrace.com/media/files/m1867_Volvo-Ocean-Race-2011-V3.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111215030657/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/media/files/m1867\_Volvo\-Ocean\-Race\-2011\-V3\.pdf \|date\=15 December 2011 }} ### Summary The race began in Alicante on 29 October 2011 and ended in Galway on 7 July 2012\.["Volvo Ocean Race 2011/2012: Route"](http://www.volvooceanrace.com/ports/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612045206/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/ports \|date\=12 June 2011 }}. *volvooceanrace.com*. Retrieved 6 November 2011\.["Volvo Ocean Race 2011/2012: Racing schedule"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100704172341/http://volvoocean.vo.llnwd.net/o29/u/downloads/2010/racing-schedule/Volvo-Ocean-Race-2011.pdf). *volvooceanrace.com*. Retrieved 6 November 2011\. |EventStart DateFinish DateStartFinishDistancePoints | Abu Dhabi | Camper | Groupama | Puma | Sanya | Telefónica | | In\-Port Race |29 October 2011{{flagicon\|ESP}} [Alicante](/wiki/Alicante "Alicante") **6** | 4 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 1 | | Leg 1 | 5 November 2011 | 25 November 2011 | {{flagicon\|ESP}} [Alicante](/wiki/Alicante "Alicante") | {{flagicon\|RSA}} [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town "Cape Town") | 6,500nmi | 0 (DNF) | 25 | 20 | 0 (DNF) | 0 (DNF) | **30** | | In\-Port Race |10 December 2011{{flagicon\|RSA}} [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town "Cape Town") 3 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 1 | **6** | |Leg 211 December 20114 January 2012 {{flagicon\|RSA}} [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town "Cape Town") | {{flagicon\|MDV}} [Malé](/wiki/Mal%C3%A9 "Malé") |5,430nmi 8 | 20 | 12 | 16 | 4 | **24** | | {{flagicon\|UAE}} [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah_%28city%29 "Sharjah (city)") | {{flagicon\|UAE}} [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi") | 2 | 4 | **6** | 3 | 1 | 5 | | In\-Port Race |13 January 2012{{flagicon\|UAE}} [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi") **6** | 4 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 2 | |Leg 314 January 20124 February 2012 {{flagicon\|UAE}} [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi") | {{flagicon\|UAE}} [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah_%28city%29 "Sharjah (city)") | 106nmi | **6** | 2 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 3 | | {{flagicon\|MDV}} [Malé](/wiki/Mal%C3%A9 "Malé") | {{flagicon\|CHN}} [Sanya](/wiki/Sanya "Sanya") | 3,051nmi | 8 | 16 | 20 | 12 | 4 | **24** | | In\-Port Race |18 February 2012{{flagicon\|CHN}} [Sanya](/wiki/Sanya "Sanya") 4 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 1 | **6** | | Leg 4 | 19 February 2012 | 8 March 2012 | {{flagicon\|CHN}} [Sanya](/wiki/Sanya "Sanya") | {{flagicon\|NZL}} [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland") | 5,220nmi | 10 | 15 | **30** | 25 | 5 | 20 | | In\-Port Race |17 March 2012{{flagicon\|NZL}} [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland") 2 | **6** | 4 | 5 | 3 | 1 | | Leg 5 | 18 March 2012 | 4 April 2012 | {{flagicon\|NZL}} [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland") | {{flagicon\|BRA}} [Itajaí](/wiki/Itaja%C3%AD "Itajaí") | 6,705nmi | 0 (DNF) | 15 | 20 | **30** | 0 (DNF) | 25 | | In\-Port Race |21 April 2012{{flagicon\|BRA}} [Itajaí](/wiki/Itaja%C3%AD "Itajaí") 3 | 5 | **6** | 4 | 0 (DNS) | 2 | | Leg 6 | 22 April 2012 | 6 May 2012 | {{flagicon\|BRA}} [Itajaí](/wiki/Itaja%C3%AD "Itajaí") | {{flagicon\|USA}} [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami") | 4,800nmi | 10 | 25 | 20 | **30** | 0 (DNS) | 15 | | In\-Port Race |19 May 2012{{flagicon\|USA}} [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami") **6** | 3 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 | | Leg 7 | 20 May 2012 | 31 May 2012 | {{flagicon\|USA}} [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami") | {{flagicon\|PRT}} [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") | 3,590nmi | **30** | 10 | 25 | 20 | 5 | 15 | | In\-Port Race |9 June 2012{{flagicon\|PRT}} [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") 3 | 4 | **6** | 5 | 2 | 1 | | Leg 8 | 10 June 2012 | 17 June 2012 | {{flagicon\|PRT}} [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") | {{flagicon\|FRA}} [Lorient](/wiki/Lorient "Lorient") | 1,940nmi | 15 | 25 | **30** | 20 | 5 | 10 | | In\-Port Race |30 June 2012{{flagicon\|FRA}} [Lorient](/wiki/Lorient "Lorient") 2 | 5 | **6** | 4 | 1 | 3 | | Leg 9 | 1 July 2012 | 3 July 2012 | {{flagicon\|FRA}} [Lorient](/wiki/Lorient "Lorient") | {{flagicon\|IRL}} [Galway](/wiki/Galway "Galway") | 485nmi | 5 | **30** | 25 | 20 | 10 | 15 | | In\-Port Race |7 July 2012{{flagicon\|IRL}} [Galway](/wiki/Galway "Galway") 2 | 5 | 3 | **6** | 1 | 4 | |**In\-port Race Series** 37 | 44 | 41 | **45** | 16 | 27 | |**Total score** 131 | 231 | **253** | 226 | 51 | 213 | | ### Alicante In\-Port Race On 29 October 2011 Abu Dhabi won the first In\-Port race with Puma second and Camper third.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/sport/2011/1031/1224306804771\.html\|title\=Walker wins first Volvo in\-port race\|last\=Branigan\|first\=David\|work\=The Irish Times\|date\=31 October 2011\|accessdate\=31 October 2011}} The winds were very light on the race day. ### Alicante to Cape Town The 6,500 [NM](/wiki/Nautical_mile "Nautical mile") leg started 5 November 2011 at 1300 [UTC](/wiki/UTC "UTC"). Camper with Emirates Team New Zealand led the fleet out of Alicante and through the [Gibraltar straits](/wiki/Gibraltar_straits "Gibraltar straits"). On 5 November 2011, *Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing* lost its mast within hours of the race's beginning during heavy winds and high seas near Alicante. On 6 November 2011 *Team Sanya* was forced to head to port after damaging its hull.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.rte.ie/news/2011/1106/oceanrace.html\|title\=Irish hopeful in world yacht race damaged\|work\=\[\[RTÉ News]]\|date\=6 November 2011\|accessdate\=6 November 2011}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-sailing\-volvo\-idUSTRE7A50U120111106\|title\=Chinese Volvo Ocean Race entry suffers hull damage\|work\=Reuters\|date\=6 November 2011\|accessdate\=6 November 2011}}{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/sailing/15611591\.stm\|title\=Volvo Ocean Race 2011: Ian Walker's Abu Dhabi entry breaks mast\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=6 November 2011\|accessdate\=6 November 2011}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/sailing/volvo\-ocean\-race/8872722/Volvo\-Ocean\-Race\-2011\-devastated\-Abu\-Dhabi\-Ocean\-Racing\-skipper\-Ian\-Walker\-returns\-to\-Alicante\-after\-mast\-breaks.html\|title\=Volvo Ocean Race 2011: devastated Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing skipper Ian Walker returns to Alicante after mast breaks\|work\=Telegraph\|date\=6 November 2011\|accessdate\=6 November 2011}} Team Sanya withdrew from the first leg on 7 November after an assessment of the damage.[China’s Team Sanya retire from first leg of Volvo Ocean Race](https://archive.today/20120914171657/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/Chinas-Team-Sanya-retire-from-first-leg-of-Volvo-Ocean-Race/3893/news.html) *volvooceanrace.com*, 7 November 2011 The fleet were led round the turning mark near the archipelago of [Fernando de Noronha](/wiki/Fernando_de_Noronha "Fernando de Noronha") by *Puma Ocean Racing, powered by BERG Propulsion* on 17 November.[Oh Fernando! PUMA first round Leg 1 waypoint](https://archive.today/20120918021740/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/Oh-Fernando-PUMA-first-round-Leg-1-waypoint/4048/news.html) *volvooceanrace.com*, 17 November 2011 Several days later at 1500 hours on 21 November their mast failed, splitting into three bits. They retired from the first leg on 22 November and headed to [Tristan da Cunha](/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha "Tristan da Cunha").[PUMA Ocean Racing retires from Leg 1](https://archive.today/20130209004203/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/PUMA-Ocean-Racing-retires-from-Leg-1/4117/news.html) *volvooceanrace.com*, 22 November 2011 Telefónica won the first leg, followed by Camper with Emirates Team New Zealand. Groupama placed third, several days after the leaders, as they missed the lowpressure system Telefónica and Camper used to cross the southern Atlantic at high speed. ### Cape Town In\-Port Race On 10 December 2011 Telefónica won the In\-Port race with Camper second and Puma third. ### Cape Town to Abu Dhabi The 5,430 NM leg started on 11 December 2011\. Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing led the fleet out of Cape Town. Team Sanya were forced to suspend racing following a rigging failure and missed the cargo ship from the secret port to Abu Dhabi.[Sanya pulls out of second leg](http://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/news/article.cfm?c_id=4&objectid=10774289&ref=rss) *New Zealand Herald*, 20 December 2011 Due to the threat of [piracy around Somalia](/wiki/Piracy_in_Somalia "Piracy in Somalia"), the fleet headed from Cape Town to a secret port, later revealed to be [Malé](/wiki/Mal%C3%A9 "Malé"), and were then transported by ship to Abu Dhabi, closer to the finish line for a sprint into Abu Dhabi. The first part of the leg gave 80% of the points (24, 20, 16, 12, 8 and 4 points) and the second part 20% (6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 points) for the same total of 30 to 5 points as the other ocean legs. Team Telefónica were the first boat into the secret port while Groupama Sailing Team won the sprint leg. Telefónica won overall points on the leg. Team Sanya resumed racing on 6 January with a six\-man crew and finally finished the first part of leg 2 on 19 January, also scoring points for the sprint part of leg 2 and the in port race that they had missed.[Sanya poised to resume racing](https://archive.today/20120914160903/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/4681_Sanya-poised-to-resume-racing.html) *volvooceanrace.com*, 6 January 2012[Team Sanya celebrate Leg 2 Stage 1 finish](http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/4812_Team-Sanya-celebrate-Leg-2-Stage-1-finish.html){{Dead link\|date\=April 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} *volvooceanrace.com*, 20 January 2012 ### Abu Dhabi In\-Port Race Was held on 13 January 2012 and was won by Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing, with Groupama coming second, and Camper third. ### Abu Dhabi to Sanya The 4,600 NM leg started on 14 January 2012\. Due to the threat of [piracy around Somalia](/wiki/Piracy_in_Somalia "Piracy in Somalia"), the fleet was transported once again by ship to Male from where the third leg of the race began.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/4822\_Safe\-and\-sound\-Volvo\-Ocean\-Race\-boats\-arrive\-at\-no\-longer\-secret\-port\-.html \|title \= Volvo Ocean Race 2011\-2012 \| Safe and sound! Volvo Ocean Race boats a… \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130209014330/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/4822\_Safe\-and\-sound\-Volvo\-Ocean\-Race\-boats\-arrive\-at\-no\-longer\-secret\-port\-.html \|archive\-date\=9 February 2013 \|url\-status\=dead}} From the new port they will then head through the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal") and then pass the [Malacca Strait](/wiki/Malacca_Strait "Malacca Strait"). The first part give 20% of the points (6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 points) and the second part 80% (24, 20, 16, 12, 8 and 4 points) for the same total of 30 to 5 points as the other ocean legs. ### Sanya In\-Port Race On 18 February 2012 **Team Telefónica** took their second in\-port victory in perfect sailing conditions with flat waters and winds gusting up to 20 [knots](/wiki/Knot_%28unit%29 "Knot (unit)"). **Team Puma** came in second, followed by **Abu Dhabi**, **Camper**, **Groupama** and **Sanya**.{{cite web\|title\=Telefónica seal victory in Sanya showdown\|url\=http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5117\_Telefonica\-seal\-victory\-in\-Sanya\-showdown.html\|publisher\=volvooceanrace.com\|accessdate\=5 April 2012\|date\=18 February 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807113006/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5117\_Telefonica\-seal\-victory\-in\-Sanya\-showdown.html\|archive\-date\=7 August 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} ### Sanya to Auckland The 5,220 NM leg started on 19 February 2012\. ### Auckland In\-Port Race Held on 17 March 2012 and won by Camper. ### Auckland to Itajaí The 6,705 NM leg started 18 March 2012\. This leg, the longest in the race, included safety waypoints which were designed to keep the boats north of the main areas of [iceberg](/wiki/Iceberg "Iceberg") risk. Team Sanya suffered rudder and hull damage on 22 March and were forced to return to New Zealand. They rejoined the race in Miami.[Team Sanya to ship to Miami as fastest route back into race](http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5632_Team-Sanya-to-ship-to-Miami-as-fastest-route-back-into-race.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522022937/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5632\_Team\-Sanya\-to\-ship\-to\-Miami\-as\-fastest\-route\-back\-into\-race.html \|date\=22 May 2012 }} *volvooceanrace.com*, 26 March 2012 Both Team New Zealand and Abu Dhabi stopped in [Puerto Montt](/wiki/Puerto_Montt "Puerto Montt"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"). Team New Zealand repaired the boat and continued on while Abu Dhabi was shipped from there to Itajai, Brazil.[Camper due to arrive in Chile](http://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/news/article.cfm?c_id=4&objectid=10796230&ref=rss) *New Zealand Herald*, 2 April 2012 After 17 days at sea, with 677 nautical miles to go to the finish line, Groupama (Franck Cammas/FRA) dismasted 60 nautical miles (nm) south of Punta del Este. Groupama motored to Punta del Este and following the creation of a jury rig rejoined the race and was placed third.[https://archive.today/20130205220613/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5856\_Groupama\-still\-in\-the\-hunt\-says\-Cammas.html](https://archive.today/20130205220613/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5856_Groupama-still-in-the-hunt-says-Cammas.html) "volvooceanrace.com", 9 May 2012 ### Itajaí In\-Port Race Was held on 21 April 2012 and won by Groupama. ### Itajaí to Miami The 4,800 NM leg started on 22 April 2012 and was won by Puma. ### Miami In\-Port Race Was held on 19 May 2012 and won by Abu Dhabi. ### Miami to Lisbon The 3,590 NM leg started on 20 May 2012\. ### Lisbon In\-Port Race Was held on 9 June 2012\. ### Lisbon to Lorient The 1,940 NM leg started on 10 June 2012\. From Lisbon the fleet travelled to a turning point at [São Miguel Island](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_Island "São Miguel Island") before heading to Lorient. ### Lorient In\-Port Race Was held 30 June 2012\. ### Lorient to Galway The 485 NM leg started on 1 July 2012\. This leg was the shortest offshore leg in the race. ### Galway In\-Port Race Was held on 7 July 2012\.
[ "Route\n-----", "[thumb\\|the 39,270 nautical mile\\- 9 leg\\- race around the world](/wiki/File:Route_Volvo_Ocean_Race_2011-2012.svg \"Route Volvo Ocean Race 2011-2012.svg\")\nThe race used a scoring system where the overall winner was the team with the most points at the end of the race. All races counted with no discards allowed. The boats were awarded points in every race, six to one in in\\-port races and 30 to 5 points (30, 25, 20, 15, 10 and 5\\) for ocean races (legs). The race had a total of nine ocean legs and ten in\\-port races. Due to [piracy](/wiki/Piracy_in_Somalia \"Piracy in Somalia\") the legs to and from [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi \"Abu Dhabi\") were given two scores with the same total as the other legs. The scores were to be divided 80\\+20% and 20\\+80% respectively. {{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2011}}", "In addition to the ocean and in\\-port races, there were no\\-score pro\\-am races in every port where sponsors and guests were given an experience as close to that of true professional sailing as possible.[Volvo Ocean Race 2011\\-12 racing schedule](http://www.volvooceanrace.com/media/files/m1867_Volvo-Ocean-Race-2011-V3.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111215030657/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/media/files/m1867\\_Volvo\\-Ocean\\-Race\\-2011\\-V3\\.pdf \\|date\\=15 December 2011 }}", "### Summary", "The race began in Alicante on 29 October 2011 and ended in Galway on 7 July 2012\\.[\"Volvo Ocean Race 2011/2012: Route\"](http://www.volvooceanrace.com/ports/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612045206/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/ports \\|date\\=12 June 2011 }}. *volvooceanrace.com*. Retrieved 6 November 2011\\.[\"Volvo Ocean Race 2011/2012: Racing schedule\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100704172341/http://volvoocean.vo.llnwd.net/o29/u/downloads/2010/racing-schedule/Volvo-Ocean-Race-2011.pdf). *volvooceanrace.com*. Retrieved 6 November 2011\\.", "|EventStart DateFinish DateStartFinishDistancePoints", "| Abu Dhabi | Camper | Groupama | Puma | Sanya | Telefónica |\n| In\\-Port Race |29 October 2011{{flagicon\\|ESP}} [Alicante](/wiki/Alicante \"Alicante\") **6** | 4 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 1 |\n| Leg 1 | 5 November 2011 | 25 November 2011 | {{flagicon\\|ESP}} [Alicante](/wiki/Alicante \"Alicante\") | {{flagicon\\|RSA}} [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town \"Cape Town\") | 6,500nmi | 0 (DNF) | 25 | 20 | 0 (DNF) | 0 (DNF) | **30** |\n| In\\-Port Race |10 December 2011{{flagicon\\|RSA}} [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town \"Cape Town\") 3 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 1 | **6** |\n|Leg 211 December 20114 January 2012 {{flagicon\\|RSA}} [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town \"Cape Town\") | {{flagicon\\|MDV}} [Malé](/wiki/Mal%C3%A9 \"Malé\") |5,430nmi 8 | 20 | 12 | 16 | 4 | **24** |\n| {{flagicon\\|UAE}} [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah_%28city%29 \"Sharjah (city)\") | {{flagicon\\|UAE}} [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi \"Abu Dhabi\") | 2 | 4 | **6** | 3 | 1 | 5 |\n| In\\-Port Race |13 January 2012{{flagicon\\|UAE}} [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi \"Abu Dhabi\") **6** | 4 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 2 |\n|Leg 314 January 20124 February 2012 {{flagicon\\|UAE}} [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi \"Abu Dhabi\") | {{flagicon\\|UAE}} [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah_%28city%29 \"Sharjah (city)\") | 106nmi | **6** | 2 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 3 |\n| {{flagicon\\|MDV}} [Malé](/wiki/Mal%C3%A9 \"Malé\") | {{flagicon\\|CHN}} [Sanya](/wiki/Sanya \"Sanya\") | 3,051nmi | 8 | 16 | 20 | 12 | 4 | **24** |\n| In\\-Port Race |18 February 2012{{flagicon\\|CHN}} [Sanya](/wiki/Sanya \"Sanya\") 4 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 1 | **6** |\n| Leg 4 | 19 February 2012 | 8 March 2012 | {{flagicon\\|CHN}} [Sanya](/wiki/Sanya \"Sanya\") | {{flagicon\\|NZL}} [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\") | 5,220nmi | 10 | 15 | **30** | 25 | 5 | 20 |\n| In\\-Port Race |17 March 2012{{flagicon\\|NZL}} [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\") 2 | **6** | 4 | 5 | 3 | 1 |\n| Leg 5 | 18 March 2012 | 4 April 2012 | {{flagicon\\|NZL}} [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\") | {{flagicon\\|BRA}} [Itajaí](/wiki/Itaja%C3%AD \"Itajaí\") | 6,705nmi | 0 (DNF) | 15 | 20 | **30** | 0 (DNF) | 25 |\n| In\\-Port Race |21 April 2012{{flagicon\\|BRA}} [Itajaí](/wiki/Itaja%C3%AD \"Itajaí\") 3 | 5 | **6** | 4 | 0 (DNS) | 2 |\n| Leg 6 | 22 April 2012 | 6 May 2012 | {{flagicon\\|BRA}} [Itajaí](/wiki/Itaja%C3%AD \"Itajaí\") | {{flagicon\\|USA}} [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\") | 4,800nmi | 10 | 25 | 20 | **30** | 0 (DNS) | 15 |\n| In\\-Port Race |19 May 2012{{flagicon\\|USA}} [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\") **6** | 3 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n| Leg 7 | 20 May 2012 | 31 May 2012 | {{flagicon\\|USA}} [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\") | {{flagicon\\|PRT}} [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") | 3,590nmi | **30** | 10 | 25 | 20 | 5 | 15 |\n| In\\-Port Race |9 June 2012{{flagicon\\|PRT}} [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") 3 | 4 | **6** | 5 | 2 | 1 |\n| Leg 8 | 10 June 2012 | 17 June 2012 | {{flagicon\\|PRT}} [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") | {{flagicon\\|FRA}} [Lorient](/wiki/Lorient \"Lorient\") | 1,940nmi | 15 | 25 | **30** | 20 | 5 | 10 |\n| In\\-Port Race |30 June 2012{{flagicon\\|FRA}} [Lorient](/wiki/Lorient \"Lorient\") 2 | 5 | **6** | 4 | 1 | 3 |\n| Leg 9 | 1 July 2012 | 3 July 2012 | {{flagicon\\|FRA}} [Lorient](/wiki/Lorient \"Lorient\") | {{flagicon\\|IRL}} [Galway](/wiki/Galway \"Galway\") | 485nmi | 5 | **30** | 25 | 20 | 10 | 15 |\n| In\\-Port Race |7 July 2012{{flagicon\\|IRL}} [Galway](/wiki/Galway \"Galway\") 2 | 5 | 3 | **6** | 1 | 4 |\n|**In\\-port Race Series** 37 | 44 | 41 | **45** | 16 | 27 |\n|**Total score** 131 | 231 | **253** | 226 | 51 | 213 |\n|", "", "### Alicante In\\-Port Race", "On 29 October 2011 Abu Dhabi won the first In\\-Port race with Puma second and Camper third.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/sport/2011/1031/1224306804771\\.html\\|title\\=Walker wins first Volvo in\\-port race\\|last\\=Branigan\\|first\\=David\\|work\\=The Irish Times\\|date\\=31 October 2011\\|accessdate\\=31 October 2011}} The winds were very light on the race day.", "### Alicante to Cape Town", "The 6,500 [NM](/wiki/Nautical_mile \"Nautical mile\") leg started 5 November 2011 at 1300 [UTC](/wiki/UTC \"UTC\").", "Camper with Emirates Team New Zealand led the fleet out of Alicante and through the [Gibraltar straits](/wiki/Gibraltar_straits \"Gibraltar straits\").", "On 5 November 2011, *Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing* lost its mast within hours of the race's beginning during heavy winds and high seas near Alicante. On 6 November 2011 *Team Sanya* was forced to head to port after damaging its hull.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.rte.ie/news/2011/1106/oceanrace.html\\|title\\=Irish hopeful in world yacht race damaged\\|work\\=\\[\\[RTÉ News]]\\|date\\=6 November 2011\\|accessdate\\=6 November 2011}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-sailing\\-volvo\\-idUSTRE7A50U120111106\\|title\\=Chinese Volvo Ocean Race entry suffers hull damage\\|work\\=Reuters\\|date\\=6 November 2011\\|accessdate\\=6 November 2011}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/sailing/15611591\\.stm\\|title\\=Volvo Ocean Race 2011: Ian Walker's Abu Dhabi entry breaks mast\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=6 November 2011\\|accessdate\\=6 November 2011}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/sailing/volvo\\-ocean\\-race/8872722/Volvo\\-Ocean\\-Race\\-2011\\-devastated\\-Abu\\-Dhabi\\-Ocean\\-Racing\\-skipper\\-Ian\\-Walker\\-returns\\-to\\-Alicante\\-after\\-mast\\-breaks.html\\|title\\=Volvo Ocean Race 2011: devastated Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing skipper Ian Walker returns to Alicante after mast breaks\\|work\\=Telegraph\\|date\\=6 November 2011\\|accessdate\\=6 November 2011}} Team Sanya withdrew from the first leg on 7 November after an assessment of the damage.[China’s Team Sanya retire from first leg of Volvo Ocean Race](https://archive.today/20120914171657/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/Chinas-Team-Sanya-retire-from-first-leg-of-Volvo-Ocean-Race/3893/news.html) *volvooceanrace.com*, 7 November 2011", "The fleet were led round the turning mark near the archipelago of [Fernando de Noronha](/wiki/Fernando_de_Noronha \"Fernando de Noronha\") by *Puma Ocean Racing, powered by BERG Propulsion* on 17 November.[Oh Fernando! PUMA first round Leg 1 waypoint](https://archive.today/20120918021740/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/Oh-Fernando-PUMA-first-round-Leg-1-waypoint/4048/news.html) *volvooceanrace.com*, 17 November 2011 Several days later at 1500 hours on 21 November their mast failed, splitting into three bits. They retired from the first leg on 22 November and headed to [Tristan da Cunha](/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha \"Tristan da Cunha\").[PUMA Ocean Racing retires from Leg 1](https://archive.today/20130209004203/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/PUMA-Ocean-Racing-retires-from-Leg-1/4117/news.html) *volvooceanrace.com*, 22 November 2011", "Telefónica won the first leg, followed by Camper with Emirates Team New Zealand. Groupama placed third, several days after the leaders, as they missed the lowpressure system Telefónica and Camper used to cross the southern Atlantic at high speed.", "### Cape Town In\\-Port Race", "On 10 December 2011 Telefónica won the In\\-Port race with Camper second and Puma third.", "### Cape Town to Abu Dhabi", "The 5,430 NM leg started on 11 December 2011\\. Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing led the fleet out of Cape Town. Team Sanya were forced to suspend racing following a rigging failure and missed the cargo ship from the secret port to Abu Dhabi.[Sanya pulls out of second leg](http://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/news/article.cfm?c_id=4&objectid=10774289&ref=rss) *New Zealand Herald*, 20 December 2011", "Due to the threat of [piracy around Somalia](/wiki/Piracy_in_Somalia \"Piracy in Somalia\"), the fleet headed from Cape Town to a secret port, later revealed to be [Malé](/wiki/Mal%C3%A9 \"Malé\"), and were then transported by ship to Abu Dhabi, closer to the finish line for a sprint into Abu Dhabi. The first part of the leg gave 80% of the points (24, 20, 16, 12, 8 and 4 points) and the second part 20% (6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 points) for the same total of 30 to 5 points as the other ocean legs. Team Telefónica were the first boat into the secret port while Groupama Sailing Team won the sprint leg. Telefónica won overall points on the leg.", "Team Sanya resumed racing on 6 January with a six\\-man crew and finally finished the first part of leg 2 on 19 January, also scoring points for the sprint part of leg 2 and the in port race that they had missed.[Sanya poised to resume racing](https://archive.today/20120914160903/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/4681_Sanya-poised-to-resume-racing.html) *volvooceanrace.com*, 6 January 2012[Team Sanya celebrate Leg 2 Stage 1 finish](http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/4812_Team-Sanya-celebrate-Leg-2-Stage-1-finish.html){{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} *volvooceanrace.com*, 20 January 2012", "### Abu Dhabi In\\-Port Race", "Was held on 13 January 2012 and was won by Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing, with Groupama coming second, and Camper third.", "### Abu Dhabi to Sanya", "The 4,600 NM leg started on 14 January 2012\\. Due to the threat of [piracy around Somalia](/wiki/Piracy_in_Somalia \"Piracy in Somalia\"), the fleet was transported once again by ship to Male from where the third leg of the race began.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/4822\\_Safe\\-and\\-sound\\-Volvo\\-Ocean\\-Race\\-boats\\-arrive\\-at\\-no\\-longer\\-secret\\-port\\-.html \\|title \\= Volvo Ocean Race 2011\\-2012 \\| Safe and sound! Volvo Ocean Race boats a… \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130209014330/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/4822\\_Safe\\-and\\-sound\\-Volvo\\-Ocean\\-Race\\-boats\\-arrive\\-at\\-no\\-longer\\-secret\\-port\\-.html \\|archive\\-date\\=9 February 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} From the new port they will then head through the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\") and then pass the [Malacca Strait](/wiki/Malacca_Strait \"Malacca Strait\"). The first part give 20% of the points (6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 points) and the second part 80% (24, 20, 16, 12, 8 and 4 points) for the same total of 30 to 5 points as the other ocean legs.", "### Sanya In\\-Port Race", "On 18 February 2012 **Team Telefónica** took their second in\\-port victory in perfect sailing conditions with flat waters and winds gusting up to 20 [knots](/wiki/Knot_%28unit%29 \"Knot (unit)\"). **Team Puma** came in second, followed by **Abu Dhabi**, **Camper**, **Groupama** and **Sanya**.{{cite web\\|title\\=Telefónica seal victory in Sanya showdown\\|url\\=http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5117\\_Telefonica\\-seal\\-victory\\-in\\-Sanya\\-showdown.html\\|publisher\\=volvooceanrace.com\\|accessdate\\=5 April 2012\\|date\\=18 February 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807113006/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5117\\_Telefonica\\-seal\\-victory\\-in\\-Sanya\\-showdown.html\\|archive\\-date\\=7 August 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}", "### Sanya to Auckland", "The 5,220 NM leg started on 19 February 2012\\.", "### Auckland In\\-Port Race", "Held on 17 March 2012 and won by Camper.", "### Auckland to Itajaí", "The 6,705 NM leg started 18 March 2012\\.\nThis leg, the longest in the race, included safety waypoints which were designed to keep the boats north of the main areas of [iceberg](/wiki/Iceberg \"Iceberg\") risk.", "Team Sanya suffered rudder and hull damage on 22 March and were forced to return to New Zealand. They rejoined the race in Miami.[Team Sanya to ship to Miami as fastest route back into race](http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5632_Team-Sanya-to-ship-to-Miami-as-fastest-route-back-into-race.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522022937/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5632\\_Team\\-Sanya\\-to\\-ship\\-to\\-Miami\\-as\\-fastest\\-route\\-back\\-into\\-race.html \\|date\\=22 May 2012 }} *volvooceanrace.com*, 26 March 2012 Both Team New Zealand and Abu Dhabi stopped in [Puerto Montt](/wiki/Puerto_Montt \"Puerto Montt\"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\"). Team New Zealand repaired the boat and continued on while Abu Dhabi was shipped from there to Itajai, Brazil.[Camper due to arrive in Chile](http://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/news/article.cfm?c_id=4&objectid=10796230&ref=rss) *New Zealand Herald*, 2 April 2012", "After 17 days at sea, with 677 nautical miles to go to the finish line, Groupama (Franck Cammas/FRA) dismasted 60 nautical miles (nm) south of Punta del Este. Groupama motored to Punta del Este and following the creation of a jury rig rejoined the race and was placed third.[https://archive.today/20130205220613/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5856\\_Groupama\\-still\\-in\\-the\\-hunt\\-says\\-Cammas.html](https://archive.today/20130205220613/http://www.volvooceanrace.com/en/news/5856_Groupama-still-in-the-hunt-says-Cammas.html) \"volvooceanrace.com\", 9 May 2012", "### Itajaí In\\-Port Race", "Was held on 21 April 2012 and won by Groupama.", "### Itajaí to Miami", "The 4,800 NM leg started on 22 April 2012 and was won by Puma.", "### Miami In\\-Port Race", "Was held on 19 May 2012 and won by Abu Dhabi.", "### Miami to Lisbon", "The 3,590 NM leg started on 20 May 2012\\.", "### Lisbon In\\-Port Race", "Was held on 9 June 2012\\.", "### Lisbon to Lorient", "The 1,940 NM leg started on 10 June 2012\\.\nFrom Lisbon the fleet travelled to a turning point at [São Miguel Island](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_Island \"São Miguel Island\") before heading to Lorient.", "### Lorient In\\-Port Race", "Was held 30 June 2012\\.", "### Lorient to Galway", "The 485 NM leg started on 1 July 2012\\. This leg was the shortest offshore leg in the race.", "### Galway In\\-Port Race", "Was held on 7 July 2012\\.", "" ]
Background ---------- ### The Prague Declaration and the totalitarianism paradigm {{see also\|Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism\|double genocide theory}} During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), the theory of two [totalitarianisms](/wiki/Totalitarianism "Totalitarianism"), fascism and communism, gained popularity in the [Western world](/wiki/Western_world "Western world"), for example through the work of [Hannah Arendt](/wiki/Hannah_Arendt "Hannah Arendt") (notably her influential book *[The Origins of Totalitarianism](/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism "The Origins of Totalitarianism")*) and other scholars, such as [Carl Friedrich](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich "Carl Friedrich") and [Zbigniew Brzezinski](/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski "Zbigniew Brzezinski"), who argued that Nazi and Soviet regimes were equally totalitarian.[Carl Friedrich](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich "Carl Friedrich") and [Zbigniew Brzezinski](/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski "Zbigniew Brzezinski"), *Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy* (2nd edn 1967\) According to [Volker Berghahn](/wiki/Volker_Berghahn "Volker Berghahn"), "as Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski later put it in their classic analysis of the totalitarian paradigm that came to sweep the board in Western ideological discourse in the 1950s, Nazism and Stalinism were "basically alike" and represented very modern and brutally destructive versions of twentieth\-century dictatorship."[Volker R. Berghahn](/wiki/Volker_Berghahn "Volker Berghahn"), "Philanthropy and diplomacy in the American century," in Michael J. Hogan (ed.), *The Ambiguous Legacy: U. S. Foreign Relations in the "American Century"*, p. 389 Since the end of the Cold War, eastern and central European countries have established institutes and enacted laws to address crimes committed by former totalitarian regimes in their countries, both communist and fascist. Examples include the Czech state [Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes](/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_Totalitarian_Regimes "Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes"), the Polish state [Institute of National Remembrance](/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance "Institute of National Remembrance"), the Lithuanian state [Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania](/wiki/Genocide_and_Resistance_Research_Centre_of_Lithuania "Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania"), the German state [Hannah Arendt Institute for the Research on Totalitarianism](/wiki/Hannah_Arendt_Institute_for_the_Research_on_Totalitarianism "Hannah Arendt Institute for the Research on Totalitarianism") and the Hungarian state [House of Terror](/wiki/House_of_Terror "House of Terror") museum. The theory of two totalitarianisms also gained new popularity in the West during the 1990s, especially after the publication of the 1997 French book *[The Black Book of Communism](/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism "The Black Book of Communism")*, which said that "the genocide of a "class" may well be tantamount to the genocide of a "race,"" arguing that deaths caused by Hitler's and Stalin's regimes were "equal". In its introduction, [Stéphane Courtois](/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Courtois "Stéphane Courtois") argued that communism and national socialism are slightly different [totalitarian](/wiki/Totalitarian "Totalitarian") systems, that communism is responsible for the murder of about 100 million people during the 20th century, that the National Socialists adopted their repressive methods from Soviet methods, and that "a single\-minded focus on the Jewish genocide in an attempt to characterize the Holocaust as a unique atrocity has \[...] prevented the assessment of other episodes of comparable magnitude in the Communist world".{{cite book \|title\= The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression \| editor1\-last \= Courtois \| editor1\-first \= Stéphane \| editor1\-link \=Stéphane Courtois \|year\= 1999 \|publisher\= \[\[Harvard University Press]] \|isbn\= 0\-674\-07608\-7 \|page\= 9 }} The [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") claimed in 1993 that 100,000,000 victims died in "an unprecedented imperial communist holocaust," establishing the [Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation](/wiki/Victims_of_Communism_Memorial_Foundation "Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation").{{cite news \| last\=Rauch \| first\=Jonathan \| work\=\[\[The Atlantic]] \| date\=December 2003 \| title\=The Forgotten Millions \| url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200312/rauch \| access\-date\=November 4, 2009}} An increased emphasis on the crimes of communism after the [end of communism](/wiki/Fall_of_communism "Fall of communism") resulted in the 2006 [Council of Europe resolution 1481](/wiki/Council_of_Europe_resolution_1481 "Council of Europe resolution 1481"), which condemned the "individual and collective assassinations and executions, death in [concentration camps](/wiki/Concentration_camp "Concentration camp"), starvation, [deportations](/wiki/Deportation "Deportation"), [torture](/wiki/Torture "Torture"), [slave labour](/wiki/Slave_labour "Slave labour") and other forms of mass physical terror" perpetrated by communist regimes,{{Cite web \|url\=http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link\=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta06%2FEres1481\.htm \|title\=Council of Europe resolution 1481 \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409103345/http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link\=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta06%2FEres1481\.htm \|archive\-date\=2014\-04\-09 \|url\-status\=live }} and in early 2008, the European Union initiated the [European Public Hearing on Crimes Committed by Totalitarian Regimes](/wiki/European_Public_Hearing_on_Crimes_Committed_by_Totalitarian_Regimes "European Public Hearing on Crimes Committed by Totalitarian Regimes"). In mid\-2008, the [Czech government](/wiki/Czech_government "Czech government") initiated the [Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism](/wiki/Prague_Declaration_on_European_Conscience_and_Communism "Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism"), signed by [Václav Havel](/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel "Václav Havel"), [Joachim Gauck](/wiki/Joachim_Gauck "Joachim Gauck"), and others. It endorsed the idea of "Europe\-wide condemnation of, and education about, the crimes of communism."{{cite web \|url\= http://www.rferl.org/content/interview\_how\_much\_does\_west\_know\_about\_communist\_crimes/24358883\.html \|title\= How Much Do Western Europeans Know About Communist Crimes? \|author\= Charles Recknagel \|date\= 13 October 2011 \|publisher\= \[\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20111208225401/http://www.rferl.org/content/interview\_how\_much\_does\_west\_know\_about\_communist\_crimes/24358883\.html \| archive\-date \= 8 December 2011 \|url\-status\= live \|access\-date\=2012\-02\-02}} As proposed by the declaration, the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") in 2008–2009 with approval of all political factions designated the [European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism](/wiki/European_Day_of_Remembrance_for_Victims_of_Stalinism_and_Nazism "European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism") as "a Europe\-wide Day of Remembrance for the victims of all totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, to be commemorated with dignity and impartiality,"{{cite web \|url\= http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef\=\-//EP//TEXT\+TA\+P6\-TA\-2008\-0439\+0\+DOC\+XML\+V0//EN \|title\= Declaration of the European Parliament on the proclamation of 23 August as European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism \|publisher\= \[\[Europa.eu]] \|access\-date\= 2011\-05\-10 }}{{cite web \|url\= http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef\=\-//EP//TEXT\+TA\+P6\-TA\-2009\-0213\+0\+DOC\+XML\+V0//EN \|title\= European Parliament resolution of 2 April 2009 on European conscience and totalitarianism \|publisher\= \[\[Europa.eu]] \|access\-date\= 2011\-05\-10 }} and a remembrance day for victims of totalitarian regimes was also adopted by [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada").{{cite web \|url\= https://www.ctvnews.ca/aug\-23\-to\-become\-black\-ribbon\-day\-of\-remembrance\-1\.459906 \|title\= Aug. 23 to become Black Ribbon Day of remembrance \|date\= 1 December 2009 \|publisher\= \[\[CTV News Channel (Canada)\|CTV.ca]] \| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119045933/http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Canada/20091201/black\_ribbon\_091201/ \|access\-date\= 2011\-05\-10 \|url\-status\= live \| archive\-date\= 19 January 2012 }} In 2009, the European Parliament endorsed the recognition of "Communism, Nazism and fascism as a shared legacy," reconfirmed "its united stand against all totalitarian rule from whatever ideological background," and condemned "strongly and unequivocally all crimes against humanity and the massive human rights violations committed by all totalitarian and authoritarian regimes." The remembrance day was endorsed by the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe "Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe") in its 2009 [Vilnius Declaration](/wiki/Vilnius_Declaration "Vilnius Declaration"), which said that "in the twentieth century European countries experienced two major totalitarian regimes, Nazi and Stalinist, which brought about genocide, violations of human rights and freedoms, war crimes and crimes against humanity" and condemned "the glorification of the totalitarian regimes, including the holding of public demonstrations glorifying the Nazi or Stalinist past."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oscepa.org/images/stories/documents/activities/1\.Annual%20Session/2009\_Vilnius/Final\_Vilnius\_Declaration\_ENG.pdf \|title\=Vilnius Declaration of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly and resolutions adopted at the eighteenth annual session \|date\= June 29 – July 3, 2009 \|publisher\=\[\[Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe]] (OSCEPA) \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111155028/http://www.oscepa.org/images/stories/documents/activities/1\.Annual%20Session/2009\_Vilnius/Final\_Vilnius\_Declaration\_ENG.pdf \|archive\-date\=2010\-01\-11 \|url\-status\=dead }} The European Parliament and the [Council of the European Union](/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union "Council of the European Union") also endorsed the establishment of the [Platform of European Memory and Conscience](/wiki/Platform_of_European_Memory_and_Conscience "Platform of European Memory and Conscience"), as conceived by the Prague Declaration, by the governments of the [Visegrád Group](/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group "Visegrád Group"), the Polish EU presidency and several European state institutes, as an EU educational project to increase awareness about totalitarian crimes and to "prevent intolerance, extremism, anti\-democratic movements and the recurrence of any totalitarian rule in the future."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.memoryandconscience.eu/2011/10/20/czech\-prime\-minister\-petr\-necas\-the\-years\-of\-totalitarianism\-were\-years\-of\-struggle\-for\-liberty/ \|title\=Czech Prime minister Petr Nečas: The years of totalitarianism were years of struggle for liberty \|publisher\=Memoryandconscience.eu \|date\=20 October 2011 \|access\-date\=2011\-10\-24}} [The Greens–European Free Alliance](/wiki/The_Greens%E2%80%93European_Free_Alliance "The Greens–European Free Alliance") argued that "the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism should be the common basis for the research on and evaluation of communist regimes in all countries in East\-Europe."{{cite web \|url\= http://www.europeanagenda.eu/events/23043\.php?zurueck\=8\-2009 \|title\= Totalitarian Regimes and The Opening of The Secret Files Archives in Central and Eastern Europe \|date\= 18 September 2008 \|publisher\= European Agenda \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111219153343/http://www.europeanagenda.eu/events/23043\.php?zurueck\=8\-2009 \|archive\-date\= 2011\-12\-19 \|access\-date\= 2011\-05\-10 \|url\-status\= dead }} The Prague Declaration was opposed by Russian bodies and organisations affiliated with [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin")'s government, such as the [Presidential Commission of the Russian Federation to Counter Attempts to Falsify History to the Detriment of Russia's Interests](/wiki/Presidential_Commission_of_the_Russian_Federation_to_Counter_Attempts_to_Falsify_History_to_the_Detriment_of_Russia%27s_Interests "Presidential Commission of the Russian Federation to Counter Attempts to Falsify History to the Detriment of Russia's Interests") and [World Without Nazism](/wiki/World_Without_Nazism "World Without Nazism"). It was also opposed by several European communist parties, such as the [Communist Party of Greece](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Greece "Communist Party of Greece") and the [Communist Party of Britain](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Britain "Communist Party of Britain"). There were isolated critiques of the Prague Declaration in 2009 by (in chronological order of appearance in print): [Dovid Katz](/wiki/Dovid_Katz "Dovid Katz"), formerly professor of Yiddish at Vilnius University, who founded the web journal Defending History in part to oppose the Prague Declaration; Israeli activist [Efraim Zuroff](/wiki/Efraim_Zuroff "Efraim Zuroff"), director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center's Israel office; British MP [John Mann](/wiki/John_Mann_%28British_politician%29 "John Mann (British politician)"), who termed it a "sinister document", [Anti\-German](/wiki/Anti-Germans_%28political_current%29 "Anti-Germans (political current)"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.redaktion\-bahamas.org/auswahl/web64\-2\.html\|title \= Bahamas \- Doch ein Ehrenmann}} political scientist Clemens Heni, and others.Dovid Katz in 2009 op\-eds in the [Jewish Chronicle](http://www.thejc.com/comment/comment/prague%E2%80%99s-declaration-disgrace) and [Irish Times](http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2009/0530/1224247744866.html?via=mr). He was followed by [Efraim Zuroff in the Jerusalem Post](http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-EdContributors/Article.aspx?id=148409), [John Mann in the Jewish Chronicle](http://www.thejc.com/comment/comment/21392/europe-must-focus-baltic-hate), [and Clemens Heni](http://clemensheni.wordpress.com/2009/10/26/the-prague-declaration-holocaust-obfuscation-and-antisemitism/). A collection of links to opposition to the Prague Declaration is provided on [a page of Defending History](http://defendinghistory.com/prague-declaration/opposition). The Prague Declaration was also criticised by [eurosceptic](/wiki/Eurosceptic "Eurosceptic") [John Laughland](/wiki/John_Laughland "John Laughland"), who has instead compared the EU to Nazism.Conference of World Without Nazism, 9 October 2012, Strasbourg However, there has also been support for the Prague Declaration from Israeli academics such as [Barry Rubin](/wiki/Barry_Rubin "Barry Rubin"){{cite web \|url\= http://www.jpost.com/LandedPages/PrintArticle.aspx?id\=184542 \|title\= Those who neglect their past have no future \|author\=Barry Rubin \|author\-link\=Barry Rubin \|date\= 13 August 2010 \|publisher\= \[\[The Jerusalem Post]] \|access\-date\= 2011\-05\-16 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023155426/http://www.jpost.com/LandedPages/PrintArticle.aspx?id\=184542 \|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-23}}} and Lithuanian centrist politician [Emanuelis Zingeris](/wiki/Emanuelis_Zingeris "Emanuelis Zingeris"), a former honorary chairman of that country's Jewish community. ### Response by the Seventy Years Declaration By the initiative of Katz, [Danny Ben\-Moshe](/wiki/Danny_Ben-Moshe "Danny Ben-Moshe") drafted the Seventy Years Declaration as a response to the Prague Declaration. Seventy members of the European Parliament signed it on 20 January 2012, to mark the seventieth anniversary of the 1942 [Wannsee Conference](/wiki/Wannsee_Conference "Wannsee Conference") in Berlin that had decided on the "Final Solution" (genocide) of European Jewry. The text of the Seventy Years Declaration was published on 20 January 2012 in Defending History, and subsequently in European languages.Danny Ben\-Moshe, ["Remembering Wannsee"](http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-EdContributors/Article.aspx?id=254222), *The Jerusalem Post*, 18 January 2012Dovid Katz, ["The Seventy Years Declaration and the Simple Truth"](http://www.algemeiner.com/2012/02/03/the-seventy-years-declaration-and-the-simple-truth/), *Algemeiner Journal*, 3 February 2012 Its distribution was reported by [Roger Cohen](/wiki/Roger_Cohen "Roger Cohen") in the New York Times,Roger Cohen, ["The Suffering Olympics"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/31/opinion/the-suffering-olympics.html?_r=0), *The New York Times*, 30 January 2012 Danna Harman in [Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz "Haaretz"),Danna Harman, ["European leaders to mark 70th anniversary of Nazi Wannsee Conference"](http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/european-leaders-to-mark-70th-anniversary-of-nazi-wannsee-conference-1.408220), *Haaretz*, 19 January 2012 Frank Brendle in Taz.de,Frank Brendle, ["Der Holocaust ist einzigartig/The Holocaust is unique"](http://www.taz.de/!85961/), *taz.de*, 19 January 2012 among others. In 2013, its own website was launched. The Seventy Years Declaration condemns Stalinist tyranny and proposes distinct, separate recognition of the various European tragedies of the 20th century. The SYD explicitly rejects the Prague Declaration and its "attempts to obfuscate the Holocaust by diminishing its uniqueness and deeming it to be equal, similar or equivalent to Communism."\[5] It was published on 20 January 2012, on the 70th anniversary of the Wannsee Conference and signed by 71 parliamentarians from 19 EU countries,\[3] including eight MPs and MEPs from Lithuania. On the same day Audronius Ažubalis condemned the Lithuanian signatories,\[27] arguing that "it is not possible to find differences between Hitler and Stalin except in their moustaches."\[28] One of the signatories, MP Vytenis Povilas Andriukaitis, now the nation's Health Minister, responded to the foreign minister.\[29]UK MP Denis MacShane released a letter endorsing Andriukaitis and the other Lithuanian signatories. The Seventy Years Declaration form part of the subject material of the documentary movie Rewriting History, which premiered on Australian television in September 2012,\[30].Graeme Blundell, ["Lithuania’s Lies and Deception Exposed"](http://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/television/lithuanias-lies-and-deception-exposed/story-fncnqfdm-1226473912101), *The Australian*, 14 September 2012Ian Cuthbertson, ["Rewriting History: When Truth is the Enemy"](http://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/television/rewriting-history-when-truth-is-the-enemy/story-fncnjrwn-1226467535411), *The Australian*, 8 September 2012Tim Elliott, ["Free to Air"](http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/tv-guide/friday-september-14-20120908-25ksd.html), *The Sydney Morning Herald*, 14 September 2012Hobart Mercury, ["When Truth is the Enemy \- in Time Out"](http://defendinghistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Hobert-Mercury-14-September-2012.pdf), *The Hobart Mercury*, 14 September 2012Nicholas Soames, ["Rewriting History documentary Screens Tonight"](http://www.surfcoastnews.com.au/2012/09/14/rewriting-history-documentary-screens-tonight-on-sbs/), *The Surf Coast News*,14 September 2012\[31] The Declaration also opposes various alleged East European attempts to glorify Nazi collaborator organisations, specifically mentioning the honouring of the [Waffen SS](/wiki/Waffen_SS "Waffen SS") in Estonia and Latvia, and the [Lithuanian Activist Front](/wiki/Lithuanian_Activist_Front "Lithuanian Activist Front") in Lithuania. It acknowledges the need to honour Jewish partisans who joined the battle against Hitler, a reference to Lithuanian government efforts to prosecute Holocaust Survivors who joined the resistance. The Declaration opposes attempts to extend the definition of "genocide" to encompass sundry crimes of totalitarian regimes, endorsing instead a strict definition in the spirit of the 1948 definition. The Seventy Years Declaration was presented to [Martin Schulz](/wiki/Martin_Schulz "Martin Schulz"), president of the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament"), on 14 March 2012\.European Parliament Video, ["Martin Schulz, European Parliament President meeting with Dovid Katz. Handing over of the Declaration on the Final Solution of the Wannsee Conference 70th anniversary."](http://www.europarl.europa.eu/the-president/ressource/static/videos/lr_82876w.mp4?epbox&gallery=gal133060724907557611082), *European Parliament Press, Strasbourg*, 14 March 2012European Parliament Transcript, ["Martin SCHULZ, EP President, meeting with Dovid KATZ: \- Handing over of the Declaration on the Final Solution of the Wannsee Conference"](http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/services/showShotlist.do?filmRef=82876&out=HTML&lg=en&src=1) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131112707/http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/services/showShotlist.do?filmRef\=82876\&out\=HTML≶\=en\&src\=1 \|date\=2013\-01\-31 }}, *European Commission, Strasbourg*, 14 March 2012
[ "Background\n----------", "### The Prague Declaration and the totalitarianism paradigm", "{{see also\\|Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism\\|double genocide theory}}\nDuring the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), the theory of two [totalitarianisms](/wiki/Totalitarianism \"Totalitarianism\"), fascism and communism, gained popularity in the [Western world](/wiki/Western_world \"Western world\"), for example through the work of [Hannah Arendt](/wiki/Hannah_Arendt \"Hannah Arendt\") (notably her influential book *[The Origins of Totalitarianism](/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism \"The Origins of Totalitarianism\")*) and other scholars, such as [Carl Friedrich](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich \"Carl Friedrich\") and [Zbigniew Brzezinski](/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski \"Zbigniew Brzezinski\"), who argued that Nazi and Soviet regimes were equally totalitarian.[Carl Friedrich](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich \"Carl Friedrich\") and [Zbigniew Brzezinski](/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski \"Zbigniew Brzezinski\"), *Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy* (2nd edn 1967\\) According to [Volker Berghahn](/wiki/Volker_Berghahn \"Volker Berghahn\"), \"as Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski later put it in their classic analysis of the totalitarian paradigm that came to sweep the board in Western ideological discourse in the 1950s, Nazism and Stalinism were \"basically alike\" and represented very modern and brutally destructive versions of twentieth\\-century dictatorship.\"[Volker R. Berghahn](/wiki/Volker_Berghahn \"Volker Berghahn\"), \"Philanthropy and diplomacy in the American century,\" in Michael J. Hogan (ed.), *The Ambiguous Legacy: U. S. Foreign Relations in the \"American Century\"*, p. 389", "Since the end of the Cold War, eastern and central European countries have established institutes and enacted laws to address crimes committed by former totalitarian regimes in their countries, both communist and fascist. Examples include the Czech state [Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes](/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_Totalitarian_Regimes \"Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes\"), the Polish state [Institute of National Remembrance](/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance \"Institute of National Remembrance\"), the Lithuanian state [Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania](/wiki/Genocide_and_Resistance_Research_Centre_of_Lithuania \"Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania\"), the German state [Hannah Arendt Institute for the Research on Totalitarianism](/wiki/Hannah_Arendt_Institute_for_the_Research_on_Totalitarianism \"Hannah Arendt Institute for the Research on Totalitarianism\") and the Hungarian state [House of Terror](/wiki/House_of_Terror \"House of Terror\") museum. The theory of two totalitarianisms also gained new popularity in the West during the 1990s, especially after the publication of the 1997 French book *[The Black Book of Communism](/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism \"The Black Book of Communism\")*, which said that \"the genocide of a \"class\" may well be tantamount to the genocide of a \"race,\"\" arguing that deaths caused by Hitler's and Stalin's regimes were \"equal\". In its introduction, [Stéphane Courtois](/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Courtois \"Stéphane Courtois\") argued that communism and national socialism are slightly different [totalitarian](/wiki/Totalitarian \"Totalitarian\") systems, that communism is responsible for the murder of about 100 million people during the 20th century, that the National Socialists adopted their repressive methods from Soviet methods, and that \"a single\\-minded focus on the Jewish genocide in an attempt to characterize the Holocaust as a unique atrocity has \\[...] prevented the assessment of other episodes of comparable magnitude in the Communist world\".{{cite book \\|title\\= The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression \\| editor1\\-last \\= Courtois \\| editor1\\-first \\= Stéphane \\| editor1\\-link \\=Stéphane Courtois \\|year\\= 1999 \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Harvard University Press]] \\|isbn\\= 0\\-674\\-07608\\-7 \\|page\\= 9 }} The [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") claimed in 1993 that 100,000,000 victims died in \"an unprecedented imperial communist holocaust,\" establishing the [Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation](/wiki/Victims_of_Communism_Memorial_Foundation \"Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation\").{{cite news \\| last\\=Rauch \\| first\\=Jonathan \\| work\\=\\[\\[The Atlantic]] \\| date\\=December 2003 \\| title\\=The Forgotten Millions \\| url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200312/rauch \\| access\\-date\\=November 4, 2009}}", "An increased emphasis on the crimes of communism after the [end of communism](/wiki/Fall_of_communism \"Fall of communism\") resulted in the 2006 [Council of Europe resolution 1481](/wiki/Council_of_Europe_resolution_1481 \"Council of Europe resolution 1481\"), which condemned the \"individual and collective assassinations and executions, death in [concentration camps](/wiki/Concentration_camp \"Concentration camp\"), starvation, [deportations](/wiki/Deportation \"Deportation\"), [torture](/wiki/Torture \"Torture\"), [slave labour](/wiki/Slave_labour \"Slave labour\") and other forms of mass physical terror\" perpetrated by communist regimes,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link\\=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta06%2FEres1481\\.htm \\|title\\=Council of Europe resolution 1481 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409103345/http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link\\=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta06%2FEres1481\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-04\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and in early 2008, the European Union initiated the [European Public Hearing on Crimes Committed by Totalitarian Regimes](/wiki/European_Public_Hearing_on_Crimes_Committed_by_Totalitarian_Regimes \"European Public Hearing on Crimes Committed by Totalitarian Regimes\"). In mid\\-2008, the [Czech government](/wiki/Czech_government \"Czech government\") initiated the [Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism](/wiki/Prague_Declaration_on_European_Conscience_and_Communism \"Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism\"), signed by [Václav Havel](/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel \"Václav Havel\"), [Joachim Gauck](/wiki/Joachim_Gauck \"Joachim Gauck\"), and others. It endorsed the idea of \"Europe\\-wide condemnation of, and education about, the crimes of communism.\"{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.rferl.org/content/interview\\_how\\_much\\_does\\_west\\_know\\_about\\_communist\\_crimes/24358883\\.html \\|title\\= How Much Do Western Europeans Know About Communist Crimes? \\|author\\= Charles Recknagel \\|date\\= 13 October 2011 \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111208225401/http://www.rferl.org/content/interview\\_how\\_much\\_does\\_west\\_know\\_about\\_communist\\_crimes/24358883\\.html \\| archive\\-date \\= 8 December 2011 \\|url\\-status\\= live \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-02}} As proposed by the declaration, the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\") in 2008–2009 with approval of all political factions designated the [European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism](/wiki/European_Day_of_Remembrance_for_Victims_of_Stalinism_and_Nazism \"European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism\") as \"a Europe\\-wide Day of Remembrance for the victims of all totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, to be commemorated with dignity and impartiality,\"{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef\\=\\-//EP//TEXT\\+TA\\+P6\\-TA\\-2008\\-0439\\+0\\+DOC\\+XML\\+V0//EN \\|title\\= Declaration of the European Parliament on the proclamation of 23 August as European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Europa.eu]] \\|access\\-date\\= 2011\\-05\\-10 }}{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef\\=\\-//EP//TEXT\\+TA\\+P6\\-TA\\-2009\\-0213\\+0\\+DOC\\+XML\\+V0//EN \\|title\\= European Parliament resolution of 2 April 2009 on European conscience and totalitarianism \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Europa.eu]] \\|access\\-date\\= 2011\\-05\\-10 }} and a remembrance day for victims of totalitarian regimes was also adopted by [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\").{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.ctvnews.ca/aug\\-23\\-to\\-become\\-black\\-ribbon\\-day\\-of\\-remembrance\\-1\\.459906 \\|title\\= Aug. 23 to become Black Ribbon Day of remembrance \\|date\\= 1 December 2009 \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[CTV News Channel (Canada)\\|CTV.ca]] \\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119045933/http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Canada/20091201/black\\_ribbon\\_091201/ \\|access\\-date\\= 2011\\-05\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\= live \\| archive\\-date\\= 19 January 2012 }} In 2009, the European Parliament endorsed the recognition of \"Communism, Nazism and fascism as a shared legacy,\" reconfirmed \"its united stand against all totalitarian rule from whatever ideological background,\" and condemned \"strongly and unequivocally all crimes against humanity and the massive human rights violations committed by all totalitarian and authoritarian regimes.\" The remembrance day was endorsed by the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe \"Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\") in its 2009 [Vilnius Declaration](/wiki/Vilnius_Declaration \"Vilnius Declaration\"), which said that \"in the twentieth century European countries experienced two major totalitarian regimes, Nazi and Stalinist, which brought about genocide, violations of human rights and freedoms, war crimes and crimes against humanity\" and condemned \"the glorification of the totalitarian regimes, including the holding of public demonstrations glorifying the Nazi or Stalinist past.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oscepa.org/images/stories/documents/activities/1\\.Annual%20Session/2009\\_Vilnius/Final\\_Vilnius\\_Declaration\\_ENG.pdf \\|title\\=Vilnius Declaration of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly and resolutions adopted at the eighteenth annual session \\|date\\= June 29 – July 3, 2009 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe]] (OSCEPA) \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111155028/http://www.oscepa.org/images/stories/documents/activities/1\\.Annual%20Session/2009\\_Vilnius/Final\\_Vilnius\\_Declaration\\_ENG.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The European Parliament and the [Council of the European Union](/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union \"Council of the European Union\") also endorsed the establishment of the [Platform of European Memory and Conscience](/wiki/Platform_of_European_Memory_and_Conscience \"Platform of European Memory and Conscience\"), as conceived by the Prague Declaration, by the governments of the [Visegrád Group](/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group \"Visegrád Group\"), the Polish EU presidency and several European state institutes, as an EU educational project to increase awareness about totalitarian crimes and to \"prevent intolerance, extremism, anti\\-democratic movements and the recurrence of any totalitarian rule in the future.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.memoryandconscience.eu/2011/10/20/czech\\-prime\\-minister\\-petr\\-necas\\-the\\-years\\-of\\-totalitarianism\\-were\\-years\\-of\\-struggle\\-for\\-liberty/ \\|title\\=Czech Prime minister Petr Nečas: The years of totalitarianism were years of struggle for liberty \\|publisher\\=Memoryandconscience.eu \\|date\\=20 October 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-24}} [The Greens–European Free Alliance](/wiki/The_Greens%E2%80%93European_Free_Alliance \"The Greens–European Free Alliance\") argued that \"the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism should be the common basis for the research on and evaluation of communist regimes in all countries in East\\-Europe.\"{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.europeanagenda.eu/events/23043\\.php?zurueck\\=8\\-2009 \\|title\\= Totalitarian Regimes and The Opening of The Secret Files Archives in Central and Eastern Europe \\|date\\= 18 September 2008 \\|publisher\\= European Agenda \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111219153343/http://www.europeanagenda.eu/events/23043\\.php?zurueck\\=8\\-2009 \\|archive\\-date\\= 2011\\-12\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\= 2011\\-05\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\= dead }}", "The Prague Declaration was opposed by Russian bodies and organisations affiliated with [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\")'s government, such as the [Presidential Commission of the Russian Federation to Counter Attempts to Falsify History to the Detriment of Russia's Interests](/wiki/Presidential_Commission_of_the_Russian_Federation_to_Counter_Attempts_to_Falsify_History_to_the_Detriment_of_Russia%27s_Interests \"Presidential Commission of the Russian Federation to Counter Attempts to Falsify History to the Detriment of Russia's Interests\") and [World Without Nazism](/wiki/World_Without_Nazism \"World Without Nazism\"). It was also opposed by several European communist parties, such as the [Communist Party of Greece](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Greece \"Communist Party of Greece\") and the [Communist Party of Britain](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Britain \"Communist Party of Britain\"). There were isolated critiques of the Prague Declaration in 2009 by (in chronological order of appearance in print): [Dovid Katz](/wiki/Dovid_Katz \"Dovid Katz\"), formerly professor of Yiddish at Vilnius University, who founded the web journal Defending History in part to oppose the Prague Declaration; Israeli activist [Efraim Zuroff](/wiki/Efraim_Zuroff \"Efraim Zuroff\"), director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center's Israel office; British MP [John Mann](/wiki/John_Mann_%28British_politician%29 \"John Mann (British politician)\"), who termed it a \"sinister document\", [Anti\\-German](/wiki/Anti-Germans_%28political_current%29 \"Anti-Germans (political current)\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.redaktion\\-bahamas.org/auswahl/web64\\-2\\.html\\|title \\= Bahamas \\- Doch ein Ehrenmann}} political scientist Clemens Heni, and others.Dovid Katz in 2009 op\\-eds in the [Jewish Chronicle](http://www.thejc.com/comment/comment/prague%E2%80%99s-declaration-disgrace) and [Irish Times](http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2009/0530/1224247744866.html?via=mr). He was followed by [Efraim Zuroff in the Jerusalem Post](http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-EdContributors/Article.aspx?id=148409), [John Mann in the Jewish Chronicle](http://www.thejc.com/comment/comment/21392/europe-must-focus-baltic-hate), [and Clemens Heni](http://clemensheni.wordpress.com/2009/10/26/the-prague-declaration-holocaust-obfuscation-and-antisemitism/). A collection of links to opposition to the Prague Declaration is provided on [a page of Defending History](http://defendinghistory.com/prague-declaration/opposition). The Prague Declaration was also criticised by [eurosceptic](/wiki/Eurosceptic \"Eurosceptic\") [John Laughland](/wiki/John_Laughland \"John Laughland\"), who has instead compared the EU to Nazism.Conference of World Without Nazism, 9 October 2012, Strasbourg However, there has also been support for the Prague Declaration from Israeli academics such as [Barry Rubin](/wiki/Barry_Rubin \"Barry Rubin\"){{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.jpost.com/LandedPages/PrintArticle.aspx?id\\=184542 \\|title\\= Those who neglect their past have no future \\|author\\=Barry Rubin \\|author\\-link\\=Barry Rubin \\|date\\= 13 August 2010 \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[The Jerusalem Post]] \\|access\\-date\\= 2011\\-05\\-16 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023155426/http://www.jpost.com/LandedPages/PrintArticle.aspx?id\\=184542 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-23}}} and Lithuanian centrist politician [Emanuelis Zingeris](/wiki/Emanuelis_Zingeris \"Emanuelis Zingeris\"), a former honorary chairman of that country's Jewish community.", "### Response by the Seventy Years Declaration", "By the initiative of Katz, [Danny Ben\\-Moshe](/wiki/Danny_Ben-Moshe \"Danny Ben-Moshe\") drafted the Seventy Years Declaration as a response to the Prague Declaration. Seventy members of the European Parliament signed it on 20 January 2012, to mark the seventieth anniversary of the 1942 [Wannsee Conference](/wiki/Wannsee_Conference \"Wannsee Conference\") in Berlin that had decided on the \"Final Solution\" (genocide) of European Jewry.", "The text of the Seventy Years Declaration was published on 20 January 2012 in Defending History, and subsequently in European languages.Danny Ben\\-Moshe, [\"Remembering Wannsee\"](http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-EdContributors/Article.aspx?id=254222), *The Jerusalem Post*, 18 January 2012Dovid Katz, [\"The Seventy Years Declaration and the Simple Truth\"](http://www.algemeiner.com/2012/02/03/the-seventy-years-declaration-and-the-simple-truth/), *Algemeiner Journal*, 3 February 2012 Its distribution was reported by [Roger Cohen](/wiki/Roger_Cohen \"Roger Cohen\") in the New York Times,Roger Cohen, [\"The Suffering Olympics\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/31/opinion/the-suffering-olympics.html?_r=0), *The New York Times*, 30 January 2012 Danna Harman in [Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz \"Haaretz\"),Danna Harman, [\"European leaders to mark 70th anniversary of Nazi Wannsee Conference\"](http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/european-leaders-to-mark-70th-anniversary-of-nazi-wannsee-conference-1.408220), *Haaretz*, 19 January 2012 Frank Brendle in Taz.de,Frank Brendle, [\"Der Holocaust ist einzigartig/The Holocaust is unique\"](http://www.taz.de/!85961/), *taz.de*, 19 January 2012 among others. In 2013, its own website was launched.", "The Seventy Years Declaration condemns Stalinist tyranny and proposes distinct, separate recognition of the various European tragedies of the 20th century. The SYD explicitly rejects the Prague Declaration and its \"attempts to obfuscate the Holocaust by diminishing its uniqueness and deeming it to be equal, similar or equivalent to Communism.\"\\[5] It was published on 20 January 2012, on the 70th anniversary of the Wannsee Conference and signed by 71 parliamentarians from 19 EU countries,\\[3] including eight MPs and MEPs from Lithuania. On the same day Audronius Ažubalis condemned the Lithuanian signatories,\\[27] arguing that \"it is not possible to find differences between Hitler and Stalin except in their moustaches.\"\\[28] One of the signatories, MP Vytenis Povilas Andriukaitis, now the nation's Health Minister, responded to the foreign minister.\\[29]UK MP Denis MacShane released a letter endorsing Andriukaitis and the other Lithuanian signatories.", "The Seventy Years Declaration form part of the subject material of the documentary movie Rewriting History, which premiered on Australian television in September 2012,\\[30].Graeme Blundell, [\"Lithuania’s Lies and Deception Exposed\"](http://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/television/lithuanias-lies-and-deception-exposed/story-fncnqfdm-1226473912101), *The Australian*, 14 September 2012Ian Cuthbertson, [\"Rewriting History: When Truth is the Enemy\"](http://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/television/rewriting-history-when-truth-is-the-enemy/story-fncnjrwn-1226467535411), *The Australian*, 8 September 2012Tim Elliott, [\"Free to Air\"](http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/tv-guide/friday-september-14-20120908-25ksd.html), *The Sydney Morning Herald*, 14 September 2012Hobart Mercury, [\"When Truth is the Enemy \\- in Time Out\"](http://defendinghistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Hobert-Mercury-14-September-2012.pdf), *The Hobart Mercury*, 14 September 2012Nicholas Soames, [\"Rewriting History documentary Screens Tonight\"](http://www.surfcoastnews.com.au/2012/09/14/rewriting-history-documentary-screens-tonight-on-sbs/), *The Surf Coast News*,14 September 2012\\[31]", "The Declaration also opposes various alleged East European attempts to glorify Nazi collaborator organisations, specifically mentioning the honouring of the [Waffen SS](/wiki/Waffen_SS \"Waffen SS\") in Estonia and Latvia, and the [Lithuanian Activist Front](/wiki/Lithuanian_Activist_Front \"Lithuanian Activist Front\") in Lithuania. It acknowledges the need to honour Jewish partisans who joined the battle against Hitler, a reference to Lithuanian government efforts to prosecute Holocaust Survivors who joined the resistance. The Declaration opposes attempts to extend the definition of \"genocide\" to encompass sundry crimes of totalitarian regimes, endorsing instead a strict definition in the spirit of the 1948 definition.", "The Seventy Years Declaration was presented to [Martin Schulz](/wiki/Martin_Schulz \"Martin Schulz\"), president of the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\"), on 14 March 2012\\.European Parliament Video, [\"Martin Schulz, European Parliament President meeting with Dovid Katz. Handing over of the Declaration on the Final Solution of the Wannsee Conference 70th anniversary.\"](http://www.europarl.europa.eu/the-president/ressource/static/videos/lr_82876w.mp4?epbox&gallery=gal133060724907557611082), *European Parliament Press, Strasbourg*, 14 March 2012European Parliament Transcript, [\"Martin SCHULZ, EP President, meeting with Dovid KATZ: \\- Handing over of the Declaration on the Final Solution of the Wannsee Conference\"](http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/services/showShotlist.do?filmRef=82876&out=HTML&lg=en&src=1) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131112707/http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/services/showShotlist.do?filmRef\\=82876\\&out\\=HTML≶\\=en\\&src\\=1 \\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-31 }}, *European Commission, Strasbourg*, 14 March 2012", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1900\= 275 \|1910\= 313 \|1920\= 381 \|1930\= 337 \|1940\= 405 \|1950\= 349 \|1960\= 312 \|1970\= 287 \|1980\= 392 \|1990\= 303 \|2000\= 328 \|2010\= 322 \|2020\= 330 \|estyear\=2021 \|estimate\=332 \|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\-series/demo/popest/2020s\-total\-cities\-and\-towns.html \|date\=June 24, 2022\|title\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\-2021\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=June 24, 2022}} \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} 2020 Census }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2010, there were 322 people, 147 households, and 91 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|80\.3\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 161 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|40\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.9% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.6% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.6% of the population. There were 147 households, of which 25\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38\.1% were non\-families. 32\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.19 and the average family size was 2\.71\. The median age in the city was 44\.3 years. 19\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21\.4% were from 25 to 44; 27\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 21\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51\.9% male and 48\.1% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 328 people, 143 households, and 94 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|81\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 163 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|40\.6\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 97\.56% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.30% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.22% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.30% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.61% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.30% of the population. There were 143 households, out of which 27\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\.6% were non\-families. 29\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.29 and the average family size was 2\.81\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 26\.2% under the age of 18, 5\.5% from 18 to 24, 23\.2% from 25 to 44, 26\.8% from 45 to 64, and 18\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 103\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95\.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $28,558, and the median income for a family was $37,656\. Males had a median income of $28,438 versus $18,750 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $14,097\. About 2\.4% of families and 8\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including none of those under age 18 and 23\.6% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1900\\= 275\n\\|1910\\= 313\n\\|1920\\= 381\n\\|1930\\= 337\n\\|1940\\= 405\n\\|1950\\= 349\n\\|1960\\= 312\n\\|1970\\= 287\n\\|1980\\= 392\n\\|1990\\= 303\n\\|2000\\= 328\n\\|2010\\= 322\n\\|2020\\= 330\n\\|estyear\\=2021\n\\|estimate\\=332\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\\-series/demo/popest/2020s\\-total\\-cities\\-and\\-towns.html \\|date\\=June 24, 2022\\|title\\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\\-2021\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=June 24, 2022}}\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}} \n2020 Census\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2010, there were 322 people, 147 households, and 91 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|80\\.3\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 161 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|40\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.9% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.6% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.6% of the population.", "There were 147 households, of which 25\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38\\.1% were non\\-families. 32\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.19 and the average family size was 2\\.71\\.", "The median age in the city was 44\\.3 years. 19\\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21\\.4% were from 25 to 44; 27\\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 21\\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51\\.9% male and 48\\.1% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 328 people, 143 households, and 94 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|81\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 163 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|40\\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 97\\.56% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.30% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.22% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.30% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.61% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.30% of the population.", "There were 143 households, out of which 27\\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\\.6% were non\\-families. 29\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.29 and the average family size was 2\\.81\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 26\\.2% under the age of 18, 5\\.5% from 18 to 24, 23\\.2% from 25 to 44, 26\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 18\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 103\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95\\.2 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $28,558, and the median income for a family was $37,656\\. Males had a median income of $28,438 versus $18,750 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $14,097\\. About 2\\.4% of families and 8\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including none of those under age 18 and 23\\.6% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Biography --------- At the time of his death in 2015, Reed was the last living member of the [Washington Color School](/wiki/Washington_Color_School "Washington Color School"){{cite news\|author\=William Grimes \|title\=Paul Reed, of the Washington Color School, Dies at 96 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/02/arts/design/paul\-reed\-painter\-of\-the\-washington\-color\-school\-dies\-at\-96\.html?\_r\=0\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=October 2, 2015 \|accessdate\=October 2, 2015}}—an art group that gained national fame in the 1960s. Paul Allen Reed was born in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), in 1919 and attended McKinley High School. Reed moved to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") for college, but soon returned to D.C. to accept a job at the *[Washington Times\-Herald](/wiki/Washington_Times-Herald "Washington Times-Herald")* in 1937 working in the graphics department masking out half\-tones in advertisements. At the same time, he took art courses at the [Corcoran School of Art](/wiki/Corcoran_School_of_Art "Corcoran School of Art") during the day. [Graphic design](/wiki/Graphic_design "Graphic design") jobs would then take him to Atlanta and New York before Reed established himself permanently in D.C. in 1952\. Reed worked as a freelance graphic designer throughout the 1950s to have the flexibility to paint and visit museums and galleries. In 1962 Reed joined the staff of the [Peace Corps](/wiki/Peace_Corps "Peace Corps") as a graphic designer in charge of all publication design. Reed had his first solo exhibition at the Adams\-Morgan Gallery in Washington, D.C., in January 1963\. The paintings, executed in water\-based [acrylic paint](/wiki/Acrylic_paint "Acrylic paint") on unprimed [canvas](/wiki/Canvas "Canvas"), were characterized by a centralized image, often with a centrifugal motion within the petal\-like shapes. Reed's next solo exhibition was at the East Hampton Gallery in New York in November of the same year. In the New York exhibition, the centrifugal force of the earlier paintings had now spun off a smaller companion painting that hovered a set distance away. Reed called these works his *Satellite Paintings* and they questioned the relation of a painting to the wall. Further exhibitions were held in New York at East Hampton Gallery in 1964 and 1966, the [Bertha Schaefer Gallery](/wiki/Bertha_Schaefer_Gallery "Bertha Schaefer Gallery") in 1967 and 1971, and in D.C. at the [Jefferson Place Gallery](/wiki/Jefferson_Place_Gallery "Jefferson Place Gallery") in 1964 and Pyramid Gallery in 1971 and 1973\. Reed was methodical in his painting; his works fall into considered series as he developed and refined an idea. The last work of a series is usually the largest, most complex, or has the greatest clarity. In 1965 Reed created his well\-known series—the *Disk paintings*—where two corners of different color are set off by a diagonal band with a large circle at its center. With these works Reed blended colors by overlapping layers of separate colors, something that was distinct to the new water\-based acrylic paints then available. Next Reed created compositions of zigzagging stripes where each line kept its pure color yet created secondary colors at each bend in the *Upstart series* of 1965\. Further color overlapping was explored with the “plaid” effect of grids in the series *Interchange*, *Inside Out*, and *Coherence* of 1966\. One of Reed's *Coherence paintings* belonging to the permanent collection of the [National Gallery of Art](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art "National Gallery of Art") was recently on view there. Within the Washington Color School, Reed was recognized as the most successful at using the transparency new acrylic paints offered to overlap colors, something [Morris Louis](/wiki/Morris_Louis "Morris Louis") (1912–1962\) had explored in his *Veil paintings* but abandoned as he could not achieve the vibrancy he desired with the first generation of acrylic paints, Magna. Reed systematically increased the complexity of his color relationships in his [shaped canvas](/wiki/Shaped_canvas "Shaped canvas") works from 1967 to 1972\. Reed created increasingly complex forms by adding an additional side to his canvas shape each time he felt he had exhausted the color possibilities of the previous form. With each new shape, Reed applied color lessons learned from the prior series then expanded on them. Looking at the series *Emerging* (four sides), *Topeka* (five sides), *Hackensack* (six sides), and *Zig\-Fields* (seven sides), from 1967 one sees how Reed created complicated geometric shapes to master intricate color challenges. [thumb\|*29* (1965\), [Kreeger Museum](/wiki/Kreeger_Museum "Kreeger Museum")](/wiki/File:29_by_Paul_Reed.jpg "29 by Paul Reed.jpg") Recognition for Reed as an early member of the Washington Color School came with his inclusion in Gerald Nordland's exhibition Washington Color Painters at the [Washington Gallery of Modern Art](/wiki/Washington_Gallery_of_Modern_Art "Washington Gallery of Modern Art") in 1965\. The exhibition traveled across the country including the [Blanton Art Museum](/wiki/Blanton_Art_Museum "Blanton Art Museum"); the [Rose Art Museum](/wiki/Rose_Art_Museum "Rose Art Museum") at [Brandeis University](/wiki/Brandeis_University "Brandeis University") and the [Walker Art Center](/wiki/Walker_Art_Center "Walker Art Center"). The following year Reed was included in *The [Hard\-Edge](/wiki/Hard-edge_painting "Hard-edge painting") Trend* at the [Smithsonian American Art Museum](/wiki/Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum "Smithsonian American Art Museum"). In 1971 Reed left his Peace Corps job to teach full\-time at the Corcoran School of Art. Reed's knowledge of art history was extensive, combined with expertise on technique and an engaging wit, he was an inspiring teacher. In 1972 Reed lost his large studio behind the Jefferson Hotel, moving him towards more intimately scaled works he could execute at home. In the 1980s, Reed created photography\-based [collages](/wiki/Collage "Collage") that juxtaposed with [kaleidoscopic](/wiki/Kaleidoscope "Kaleidoscope") effect art historical and popular culture items, incongruences Reed found compelling. In the 1990s Reed did a series of [gouache](/wiki/Gouache "Gouache") on paper diptychs that explore light and reflection. Reed was included in the Corcoran Gallery of Art exhibition *Washington Color and Light* in 2011\. The same year Reed had solo exhibitions at the Workhouse Art Center in Lorton, Virginia titled *Ultraviolet to Infrared*: *Paul Reed \- 50 Years* and at [Georgetown University](/wiki/Georgetown_University "Georgetown University") in its library, *Evolution Through Color: The Art of Paul Reed*, which featured paintings, sculptures, studies, and prints. D. Wigmore Fine Art featured the artist in *Paul Reed and the Shaped Canvas* in 2013 and is currently showing three of Reed's painting in an exhibition titled *1960s [Hard Edge Painting](/wiki/Hard_Edge_Painting "Hard Edge Painting")*. Reed's large scale *Zig\-Field*, 1967 was included in *Washington Art Matters*: 1940\-1980 at the Katzen Center at [American University](/wiki/American_University "American University") in 2013\. He also was historical consultant for the movie project, The Washington Color School film, called *Unprimed Canvas* which is being done by artist Barbara Januszkiewicz{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.homeanddesign.com/2016/04/10/new\-direction\|title\=New Direction \- Home \& Design Magazine\|newspaper\=Home \& Design Magazine }} who Reed mentored.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.artlyst.com/news/paul\-reed\-last\-washington\-color\-school\-painter\-dies\-age\-96/\|title \= Paul Reed Last Washington Color School Painter Dies Age 96}}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/museums/in\-the\-galleries\-2\-photographers\-2\-perspectives\-1\-united\-states/2015/08/06/92ef18c8\-3797\-11e5\-9739\-170df8af8eb9\_story.html \|title\=In the galleries: Two photographers, two perspectives \|date\=2015\-08\-08 \|orig\-date\=2015\-08\-07 \|author1\=Mark Jenkins \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|place\=Washington, D.C. \|issn\=0190\-8286 \|oclc\=1330888409}}{{WaPoCheckDates}} Reed's work is in museums across the country, including the [National Gallery of Art](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art "National Gallery of Art"), [Phillips Collection](/wiki/Phillips_Collection "Phillips Collection"), the [Corcoran Gallery of Art](/wiki/Corcoran_Gallery_of_Art "Corcoran Gallery of Art"), the [Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden](/wiki/Hirshhorn_Museum_and_Sculpture_Garden "Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden"), and the [Smithsonian Museum of American Art](/wiki/Smithsonian_Museum_of_American_Art "Smithsonian Museum of American Art"), all in D.C.; the [Museum of Fine Arts, Boston](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston "Museum of Fine Arts, Boston"); the [Art Institute of Chicago](/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago "Art Institute of Chicago"); the [Detroit Institute of Art](/wiki/Detroit_Institute_of_Art "Detroit Institute of Art"); [Madison Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Madison_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art "Madison Museum of Contemporary Art"); the [Walker Art Center](/wiki/Walker_Art_Center "Walker Art Center"), Minneapolis; the [Dallas Museum of Art](/wiki/Dallas_Museum_of_Art "Dallas Museum of Art"); [Greenville County Museum of Art](/wiki/Greenville_County_Museum_of_Art "Greenville County Museum of Art"), South Carolina; the [High Museum of Art](/wiki/High_Museum_of_Art "High Museum of Art"), Atlanta; the [Oklahoma City Museum of Art](/wiki/Oklahoma_City_Museum_of_Art "Oklahoma City Museum of Art"); the [Phoenix Art Museum](/wiki/Phoenix_Art_Museum "Phoenix Art Museum"); the [San Francisco Museum of Modern Art](/wiki/San_Francisco_Museum_of_Modern_Art "San Francisco Museum of Modern Art") and the [Wadsworth Atheneum](/wiki/Wadsworth_Atheneum "Wadsworth Atheneum"), in [Hartford](/wiki/Hartford "Hartford"). Reed was predeceased by his wife Esther and his two sons Robert Reed and Thomas Reed. Reed died on September 26, 2015, at the age of 96\. He was survived by his daughter, Jean Reed Roberts of Phoenix, Arizona.
[ "Biography\n---------", "At the time of his death in 2015, Reed was the last living member of the [Washington Color School](/wiki/Washington_Color_School \"Washington Color School\"){{cite news\\|author\\=William Grimes \\|title\\=Paul Reed, of the Washington Color School, Dies at 96 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/02/arts/design/paul\\-reed\\-painter\\-of\\-the\\-washington\\-color\\-school\\-dies\\-at\\-96\\.html?\\_r\\=0\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=October 2, 2015 \\|accessdate\\=October 2, 2015}}—an art group that gained national fame in the 1960s. Paul Allen Reed was born in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), in 1919 and attended McKinley High School. Reed moved to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") for college, but soon returned to D.C. to accept a job at the *[Washington Times\\-Herald](/wiki/Washington_Times-Herald \"Washington Times-Herald\")* in 1937 working in the graphics department masking out half\\-tones in advertisements. At the same time, he took art courses at the [Corcoran School of Art](/wiki/Corcoran_School_of_Art \"Corcoran School of Art\") during the day. [Graphic design](/wiki/Graphic_design \"Graphic design\") jobs would then take him to Atlanta and New York before Reed established himself permanently in D.C. in 1952\\. Reed worked as a freelance graphic designer throughout the 1950s to have the flexibility to paint and visit museums and galleries. In 1962 Reed joined the staff of the [Peace Corps](/wiki/Peace_Corps \"Peace Corps\") as a graphic designer in charge of all publication design.", "Reed had his first solo exhibition at the Adams\\-Morgan Gallery in Washington, D.C., in January 1963\\. The paintings, executed in water\\-based [acrylic paint](/wiki/Acrylic_paint \"Acrylic paint\") on unprimed [canvas](/wiki/Canvas \"Canvas\"), were characterized by a centralized image, often with a centrifugal motion within the petal\\-like shapes. Reed's next solo exhibition was at the East Hampton Gallery in New York in November of the same year. In the New York exhibition, the centrifugal force of the earlier paintings had now spun off a smaller companion painting that hovered a set distance away. Reed called these works his *Satellite Paintings* and they questioned the relation of a painting to the wall. Further exhibitions were held in New York at East Hampton Gallery in 1964 and 1966, the [Bertha Schaefer Gallery](/wiki/Bertha_Schaefer_Gallery \"Bertha Schaefer Gallery\") in 1967 and 1971, and in D.C. at the [Jefferson Place Gallery](/wiki/Jefferson_Place_Gallery \"Jefferson Place Gallery\") in 1964 and Pyramid Gallery in 1971 and 1973\\.", "Reed was methodical in his painting; his works fall into considered series as he developed and refined an idea. The last work of a series is usually the largest, most complex, or has the greatest clarity. In 1965 Reed created his well\\-known series—the *Disk paintings*—where two corners of different color are set off by a diagonal band with a large circle at its center. With these works Reed blended colors by overlapping layers of separate colors, something that was distinct to the new water\\-based acrylic paints then available. Next Reed created compositions of zigzagging stripes where each line kept its pure color yet created secondary colors at each bend in the *Upstart series* of 1965\\. Further color overlapping was explored with the “plaid” effect of grids in the series *Interchange*, *Inside Out*, and *Coherence* of 1966\\. One of Reed's *Coherence paintings* belonging to the permanent collection of the [National Gallery of Art](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art \"National Gallery of Art\") was recently on view there. Within the Washington Color School, Reed was recognized as the most successful at using the transparency new acrylic paints offered to overlap colors, something [Morris Louis](/wiki/Morris_Louis \"Morris Louis\") (1912–1962\\) had explored in his *Veil paintings* but abandoned as he could not achieve the vibrancy he desired with the first generation of acrylic paints, Magna.", "Reed systematically increased the complexity of his color relationships in his [shaped canvas](/wiki/Shaped_canvas \"Shaped canvas\") works from 1967 to 1972\\. Reed created increasingly complex forms by adding an additional side to his canvas shape each time he felt he had exhausted the color possibilities of the previous form. With each new shape, Reed applied color lessons learned from the prior series then expanded on them. Looking at the series *Emerging* (four sides), *Topeka* (five sides), *Hackensack* (six sides), and *Zig\\-Fields* (seven sides), from 1967 one sees how Reed created complicated geometric shapes to master intricate color challenges.\n[thumb\\|*29* (1965\\), [Kreeger Museum](/wiki/Kreeger_Museum \"Kreeger Museum\")](/wiki/File:29_by_Paul_Reed.jpg \"29 by Paul Reed.jpg\")\nRecognition for Reed as an early member of the Washington Color School came with his inclusion in Gerald Nordland's exhibition Washington Color Painters at the [Washington Gallery of Modern Art](/wiki/Washington_Gallery_of_Modern_Art \"Washington Gallery of Modern Art\") in 1965\\. The exhibition traveled across the country including the [Blanton Art Museum](/wiki/Blanton_Art_Museum \"Blanton Art Museum\"); the [Rose Art Museum](/wiki/Rose_Art_Museum \"Rose Art Museum\") at [Brandeis University](/wiki/Brandeis_University \"Brandeis University\") and the [Walker Art Center](/wiki/Walker_Art_Center \"Walker Art Center\"). The following year Reed was included in *The [Hard\\-Edge](/wiki/Hard-edge_painting \"Hard-edge painting\") Trend* at the [Smithsonian American Art Museum](/wiki/Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum \"Smithsonian American Art Museum\").", "In 1971 Reed left his Peace Corps job to teach full\\-time at the Corcoran School of Art. Reed's knowledge of art history was extensive, combined with expertise on technique and an engaging wit, he was an inspiring teacher. In 1972 Reed lost his large studio behind the Jefferson Hotel, moving him towards more intimately scaled works he could execute at home. In the 1980s, Reed created photography\\-based [collages](/wiki/Collage \"Collage\") that juxtaposed with [kaleidoscopic](/wiki/Kaleidoscope \"Kaleidoscope\") effect art historical and popular culture items, incongruences Reed found compelling. In the 1990s Reed did a series of [gouache](/wiki/Gouache \"Gouache\") on paper diptychs that explore light and reflection.", "Reed was included in the Corcoran Gallery of Art exhibition *Washington Color and Light* in 2011\\. The same year Reed had solo exhibitions at the Workhouse Art Center in Lorton, Virginia titled *Ultraviolet to Infrared*: *Paul Reed \\- 50 Years* and at [Georgetown University](/wiki/Georgetown_University \"Georgetown University\") in its library, *Evolution Through Color: The Art of Paul Reed*, which featured paintings, sculptures, studies, and prints. D. Wigmore Fine Art featured the artist in *Paul Reed and the Shaped Canvas* in 2013 and is currently showing three of Reed's painting in an exhibition titled *1960s [Hard Edge Painting](/wiki/Hard_Edge_Painting \"Hard Edge Painting\")*. Reed's large scale *Zig\\-Field*, 1967 was included in *Washington Art Matters*: 1940\\-1980 at the Katzen Center at [American University](/wiki/American_University \"American University\") in 2013\\. He also was historical consultant for the movie project, The Washington Color School film, called *Unprimed Canvas* which is being done by artist Barbara Januszkiewicz{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.homeanddesign.com/2016/04/10/new\\-direction\\|title\\=New Direction \\- Home \\& Design Magazine\\|newspaper\\=Home \\& Design Magazine }} who Reed mentored.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.artlyst.com/news/paul\\-reed\\-last\\-washington\\-color\\-school\\-painter\\-dies\\-age\\-96/\\|title \\= Paul Reed Last Washington Color School Painter Dies Age 96}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/museums/in\\-the\\-galleries\\-2\\-photographers\\-2\\-perspectives\\-1\\-united\\-states/2015/08/06/92ef18c8\\-3797\\-11e5\\-9739\\-170df8af8eb9\\_story.html \\|title\\=In the galleries: Two photographers, two perspectives \\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-08 \\|orig\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-07 \\|author1\\=Mark Jenkins \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|place\\=Washington, D.C. \\|issn\\=0190\\-8286 \\|oclc\\=1330888409}}{{WaPoCheckDates}}", "Reed's work is in museums across the country, including the [National Gallery of Art](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art \"National Gallery of Art\"), [Phillips Collection](/wiki/Phillips_Collection \"Phillips Collection\"), the [Corcoran Gallery of Art](/wiki/Corcoran_Gallery_of_Art \"Corcoran Gallery of Art\"), the [Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden](/wiki/Hirshhorn_Museum_and_Sculpture_Garden \"Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden\"), and the [Smithsonian Museum of American Art](/wiki/Smithsonian_Museum_of_American_Art \"Smithsonian Museum of American Art\"), all in D.C.; the [Museum of Fine Arts, Boston](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston \"Museum of Fine Arts, Boston\"); the [Art Institute of Chicago](/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago \"Art Institute of Chicago\"); the [Detroit Institute of Art](/wiki/Detroit_Institute_of_Art \"Detroit Institute of Art\"); [Madison Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Madison_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art \"Madison Museum of Contemporary Art\"); the [Walker Art Center](/wiki/Walker_Art_Center \"Walker Art Center\"), Minneapolis; the [Dallas Museum of Art](/wiki/Dallas_Museum_of_Art \"Dallas Museum of Art\"); [Greenville County Museum of Art](/wiki/Greenville_County_Museum_of_Art \"Greenville County Museum of Art\"), South Carolina; the [High Museum of Art](/wiki/High_Museum_of_Art \"High Museum of Art\"), Atlanta; the [Oklahoma City Museum of Art](/wiki/Oklahoma_City_Museum_of_Art \"Oklahoma City Museum of Art\"); the [Phoenix Art Museum](/wiki/Phoenix_Art_Museum \"Phoenix Art Museum\"); the [San Francisco Museum of Modern Art](/wiki/San_Francisco_Museum_of_Modern_Art \"San Francisco Museum of Modern Art\") and the [Wadsworth Atheneum](/wiki/Wadsworth_Atheneum \"Wadsworth Atheneum\"), in [Hartford](/wiki/Hartford \"Hartford\").", "Reed was predeceased by his wife Esther and his two sons Robert Reed and Thomas Reed.", "Reed died on September 26, 2015, at the age of 96\\. He was survived by his daughter, Jean Reed Roberts of Phoenix, Arizona.", "" ]
Career ------ In 2007\-8, Nolan was senior legal officer with the ESC Rights Litigation Programme of the Centre on Housing Rights and [Evictions](/wiki/Eviction "Eviction"), and human rights adviser to the Working Group on Economic and Social Rights, where she engaged with the [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") Bill of Rights Forum. In 2008, she advised the International [NGO](/wiki/Non-governmental_organization "Non-governmental organization") Coalition for an Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR). Nolan served on the Coordinating Committee of the ESCR\-Net Case\-Law Database{{Cite web \|title\=Aoife Nolan \|url\=https://www.escr\-net.org/member/aoife\-nolan \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=ESCR\-Net \|language\=en}} and is a Council member of [Child Rights International Network](/wiki/Child_Rights_International_Network "Child Rights International Network") (CRIN) and as a founding trustee of Just Fair. Nolan was academic lead of the interdisciplinary Children and Childhood Network and hosted the Nottingham [Summer School](/wiki/Summer_school "Summer school") on Child Rights. She is the Director of the Human Rights Law Centre's Economic and Social Rights Unit.{{cn\|date\=March 2024}} During 2015\-2018, her work on rights and justice research priorities involved over 700 members from 22 different university centres.{{cn\|date\=March 2024}} In July 2021, she was elected to the University of Nottingham [Senate](/wiki/Academic_senate "Academic senate"). Nolan worked at international centres such as [Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights](/wiki/Geneva_Academy_of_International_Humanitarian_Law_and_Human_Rights "Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights"), the [University of Groningen](/wiki/University_of_Groningen "University of Groningen"), [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), [Oslo](/wiki/University_of_Oslo "University of Oslo"), Global Campus for Human Rights ([Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice")) and held professorial positions at [Fordham](/wiki/Fordham_University "Fordham University"), [Columbia](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_University_School_of_Law "Washington University School of Law"), [Stellenbosch](/wiki/Stellenbosch_University "Stellenbosch University"), [Cape Town](/wiki/University_of_Cape_Town "University of Cape Town"), Queen's University Belfast, and at the Faculty of Law and Criminology at the [Université Catholique de Louvain](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_catholique_de_Louvain "Université catholique de Louvain"). She is a visiting professorial Fellow at [UNSW](/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales "University of New South Wales") Law and a Hauser senior global research Fellow at the Center for Human Rights and Global Justice at [NYU School of Law.](/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Law "New York University School of Law") And since 2022, at [University of Ulster](/wiki/Ulster_University "Ulster University") and [Roma Tre University](/wiki/Roma_Tre_University "Roma Tre University"). Nolan helped to establish *Economic and Social Rights Academic Network UKI (ESRAN\-UKI)* and was a member of the Coordinating Committee of the Academic Network on the European Social Charter (ANESC\-RACSE). Nolan is an academic expert at [Doughty Street Chambers](/wiki/Doughty_Street_Chambers "Doughty Street Chambers") where she co\-leads the [Children's rights](/wiki/Children%27s_rights "Children's rights") group. She is currently President of the [Council of Europe](/wiki/Council_of_Europe "Council of Europe")'s [European Committee of Social Rights](/wiki/European_Social_Charter "European Social Charter"), having been a member since 2017 and vice\-president in 2021\-22\. ### Research Nolan's publications include works on human rights, economic and social rights and children's rights, and [constitutional law](/wiki/Constitutional_law "Constitutional law"). Her book on *Children's Socio\-economic Rights, Democracy and the Courts* (2011\),{{Cite book \|last\=Nolan \|first\=Aoife \|title\=Children's Socio\-Economic Rights, Democracy And The Courts \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=Bloomsbury Publishing \|year\=2011 \|isbn\=9781847318589 \|language\=en}} won the IALT Kevin Boyle Book Prize and was shortlisted for the Birks Book Prize. She is on the editorial board of the *Human Rights Law Review,*{{Cite web \|title\=Human Rights Law Review Editorial Board \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/hrlr/pages/Editorial\_Board \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=academic.oup.com}} *International Human Rights Law Review* and the *[International Journal of Children's Rights](/wiki/The_International_Journal_of_Children%27s_Rights "The International Journal of Children's Rights").* In 2017, she led an [ESRC](/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Research_Council "Economic and Social Research Council") IAA\-funded collaborative project, **Making Economic and Social Rights Real**, in the University of Nottingham and this created for the [Equality and Human Rights Commission](/wiki/Equality_and_Human_Rights_Commission "Equality and Human Rights Commission") of Great Britain, digital resources on economic and social rights, including videos, for use in civil society, or by policymakers, academics and others to inform them on economic and social rights.{{Cite web \|title\=Making Economic and Social Rights Real \- The University of Nottingham \|url\=https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/hrlc/operationalunits/economic\-and\-social\-rights\-unit/videos.aspx \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-08 \|website\=www.nottingham.ac.uk}} In 2018, Nolan was involved in drafting the [Abidjan Principles on the Right to Education](/wiki/Abidjan_Principles_on_the_Right_to_Education "Abidjan Principles on the Right to Education"). In December 2017, she was invited to join the [Scottish First Minister](/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland "First Minister of Scotland")'s Advisory Group on Human Rights Leadership, set up to make recommendations on how Scotland can 'lead by example' in human rights, including economic, social, cultural and environmental rights.{{Cite web \|last\=SPICe \|date\=2019\-03\-06 \|title\=How can Scotland be a leader in human rights? \|url\=https://spice\-spotlight.scot/2019/03/06/how\-can\-scotland\-be\-a\-leader\-in\-human\-rights/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-08 \|website\=SPICe Spotlight {{!}} Solas air SPICe \|language\=en\-GB}} In 2019\-20, she served on the Scottish Government's Child Rights Working Group, creating a model which included the [United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child "Convention on the Rights of the Child") within [Scots Law](/wiki/Scots_law "Scots law").{{Cite web \|title\=Incorporating the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child into Domestic Law in Scotland Working Group: summary report \|url\=http://www.gov.scot/publications/incorporating\-united\-nations\-convention\-rights\-child\-domestic\-law\-scotland\-working\-group\-summary\-report/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-08 \|website\=www.gov.scot \|language\=en}} She served on the Steering Group of the [British Academy](/wiki/British_Academy "British Academy")'s Childhood Policy Programme from 2020\-2\. In 2021 she was elected to the Executive Committee of the Association of Human Rights Institutes (AHRI). Nolan was shortlisted at the 2021 *Inspirational Women in Law* Awards for 'Legal Academic of the Year'. Her research created an international model on the theory and practice of children's rights and strategic litigation, known as Advancing Child Rights Strategic Litigation (ACRiSL) from a three\-year collaboration that she led, across Africa, Asia and Europe, which has been widely applied, including by the Commission for Children and Young People in Scotland. Nolan's research has been cited by policy making bodies such as [OHCHR](/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights"), the [Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights](/wiki/Commissioner_for_Human_Rights "Commissioner for Human Rights"), the [UN Special Rapporteur](/wiki/United_Nations_special_rapporteur "United Nations special rapporteur") on [extreme poverty](/wiki/Extreme_poverty "Extreme poverty") and human rights, the UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and [sanitation](/wiki/Sanitation "Sanitation"), the UN Independent Expert on the effects of [foreign debt](/wiki/External_debt "External debt") on human rights, the UN Special Rapporteur on the [right to adequate housing](/wiki/Right_to_housing "Right to housing"), and the UN Special Rapporteur on the [right to health](/wiki/Right_to_health "Right to health"). And she is an advisor to [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") groups on UN Special Procedures, [UN Committee on the Rights of the Child](/wiki/Committee_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child "Committee on the Rights of the Child"), [UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights"). In 2022\-23, she served on the advisory committee for [UNCRC](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child "Convention on the Rights of the Child")'s General Comment No.26 on children's rights and the environment. [UNCESRC](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights") asked Nolan to assist to incorporate children's rights and children's participation (and create a child\-friendly version) of the General Comment on sustainable development and the [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights"). She has written on the impact of school closures on human rights,{{Cite web \|last\=Nolan \|first\=Aoife \|title\=What human rights can tell us about school closures \|url\=https://dlv.prospect.gcpp.io/politics/40910/what\-human\-rights\-can\-tell\-us\-about\-school\-closures \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-10 \|website\=dlv.prospect.gcpp.io \|language\=en}} and the 2023 'cost of living crisis' on human rights.{{Cite journal \|last\=Nolan \|first\=Aoife \|date\=March 2023 \|title\=Human rights and the cost\-of\-living crisis \|url\=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10\.1177/09240519231156060 \|journal\=Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights \|language\=en \|volume\=41 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=3–12 \|doi\=10\.1177/09240519231156060 \|issn\=0924\-0519}}
[ "Career\n------", "In 2007\\-8, Nolan was senior legal officer with the ESC Rights Litigation Programme of the Centre on Housing Rights and [Evictions](/wiki/Eviction \"Eviction\"), and human rights adviser to the Working Group on Economic and Social Rights, where she engaged with the [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\") Bill of Rights Forum. In 2008, she advised the International [NGO](/wiki/Non-governmental_organization \"Non-governmental organization\") Coalition for an Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR). Nolan served on the Coordinating Committee of the ESCR\\-Net Case\\-Law Database{{Cite web \\|title\\=Aoife Nolan \\|url\\=https://www.escr\\-net.org/member/aoife\\-nolan \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=ESCR\\-Net \\|language\\=en}} and is a Council member of [Child Rights International Network](/wiki/Child_Rights_International_Network \"Child Rights International Network\") (CRIN) and as a founding trustee of Just Fair.", "Nolan was academic lead of the interdisciplinary Children and Childhood Network and hosted the Nottingham [Summer School](/wiki/Summer_school \"Summer school\") on Child Rights. She is the Director of the Human Rights Law Centre's Economic and Social Rights Unit.{{cn\\|date\\=March 2024}} During 2015\\-2018, her work on rights and justice research priorities involved over 700 members from 22 different university centres.{{cn\\|date\\=March 2024}} In July 2021, she was elected to the University of Nottingham [Senate](/wiki/Academic_senate \"Academic senate\").", "Nolan worked at international centres such as [Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights](/wiki/Geneva_Academy_of_International_Humanitarian_Law_and_Human_Rights \"Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights\"), the [University of Groningen](/wiki/University_of_Groningen \"University of Groningen\"), [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), [Oslo](/wiki/University_of_Oslo \"University of Oslo\"), Global Campus for Human Rights ([Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\")) and held professorial positions at [Fordham](/wiki/Fordham_University \"Fordham University\"), [Columbia](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_University_School_of_Law \"Washington University School of Law\"), [Stellenbosch](/wiki/Stellenbosch_University \"Stellenbosch University\"), [Cape Town](/wiki/University_of_Cape_Town \"University of Cape Town\"), Queen's University Belfast, and at the Faculty of Law and Criminology at the [Université Catholique de Louvain](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_catholique_de_Louvain \"Université catholique de Louvain\").", "She is a visiting professorial Fellow at [UNSW](/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales \"University of New South Wales\") Law and a Hauser senior global research Fellow at the Center for Human Rights and Global Justice at [NYU School of Law.](/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Law \"New York University School of Law\") And since 2022, at [University of Ulster](/wiki/Ulster_University \"Ulster University\") and [Roma Tre University](/wiki/Roma_Tre_University \"Roma Tre University\").", "Nolan helped to establish *Economic and Social Rights Academic Network UKI (ESRAN\\-UKI)* and was a member of the Coordinating Committee of the Academic Network on the European Social Charter (ANESC\\-RACSE).", "Nolan is an academic expert at [Doughty Street Chambers](/wiki/Doughty_Street_Chambers \"Doughty Street Chambers\") where she co\\-leads the [Children's rights](/wiki/Children%27s_rights \"Children's rights\") group. She is currently President of the [Council of Europe](/wiki/Council_of_Europe \"Council of Europe\")'s [European Committee of Social Rights](/wiki/European_Social_Charter \"European Social Charter\"), having been a member since 2017 and vice\\-president in 2021\\-22\\.", "### Research", "Nolan's publications include works on human rights, economic and social rights and children's rights, and [constitutional law](/wiki/Constitutional_law \"Constitutional law\"). Her book on *Children's Socio\\-economic Rights, Democracy and the Courts* (2011\\),{{Cite book \\|last\\=Nolan \\|first\\=Aoife \\|title\\=Children's Socio\\-Economic Rights, Democracy And The Courts \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Publishing \\|year\\=2011 \\|isbn\\=9781847318589 \\|language\\=en}} won the IALT Kevin Boyle Book Prize and was shortlisted for the Birks Book Prize. She is on the editorial board of the *Human Rights Law Review,*{{Cite web \\|title\\=Human Rights Law Review Editorial Board \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/hrlr/pages/Editorial\\_Board \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=academic.oup.com}} *International Human Rights Law Review* and the *[International Journal of Children's Rights](/wiki/The_International_Journal_of_Children%27s_Rights \"The International Journal of Children's Rights\").*", "In 2017, she led an [ESRC](/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Research_Council \"Economic and Social Research Council\") IAA\\-funded collaborative project, **Making Economic and Social Rights Real**, in the University of Nottingham and this created for the [Equality and Human Rights Commission](/wiki/Equality_and_Human_Rights_Commission \"Equality and Human Rights Commission\") of Great Britain, digital resources on economic and social rights, including videos, for use in civil society, or by policymakers, academics and others to inform them on economic and social rights.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Making Economic and Social Rights Real \\- The University of Nottingham \\|url\\=https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/hrlc/operationalunits/economic\\-and\\-social\\-rights\\-unit/videos.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-08 \\|website\\=www.nottingham.ac.uk}}", "In 2018, Nolan was involved in drafting the [Abidjan Principles on the Right to Education](/wiki/Abidjan_Principles_on_the_Right_to_Education \"Abidjan Principles on the Right to Education\"). In December 2017, she was invited to join the [Scottish First Minister](/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland \"First Minister of Scotland\")'s Advisory Group on Human Rights Leadership, set up to make recommendations on how Scotland can 'lead by example' in human rights, including economic, social, cultural and environmental rights.{{Cite web \\|last\\=SPICe \\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-06 \\|title\\=How can Scotland be a leader in human rights? \\|url\\=https://spice\\-spotlight.scot/2019/03/06/how\\-can\\-scotland\\-be\\-a\\-leader\\-in\\-human\\-rights/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-08 \\|website\\=SPICe Spotlight {{!}} Solas air SPICe \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} In 2019\\-20, she served on the Scottish Government's Child Rights Working Group, creating a model which included the [United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child \"Convention on the Rights of the Child\") within [Scots Law](/wiki/Scots_law \"Scots law\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Incorporating the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child into Domestic Law in Scotland Working Group: summary report \\|url\\=http://www.gov.scot/publications/incorporating\\-united\\-nations\\-convention\\-rights\\-child\\-domestic\\-law\\-scotland\\-working\\-group\\-summary\\-report/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-08 \\|website\\=www.gov.scot \\|language\\=en}}", "She served on the Steering Group of the [British Academy](/wiki/British_Academy \"British Academy\")'s Childhood Policy Programme from 2020\\-2\\. In 2021 she was elected to the Executive Committee of the Association of Human Rights Institutes (AHRI).", "Nolan was shortlisted at the 2021 *Inspirational Women in Law* Awards for 'Legal Academic of the Year'.", "Her research created an international model on the theory and practice of children's rights and strategic litigation, known as Advancing Child Rights Strategic Litigation (ACRiSL) from a three\\-year collaboration that she led, across Africa, Asia and Europe, which has been widely applied, including by the Commission for Children and Young People in Scotland.", "Nolan's research has been cited by policy making bodies such as [OHCHR](/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights \"Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights\"), the [Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights](/wiki/Commissioner_for_Human_Rights \"Commissioner for Human Rights\"), the [UN Special Rapporteur](/wiki/United_Nations_special_rapporteur \"United Nations special rapporteur\") on [extreme poverty](/wiki/Extreme_poverty \"Extreme poverty\") and human rights, the UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and [sanitation](/wiki/Sanitation \"Sanitation\"), the UN Independent Expert on the effects of [foreign debt](/wiki/External_debt \"External debt\") on human rights, the UN Special Rapporteur on the [right to adequate housing](/wiki/Right_to_housing \"Right to housing\"), and the UN Special Rapporteur on the [right to health](/wiki/Right_to_health \"Right to health\"). And she is an advisor to [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") groups on UN Special Procedures, [UN Committee on the Rights of the Child](/wiki/Committee_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child \"Committee on the Rights of the Child\"), [UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\"). In 2022\\-23, she served on the advisory committee for [UNCRC](/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child \"Convention on the Rights of the Child\")'s General Comment No.26 on children's rights and the environment. [UNCESRC](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\") asked Nolan to assist to incorporate children's rights and children's participation (and create a child\\-friendly version) of the General Comment on sustainable development and the [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights \"International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights\"). She has written on the impact of school closures on human rights,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nolan \\|first\\=Aoife \\|title\\=What human rights can tell us about school closures \\|url\\=https://dlv.prospect.gcpp.io/politics/40910/what\\-human\\-rights\\-can\\-tell\\-us\\-about\\-school\\-closures \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=dlv.prospect.gcpp.io \\|language\\=en}} and the 2023 'cost of living crisis' on human rights.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Nolan \\|first\\=Aoife \\|date\\=March 2023 \\|title\\=Human rights and the cost\\-of\\-living crisis \\|url\\=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10\\.1177/09240519231156060 \\|journal\\=Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=41 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=3–12 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/09240519231156060 \\|issn\\=0924\\-0519}}", "" ]
Plot ---- William Garretson is arrested following the discovery of the bodies of [Sharon Tate](/wiki/Sharon_Tate "Sharon Tate") and her guests at her home but is released three days later for lack of evidence. The police are unwilling to connect the Tate killings to the Hinman murder and LaBianca killings, despite the similarities of the crime scenes including writing in blood on the walls, and instead pursue a drug\-related angle for the Tate killings. The police raid [Spahn Ranch](/wiki/Spahn_Ranch "Spahn Ranch") in an attempt to break up an auto theft ring and arrest [Manson](/wiki/Charles_Manson "Charles Manson") and his gang. Nine\-year\-old "Steven Quint" (based on 10\-year\-old Steven Weiss) discovers a gun and his father turns it over to the police, where it is ignored. The Manson Family is released from prison and later two girls fleeing from Death Valley, "Stephanie Mark" (based on Stephanie Schram) and Kitty Lutesinger, tell police that the Manson Family has moved to Barker Ranch and that [Susan Atkins](/wiki/Susan_Atkins "Susan Atkins") was involved in the Hinman murder. Susan is arrested and reveals to her fellow inmate Ronnie Howard that she also killed Sharon Tate and was involved in eleven other killings. Los Angeles [District Attorney](/wiki/District_Attorney "District Attorney") [Vincent Bugliosi](/wiki/Vincent_Bugliosi "Vincent Bugliosi") interviews Danny DeCarlo, who gives a tour of Spahn Ranch and says that Manson had a .22 caliber [Buntline](/wiki/Colt_Buntline "Colt Buntline") revolver matching that used in the murders. Ronnie Howard calls the homicide division and tells them what Susan confessed to her. Bugliosi requests bail to be set high for Manson's trial for burning municipal [earthmoving equipment](/wiki/Earthmoving_equipment "Earthmoving equipment") in order to give him time to get evidence for the grand jury for the murders. Bugliosi interviews the Manson Girls and obtains arrest warrants for participants in the killings. [Linda Kasabian](/wiki/Linda_Kasabian "Linda Kasabian") turns herself in on the warrant while the fingerprints of [Tex Watson](/wiki/Tex_Watson "Tex Watson") and [Patricia Krenwinkel](/wiki/Patricia_Krenwinkel "Patricia Krenwinkel") are matched to those found at the Tate residence. During the grand jury proceedings, Susan gives all of the details of the Tate and LaBianca killings. As a result, Susan, [Leslie Van Houten](/wiki/Leslie_Van_Houten "Leslie Van Houten"), Tex, Patricia, Linda, and Manson are all brought up on charges. A reporter and photographer from [KABC\-TV](/wiki/KABC-TV "KABC-TV"), [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") attempting to retrace the events crime as reported in the newspaper find where the bloody clothes from the murders have been discarded. Steven's father calls to ask about the .22 revolver, but the police tell him that they don't have time for him and hang up on him. He tells the story to the news in order to embarrass the investigators. Bugliosi uses ballistics testing to link the gun to the one used on victim [Jay Sebring](/wiki/Jay_Sebring "Jay Sebring"). Manson chooses to represent himself at trial and Bugliosi tricks Manson into requesting more time, thus also giving himself more time to put a stronger case together. Bugliosi interviews former Manson Family member [Paul Watkins](/wiki/Paul_Watkins_%28Manson_Family%29 "Paul Watkins (Manson Family)"), who explains Manson's views that the [Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") are sending him messages to spark a race war dubbed "Helter Skelter". During the trial, testimony is heard from Linda Kasabian regarding the Tate and LaBianca murders despite repeated objections from the counsel for the defense. At one point Manson leaps at the judge but is subdued. He demands to give testimony, much of which works to his disadvantage. Due to their continuous disruptions, the defendants are ordered out of the courtroom during the closing arguments. Ultimately all of the defendants are sentenced to death but California later eliminates the death penalty in 1972, making the convicts eligible to apply for parole in the future.
[ "Plot\n----", "William Garretson is arrested following the discovery of the bodies of [Sharon Tate](/wiki/Sharon_Tate \"Sharon Tate\") and her guests at her home but is released three days later for lack of evidence. The police are unwilling to connect the Tate killings to the Hinman murder and LaBianca killings, despite the similarities of the crime scenes including writing in blood on the walls, and instead pursue a drug\\-related angle for the Tate killings.", "The police raid [Spahn Ranch](/wiki/Spahn_Ranch \"Spahn Ranch\") in an attempt to break up an auto theft ring and arrest [Manson](/wiki/Charles_Manson \"Charles Manson\") and his gang. Nine\\-year\\-old \"Steven Quint\" (based on 10\\-year\\-old Steven Weiss) discovers a gun and his father turns it over to the police, where it is ignored. The Manson Family is released from prison and later two girls fleeing from Death Valley, \"Stephanie Mark\" (based on Stephanie Schram) and Kitty Lutesinger, tell police that the Manson Family has moved to Barker Ranch and that [Susan Atkins](/wiki/Susan_Atkins \"Susan Atkins\") was involved in the Hinman murder. Susan is arrested and reveals to her fellow inmate Ronnie Howard that she also killed Sharon Tate and was involved in eleven other killings.", "Los Angeles [District Attorney](/wiki/District_Attorney \"District Attorney\") [Vincent Bugliosi](/wiki/Vincent_Bugliosi \"Vincent Bugliosi\") interviews Danny DeCarlo, who gives a tour of Spahn Ranch and says that Manson had a .22 caliber [Buntline](/wiki/Colt_Buntline \"Colt Buntline\") revolver matching that used in the murders. Ronnie Howard calls the homicide division and tells them what Susan confessed to her. Bugliosi requests bail to be set high for Manson's trial for burning municipal [earthmoving equipment](/wiki/Earthmoving_equipment \"Earthmoving equipment\") in order to give him time to get evidence for the grand jury for the murders.", "Bugliosi interviews the Manson Girls and obtains arrest warrants for participants in the killings. [Linda Kasabian](/wiki/Linda_Kasabian \"Linda Kasabian\") turns herself in on the warrant while the fingerprints of [Tex Watson](/wiki/Tex_Watson \"Tex Watson\") and [Patricia Krenwinkel](/wiki/Patricia_Krenwinkel \"Patricia Krenwinkel\") are matched to those found at the Tate residence. During the grand jury proceedings, Susan gives all of the details of the Tate and LaBianca killings. As a result, Susan, [Leslie Van Houten](/wiki/Leslie_Van_Houten \"Leslie Van Houten\"), Tex, Patricia, Linda, and Manson are all brought up on charges.", "A reporter and photographer from [KABC\\-TV](/wiki/KABC-TV \"KABC-TV\"), [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") attempting to retrace the events crime as reported in the newspaper find where the bloody clothes from the murders have been discarded. Steven's father calls to ask about the .22 revolver, but the police tell him that they don't have time for him and hang up on him. He tells the story to the news in order to embarrass the investigators. Bugliosi uses ballistics testing to link the gun to the one used on victim [Jay Sebring](/wiki/Jay_Sebring \"Jay Sebring\").", "Manson chooses to represent himself at trial and Bugliosi tricks Manson into requesting more time, thus also giving himself more time to put a stronger case together. Bugliosi interviews former Manson Family member [Paul Watkins](/wiki/Paul_Watkins_%28Manson_Family%29 \"Paul Watkins (Manson Family)\"), who explains Manson's views that the [Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles \"The Beatles\") are sending him messages to spark a race war dubbed \"Helter Skelter\".", "During the trial, testimony is heard from Linda Kasabian regarding the Tate and LaBianca murders despite repeated objections from the counsel for the defense. At one point Manson leaps at the judge but is subdued. He demands to give testimony, much of which works to his disadvantage. Due to their continuous disruptions, the defendants are ordered out of the courtroom during the closing arguments. Ultimately all of the defendants are sentenced to death but California later eliminates the death penalty in 1972, making the convicts eligible to apply for parole in the future.", "" ]
Club career ----------- ### Early career He joined his hometown football club, [AIK Bačka Topola](/wiki/AIK_Ba%C4%8Dka_Topola "AIK Bačka Topola"), as a youngster, and graduated to the senior side in 1998–99\. He began as a [centre back](/wiki/Centre_back "Centre back"), but soon realised he preferred scoring goals to defending.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.b92\.net/sport/intervjui/pobednickih11\.php?yyyy\=2007\&mm\=10\&nav\_id\=269408 \|title\=Nikola Žigić: 'Voleo bih da igram sa Zvezdom u LŠ' \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Nikola Žigić: 'I'd like to play for Red Star in the Champions League' \|first1\=Miloš \|last1\=Šaranović \|first2\=Nina \|last2\=Kolundžija \|publisher\=\[\[B92]] \|date\=25 October 2007 \|access\-date\=22 May 2015}} Žigić's parents did not want him to take football seriously until he completed his education, and he remained with AIK Bačka Topola until 2001, scoring 68 goals in 76 matches in the [Serbian League Vojvodina](/wiki/Serbian_League_Vojvodina "Serbian League Vojvodina"), the third level of Yugoslav football. When military service took him to [Bar](/wiki/Bar%2C_Montenegro "Bar, Montenegro"), he was able to play for the local club, [Mornar](/wiki/FK_Mornar "FK Mornar"), for whom he scored 15 goals from 23 appearances in the [2001–02 Second League of FR Yugoslavia](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Second_League_of_FR_Yugoslavia "2001–02 Second League of FR Yugoslavia"). After trials in France with [Saint\-Étienne](/wiki/AS_Saint-%C3%89tienne "AS Saint-Étienne") and [Créteil](/wiki/US_Cr%C3%A9teil-Lusitanos "US Créteil-Lusitanos") came to nothing,{{cite news \|url\=http://maxifoot.fr/newsplus518\.php \|title\=L2: Les Verts en pleine mutation \|language\=fr \|trans\-title\=L2: The Greens in a state of change \|first\=Frédéric \|last\=Coudrais \|website\=Maxifoot \|date\=August 2002 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020804223600/http://maxifoot.fr/newsplus518\.php \|archive\-date\=4 August 2002 \|url\-status\=live}} {{cite news \|url\=http://www.leparisien.fr/val\-de\-marne/creteil\-essaie\-zigic\-28\-08\-2002\-2003354832\.php \|title\=Créteil essaie Zigic \|language\=fr \|trans\-title\=Créteil trial Zigic \|author\=S.B. \|newspaper\=\[\[Le Parisien]] \|date\=28 August 2002 \|access\-date\=26 May 2015}} Žigić returned home where he played 8 matches for third\-tier club [Kolubara](/wiki/FK_Kolubara "FK Kolubara"), scoring 3 goals. Žigić signed his first professional contract in January 2003, with [Red Star Belgrade](/wiki/Red_Star_Belgrade "Red Star Belgrade"),{{cite news \|url\=https://www.b92\.net/sport/fudbal/vesti.php?yyyy\=2003\&mm\=01ⅆ\=31\&nav\_id\=82429 \|title\=Lalatović potpisao za Šahtjor, došao Žigić \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Lalatović signed for Shakhtar, Žigić arrived \|publisher\=B92 \|date\=31 January 2003 \|access\-date\=28 March 2019}} the biggest club in the country. Because he was not considered ready for first\-team football at that level, he spent the latter part of the 2002–03 season [on loan](/wiki/Loan_%28sports%29 "Loan (sports)") at [Spartak Subotica](/wiki/FK_Spartak_Subotica "FK Spartak Subotica"), another third\-tier side, for whom his goalscoring rate was even higher: 14 goals from just 11 league games. ### Red Star Returning head coach [Slavoljub Muslin](/wiki/Slavoljub_Muslin "Slavoljub Muslin") brought Žigić into Red Star's senior squad for the [2003–04 First League season](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "2003–04 First League of Serbia and Montenegro"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid\=91575\.html \|title\=Žigic aiming to stand tall \|first\=Aleksandar \|last\=Boskovic \|publisher\=\[\[Union of European Football Associations]] (UEFA) \|date\=18 August 2003 \|access\-date\=22 May 2015}} and gave him his debut in the starting eleven on the opening day. That first game ended in defeat,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.redstarbelgrade.info/statistika/istorija/prva\-liga\-srj\-scg/view\_match/2050\.html \|title\=09\-08\-2003 Hапредак 2:1 Црвена звезда \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=09\-08\-2003 Napredak 2–1 Red Star \|website\=redstarbelgrade.info \|access\-date\=22 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124063028/http://www.redstarbelgrade.info/statistika/istorija/prva\-liga\-srj\-scg/view\_match/2050\.html \|archive\-date\=24 November 2015 \|df\=dmy\-all }} and Žigić's physical appearance – a growth spurt from the age of 16 had brought his height to {{height\|m\=2\.02}} – provoked suggestions that he might be better suited to basketball.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2010/dec/04/nikola\-zigic\-birmingham\-city \|title\=Nikola Zigic is helping Birmingham to walk tall in the second city \|first\=Stuart \|last\=James \|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|location\=London \|date\=4 December 2010 \|access\-date\=22 May 2015}} He opened the scoring as they beat [Hajduk Kula](/wiki/FK_Hajduk_Kula "FK Hajduk Kula") 2–0 in the next league match.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.redstarbelgrade.info/statistika/istorija/prva\-liga\-srj\-scg/view\_match/2051\.html \|title\=23\-08\-2003 Црвена звезда 2:0 Хајдук (К) \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=23\-08\-2003 Red Star 2–0 Hajduk (K) \|website\=redstarbelgrade.info \|access\-date\=22 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124083331/http://www.redstarbelgrade.info/statistika/istorija/prva\-liga\-srj\-scg/view\_match/2051\.html \|archive\-date\=24 November 2015 \|df\=dmy\-all }} In between, he produced a [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick_%28association_football%29 "Hat-trick (association football)") against [Nistru](/wiki/FC_Nistru_Otaci "FC Nistru Otaci") in the [2003–04 UEFA Cup](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_UEFA_Cup "2003–04 UEFA Cup") qualifying round,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\=2003/matches/round\=1717/match\=71349/postmatch/report/index.html \|title\=Žigic shines in Zvezda stroll \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=14 August 2003 \|access\-date\=22 May 2015}} and went on to contribute a further three goals as Red Star beat [Odense](/wiki/Odense_Boldklub "Odense Boldklub") 6–5 on aggregate in the first round.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\=2003/matches/round\=1718/match\=73487/postmatch/report/index.html \|title\=Borre rescues draw for OB \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=24 September 2003 \|access\-date\=22 May 2015}} {{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\=2003/matches/round\=1718/match\=73488/index.html\#/iv/history/match/73488 \|title\=2003/04 UEFA Cup Crvena zvezda 4–3 OB \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=15 October 2003 \|access\-date\=18 January 2018}} He scored twice in the 3–0 win in the [Eternal Derby](/wiki/Eternal_derby_%28Serbia%29 "Eternal derby (Serbia)") against [Partizan](/wiki/FK_Partizan "FK Partizan"), and celebrated by miming a basketball shot.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/news/2003\-11/08/331816\.html \|title\=Red Star – Partizan 3–0 \|publisher\=Office of Media Relations, Serbian Government \|date\=8 November 2003 \|access\-date\=23 November 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124145135/http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/news/2003\-11/08/331816\.html \|archive\-date\=24 November 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}} {{cite news \|url\=http://www.espnfc.com/blog/espn\-fc\-united\-blog/68/post/2460600/red\-star\-partizan\-belgrade\-derby\-andy\-mitten \|title\=On derby day in Belgrade, violence overshadows events on the pitch \|first\=Andy \|last\=Mitten \|website\=ESPN FC \|date\=22 May 2015 \|access\-date\=22 May 2015}} By the mid\-season break, he had 12 league goals as well as the 6 in the UEFA Cup, and was named Player of the Year for 2003, both by the captains of the First League teams voting via the *[Večernje novosti](/wiki/Ve%C4%8Dernje_novosti "Večernje novosti")* newspaper{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\=135464\.html \|title\=Žigic crowns memorable rise \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=30 December 2003 \|access\-date\=22 May 2015}} and by the [Football Association](/wiki/Football_Association_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "Football Association of Serbia and Montenegro"). He finished the season as the league's top scorer, with 18, as Red Star won their 23rd title,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joegchamp.html \|title\=Yugoslavia/Serbia (and Montenegro) – List of Champions \|first\=Karel \|last\=Stokkermans \|date\=21 May 2015 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|access\-date\=22 May 2015}} and scored the winning goal in the [cup final](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup "2003–04 Serbia and Montenegro Cup"). Resuming the partnership with [Marko Pantelić](/wiki/Marko_Panteli%C4%87 "Marko Pantelić") begun in the second half of 2003–04, Žigić continued to score freely in the new season. With Red Star two goals and a man down in the first leg of the [Champions League](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_UEFA_Champions_League "2004–05 UEFA Champions League") qualifier against [Young Boys](/wiki/BSC_Young_Boys "BSC Young Boys"), he netted twice in the last 12 minutes to give his team an away draw.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season\=2004/matches/round\=1966/match\=79228/postmatch/report/index.html \|title\=Zigic double denies Young Boys \|first\=Marco \|last\=Keller \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=28 July 2004 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} Domestically, Pantelić top\-scored with 21 league goals and Žigić contributed 15 as Red Star finished [in second place](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "2004–05 First League of Serbia and Montenegro"), behind Partizan.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joegtops.html \|title\=Yugoslavia/Serbia (and Montenegro) – List of Topscorers \|first1\=Misha \|last1\=Miladinovich \|first2\=Igor \|last2\=Kramarsic \|date\=5 June 2014 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} Žigić scored against Partizan to help Red Star reach the [cup final](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup "2004–05 Serbia and Montenegro Cup"), but was one of five regular starters unavailable for that match through injury or suspension, and his team lost to a last\-minute goal to ten\-man [Železnik](/wiki/FK_%C5%BDeleznik "FK Železnik").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joegcup05\.html \|title\=Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) Cup 2004/05 \|first\=Dragoljub \|last\=Jovanovic \|date\=26 May 2005 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} {{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\=304417\.html \|title\=Famous first for Železnik \|first\=Aleksander \|last\=Boškovic \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=24 May 2005 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} In September 2005, Žigić signed a one\-year extension to his contract, which had been due to expire at the end of the season.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid\=342800\.html \|title\=Žigić staying at Crvena Zvezda \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=20 September 2005 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016180659/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid\=342800\.html \|archive\-date\=16 October 2015}} He helped his team progress through the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Cup, and according to [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")' correspondent, "capped a brilliant individual performance with two goals" as well as providing the cross for [Milan Purović](/wiki/Milan_Purovi%C4%87 "Milan Purović") as Red Star beat [Roma](/wiki/A.S._Roma "A.S. Roma") 3–1 in the third match of the group stage. His first goal, a header, appeared to have been scored from an [offside](/wiki/Offside_%28association_football%29 "Offside (association football)") position, but for the second, in the 86th minute, he dispossessed [Philippe Mexès](/wiki/Philippe_Mex%C3%A8s "Philippe Mexès"), evaded two more opponents, and bent the ball into the top corner from {{convert\|25\|m\|yd\|abbr\=on}} with his weaker left foot.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.b92\.net/sport/fudbal/vesti.php?yyyy\=2005\&mm\=12ⅆ\=02\&nav\_id\=181623 \|title\=Crvena zvezda silna protiv Rome! \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Red Star too strong for Roma! \|publisher\=B92 \|date\=2 December 2005 \|access\-date\=25 November 2015}} He said afterwards, "I've never scored a goal like that in my entire career. I was going to pass the ball but there was no one ahead of me so I just decided to go for it and see what happens". The win left Red Star needing to win their last group match to stand a chance of qualifying for the knockout rounds,{{cite news \|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\=soccer\&id\=2244675 \|title\=Zigic has Red Star dreaming of European revival \|first\=Zoran \|last\=Milosavljevic \|website\=\[\[ESPN FC]] \|agency\=Reuters\|date\=2 December 2005 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} but they failed to do so.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\=2005/standings/round\=2209/group\=2538/index.html \|title\=UEFA Europa League 2005/06 Standings: Group stage: Group E \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=28 October 2015 \|access\-date\=24 November 2015}} For the second time in three years, Žigić was chosen as domestic player of the year in the captains' poll,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\=382048\.html \|title\=Žigić the captain's choice \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=30 December 2005 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} and was also honoured by the [Red Star Sport Association](/wiki/SD_Crvena_Zvezda "SD Crvena Zvezda") as best male athlete of 2005, an award open to athletes representing the club in any sport, not just in football. After Pantelić's departure for [Hertha BSC](/wiki/Hertha_BSC "Hertha BSC"), Red Star's goals were spread more evenly among the remaining forward players. In the league, Žigić and [Boško Janković](/wiki/Bo%C5%A1ko_Jankovi%C4%87 "Boško Janković") were joint\-top scorers with 12, and Purović contributed one fewer, as the club won their 24th title.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joeg06\.html \|title\=Serbia and Montenegro 2005/06 \|first\=Dragoljub \|last\=Jovanović \|date\=15 August 2006 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} They completed the [double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29%23Serbia "Double (association football)#Serbia") with a defeat of city rivals [OFK](/wiki/OFK_Beograd "OFK Beograd") in the [cup final](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup%23Final "2005–06 Serbia and Montenegro Cup#Final"), coming back from 2–0 down via Žigić's 67th\-minute free kick under the defensive wall and Purović's equaliser to take the match into [extra time](/wiki/Extra_time_%28association_football%29 "Extra time (association football)"), during which Žigić gave Red Star the lead with a header and [Dušan Basta](/wiki/Du%C5%A1an_Basta "Dušan Basta") made the final score 4–2\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\=420639\.html \|title\=Cup joy for Crvena Zvezda \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=10 May 2006 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} {{cite news \|url\=http://www.b92\.net/sport/fudbal/vesti.php?yyyy\=2006\&mm\=05ⅆ\=11\&nav\_id\=197315 \|title\=Zvezda preokretom do duple krune \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Star turnaround to the double \|publisher\=B92 \|date\=11 May 2006 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} After the match, Žigić refused to answer questions about his Red Star future.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.b92\.net/sport/fudbal/vesti.php?yyyy\=2006\&mm\=05ⅆ\=11\&nav\_id\=197329 \|title\=Zenga: 'Verovao sam i na 0:2' \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Zenga: 'I believed at 2–0 down' \|publisher\=B92 \|date\=11 May 2006 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} ### Racing Santander Žigić began the season with Red Star, but on 29 August 2006, he signed a four\-year contract with [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga "La Liga") club [Racing Santander](/wiki/Racing_Santander "Racing Santander"). The fee, officially undisclosed,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\=450808\.html \|title\=Zigić zooms in for Racing \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=30 August 2006 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015}} was variously reported at anything from €4\.5M to €7M.{{cite news\|url\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2006/08/30/mas\_futbol/1156919245\_850215\.html \|title\=El serbio Nikola Zigic ya es jugador cántabro \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=The Serbian Nikola Zigic is a Cantabrian player \|first\=J. \|last\=Del Olmo \|newspaper\=\[\[Diario AS\|AS]] \|location\=Madrid \|date\=30 August 2006 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015 }} {{cite news\|url\=http://english.blic.rs/Sports/8611/Agents\-make\-entire\-Red\-Star\-annual\-budget\-worth\-of\-fees \|title\=Agents make entire Red Star annual budget worth of fees \|first\=Branko \|last\=Markovic \|newspaper\=\[\[Blic]] \|location\=Belgrade \|date\=17 April 2012 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529205824/http://english.blic.rs/Sports/8611/Agents\-make\-entire\-Red\-Star\-annual\-budget\-worth\-of\-fees \|archive\-date\=29 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}} {{cite news\|url\=http://hemeroteca\-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD02/PUB/2006/10/22/EMD20061022030MDP.pdf \|title\=Zigic, un gigante en Montjuic \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic, a giant at Montjuic \|first\=Rogelio \|last\=Román \|newspaper\=\[\[Mundo Deportivo (newspaper)\|Mundo Deportivo]] \|location\=Barcelona \|page\=30 \|date\=22 October 2006 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015}} Although better offers had been rejected, those offers had arrived at the wrong time: the pressure on Red Star to win the domestic title meant they were unlikely to dispose of a major player in mid\-season.{{cite news \|url\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2006/09/12/mas\_futbol/1158042432\_850215\.html \|title\=Zigic: 'Me han fichado para que marque goles' \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic: 'They've signed me to score goals' \|first\=J. \|last\=Del Olmo \|newspaper\=AS \|location\=Madrid \|date\=12 September 2006 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015}} The player felt he was more likely to start matches with a club at Racing's level.{{cite news \|url\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2006/09/15/mas\_futbol/1158301627\_850215\.html \|title\=Zigic, el gigante de la Liga, debutará ante el Barça \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic, the giant of la Liga, will make his debut against Barça \|first\=J. \|last\=Del Olmo \|newspaper\=AS \|location\=Madrid \|date\=15 September 2006 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015}} Partnering the diminutive [Pedro Munitis](/wiki/Pedro_Munitis "Pedro Munitis"),{{cite news \|url\=http://www.espnfc.com/story/420939/real\-see\-title\-race\-moving\-in\-their\-favour \|title\=Real see title race moving in their favour \|website\=ESPN FC \|date\=12 April 2007 \|access\-date\=19 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529204003/http://www.espnfc.com/story/420939/real\-see\-title\-race\-moving\-in\-their\-favour \|archive\-date\=29 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}} he contributed 11 goals{{snd}}including a hat\-trick in a 5–4 win over [Athletic Bilbao](/wiki/Athletic_Bilbao "Athletic Bilbao"){{cite news \|url\=http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKL0110042320070401 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120555/http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKL0110042320070401 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=12 October 2007 \|title\=Soccer – Zigic hat\-trick earns Racing 5–4 win over Bilbao \|publisher\=Reuters \|date\=1 April 2007 \|access\-date\=1 February 2015}}{{snd}}four assists and five penalties won in league competition over the season as Racing finished tenth. The efficacy of the pair earned them the nickname of {{lang\|es\|Dúo Sacapuntos}} (the Two Point\-getters{{efn\-ua\|The nickname is a play on the name of Spanish comedy act the \[\[:es:Dúo Sacapuntas\|Dúo Sacapuntas]], which comprises one tall and one short partner.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.espnfc.com/story/430296/el\-racing\-llega\-a\-lo\-mas\-alto \|title\=El Racing llega a lo más alto \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Racing reach the top \|first\=Lucy \|last\=Turner \|website\=ESPN FC \|date\=19 April 2007 \|access\-date\=23 November 2015 \|quote\=La pareja Zigic\-Pedro Munitis se ha convertido en el Dúo Sacapuntos, inspirado en el par de cómicos españoles, uno alto y uno bajo, el Dúo Sacapuntas \[The Zigic–Pedro Munitis pairing has turned into the Dúo Sacapuntos, inspired by the Spanish comedy duo, one tall and one short, the Dúo Sacapuntas]. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124104510/http://www.espnfc.com/story/430296/el\-racing\-llega\-a\-lo\-mas\-alto \|archive\-date\=24 November 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}}}});{{cite news \|url\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070622/la\-parte\-goleadora\-del\-duo\-sacapuntos\_52337005902\.html \|title\=La parte goleadora del 'dúo sacapuntos' \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=The goalscoring part of the 'two point\-getters' \|first\=Rafa \|last\=Gallego \|newspaper\=Mundo Deportivo \|location\=Barcelona \|date\=22 June 2007 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015}} ahead of the coming season, new coach [Marcelino García Toral](/wiki/Marcelino_Garc%C3%ADa_Toral "Marcelino García Toral") recalled how "we all know how many points Racing picked up when Žigić and Munitis weren't there. Without them, Racing didn't add points".{{cite news \|url\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070628/marcelino\-avisa\-que\-sin\-zigic\-todo\-sera\-mas\-dificil\_52337035114\.html \|title\=Marcelino avisa que sin Zigic todo será más difícil \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Marcelino warns that without Zigic everything's going to be more difficult \|first\=Ernesto \|last\=Vicario \|newspaper\=Mundo Deportivo \|location\=Barcelona \|date\=28 June 2007 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015 \|quote\=Todos sabemos los puntos que consiguió el Racing cuando no estaban Zigic ni Munitis. Sin ellos, el Racing no sumaba puntos \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529211518/http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070628/marcelino\-avisa\-que\-sin\-zigic\-todo\-sera\-mas\-dificil\_52337035114\.html \|archive\-date\=29 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}} His performances earned him the captains' vote as best player based abroad for 2006, and contributed to his 2007 [Football Association of Serbia](/wiki/Football_Association_of_Serbia "Football Association of Serbia") Golden Ball award. ### Valencia Žigić signed for [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia_CF "Valencia CF") in August 2007\. The fee was unconfirmed, but suggestions appeared in the media of €15M,{{cite news \|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2007/SPORT/football/08/09/valencia.zigic.reut/ \|title\=Valencia sign giant striker Zigic \|publisher\=CNN \|agency\=Reuters \|date\=9 August 2007 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015}} €18M,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070811/el\-gigante\-zigic\-quiere\-alcanzar\-altas\-cotas\_53383885611\.html \|title\=El 'gigante' Zigic quiere alcanzar altas cotas \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=The 'giant' Zigic wants to reach new heights \|first\=Carlos \|last\=Urrutia \|newspaper\=Mundo Deportivo \|location\=Barcelona \|date\=10 August 2007 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125105727/http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070811/el\-gigante\-zigic\-quiere\-alcanzar\-altas\-cotas\_53383885611\.html \|archive\-date\=25 November 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}} and around €20M, a figure possibly including the player's wages over the five years of his contract.{{cite news \|url\=http://archivo.marca.com/edicion/marca/futbol/1a\_division/valencia/es/desarrollo/1025048\.html \|title\=El Valencia se hace con los servicios de Zigic por cinco temporadas \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Valencia acquires the services of Zigic for five seasons \|newspaper\=\[\[Marca (newspaper)\|Marca]] \|location\=Madrid \|date\=9 August 2007 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015}} He had been linked with numerous other moves,{{cite news \|url\=http://www1\.skysports.com/football/news/11679/2649575/city\-miss\-out\-on\-zigic \|title\=City miss out on Zigic \|first\=Peter \|last\=O'Rourke \|publisher\=\[\[Sky Sports]] \|date\=9 August 2007 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015}} and [Fenerbahçe](/wiki/Fenerbah%C3%A7e_S.K._%28football%29 "Fenerbahçe S.K. (football)") made an offer that was better financially for both Racing and the player, but Žigić preferred to stay in "the best league in Europe" in a country where he was accustomed to the language and culture.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070810/zigic\-fichaje\-gigante\-de\-un\-valencia\-de\-lujo\_53383685539\.html \|title\=Zigic, fichaje gigante de un Valencia de lujo \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic, giant signing for a Valencia in the luxury market \|first1\=Carlos \|last1\=Urrutia \|first2\=Ernesto \|last2\=Vicario \|newspaper\=Mundo Deportivo \|location\=Barcelona \|date\=10 August 2007 \|access\-date\=29 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530003237/http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070810/zigic\-fichaje\-gigante\-de\-un\-valencia\-de\-lujo\_53383685539\.html \|archive\-date\=30 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}} He was suffering from an ankle injury when he arrived{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid\=572858\.html \|title\=Serbia's Žigić to miss Brussels trip \|first\=Aleksandar \|last\=Bošković \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=20 August 2007 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015}}{{snd}}which delayed his integration into the first\-team group and, according to *[Mundo Deportivo](/wiki/Mundo_Deportivo_%28newspaper%29 "Mundo Deportivo (newspaper)")*, undermined the coaching staff's confidence in him{{cite news \|url\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2007/12/24/pagina\-31/1494069/pdf.html\#\&mode\=fullScreen \|title\=Zigic saca del pozo al equipo 'che' \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic gets the 'che' team out of a hole \|first\=Carlos \|last\=Urrutia \|newspaper\=Mundo Deportivo \|location\=Barcelona \|page\=31 \|date\=24 December 2007 \|access\-date\=18 January 2018}}{{snd}}then aggravated the injury by playing in a [Euro 2008 qualifier](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2008_qualifying_Group_A "UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group A") in September,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.lasprovincias.es/valencia/prensa/20070930/deportes/zigic\-cuando\-seleccion\-serbia\_20070930\.html \|title\=Zigic: 'Cuando fui con la selección de Serbia no estaba recuperado al cien por cien de mi lesión' \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic: 'When I was away with Serbia I wasn't 100% recovered from my injury' \|first\=A. \|last\=Andreo \|newspaper\=\[\[Las Provincias]] \|location\=Valencia \|date\=30 September 2007 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015}} and did not appear for Valencia until October. [thumb\|left\|upright\|Pictured in 2008\|alt\=Head of young white man smiling.He](/wiki/File:Nikola_Zigic.jpg "Nikola Zigic.jpg") made his debut as a second\-half substitute in Valencia's Champions League group\-stage defeat at home to [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. "Chelsea F.C."), and started the next league match, another home defeat against [Espanyol](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol "RCD Espanyol"), but was selected only infrequently either by [Quique Flores](/wiki/Quique_Flores "Quique Flores"), who had signed him, or by successor [Ronald Koeman](/wiki/Ronald_Koeman "Ronald Koeman"). With the [transfer window](/wiki/Transfer_window "Transfer window") approaching, Koeman had given Žigić two weeks to convince him he was worth keeping.{{cite news \|url\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2007/12/20/pagina\-10/914858/pdf.html\#\&mode\=fullScreen \|title\='Vacas' sacrificadas \|language\=es \|trans\-title\='Cows' sacrificed \|first\=Carlos \|last\=Urrutia \|newspaper\=Mundo Deportivo \|location\=Barcelona \|page\=10 \|date\=20 December 2007 \|access\-date\=18 January 2018}} Prior to the [Copa del Rey](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Copa_del_Rey "2007–08 Copa del Rey") on 19 December, Valencia had not scored for six matches,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/t/t2007\-0836\.html \|title\=Valencia 2007–08: Matches \|website\=BDFutbol \|access\-date\=23 November 2015}} For match results, click on Matches tab. and they were soon 1–0 down to third\-tier opponents [Real Unión](/wiki/Real_Uni%C3%B3n "Real Unión"). Žigić came on and scored twice to turn the match around,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.elperiodicodearagon.com/noticias/deportes/zigic\-remonta\-evita\-otra\-catastrofe\-valencia\_373666\.html \|title\=Zigic remonta y evita otra catástrofe del Valencia \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic back and prevents another Valencia catastrophe \|newspaper\=\[\[El Periódico de Aragón]] \|location\=Zaragoza \|date\=20 December 2007 \|access\-date\=24 November 2015}} and followed up with another goal three days later as Valencia came from behind to secure a 2–2 draw at [Real Zaragoza](/wiki/Real_Zaragoza "Real Zaragoza"). A mooted loan to English club [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth_F.C. "Portsmouth F.C.") fell through when Koeman changed his mind about the player leaving,{{cite news \|url\=http://www1\.skysports.com/football/news/11674/3012219/valencia\-keen\-on\-zigic\-stay \|title\=Valencia keen on Zigic stay \|first\=Paco \|last\=Acedo \|publisher\=Sky Sports \|date\=30 December 2007 \|access\-date\=1 February 2015}} but he made only nine league appearances (two starts) in what remained of the season, and was sent off in the first of those. Speculation regarding moves to the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League"){{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/a/aston\_villa/7519540\.stm \|title\=O'Neill denies interest in Zigic \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=22 July 2008 \|access\-date\=1 February 2015}} {{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/b/blackburn\_rovers/7570584\.stm \|title\=Blackburn weigh up double swoop \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=19 August 2008 \|access\-date\=1 February 2015}} {{cite news \|url\=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Breaking\-news\-Stoke\-close\-loan\-deal\-striker\-Zigic/story\-12527324\-detail/story.html \|title\=Stoke close to loan deal for striker Zigic \|newspaper\=\[\[The Sentinel (Staffordshire)\|The Sentinel]] \|location\=Stoke\-on\-Trent \|date\=8 August 2008 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924111400/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Breaking\-news\-Stoke\-close\-loan\-deal\-striker\-Zigic/story\-12527324\-detail/story.html \|archive\-date\=24 September 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}} came to nothing. By October, Žigić had appeared just once for Valencia, in the [UEFA Cup](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_UEFA_Cup "2008–09 UEFA Cup"), and an opportunity arose to join his former club, Racing Santander, on an emergency loan. This depended on the [league](/wiki/Liga_de_F%C3%BAtbol_Profesional "Liga de Fútbol Profesional") allowing Racing to release [Luis Fernández](/wiki/Luis_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Guti%C3%A9rrez "Luis Fernández Gutiérrez") on medical grounds, because of a degenerative condition of his knee, thus freeing up a space in the first\-team squad. The LFP's medical committee decided that the condition was not yet clearly career\-ending, so any agreement with Žigić had to be held over until the January 2009 transfer window.{{cite news \|url\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2008/10/10/mas\_futbol/1223620037\_850215\.html \|title\=La LFP no dará la baja médica a Luis Fernández \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=The LFP won't give Luis Fernández a medical release \|first\=Alfredo \|last\=Matilla \|newspaper\=AS \|location\=Madrid \|date\=10 October 2008 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015}} In the meantime, he played in four more cup matches for Valencia, two domestic and two UEFA, and scored in three of them, but took no part in the league campaign. The loan agreement was duly revived, and Žigić returned to the club and the city that "feel like home".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\=790074\.html \|title\=Žigić heads back to Racing on loan \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=30 December 2008 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015}} Racing were to pay his wages and write off the debt outstanding from the sale of [Mario Regueiro](/wiki/Mario_Regueiro "Mario Regueiro"), and there was no option to purchase.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.eldiariomontanes.es/20081226/deportes/racing/nicola\-zigic\-cayo\-20081226\.html \|title\=Nicola Zigic cayó en la red \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Nicola Zigic dropped into the net \|first\=A. \|last\=Santamaría \|newspaper\=\[\[El Diario Montañés]] \|location\=Santander \|date\=26 December 2008 \|access\-date\=18 May 2015}} Resuming his partnership with Munitis in the first game of his second spell, Žigić scored the only goal of the visit to [Real Valladolid](/wiki/Real_Valladolid "Real Valladolid"), repeated the feat at [Getafe](/wiki/Getafe_CF "Getafe CF") two weeks later, and scored again in the next match, a 2–0 win away at [Sevilla](/wiki/Sevilla_FC "Sevilla FC"). He finished the season as Racing's top scorer, with 13 goals from only 19 games.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/t/t2008\-0929\.html \|title\=Racing de Santander: 2008–09: Squad \|website\=BDFutbol \|access\-date\=19 May 2015}} In the 2009 close season, there were rumours linking Žigić with moves to clubs including [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland_A.F.C. "Sunderland A.F.C."),{{cite news \|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/sunderland\-boosted\-bid\-land\-huddlestone\-1456340 \|title\=Sunderland boosted in bid to land Huddlestone \|first\=Steve \|last\=Brown \|newspaper\=\[\[Evening Chronicle]] \|location\=Newcastle \|date\=25 June 2009 \|access\-date\=22 February 2018}} [Monaco](/wiki/AS_Monaco_FC "AS Monaco FC"),{{cite news \|url\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2009/06/16/mas\_futbol/1245103209\_850215\.html \|title\=Al Mónaco le interesa el serbio Zigic \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=The Serbian Zigic is interesting Monaco \|newspaper\=AS \|location\=Madrid \|date\=16 June 2009 \|access\-date\=19 May 2015}} and [Bordeaux](/wiki/FC_Girondins_de_Bordeaux "FC Girondins de Bordeaux"),{{cite news \|url\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2009/08/08/mas\_futbol/1249682406\_850215\.html \|title\=Vicente y Zigic, en la agenda de PSG y Girondins \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Vicente and Zigic, on the agenda of PSG and Girondins \|newspaper\=AS \|location\=Madrid \|date\=8 August 2009 \|access\-date\=19 May 2015}} but the player insisted his intention was and always had been to be successful with Valencia.{{cite news \|url\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2009/07/16/mas\_futbol/1247725659\_850215\.html \|title\='Mi objetivo es el de siempre: triunfar y ganar títulos aquí' \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=My goal is what it always has been: to succeed and win titles here \|newspaper\=AS \|location\=Madrid \|date\=16 July 2009 \|access\-date\=19 May 2015}} He made 26 appearances for the club in 2009–10 in all competitions, more than in the previous two seasons combined, but only 5 were league starts.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/j/j2085\.html \|title\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic \|website\=BDFutbol \|access\-date\=19 May 2015}} Within four minutes of replacing the injured [David Villa](/wiki/David_Villa "David Villa") in the league match against Racing in October, he took advantage of a defensive error to score the only goal of the game; out of respect for his former club, he did not celebrate.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009\-10\-05/zigic\-haunts\-racing\-valencia\-triumph/1090620 \|title\=Zigic haunts Racing, Valencia triumph \|publisher\=\[\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC) \|agency\=\[\[Agence France\-Presse]] (AFP) \|date\=5 October 2009 \|access\-date\=19 May 2015}} On 2 January 2010, his 93rd\-minute header against Espanyol took Valencia third in the table,{{cite news \|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\=soccer\&id\=4790430 \|title\=Late Zigic header gives Valencia win over Espanyol \|first\=Iain \|last\=Rogers \|publisher\=ESPN \|agency\=Reuters \|date\=2 January 2010 \|access\-date\=19 May 2015}} and his double against [Deportivo La Coruña](/wiki/Deportivo_La_Coru%C3%B1a "Deportivo La Coruña") in the [2009–10 Copa del Rey](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Copa_del_Rey "2009–10 Copa del Rey") put Valencia 2–0 up at half\-time; the game finished 2–2 and Valencia lost 4–3 on aggregate.{{cite news \|url\=http://www1\.skysports.com/football/news/11095/5858145/copa\-del\-rey\-round\-up \|title\=Copa del Rey round\-up \|publisher\=Sky Sports \|date\=13 January 2010 \|access\-date\=19 May 2015}} With four minutes left of the [Europa League quarter\-final](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_UEFA_Europa_League%23Quarter-finals "2009–10 UEFA Europa League#Quarter-finals") second leg, Valencia were denied a penalty when an [Atlético Madrid](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Madrid "Atlético Madrid") defender pulled Žigić to the ground so forcefully that a large hole was torn in the front of his shirt, apparently unnoticed by referee or [goalline official](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29%23Extra_officials "Assistant referee (association football)#Extra officials"); the tie ended goalless, so Atlético progressed on [away goals](/wiki/Away_goals_rule "Away goals rule") from the first leg and went on to win the competition.{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/8610597\.stm \|title\=Hamburg and Atletico Madrid reach Europa League semis \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=8 April 2010 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}}{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/8675486\.stm \|title\=Atletico Madrid 2–1 Fulham \|first\=Phil \|last\=McNulty \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=12 May 2010 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} Away to Espanyol on 1 May, again as a substitute for Villa, he scored both goals in a 2–0 win that secured Valencia a place in the [next season's Champions League](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_UEFA_Champions_League "2010–11 UEFA Champions League").{{cite news \|url\=http://en.valenciacf.com/ver/18810/zigic\-at\-the\-double.html \|title\=Zigic at the double \|publisher\=Valencia Club de Fútbol \|date\=1 May 2010 \|access\-date\=19 May 2015 \|archive\-date\=8 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208182303/http://en.valenciacf.com/ver/18810/zigic\-at\-the\-double.html \|url\-status\=dead }} ### Birmingham City On 25 May 2010, Žigić signed a four\-year contract with Premier League club [Birmingham City](/wiki/Birmingham_City_F.C. "Birmingham City F.C.") for an undisclosed fee, which media speculation suggested to be in the region of £6 million.{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/b/birmingham\_city/8704954\.stm \|title\=Birmingham seal signing of giant striker Nikola Zigic \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=26 May 2010 \|access\-date\=23 November 2015}} {{cite news \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/birmingham\-city/7767990/Nikola\-Zigic\-completes\-6m\-move\-to\-Birmingham\-City\-from\-Valencia.html \|title\=Nikola Zigic completes £6m move to Birmingham City from Valencia \|newspaper\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \|location\=London \|date\=26 May 2010 \|access\-date\=1 February 2015}} He made his debut on the opening day of the season away at Sunderland: replacing [Garry O'Connor](/wiki/Garry_O%27Connor "Garry O'Connor") in the 58th minute, he came close to scoring from outside the penalty area and "injected a note of panic hitherto undetected" in the home team's defence as Birmingham came back from 2–0 down to secure a draw.{{cite news \|url\=http://www1\.skysports.com/football/live/match/215215/report \|title\=Blues fight back for draw \|publisher\=Sky Sports \|date\=14 August 2010 \|access\-date\=13 September 2010}} {{cite news \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/premier\-league/bent\-marks\-card\-for\-cattermole\-after\-captains\-loss\-of\-discipline\-2053499\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/premier\-league/bent\-marks\-card\-for\-cattermole\-after\-captains\-loss\-of\-discipline\-2053499\.html \|archive\-date\=21 June 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|title\=Bent marks card for Cattermole after captain's loss of discipline \|newspaper\=\[\[The Independent]] \|location\=London \|first\=Les \|last\=Ward \|date\=16 August 2010 \|access\-date\=13 September 2010}} Žigić's first goal for the club came as Birmingham beat [Milton Keynes Dons](/wiki/Milton_Keynes_Dons_F.C. "Milton Keynes Dons F.C.") 3–1 in the [League Cup](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Football_League_Cup "2010–11 Football League Cup") on 21 September. He scored his first Premier League goal on 16 October, opening the scoring at [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.") with a header from [Keith Fahey](/wiki/Keith_Fahey "Keith Fahey")'s cross, but Birmingham lost the game 2–1\.{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_prem/9085759\.stm \|title\=Arsenal 2–1 Birmingham \|first\=Sam \|last\=Sheringham \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=16 October 2010 \|access\-date\=16 October 2010}} [thumb\|upright\|150px\|Žigić with Birmingham in 2010\|alt\=White man wearing blue and white sports clothing running.In](/wiki/File:Nikola_%C5%BDigi%C4%87_Arsenal_vs_Birmingham.jpg "Nikola Žigić Arsenal vs Birmingham.jpg") a hostile League Cup quarter\-final against local rivals [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa "Aston Villa"), Žigić had an apparently valid goal disallowed for offside against another player, and with the scores level after 86 minutes, was about to be substituted when he produced a "mis\-hit, deflected, scruffy late goal" that secured the win.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/competitions/league\-cup/8170677/Birmingham\-City\-2\-Aston\-Villa\-1\-match\-report.html \|title\=Birmingham City 2 Aston Villa 1: match report \|first\=Jason \|last\=Burt \|newspaper\=Daily Telegraph \|location\=London \|date\=2 December 2010 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} He opened the scoring against favourites Arsenal in the [final](/wiki/2011_Football_League_Cup_Final "2011 Football League Cup Final") with a short\-range header, and with one minute of normal time remaining, he flicked on a long clearance, Arsenal's goalkeeper and central defender got in each other's way, and the ball fell to [Obafemi Martins](/wiki/Obafemi_Martins "Obafemi Martins") to tap in the winning goal.{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/league\_cup/9405702\.stm \|title\=Arsenal 1–2 Birmingham \|first\=Philip \|last\=McNulty \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=27 February 2011 \|access\-date\=28 February 2011}} Football manager turned commentator [David Pleat](/wiki/David_Pleat "David Pleat") wrote that "Birmingham earned their victory through terrific teamwork and astute deployment of Žigić's strengths."{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2011/feb/27/arsenal\-birmingham\-city\-david\-pleat \|title\=Arsenal laid low by Birmingham City's astute use of Nikola Zigic \|first\=David \|last\=Pleat \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|location\=London \|date\=27 February 2011 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} Because of "niggling" hip and groin injuries, he made only two more substitute appearances. His absence deprived the team of what the *[Birmingham Mail](/wiki/Birmingham_Mail "Birmingham Mail")**s reporter called their "most effective style: getting the ball forward early, pressing up the pitch and playing off him", as they were relegated to the [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship "Football League Championship").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/colin\-tattum\-reviews\-birmingham\-citys\-155093 \|title\=Colin Tattum reviews Birmingham City's season and asks: How did it go so wrong? \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|date\=26 May 2011 \|access\-date\=1 February 2015}}*** Despite his agent [Milan Ćalasan](/wiki/Milan_%C4%86alasan "Milan Ćalasan")'s insistence that his client would not be playing in the lower divisions,{{cite news\|url\=http://english.blic.rs/Sports/7871/Mancini\-plans\-sale\-of\-Adebayor\-to\-make\-room\-for\-Zigic \|title\=Mancini plans sale of Adebayor to make room for Zigic \|first\=Branko \|last\=Marković \|newspaper\=Blic \|location\=Belgrade \|date\=27 July 2011 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525144727/http://english.blic.rs/Sports/7871/Mancini\-plans\-sale\-of\-Adebayor\-to\-make\-room\-for\-Zigic \|archive\-date\=25 May 2015 }} Žigić underwent groin surgery in the close season and resumed his Birmingham career in September. He told the *Mail* that he would be happy to stay and that any move would depend on the club, which was in increasing financial difficulty, wanting to sell.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/birmingham\-city\-exclusive\-nikola\-zigic\-162456 \|title\=Nikola Zigic is NOT plotting St Andrew's exit \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=1 October 2011 \|access\-date\=1 February 2015}} His first Championship goal gave Birmingham a 1–0 win against [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United "Leeds United"). Early in the [Europa League group match](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_UEFA_Europa_League_group_stage "2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage") at [Braga](/wiki/S.C._Braga "S.C. Braga"), Birmingham were awarded a penalty. In the absence of regular penalty\-taker [Marlon King](/wiki/Marlon_King "Marlon King"), Žigić took on the responsibility. His attempt was saved, Braga won the match 1–0,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghampost.co.uk/news/local\-news/birmingham\-city\-striker\-zigic\-sorry\-3915659 \|title\=Birmingham City striker Zigic sorry for Europa League penalty miss \|newspaper\=\[\[Birmingham Post]] \|date\=2 December 2011 \|access\-date\=25 May 2015}} and Birmingham finished the group one point behind them and [Club Brugge](/wiki/Club_Brugge "Club Brugge") so failed to qualify for the knockout rounds.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\=2012/standings/round\=2000272/group\=2001552/index.html \|title\=UEFA Europa League: Standings: Group stage: Group H \|publisher\=UEFA \|access\-date\=16 December 2011}} Away to Leeds, Žigić scored all four in a 4–1 win, and he finished the season with eleven in the league and one in the play\-off semi\-final as Birmingham lost on aggregate to [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. "Blackpool F.C."). Ahead of the [2012–13 season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Birmingham_City_F.C._season "2012–13 Birmingham City F.C. season"), Žigić was close to a return to Spain with [Real Mallorca](/wiki/Real_Mallorca "Real Mallorca"). Birmingham were prepared to give him a free transfer to reduce the wage bill by his reported £50,000 a week, but the deal fell through when board and agent could not agree a payoff for the player,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/birmingham\-city\-lee\-clark\-happy\-3608 \|title\=Lee Clark happy to hang on to Nikola Zigic \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=10 September 2012 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} who earlier in the summer had expressed his intention to see out the two years left on his contract.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/birmingham\-city\-i\-want\-to\-stay\-at\-blues\-230921 \|title\=I want to stay at Blues – Nikola Zigic \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=10 June 2012 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} He began the playing season on the bench, coming off it after 85 minutes to produce a 94th\-minute equaliser at home to [Charlton Athletic](/wiki/Charlton_Athletic "Charlton Athletic") on the opening day,{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/19221628 \|title\=Birmingham 1–1 Charlton \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=18 August 2012 \|access\-date\=14 September 2012}} and was used more as substitute than starter by new manager [Lee Clark](/wiki/Lee_Clark_%28footballer%29 "Lee Clark (footballer)"), who preferred [Peter Løvenkrands](/wiki/Peter_L%C3%B8venkrands "Peter Løvenkrands") or [Leroy Lita](/wiki/Leroy_Lita "Leroy Lita").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/birmingham\-city\-lee\-clark\-and\-nikola\-298372 \|title\=Lee Clark and Nikola Zigic following the same plan \|first1\=Colin \|last1\=Tattum \|first2\=Paul \|last2\=Bradley \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=10 November 2012 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} On the eve of the January transfer window, chief executive Peter Pannu confirmed that player sales were necessary to stave off the risk of [administration](/wiki/Administration_%28British_football%29 "Administration (British football)"). Even if the club could raise as much as £6M from the sale of England goalkeeper [Jack Butland](/wiki/Jack_Butland "Jack Butland"), Žigić's wages were more than the club could afford, and the player needed "to go out and showcase himself."{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/peter\-pannu\-interview\-part\-one\-389303 \|title\=Peter Pannu: 'My top priority now – and if I do offend anyone, I care not – is to make sure this club stays afloat.' \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=28 December 2012 \|access\-date\=25 May 2015}} The club had failed to include a clause in his contract to reduce his wages in the event of relegation,{{cite news \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/birmingham\-city/9768863/Birmingham\-City\-may\-be\-forced\-to\-cash\-in\-on\-goalkeeper\-Jack\-Butland\-to\-avoid\-administration.html \|title\=Birmingham City may be forced to cash in on goalkeeper Jack Butland to avoid administration \|first\=John \|last\=Percy \|newspaper\=Daily Telegraph \|location\=London \|date\=28 December 2012 \|access\-date\=5 May 2015}} and it emerged later that they had agreed to substantial annual increments.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.espnfc.co.uk/story/1485884/birmingham\-must\-pay\-zigic\-4\-million\-next\-year \|title\=Blues 'must pay Zigic £4m next year' \|first\=Richard \|last\=Jolly \|website\=ESPN FC \|date\=27 June 2013 \|access\-date\=5 May 2015}} He did not leave, and in February, Clark publicly criticised him for producing "possibly the worst training session in terms of a professional footballer I have ever come across", despite knowing he was due to start the upcoming game against [Watford](/wiki/Watford_F.C. "Watford F.C.").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2013/feb/15/nikola\-zigic\-dropped\-birmingham\-training \|title\=Nikola Zigic dropped by Birmingham after 'worst training session ever' \|website\=The Guardian \|location\=London \|agency\=\[\[Press Association]] \|date\=15 February 2013 \|access\-date\=15 February 2013}} Up until this incident, he had scored six league goals at a rate of one every 165 minutes, and been sent off twice.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420150659/http://uk.soccerway.com/players/nikola\-zigic/770/ \|url\=https://int.soccerway.com/players/nikola\-zigic/770/ \|title\=N. Žigić \|work\=Soccerway \|publisher\=Perform Group \|date\=15 February 2013 \|archive\-date\=20 April 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy }} Clark said that Žigić would not be involved against Watford, but that it was "in his hands" as to whether he would prepare properly for the [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday "Sheffield Wednesday") fixture three days later.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/birmingham\-city\-boss\-says\-down\-1322727 \|title\=Lee Clark: 'It's in his hands and that's the way it has got to be' \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=16 February 2013 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} His response must have been acceptable, because he played the whole of the goalless draw against Wednesday, started all the remaining matches – the longest run of starts of his Birmingham career{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/interview\-birmingham\-city\-boss\-lee\-4005005 \|title\=Lee Clark: 'Nikola Zigic is really happy in the area, he loves the football club.' \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=23 May 2013 \|access\-date\=25 May 2015}} – and ended the season with nine league goals, second only to King.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\_id\=291\&season\_id\=142\&teamTabs\=stats \|title\=Birmingham Squad details 2012/13 \|website\=Soccerbase \|publisher\=Centurycomm \|access\-date\=25 May 2015}} Žigić missed the first few weeks of the 2013–14 season with a back problem,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.teamtalk.com/match/preview/978/8950169/Sky\-Bet\-Championship\-Birmingham\-v\-Millwall\-team\-news \|title\=Birmingham v Millwall preview \|website\=TeamTalk \|date\=30 September 2013 \|access\-date\=26 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527002526/http://www.teamtalk.com/match/preview/978/8950169/Sky\-Bet\-Championship\-Birmingham\-v\-Millwall\-team\-news \|archive\-date\=27 May 2015}} and once fit, played regularly throughout the season, as one of a small number of senior players in an inexperienced and youthful team with numerous short\-term loanees.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/birmingham\-city\-comment\-piece\-colin\-6913355 \|title\=This summer will be a tough summer of change for Blues \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=3 April 2014 \|access\-date\=25 May 2015}} The team struggled, and reached the last day of the season needing at least a draw away at [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers "Bolton Wanderers") and for other results to favour them to avoid relegation to [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One "Football League One"). Two goals down with 12 minutes left, Žigić scored, and three minutes into stoppage time, his close\-range header was cleared off the line to [Paul Caddis](/wiki/Paul_Caddis "Paul Caddis"), who headed home to preserve Birmingham's second\-tier status.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/27167525 \|title\=Bolton 2–2 Birmingham \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=3 May 2014 \|access\-date\=4 May 2014}} Birmingham were reported to be "quietly confident" of retaining his services for another season, at a much reduced salary, especially as he was believed to be keen on applying for British citizenship, which required five years' residence, but he left at the end of his contract. He was the last remaining member of the League Cup\-winning team.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\-news/birmingham\-city\-hopeful\-nikola\-zigic\-7137641 \|title\=Birmingham City hopeful Nikola Zigic will sign new deal \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|newspaper\=Birmingham Mail \|date\=19 May 2014 \|access\-date\=25 May 2015}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/20140701\-farewell\-to\-ziggy\-and\-burke\-1708957\.aspx \|title\=Farewell to Ziggy and Burke \|publisher\=Birmingham City F.C. \|date\=1 July 2014 \|access\-date\=1 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714232607/http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/20140701\-farewell\-to\-ziggy\-and\-burke\-1708957\.aspx \|archive\-date\=14 July 2014 \|df\=dmy\-all }} Having been without a club since his departure, Žigić began training with Birmingham again in November 2014\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/30097800 \|title\=Nikola Zigic: Former Birmingham City striker training with club \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=18 November 2014 \|access\-date\=18 November 2014}} After a successful appeal to be granted a work permit, for which he did not qualify automatically, he signed a contract on 4 December to expire at the end of the season.{{cite news \|title\=Nikola Zigic: Birmingham City re\-sign Serbia striker \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/30145650 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=4 December 2014 \|access\-date\=4 December 2014}} He made his second debut as a late substitute in the Championship match at home to [Reading](/wiki/Reading_F.C. "Reading F.C.") on 13 December, with Birmingham already 6–1 ahead.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/30356696 \|title\=Birmingham 6–1 Reading \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=13 December 2014 \|access\-date\=14 December 2014}} He played only infrequently – nine substitute appearances in the league and two FA Cup matches – and the club confirmed he would be released when his contract expired.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/birmingham\-city\-2441045\.aspx \|title\=Blues announce squad departures \|first\=Colin \|last\=Tattum \|publisher\=Birmingham City F.C. \|date\=5 May 2015 \|access\-date\=5 May 2015 \|archive\-date\=19 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519000106/http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/birmingham\-city\-2441045\.aspx \|url\-status\=dead }} International career -------------------- Coach [Ilija Petković](/wiki/Ilija_Petkovi%C4%87 "Ilija Petković") gave Žigić his international debut for [Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro_national_football_team "Serbia and Montenegro national football team") on 31 March 2004, as an 84th\-minute substitute in a 1–0 [friendly](/wiki/Exhibition_game "Exhibition game") defeat against [Norway](/wiki/Norway_national_football_team "Norway national football team") in Belgrade.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.reprezentacija.rs/index.php/sr/orlovi/121 \|title\=Srbija i Crna Gora 0–1 (0––0\) Norveška \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Serbia and Montenegro 0–1 (0–0\) Norway \|website\=reprezentacija.rs \|access\-date\=2 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126073114/http://www.reprezentacija.rs/index.php/sr/orlovi/121 \|archive\-date\=26 November 2015}} His next appearance and first start came some 14 months later; in a friendly against [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team "Italy national football team") in Canada, he ran onto a through ball and went round the goalkeeper to open the scoring and also hit the post in a 1–1 draw.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20050610/sport/lucarelli\-goal\-earns\-italy\-draw\-with\-serbia.87588 \|title\=Lucarelli goal earns Italy draw with Serbia \|newspaper\=\[\[Times of Malta]] \|agency\=Reuters \|date\=10 June 2005 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} He also scored in his next match, against [Poland](/wiki/Poland_national_football_team "Poland national football team") in another friendly, and established himself as a regular selection, but it was his substitute appearance in a crucial [World Cup qualifier](/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28UEFA%29 "2006 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)") against [Spain](/wiki/Spain_national_football_team "Spain national football team") in Madrid in September 2005 that brought him wider international recognition. After a poor first\-half – Petković said they "were lucky to be only a goal down at half\-time"{{cite news \|url\=http://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/article/2005/09/09/petkovic\-confident\-after\-draw \|title\=Petkovic confident after draw \|website\=The World Game \|publisher\=\[\[Special Broadcasting Service]] (SBS) \|agency\=Reuters \|date\=9 September 2005 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} – Žigić was introduced, and the tactic of "putting him in the centre of the opposition defence and playing long high balls to him ... was remarkably successful".{{cite news \|url\=http://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/article/2005/09/08/arogones\-optimistic\-despite\-draw \|title\=Aragones optimistic despite draw \|website\=The World Game \|publisher\=SBS \|agency\=\[\[PA Sport]] \|date\=8 September 2005 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} He pressured the goalkeeper into missing a cross which dropped for [Dejan Stanković](/wiki/Dejan_Stankovi%C4%87 "Dejan Stanković") to set up [Mateja Kežman](/wiki/Mateja_Ke%C5%BEman "Mateja Kežman")'s equaliser, and 12 minutes later, his pass left Kežman clear on goal but he mis\-hit what might have been a winning shot.{{cite news \|url\=http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/17593\-world\-cup\-qualifier\-spain\-draws\-with\-serbia\-montenegro \|title\=World Cup qualifier: Spain draws with Serbia\-Montenegro \|publisher\=\[\[NDTV]] \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|date\=8 September 2005 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} The result left Serbia\-Montenegro top of the group, and they confirmed their qualification at home to [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_national_football_team "Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team") when Žigić's assist gave Kežman a tap\-in for the only goal of the game.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid\=223223\.html \|title\=Kežman the king of Belgrade \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=12 October 2005 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} Žigić's only start at the [2006 World Cup](/wiki/2006_World_Cup "2006 World Cup") came in the last fixture, when his team had already been eliminated after losing the first two group matches. He scored early in the first half off a long ball from Stanković against [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast_national_football_team "Ivory Coast national football team") – the goal was Serbia\-Montenegro's first of the tournament – but the match ended in a 3–2 defeat.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/germany2006/teams/team\=1890244/statistics.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411040720/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/germany2006/teams/team\=1890244/statistics.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=11 April 2016 \|title\=2006 FIFA World Cup Germany: Serbia and Montenegro: Statistics \|publisher\=\[\[Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] (FIFA) \|access\-date\=17 September 2017}} {{cite web \|url\=https://www.uefa.com/worldcup/news/newsid\=428786\.html \|title\=Ivorian comeback shocks Serbians \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=21 June 2006 \|access\-date\=17 September 2017}} Still an automatic choice under new national manager [Javier Clemente](/wiki/Javier_Clemente "Javier Clemente"), Žigić scored the only goal in [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia_national_football_team "Serbia national football team")'s first competitive match as a separate country, a [Euro 2008 qualifier](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2008_qualifying "UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying") at home to [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan_national_football_team "Azerbaijan national football team") in September 2006\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season\=2008/matches/round\=2241/match\=83751/postmatch/report/index.html \|title\=Žigić sets Serbia off and running \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=2 September 2006 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} He scored once, missed two more good chances and was then sent off for elbowing an opponent in stoppage time of the March 2007 qualifying defeat in [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan_national_football_team "Kazakhstan national football team"),{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2007/mar/25/newsstory.sport1 \|title\=Zhumaskaliyev stuns Serbia for make benefit glorious nation of Kazakhstan \|first\=James \|last\=Stirling \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|location\=London \|date\=25 March 2007 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} so missed the next, a home draw with [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal_national_football_team "Portugal national football team"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid\=520423\.html \|title\=Clemente pleads for clemency \|first\=Aleksandar \|last\=Bošković \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=27 March 2007 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} and also missed the [Finland](/wiki/Finland_national_football_team "Finland national football team") fixture in June after surgery on a facial injury.{{cite news \|url\=http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKB42071520070528 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120551/http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKB42071520070528 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=12 October 2007 \|title\=Serbia's Žigić to miss Euro 2008 qualifier in Finland \|work\=Reuters \|date\=28 May 2007 \|access\-date\=1 June 2015}} He still scored seven goals as Serbia failed to qualify.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season\=2008/teams/team\=147/matches/index.html \|title\=Serbia UEFA Euro 2008 Matches \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=10 February 2014 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} Žigić played regularly through the [2010 World Cup qualifying](/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%E2%80%93_UEFA_Group_7 "2010 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 7") campaign under the management of [Radomir Antić](/wiki/Radomir_Anti%C4%87 "Radomir Antić"), contributing three goals and partnering former Red Star teammate Marko Pantelić as Serbia qualified for a major tournament for the first time as an independent nation.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/international/group\-d\-australia\-germany\-ghana\-serbia\-1993981\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/international/group\-d\-australia\-germany\-ghana\-serbia\-1993981\.html \|archive\-date\=21 June 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|title\=Group D: Australia, Germany, Ghana, Serbia \|first\=Mark \|last\=Fleming \|newspaper\=The Independent \|location\=London \|date\=8 June 2010 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}} Ahead of the [tournament proper](/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup "2010 FIFA World Cup"), he spoke in positive terms of his development since 2006: "I went to Germany as player with no reputation or real experience to speak of. Tactically, I have learned a lot and I'm in much better condition, both physically and psychologically. This is my World Cup, I think I can play a lead role and I want to show I'm a player that can do it in big games."{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y\=2010/m\=6/news\=zigic\-can\-big\-games\-1223460\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712003251/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y\=2010/m\=6/news\=zigic\-can\-big\-games\-1223460\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=12 July 2015 \|title\=Zigic: I can do it in big games \|publisher\=FIFA \|date\=3 June 2010 \|access\-date\=4 June 2015}} After losing to [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana_national_football_team "Ghana national football team") in the opening group match, Serbia went on to face [Germany](/wiki/Germany_national_football_team "Germany national football team"). Within two minutes of [Miroslav Klose](/wiki/Miroslav_Klose "Miroslav Klose")'s first\-half dismissal, Žigić headed a cross down to [Milan Jovanović](/wiki/Milan_Jovanovi%C4%87_%28footballer%2C_born_1981%29 "Milan Jovanović (footballer, born 1981)") who scored what proved to be the only goal of the game; [Lukas Podolski](/wiki/Lukas_Podolski "Lukas Podolski")'s second\-half penalty was saved, and Antić dedicated the victory to the Serbian people.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y\=2010/m\=6/news\=antic\-dedicates\-victory\-serbian\-people\-1249562\.html \|title\=Antic dedicates victory to Serbian people \|publisher\=FIFA \|agency\=PA \|date\=18 June 2010 \|access\-date\=4 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712003147/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y%3D2010/m%3D6/news%3Dantic\-dedicates\-victory\-serbian\-people\-1249562\.html \|archive\-date\=12 July 2015 \|url\-status\=dead }} In a game of missed chances against [Australia](/wiki/Australia_men%27s_national_soccer_team "Australia men's national soccer team"), Serbia lost 2–1 and finished bottom of the group.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/matches/round\=249722/match\=300061467/match\-report.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519122930/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/matches/round\=249722/match\=300061467/match\-report.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=19 May 2015 \|title\=Australia win but come up short \|publisher\=FIFA \|date\=23 June 2010 \|access\-date\=4 June 2015}} Goals in four of Serbia's five internationals in the latter part of 2010 brought his total to 20\. He was not selected to start the other match, a [Euro 2012](/wiki/Euro_2012 "Euro 2012") qualifier in Italy that was abandoned after six minutes because of crowd trouble; UEFA awarded the match to the hosts as a 3–0 win.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season\=2012/matches/round\=15171/match\=2002166/postmatch/index.html \|title\=Italy\-Serbia match abandoned due to crowd trouble \|publisher\=UEFA \|date\=13 February 2013 \|access\-date\=5 June 2015}} After Serbia failed to qualify for the tournament, both Stanković and [Nemanja Vidić](/wiki/Nemanja_Vidi%C4%87 "Nemanja Vidić") retired from international football, and Žigić was appointed captain of the national team.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/sport.294\.html:352567\-Zigic\-Cast\-mi\-je\-da\-budem\-kapiten \|title\=Žigić: Čast mi je da budem kapiten \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Žigić: I'm honoured to be captain \|last\=S.I. \|newspaper\=Večernje novosti \|location\=Belgrade \|date\=8 November 2011 \|access\-date\=5 June 2015}} He captained the team in friendly defeats to [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico_national_football_team "Mexico national football team") and [Honduras](/wiki/Honduras_national_football_team "Honduras national football team") in 2011, his 56th and 57th appearances for his country, which proved to be his last. Style of play ------------- Žigić's extreme height predisposes him to an aerial game. He is dangerous from [set pieces](/wiki/Set_piece_%28football%29 "Set piece (football)"), scoring many headed goals and knocking the ball down for others: when he joined Red Star, the coach set out the team in a [4–3–3 formation](/wiki/4-3-3_formation "4-3-3 formation"), with Žigić at centre\-forward and two [wingers](/wiki/Winger_%28association_football%29 "Winger (association football)") to feed those strengths. He tried to use his physical presence to disrupt opposing defences, both for his own benefit and to draw their attentions away from others. [Pep Guardiola](/wiki/Pep_Guardiola "Pep Guardiola") said in 2009 that Žigić was not easy to defend against, "almost unstoppable" in the air, but the best way would be to keep him as far as possible away from the penalty area. Speaking in 2010, [Radovan Ćurčić](/wiki/Radovan_%C4%86ur%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Radovan Ćurčić"), then assistant manager of the Serbia national team, described him as "the king of air play, he is the finest there is in Europe. He possesses the sense of space and movement without the ball and can assist his teammates with headers and set up goal\-scoring opportunities."{{cite news \|url\=http://english.blic.rs/Sports/6302/Curcic\-Krasic\-Jovanovic\-Zigic\-on\-par\-with\-Ronaldo\-Drogba/print \|title\=Curcic: Krasic, Jovanovic, Zigic on par with Ronaldo, Drogba \|first\=B. \|last\=Markovic \|newspaper\=Blic \|location\=Belgrade \|date\=15 April 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125053017/http://english.blic.rs/Sports/6302/Curcic\-Krasic\-Jovanovic\-Zigic\-on\-par\-with\-Ronaldo\-Drogba/print \|archive\-date\=25 November 2015}} Sid Lowe of *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")* also described him as a "tidy finisher" in 2007\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2007/mar/19/europeanfootball.sport1 \|title\=Little and Large deliver the perfect punch\-line for Racing \|work\=The Guardian \|last1\=Lowe \|first1\=Sid \|date\=19 March 2007 \|access\-date\=3 January 2024 }} As exemplified on his debut for Racing, a performance in which he demonstrated his aerial power, he is capable of playing with his back to goal, and his height was not incompatible with agility.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20090201/zigic\-un\-reto\-defensivo\-talla\-xxl\_53630705507\.html \|title\=Zigic, un reto defensivo talla XXL \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic, a defensive challenge size XXL \|first1\=Conchita \|last1\=Roura \|first2\=Sergi \|last2\=Solé \|newspaper\=Mundo Deportivo \|location\=Barcelona \|date\=1 February 2009 \|access\-date\=31 May 2015}} He prefers to play not as a lone striker but in partnership with a shorter, speedier, teammate. Racing's fitness coach, Javier Miñano, was surprised that Žigić was "well coordinated, to the extent that he doesn't seem so tall when I see him in training."{{cite news \|url\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2007/04/03/mas\_futbol/1175581630\_850215\.html \|title\=Zigic, el gigante de moda que quiere media Europa \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Zigic, the fashionable giant wanted by half of Europe \|first\=Ladislao J. \|last\=Moñino \|newspaper\=AS \|location\=Madrid \|date\=3 April 2007 \|access\-date\=31 May 2015 \|quote\=Está muy coordinado, hasta el punto de que no me parece tan alto cuando lo veo en los entrenamientos. He trabajado con jugadores de estatura elevada, pero más bajos que él, como Carew y Anelka, y me daban la sensación de ser más grandes", comentaba con sorpresa el preparador físico del Racing Javier Miñano cuando le vio entrenarse.}} He prefers to receive the ball in the air, because he can always beat smaller players in the air but they can take advantage of better acceleration and quicker reactions on the ground.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.thenational.ae/sport/football/germany\-a\-tall\-order\-for\-serbs\-giant\-striker\-zigic \|title\=Germany a tall order for Serbs' giant striker Zigic \|first\=Andy \|last\=Mitten \|newspaper\=\[\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\|The National]] \|location\=Abu Dhabi \|date\=18 June 2010 \|access\-date\=1 June 2015}} According to David Pleat, a major factor in Birmingham's 2011 League Cup win was "telling him to do what he does best and flick the ball on with his head from direct diagonal balls played from both wings". Nevertheless, he is technically competent, scoring goals with his feet and providing assists for others. A 2009 feature in *Mundo Deportivo* assessed Žigić as one of those few tall players with a good touch on the ball,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20090201/gigante\-zigic\_53630708959\.html \|title\=Gigante Zigic \|language\=es \|trans\-title\=Giant Zigic \|first\=Santi \|last\=Nolla \|newspaper\=Mundo Deportivo \|location\=Barcelona \|date\=1 February 2009 \|access\-date\=31 May 2015}} and in 2010, German international defender [Per Mertesacker](/wiki/Per_Mertesacker "Per Mertesacker") described him as "technically a good player and very smart tactically".{{cite web \|url\=http://m.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y\=2010/m\=6/news\=mertesacker\-braced\-for\-tall\-task\-1248265\.html \|title\=Mertesacker braced for tall task \|publisher\=FIFA \|date\=17 June 2010 \|access\-date\=2 June 2015}}{{dead link\|date\=October 2021\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} Career statistics ----------------- ### Club | \+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition | | --- | |Club Season League National Cup League Cup Other Total |Division AppsGoals AppsGoals AppsGoals AppsGoals AppsGoals |[AIK Bačka Topola](/wiki/AIK_Ba%C4%8Dka_Topola "AIK Bačka Topola") 1998–99 | [Serbian League Vojvodina](/wiki/Serbian_League_Vojvodina "Serbian League Vojvodina") | 14 | 8 | | |—— 14 | 8 | | 1999–2000 | Serbian League Vojvodina | 28 | 28 | | |—— 28 | 28 | | 2000–01 | Serbian League Vojvodina | 30 | 30 | | |—— 30 | 30 | | 2001–02 | Serbian League Vojvodina | 4 | 2 | | |—— 4 | 2 | |Total 76 | 68 | | |—— 76 | 68 | | [Mornar](/wiki/FK_Mornar "FK Mornar") | 2001–02 | [Second League of FR Yugoslavia](/wiki/Second_League_of_FR_Yugoslavia "Second League of FR Yugoslavia") | 23 | 15 | | |—— 23 | 15 | | [Kolubara](/wiki/FK_Kolubara "FK Kolubara") | 2002–03 | [Serbian League Belgrade](/wiki/Serbian_League_Belgrade "Serbian League Belgrade") | 8 | 3 | | |—— 8 | 3 | | [Spartak Subotica](/wiki/FK_Spartak_Subotica "FK Spartak Subotica") | 2002–03 | Serbian League Vojvodina | 11 | 14 | | |—— 11 | 14 | |[Red Star Belgrade](/wiki/Red_Star_Belgrade "Red Star Belgrade") [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "2003–04 First League of Serbia and Montenegro"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.crvenazvezdafk.com/en/istorija/kupovi/6184/Cup\+winners\+2004\..html \|title\=Cup winners 2004 \|publisher\=FK Red Star \|date\=7 September 2012 \|access\-date\=22 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318101551/http://crvenazvezdafk.com/en/istorija/kupovi/6184/Cup%2Bwinners%2B2004\..html \|archive\-date\=18 March 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\=2003/clubs/club\=50069/matches/index.html \|title\=2003/04 UEFA Cup: FK Crvena Zvezda: Top goalscorers \|publisher\=UEFA \|access\-date\=23 December 2013}} | [First League of Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "First League of Serbia and Montenegro") | 28 | 18 | 3 | 2 |— 5{{efn\|Appearance(s) in \[\[UEFA Cup]]\|name\=statsUEFACup}} | 6 | 36 | 26 | | [2004–05](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "2004–05 First League of Serbia and Montenegro")For Champions League: {{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season\=2004/clubs/club\=50069/matches/index.html \|title\=UEFA Champions League 2004/05: FK Crvena Zvezda: Top goalscorers \|publisher\=UEFA \|access\-date\=23 December 2013}}For UEFA Cup: {{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\=2004/clubs/club\=50069/matches/index.html \|title\=2004/05 UEFA Cup: FK Crvena Zvezda: Matches \|publisher\=UEFA \|access\-date\=23 December 2013}}For national cup: {{cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joeg05\.html \|title\=Serbia and Montenegro 2004/05 \|first\=Dragoljub \|last\=Jovanović \|date\=3 September 2005 \|website\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.sportskacentrala.com/index.php?s\=read\&cat\=1\&id\=3873 \|title\=Rutinska pobeda Zvezde \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Routine victory for Stars \|website\=Sportska centrala \|date\=27 October 2004 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125220611/http://www.sportskacentrala.com/index.php?s\=read\&cat\=1\&id\=3873 \|archive\-date\=25 November 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.sportskacentrala.com/?s\=read\&cat\=1\&id\=4257 \|title\=Bogavac Zvezdu odveo u polufinale \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Bogavac takes Stars into semifinals \|website\=Sportska centrala \|date\=10 November 2004 \|access\-date\=24 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125214128/http://www.sportskacentrala.com/?s\=read\&cat\=1\&id\=4257 \|archive\-date\=25 November 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}} | First League of Serbia and Montenegro | 25 | 15 | 3 | 2 |— 5{{efn\|Three appearances three goals in \[\[UEFA Champions League]], two appearances in UEFA Cup}} | 3 | 33 | 20 | | [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Serbia_and_Montenegro_SuperLiga "2005–06 Serbia and Montenegro SuperLiga"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.crvenazvezdafk.com/en/istorija/kupovi/6185/Cup\+winners\+2006\..html \|title\=Cup winners 2006 \|publisher\=FK Red Star \|date\=7 September 2012 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701165555/http://www.crvenazvezdafk.com/en/istorija/kupovi/6185/Cup%2Bwinners%2B2006\..html \|archive\-date\= 1 July 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\=2005/clubs/club\=50069/matches/index.html \|title\=2005/06 UEFA Cup: FK Crvena Zvezda: Top goalscorers \|publisher\=UEFA \|access\-date\=23 December 2013}} | [Serbia and Montenegro SuperLiga](/wiki/First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "First League of Serbia and Montenegro") | 23 | 12 | 3 | 2 |— 7{{efn\|name\=statsUEFACup}} | 6 | 33 | 20 | | [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Serbian_SuperLiga "2006–07 Serbian SuperLiga"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season\=2006/clubs/club\=50069/matches/index.html \|title\=UEFA Champions League 2006/07: FK Crvena Zvezda: Top goalscorers \|publisher\=UEFA \|access\-date\=23 December 2013}} | [Serbian SuperLiga](/wiki/Serbian_SuperLiga "Serbian SuperLiga") | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 |— 4{{efn\|name\=statsUCL}} | 2 | 7 | 4 | |Total 79 | 47 | 9 | 6 |— 21 | 17 | 109 | 70 | | [Racing Santander](/wiki/Racing_de_Santander "Racing de Santander") | [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_La_Liga "2006–07 La Liga"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/p/j2085\.html?cat\=\-\&temp\=2006\-07\&equip\=\-\&rival\=\- \|title\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic: 2006–07 \|website\=BDFutbol \|access\-date\=19 December 2013}} | [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga "La Liga") | 32 | 11 | 1 | 0 |—— 33 | 11 | |[Valencia](/wiki/Valencia_CF "Valencia CF") [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Valencia_CF_season "2007–08 Valencia CF season"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/p/j2085\.html?cat\=\-\&temp\=2007\-08\&equip\=\-\&rival\=\- \|title\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic: 2007–08 \|website\=BDFutbol \|access\-date\=19 December 2013}} | La Liga | 15 | 1 | 3 | 4 |— 3{{efn\|Appearance(s) in UEFA Champions League\|name\=statsUCL}} | 0 | 21 | 5 | | [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Valencia_CF_season "2008–09 Valencia CF season"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/p/j2085\.html?cat\=\-\&temp\=2008\-09\&equip\=\-\&rival\=\- \|title\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic: 2008–09 \|website\=BDFutbol \|access\-date\=19 December 2013}} | La Liga | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |— 3{{efn\|name\=statsUEFACup}} | 2 | 5 | 3 | | [2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_La_Liga "2009–10 La Liga"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/p/j2085\.html?cat\=\-\&temp\=2009\-10\&equip\=\-\&rival\=\- \|title\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic: 2009–10 \|website\=BDFutbol \|access\-date\=19 December 2013}} | La Liga | 13 | 4 | 4 | 3 |— 9{{efn\|Appearance(s) in \[\[UEFA Europa League]]\|name\=statsUEL}} | 2 | 26 | 9 | |Total 28 | 5 | 9 | 8 |— 15 | 4 | 52 | 17 | | Racing Santander (loan) | [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_La_Liga "2008–09 La Liga") | La Liga | 19 | 13 |——— 19 | 13 | |[Birmingham City](/wiki/Birmingham_City_F.C. "Birmingham City F.C.") [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Birmingham_City_F.C._season "2010–11 Birmingham City F.C. season"){{soccerbase season\|36047\|2010\|access\-date\=24 May 2015}} | [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") | 25 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 3 |— 34 | 8 | | [2011–12](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Birmingham_City_F.C._season "2011–12 Birmingham City F.C. season"){{soccerbase season\|36047\|2011\|access\-date\=25 May 2015}} | [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship "Football League Championship") | 35 | 11 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 6{{efn\|Five appearances in UEFA Europa League, one appearance one goal in \[\[Football League play\-offs]]}} | 1 | 43 | 12 | | [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Birmingham_City_F.C._season "2012–13 Birmingham City F.C. season"){{soccerbase season\|36047\|2012\|access\-date\=17 December 2013}} | Championship | 35 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |— 36 | 9 | | [2013–14](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Birmingham_City_F.C._season "2013–14 Birmingham City F.C. season"){{soccerbase season\|36047\|2013\|access\-date\=4 May 2014}} | Championship | 33 | 7{{efn\|Birmingham's goal in the 2–1 defeat to \[\[Bolton Wanderers]] on 5 October, originally credited to Žigić, was retrospectively awarded to \[\[Lee Novak]].{{cite web \|title\=Credit goes to Novak \|url\=http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/20131009\-credit\-goes\-to\-novak\-1106398\.aspx \|publisher\=Birmingham City F.C \|date\=9 October 2013 \|access\-date\=21 October 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006175540/http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/20131009\-credit\-goes\-to\-novak\-1106398\.aspx \|archive\-date\=6 October 2014 \|df\=dmy\-all }}\|name\=dubious}} | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |— 35 | 7 | | [2014–15](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Birmingham_City_F.C._season "2014–15 Birmingham City F.C. season"){{soccerbase season\|36047\|2014\|access\-date\=5 May 2015}} | Championship | 9 | 0 | 2 | 0 |—— 11 | 0 | |Total 137 | 32{{efn\|name\=dubious}} | 7 | 0 | 9 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 159 | 36 | |Career total 413 | 208{{efn\|name\=dubious}} | 26 | 14 | 9 | 3 | 42 | 22 | 490 | 247 | {{notelist}} ### International | \+ Appearances and goals by national team and year | | --- | | National team | Year | Apps | Goals | |[Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro_national_football_team "Serbia and Montenegro national football team") [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia_national_football_team "Serbia national football team") 2004 | 1 | 0 | | 2005 | 9 | 3 | | 2006 | 9 | 4 | | 2007 | 7 | 4 | | 2008 | 7 | 2 | | 2009 | 8 | 3 | | 2010 | 12 | 4 | | 2011 | 4 | 0 | |Total 57 | 20 | *Score and result columns list Serbia and Montenegro/Serbia's score first*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.reprezentacija.rs/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=1655\&Itemid\=2 \|title\=Žigić Nikola \|website\=reprezentacija.rs \|language\=sr \|access\-date\=18 June 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226234436/http://www.reprezentacija.rs/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=1655\&Itemid\=2 \|archive\-date\=26 December 2014}} | \+ International goals | | --- | | Goal | Date | Venue | Opponent | Score | Result | Competition {{Ig match \| n\=1\. \| d\=8 June 2005 \| st\=Rogers Centre \| ci\=Toronto \| co\=Canada \| o\=Italy \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=1–1 \| comp\=\[\[Exhibition game\|Friendly]]}} {{Ig match \| n\=2\. \| d\=15 August 2005 \| st\=Lobanovsky Dynamo Stadium \| ci\=Kiev \| co\=Ukraine \| o\=Poland \| sc\=1–1 \| fr\=2–3 \| comp\=Friendly}} {{Ig match \| n\=3\. \| d\=13 November 2005 \| st\=Nanjing Olympic Sports Center\| ci\=Nanjing \| co\=China \| o\=China \| sc\=2–0 \| fr\=2–0 \| comp\=Friendly}} {{Ig match \| n\=4\. \| d\=21 June 2006 \| st\=Allianz Arena \| ci\=Munich \| co\=Germany \| o\=Ivory Coast \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=2–3 \| comp\=\[\[2006 FIFA World Cup\|2006 World Cup]]}} {{Ig match \| n\=5\. \| d\=2 September 2006 \| st\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Azerbaijan \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=1–0 \| comp\=\[\[UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying\|Euro 2008 qualifying]]}} {{Ig match \| n\=6\. \| d\=7 October 2006 \| st1\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Belgium \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=1–0 \| comp\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=7\. \| d\=11 October 2006 \| st1\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Armenia \| sc\=3–0 \| fr\=3–0 \| comp\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=8\. \| d\=24 March 2007 \| st\=Almaty Central Stadium \| ci\=Almaty \| co\=Kazakhstan \| o\=Kazakhstan \| sc\=1–2 \| fr\=1–2 \| comp\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=9\. \| d\=17 October 2007 \| st\=Tofik Bakhramov Stadium \| ci\=Baku \| co\=Azerbaijan \| o\=Azerbaijan \| sc\=2–0 \| fr\=6–1 \| comp\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=10\. \| d\=17 October 2007 \| st1\=Tofik Bakhramov Stadium \| ci\=Baku \| co\=Azerbaijan \| o\=Azerbaijan \| sc\=4–1 \| fr\=6–1 \| comp\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=11\. \| d\=21 November 2007 \| st1\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Poland \| sc\=1–2 \| fr\=2–2 \| comp\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=12\. \| d\=6 September 2008 \| st1\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Faroe Islands \| sc\=2–0 \| fr\=2–0 \| comp\=\[\[2010 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)\|2010 World Cup qualifying]]}} {{Ig match \| n\=13\. \| d\=11 October 2008 \| st1\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Lithuania \| sc\=3–0 \| fr\=3–0 \| comp\=2010 World Cup qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=14\. \| d\=1 April 2009 \| st\=Stadion Partizan \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Sweden \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=2–0 \| comp\=Friendly}} {{Ig match \| n\=15\. \| d\=10 October 2009 \| st1\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Romania \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=5–0 \| comp\=2010 World Cup qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=16\. \| d\=18 November 2009 \| st\=Craven Cottage \| ci\=London \| co\=England \| o\=Korea Republic \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=1–0 \| comp\=Friendly}} {{Ig match \| n\=17\. \| d\=3 September 2010 \| st\=Tórsvøllur \| ci\=Tórshavn \| co\=Faroe Islands \| o\=Faroe Islands \| sc\=3–0 \| fr\=3–0 \| comp\=\[\[UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying Group C\|Euro 2012 qualifying]]}} {{Ig match \| n\=18\. \| d\=7 September 2010 \| st1\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Slovenia \| sc\=1–1 \| fr\=1–1 \| comp\=Euro 2012 qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=19\. \| d\=8 October 2010 \| st1\=Stadion Partizan \| ci\=Belgrade \| co\=Serbia \| o\=Estonia \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=1–3 \| comp\=Euro 2012 qualifying}} {{Ig match \| n\=20\. \| d\=17 November 2010 \| st\=Vasil Levski National Stadium \| ci\=Sofia \| co\=Bulgaria \| o\=Bulgaria \| sc\=1–0 \| fr\=1–0 \| comp\=Friendly}} | Honours ------- Red Star**[First League of Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "First League of Serbia and Montenegro"): [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro "2003–04 First League of Serbia and Montenegro"), [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Serbia_and_Montenegro_SuperLiga "2005–06 Serbia and Montenegro SuperLiga") [Serbia and Montenegro Cup](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup "Serbia and Montenegro Cup"): [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup "2003–04 Serbia and Montenegro Cup"), [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup "2005–06 Serbia and Montenegro Cup")**Valencia**[Copa del Rey](/wiki/Copa_del_Rey "Copa del Rey"): [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Copa_del_Rey "2007–08 Copa del Rey")**Birmingham City**[Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup"): [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Football_League_Cup "2010–11 Football League Cup")**Individual''' [Serbia and Montenegro League](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro_League "Serbia and Montenegro League"): top scorer 2003–04{{cite web \|url\=http://www.yufprvaliga.co.yu/takmicen/listas.htm \|title\=Lista strelaca posle 30\. kola \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Top scorers after 30 rounds \|publisher\=Zajednica fudbalskih klubova prve savezne lige (Union of First Federal League Clubs) \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040612183841/http://www.yufprvaliga.co.yu/takmicen/listas.htm \|archive\-date\=12 June 2004}} [Serbian Footballer of the Year](/wiki/Serbian_Footballer_of_the_Year "Serbian Footballer of the Year"):{{cite news \|url\=http://mondo.rs/a754782/Sport/Fudbal/Nemanja\-Matic\-najbolji\-igrac\-Radovan\-Curcic\-najbolji\-trener.html \|title\=Matić, Ćurčić i Mažić – najbolje u srpskom fudbalu \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Matić, Ćurčić and Mažić – the best in Serbian football \|website\=\[\[Telekom Srbija\#Web\-portal\|Mondo.rs]] \|date\=18 December 2014 \|access\-date\=3 June 2015}} 2003, 2007 * + - * + - * [Večernje novosti](/wiki/Ve%C4%8Dernje_novosti "Večernje novosti")'' captains' poll{{cite news \|url\=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/sport.294\.html:469491\-Tradicionalna\-anketa\-Novosti\-Kapiteni\-biraju\-fudbalera\-godine \|title\=Tradicionalna anketa 'Novosti': Kapiteni biraju fudbalera godine \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\="Novosti"'s traditional poll: Footballer of the year voted for by the captains \|first\=V. \|last\=Tomković \|newspaper\=\[\[Večernje novosti]] \|location\=Belgrade \|date\=20 December 2013 \|access\-date\=23 May 2015}} + Domestic player of the year: 2003, 2005 + Prva zvezda (Player of the year based abroad): 2006 * [Red Star Sport Association](/wiki/SD_Crvena_Zvezda "SD Crvena Zvezda") Best Male Athlete: 2005{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sd\-crvenazvezda.net/news/print.php?id\=461⟨\=sr \|title\=Прослављен 61\. рођендан Црвене звезде \|language\=sr \|trans\-title\=Red Star celebrates its 61st birthday \|publisher\=\[\[SD Crvena Zvezda]] (Red Star Sport Association) \|date\=3 March 2006 \|access\-date\=20 May 2015 \|quote\=Никола Жигић, наш фудбалер, изабран је за најбољег спортисту Црвене звезде \[Nikola Žigić, our footballer, was chosen as Red Star's best athlete]. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524194358/http://www.sd\-crvenazvezda.net/news/print.php?id\=461⟨\=sr \|archive\-date\=24 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}}
[ "Club career\n-----------", "### Early career", "He joined his hometown football club, [AIK Bačka Topola](/wiki/AIK_Ba%C4%8Dka_Topola \"AIK Bačka Topola\"), as a youngster, and graduated to the senior side in 1998–99\\. He began as a [centre back](/wiki/Centre_back \"Centre back\"), but soon realised he preferred scoring goals to defending.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.b92\\.net/sport/intervjui/pobednickih11\\.php?yyyy\\=2007\\&mm\\=10\\&nav\\_id\\=269408 \\|title\\=Nikola Žigić: 'Voleo bih da igram sa Zvezdom u LŠ' \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Nikola Žigić: 'I'd like to play for Red Star in the Champions League' \\|first1\\=Miloš \\|last1\\=Šaranović \\|first2\\=Nina \\|last2\\=Kolundžija \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[B92]] \\|date\\=25 October 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015}} Žigić's parents did not want him to take football seriously until he completed his education, and he remained with AIK Bačka Topola until 2001, scoring 68 goals in 76 matches in the [Serbian League Vojvodina](/wiki/Serbian_League_Vojvodina \"Serbian League Vojvodina\"), the third level of Yugoslav football. When military service took him to [Bar](/wiki/Bar%2C_Montenegro \"Bar, Montenegro\"), he was able to play for the local club, [Mornar](/wiki/FK_Mornar \"FK Mornar\"), for whom he scored 15 goals from 23 appearances in the [2001–02 Second League of FR Yugoslavia](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Second_League_of_FR_Yugoslavia \"2001–02 Second League of FR Yugoslavia\"). After trials in France with [Saint\\-Étienne](/wiki/AS_Saint-%C3%89tienne \"AS Saint-Étienne\") and [Créteil](/wiki/US_Cr%C3%A9teil-Lusitanos \"US Créteil-Lusitanos\") came to nothing,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://maxifoot.fr/newsplus518\\.php \\|title\\=L2: Les Verts en pleine mutation \\|language\\=fr \\|trans\\-title\\=L2: The Greens in a state of change \\|first\\=Frédéric \\|last\\=Coudrais \\|website\\=Maxifoot \\|date\\=August 2002 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020804223600/http://maxifoot.fr/newsplus518\\.php \\|archive\\-date\\=4 August 2002 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} \n{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.leparisien.fr/val\\-de\\-marne/creteil\\-essaie\\-zigic\\-28\\-08\\-2002\\-2003354832\\.php \\|title\\=Créteil essaie Zigic \\|language\\=fr \\|trans\\-title\\=Créteil trial Zigic \\|author\\=S.B. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Le Parisien]] \\|date\\=28 August 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015}} Žigić returned home where he played 8 matches for third\\-tier club [Kolubara](/wiki/FK_Kolubara \"FK Kolubara\"), scoring 3 goals.", "Žigić signed his first professional contract in January 2003, with [Red Star Belgrade](/wiki/Red_Star_Belgrade \"Red Star Belgrade\"),{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.b92\\.net/sport/fudbal/vesti.php?yyyy\\=2003\\&mm\\=01ⅆ\\=31\\&nav\\_id\\=82429 \\|title\\=Lalatović potpisao za Šahtjor, došao Žigić \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Lalatović signed for Shakhtar, Žigić arrived \\|publisher\\=B92 \\|date\\=31 January 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=28 March 2019}} the biggest club in the country. Because he was not considered ready for first\\-team football at that level, he spent the latter part of the 2002–03 season [on loan](/wiki/Loan_%28sports%29 \"Loan (sports)\") at [Spartak Subotica](/wiki/FK_Spartak_Subotica \"FK Spartak Subotica\"), another third\\-tier side, for whom his goalscoring rate was even higher: 14 goals from just 11 league games.", "### Red Star", "Returning head coach [Slavoljub Muslin](/wiki/Slavoljub_Muslin \"Slavoljub Muslin\") brought Žigić into Red Star's senior squad for the [2003–04 First League season](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"2003–04 First League of Serbia and Montenegro\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid\\=91575\\.html \\|title\\=Žigic aiming to stand tall \\|first\\=Aleksandar \\|last\\=Boskovic \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Union of European Football Associations]] (UEFA) \\|date\\=18 August 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015}} and gave him his debut in the starting eleven on the opening day. That first game ended in defeat,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.redstarbelgrade.info/statistika/istorija/prva\\-liga\\-srj\\-scg/view\\_match/2050\\.html \\|title\\=09\\-08\\-2003 Hапредак 2:1 Црвена звезда \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=09\\-08\\-2003 Napredak 2–1 Red Star \\|website\\=redstarbelgrade.info \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124063028/http://www.redstarbelgrade.info/statistika/istorija/prva\\-liga\\-srj\\-scg/view\\_match/2050\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 November 2015 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} and Žigić's physical appearance – a growth spurt from the age of 16 had brought his height to {{height\\|m\\=2\\.02}} – provoked suggestions that he might be better suited to basketball.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2010/dec/04/nikola\\-zigic\\-birmingham\\-city \\|title\\=Nikola Zigic is helping Birmingham to walk tall in the second city \\|first\\=Stuart \\|last\\=James \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=4 December 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015}} He opened the scoring as they beat [Hajduk Kula](/wiki/FK_Hajduk_Kula \"FK Hajduk Kula\") 2–0 in the next league match.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.redstarbelgrade.info/statistika/istorija/prva\\-liga\\-srj\\-scg/view\\_match/2051\\.html \\|title\\=23\\-08\\-2003 Црвена звезда 2:0 Хајдук (К) \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=23\\-08\\-2003 Red Star 2–0 Hajduk (K) \\|website\\=redstarbelgrade.info \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124083331/http://www.redstarbelgrade.info/statistika/istorija/prva\\-liga\\-srj\\-scg/view\\_match/2051\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 November 2015 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} In between, he produced a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick_%28association_football%29 \"Hat-trick (association football)\") against [Nistru](/wiki/FC_Nistru_Otaci \"FC Nistru Otaci\") in the [2003–04 UEFA Cup](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_UEFA_Cup \"2003–04 UEFA Cup\") qualifying round,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\\=2003/matches/round\\=1717/match\\=71349/postmatch/report/index.html \\|title\\=Žigic shines in Zvezda stroll \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=14 August 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015}} and went on to contribute a further three goals as Red Star beat [Odense](/wiki/Odense_Boldklub \"Odense Boldklub\") 6–5 on aggregate in the first round.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\\=2003/matches/round\\=1718/match\\=73487/postmatch/report/index.html \\|title\\=Borre rescues draw for OB \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=24 September 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015}} \n{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\\=2003/matches/round\\=1718/match\\=73488/index.html\\#/iv/history/match/73488 \\|title\\=2003/04 UEFA Cup Crvena zvezda 4–3 OB \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=15 October 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2018}} He scored twice in the 3–0 win in the [Eternal Derby](/wiki/Eternal_derby_%28Serbia%29 \"Eternal derby (Serbia)\") against [Partizan](/wiki/FK_Partizan \"FK Partizan\"), and celebrated by miming a basketball shot.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/news/2003\\-11/08/331816\\.html \\|title\\=Red Star – Partizan 3–0 \\|publisher\\=Office of Media Relations, Serbian Government \\|date\\=8 November 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124145135/http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/news/2003\\-11/08/331816\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} \n{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.espnfc.com/blog/espn\\-fc\\-united\\-blog/68/post/2460600/red\\-star\\-partizan\\-belgrade\\-derby\\-andy\\-mitten \\|title\\=On derby day in Belgrade, violence overshadows events on the pitch \\|first\\=Andy \\|last\\=Mitten \\|website\\=ESPN FC \\|date\\=22 May 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015}} By the mid\\-season break, he had 12 league goals as well as the 6 in the UEFA Cup, and was named Player of the Year for 2003, both by the captains of the First League teams voting via the *[Večernje novosti](/wiki/Ve%C4%8Dernje_novosti \"Večernje novosti\")* newspaper{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\\=135464\\.html \\|title\\=Žigic crowns memorable rise \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=30 December 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015}} and by the [Football Association](/wiki/Football_Association_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"Football Association of Serbia and Montenegro\"). He finished the season as the league's top scorer, with 18, as Red Star won their 23rd title,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joegchamp.html \\|title\\=Yugoslavia/Serbia (and Montenegro) – List of Champions \\|first\\=Karel \\|last\\=Stokkermans \\|date\\=21 May 2015 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015}} and scored the winning goal in the [cup final](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup \"2003–04 Serbia and Montenegro Cup\").", "Resuming the partnership with [Marko Pantelić](/wiki/Marko_Panteli%C4%87 \"Marko Pantelić\") begun in the second half of 2003–04, Žigić continued to score freely in the new season. With Red Star two goals and a man down in the first leg of the [Champions League](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_UEFA_Champions_League \"2004–05 UEFA Champions League\") qualifier against [Young Boys](/wiki/BSC_Young_Boys \"BSC Young Boys\"), he netted twice in the last 12 minutes to give his team an away draw.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season\\=2004/matches/round\\=1966/match\\=79228/postmatch/report/index.html \\|title\\=Zigic double denies Young Boys \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Keller \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=28 July 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}} Domestically, Pantelić top\\-scored with 21 league goals and Žigić contributed 15 as Red Star finished [in second place](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"2004–05 First League of Serbia and Montenegro\"), behind Partizan.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joegtops.html \\|title\\=Yugoslavia/Serbia (and Montenegro) – List of Topscorers \\|first1\\=Misha \\|last1\\=Miladinovich \\|first2\\=Igor \\|last2\\=Kramarsic \\|date\\=5 June 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}} Žigić scored against Partizan to help Red Star reach the [cup final](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup \"2004–05 Serbia and Montenegro Cup\"), but was one of five regular starters unavailable for that match through injury or suspension, and his team lost to a last\\-minute goal to ten\\-man [Železnik](/wiki/FK_%C5%BDeleznik \"FK Železnik\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joegcup05\\.html \\|title\\=Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) Cup 2004/05 \\|first\\=Dragoljub \\|last\\=Jovanovic \\|date\\=26 May 2005 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}} \n{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\\=304417\\.html \\|title\\=Famous first for Železnik \\|first\\=Aleksander \\|last\\=Boškovic \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=24 May 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}}", "In September 2005, Žigić signed a one\\-year extension to his contract, which had been due to expire at the end of the season.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid\\=342800\\.html \\|title\\=Žigić staying at Crvena Zvezda \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=20 September 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016180659/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid\\=342800\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2015}} He helped his team progress through the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Cup, and according to [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\")' correspondent, \"capped a brilliant individual performance with two goals\" as well as providing the cross for [Milan Purović](/wiki/Milan_Purovi%C4%87 \"Milan Purović\") as Red Star beat [Roma](/wiki/A.S._Roma \"A.S. Roma\") 3–1 in the third match of the group stage. His first goal, a header, appeared to have been scored from an [offside](/wiki/Offside_%28association_football%29 \"Offside (association football)\") position, but for the second, in the 86th minute, he dispossessed [Philippe Mexès](/wiki/Philippe_Mex%C3%A8s \"Philippe Mexès\"), evaded two more opponents, and bent the ball into the top corner from {{convert\\|25\\|m\\|yd\\|abbr\\=on}} with his weaker left foot.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.b92\\.net/sport/fudbal/vesti.php?yyyy\\=2005\\&mm\\=12ⅆ\\=02\\&nav\\_id\\=181623 \\|title\\=Crvena zvezda silna protiv Rome! \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Red Star too strong for Roma! \\|publisher\\=B92 \\|date\\=2 December 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2015}} He said afterwards, \"I've never scored a goal like that in my entire career. I was going to pass the ball but there was no one ahead of me so I just decided to go for it and see what happens\". The win left Red Star needing to win their last group match to stand a chance of qualifying for the knockout rounds,{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\\=soccer\\&id\\=2244675 \\|title\\=Zigic has Red Star dreaming of European revival \\|first\\=Zoran \\|last\\=Milosavljevic \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN FC]] \\|agency\\=Reuters\\|date\\=2 December 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} but they failed to do so.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\\=2005/standings/round\\=2209/group\\=2538/index.html \\|title\\=UEFA Europa League 2005/06 Standings: Group stage: Group E \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=28 October 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2015}}", "For the second time in three years, Žigić was chosen as domestic player of the year in the captains' poll,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\\=382048\\.html \\|title\\=Žigić the captain's choice \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=30 December 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}} and was also honoured by the [Red Star Sport Association](/wiki/SD_Crvena_Zvezda \"SD Crvena Zvezda\") as best male athlete of 2005, an award open to athletes representing the club in any sport, not just in football. After Pantelić's departure for [Hertha BSC](/wiki/Hertha_BSC \"Hertha BSC\"), Red Star's goals were spread more evenly among the remaining forward players. In the league, Žigić and [Boško Janković](/wiki/Bo%C5%A1ko_Jankovi%C4%87 \"Boško Janković\") were joint\\-top scorers with 12, and Purović contributed one fewer, as the club won their 24th title.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joeg06\\.html \\|title\\=Serbia and Montenegro 2005/06 \\|first\\=Dragoljub \\|last\\=Jovanović \\|date\\=15 August 2006 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}} They completed the [double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29%23Serbia \"Double (association football)#Serbia\") with a defeat of city rivals [OFK](/wiki/OFK_Beograd \"OFK Beograd\") in the [cup final](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup%23Final \"2005–06 Serbia and Montenegro Cup#Final\"), coming back from 2–0 down via Žigić's 67th\\-minute free kick under the defensive wall and Purović's equaliser to take the match into [extra time](/wiki/Extra_time_%28association_football%29 \"Extra time (association football)\"), during which Žigić gave Red Star the lead with a header and [Dušan Basta](/wiki/Du%C5%A1an_Basta \"Dušan Basta\") made the final score 4–2\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\\=420639\\.html \\|title\\=Cup joy for Crvena Zvezda \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=10 May 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}} \n{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.b92\\.net/sport/fudbal/vesti.php?yyyy\\=2006\\&mm\\=05ⅆ\\=11\\&nav\\_id\\=197315 \\|title\\=Zvezda preokretom do duple krune \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Star turnaround to the double \\|publisher\\=B92 \\|date\\=11 May 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} After the match, Žigić refused to answer questions about his Red Star future.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.b92\\.net/sport/fudbal/vesti.php?yyyy\\=2006\\&mm\\=05ⅆ\\=11\\&nav\\_id\\=197329 \\|title\\=Zenga: 'Verovao sam i na 0:2' \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Zenga: 'I believed at 2–0 down' \\|publisher\\=B92 \\|date\\=11 May 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}}", "### Racing Santander", "Žigić began the season with Red Star, but on 29 August 2006, he signed a four\\-year contract with [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga \"La Liga\") club [Racing Santander](/wiki/Racing_Santander \"Racing Santander\"). The fee, officially undisclosed,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\\=450808\\.html \\|title\\=Zigić zooms in for Racing \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=30 August 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015}} was variously reported at anything from €4\\.5M to €7M.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2006/08/30/mas\\_futbol/1156919245\\_850215\\.html \\|title\\=El serbio Nikola Zigic ya es jugador cántabro \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=The Serbian Nikola Zigic is a Cantabrian player \\|first\\=J. \\|last\\=Del Olmo \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Diario AS\\|AS]] \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=30 August 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015 }} \n{{cite news\\|url\\=http://english.blic.rs/Sports/8611/Agents\\-make\\-entire\\-Red\\-Star\\-annual\\-budget\\-worth\\-of\\-fees \\|title\\=Agents make entire Red Star annual budget worth of fees \\|first\\=Branko \\|last\\=Markovic \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Blic]] \\|location\\=Belgrade \\|date\\=17 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529205824/http://english.blic.rs/Sports/8611/Agents\\-make\\-entire\\-Red\\-Star\\-annual\\-budget\\-worth\\-of\\-fees \\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} \n{{cite news\\|url\\=http://hemeroteca\\-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD02/PUB/2006/10/22/EMD20061022030MDP.pdf \\|title\\=Zigic, un gigante en Montjuic \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic, a giant at Montjuic \\|first\\=Rogelio \\|last\\=Román \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Mundo Deportivo (newspaper)\\|Mundo Deportivo]] \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|page\\=30 \\|date\\=22 October 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015}} Although better offers had been rejected, those offers had arrived at the wrong time: the pressure on Red Star to win the domestic title meant they were unlikely to dispose of a major player in mid\\-season.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2006/09/12/mas\\_futbol/1158042432\\_850215\\.html \\|title\\=Zigic: 'Me han fichado para que marque goles' \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic: 'They've signed me to score goals' \\|first\\=J. \\|last\\=Del Olmo \\|newspaper\\=AS \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=12 September 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015}} The player felt he was more likely to start matches with a club at Racing's level.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2006/09/15/mas\\_futbol/1158301627\\_850215\\.html \\|title\\=Zigic, el gigante de la Liga, debutará ante el Barça \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic, the giant of la Liga, will make his debut against Barça \\|first\\=J. \\|last\\=Del Olmo \\|newspaper\\=AS \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=15 September 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015}} Partnering the diminutive [Pedro Munitis](/wiki/Pedro_Munitis \"Pedro Munitis\"),{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.espnfc.com/story/420939/real\\-see\\-title\\-race\\-moving\\-in\\-their\\-favour \\|title\\=Real see title race moving in their favour \\|website\\=ESPN FC \\|date\\=12 April 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529204003/http://www.espnfc.com/story/420939/real\\-see\\-title\\-race\\-moving\\-in\\-their\\-favour \\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} he contributed 11 goals{{snd}}including a hat\\-trick in a 5–4 win over [Athletic Bilbao](/wiki/Athletic_Bilbao \"Athletic Bilbao\"){{cite news \\|url\\=http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKL0110042320070401 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120555/http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKL0110042320070401 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=12 October 2007 \\|title\\=Soccer – Zigic hat\\-trick earns Racing 5–4 win over Bilbao \\|publisher\\=Reuters \\|date\\=1 April 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2015}}{{snd}}four assists and five penalties won in league competition over the season as Racing finished tenth. The efficacy of the pair earned them the nickname of {{lang\\|es\\|Dúo Sacapuntos}} (the Two Point\\-getters{{efn\\-ua\\|The nickname is a play on the name of Spanish comedy act the \\[\\[:es:Dúo Sacapuntas\\|Dúo Sacapuntas]], which comprises one tall and one short partner.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.espnfc.com/story/430296/el\\-racing\\-llega\\-a\\-lo\\-mas\\-alto \\|title\\=El Racing llega a lo más alto \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Racing reach the top \\|first\\=Lucy \\|last\\=Turner \\|website\\=ESPN FC \\|date\\=19 April 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2015 \\|quote\\=La pareja Zigic\\-Pedro Munitis se ha convertido en el Dúo Sacapuntos, inspirado en el par de cómicos españoles, uno alto y uno bajo, el Dúo Sacapuntas \\[The Zigic–Pedro Munitis pairing has turned into the Dúo Sacapuntos, inspired by the Spanish comedy duo, one tall and one short, the Dúo Sacapuntas]. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124104510/http://www.espnfc.com/story/430296/el\\-racing\\-llega\\-a\\-lo\\-mas\\-alto \\|archive\\-date\\=24 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}}});{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070622/la\\-parte\\-goleadora\\-del\\-duo\\-sacapuntos\\_52337005902\\.html \\|title\\=La parte goleadora del 'dúo sacapuntos' \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=The goalscoring part of the 'two point\\-getters' \\|first\\=Rafa \\|last\\=Gallego \\|newspaper\\=Mundo Deportivo \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|date\\=22 June 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015}} ahead of the coming season, new coach [Marcelino García Toral](/wiki/Marcelino_Garc%C3%ADa_Toral \"Marcelino García Toral\") recalled how \"we all know how many points Racing picked up when Žigić and Munitis weren't there. Without them, Racing didn't add points\".{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070628/marcelino\\-avisa\\-que\\-sin\\-zigic\\-todo\\-sera\\-mas\\-dificil\\_52337035114\\.html \\|title\\=Marcelino avisa que sin Zigic todo será más difícil \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Marcelino warns that without Zigic everything's going to be more difficult \\|first\\=Ernesto \\|last\\=Vicario \\|newspaper\\=Mundo Deportivo \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|date\\=28 June 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015 \\|quote\\=Todos sabemos los puntos que consiguió el Racing cuando no estaban Zigic ni Munitis. Sin ellos, el Racing no sumaba puntos \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529211518/http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070628/marcelino\\-avisa\\-que\\-sin\\-zigic\\-todo\\-sera\\-mas\\-dificil\\_52337035114\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} His performances earned him the captains' vote as best player based abroad for 2006, and contributed to his 2007 [Football Association of Serbia](/wiki/Football_Association_of_Serbia \"Football Association of Serbia\") Golden Ball award.", "### Valencia", "Žigić signed for [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia_CF \"Valencia CF\") in August 2007\\. The fee was unconfirmed, but suggestions appeared in the media of €15M,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2007/SPORT/football/08/09/valencia.zigic.reut/ \\|title\\=Valencia sign giant striker Zigic \\|publisher\\=CNN \\|agency\\=Reuters \\|date\\=9 August 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}} €18M,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070811/el\\-gigante\\-zigic\\-quiere\\-alcanzar\\-altas\\-cotas\\_53383885611\\.html \\|title\\=El 'gigante' Zigic quiere alcanzar altas cotas \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=The 'giant' Zigic wants to reach new heights \\|first\\=Carlos \\|last\\=Urrutia \\|newspaper\\=Mundo Deportivo \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|date\\=10 August 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125105727/http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070811/el\\-gigante\\-zigic\\-quiere\\-alcanzar\\-altas\\-cotas\\_53383885611\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and around €20M, a figure possibly including the player's wages over the five years of his contract.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://archivo.marca.com/edicion/marca/futbol/1a\\_division/valencia/es/desarrollo/1025048\\.html \\|title\\=El Valencia se hace con los servicios de Zigic por cinco temporadas \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Valencia acquires the services of Zigic for five seasons \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Marca (newspaper)\\|Marca]] \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=9 August 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}} He had been linked with numerous other moves,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www1\\.skysports.com/football/news/11679/2649575/city\\-miss\\-out\\-on\\-zigic \\|title\\=City miss out on Zigic \\|first\\=Peter \\|last\\=O'Rourke \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]] \\|date\\=9 August 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}} and [Fenerbahçe](/wiki/Fenerbah%C3%A7e_S.K._%28football%29 \"Fenerbahçe S.K. (football)\") made an offer that was better financially for both Racing and the player, but Žigić preferred to stay in \"the best league in Europe\" in a country where he was accustomed to the language and culture.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070810/zigic\\-fichaje\\-gigante\\-de\\-un\\-valencia\\-de\\-lujo\\_53383685539\\.html \\|title\\=Zigic, fichaje gigante de un Valencia de lujo \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic, giant signing for a Valencia in the luxury market \\|first1\\=Carlos \\|last1\\=Urrutia \\|first2\\=Ernesto \\|last2\\=Vicario \\|newspaper\\=Mundo Deportivo \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|date\\=10 August 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530003237/http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20070810/zigic\\-fichaje\\-gigante\\-de\\-un\\-valencia\\-de\\-lujo\\_53383685539\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was suffering from an ankle injury when he arrived{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid\\=572858\\.html \\|title\\=Serbia's Žigić to miss Brussels trip \\|first\\=Aleksandar \\|last\\=Bošković \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=20 August 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}}{{snd}}which delayed his integration into the first\\-team group and, according to *[Mundo Deportivo](/wiki/Mundo_Deportivo_%28newspaper%29 \"Mundo Deportivo (newspaper)\")*, undermined the coaching staff's confidence in him{{cite news \\|url\\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2007/12/24/pagina\\-31/1494069/pdf.html\\#\\&mode\\=fullScreen \\|title\\=Zigic saca del pozo al equipo 'che' \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic gets the 'che' team out of a hole \\|first\\=Carlos \\|last\\=Urrutia \\|newspaper\\=Mundo Deportivo \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|page\\=31 \\|date\\=24 December 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2018}}{{snd}}then aggravated the injury by playing in a [Euro 2008 qualifier](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2008_qualifying_Group_A \"UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group A\") in September,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.lasprovincias.es/valencia/prensa/20070930/deportes/zigic\\-cuando\\-seleccion\\-serbia\\_20070930\\.html \\|title\\=Zigic: 'Cuando fui con la selección de Serbia no estaba recuperado al cien por cien de mi lesión' \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic: 'When I was away with Serbia I wasn't 100% recovered from my injury' \\|first\\=A. \\|last\\=Andreo \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Las Provincias]] \\|location\\=Valencia \\|date\\=30 September 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}} and did not appear for Valencia until October.", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Pictured in 2008\\|alt\\=Head of young white man smiling.He](/wiki/File:Nikola_Zigic.jpg \"Nikola Zigic.jpg\") made his debut as a second\\-half substitute in Valencia's Champions League group\\-stage defeat at home to [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. \"Chelsea F.C.\"), and started the next league match, another home defeat against [Espanyol](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol \"RCD Espanyol\"), but was selected only infrequently either by [Quique Flores](/wiki/Quique_Flores \"Quique Flores\"), who had signed him, or by successor [Ronald Koeman](/wiki/Ronald_Koeman \"Ronald Koeman\"). With the [transfer window](/wiki/Transfer_window \"Transfer window\") approaching, Koeman had given Žigić two weeks to convince him he was worth keeping.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/2007/12/20/pagina\\-10/914858/pdf.html\\#\\&mode\\=fullScreen \\|title\\='Vacas' sacrificadas \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\='Cows' sacrificed \\|first\\=Carlos \\|last\\=Urrutia \\|newspaper\\=Mundo Deportivo \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|page\\=10 \\|date\\=20 December 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2018}} Prior to the [Copa del Rey](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Copa_del_Rey \"2007–08 Copa del Rey\") on 19 December, Valencia had not scored for six matches,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/t/t2007\\-0836\\.html \\|title\\=Valencia 2007–08: Matches \\|website\\=BDFutbol \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2015}} For match results, click on Matches tab. and they were soon 1–0 down to third\\-tier opponents [Real Unión](/wiki/Real_Uni%C3%B3n \"Real Unión\"). Žigić came on and scored twice to turn the match around,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.elperiodicodearagon.com/noticias/deportes/zigic\\-remonta\\-evita\\-otra\\-catastrofe\\-valencia\\_373666\\.html \\|title\\=Zigic remonta y evita otra catástrofe del Valencia \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic back and prevents another Valencia catastrophe \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[El Periódico de Aragón]] \\|location\\=Zaragoza \\|date\\=20 December 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2015}} and followed up with another goal three days later as Valencia came from behind to secure a 2–2 draw at [Real Zaragoza](/wiki/Real_Zaragoza \"Real Zaragoza\"). A mooted loan to English club [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth_F.C. \"Portsmouth F.C.\") fell through when Koeman changed his mind about the player leaving,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www1\\.skysports.com/football/news/11674/3012219/valencia\\-keen\\-on\\-zigic\\-stay \\|title\\=Valencia keen on Zigic stay \\|first\\=Paco \\|last\\=Acedo \\|publisher\\=Sky Sports \\|date\\=30 December 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2015}} but he made only nine league appearances (two starts) in what remained of the season, and was sent off in the first of those.", "Speculation regarding moves to the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\"){{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/a/aston\\_villa/7519540\\.stm \\|title\\=O'Neill denies interest in Zigic \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=22 July 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2015}} \n{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/b/blackburn\\_rovers/7570584\\.stm \\|title\\=Blackburn weigh up double swoop \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=19 August 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2015}} \n{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Breaking\\-news\\-Stoke\\-close\\-loan\\-deal\\-striker\\-Zigic/story\\-12527324\\-detail/story.html \\|title\\=Stoke close to loan deal for striker Zigic \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Sentinel (Staffordshire)\\|The Sentinel]] \\|location\\=Stoke\\-on\\-Trent \\|date\\=8 August 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924111400/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Breaking\\-news\\-Stoke\\-close\\-loan\\-deal\\-striker\\-Zigic/story\\-12527324\\-detail/story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} came to nothing. By October, Žigić had appeared just once for Valencia, in the [UEFA Cup](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_UEFA_Cup \"2008–09 UEFA Cup\"), and an opportunity arose to join his former club, Racing Santander, on an emergency loan. This depended on the [league](/wiki/Liga_de_F%C3%BAtbol_Profesional \"Liga de Fútbol Profesional\") allowing Racing to release [Luis Fernández](/wiki/Luis_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Guti%C3%A9rrez \"Luis Fernández Gutiérrez\") on medical grounds, because of a degenerative condition of his knee, thus freeing up a space in the first\\-team squad. The LFP's medical committee decided that the condition was not yet clearly career\\-ending, so any agreement with Žigić had to be held over until the January 2009 transfer window.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2008/10/10/mas\\_futbol/1223620037\\_850215\\.html \\|title\\=La LFP no dará la baja médica a Luis Fernández \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=The LFP won't give Luis Fernández a medical release \\|first\\=Alfredo \\|last\\=Matilla \\|newspaper\\=AS \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=10 October 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}} In the meantime, he played in four more cup matches for Valencia, two domestic and two UEFA, and scored in three of them, but took no part in the league campaign.", "The loan agreement was duly revived, and Žigić returned to the club and the city that \"feel like home\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\\=790074\\.html \\|title\\=Žigić heads back to Racing on loan \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=30 December 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}} Racing were to pay his wages and write off the debt outstanding from the sale of [Mario Regueiro](/wiki/Mario_Regueiro \"Mario Regueiro\"), and there was no option to purchase.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.eldiariomontanes.es/20081226/deportes/racing/nicola\\-zigic\\-cayo\\-20081226\\.html \\|title\\=Nicola Zigic cayó en la red \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Nicola Zigic dropped into the net \\|first\\=A. \\|last\\=Santamaría \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[El Diario Montañés]] \\|location\\=Santander \\|date\\=26 December 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}} Resuming his partnership with Munitis in the first game of his second spell, Žigić scored the only goal of the visit to [Real Valladolid](/wiki/Real_Valladolid \"Real Valladolid\"), repeated the feat at [Getafe](/wiki/Getafe_CF \"Getafe CF\") two weeks later, and scored again in the next match, a 2–0 win away at [Sevilla](/wiki/Sevilla_FC \"Sevilla FC\"). He finished the season as Racing's top scorer, with 13 goals from only 19 games.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/t/t2008\\-0929\\.html \\|title\\=Racing de Santander: 2008–09: Squad \\|website\\=BDFutbol \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015}}", "In the 2009 close season, there were rumours linking Žigić with moves to clubs including [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland_A.F.C. \"Sunderland A.F.C.\"),{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/sunderland\\-boosted\\-bid\\-land\\-huddlestone\\-1456340 \\|title\\=Sunderland boosted in bid to land Huddlestone \\|first\\=Steve \\|last\\=Brown \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Evening Chronicle]] \\|location\\=Newcastle \\|date\\=25 June 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2018}} [Monaco](/wiki/AS_Monaco_FC \"AS Monaco FC\"),{{cite news \\|url\\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2009/06/16/mas\\_futbol/1245103209\\_850215\\.html \\|title\\=Al Mónaco le interesa el serbio Zigic \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=The Serbian Zigic is interesting Monaco \\|newspaper\\=AS \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=16 June 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015}} and [Bordeaux](/wiki/FC_Girondins_de_Bordeaux \"FC Girondins de Bordeaux\"),{{cite news \\|url\\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2009/08/08/mas\\_futbol/1249682406\\_850215\\.html \\|title\\=Vicente y Zigic, en la agenda de PSG y Girondins \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Vicente and Zigic, on the agenda of PSG and Girondins \\|newspaper\\=AS \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=8 August 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015}} but the player insisted his intention was and always had been to be successful with Valencia.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2009/07/16/mas\\_futbol/1247725659\\_850215\\.html \\|title\\='Mi objetivo es el de siempre: triunfar y ganar títulos aquí' \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=My goal is what it always has been: to succeed and win titles here \\|newspaper\\=AS \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=16 July 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015}} He made 26 appearances for the club in 2009–10 in all competitions, more than in the previous two seasons combined, but only 5 were league starts.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/j/j2085\\.html \\|title\\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic \\|website\\=BDFutbol \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015}} Within four minutes of replacing the injured [David Villa](/wiki/David_Villa \"David Villa\") in the league match against Racing in October, he took advantage of a defensive error to score the only goal of the game; out of respect for his former club, he did not celebrate.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009\\-10\\-05/zigic\\-haunts\\-racing\\-valencia\\-triumph/1090620 \\|title\\=Zigic haunts Racing, Valencia triumph \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC) \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Agence France\\-Presse]] (AFP) \\|date\\=5 October 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015}} On 2 January 2010, his 93rd\\-minute header against Espanyol took Valencia third in the table,{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section\\=soccer\\&id\\=4790430 \\|title\\=Late Zigic header gives Valencia win over Espanyol \\|first\\=Iain \\|last\\=Rogers \\|publisher\\=ESPN \\|agency\\=Reuters \\|date\\=2 January 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015}} and his double against [Deportivo La Coruña](/wiki/Deportivo_La_Coru%C3%B1a \"Deportivo La Coruña\") in the [2009–10 Copa del Rey](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Copa_del_Rey \"2009–10 Copa del Rey\") put Valencia 2–0 up at half\\-time; the game finished 2–2 and Valencia lost 4–3 on aggregate.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www1\\.skysports.com/football/news/11095/5858145/copa\\-del\\-rey\\-round\\-up \\|title\\=Copa del Rey round\\-up \\|publisher\\=Sky Sports \\|date\\=13 January 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015}} With four minutes left of the [Europa League quarter\\-final](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_UEFA_Europa_League%23Quarter-finals \"2009–10 UEFA Europa League#Quarter-finals\") second leg, Valencia were denied a penalty when an [Atlético Madrid](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Madrid \"Atlético Madrid\") defender pulled Žigić to the ground so forcefully that a large hole was torn in the front of his shirt, apparently unnoticed by referee or [goalline official](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29%23Extra_officials \"Assistant referee (association football)#Extra officials\"); the tie ended goalless, so Atlético progressed on [away goals](/wiki/Away_goals_rule \"Away goals rule\") from the first leg and went on to win the competition.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/8610597\\.stm \\|title\\=Hamburg and Atletico Madrid reach Europa League semis \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=8 April 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/8675486\\.stm \\|title\\=Atletico Madrid 2–1 Fulham \\|first\\=Phil \\|last\\=McNulty \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=12 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}} Away to Espanyol on 1 May, again as a substitute for Villa, he scored both goals in a 2–0 win that secured Valencia a place in the [next season's Champions League](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_UEFA_Champions_League \"2010–11 UEFA Champions League\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://en.valenciacf.com/ver/18810/zigic\\-at\\-the\\-double.html \\|title\\=Zigic at the double \\|publisher\\=Valencia Club de Fútbol \\|date\\=1 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208182303/http://en.valenciacf.com/ver/18810/zigic\\-at\\-the\\-double.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### Birmingham City", "On 25 May 2010, Žigić signed a four\\-year contract with Premier League club [Birmingham City](/wiki/Birmingham_City_F.C. \"Birmingham City F.C.\") for an undisclosed fee, which media speculation suggested to be in the region of £6 million.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/b/birmingham\\_city/8704954\\.stm \\|title\\=Birmingham seal signing of giant striker Nikola Zigic \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=26 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2015}} \n{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/birmingham\\-city/7767990/Nikola\\-Zigic\\-completes\\-6m\\-move\\-to\\-Birmingham\\-City\\-from\\-Valencia.html \\|title\\=Nikola Zigic completes £6m move to Birmingham City from Valencia \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=26 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2015}} He made his debut on the opening day of the season away at Sunderland: replacing [Garry O'Connor](/wiki/Garry_O%27Connor \"Garry O'Connor\") in the 58th minute, he came close to scoring from outside the penalty area and \"injected a note of panic hitherto undetected\" in the home team's defence as Birmingham came back from 2–0 down to secure a draw.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www1\\.skysports.com/football/live/match/215215/report \\|title\\=Blues fight back for draw \\|publisher\\=Sky Sports \\|date\\=14 August 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=13 September 2010}} \n{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/premier\\-league/bent\\-marks\\-card\\-for\\-cattermole\\-after\\-captains\\-loss\\-of\\-discipline\\-2053499\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/premier\\-league/bent\\-marks\\-card\\-for\\-cattermole\\-after\\-captains\\-loss\\-of\\-discipline\\-2053499\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=Bent marks card for Cattermole after captain's loss of discipline \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|location\\=London \\|first\\=Les \\|last\\=Ward \\|date\\=16 August 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=13 September 2010}} Žigić's first goal for the club came as Birmingham beat [Milton Keynes Dons](/wiki/Milton_Keynes_Dons_F.C. \"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.\") 3–1 in the [League Cup](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Football_League_Cup \"2010–11 Football League Cup\") on 21 September. He scored his first Premier League goal on 16 October, opening the scoring at [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\") with a header from [Keith Fahey](/wiki/Keith_Fahey \"Keith Fahey\")'s cross, but Birmingham lost the game 2–1\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_prem/9085759\\.stm \\|title\\=Arsenal 2–1 Birmingham \\|first\\=Sam \\|last\\=Sheringham \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=16 October 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=16 October 2010}}", "[thumb\\|upright\\|150px\\|Žigić with Birmingham in 2010\\|alt\\=White man wearing blue and white sports clothing running.In](/wiki/File:Nikola_%C5%BDigi%C4%87_Arsenal_vs_Birmingham.jpg \"Nikola Žigić Arsenal vs Birmingham.jpg\") a hostile League Cup quarter\\-final against local rivals [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa \"Aston Villa\"), Žigić had an apparently valid goal disallowed for offside against another player, and with the scores level after 86 minutes, was about to be substituted when he produced a \"mis\\-hit, deflected, scruffy late goal\" that secured the win.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/competitions/league\\-cup/8170677/Birmingham\\-City\\-2\\-Aston\\-Villa\\-1\\-match\\-report.html \\|title\\=Birmingham City 2 Aston Villa 1: match report \\|first\\=Jason \\|last\\=Burt \\|newspaper\\=Daily Telegraph \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=2 December 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} He opened the scoring against favourites Arsenal in the [final](/wiki/2011_Football_League_Cup_Final \"2011 Football League Cup Final\") with a short\\-range header, and with one minute of normal time remaining, he flicked on a long clearance, Arsenal's goalkeeper and central defender got in each other's way, and the ball fell to [Obafemi Martins](/wiki/Obafemi_Martins \"Obafemi Martins\") to tap in the winning goal.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/league\\_cup/9405702\\.stm \\|title\\=Arsenal 1–2 Birmingham \\|first\\=Philip \\|last\\=McNulty \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=27 February 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2011}} Football manager turned commentator [David Pleat](/wiki/David_Pleat \"David Pleat\") wrote that \"Birmingham earned their victory through terrific teamwork and astute deployment of Žigić's strengths.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2011/feb/27/arsenal\\-birmingham\\-city\\-david\\-pleat \\|title\\=Arsenal laid low by Birmingham City's astute use of Nikola Zigic \\|first\\=David \\|last\\=Pleat \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=27 February 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} Because of \"niggling\" hip and groin injuries, he made only two more substitute appearances. His absence deprived the team of what the *[Birmingham Mail](/wiki/Birmingham_Mail \"Birmingham Mail\")**s reporter called their \"most effective style: getting the ball forward early, pressing up the pitch and playing off him\", as they were relegated to the [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship \"Football League Championship\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/colin\\-tattum\\-reviews\\-birmingham\\-citys\\-155093 \\|title\\=Colin Tattum reviews Birmingham City's season and asks: How did it go so wrong? \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|date\\=26 May 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2015}}***", "Despite his agent [Milan Ćalasan](/wiki/Milan_%C4%86alasan \"Milan Ćalasan\")'s insistence that his client would not be playing in the lower divisions,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://english.blic.rs/Sports/7871/Mancini\\-plans\\-sale\\-of\\-Adebayor\\-to\\-make\\-room\\-for\\-Zigic \\|title\\=Mancini plans sale of Adebayor to make room for Zigic \\|first\\=Branko \\|last\\=Marković \\|newspaper\\=Blic \\|location\\=Belgrade \\|date\\=27 July 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525144727/http://english.blic.rs/Sports/7871/Mancini\\-plans\\-sale\\-of\\-Adebayor\\-to\\-make\\-room\\-for\\-Zigic \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2015 }} Žigić underwent groin surgery in the close season and resumed his Birmingham career in September. He told the *Mail* that he would be happy to stay and that any move would depend on the club, which was in increasing financial difficulty, wanting to sell.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/birmingham\\-city\\-exclusive\\-nikola\\-zigic\\-162456 \\|title\\=Nikola Zigic is NOT plotting St Andrew's exit \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=1 October 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2015}} His first Championship goal gave Birmingham a 1–0 win against [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United \"Leeds United\"). Early in the [Europa League group match](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_UEFA_Europa_League_group_stage \"2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage\") at [Braga](/wiki/S.C._Braga \"S.C. Braga\"), Birmingham were awarded a penalty. In the absence of regular penalty\\-taker [Marlon King](/wiki/Marlon_King \"Marlon King\"), Žigić took on the responsibility. His attempt was saved, Braga won the match 1–0,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghampost.co.uk/news/local\\-news/birmingham\\-city\\-striker\\-zigic\\-sorry\\-3915659 \\|title\\=Birmingham City striker Zigic sorry for Europa League penalty miss \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Birmingham Post]] \\|date\\=2 December 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2015}} and Birmingham finished the group one point behind them and [Club Brugge](/wiki/Club_Brugge \"Club Brugge\") so failed to qualify for the knockout rounds.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\\=2012/standings/round\\=2000272/group\\=2001552/index.html \\|title\\=UEFA Europa League: Standings: Group stage: Group H \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2011}} Away to Leeds, Žigić scored all four in a 4–1 win, and he finished the season with eleven in the league and one in the play\\-off semi\\-final as Birmingham lost on aggregate to [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. \"Blackpool F.C.\").\nAhead of the [2012–13 season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Birmingham_City_F.C._season \"2012–13 Birmingham City F.C. season\"), Žigić was close to a return to Spain with [Real Mallorca](/wiki/Real_Mallorca \"Real Mallorca\"). Birmingham were prepared to give him a free transfer to reduce the wage bill by his reported £50,000 a week, but the deal fell through when board and agent could not agree a payoff for the player,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/birmingham\\-city\\-lee\\-clark\\-happy\\-3608 \\|title\\=Lee Clark happy to hang on to Nikola Zigic \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=10 September 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} who earlier in the summer had expressed his intention to see out the two years left on his contract.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/birmingham\\-city\\-i\\-want\\-to\\-stay\\-at\\-blues\\-230921 \\|title\\=I want to stay at Blues – Nikola Zigic \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=10 June 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} He began the playing season on the bench, coming off it after 85 minutes to produce a 94th\\-minute equaliser at home to [Charlton Athletic](/wiki/Charlton_Athletic \"Charlton Athletic\") on the opening day,{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/19221628 \\|title\\=Birmingham 1–1 Charlton \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=18 August 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2012}} and was used more as substitute than starter by new manager [Lee Clark](/wiki/Lee_Clark_%28footballer%29 \"Lee Clark (footballer)\"), who preferred [Peter Løvenkrands](/wiki/Peter_L%C3%B8venkrands \"Peter Løvenkrands\") or [Leroy Lita](/wiki/Leroy_Lita \"Leroy Lita\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/birmingham\\-city\\-lee\\-clark\\-and\\-nikola\\-298372 \\|title\\=Lee Clark and Nikola Zigic following the same plan \\|first1\\=Colin \\|last1\\=Tattum \\|first2\\=Paul \\|last2\\=Bradley \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=10 November 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} On the eve of the January transfer window, chief executive Peter Pannu confirmed that player sales were necessary to stave off the risk of [administration](/wiki/Administration_%28British_football%29 \"Administration (British football)\"). Even if the club could raise as much as £6M from the sale of England goalkeeper [Jack Butland](/wiki/Jack_Butland \"Jack Butland\"), Žigić's wages were more than the club could afford, and the player needed \"to go out and showcase himself.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/peter\\-pannu\\-interview\\-part\\-one\\-389303 \\|title\\=Peter Pannu: 'My top priority now – and if I do offend anyone, I care not – is to make sure this club stays afloat.' \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=28 December 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2015}} The club had failed to include a clause in his contract to reduce his wages in the event of relegation,{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/birmingham\\-city/9768863/Birmingham\\-City\\-may\\-be\\-forced\\-to\\-cash\\-in\\-on\\-goalkeeper\\-Jack\\-Butland\\-to\\-avoid\\-administration.html \\|title\\=Birmingham City may be forced to cash in on goalkeeper Jack Butland to avoid administration \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Percy \\|newspaper\\=Daily Telegraph \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=28 December 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2015}} and it emerged later that they had agreed to substantial annual increments.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.espnfc.co.uk/story/1485884/birmingham\\-must\\-pay\\-zigic\\-4\\-million\\-next\\-year \\|title\\=Blues 'must pay Zigic £4m next year' \\|first\\=Richard \\|last\\=Jolly \\|website\\=ESPN FC \\|date\\=27 June 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2015}}\nHe did not leave, and in February, Clark publicly criticised him for producing \"possibly the worst training session in terms of a professional footballer I have ever come across\", despite knowing he was due to start the upcoming game against [Watford](/wiki/Watford_F.C. \"Watford F.C.\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2013/feb/15/nikola\\-zigic\\-dropped\\-birmingham\\-training \\|title\\=Nikola Zigic dropped by Birmingham after 'worst training session ever' \\|website\\=The Guardian \\|location\\=London \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Press Association]] \\|date\\=15 February 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2013}} Up until this incident, he had scored six league goals at a rate of one every 165 minutes, and been sent off twice.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420150659/http://uk.soccerway.com/players/nikola\\-zigic/770/ \\|url\\=https://int.soccerway.com/players/nikola\\-zigic/770/ \\|title\\=N. Žigić \\|work\\=Soccerway \\|publisher\\=Perform Group \\|date\\=15 February 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 April 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy }} Clark said that Žigić would not be involved against Watford, but that it was \"in his hands\" as to whether he would prepare properly for the [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday \"Sheffield Wednesday\") fixture three days later.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/birmingham\\-city\\-boss\\-says\\-down\\-1322727 \\|title\\=Lee Clark: 'It's in his hands and that's the way it has got to be' \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=16 February 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} His response must have been acceptable, because he played the whole of the goalless draw against Wednesday, started all the remaining matches – the longest run of starts of his Birmingham career{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/interview\\-birmingham\\-city\\-boss\\-lee\\-4005005 \\|title\\=Lee Clark: 'Nikola Zigic is really happy in the area, he loves the football club.' \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=23 May 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2015}} – and ended the season with nine league goals, second only to King.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.soccerbase.com/teams/team.sd?team\\_id\\=291\\&season\\_id\\=142\\&teamTabs\\=stats \\|title\\=Birmingham Squad details 2012/13 \\|website\\=Soccerbase \\|publisher\\=Centurycomm \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2015}}\nŽigić missed the first few weeks of the 2013–14 season with a back problem,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.teamtalk.com/match/preview/978/8950169/Sky\\-Bet\\-Championship\\-Birmingham\\-v\\-Millwall\\-team\\-news \\|title\\=Birmingham v Millwall preview \\|website\\=TeamTalk \\|date\\=30 September 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527002526/http://www.teamtalk.com/match/preview/978/8950169/Sky\\-Bet\\-Championship\\-Birmingham\\-v\\-Millwall\\-team\\-news \\|archive\\-date\\=27 May 2015}} and once fit, played regularly throughout the season, as one of a small number of senior players in an inexperienced and youthful team with numerous short\\-term loanees.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/birmingham\\-city\\-comment\\-piece\\-colin\\-6913355 \\|title\\=This summer will be a tough summer of change for Blues \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=3 April 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2015}} The team struggled, and reached the last day of the season needing at least a draw away at [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers \"Bolton Wanderers\") and for other results to favour them to avoid relegation to [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One \"Football League One\"). Two goals down with 12 minutes left, Žigić scored, and three minutes into stoppage time, his close\\-range header was cleared off the line to [Paul Caddis](/wiki/Paul_Caddis \"Paul Caddis\"), who headed home to preserve Birmingham's second\\-tier status.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/27167525 \\|title\\=Bolton 2–2 Birmingham \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=3 May 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2014}} Birmingham were reported to be \"quietly confident\" of retaining his services for another season, at a much reduced salary, especially as he was believed to be keen on applying for British citizenship, which required five years' residence, but he left at the end of his contract. He was the last remaining member of the League Cup\\-winning team.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football\\-news/birmingham\\-city\\-hopeful\\-nikola\\-zigic\\-7137641 \\|title\\=Birmingham City hopeful Nikola Zigic will sign new deal \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Mail \\|date\\=19 May 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2015}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/20140701\\-farewell\\-to\\-ziggy\\-and\\-burke\\-1708957\\.aspx \\|title\\=Farewell to Ziggy and Burke \\|publisher\\=Birmingham City F.C. \\|date\\=1 July 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714232607/http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/20140701\\-farewell\\-to\\-ziggy\\-and\\-burke\\-1708957\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2014 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}\nHaving been without a club since his departure, Žigić began training with Birmingham again in November 2014\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/30097800 \\|title\\=Nikola Zigic: Former Birmingham City striker training with club \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=18 November 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2014}} After a successful appeal to be granted a work permit, for which he did not qualify automatically, he signed a contract on 4 December to expire at the end of the season.{{cite news \\|title\\=Nikola Zigic: Birmingham City re\\-sign Serbia striker \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/30145650 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=4 December 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2014}} He made his second debut as a late substitute in the Championship match at home to [Reading](/wiki/Reading_F.C. \"Reading F.C.\") on 13 December, with Birmingham already 6–1 ahead.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/30356696 \\|title\\=Birmingham 6–1 Reading \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=13 December 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2014}} He played only infrequently – nine substitute appearances in the league and two FA Cup matches – and the club confirmed he would be released when his contract expired.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/birmingham\\-city\\-2441045\\.aspx \\|title\\=Blues announce squad departures \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Tattum \\|publisher\\=Birmingham City F.C. \\|date\\=5 May 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519000106/http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/birmingham\\-city\\-2441045\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\nInternational career\n--------------------", "Coach [Ilija Petković](/wiki/Ilija_Petkovi%C4%87 \"Ilija Petković\") gave Žigić his international debut for [Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro_national_football_team \"Serbia and Montenegro national football team\") on 31 March 2004, as an 84th\\-minute substitute in a 1–0 [friendly](/wiki/Exhibition_game \"Exhibition game\") defeat against [Norway](/wiki/Norway_national_football_team \"Norway national football team\") in Belgrade.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.reprezentacija.rs/index.php/sr/orlovi/121 \\|title\\=Srbija i Crna Gora 0–1 (0––0\\) Norveška \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Serbia and Montenegro 0–1 (0–0\\) Norway \\|website\\=reprezentacija.rs \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126073114/http://www.reprezentacija.rs/index.php/sr/orlovi/121 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 November 2015}} His next appearance and first start came some 14 months later; in a friendly against [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_football_team \"Italy national football team\") in Canada, he ran onto a through ball and went round the goalkeeper to open the scoring and also hit the post in a 1–1 draw.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20050610/sport/lucarelli\\-goal\\-earns\\-italy\\-draw\\-with\\-serbia.87588 \\|title\\=Lucarelli goal earns Italy draw with Serbia \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Times of Malta]] \\|agency\\=Reuters \\|date\\=10 June 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}}\nHe also scored in his next match, against [Poland](/wiki/Poland_national_football_team \"Poland national football team\") in another friendly, and established himself as a regular selection, but it was his substitute appearance in a crucial [World Cup qualifier](/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%28UEFA%29 \"2006 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)\") against [Spain](/wiki/Spain_national_football_team \"Spain national football team\") in Madrid in September 2005 that brought him wider international recognition. After a poor first\\-half – Petković said they \"were lucky to be only a goal down at half\\-time\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/article/2005/09/09/petkovic\\-confident\\-after\\-draw \\|title\\=Petkovic confident after draw \\|website\\=The World Game \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Special Broadcasting Service]] (SBS) \\|agency\\=Reuters \\|date\\=9 September 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}} – Žigić was introduced, and the tactic of \"putting him in the centre of the opposition defence and playing long high balls to him ... was remarkably successful\".{{cite news \\|url\\=http://theworldgame.sbs.com.au/article/2005/09/08/arogones\\-optimistic\\-despite\\-draw \\|title\\=Aragones optimistic despite draw \\|website\\=The World Game \\|publisher\\=SBS \\|agency\\=\\[\\[PA Sport]] \\|date\\=8 September 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}} He pressured the goalkeeper into missing a cross which dropped for [Dejan Stanković](/wiki/Dejan_Stankovi%C4%87 \"Dejan Stanković\") to set up [Mateja Kežman](/wiki/Mateja_Ke%C5%BEman \"Mateja Kežman\")'s equaliser, and 12 minutes later, his pass left Kežman clear on goal but he mis\\-hit what might have been a winning shot.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/17593\\-world\\-cup\\-qualifier\\-spain\\-draws\\-with\\-serbia\\-montenegro \\|title\\=World Cup qualifier: Spain draws with Serbia\\-Montenegro \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NDTV]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|date\\=8 September 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}} The result left Serbia\\-Montenegro top of the group, and they confirmed their qualification at home to [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_national_football_team \"Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team\") when Žigić's assist gave Kežman a tap\\-in for the only goal of the game.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid\\=223223\\.html \\|title\\=Kežman the king of Belgrade \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=12 October 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}}\nŽigić's only start at the [2006 World Cup](/wiki/2006_World_Cup \"2006 World Cup\") came in the last fixture, when his team had already been eliminated after losing the first two group matches. He scored early in the first half off a long ball from Stanković against [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast_national_football_team \"Ivory Coast national football team\") – the goal was Serbia\\-Montenegro's first of the tournament – but the match ended in a 3–2 defeat.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/germany2006/teams/team\\=1890244/statistics.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411040720/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/germany2006/teams/team\\=1890244/statistics.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=11 April 2016 \\|title\\=2006 FIFA World Cup Germany: Serbia and Montenegro: Statistics \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] (FIFA) \\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2017}} \n{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.uefa.com/worldcup/news/newsid\\=428786\\.html \\|title\\=Ivorian comeback shocks Serbians \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=21 June 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2017}}\nStill an automatic choice under new national manager [Javier Clemente](/wiki/Javier_Clemente \"Javier Clemente\"), Žigić scored the only goal in [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia_national_football_team \"Serbia national football team\")'s first competitive match as a separate country, a [Euro 2008 qualifier](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2008_qualifying \"UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying\") at home to [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan_national_football_team \"Azerbaijan national football team\") in September 2006\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season\\=2008/matches/round\\=2241/match\\=83751/postmatch/report/index.html \\|title\\=Žigić sets Serbia off and running \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=2 September 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}} He scored once, missed two more good chances and was then sent off for elbowing an opponent in stoppage time of the March 2007 qualifying defeat in [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan_national_football_team \"Kazakhstan national football team\"),{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2007/mar/25/newsstory.sport1 \\|title\\=Zhumaskaliyev stuns Serbia for make benefit glorious nation of Kazakhstan \\|first\\=James \\|last\\=Stirling \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=25 March 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}} so missed the next, a home draw with [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal_national_football_team \"Portugal national football team\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid\\=520423\\.html \\|title\\=Clemente pleads for clemency \\|first\\=Aleksandar \\|last\\=Bošković \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=27 March 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}} and also missed the [Finland](/wiki/Finland_national_football_team \"Finland national football team\") fixture in June after surgery on a facial injury.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKB42071520070528 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120551/http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldFootballNews/idUKB42071520070528 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=12 October 2007 \\|title\\=Serbia's Žigić to miss Euro 2008 qualifier in Finland \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=28 May 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2015}} He still scored seven goals as Serbia failed to qualify.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season\\=2008/teams/team\\=147/matches/index.html \\|title\\=Serbia UEFA Euro 2008 Matches \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=10 February 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}}\nŽigić played regularly through the [2010 World Cup qualifying](/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup_qualification_%E2%80%93_UEFA_Group_7 \"2010 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 7\") campaign under the management of [Radomir Antić](/wiki/Radomir_Anti%C4%87 \"Radomir Antić\"), contributing three goals and partnering former Red Star teammate Marko Pantelić as Serbia qualified for a major tournament for the first time as an independent nation.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/international/group\\-d\\-australia\\-germany\\-ghana\\-serbia\\-1993981\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/international/group\\-d\\-australia\\-germany\\-ghana\\-serbia\\-1993981\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=Group D: Australia, Germany, Ghana, Serbia \\|first\\=Mark \\|last\\=Fleming \\|newspaper\\=The Independent \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=8 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}} Ahead of the [tournament proper](/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup \"2010 FIFA World Cup\"), he spoke in positive terms of his development since 2006: \"I went to Germany as player with no reputation or real experience to speak of. Tactically, I have learned a lot and I'm in much better condition, both physically and psychologically. This is my World Cup, I think I can play a lead role and I want to show I'm a player that can do it in big games.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y\\=2010/m\\=6/news\\=zigic\\-can\\-big\\-games\\-1223460\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712003251/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y\\=2010/m\\=6/news\\=zigic\\-can\\-big\\-games\\-1223460\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2015 \\|title\\=Zigic: I can do it in big games \\|publisher\\=FIFA \\|date\\=3 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2015}} After losing to [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana_national_football_team \"Ghana national football team\") in the opening group match, Serbia went on to face [Germany](/wiki/Germany_national_football_team \"Germany national football team\"). Within two minutes of [Miroslav Klose](/wiki/Miroslav_Klose \"Miroslav Klose\")'s first\\-half dismissal, Žigić headed a cross down to [Milan Jovanović](/wiki/Milan_Jovanovi%C4%87_%28footballer%2C_born_1981%29 \"Milan Jovanović (footballer, born 1981)\") who scored what proved to be the only goal of the game; [Lukas Podolski](/wiki/Lukas_Podolski \"Lukas Podolski\")'s second\\-half penalty was saved, and Antić dedicated the victory to the Serbian people.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y\\=2010/m\\=6/news\\=antic\\-dedicates\\-victory\\-serbian\\-people\\-1249562\\.html \\|title\\=Antic dedicates victory to Serbian people \\|publisher\\=FIFA \\|agency\\=PA \\|date\\=18 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712003147/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y%3D2010/m%3D6/news%3Dantic\\-dedicates\\-victory\\-serbian\\-people\\-1249562\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In a game of missed chances against [Australia](/wiki/Australia_men%27s_national_soccer_team \"Australia men's national soccer team\"), Serbia lost 2–1 and finished bottom of the group.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/matches/round\\=249722/match\\=300061467/match\\-report.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519122930/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/matches/round\\=249722/match\\=300061467/match\\-report.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=19 May 2015 \\|title\\=Australia win but come up short \\|publisher\\=FIFA \\|date\\=23 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2015}}\nGoals in four of Serbia's five internationals in the latter part of 2010 brought his total to 20\\. He was not selected to start the other match, a [Euro 2012](/wiki/Euro_2012 \"Euro 2012\") qualifier in Italy that was abandoned after six minutes because of crowd trouble; UEFA awarded the match to the hosts as a 3–0 win.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season\\=2012/matches/round\\=15171/match\\=2002166/postmatch/index.html \\|title\\=Italy\\-Serbia match abandoned due to crowd trouble \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|date\\=13 February 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=5 June 2015}} After Serbia failed to qualify for the tournament, both Stanković and [Nemanja Vidić](/wiki/Nemanja_Vidi%C4%87 \"Nemanja Vidić\") retired from international football, and Žigić was appointed captain of the national team.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/sport.294\\.html:352567\\-Zigic\\-Cast\\-mi\\-je\\-da\\-budem\\-kapiten \\|title\\=Žigić: Čast mi je da budem kapiten \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Žigić: I'm honoured to be captain \\|last\\=S.I. \\|newspaper\\=Večernje novosti \\|location\\=Belgrade \\|date\\=8 November 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=5 June 2015}} He captained the team in friendly defeats to [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico_national_football_team \"Mexico national football team\") and [Honduras](/wiki/Honduras_national_football_team \"Honduras national football team\") in 2011, his 56th and 57th appearances for his country, which proved to be his last.\nStyle of play\n-------------", "Žigić's extreme height predisposes him to an aerial game. He is dangerous from [set pieces](/wiki/Set_piece_%28football%29 \"Set piece (football)\"), scoring many headed goals and knocking the ball down for others: when he joined Red Star, the coach set out the team in a [4–3–3 formation](/wiki/4-3-3_formation \"4-3-3 formation\"), with Žigić at centre\\-forward and two [wingers](/wiki/Winger_%28association_football%29 \"Winger (association football)\") to feed those strengths. He tried to use his physical presence to disrupt opposing defences, both for his own benefit and to draw their attentions away from others. [Pep Guardiola](/wiki/Pep_Guardiola \"Pep Guardiola\") said in 2009 that Žigić was not easy to defend against, \"almost unstoppable\" in the air, but the best way would be to keep him as far as possible away from the penalty area. Speaking in 2010, [Radovan Ćurčić](/wiki/Radovan_%C4%86ur%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Radovan Ćurčić\"), then assistant manager of the Serbia national team, described him as \"the king of air play, he is the finest there is in Europe. He possesses the sense of space and movement without the ball and can assist his teammates with headers and set up goal\\-scoring opportunities.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://english.blic.rs/Sports/6302/Curcic\\-Krasic\\-Jovanovic\\-Zigic\\-on\\-par\\-with\\-Ronaldo\\-Drogba/print \\|title\\=Curcic: Krasic, Jovanovic, Zigic on par with Ronaldo, Drogba \\|first\\=B. \\|last\\=Markovic \\|newspaper\\=Blic \\|location\\=Belgrade \\|date\\=15 April 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125053017/http://english.blic.rs/Sports/6302/Curcic\\-Krasic\\-Jovanovic\\-Zigic\\-on\\-par\\-with\\-Ronaldo\\-Drogba/print \\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2015}} Sid Lowe of *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")* also described him as a \"tidy finisher\" in 2007\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2007/mar/19/europeanfootball.sport1 \\|title\\=Little and Large deliver the perfect punch\\-line for Racing \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|last1\\=Lowe \\|first1\\=Sid \\|date\\=19 March 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2024 }}\nAs exemplified on his debut for Racing, a performance in which he demonstrated his aerial power, he is capable of playing with his back to goal, and his height was not incompatible with agility.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20090201/zigic\\-un\\-reto\\-defensivo\\-talla\\-xxl\\_53630705507\\.html \\|title\\=Zigic, un reto defensivo talla XXL \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic, a defensive challenge size XXL \\|first1\\=Conchita \\|last1\\=Roura \\|first2\\=Sergi \\|last2\\=Solé \\|newspaper\\=Mundo Deportivo \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|date\\=1 February 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2015}} He prefers to play not as a lone striker but in partnership with a shorter, speedier, teammate. Racing's fitness coach, Javier Miñano, was surprised that Žigić was \"well coordinated, to the extent that he doesn't seem so tall when I see him in training.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://futbol.as.com/futbol/2007/04/03/mas\\_futbol/1175581630\\_850215\\.html \\|title\\=Zigic, el gigante de moda que quiere media Europa \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Zigic, the fashionable giant wanted by half of Europe \\|first\\=Ladislao J. \\|last\\=Moñino \\|newspaper\\=AS \\|location\\=Madrid \\|date\\=3 April 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2015 \\|quote\\=Está muy coordinado, hasta el punto de que no me parece tan alto cuando lo veo en los entrenamientos. He trabajado con jugadores de estatura elevada, pero más bajos que él, como Carew y Anelka, y me daban la sensación de ser más grandes\", comentaba con sorpresa el preparador físico del Racing Javier Miñano cuando le vio entrenarse.}}\nHe prefers to receive the ball in the air, because he can always beat smaller players in the air but they can take advantage of better acceleration and quicker reactions on the ground.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.thenational.ae/sport/football/germany\\-a\\-tall\\-order\\-for\\-serbs\\-giant\\-striker\\-zigic \\|title\\=Germany a tall order for Serbs' giant striker Zigic \\|first\\=Andy \\|last\\=Mitten \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The National (Abu Dhabi)\\|The National]] \\|location\\=Abu Dhabi \\|date\\=18 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2015}} According to David Pleat, a major factor in Birmingham's 2011 League Cup win was \"telling him to do what he does best and flick the ball on with his head from direct diagonal balls played from both wings\". Nevertheless, he is technically competent, scoring goals with his feet and providing assists for others. A 2009 feature in *Mundo Deportivo* assessed Žigić as one of those few tall players with a good touch on the ball,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.mundodeportivo.com/20090201/gigante\\-zigic\\_53630708959\\.html \\|title\\=Gigante Zigic \\|language\\=es \\|trans\\-title\\=Giant Zigic \\|first\\=Santi \\|last\\=Nolla \\|newspaper\\=Mundo Deportivo \\|location\\=Barcelona \\|date\\=1 February 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2015}} and in 2010, German international defender [Per Mertesacker](/wiki/Per_Mertesacker \"Per Mertesacker\") described him as \"technically a good player and very smart tactically\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://m.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y\\=2010/m\\=6/news\\=mertesacker\\-braced\\-for\\-tall\\-task\\-1248265\\.html \\|title\\=Mertesacker braced for tall task \\|publisher\\=FIFA \\|date\\=17 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015}}{{dead link\\|date\\=October 2021\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}\nCareer statistics\n-----------------", "### Club", "", "| \\+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition |\n| --- |\n|Club", "Season", "League", "National Cup", "League Cup", "Other", "Total", "|Division", "AppsGoals\nAppsGoals\nAppsGoals\nAppsGoals\nAppsGoals", "|[AIK Bačka Topola](/wiki/AIK_Ba%C4%8Dka_Topola \"AIK Bačka Topola\")", "1998–99 |\n [Serbian League Vojvodina](/wiki/Serbian_League_Vojvodina \"Serbian League Vojvodina\") | 14 | 8 | | |—— 14 | 8 |\n| 1999–2000 | Serbian League Vojvodina | 28 | 28 | | |—— 28 | 28 |\n| 2000–01 | Serbian League Vojvodina | 30 | 30 | | |—— 30 | 30 |\n| 2001–02 | Serbian League Vojvodina | 4 | 2 | | |—— 4 | 2 |\n|Total", "76 | 68 | | |—— 76 | 68 |\n| [Mornar](/wiki/FK_Mornar \"FK Mornar\") | 2001–02 | [Second League of FR Yugoslavia](/wiki/Second_League_of_FR_Yugoslavia \"Second League of FR Yugoslavia\") | 23 | 15 | | |—— 23 | 15 |\n| [Kolubara](/wiki/FK_Kolubara \"FK Kolubara\") | 2002–03 | [Serbian League Belgrade](/wiki/Serbian_League_Belgrade \"Serbian League Belgrade\") | 8 | 3 | | |—— 8 | 3 |\n| [Spartak Subotica](/wiki/FK_Spartak_Subotica \"FK Spartak Subotica\") | 2002–03 | Serbian League Vojvodina | 11 | 14 | | |—— 11 | 14 |\n|[Red Star Belgrade](/wiki/Red_Star_Belgrade \"Red Star Belgrade\")", "[2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"2003–04 First League of Serbia and Montenegro\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.crvenazvezdafk.com/en/istorija/kupovi/6184/Cup\\+winners\\+2004\\..html \\|title\\=Cup winners 2004 \\|publisher\\=FK Red Star \\|date\\=7 September 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318101551/http://crvenazvezdafk.com/en/istorija/kupovi/6184/Cup%2Bwinners%2B2004\\..html \\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\\=2003/clubs/club\\=50069/matches/index.html \\|title\\=2003/04 UEFA Cup: FK Crvena Zvezda: Top goalscorers \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2013}} |\n [First League of Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"First League of Serbia and Montenegro\") |\n 28 | 18 | 3 | 2 |— 5{{efn\\|Appearance(s) in \\[\\[UEFA Cup]]\\|name\\=statsUEFACup}} | 6 | 36 | 26 |\n| [2004–05](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"2004–05 First League of Serbia and Montenegro\")For Champions League: {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season\\=2004/clubs/club\\=50069/matches/index.html \\|title\\=UEFA Champions League 2004/05: FK Crvena Zvezda: Top goalscorers \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2013}}For UEFA Cup: {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\\=2004/clubs/club\\=50069/matches/index.html \\|title\\=2004/05 UEFA Cup: FK Crvena Zvezda: Matches \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2013}}For national cup: {{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesj/joeg05\\.html \\|title\\=Serbia and Montenegro 2004/05 \\|first\\=Dragoljub \\|last\\=Jovanović \\|date\\=3 September 2005 \\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.sportskacentrala.com/index.php?s\\=read\\&cat\\=1\\&id\\=3873 \\|title\\=Rutinska pobeda Zvezde \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Routine victory for Stars \\|website\\=Sportska centrala \\|date\\=27 October 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125220611/http://www.sportskacentrala.com/index.php?s\\=read\\&cat\\=1\\&id\\=3873 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.sportskacentrala.com/?s\\=read\\&cat\\=1\\&id\\=4257 \\|title\\=Bogavac Zvezdu odveo u polufinale \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Bogavac takes Stars into semifinals \\|website\\=Sportska centrala \\|date\\=10 November 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125214128/http://www.sportskacentrala.com/?s\\=read\\&cat\\=1\\&id\\=4257 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} | First League of Serbia and Montenegro | 25 | 15 | 3 | 2 |— 5{{efn\\|Three appearances three goals in \\[\\[UEFA Champions League]], two appearances in UEFA Cup}} | 3 | 33 | 20 |\n| [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Serbia_and_Montenegro_SuperLiga \"2005–06 Serbia and Montenegro SuperLiga\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.crvenazvezdafk.com/en/istorija/kupovi/6185/Cup\\+winners\\+2006\\..html \\|title\\=Cup winners 2006 \\|publisher\\=FK Red Star \\|date\\=7 September 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701165555/http://www.crvenazvezdafk.com/en/istorija/kupovi/6185/Cup%2Bwinners%2B2006\\..html \\|archive\\-date\\= 1 July 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/season\\=2005/clubs/club\\=50069/matches/index.html \\|title\\=2005/06 UEFA Cup: FK Crvena Zvezda: Top goalscorers \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2013}} | [Serbia and Montenegro SuperLiga](/wiki/First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"First League of Serbia and Montenegro\") | 23 | 12 | 3 | 2 |— 7{{efn\\|name\\=statsUEFACup}} | 6 | 33 | 20 |\n| [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Serbian_SuperLiga \"2006–07 Serbian SuperLiga\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season\\=2006/clubs/club\\=50069/matches/index.html \\|title\\=UEFA Champions League 2006/07: FK Crvena Zvezda: Top goalscorers \\|publisher\\=UEFA \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2013}} | [Serbian SuperLiga](/wiki/Serbian_SuperLiga \"Serbian SuperLiga\") | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 |— 4{{efn\\|name\\=statsUCL}} | 2 | 7 | 4 |\n|Total", "79 | 47 | 9 | 6 |— 21 | 17 | 109 | 70 |\n| [Racing Santander](/wiki/Racing_de_Santander \"Racing de Santander\") | [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_La_Liga \"2006–07 La Liga\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/p/j2085\\.html?cat\\=\\-\\&temp\\=2006\\-07\\&equip\\=\\-\\&rival\\=\\- \\|title\\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic: 2006–07 \\|website\\=BDFutbol \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2013}} | [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga \"La Liga\") | 32 | 11 | 1 | 0 |—— 33 | 11 |\n|[Valencia](/wiki/Valencia_CF \"Valencia CF\")", "[2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Valencia_CF_season \"2007–08 Valencia CF season\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/p/j2085\\.html?cat\\=\\-\\&temp\\=2007\\-08\\&equip\\=\\-\\&rival\\=\\- \\|title\\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic: 2007–08 \\|website\\=BDFutbol \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2013}} |\n La Liga | 15 | 1 | 3 | 4 |— 3{{efn\\|Appearance(s) in UEFA Champions League\\|name\\=statsUCL}} | 0 | 21 | 5 |\n| [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Valencia_CF_season \"2008–09 Valencia CF season\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/p/j2085\\.html?cat\\=\\-\\&temp\\=2008\\-09\\&equip\\=\\-\\&rival\\=\\- \\|title\\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic: 2008–09 \\|website\\=BDFutbol \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2013}} | La Liga | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |— 3{{efn\\|name\\=statsUEFACup}} | 2 | 5 | 3 |\n| [2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_La_Liga \"2009–10 La Liga\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/p/j2085\\.html?cat\\=\\-\\&temp\\=2009\\-10\\&equip\\=\\-\\&rival\\=\\- \\|title\\=Zigic: Nikola Zigic: 2009–10 \\|website\\=BDFutbol \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2013}} | La Liga | 13 | 4 | 4 | 3 |— 9{{efn\\|Appearance(s) in \\[\\[UEFA Europa League]]\\|name\\=statsUEL}} | 2 | 26 | 9 |\n|Total", "28 | 5 | 9 | 8 |— 15 | 4 | 52 | 17 |\n| Racing Santander (loan) | [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_La_Liga \"2008–09 La Liga\") | La Liga | 19 | 13 |——— 19 | 13 |\n|[Birmingham City](/wiki/Birmingham_City_F.C. \"Birmingham City F.C.\")", "[2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Birmingham_City_F.C._season \"2010–11 Birmingham City F.C. season\"){{soccerbase season\\|36047\\|2010\\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2015}} |\n [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") | 25 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 3 |— 34 | 8 |\n| [2011–12](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Birmingham_City_F.C._season \"2011–12 Birmingham City F.C. season\"){{soccerbase season\\|36047\\|2011\\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2015}} | [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship \"Football League Championship\") | 35 | 11 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 6{{efn\\|Five appearances in UEFA Europa League, one appearance one goal in \\[\\[Football League play\\-offs]]}} | 1 | 43 | 12 |\n| [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Birmingham_City_F.C._season \"2012–13 Birmingham City F.C. season\"){{soccerbase season\\|36047\\|2012\\|access\\-date\\=17 December 2013}} | Championship | 35 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |— 36 | 9 |\n| [2013–14](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Birmingham_City_F.C._season \"2013–14 Birmingham City F.C. season\"){{soccerbase season\\|36047\\|2013\\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2014}} | Championship | 33 | 7{{efn\\|Birmingham's goal in the 2–1 defeat to \\[\\[Bolton Wanderers]] on 5 October, originally credited to Žigić, was retrospectively awarded to \\[\\[Lee Novak]].{{cite web \\|title\\=Credit goes to Novak \\|url\\=http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/20131009\\-credit\\-goes\\-to\\-novak\\-1106398\\.aspx \\|publisher\\=Birmingham City F.C \\|date\\=9 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=21 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006175540/http://www.bcfc.com/news/article/20131009\\-credit\\-goes\\-to\\-novak\\-1106398\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2014 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}\\|name\\=dubious}} | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |— 35 | 7 |\n| [2014–15](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Birmingham_City_F.C._season \"2014–15 Birmingham City F.C. season\"){{soccerbase season\\|36047\\|2014\\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2015}} | Championship | 9 | 0 | 2 | 0 |—— 11 | 0 |\n|Total", "137 | 32{{efn\\|name\\=dubious}} | 7 | 0 | 9 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 159 | 36 |\n|Career total", "413 | 208{{efn\\|name\\=dubious}} | 26 | 14 | 9 | 3 | 42 | 22 | 490 | 247 |", "{{notelist}}\n### International", "", "| \\+ Appearances and goals by national team and year |\n| --- |\n| National team | Year | Apps | Goals |\n|[Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro_national_football_team \"Serbia and Montenegro national football team\") \n[Serbia](/wiki/Serbia_national_football_team \"Serbia national football team\")", "2004 | 1 | 0 |\n| 2005 | 9 | 3 |\n| 2006 | 9 | 4 |\n| 2007 | 7 | 4 |\n| 2008 | 7 | 2 |\n| 2009 | 8 | 3 |\n| 2010 | 12 | 4 |\n| 2011 | 4 | 0 |\n|Total 57 | 20 |", "*Score and result columns list Serbia and Montenegro/Serbia's score first*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.reprezentacija.rs/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=1655\\&Itemid\\=2 \\|title\\=Žigić Nikola \\|website\\=reprezentacija.rs \\|language\\=sr \\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226234436/http://www.reprezentacija.rs/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=1655\\&Itemid\\=2 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 December 2014}}", "| \\+ International goals |\n| --- |\n| Goal | Date | Venue | Opponent | Score | Result | Competition {{Ig match \\| n\\=1\\. \\| d\\=8 June 2005 \\| st\\=Rogers Centre \\| ci\\=Toronto \\| co\\=Canada \\| o\\=Italy \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=1–1 \\| comp\\=\\[\\[Exhibition game\\|Friendly]]}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=2\\. \\| d\\=15 August 2005 \\| st\\=Lobanovsky Dynamo Stadium \\| ci\\=Kiev \\| co\\=Ukraine \\| o\\=Poland \\| sc\\=1–1 \\| fr\\=2–3 \\| comp\\=Friendly}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=3\\. \\| d\\=13 November 2005 \\| st\\=Nanjing Olympic Sports Center\\| ci\\=Nanjing \\| co\\=China \\| o\\=China \\| sc\\=2–0 \\| fr\\=2–0 \\| comp\\=Friendly}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=4\\. \\| d\\=21 June 2006 \\| st\\=Allianz Arena \\| ci\\=Munich \\| co\\=Germany \\| o\\=Ivory Coast \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=2–3 \\| comp\\=\\[\\[2006 FIFA World Cup\\|2006 World Cup]]}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=5\\. \\| d\\=2 September 2006 \\| st\\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Azerbaijan \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=1–0 \\| comp\\=\\[\\[UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying\\|Euro 2008 qualifying]]}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=6\\. \\| d\\=7 October 2006 \\| st1\\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Belgium \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=1–0 \\| comp\\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=7\\. \\| d\\=11 October 2006 \\| st1\\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Armenia \\| sc\\=3–0 \\| fr\\=3–0 \\| comp\\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=8\\. \\| d\\=24 March 2007 \\| st\\=Almaty Central Stadium \\| ci\\=Almaty \\| co\\=Kazakhstan \\| o\\=Kazakhstan \\| sc\\=1–2 \\| fr\\=1–2 \\| comp\\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=9\\. \\| d\\=17 October 2007 \\| st\\=Tofik Bakhramov Stadium \\| ci\\=Baku \\| co\\=Azerbaijan \\| o\\=Azerbaijan \\| sc\\=2–0 \\| fr\\=6–1 \\| comp\\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=10\\. \\| d\\=17 October 2007 \\| st1\\=Tofik Bakhramov Stadium \\| ci\\=Baku \\| co\\=Azerbaijan \\| o\\=Azerbaijan \\| sc\\=4–1 \\| fr\\=6–1 \\| comp\\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=11\\. \\| d\\=21 November 2007 \\| st1\\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Poland \\| sc\\=1–2 \\| fr\\=2–2 \\| comp\\=Euro 2008 qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=12\\. \\| d\\=6 September 2008 \\| st1\\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Faroe Islands \\| sc\\=2–0 \\| fr\\=2–0 \\| comp\\=\\[\\[2010 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)\\|2010 World Cup qualifying]]}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=13\\. \\| d\\=11 October 2008 \\| st1\\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Lithuania \\| sc\\=3–0 \\| fr\\=3–0 \\| comp\\=2010 World Cup qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=14\\. \\| d\\=1 April 2009 \\| st\\=Stadion Partizan \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Sweden \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=2–0 \\| comp\\=Friendly}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=15\\. \\| d\\=10 October 2009 \\| st1\\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Romania \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=5–0 \\| comp\\=2010 World Cup qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=16\\. \\| d\\=18 November 2009 \\| st\\=Craven Cottage \\| ci\\=London \\| co\\=England \\| o\\=Korea Republic \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=1–0 \\| comp\\=Friendly}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=17\\. \\| d\\=3 September 2010 \\| st\\=Tórsvøllur \\| ci\\=Tórshavn \\| co\\=Faroe Islands \\| o\\=Faroe Islands \\| sc\\=3–0 \\| fr\\=3–0 \\| comp\\=\\[\\[UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying Group C\\|Euro 2012 qualifying]]}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=18\\. \\| d\\=7 September 2010 \\| st1\\=Stadion Crvena Zvezda \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Slovenia \\| sc\\=1–1 \\| fr\\=1–1 \\| comp\\=Euro 2012 qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=19\\. \\| d\\=8 October 2010 \\| st1\\=Stadion Partizan \\| ci\\=Belgrade \\| co\\=Serbia \\| o\\=Estonia \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=1–3 \\| comp\\=Euro 2012 qualifying}} {{Ig match \\| n\\=20\\. \\| d\\=17 November 2010 \\| st\\=Vasil Levski National Stadium \\| ci\\=Sofia \\| co\\=Bulgaria \\| o\\=Bulgaria \\| sc\\=1–0 \\| fr\\=1–0 \\| comp\\=Friendly}} |", "Honours\n-------", "Red Star**[First League of Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"First League of Serbia and Montenegro\"): [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_First_League_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro \"2003–04 First League of Serbia and Montenegro\"), [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Serbia_and_Montenegro_SuperLiga \"2005–06 Serbia and Montenegro SuperLiga\")\n[Serbia and Montenegro Cup](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup \"Serbia and Montenegro Cup\"): [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup \"2003–04 Serbia and Montenegro Cup\"), [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Serbia_and_Montenegro_Cup \"2005–06 Serbia and Montenegro Cup\")**Valencia**[Copa del Rey](/wiki/Copa_del_Rey \"Copa del Rey\"): [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Copa_del_Rey \"2007–08 Copa del Rey\")**Birmingham City**[Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\"): [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Football_League_Cup \"2010–11 Football League Cup\")**Individual'''\n[Serbia and Montenegro League](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro_League \"Serbia and Montenegro League\"): top scorer 2003–04{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.yufprvaliga.co.yu/takmicen/listas.htm \\|title\\=Lista strelaca posle 30\\. kola \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Top scorers after 30 rounds \\|publisher\\=Zajednica fudbalskih klubova prve savezne lige (Union of First Federal League Clubs) \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040612183841/http://www.yufprvaliga.co.yu/takmicen/listas.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2004}}\n[Serbian Footballer of the Year](/wiki/Serbian_Footballer_of_the_Year \"Serbian Footballer of the Year\"):{{cite news \\|url\\=http://mondo.rs/a754782/Sport/Fudbal/Nemanja\\-Matic\\-najbolji\\-igrac\\-Radovan\\-Curcic\\-najbolji\\-trener.html \\|title\\=Matić, Ćurčić i Mažić – najbolje u srpskom fudbalu \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Matić, Ćurčić and Mažić – the best in Serbian football \\|website\\=\\[\\[Telekom Srbija\\#Web\\-portal\\|Mondo.rs]] \\|date\\=18 December 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=3 June 2015}} 2003, 2007\n* + - * + - * [Večernje novosti](/wiki/Ve%C4%8Dernje_novosti \"Večernje novosti\")'' captains' poll{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/sport.294\\.html:469491\\-Tradicionalna\\-anketa\\-Novosti\\-Kapiteni\\-biraju\\-fudbalera\\-godine \\|title\\=Tradicionalna anketa 'Novosti': Kapiteni biraju fudbalera godine \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=\"Novosti\"'s traditional poll: Footballer of the year voted for by the captains \\|first\\=V. \\|last\\=Tomković \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Večernje novosti]] \\|location\\=Belgrade \\|date\\=20 December 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2015}}\n\t+ Domestic player of the year: 2003, 2005\n\t+ Prva zvezda (Player of the year based abroad): 2006\n* [Red Star Sport Association](/wiki/SD_Crvena_Zvezda \"SD Crvena Zvezda\") Best Male Athlete: 2005{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sd\\-crvenazvezda.net/news/print.php?id\\=461⟨\\=sr \\|title\\=Прослављен 61\\. рођендан Црвене звезде \\|language\\=sr \\|trans\\-title\\=Red Star celebrates its 61st birthday \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[SD Crvena Zvezda]] (Red Star Sport Association) \\|date\\=3 March 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=20 May 2015 \\|quote\\=Никола Жигић, наш фудбалер, изабран је за најбољег спортисту Црвене звезде \\[Nikola Žigić, our footballer, was chosen as Red Star's best athlete]. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524194358/http://www.sd\\-crvenazvezda.net/news/print.php?id\\=461⟨\\=sr \\|archive\\-date\\=24 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}" ]
Historical phonology -------------------- [Old Tibetan](/wiki/Old_Tibetan "Old Tibetan") phonology is rather accurately rendered by the script. The finals were pronounced devoiced although they are written as voiced, the prefix letters assimilated their voicing to the root letters. The graphic combinations *hr* and *lh* represent voiceless and not necessarily aspirate correspondences to *r* and *l* respectively. The letter ' was pronounced as a voiced guttural fricative before vowels but as homorganic prenasalization before consonants. Whether the gigu *verso* had phonetic meaning or not remains controversial. For instance, *Srongbtsan Sgampo* would have been pronounced {{IPA\|\[sroŋpʦan zɡampo]}} (now pronounced {{IPA\|\[sɔ́ŋʦɛ̃ ɡʌ̀mpo]}} in Lhasa Tibetan) and '*babs* would have been pronounced {{IPA\|\[mbaps]}} (pronounced {{IPA\|\[bapˤ]}}{{Dubious\|date\=February 2009}} in Lhasa Tibetan). Already in the 9th century the process of cluster simplification, [devoicing](/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing "Consonant voicing and devoicing") and [tonogenesis](/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29 "Tone (linguistics)") had begun in the central dialects, as can be shown by Tibetan words transliterated into other languages, particularly [Middle Chinese](/wiki/Middle_Chinese "Middle Chinese") but also [Uyghur](/wiki/Uyghur_language "Uyghur language"). The combination of the abovementioned evidence enables us to form the following outline of the evolution of Tibetan. In the 9th century, as shown by the bilingual Tibetan–[Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language") treaty of 821–822 found in front of [Lhasa](/wiki/Lhasa "Lhasa")'s [Jokhang](/wiki/Jokhang "Jokhang"), the complex initial clusters had already been reduced, and the process of tonogenesis was likely well underway. The next change took place in Tsang (Gtsang) dialects: The *ra*\-tags were altered into [retroflex](/wiki/Retroflex_consonant "Retroflex consonant") consonants, and the *ya*\-tags became palatals. Later on the superscribed letters and finals *d* and *s* disappeared, except in the east and west. It was at this stage that the language spread in Lahul and Spiti, where the superscribed letters were silent, the *d* and *g* finals were hardly heard, and *as*, *os*, *us* were pronounced *ai*, *oi*, *ui*. The words introduced from Tibet into the border languages at that time differ greatly from those borrowed at an earlier period. Other changes are more recent and restricted to Ü and Tsang. In Ü, the vowel sounds *a*, *o*, *u* have now mostly [umlauted](/wiki/Umlaut_%28diacritic%29 "Umlaut (diacritic)") to *ä*, *ö*, *ü* when followed by the coronal sounds *i*, *d*, *s*, *l* and *n*. The same holds for Tsang with the exception of *l*, which merely lengthens the vowel. The medials have become [aspirate](/wiki/Aspiration_%28phonetics%29 "Aspiration (phonetics)") tenues with a low intonation, which also marks words having a simple initial consonant; while the former aspirates and the complex initials simplified in speech are uttered with a high tone, shrill and rapidly.
[ "Historical phonology\n--------------------", "[Old Tibetan](/wiki/Old_Tibetan \"Old Tibetan\") phonology is rather accurately rendered by the script. The finals were pronounced devoiced although they are written as voiced, the prefix letters assimilated their voicing to the root letters. The graphic combinations *hr* and *lh* represent voiceless and not necessarily aspirate correspondences to *r* and *l* respectively. The letter ' was pronounced as a voiced guttural fricative before vowels but as homorganic prenasalization before consonants. Whether the gigu *verso* had phonetic meaning or not remains controversial.", "For instance, *Srongbtsan Sgampo* would have been pronounced {{IPA\\|\\[sroŋpʦan zɡampo]}} (now pronounced {{IPA\\|\\[sɔ́ŋʦɛ̃ ɡʌ̀mpo]}} in Lhasa Tibetan) and '*babs* would have been pronounced {{IPA\\|\\[mbaps]}} (pronounced {{IPA\\|\\[bapˤ]}}{{Dubious\\|date\\=February 2009}} in Lhasa Tibetan).", "Already in the 9th century the process of cluster simplification, [devoicing](/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing \"Consonant voicing and devoicing\") and [tonogenesis](/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29 \"Tone (linguistics)\") had begun in the central dialects, as can be shown by Tibetan words transliterated into other languages, particularly [Middle Chinese](/wiki/Middle_Chinese \"Middle Chinese\") but also [Uyghur](/wiki/Uyghur_language \"Uyghur language\").", "The combination of the abovementioned evidence enables us to form the following outline of the evolution of Tibetan. In the 9th century, as shown by the bilingual Tibetan–[Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language \"Chinese language\") treaty of 821–822 found in front of [Lhasa](/wiki/Lhasa \"Lhasa\")'s [Jokhang](/wiki/Jokhang \"Jokhang\"), the complex initial clusters had already been reduced, and the process of tonogenesis was likely well underway.", "The next change took place in Tsang (Gtsang) dialects: The *ra*\\-tags were altered into [retroflex](/wiki/Retroflex_consonant \"Retroflex consonant\") consonants, and the *ya*\\-tags became palatals.", "Later on the superscribed letters and finals *d* and *s* disappeared, except in the east and west. It was at this stage that the language spread in Lahul and Spiti, where the superscribed letters were silent, the *d* and *g* finals were hardly heard, and *as*, *os*, *us* were pronounced *ai*, *oi*, *ui*. The words introduced from Tibet into the border languages at that time differ greatly from those borrowed at an earlier period.", "Other changes are more recent and restricted to Ü and Tsang. In Ü, the vowel sounds *a*, *o*, *u* have now mostly [umlauted](/wiki/Umlaut_%28diacritic%29 \"Umlaut (diacritic)\") to *ä*, *ö*, *ü* when followed by the coronal sounds *i*, *d*, *s*, *l* and *n*. The same holds for Tsang with the exception of *l*, which merely lengthens the vowel. The medials have become [aspirate](/wiki/Aspiration_%28phonetics%29 \"Aspiration (phonetics)\") tenues with a low intonation, which also marks words having a simple initial consonant; while the former aspirates and the complex initials simplified in speech are uttered with a high tone, shrill and rapidly.", "" ]
Climbing history ---------------- [thumb\|The Troll Wall (left), with the peaks of Brudgommen (The Bridegroom) and Store Trolltind to the right](/wiki/File:Trollveggen.jpg "Trollveggen.jpg") The Troll Wall was first climbed in 1965 by a Norwegian team. The Norwegian team, consisting of [Ole Daniel Enersen](/wiki/Ole_Daniel_Enersen "Ole Daniel Enersen"), Leif Norman Patterson, Odd Eliassen, and Jon Teigland, finished one day ahead of the British climbers Tony Howard, John Amatt, and Bill Tweedale, who established the most popular [climbing route](/wiki/Climbing_route "Climbing route") on the wall, the *Rimmon Route*.[*Troll Wall: the Untold Story of the British First Ascent of Europe's Tallest Rock Face*](http://www.v-publishing.co.uk/titles/biography/troll-wall-the-untold-story-of-the-british-first-ascent-of-europe-s-tallest-rock-face.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221112026/http://www.v\-publishing.co.uk/titles/biography/troll\-wall\-the\-untold\-story\-of\-the\-british\-first\-ascent\-of\-europe\-s\-tallest\-rock\-face.html \|date\=2011\-02\-21 }}, v\-publishing.co.uk. Retrieved 18 January 2011\. As of 2003, this route was reported unclimbable because a rockfall in September 1998 destroyed five of its pitches. The wall saw its first winter ascent in March 1974, when [Wojciech Kurtyka](/wiki/Wojciech_Kurtyka "Wojciech Kurtyka") from [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") spent 13 days repeating the 1967 *French Route*. In 1979, the wall was [free climbed](/wiki/Free_climbing "Free climbing") for the first time by local climber [Hans Christian Doseth](/wiki/Hans_Christian_Doseth "Hans Christian Doseth") and Ragnhild Amundsen. Today, there are many routes on the wall, ranging in length and difficulty. The classic *Rimmon* and *Swedish* routes were normally free\-climbed in a day or two until being heavily damaged by the 1998 rock falls. The longer and more engaging [aid routes](/wiki/Aid_climbing "Aid climbing"), such as the 1972 test piece *Arch Wall* (climbed by Ed and Hugh Drummond in 20 days), or the 1986 *Death to All/Pretty Blond Vikings*, which cuts through the steepest part of the wall, require advanced knowledge of big wall climbing and several days on the wall. Due to the serious character of the wall, in addition to a cold and damp climate, new routes on Troll Wall are rare. In February 2002, a Russian team established the *Krasnoyarsk Route* for 19 days.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.romsdala.com/krasnojarsk.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224111229/http://www.romsdala.com/krasnojarsk.html \|archive\-date\=2015\-02\-24 \|title\=Topo for the Krasnoyarsk route on the Troll Wall}} The {{convert\|1200\|m}} long *Krasnoyarsk*, [graded](/wiki/Grade_%28climbing%29 "Grade (climbing)") f6c\+/A4\+, is generally thought to be the hardest aid route on the wall and was awarded first prize in the 2002 All Russia Winter Mountaineering Championships.{{Cite web\|url\=https://services.thebmc.co.uk/saethers\-free\-a4\-on\-troll\-wall\|title\=Father and son team frees A4\+ on Troll Wall\|website\=services.thebmc.co.uk}} In July 2010, *Arch Wall*, previously a serious aid route of difficulty up to [A4\+](/wiki/Grade_%28climbing%29 "Grade (climbing)"), saw its first all\-free ascent by local climber Sindre Sæther and his father, Ole Johan. *Arch Wall* is about {{convert\|1200\|m}} of climbing over 37 [pitches](/wiki/Pitch_%28ascent/descent%29 "Pitch (ascent/descent)"), and it took the two a total of 36 hours of climbing to reach the summit. In July 2012, Sindre and Ole Johan Sæther repeated the feat by free climbing the *Krasnoyarsk Route*. The most recent contribution to climbs on the Troll Wall is *Katharsis*, established by Polish climbers Marek Raganowicz and Marcin Tomaszewski over 18 days in January and February 2015\. According to Planetmountain.com, the new route shares the first two pitches of the *French Route*, before forging a line between the *Russian Route* and *Arch Wall*. The team reported of difficulties up to A4/M7\.
[ "Climbing history\n----------------", "[thumb\\|The Troll Wall (left), with the peaks of Brudgommen (The Bridegroom) and Store Trolltind to the right](/wiki/File:Trollveggen.jpg \"Trollveggen.jpg\")\nThe Troll Wall was first climbed in 1965 by a Norwegian team. The Norwegian team, consisting of [Ole Daniel Enersen](/wiki/Ole_Daniel_Enersen \"Ole Daniel Enersen\"), Leif Norman Patterson, Odd Eliassen, and Jon Teigland, finished one day ahead of the British climbers Tony Howard, John Amatt, and Bill Tweedale, who established the most popular [climbing route](/wiki/Climbing_route \"Climbing route\") on the wall, the *Rimmon Route*.[*Troll Wall: the Untold Story of the British First Ascent of Europe's Tallest Rock Face*](http://www.v-publishing.co.uk/titles/biography/troll-wall-the-untold-story-of-the-british-first-ascent-of-europe-s-tallest-rock-face.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221112026/http://www.v\\-publishing.co.uk/titles/biography/troll\\-wall\\-the\\-untold\\-story\\-of\\-the\\-british\\-first\\-ascent\\-of\\-europe\\-s\\-tallest\\-rock\\-face.html \\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-21 }}, v\\-publishing.co.uk. Retrieved 18 January 2011\\. As of 2003, this route was reported unclimbable because a rockfall in September 1998 destroyed five of its pitches.", "The wall saw its first winter ascent in March 1974, when [Wojciech Kurtyka](/wiki/Wojciech_Kurtyka \"Wojciech Kurtyka\") from [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") spent 13 days repeating the 1967 *French Route*.", "In 1979, the wall was [free climbed](/wiki/Free_climbing \"Free climbing\") for the first time by local climber [Hans Christian Doseth](/wiki/Hans_Christian_Doseth \"Hans Christian Doseth\") and Ragnhild Amundsen.", "Today, there are many routes on the wall, ranging in length and difficulty. The classic *Rimmon* and *Swedish* routes were normally free\\-climbed in a day or two until being heavily damaged by the 1998 rock falls. The longer and more engaging [aid routes](/wiki/Aid_climbing \"Aid climbing\"), such as the 1972 test piece *Arch Wall* (climbed by Ed and Hugh Drummond in 20 days), or the 1986 *Death to All/Pretty Blond Vikings*, which cuts through the steepest part of the wall, require advanced knowledge of big wall climbing and several days on the wall.", "Due to the serious character of the wall, in addition to a cold and damp climate, new routes on Troll Wall are rare. In February 2002, a Russian team established the *Krasnoyarsk Route* for 19 days.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.romsdala.com/krasnojarsk.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224111229/http://www.romsdala.com/krasnojarsk.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-02\\-24 \\|title\\=Topo for the Krasnoyarsk route on the Troll Wall}} The {{convert\\|1200\\|m}} long *Krasnoyarsk*, [graded](/wiki/Grade_%28climbing%29 \"Grade (climbing)\") f6c\\+/A4\\+, is generally thought to be the hardest aid route on the wall and was awarded first prize in the 2002 All Russia Winter Mountaineering Championships.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://services.thebmc.co.uk/saethers\\-free\\-a4\\-on\\-troll\\-wall\\|title\\=Father and son team frees A4\\+ on Troll Wall\\|website\\=services.thebmc.co.uk}}", "In July 2010, *Arch Wall*, previously a serious aid route of difficulty up to [A4\\+](/wiki/Grade_%28climbing%29 \"Grade (climbing)\"), saw its first all\\-free ascent by local climber Sindre Sæther and his father, Ole Johan. *Arch Wall* is about {{convert\\|1200\\|m}} of climbing over 37 [pitches](/wiki/Pitch_%28ascent/descent%29 \"Pitch (ascent/descent)\"), and it took the two a total of 36 hours of climbing to reach the summit.", "In July 2012, Sindre and Ole Johan Sæther repeated the feat by free climbing the *Krasnoyarsk Route*.", "The most recent contribution to climbs on the Troll Wall is *Katharsis*, established by Polish climbers Marek Raganowicz and Marcin Tomaszewski over 18 days in January and February 2015\\. According to Planetmountain.com, the new route shares the first two pitches of the *French Route*, before forging a line between the *Russian Route* and *Arch Wall*. The team reported of difficulties up to A4/M7\\.", "" ]
Background ---------- Kia Ora Gold Corporation [NL](/wiki/No_liability "No liability") was incorporated in [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia "South Australia") in September 1954 and was listed on the [Australian Stock Exchange](/wiki/Australian_Stock_Exchange "Australian Stock Exchange"). It carried on business principally as a gold mining company in [Western Australia](/wiki/Western_Australia "Western Australia"). Western United Limited, originally formed in 1953, had an equal partnership with Kia Ora in the [Marvel Loch mine](/wiki/Marvel_Loch_Gold_Mine "Marvel Loch Gold Mine"), which was sold in 1987\. After 1983, it changed its focus to concentrate on the provision of financial and mining services. Each company had a shareholding in the other, and both were under common control. In 1987, Kia Ora made a [takeover bid](/wiki/Takeover_bid "Takeover bid") to purchase all shares of Western United Ltd, in consideration for either: * 4 fully paid ordinary shares of Kia Ora for every Western United share, or * 5 fully paid ordinary shares for every two WU shares, together with $1\.20 for each WU share. This valued WU Ltd at $3\.95 to $4\.40 a share, based on Kia Ora's market price of $1\.10 a share. WU's shares then had a market price of $2\.45 a share. Kia Ora's directors instructed the Perth office of Nelson Wheeler,subsequently merged into Parkhill BDO, now part of [BDO International](/wiki/BDO_International "BDO International") to do a report for its shareholders, and this valued WU Ltd at $3\.22 a share, and it was reasonable to pay a premium to acquire WU Ltd. Kia Ora shareholders approved the takeover. In 1988, Kia Ora entered into a [reverse takeover](/wiki/Reverse_takeover "Reverse takeover") for the assets of the Duke Group of companies, with Duke acquiring all the issued capital of Kia Ora. Upon completion, in July 1988 Kia Ora changed its name to The Duke Group Limited. In July 1989 it was placed in liquidation by order of the [Supreme Court of South Australia](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_South_Australia "Supreme Court of South Australia"). The administrator subsequently sued Pilmer and other partners of Nelson Wheeler in all States, for breach of [duty of care](/wiki/Duty_of_care "Duty of care") in contract and in tort, as well as in breach of [fiduciary duty](/wiki/Fiduciary_duty "Fiduciary duty"). The directors were also sued for breach of their fiduciary and statutory duty to the company by the administrator, and in cross\-claim by Pilmer and his fellow partners. Pilmer alleged that the directors breached their duty of care and fiduciary duties, in getting a report that was not reasonably accurate. Pilmer alleged the directors had a personal interest in the takeover outcome as they were substantial shareholders in WU Ltd, and this conflict of interest led to a fallacious report which wrongly stated the price was fair, as [Australian Stock Exchange](/wiki/Australian_Stock_Exchange "Australian Stock Exchange") rules required. The Nelson Wheeler partners in offices outside Perth contended that each office constituted a separate partnership, and no national partnership existed {{emdash}} therefore no liability would fall on them for actions arising in the Perth office.
[ "Background\n----------", "Kia Ora Gold Corporation [NL](/wiki/No_liability \"No liability\") was incorporated in [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") in September 1954 and was listed on the [Australian Stock Exchange](/wiki/Australian_Stock_Exchange \"Australian Stock Exchange\"). It carried on business principally as a gold mining company in [Western Australia](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\").", "Western United Limited, originally formed in 1953, had an equal partnership with Kia Ora in the [Marvel Loch mine](/wiki/Marvel_Loch_Gold_Mine \"Marvel Loch Gold Mine\"), which was sold in 1987\\. After 1983, it changed its focus to concentrate on the provision of financial and mining services. Each company had a shareholding in the other, and both were under common control.", "In 1987, Kia Ora made a [takeover bid](/wiki/Takeover_bid \"Takeover bid\") to purchase all shares of Western United Ltd, in consideration for either:", "* 4 fully paid ordinary shares of Kia Ora for every Western United share, or\n* 5 fully paid ordinary shares for every two WU shares, together with $1\\.20 for each WU share.\nThis valued WU Ltd at $3\\.95 to $4\\.40 a share, based on Kia Ora's market price of $1\\.10 a share. WU's shares then had a market price of $2\\.45 a share. Kia Ora's directors instructed the Perth office of Nelson Wheeler,subsequently merged into Parkhill BDO, now part of [BDO International](/wiki/BDO_International \"BDO International\") to do a report for its shareholders, and this valued WU Ltd at $3\\.22 a share, and it was reasonable to pay a premium to acquire WU Ltd. Kia Ora shareholders approved the takeover.", "In 1988, Kia Ora entered into a [reverse takeover](/wiki/Reverse_takeover \"Reverse takeover\") for the assets of the Duke Group of companies, with Duke acquiring all the issued capital of Kia Ora. Upon completion, in July 1988 Kia Ora changed its name to The Duke Group Limited.", "In July 1989 it was placed in liquidation by order of the [Supreme Court of South Australia](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_South_Australia \"Supreme Court of South Australia\"). The administrator subsequently sued Pilmer and other partners of Nelson Wheeler in all States, for breach of [duty of care](/wiki/Duty_of_care \"Duty of care\") in contract and in tort, as well as in breach of [fiduciary duty](/wiki/Fiduciary_duty \"Fiduciary duty\"). The directors were also sued for breach of their fiduciary and statutory duty to the company by the administrator, and in cross\\-claim by Pilmer and his fellow partners.", "Pilmer alleged that the directors breached their duty of care and fiduciary duties, in getting a report that was not reasonably accurate. Pilmer alleged the directors had a personal interest in the takeover outcome as they were substantial shareholders in WU Ltd, and this conflict of interest led to a fallacious report which wrongly stated the price was fair, as [Australian Stock Exchange](/wiki/Australian_Stock_Exchange \"Australian Stock Exchange\") rules required. The Nelson Wheeler partners in offices outside Perth contended that each office constituted a separate partnership, and no national partnership existed {{emdash}} therefore no liability would fall on them for actions arising in the Perth office.", "" ]
History ------- Lianga is one of the oldest towns of the province of [Surigao del Sur](/wiki/Surigao_del_Sur "Surigao del Sur") by virtue of Executive Order No. 27 on October 17, 1919\. The municipality of Lianga is centrally located in the province of [Surigao del Sur](/wiki/Surigao_del_Sur "Surigao del Sur"). It is situated along the [Lianga Bay](https://www.google.com/maps/place/Lianga+Bay/@8.6311457,126.0636249,11z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x33020a8c3b7e6469:0xf65d0721b2ed4424!8m2!3d8.6224949!4d126.1979764) facing the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean") and cradled by its shorelines and the Diwata Mountains. Its latitude is 30 and longitude is within 12635 and is bounded on the north by the [Municipality of San Agustin](/wiki/San_Agustin%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "San Agustin, Surigao del Sur"), on the south by the [Municipality of Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Barobo, Surigao del Sur"), on the west by the province of [Agusan del Sur](/wiki/Agusan_del_Sur "Agusan del Sur") and the east lies the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean"). It is 90\.0 kilometers to the south of [Tandag City](/wiki/Tandag_City "Tandag City"), the capital of the province, 237 kilometers from [Davao City](/wiki/Davao_City "Davao City"), 121 kilometers from [Butuan](/wiki/Butuan "Butuan") and 16 kilometers from [Prosperidad](/wiki/Prosperidad%2C_Agusan_del_Sur "Prosperidad, Agusan del Sur"), the capital town of [Agusan del Sur](/wiki/Agusan_del_Sur "Agusan del Sur") (via Lianga–Los Arcos Road). In the history of [Caraga Region](/wiki/Caraga "Caraga"), Lianga was part of the *[encomienda](/wiki/Encomienda "Encomienda")* way back in 1655 under the command of Sergeant Martin Sanchez dela Cuesta. This *encomienda* covered Palaso ([Cantilan](/wiki/Cantilan "Cantilan")). [Tandag](/wiki/Tandag "Tandag") as its capital, [Tago](/wiki/Tago%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Tago, Surigao del Sur"), [Marihatag](/wiki/Marihatag%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Marihatag, Surigao del Sur") and Lianga. From 1904 to 1936, the head of the town was called *President*, per record obtained, the first elected president of Lianga was Cornelio Layno, whose two\-year term covered the period from 1904 to 1906\. The first elected mayor was Otilio Navarro, who served from 1937 to 1940\. From then on, there were seven elected mayors of Lianga from 1941 up to the present. Within these periods, two became mayors by succession, another two by appointment. Almost half a century ago, the territorial land area of Lianga was vast, considering the fact that the present municipalities of San Agustin, Marihatag and Barobo were once a part of Lianga. The births of these three municipalities were the results of political subdivisions authored by the political leaders of the undivided [Surigao](/wiki/Surigao_%28province%29 "Surigao (province)"). [San Agustin](/wiki/San_Agustin%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "San Agustin, Surigao del Sur"), formerly called Oteiza, was the first daughter municipality of Lianga created under Executive Order No. 445 in 1951, during the presidency of [Elpidio Quirino](/wiki/Elpidio_Quirino "Elpidio Quirino"). The governor of [Surigao](/wiki/Surigao_%28province%29 "Surigao (province)") that time was Vicente L. Pimentel. Four years later, the [Municipality of Marihatag](/wiki/Marihatag%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Marihatag, Surigao del Sur") was created under Republic Act No. 1261 on June 10, 1955\. As the population of Lianga increased, it was not spared from further political subdivision. The electorate in the southern barrios of Lianga moved for the creation of another municipality, called the [Municipality of Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Barobo, Surigao del Sur"), as the seat of the municipal government. The creation of the [Municipality of Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Barobo, Surigao del Sur") was made through Executive Order no. 407 and 2786 on October 24, 1960\. Of the three municipalities created from the municipality of Lianga, Marihatag has the largest land area. It is sad to note that among these four municipalities formerly referred to as the "BLOM" Area (for [Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Barobo, Surigao del Sur"), Lianga, [Oteiza](/wiki/San_Agustin%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "San Agustin, Surigao del Sur"), and [Marihatag](/wiki/Marihatag%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Marihatag, Surigao del Sur")) Lianga, the mother municipality has the smallest land area with only 15,000 hectares. Significant development in Lianga has been noted since 1960 with the creation of [Surigao del Sur](/wiki/Surigao_del_Sur "Surigao del Sur") as a province (Republic Act 2786\). It was more evident in the 1970s to 1980s when the coastal barangay of Diatagon \[Jiatagon] became the hub of socio–economic activities with the Lianga Bay Logging Company Incorporated \[LBLCI] which was a rich source of income. The town of Lianga, too that time started to gain a breakthrough not only in the [infrastructure](/wiki/Infrastructure "Infrastructure") projects such as roads and government buildings but also in income derived from taxes especially from forest products used by the wood processing plant of LBLCI. Barangay Saint Christine has become the minor urban center and Lianga was classified as the influence center of the satellite municipalities of [San Agustin](/wiki/San_Agustin%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "San Agustin, Surigao del Sur"), [Marihatag](/wiki/Marihatag%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Marihatag, Surigao del Sur"), and [Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur "Barobo, Surigao del Sur"). Lianga is a relatively urbanized area where 13,830 or 55\.30% of the total population live in the three urban centers of [Barangays](/wiki/Barangay "Barangay") Poblacion, Saint Christine, and Diatagon \[Jiatagon] and 11,175 or 44\.70% lives in the remaining rural [barangay](/wiki/Barangay "Barangay") with a municipal population density equivalent to 98\.70% person/km2. The economic situation in the municipality poses great challenges to its leader and people. Its economy remains predominantly agricultural. It is gifted by its geographic location but is not adequately blessed by nature with substantial endowment necessary to propel itself into a developing economy. The major crop is [coconut](/wiki/Coconut "Coconut"), covering an area of 4,236 hectares. [Rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice") ranks second with an area of 1,890 hectares. Other crops are [corn](/wiki/Maize "Maize"), banana, and abaca. The Poblacion and Barangay Diatagon \[Jiatagon] are the trading centers with most of the commodities coming from [Davao](/wiki/Davao_Region "Davao Region"), [Butuan](/wiki/Butuan "Butuan"), and [Surigao](/wiki/Surigao_%28province%29 "Surigao (province)"). The poor road condition limits the economic activities in the area.
[ "History\n-------", "Lianga is one of the oldest towns of the province of [Surigao del Sur](/wiki/Surigao_del_Sur \"Surigao del Sur\") by virtue of Executive Order No. 27 on October 17, 1919\\. The municipality of Lianga is centrally located in the province of [Surigao del Sur](/wiki/Surigao_del_Sur \"Surigao del Sur\"). It is situated along the [Lianga Bay](https://www.google.com/maps/place/Lianga+Bay/@8.6311457,126.0636249,11z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x33020a8c3b7e6469:0xf65d0721b2ed4424!8m2!3d8.6224949!4d126.1979764) facing the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\") and cradled by its shorelines and the Diwata Mountains. Its latitude is 30 and longitude is within 12635 and is bounded on the north by the [Municipality of San Agustin](/wiki/San_Agustin%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"San Agustin, Surigao del Sur\"), on the south by the [Municipality of Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Barobo, Surigao del Sur\"), on the west by the province of [Agusan del Sur](/wiki/Agusan_del_Sur \"Agusan del Sur\") and the east lies the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"). It is 90\\.0 kilometers to the south of [Tandag City](/wiki/Tandag_City \"Tandag City\"), the capital of the province, 237 kilometers from [Davao City](/wiki/Davao_City \"Davao City\"), 121 kilometers from [Butuan](/wiki/Butuan \"Butuan\") and 16 kilometers from [Prosperidad](/wiki/Prosperidad%2C_Agusan_del_Sur \"Prosperidad, Agusan del Sur\"), the capital town of [Agusan del Sur](/wiki/Agusan_del_Sur \"Agusan del Sur\") (via Lianga–Los Arcos Road).", "In the history of [Caraga Region](/wiki/Caraga \"Caraga\"), Lianga was part of the *[encomienda](/wiki/Encomienda \"Encomienda\")* way back in 1655 under the command of Sergeant Martin Sanchez dela Cuesta. This *encomienda* covered Palaso ([Cantilan](/wiki/Cantilan \"Cantilan\")). [Tandag](/wiki/Tandag \"Tandag\") as its capital, [Tago](/wiki/Tago%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Tago, Surigao del Sur\"), [Marihatag](/wiki/Marihatag%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Marihatag, Surigao del Sur\") and Lianga. From 1904 to 1936, the head of the town was called *President*, per record obtained, the first elected president of Lianga was Cornelio Layno, whose two\\-year term covered the period from 1904 to 1906\\. The first elected mayor was Otilio Navarro, who served from 1937 to 1940\\. From then on, there were seven elected mayors of Lianga from 1941 up to the present. Within these periods, two became mayors by succession, another two by appointment.", "Almost half a century ago, the territorial land area of Lianga was vast, considering the fact that the present municipalities of San Agustin, Marihatag and Barobo were once a part of Lianga. The births of these three municipalities were the results of political subdivisions authored by the political leaders of the undivided [Surigao](/wiki/Surigao_%28province%29 \"Surigao (province)\"). [San Agustin](/wiki/San_Agustin%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"San Agustin, Surigao del Sur\"), formerly called Oteiza, was the first daughter municipality of Lianga created under Executive Order No. 445 in 1951, during the presidency of [Elpidio Quirino](/wiki/Elpidio_Quirino \"Elpidio Quirino\"). The governor of [Surigao](/wiki/Surigao_%28province%29 \"Surigao (province)\") that time was Vicente L. Pimentel. Four years later, the [Municipality of Marihatag](/wiki/Marihatag%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Marihatag, Surigao del Sur\") was created under Republic Act No. 1261 on June 10, 1955\\. As the population of Lianga increased, it was not spared from further political subdivision. The electorate in the southern barrios of Lianga moved for the creation of another municipality, called the [Municipality of Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Barobo, Surigao del Sur\"), as the seat of the municipal government. The creation of the [Municipality of Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Barobo, Surigao del Sur\") was made through Executive Order no. 407 and 2786 on October 24, 1960\\. Of the three municipalities created from the municipality of Lianga, Marihatag has the largest land area. It is sad to note that among these four municipalities formerly referred to as the \"BLOM\" Area (for [Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Barobo, Surigao del Sur\"), Lianga, [Oteiza](/wiki/San_Agustin%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"San Agustin, Surigao del Sur\"), and [Marihatag](/wiki/Marihatag%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Marihatag, Surigao del Sur\")) Lianga, the mother municipality has the smallest land area with only 15,000 hectares.", "Significant development in Lianga has been noted since 1960 with the creation of [Surigao del Sur](/wiki/Surigao_del_Sur \"Surigao del Sur\") as a province (Republic Act 2786\\). It was more evident in the 1970s to 1980s when the coastal barangay of Diatagon \\[Jiatagon] became the hub of socio–economic activities with the Lianga Bay Logging Company Incorporated \\[LBLCI] which was a rich source of income. The town of Lianga, too that time started to gain a breakthrough not only in the [infrastructure](/wiki/Infrastructure \"Infrastructure\") projects such as roads and government buildings but also in income derived from taxes especially from forest products used by the wood processing plant of LBLCI. Barangay Saint Christine has become the minor urban center and Lianga was classified as the influence center of the satellite municipalities of [San Agustin](/wiki/San_Agustin%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"San Agustin, Surigao del Sur\"), [Marihatag](/wiki/Marihatag%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Marihatag, Surigao del Sur\"), and [Barobo](/wiki/Barobo%2C_Surigao_del_Sur \"Barobo, Surigao del Sur\").", "Lianga is a relatively urbanized area where 13,830 or 55\\.30% of the total population live in the three urban centers of [Barangays](/wiki/Barangay \"Barangay\") Poblacion, Saint Christine, and Diatagon \\[Jiatagon] and 11,175 or 44\\.70% lives in the remaining rural [barangay](/wiki/Barangay \"Barangay\") with a municipal population density equivalent to 98\\.70% person/km2. The economic situation in the municipality poses great challenges to its leader and people. Its economy remains predominantly agricultural. It is gifted by its geographic location but is not adequately blessed by nature with substantial endowment necessary to propel itself into a developing economy. The major crop is [coconut](/wiki/Coconut \"Coconut\"), covering an area of 4,236 hectares. [Rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\") ranks second with an area of 1,890 hectares. Other crops are [corn](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\"), banana, and abaca. The Poblacion and Barangay Diatagon \\[Jiatagon] are the trading centers with most of the commodities coming from [Davao](/wiki/Davao_Region \"Davao Region\"), [Butuan](/wiki/Butuan \"Butuan\"), and [Surigao](/wiki/Surigao_%28province%29 \"Surigao (province)\"). The poor road condition limits the economic activities in the area.", "" ]
Gameplay -------- Each player gets a certain number of [miniatures](/wiki/Figurine "Figurine"), with a limit on the total "value" of each player's miniatures determined by the players before a game. A total value of 150 per player is typical. Each miniature has a corresponding "character card" with statistics about that character. The game is played on a modular magnetic "dungeon board" with Tiles of various sizes representing floor, wall, and obstacles can be snapped together. The design of the dungeon is important, as [line\-of\-sight](/wiki/Line_of_sight_%28gaming%29 "Line of sight (gaming)"), cover, and position affect combat. Nîn\-Gonost is a turn\-based game. Each player goes through each of their miniatures, using the action points available to them. ### Movement A character has a specific run and walk speed, as stated on their character card. A character can run or walk up to that many squares on the board in the direction that they are facing using one action point. In the original basic rules, a character must start and end their movement at walk speed. In order to run, the character must have already spent one action point walking, and then must spend one action point "slowing down" (walking again). ### Melee Combat In the basic rules Nîn\-Gonost, there are no hit points. If a character takes more damage than their resistance, the character dies. In the advanced rules, Manna and Hit Points are the same thing. First, "fight modifiers" are determined. Examples include: For each extra opponent, a character earns (\-1\); if the character is being attacked from behind, they earn (\-1\); if a character is attacking from behind, they earn (\+1\). The fight modifiers change the dice a player uses. For example, a character that would use a red fight die according to their character card would use a yellow die if they were attacking from behind. Next, each character rolls their "Duel Dice" and the "Fate Die." The player with the higher score on the "Duel Dice" is the winner. The consequences, however, depend on the "Fate Die." Each player has a 1/6 chance of rolling Fate, resulting in one of the following using the basic rules: * Winner rolled Fate: Perfect Strike (instant kill) * Loser rolled Fate: Perfect Block (no damage taken) * Tie and both rolled Fate: Both die * Tie and neither rolled Fate: Neither is harmed * Not a tie, and both or neither rolled Fate: Damage is resolved Adiken's official Core Rules by Paul DeStefano released after the initial boxed set introduced CounterStrike as a possible combat outcome as well as many rule enhancements. If the damage needs to be resolved, per the last case, the difference of the scores on the "Duel Dice" plus the winner's "Damage" score (on the "character card") is the damage dealt. If the damage dealt is greater than the loser's "Resistance" score (also on the card), then the loser is killed. Otherwise, the loser is unharmed. Once two characters begin fighting, they must continue fighting as long as they have action points available to do so, or until one disengages by stepping back (at a cost of one action point). ### Ranged Combat Ranged combat is similar to melee combat. An attacking player calculates "shooting modifiers": a short range or a large target gets \+1; a long range, target behind cover, target with a shield, or target engaged in a fight all garner \-1\. It is possible to get up to \+2 by spending that many attack points on "concentration." The damage done is the difference between how much an attacking player rolls on an "Accuracy Die," and the state of the "Fate Die." The target rolls just the "Fate Die." One of the following states is possible: * If the broken arrow on the "Accuracy Die" is rolled, the attacker has missed. * If the attacker rolled Fate, it is a "Perfect Shot" and the target is instantly killed. * If the target rolled Fate, he is unharmed. * If both or neither player rolled Fate, damage is resolved per below. * If the attacker rolled Fate and a broken arrow, it is considered a "Critical Failure" and he has broken his bowstring. He must have to spend four action points to repair it. To resolve damage, the damage on the "Range" portion of a miniature's character card is the character's ranged damage. The score on the Accuracy Die plus the ranged damage is the "Strike Power." If that number is greater than the target's resistance, the character is killed. If not, the target is undamaged. ### Advanced play In addition to the basic guidelines defined above, each character has additional statistics. They include [manna](/wiki/Mana_%28Oceanian_mythology%29 "Mana (Oceanian mythology)"), strength, con, dexterity, per, wil, ctr, wtg, and specific armor and weapon statistics. ### The Revised Rules In 2005, American game designer Paul DeStefano joined Adiken and created the wholly revamped Core Rules. These rules corrected numerous errors in the original game which were the result of both poor translations and poor playtesting. The new Core Rules streamlined play tremendously, removing the need for most record keeping, enhancing gameplay and revamping the magic system. Overall, the new rules created a far superior game which was nominated for an Origins award for best miniatures rules. Unfortunately, the company would not last long enough to release the many planned expansions. ### Comment from the Authors The Game Nin\-Gonost was nominated for an Origins award for best miniatures game and not miniatures rules in 2005, months before any collaboration with freelancers.
[ "Gameplay\n--------", "Each player gets a certain number of [miniatures](/wiki/Figurine \"Figurine\"), with a limit on the total \"value\" of each player's miniatures determined by the players before a game. A total value of 150 per player is typical. Each miniature has a corresponding \"character card\" with statistics about that character.", "The game is played on a modular magnetic \"dungeon board\" with Tiles of various sizes representing floor, wall, and obstacles can be snapped together. The design of the dungeon is important, as [line\\-of\\-sight](/wiki/Line_of_sight_%28gaming%29 \"Line of sight (gaming)\"), cover, and position affect combat.", "Nîn\\-Gonost is a turn\\-based game. Each player goes through each of their miniatures, using the action points available to them.", "### Movement", "A character has a specific run and walk speed, as stated on their character card. A character can run or walk up to that many squares on the board in the direction that they are facing using one action point. In the original basic rules, a character must start and end their movement at walk speed. In order to run, the character must have already spent one action point walking, and then must spend one action point \"slowing down\" (walking again).", "### Melee Combat", "In the basic rules Nîn\\-Gonost, there are no hit points. If a character takes more damage than their resistance, the character dies. In the advanced rules, Manna and Hit Points are the same thing.", "First, \"fight modifiers\" are determined. Examples include: For each extra opponent, a character earns (\\-1\\); if the character is being attacked from behind, they earn (\\-1\\); if a character is attacking from behind, they earn (\\+1\\). The fight modifiers change the dice a player uses. For example, a character that would use a red fight die according to their character card would use a yellow die if they were attacking from behind.", "Next, each character rolls their \"Duel Dice\" and the \"Fate Die.\" The player with the higher score on the \"Duel Dice\" is the winner. The consequences, however, depend on the \"Fate Die.\" Each player has a 1/6 chance of rolling Fate, resulting in one of the following using the basic rules:\n* Winner rolled Fate: Perfect Strike (instant kill)\n* Loser rolled Fate: Perfect Block (no damage taken)\n* Tie and both rolled Fate: Both die\n* Tie and neither rolled Fate: Neither is harmed\n* Not a tie, and both or neither rolled Fate: Damage is resolved", "Adiken's official Core Rules by Paul DeStefano released after the initial boxed set introduced CounterStrike as a possible combat outcome as well as many rule enhancements.", "If the damage needs to be resolved, per the last case, the difference of the scores on the \"Duel Dice\" plus the winner's \"Damage\" score (on the \"character card\") is the damage dealt. If the damage dealt is greater than the loser's \"Resistance\" score (also on the card), then the loser is killed. Otherwise, the loser is unharmed.", "Once two characters begin fighting, they must continue fighting as long as they have action points available to do so, or until one disengages by stepping back (at a cost of one action point).", "### Ranged Combat", "Ranged combat is similar to melee combat. An attacking player calculates \"shooting modifiers\": a short range or a large target gets \\+1; a long range, target behind cover, target with a shield, or target engaged in a fight all garner \\-1\\. It is possible to get up to \\+2 by spending that many attack points on \"concentration.\" The damage done is the difference between how much an attacking player rolls on an \"Accuracy Die,\" and the state of the \"Fate Die.\" The target rolls just the \"Fate Die.\" One of the following states is possible:\n* If the broken arrow on the \"Accuracy Die\" is rolled, the attacker has missed.\n* If the attacker rolled Fate, it is a \"Perfect Shot\" and the target is instantly killed.\n* If the target rolled Fate, he is unharmed.\n* If both or neither player rolled Fate, damage is resolved per below.\n* If the attacker rolled Fate and a broken arrow, it is considered a \"Critical Failure\" and he has broken his bowstring. He must have to spend four action points to repair it.", "To resolve damage, the damage on the \"Range\" portion of a miniature's character card is the character's ranged damage. The score on the Accuracy Die plus the ranged damage is the \"Strike Power.\" If that number is greater than the target's resistance, the character is killed. If not, the target is undamaged.", "### Advanced play", "In addition to the basic guidelines defined above, each character has additional statistics. They include [manna](/wiki/Mana_%28Oceanian_mythology%29 \"Mana (Oceanian mythology)\"), strength, con, dexterity, per, wil, ctr, wtg, and specific armor and weapon statistics.", "### The Revised Rules", "In 2005, American game designer Paul DeStefano joined Adiken and created the wholly revamped Core Rules. These rules corrected numerous errors in the original game which were the result of both poor translations and poor playtesting. The new Core Rules streamlined play tremendously, removing the need for most record keeping, enhancing gameplay and revamping the magic system.", "Overall, the new rules created a far superior game which was nominated for an Origins award for best miniatures rules. Unfortunately, the company would not last long enough to release the many planned expansions.", "### Comment from the Authors", "The Game Nin\\-Gonost was nominated for an Origins award for best miniatures game and not miniatures rules in 2005, months before any collaboration with freelancers.", "" ]
### Melee Combat In the basic rules Nîn\-Gonost, there are no hit points. If a character takes more damage than their resistance, the character dies. In the advanced rules, Manna and Hit Points are the same thing. First, "fight modifiers" are determined. Examples include: For each extra opponent, a character earns (\-1\); if the character is being attacked from behind, they earn (\-1\); if a character is attacking from behind, they earn (\+1\). The fight modifiers change the dice a player uses. For example, a character that would use a red fight die according to their character card would use a yellow die if they were attacking from behind. Next, each character rolls their "Duel Dice" and the "Fate Die." The player with the higher score on the "Duel Dice" is the winner. The consequences, however, depend on the "Fate Die." Each player has a 1/6 chance of rolling Fate, resulting in one of the following using the basic rules: * Winner rolled Fate: Perfect Strike (instant kill) * Loser rolled Fate: Perfect Block (no damage taken) * Tie and both rolled Fate: Both die * Tie and neither rolled Fate: Neither is harmed * Not a tie, and both or neither rolled Fate: Damage is resolved Adiken's official Core Rules by Paul DeStefano released after the initial boxed set introduced CounterStrike as a possible combat outcome as well as many rule enhancements. If the damage needs to be resolved, per the last case, the difference of the scores on the "Duel Dice" plus the winner's "Damage" score (on the "character card") is the damage dealt. If the damage dealt is greater than the loser's "Resistance" score (also on the card), then the loser is killed. Otherwise, the loser is unharmed. Once two characters begin fighting, they must continue fighting as long as they have action points available to do so, or until one disengages by stepping back (at a cost of one action point).
[ "### Melee Combat", "In the basic rules Nîn\\-Gonost, there are no hit points. If a character takes more damage than their resistance, the character dies. In the advanced rules, Manna and Hit Points are the same thing.", "First, \"fight modifiers\" are determined. Examples include: For each extra opponent, a character earns (\\-1\\); if the character is being attacked from behind, they earn (\\-1\\); if a character is attacking from behind, they earn (\\+1\\). The fight modifiers change the dice a player uses. For example, a character that would use a red fight die according to their character card would use a yellow die if they were attacking from behind.", "Next, each character rolls their \"Duel Dice\" and the \"Fate Die.\" The player with the higher score on the \"Duel Dice\" is the winner. The consequences, however, depend on the \"Fate Die.\" Each player has a 1/6 chance of rolling Fate, resulting in one of the following using the basic rules:\n* Winner rolled Fate: Perfect Strike (instant kill)\n* Loser rolled Fate: Perfect Block (no damage taken)\n* Tie and both rolled Fate: Both die\n* Tie and neither rolled Fate: Neither is harmed\n* Not a tie, and both or neither rolled Fate: Damage is resolved", "Adiken's official Core Rules by Paul DeStefano released after the initial boxed set introduced CounterStrike as a possible combat outcome as well as many rule enhancements.", "If the damage needs to be resolved, per the last case, the difference of the scores on the \"Duel Dice\" plus the winner's \"Damage\" score (on the \"character card\") is the damage dealt. If the damage dealt is greater than the loser's \"Resistance\" score (also on the card), then the loser is killed. Otherwise, the loser is unharmed.", "Once two characters begin fighting, they must continue fighting as long as they have action points available to do so, or until one disengages by stepping back (at a cost of one action point).", "" ]
History ------- ### Early years KXYZ\-FM first signed on February 1, 1948, under the ownership of Shamrock Broadcasting.[Information](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1950/RADIO%20&%20TV%20ALL%20YB%201950%20B&W-11.pdf) from the [Broadcasting Yearbook](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable") 1950 page 294 As typical of FM radio stations in the mid\-20th century, KXYZ\-FM was a simulcast of its AM parent, [KXYZ](/wiki/KXYZ "KXYZ"). The station would stay on the air for five years and six months before being silent for about eight years,{{Cite web\|url\=http://houstonradiohistory.blogspot.com/2008/02/fm\-chronology\-part\-5\-1947\-1950\.html\|title\=FM Chronology \- Part 5 \- 1947 \- 1950\|access\-date\=January 5, 2020}} resuming operations in 1961, again as a simulcast of KXYZ's [beautiful music](/wiki/Beautiful_music "Beautiful music") format.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1961\-1962 page B\-168](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1961-62/section%20B%20All%20Radio%20%20Broadcasting%20Yearbook%201961-1962-9.pdf) In 1968, KXYZ and KXYZ\-FM were acquired by ABC;[Broadcasting Yearbook 1970 page B\-199](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1970/B%20Radio%20All%20BC%20YB%201970%20All-3.pdf) the new ownership subsequently changed KXYZ\-FM's format to [automated](/wiki/Broadcast_automation "Broadcast automation") [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock "Progressive rock"), branded as "Love {{frac\|96\|1\|2}} FM". "Love" was formulated by ABC Radio for its FM stations around the U.S., including [WABC\-FM](/wiki/WPLJ "WPLJ") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), [KABC\-FM](/wiki/KLOS "KLOS") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), [WLS\-FM](/wiki/WLS-FM "WLS-FM") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [KGO\-FM](/wiki/KOSF "KOSF") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), [WXYZ\-FM](/wiki/WRIF "WRIF") in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit") and [KQV\-FM](/wiki/WDVE "WDVE") in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh"). All seven FM stations switch call signs to distinguish from their AM counterparts on switched to KAUM in January 1971\. When the national "Love" format was discontinued later in 1971, the progressive rock music continued, but with local [disc jockeys](/wiki/Disc_jockey "Disc jockey"), changing its moniker to "KAUM {{frac\|96\|1\|2}} FM". In the late 1970s, KAUM shifted from [album\-oriented rock](/wiki/Album-oriented_rock "Album-oriented rock") (AOR) to [Top 40](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio "Contemporary hit radio") hits to compete against [KRBE](/wiki/KRBE "KRBE") and [KILT](/wiki/KILT_%28AM%29 "KILT (AM)"). From July 24, 1980, through late 1986, the station operated as KSRR, first as "97 Star FM", and then again as "97 Rock." It had an [album\-oriented rock](/wiki/Album-oriented_rock "Album-oriented rock") format, using the infamous slogan "Kick Ass Rock 'N' Roll!", and a logo similar to [WABB](/wiki/WABD-FM "WABD-FM") in [Mobile](/wiki/Mobile%2C_Alabama "Mobile, Alabama").[https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1980/RR\-1980\-07\-25\.pdf](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1980/RR-1980-07-25.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} The new station featured morning radio host and [KEGL](/wiki/KEGL "KEGL") [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas "Dallas, Texas") alum James Smith "Moby" Carney and Matthew, with [Hannah Storm](/wiki/Hannah_Storm "Hannah Storm") as sports announcer. The station competed against the album rock format of [KLOL](/wiki/KLOL-FM "KLOL-FM") and for a short period, [KILT\-FM](/wiki/KILT-FM "KILT-FM"). In mid\-1985, due to the merger of ABC Radio and [Capital Cities Communications](/wiki/Capital_Cities_Communications "Capital Cities Communications"), KSRR was spun off to Malrite Communications in order to meet the FCC's ownership limits at the time.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1985/RR\-1985\-08\-09\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1985/RR-1985-08-09.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} On October 15, 1986, the station changed call letters to KKHT, and the AOR format was replaced by a Top 40 format known as "Hit 96\.5 KKHT".Bob Grace, "'97 Rock' Becomes 'Hit 96\.5'", the *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle "Houston Chronicle")*, October 25, 1986\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1986/RR\-1986\-10\-24\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1986/RR-1986-10-24.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} By mid\-1987, heavy competition from Top 40 powerhouses [KKBQ\-FM](/wiki/KKBQ "KKBQ") and KRBE prompted the station to morph to [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary "Adult contemporary"). The station rebranded as "96\.5 KKHT". In late 1988, [Emmis Broadcasting](/wiki/Emmis_Broadcasting "Emmis Broadcasting") bought the station. On February 10, 1989, at 6 p.m., the station flipped to a new [rhythmic contemporary](/wiki/Rhythmic_contemporary "Rhythmic contemporary") format, with a focus on dance\-oriented music, branded as "Energy 96\.5".Louis B. Parks, "KNRJ feels like dancing, makes another format change", the *Houston Chronicle*, February 14, 1989\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1989/RR\-1989\-02\-17\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1989/RR-1989-02-17.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} The station adopted the new KNRJ call letters on September 4\. This format was a competitive response to two other local stations, KKBQ and KRBE, whose Top 40 formats reflected the increasing presence of dance club\-oriented tracks (catering to a then\-lucrative target audience drawn to the flourishing night club scenes along Richmond Avenue and inner [Westheimer Road](/wiki/Westheimer_Road "Westheimer Road")). These competitors featured late\-night, weekend live broadcasts from local dance clubs (e.g., Club 6400, The Ocean Club), where in\-house DJs drew heavily from libraries of imported and small\-label, extended\-length modern tracks (which otherwise were seldom heard on most commercial stations). By early 1990, KNRJ had partnered with the Tower Theater's *Decadance* to host its own weekend, late\-night live broadcast. In May 1990, [Nationwide Communications](/wiki/Nationwide_Communications "Nationwide Communications") bought the station."KNRJ sold for $30 million", the *Houston Chronicle*, May 16, 1990\. The station's ratings during this time were low and the new owners wanted to improve the numbers. In the station's latter months, KNRJ began adding more [new wave music](/wiki/New_wave_music "New wave music") tracks to improve ratings. ### Mix 96\.5 On June 25, 1990, at 7:15 a.m., in the middle of "[Tonight](/wiki/Tonight_%28New_Kids_on_the_Block_song%29 "Tonight (New Kids on the Block song)")" by [New Kids on the Block](/wiki/New_Kids_on_the_Block "New Kids on the Block"), DJ Jeff Scott, in a bit, abruptly cut off the song and announced his discontent for the format, with he and some fellow DJs playing brief music clips to complain about before being heard throwing the tapes away. After that, KNRJ flipped to an [alternative rock](/wiki/Alternative_rock "Alternative rock") format. The station kicked off with "I Eat Cannibals" by [Toto Coelo](/wiki/Toto_Coelo "Toto Coelo"), starting off a "Top 100 Best Alternative Songs of All Time" countdown.{{Cite web\|url\=https://formatchange.com/energy\-96\-5\-knrj\-becomes\-the\-alternative/\|title\=Energy 96\.5 KNRJ Becomes The Alternative\|date\=June 25, 1990\|website\=Format Change Archive\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=January 5, 2020}} The *Alternative 96\.5* re\-brand was a transitional format, lasting roughly five weeks, and was promoted while a forthcoming format was under preparation. A weekly [playlist](/wiki/Playlist "Playlist"), under a makeshift *Alternative 96\.5* letterhead, was distributed to local retail and media outlets.[https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1990s/1990/RR\-1990\-06\-29\.pdf](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1990/RR-1990-06-29.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} Then, at 7 a.m. on July 18, KNRJ began [stunting](/wiki/Stunting_%28broadcasting%29 "Stunting (broadcasting)") with a 48\-hour ticking clock countdown sequence. A series of disjointed song samples were eventually interspersed into the sequence within the last 12 hours, most famously the opening to the song "[Let It Whip](/wiki/Let_It_Whip "Let It Whip")" by [The Dazz Band](/wiki/The_Dazz_Band "The Dazz Band") played first normally, then again in reverse."Clock is running on KNRJ changes", the *Houston Chronicle*, July 19, 1990\. After the countdown concluded at 7 a.m. on July 20, a fictitious "teacher" conducted a "roll call" calling out the names of program directors from competing radio stations, asking the "class" to start their tape recorders and take notes as this "lecture" was to begin. At that moment, KNRJ's call letters switched to KHMX as the station changed formats to [hot adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music%23Hot_adult_contemporary "Adult contemporary music#Hot adult contemporary"), branded as "Mix 96\.5\." The first two songs on "Mix" were [Steve Winwood](/wiki/Steve_Winwood "Steve Winwood")'s "[Roll With It](/wiki/Roll_with_It_%28album%29 "Roll with It (album)")" and [Taylor Dayne](/wiki/Taylor_Dayne "Taylor Dayne")'s "[I'll Be Your Shelter](/wiki/I%27ll_Be_Your_Shelter "I'll Be Your Shelter")".Louis B. Parks, "Radio station KNRJ changes its format and call letters", the *Houston Chronicle*, July 20, 1990\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1990s/1990/RR\-1990\-07\-27\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1990/RR-1990-07-27.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://formatchange.com/965\-knrj\-becomes\-mix\-khmx/\|title\=96\.5 KNRJ becomes "Mix" KHMX\|date\=July 20, 1990\|website\=Format Change Archive\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=January 5, 2020}}{{Citation\|title\=RARE! Debut Ad for Houston's Mix 96\.5 KHMX\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=FKGF04wDzlw \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/FKGF04wDzlw \|archive\-date\=December 21, 2021 \|url\-status\=live\|language\=en\|access\-date\=January 5, 2020}}{{cbignore}} [alt\=\|thumb\|Previous logo under Clear Channel ownership](/wiki/File:KHMX.PNG "KHMX.PNG") General Manager Clancy Woods and Nationwide National Program Director Guy Zapoleon used the roll out at KHMX to launch other new Hot AC stations, branded as the "Mix" format. The Mix brand tagline, "More Music, More Variety, A Better Mix", was commercially successful. The formula for the "Mix" format was replicated through the 1990s and early 2000s in several other radio markets across North America and in cities as far away as [Sydney, Australia](/wiki/Sydney%2C_Australia "Sydney, Australia") by KHMX consultant Alan Burns. Around the same time, research expert John Parikhal, who also worked with KHMX, was helping PD Greg Strassell of [Steve Dodge](/wiki/Steve_Dodge "Steve Dodge")'s [American Radio Systems](/wiki/American_Radio_Systems "American Radio Systems") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") launch another Mix station known as "Mix 98\.5", [WBMX](/wiki/WWBX "WWBX"). WBMX was more of a [Rhythmic AC](/wiki/Rhythmic_AC "Rhythmic AC") and an early example of today's [MOViN'](/wiki/Movin%27_%28brand%29 "Movin' (brand)") format. Another Mix station was launched a few months earlier in the Summer of 1989 at [WOMX](/wiki/WOMX "WOMX") in [Orlando](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida "Orlando, Florida") by Nationwide Communications GM Rick Weinkoff and PD Brian Thomas, with help from Guy Zapoleon. Nationwide sold all of its radio stations, including KHMX, to [Jacor](/wiki/Jacor "Jacor") in October 1997\.[Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press"), "Jacor buys 17 Nationwide radio stations", the *Houston Chronicle*, October 29, 1997\. After a series of mergers, [Clear Channel Communications](/wiki/Clear_Channel_Communications "Clear Channel Communications") acquired KHMX in early 1999\.Bruce Westbrook, "'The Buzz'; 'Mix' being sold; changes coming", the *Houston Chronicle*, June 17, 1998\.John Nolan, "Texas\-based Clear Channel gets Jacor; $3\.4 billion stock deal creates third major player in radio industry", the *Houston Chronicle*, October 9, 1998\. KHMX was broadcast nationwide on [XM Satellite Radio](/wiki/XM_Satellite_Radio "XM Satellite Radio") from 2001 to the end of 2003, when a unique\-to\-XM [Mix](/wiki/Mix_%28XM%29 "Mix (XM)") channel debuted. On December 15, 2008, Clear Channel and [CBS Radio](/wiki/CBS_Radio "CBS Radio") announced a multi\-station swap: KHMX and sister station [KLOL](/wiki/KLOL "KLOL") would go to CBS Radio, while CBS Radio\-owned stations [WQSR](/wiki/WQSR "WQSR") in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"), [KBKS](/wiki/KBKS-FM "KBKS-FM") in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle"), [KLTH](/wiki/KLTH "KLTH") and [KXJM](/wiki/KXJM "KXJM") in [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon") and [KQJK](/wiki/KYRV "KYRV") in [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento "Sacramento") would go to Clear Channel. The sale was approved on March 31, 2009, and was consummated on April 1\.[CBS Radio to Swap Five Mid\-Size Market Stations for Two Large Market Stations with Clear Channel Communications](http://www.cbsradio.com/press_center/releases/pressrelease102342-12-15-2008.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219194540/http://www.cbsradio.com/press\_center/releases/pressrelease102342\-12\-15\-2008\.html \|date\=December 19, 2008 }} (retrieved December 15, 2008\) After the sale of the station to CBS in 2009, KHMX tweaked its sound to include more Top 40/CHR currents. On February 2, 2017, CBS Radio announced it would merge with [Entercom](/wiki/Entercom "Entercom").[CBS Radio to Merge with Entercom](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/116299/cbs-radio-to-merge-with-entercom/) The merger was approved on November 9, 2017, and was consummated on November 17\.{{cite web\|url\=http://entercom.com/press/entercom\-receives\-fcc\-approval\-merger\-cbs\-radio/\|title\=Entercom Receives FCC Approval for Merger with CBS Radio\|work\=Entercom\|date\=November 9, 2017\|access\-date\=November 17, 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://radioinsight.com/headlines/121072/entercom\-completes\-cbs\-radio\-merger/\|title\=Entercom Completes CBS Radio Merger\|website\=radioinsight.com\|date\=November 17, 2017\|access\-date\=November 17, 2017}} ### Morning shows During its tenure as "Mix", the station has rotated through several morning shows, including Roula \& Ryan (now on [KRBE](/wiki/KRBE "KRBE")) from 2003\-2005, Sam Malone (formerly of KRBE) 2005\-2007, Maria Todd (also formerly of KRBE) 2009\-2011, [The Kidd Kraddick Morning Show](/wiki/The_Kidd_Kraddick_Morning_Show "The Kidd Kraddick Morning Show") 2011\-2012, Atom Smasher (also a [KRBE](/wiki/KRBE "KRBE") alum) 2013\-2015, and Dave, Mahoney \& DK (formerly of sister [KXTE](/wiki/KXTE "KXTE")/[Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas")) 2015\-2016\. Dave, Mahoney \& DK were let go from the station in December 2016\. On April 5, 2017, it was announced that "The Morning Mix" would become the new morning show on KHMX consisting of former KKHH host Sarah Pepper, along with afternoon host Lauren Kelly and Geoff Sheen, formerly of [KTKR](/wiki/KTKR "KTKR") in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio "San Antonio"), which began on April 10, 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://mix965houston.cbslocal.com/2017/04/05/welcome\-the\-morning\-mix\-houstons\-new\-favorite\-morning\-show/\|title\=Welcome The Morning Mix \- Houston's New Favorite Morning Show\|access\-date\=April 5, 2017}} Lauren Kelly, however, left the station in 2019\. Mornings are currently hosted by Pepper and Jessie Watt.
[ "History\n-------", "### Early years", "KXYZ\\-FM first signed on February 1, 1948, under the ownership of Shamrock Broadcasting.[Information](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1950/RADIO%20&%20TV%20ALL%20YB%201950%20B&W-11.pdf) from the [Broadcasting Yearbook](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\") 1950 page 294 As typical of FM radio stations in the mid\\-20th century, KXYZ\\-FM was a simulcast of its AM parent, [KXYZ](/wiki/KXYZ \"KXYZ\"). The station would stay on the air for five years and six months before being silent for about eight years,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://houstonradiohistory.blogspot.com/2008/02/fm\\-chronology\\-part\\-5\\-1947\\-1950\\.html\\|title\\=FM Chronology \\- Part 5 \\- 1947 \\- 1950\\|access\\-date\\=January 5, 2020}} resuming operations in 1961, again as a simulcast of KXYZ's [beautiful music](/wiki/Beautiful_music \"Beautiful music\") format.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1961\\-1962 page B\\-168](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1961-62/section%20B%20All%20Radio%20%20Broadcasting%20Yearbook%201961-1962-9.pdf)", "In 1968, KXYZ and KXYZ\\-FM were acquired by ABC;[Broadcasting Yearbook 1970 page B\\-199](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1970/B%20Radio%20All%20BC%20YB%201970%20All-3.pdf) the new ownership subsequently changed KXYZ\\-FM's format to [automated](/wiki/Broadcast_automation \"Broadcast automation\") [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock \"Progressive rock\"), branded as \"Love {{frac\\|96\\|1\\|2}} FM\". \"Love\" was formulated by ABC Radio for its FM stations around the U.S., including [WABC\\-FM](/wiki/WPLJ \"WPLJ\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), [KABC\\-FM](/wiki/KLOS \"KLOS\") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), [WLS\\-FM](/wiki/WLS-FM \"WLS-FM\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [KGO\\-FM](/wiki/KOSF \"KOSF\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), [WXYZ\\-FM](/wiki/WRIF \"WRIF\") in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\") and [KQV\\-FM](/wiki/WDVE \"WDVE\") in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\"). All seven FM stations switch call signs to distinguish from their AM counterparts on switched to KAUM in January 1971\\. When the national \"Love\" format was discontinued later in 1971, the progressive rock music continued, but with local [disc jockeys](/wiki/Disc_jockey \"Disc jockey\"), changing its moniker to \"KAUM {{frac\\|96\\|1\\|2}} FM\". In the late 1970s, KAUM shifted from [album\\-oriented rock](/wiki/Album-oriented_rock \"Album-oriented rock\") (AOR) to [Top 40](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio \"Contemporary hit radio\") hits to compete against [KRBE](/wiki/KRBE \"KRBE\") and [KILT](/wiki/KILT_%28AM%29 \"KILT (AM)\").", "From July 24, 1980, through late 1986, the station operated as KSRR, first as \"97 Star FM\", and then again as \"97 Rock.\" It had an [album\\-oriented rock](/wiki/Album-oriented_rock \"Album-oriented rock\") format, using the infamous slogan \"Kick Ass Rock 'N' Roll!\", and a logo similar to [WABB](/wiki/WABD-FM \"WABD-FM\") in [Mobile](/wiki/Mobile%2C_Alabama \"Mobile, Alabama\").[https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1980/RR\\-1980\\-07\\-25\\.pdf](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1980/RR-1980-07-25.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} The new station featured morning radio host and [KEGL](/wiki/KEGL \"KEGL\") [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas \"Dallas, Texas\") alum James Smith \"Moby\" Carney and Matthew, with [Hannah Storm](/wiki/Hannah_Storm \"Hannah Storm\") as sports announcer. The station competed against the album rock format of [KLOL](/wiki/KLOL-FM \"KLOL-FM\") and for a short period, [KILT\\-FM](/wiki/KILT-FM \"KILT-FM\").", "In mid\\-1985, due to the merger of ABC Radio and [Capital Cities Communications](/wiki/Capital_Cities_Communications \"Capital Cities Communications\"), KSRR was spun off to Malrite Communications in order to meet the FCC's ownership limits at the time.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1985/RR\\-1985\\-08\\-09\\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1985/RR-1985-08-09.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} On October 15, 1986, the station changed call letters to KKHT, and the AOR format was replaced by a Top 40 format known as \"Hit 96\\.5 KKHT\".Bob Grace, \"'97 Rock' Becomes 'Hit 96\\.5'\", the *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle \"Houston Chronicle\")*, October 25, 1986\\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1986/RR\\-1986\\-10\\-24\\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1986/RR-1986-10-24.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} By mid\\-1987, heavy competition from Top 40 powerhouses [KKBQ\\-FM](/wiki/KKBQ \"KKBQ\") and KRBE prompted the station to morph to [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary \"Adult contemporary\"). The station rebranded as \"96\\.5 KKHT\". In late 1988, [Emmis Broadcasting](/wiki/Emmis_Broadcasting \"Emmis Broadcasting\") bought the station.", "On February 10, 1989, at 6 p.m., the station flipped to a new [rhythmic contemporary](/wiki/Rhythmic_contemporary \"Rhythmic contemporary\") format, with a focus on dance\\-oriented music, branded as \"Energy 96\\.5\".Louis B. Parks, \"KNRJ feels like dancing, makes another format change\", the *Houston Chronicle*, February 14, 1989\\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1989/RR\\-1989\\-02\\-17\\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1989/RR-1989-02-17.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} The station adopted the new KNRJ call letters on September 4\\. This format was a competitive response to two other local stations, KKBQ and KRBE, whose Top 40 formats reflected the increasing presence of dance club\\-oriented tracks (catering to a then\\-lucrative target audience drawn to the flourishing night club scenes along Richmond Avenue and inner [Westheimer Road](/wiki/Westheimer_Road \"Westheimer Road\")). These competitors featured late\\-night, weekend live broadcasts from local dance clubs (e.g., Club 6400, The Ocean Club), where in\\-house DJs drew heavily from libraries of imported and small\\-label, extended\\-length modern tracks (which otherwise were seldom heard on most commercial stations). By early 1990, KNRJ had partnered with the Tower Theater's *Decadance* to host its own weekend, late\\-night live broadcast.", "In May 1990, [Nationwide Communications](/wiki/Nationwide_Communications \"Nationwide Communications\") bought the station.\"KNRJ sold for $30 million\", the *Houston Chronicle*, May 16, 1990\\. The station's ratings during this time were low and the new owners wanted to improve the numbers. In the station's latter months, KNRJ began adding more [new wave music](/wiki/New_wave_music \"New wave music\") tracks to improve ratings.", "### Mix 96\\.5", "On June 25, 1990, at 7:15 a.m., in the middle of \"[Tonight](/wiki/Tonight_%28New_Kids_on_the_Block_song%29 \"Tonight (New Kids on the Block song)\")\" by [New Kids on the Block](/wiki/New_Kids_on_the_Block \"New Kids on the Block\"), DJ Jeff Scott, in a bit, abruptly cut off the song and announced his discontent for the format, with he and some fellow DJs playing brief music clips to complain about before being heard throwing the tapes away. After that, KNRJ flipped to an [alternative rock](/wiki/Alternative_rock \"Alternative rock\") format. The station kicked off with \"I Eat Cannibals\" by [Toto Coelo](/wiki/Toto_Coelo \"Toto Coelo\"), starting off a \"Top 100 Best Alternative Songs of All Time\" countdown.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://formatchange.com/energy\\-96\\-5\\-knrj\\-becomes\\-the\\-alternative/\\|title\\=Energy 96\\.5 KNRJ Becomes The Alternative\\|date\\=June 25, 1990\\|website\\=Format Change Archive\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=January 5, 2020}} The *Alternative 96\\.5* re\\-brand was a transitional format, lasting roughly five weeks, and was promoted while a forthcoming format was under preparation. A weekly [playlist](/wiki/Playlist \"Playlist\"), under a makeshift *Alternative 96\\.5* letterhead, was distributed to local retail and media outlets.[https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1990s/1990/RR\\-1990\\-06\\-29\\.pdf](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1990/RR-1990-06-29.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}}", "Then, at 7 a.m. on July 18, KNRJ began [stunting](/wiki/Stunting_%28broadcasting%29 \"Stunting (broadcasting)\") with a 48\\-hour ticking clock countdown sequence. A series of disjointed song samples were eventually interspersed into the sequence within the last 12 hours, most famously the opening to the song \"[Let It Whip](/wiki/Let_It_Whip \"Let It Whip\")\" by [The Dazz Band](/wiki/The_Dazz_Band \"The Dazz Band\") played first normally, then again in reverse.\"Clock is running on KNRJ changes\", the *Houston Chronicle*, July 19, 1990\\. After the countdown concluded at 7 a.m. on July 20, a fictitious \"teacher\" conducted a \"roll call\" calling out the names of program directors from competing radio stations, asking the \"class\" to start their tape recorders and take notes as this \"lecture\" was to begin. At that moment, KNRJ's call letters switched to KHMX as the station changed formats to [hot adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music%23Hot_adult_contemporary \"Adult contemporary music#Hot adult contemporary\"), branded as \"Mix 96\\.5\\.\" The first two songs on \"Mix\" were [Steve Winwood](/wiki/Steve_Winwood \"Steve Winwood\")'s \"[Roll With It](/wiki/Roll_with_It_%28album%29 \"Roll with It (album)\")\" and [Taylor Dayne](/wiki/Taylor_Dayne \"Taylor Dayne\")'s \"[I'll Be Your Shelter](/wiki/I%27ll_Be_Your_Shelter \"I'll Be Your Shelter\")\".Louis B. Parks, \"Radio station KNRJ changes its format and call letters\", the *Houston Chronicle*, July 20, 1990\\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1990s/1990/RR\\-1990\\-07\\-27\\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1990s/1990/RR-1990-07-27.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://formatchange.com/965\\-knrj\\-becomes\\-mix\\-khmx/\\|title\\=96\\.5 KNRJ becomes \"Mix\" KHMX\\|date\\=July 20, 1990\\|website\\=Format Change Archive\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=January 5, 2020}}{{Citation\\|title\\=RARE! Debut Ad for Houston's Mix 96\\.5 KHMX\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=FKGF04wDzlw \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/FKGF04wDzlw \\|archive\\-date\\=December 21, 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=January 5, 2020}}{{cbignore}}", "[alt\\=\\|thumb\\|Previous logo under Clear Channel ownership](/wiki/File:KHMX.PNG \"KHMX.PNG\")", "General Manager Clancy Woods and Nationwide National Program Director Guy Zapoleon used the roll out at KHMX to launch other new Hot AC stations, branded as the \"Mix\" format. The Mix brand tagline, \"More Music, More Variety, A Better Mix\", was commercially successful. The formula for the \"Mix\" format was replicated through the 1990s and early 2000s in several other radio markets across North America and in cities as far away as [Sydney, Australia](/wiki/Sydney%2C_Australia \"Sydney, Australia\") by KHMX consultant Alan Burns. Around the same time, research expert John Parikhal, who also worked with KHMX, was helping PD Greg Strassell of [Steve Dodge](/wiki/Steve_Dodge \"Steve Dodge\")'s [American Radio Systems](/wiki/American_Radio_Systems \"American Radio Systems\") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") launch another Mix station known as \"Mix 98\\.5\", [WBMX](/wiki/WWBX \"WWBX\"). WBMX was more of a [Rhythmic AC](/wiki/Rhythmic_AC \"Rhythmic AC\") and an early example of today's [MOViN'](/wiki/Movin%27_%28brand%29 \"Movin' (brand)\") format. Another Mix station was launched a few months earlier in the Summer of 1989 at [WOMX](/wiki/WOMX \"WOMX\") in [Orlando](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida \"Orlando, Florida\") by Nationwide Communications GM Rick Weinkoff and PD Brian Thomas, with help from Guy Zapoleon.", "Nationwide sold all of its radio stations, including KHMX, to [Jacor](/wiki/Jacor \"Jacor\") in October 1997\\.[Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\"), \"Jacor buys 17 Nationwide radio stations\", the *Houston Chronicle*, October 29, 1997\\. After a series of mergers, [Clear Channel Communications](/wiki/Clear_Channel_Communications \"Clear Channel Communications\") acquired KHMX in early 1999\\.Bruce Westbrook, \"'The Buzz'; 'Mix' being sold; changes coming\", the *Houston Chronicle*, June 17, 1998\\.John Nolan, \"Texas\\-based Clear Channel gets Jacor; $3\\.4 billion stock deal creates third major player in radio industry\", the *Houston Chronicle*, October 9, 1998\\. KHMX was broadcast nationwide on [XM Satellite Radio](/wiki/XM_Satellite_Radio \"XM Satellite Radio\") from 2001 to the end of 2003, when a unique\\-to\\-XM [Mix](/wiki/Mix_%28XM%29 \"Mix (XM)\") channel debuted.", "On December 15, 2008, Clear Channel and [CBS Radio](/wiki/CBS_Radio \"CBS Radio\") announced a multi\\-station swap: KHMX and sister station [KLOL](/wiki/KLOL \"KLOL\") would go to CBS Radio, while CBS Radio\\-owned stations [WQSR](/wiki/WQSR \"WQSR\") in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"), [KBKS](/wiki/KBKS-FM \"KBKS-FM\") in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\"), [KLTH](/wiki/KLTH \"KLTH\") and [KXJM](/wiki/KXJM \"KXJM\") in [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\") and [KQJK](/wiki/KYRV \"KYRV\") in [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento \"Sacramento\") would go to Clear Channel. The sale was approved on March 31, 2009, and was consummated on April 1\\.[CBS Radio to Swap Five Mid\\-Size Market Stations for Two Large Market Stations with Clear Channel Communications](http://www.cbsradio.com/press_center/releases/pressrelease102342-12-15-2008.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219194540/http://www.cbsradio.com/press\\_center/releases/pressrelease102342\\-12\\-15\\-2008\\.html \\|date\\=December 19, 2008 }} (retrieved December 15, 2008\\) After the sale of the station to CBS in 2009, KHMX tweaked its sound to include more Top 40/CHR currents.", "On February 2, 2017, CBS Radio announced it would merge with [Entercom](/wiki/Entercom \"Entercom\").[CBS Radio to Merge with Entercom](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/116299/cbs-radio-to-merge-with-entercom/) The merger was approved on November 9, 2017, and was consummated on November 17\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://entercom.com/press/entercom\\-receives\\-fcc\\-approval\\-merger\\-cbs\\-radio/\\|title\\=Entercom Receives FCC Approval for Merger with CBS Radio\\|work\\=Entercom\\|date\\=November 9, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=November 17, 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://radioinsight.com/headlines/121072/entercom\\-completes\\-cbs\\-radio\\-merger/\\|title\\=Entercom Completes CBS Radio Merger\\|website\\=radioinsight.com\\|date\\=November 17, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=November 17, 2017}}", "### Morning shows", "During its tenure as \"Mix\", the station has rotated through several morning shows, including Roula \\& Ryan (now on [KRBE](/wiki/KRBE \"KRBE\")) from 2003\\-2005, Sam Malone (formerly of KRBE) 2005\\-2007, Maria Todd (also formerly of KRBE) 2009\\-2011, [The Kidd Kraddick Morning Show](/wiki/The_Kidd_Kraddick_Morning_Show \"The Kidd Kraddick Morning Show\") 2011\\-2012, Atom Smasher (also a [KRBE](/wiki/KRBE \"KRBE\") alum) 2013\\-2015, and Dave, Mahoney \\& DK (formerly of sister [KXTE](/wiki/KXTE \"KXTE\")/[Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\")) 2015\\-2016\\.", "Dave, Mahoney \\& DK were let go from the station in December 2016\\. On April 5, 2017, it was announced that \"The Morning Mix\" would become the new morning show on KHMX consisting of former KKHH host Sarah Pepper, along with afternoon host Lauren Kelly and Geoff Sheen, formerly of [KTKR](/wiki/KTKR \"KTKR\") in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\"), which began on April 10, 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://mix965houston.cbslocal.com/2017/04/05/welcome\\-the\\-morning\\-mix\\-houstons\\-new\\-favorite\\-morning\\-show/\\|title\\=Welcome The Morning Mix \\- Houston's New Favorite Morning Show\\|access\\-date\\=April 5, 2017}} Lauren Kelly, however, left the station in 2019\\. Mornings are currently hosted by Pepper and Jessie Watt.", "" ]
### Early years KXYZ\-FM first signed on February 1, 1948, under the ownership of Shamrock Broadcasting.[Information](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1950/RADIO%20&%20TV%20ALL%20YB%201950%20B&W-11.pdf) from the [Broadcasting Yearbook](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable") 1950 page 294 As typical of FM radio stations in the mid\-20th century, KXYZ\-FM was a simulcast of its AM parent, [KXYZ](/wiki/KXYZ "KXYZ"). The station would stay on the air for five years and six months before being silent for about eight years,{{Cite web\|url\=http://houstonradiohistory.blogspot.com/2008/02/fm\-chronology\-part\-5\-1947\-1950\.html\|title\=FM Chronology \- Part 5 \- 1947 \- 1950\|access\-date\=January 5, 2020}} resuming operations in 1961, again as a simulcast of KXYZ's [beautiful music](/wiki/Beautiful_music "Beautiful music") format.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1961\-1962 page B\-168](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1961-62/section%20B%20All%20Radio%20%20Broadcasting%20Yearbook%201961-1962-9.pdf) In 1968, KXYZ and KXYZ\-FM were acquired by ABC;[Broadcasting Yearbook 1970 page B\-199](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1970/B%20Radio%20All%20BC%20YB%201970%20All-3.pdf) the new ownership subsequently changed KXYZ\-FM's format to [automated](/wiki/Broadcast_automation "Broadcast automation") [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock "Progressive rock"), branded as "Love {{frac\|96\|1\|2}} FM". "Love" was formulated by ABC Radio for its FM stations around the U.S., including [WABC\-FM](/wiki/WPLJ "WPLJ") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), [KABC\-FM](/wiki/KLOS "KLOS") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), [WLS\-FM](/wiki/WLS-FM "WLS-FM") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [KGO\-FM](/wiki/KOSF "KOSF") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), [WXYZ\-FM](/wiki/WRIF "WRIF") in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit") and [KQV\-FM](/wiki/WDVE "WDVE") in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh"). All seven FM stations switch call signs to distinguish from their AM counterparts on switched to KAUM in January 1971\. When the national "Love" format was discontinued later in 1971, the progressive rock music continued, but with local [disc jockeys](/wiki/Disc_jockey "Disc jockey"), changing its moniker to "KAUM {{frac\|96\|1\|2}} FM". In the late 1970s, KAUM shifted from [album\-oriented rock](/wiki/Album-oriented_rock "Album-oriented rock") (AOR) to [Top 40](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio "Contemporary hit radio") hits to compete against [KRBE](/wiki/KRBE "KRBE") and [KILT](/wiki/KILT_%28AM%29 "KILT (AM)"). From July 24, 1980, through late 1986, the station operated as KSRR, first as "97 Star FM", and then again as "97 Rock." It had an [album\-oriented rock](/wiki/Album-oriented_rock "Album-oriented rock") format, using the infamous slogan "Kick Ass Rock 'N' Roll!", and a logo similar to [WABB](/wiki/WABD-FM "WABD-FM") in [Mobile](/wiki/Mobile%2C_Alabama "Mobile, Alabama").[https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1980/RR\-1980\-07\-25\.pdf](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1980/RR-1980-07-25.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} The new station featured morning radio host and [KEGL](/wiki/KEGL "KEGL") [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas "Dallas, Texas") alum James Smith "Moby" Carney and Matthew, with [Hannah Storm](/wiki/Hannah_Storm "Hannah Storm") as sports announcer. The station competed against the album rock format of [KLOL](/wiki/KLOL-FM "KLOL-FM") and for a short period, [KILT\-FM](/wiki/KILT-FM "KILT-FM"). In mid\-1985, due to the merger of ABC Radio and [Capital Cities Communications](/wiki/Capital_Cities_Communications "Capital Cities Communications"), KSRR was spun off to Malrite Communications in order to meet the FCC's ownership limits at the time.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1985/RR\-1985\-08\-09\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1985/RR-1985-08-09.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} On October 15, 1986, the station changed call letters to KKHT, and the AOR format was replaced by a Top 40 format known as "Hit 96\.5 KKHT".Bob Grace, "'97 Rock' Becomes 'Hit 96\.5'", the *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle "Houston Chronicle")*, October 25, 1986\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1986/RR\-1986\-10\-24\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1986/RR-1986-10-24.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} By mid\-1987, heavy competition from Top 40 powerhouses [KKBQ\-FM](/wiki/KKBQ "KKBQ") and KRBE prompted the station to morph to [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary "Adult contemporary"). The station rebranded as "96\.5 KKHT". In late 1988, [Emmis Broadcasting](/wiki/Emmis_Broadcasting "Emmis Broadcasting") bought the station. On February 10, 1989, at 6 p.m., the station flipped to a new [rhythmic contemporary](/wiki/Rhythmic_contemporary "Rhythmic contemporary") format, with a focus on dance\-oriented music, branded as "Energy 96\.5".Louis B. Parks, "KNRJ feels like dancing, makes another format change", the *Houston Chronicle*, February 14, 1989\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-RandR/1980s/1989/RR\-1989\-02\-17\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1989/RR-1989-02-17.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} The station adopted the new KNRJ call letters on September 4\. This format was a competitive response to two other local stations, KKBQ and KRBE, whose Top 40 formats reflected the increasing presence of dance club\-oriented tracks (catering to a then\-lucrative target audience drawn to the flourishing night club scenes along Richmond Avenue and inner [Westheimer Road](/wiki/Westheimer_Road "Westheimer Road")). These competitors featured late\-night, weekend live broadcasts from local dance clubs (e.g., Club 6400, The Ocean Club), where in\-house DJs drew heavily from libraries of imported and small\-label, extended\-length modern tracks (which otherwise were seldom heard on most commercial stations). By early 1990, KNRJ had partnered with the Tower Theater's *Decadance* to host its own weekend, late\-night live broadcast. In May 1990, [Nationwide Communications](/wiki/Nationwide_Communications "Nationwide Communications") bought the station."KNRJ sold for $30 million", the *Houston Chronicle*, May 16, 1990\. The station's ratings during this time were low and the new owners wanted to improve the numbers. In the station's latter months, KNRJ began adding more [new wave music](/wiki/New_wave_music "New wave music") tracks to improve ratings.
[ "### Early years", "KXYZ\\-FM first signed on February 1, 1948, under the ownership of Shamrock Broadcasting.[Information](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1950/RADIO%20&%20TV%20ALL%20YB%201950%20B&W-11.pdf) from the [Broadcasting Yearbook](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\") 1950 page 294 As typical of FM radio stations in the mid\\-20th century, KXYZ\\-FM was a simulcast of its AM parent, [KXYZ](/wiki/KXYZ \"KXYZ\"). The station would stay on the air for five years and six months before being silent for about eight years,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://houstonradiohistory.blogspot.com/2008/02/fm\\-chronology\\-part\\-5\\-1947\\-1950\\.html\\|title\\=FM Chronology \\- Part 5 \\- 1947 \\- 1950\\|access\\-date\\=January 5, 2020}} resuming operations in 1961, again as a simulcast of KXYZ's [beautiful music](/wiki/Beautiful_music \"Beautiful music\") format.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1961\\-1962 page B\\-168](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1961-62/section%20B%20All%20Radio%20%20Broadcasting%20Yearbook%201961-1962-9.pdf)", "In 1968, KXYZ and KXYZ\\-FM were acquired by ABC;[Broadcasting Yearbook 1970 page B\\-199](https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1970/B%20Radio%20All%20BC%20YB%201970%20All-3.pdf) the new ownership subsequently changed KXYZ\\-FM's format to [automated](/wiki/Broadcast_automation \"Broadcast automation\") [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock \"Progressive rock\"), branded as \"Love {{frac\\|96\\|1\\|2}} FM\". \"Love\" was formulated by ABC Radio for its FM stations around the U.S., including [WABC\\-FM](/wiki/WPLJ \"WPLJ\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), [KABC\\-FM](/wiki/KLOS \"KLOS\") in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), [WLS\\-FM](/wiki/WLS-FM \"WLS-FM\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [KGO\\-FM](/wiki/KOSF \"KOSF\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), [WXYZ\\-FM](/wiki/WRIF \"WRIF\") in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\") and [KQV\\-FM](/wiki/WDVE \"WDVE\") in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\"). All seven FM stations switch call signs to distinguish from their AM counterparts on switched to KAUM in January 1971\\. When the national \"Love\" format was discontinued later in 1971, the progressive rock music continued, but with local [disc jockeys](/wiki/Disc_jockey \"Disc jockey\"), changing its moniker to \"KAUM {{frac\\|96\\|1\\|2}} FM\". In the late 1970s, KAUM shifted from [album\\-oriented rock](/wiki/Album-oriented_rock \"Album-oriented rock\") (AOR) to [Top 40](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio \"Contemporary hit radio\") hits to compete against [KRBE](/wiki/KRBE \"KRBE\") and [KILT](/wiki/KILT_%28AM%29 \"KILT (AM)\").", "From July 24, 1980, through late 1986, the station operated as KSRR, first as \"97 Star FM\", and then again as \"97 Rock.\" It had an [album\\-oriented rock](/wiki/Album-oriented_rock \"Album-oriented rock\") format, using the infamous slogan \"Kick Ass Rock 'N' Roll!\", and a logo similar to [WABB](/wiki/WABD-FM \"WABD-FM\") in [Mobile](/wiki/Mobile%2C_Alabama \"Mobile, Alabama\").[https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1980/RR\\-1980\\-07\\-25\\.pdf](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1980/RR-1980-07-25.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} The new station featured morning radio host and [KEGL](/wiki/KEGL \"KEGL\") [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas \"Dallas, Texas\") alum James Smith \"Moby\" Carney and Matthew, with [Hannah Storm](/wiki/Hannah_Storm \"Hannah Storm\") as sports announcer. The station competed against the album rock format of [KLOL](/wiki/KLOL-FM \"KLOL-FM\") and for a short period, [KILT\\-FM](/wiki/KILT-FM \"KILT-FM\").", "In mid\\-1985, due to the merger of ABC Radio and [Capital Cities Communications](/wiki/Capital_Cities_Communications \"Capital Cities Communications\"), KSRR was spun off to Malrite Communications in order to meet the FCC's ownership limits at the time.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1985/RR\\-1985\\-08\\-09\\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1985/RR-1985-08-09.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} On October 15, 1986, the station changed call letters to KKHT, and the AOR format was replaced by a Top 40 format known as \"Hit 96\\.5 KKHT\".Bob Grace, \"'97 Rock' Becomes 'Hit 96\\.5'\", the *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle \"Houston Chronicle\")*, October 25, 1986\\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1986/RR\\-1986\\-10\\-24\\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1986/RR-1986-10-24.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} By mid\\-1987, heavy competition from Top 40 powerhouses [KKBQ\\-FM](/wiki/KKBQ \"KKBQ\") and KRBE prompted the station to morph to [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary \"Adult contemporary\"). The station rebranded as \"96\\.5 KKHT\". In late 1988, [Emmis Broadcasting](/wiki/Emmis_Broadcasting \"Emmis Broadcasting\") bought the station.", "On February 10, 1989, at 6 p.m., the station flipped to a new [rhythmic contemporary](/wiki/Rhythmic_contemporary \"Rhythmic contemporary\") format, with a focus on dance\\-oriented music, branded as \"Energy 96\\.5\".Louis B. Parks, \"KNRJ feels like dancing, makes another format change\", the *Houston Chronicle*, February 14, 1989\\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-RandR/1980s/1989/RR\\-1989\\-02\\-17\\.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-RandR/1980s/1989/RR-1989-02-17.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} The station adopted the new KNRJ call letters on September 4\\. This format was a competitive response to two other local stations, KKBQ and KRBE, whose Top 40 formats reflected the increasing presence of dance club\\-oriented tracks (catering to a then\\-lucrative target audience drawn to the flourishing night club scenes along Richmond Avenue and inner [Westheimer Road](/wiki/Westheimer_Road \"Westheimer Road\")). These competitors featured late\\-night, weekend live broadcasts from local dance clubs (e.g., Club 6400, The Ocean Club), where in\\-house DJs drew heavily from libraries of imported and small\\-label, extended\\-length modern tracks (which otherwise were seldom heard on most commercial stations). By early 1990, KNRJ had partnered with the Tower Theater's *Decadance* to host its own weekend, late\\-night live broadcast.", "In May 1990, [Nationwide Communications](/wiki/Nationwide_Communications \"Nationwide Communications\") bought the station.\"KNRJ sold for $30 million\", the *Houston Chronicle*, May 16, 1990\\. The station's ratings during this time were low and the new owners wanted to improve the numbers. In the station's latter months, KNRJ began adding more [new wave music](/wiki/New_wave_music \"New wave music\") tracks to improve ratings.", "" ]
History ------- ### Tama Airfield The facility which houses Yokota Air Base was originally constructed by the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army "Imperial Japanese Army") (IJA) in 1940 as Tama Airfield, and used as a flight test center. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") Yokota became the center of Japanese Army Air Forces flight test activities and the base was the site of the first meeting between Japanese and Italian wartime allies. Tama was first identified by [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces") (USAAF) in November 1944 by a [3rd Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/3rd_Space_Operations_Squadron "3rd Space Operations Squadron") [F\-13 Superfortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress_variants%23RB-29J_%28RB-29%2C_FB-29J%2C_F-13%2C_F-13A%29 "Boeing B-29 Superfortress variants#RB-29J (RB-29, FB-29J, F-13, F-13A)") photo\-reconnaissance aircraft, flying from [Tinian](/wiki/Tinian "Tinian") in the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands "Mariana Islands"). It was identified as being associated with the aircraft manufacturing plant belonging to [Nakajima Aircraft Company](/wiki/Nakajima_Aircraft_Company "Nakajima Aircraft Company") in the nearby town (now city) of [Musashino](/wiki/Musashino%2C_Tokyo "Musashino, Tokyo"). Along with [Tachikawa Air Base](/wiki/Tachikawa_Air_Base "Tachikawa Air Base") to the east and the factory of [Showa Aircraft Industry](/wiki/Showa_Aircraft_Industry "Showa Aircraft Industry") to the south, it was compared to the aircraft development complex of the USAAF [Wright\-Patterson Field](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base "Wright-Patterson Air Force Base") in Ohio. According to the USAAF intelligence at the time, the two bases conducted all IJA flight testing. In the spring of 1945, [XXI Bomber Command](/wiki/XXI_Bomber_Command "XXI Bomber Command") attacked the base eight times along with the aircraft manufacturing plant, but each time heavy clouds forced the bombers to attack secondary targets. The Nakajima plant was finally attacked in April 1945, but the Tama airfield never was bombed. ### Postwar years With the [Surrender of Japan](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan") on 2 September 1945, a detachment of the [United States Army 1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "1st Infantry Division (United States)") arrived at the base on 4 September. The airfield's buildings were largely intact, and some 280 of the IJA's most modern aircraft were discovered in hangars. The 1st Cavalry named the facility Fussa Army Airfield, then at the end of September renamed it Yokota Army Airfield after a nearby village (now incorporated in [Musashimurayama](/wiki/Musashimurayama%2C_Tokyo "Musashimurayama, Tokyo")) the name of which appeared on a 1944 US map. The name was to have been changed to Wilkins Army Air Base (WAAB) after [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor") recipient [Raymond "Ray" Wilkins](/wiki/Raymond_H._Wilkins "Raymond H. Wilkins"), but orders for this never arrived and it remained under the name Yokota Army Airfield until the USAAF became the USAF in 1947, at which point it became Yokota Air Base.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yokota.af.mil/News/Article\-Display/Article/774060/yokota\-history\-part\-2\-occupation\-period\-1945\-51/\|title\=Yokota History Part 2: Occupation Period, 1945–51\|publisher\=Yokota Air Base\|access\-date\=16 September 2017}} Some metal manhole covers stamped "WAAB" remain in use around the base as of 2017\. The initial USAAF use for the base was for airlift operations when the [2d Combat Cargo Group](/wiki/2d_Combat_Cargo_Group "2d Combat Cargo Group") arrived with four [C\-47 Skytrain](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain "Douglas C-47 Skytrain") squadrons. When the old runway deteriorated under heavy usage, the runway was repaired and Yokota supported operations of the [A\-26 Invader](/wiki/Douglas_A-26_Invader "Douglas A-26 Invader")\-equipped [3d Bombardment Group](/wiki/3d_Bombardment_Group "3d Bombardment Group") by August 1946\. Additional construction during the 1940s and 1950s was completed and the base reached its current size around 1960\. On the occasion of extension, the course of [Hachiko Line](/wiki/Hachiko_Line "Hachiko Line") and [National Route 16](/wiki/Japan_National_Route_16 "Japan National Route 16") was changed, and [Itsukaichi Kaidō](/wiki/Itsukaichi_Kaid%C5%8D "Itsukaichi Kaidō") was divided. During the initial postwar occupation years, Yokota hosted the following known USAAF/USAF units: * [20th Combat Mapping Group](/wiki/20th_Combat_Mapping_Group "20th Combat Mapping Group") (October 1945 – April 1946\) ([F\-7 Liberator](/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator "Consolidated B-24 Liberator")) * [8th Reconnaissance Group](/wiki/8th_Reconnaissance_Group "8th Reconnaissance Group") (June 1946 – October 1947\) (F\-7\) * [71st Reconnaissance Group](/wiki/71st_Reconnaissance_Group "71st Reconnaissance Group") (February 1947 – April 1949\) ([RB\-17](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress"), [RB\-29](/wiki/RB-29_Superfortress "RB-29 Superfortress"), [RF\-51](/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang "North American P-51 Mustang"), [RF\-61](/wiki/Northrop_F-15_Reporter "Northrop F-15 Reporter") and [RF\-80](/wiki/Lockheed_P-80_Shooting_Star "Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star")) These units performed photographic reconnaissance and mapping of Japan and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"). * [6th Night Fighter Squadron](/wiki/6th_Night_Fighter_Squadron "6th Night Fighter Squadron") (1946–47\) ([P\-61A/B](/wiki/Northrop_P-61_Black_Widow "Northrop P-61 Black Widow")) Inactivated and personnel, mission and equipment transferred to [339th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/339th_Fighter_Squadron "339th Fighter Squadron") ([347th Fighter Group](/wiki/347th_Fighter_Group "347th Fighter Group")) with [F\-82F/G Twin Mustangs](/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang "North American F-82 Twin Mustang") at [Nagoya Air Base](/wiki/Nagoya_Air_Base "Nagoya Air Base"). * [82nd Photo Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/82nd_Photo_Reconnaissance_Squadron "82nd Photo Reconnaissance Squadron") (1947–48\) ([FP\-80](/wiki/FP-80_Shooting_Star "FP-80 Shooting Star")) * [3d Emergency Rescue Squadron](/wiki/3d_Emergency_Rescue_Squadron "3d Emergency Rescue Squadron") (July 1947 – April 1950\) ([SB\-17G](/wiki/List_of_Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress_variants "List of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants")) Flew modified [B\-17G](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress") bombers equipped with a 27\-foot boat (termed the [A\-1](/wiki/A-1_lifeboat "A-1 lifeboat")) under their bellies that could be dropped by parachute and contained enough food, water, and clothing for twelve survivors to last for about twenty days in the ocean. #### Korean War During the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"), Yokota was used for combat missions over North and South Korea. Known units based there were: * **Fighter units** + [27th Fighter\-Escort Wing](/wiki/27th_Fighter_Wing "27th Fighter Wing") (November – December 1950\){{cite book\|last\=Ravenstein\|first\=Charles A.\|title\=Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage \& Honors Histories 1947–1977\|url\=https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave/page/51\|publisher\=Office of Air Force History\|year\=1984\|isbn\=0912799129\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave/page/51 51]}} Flew [F\-84E Thunderjets](/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet "Republic F-84 Thunderjet") on armed reconnaissance, interdiction, fighter escort, and close air support missions. + [35th Fighter\-Interceptor Wing](/wiki/35th_Fighter_Wing "35th Fighter Wing") (April \- August 1950\){{rp\|61}} Flew [F\-80Cs](/wiki/F-80C "F-80C") on air defense missions. - [339th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/339th_Fighter_Squadron "339th Fighter Squadron") (April – August 1950\) Attached to 35th Fighter\-Interceptor Wing and flew [F\-82F/G Twin Mustang](/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang "North American F-82 Twin Mustang") missions over South Korea during the first few months of hostilities. * **Bombardment units** + [92d Bombardment Group](/wiki/92d_Air_Refueling_Wing "92d Air Refueling Wing") ([325th](/wiki/325th_Weapons_Squadron "325th Weapons Squadron"), [326th](/wiki/326th_Bombardment_Squadron "326th Bombardment Squadron") and [327th Bombardment Squadrons](/wiki/327th_Bombardment_Squadron "327th Bombardment Squadron")) (July – October 1950\) Deployed squadrons from [Spokane Army Airfield](/wiki/Spokane_Army_Airfield "Spokane Army Airfield"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"). Flew B\-29 Bombing missions over North Korea. + [98th Bombardment Wing](/wiki/98th_Range_Wing "98th Range Wing") ([343d](/wiki/343d_Bomb_Squadron "343d Bomb Squadron"), [344th](/wiki/344th_Air_Refueling_Squadron "344th Air Refueling Squadron") and [345th Bomb Squadrons](/wiki/345th_Bomb_Squadron "345th Bomb Squadron")) (August 1950 – July 1954\){{rp\|139}} Group, then Wing deployed from Spokane Army Airfield. Flew B\-29 Bombing missions over North Korea. Two days after arriving at Yokota, the squadrons conducted a bomb mission against marshalling yards at [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang "Pyongyang"), North Korea. The 98th BG engaged primarily in interdiction of enemy communications centers but also supported UN ground forces. Interdiction targets included marshalling yards, oil centers, rail facilities, bridges, roads, troop concentrations, airfields, and military installations. * **Reconnaissance units** + [31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron Photographic](/wiki/31st_Strategic_Reconnaissance_Squadron "31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron") (July–August 1950\) Flew combat missions to provide [FEAF](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces "Pacific Air Forces") (Far East Air Forces) Bomber Command with target and bomb\-damage assessment photography. + [91st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron, Medium, Photographic](/wiki/91st_Cyberspace_Operations_Squadron "91st Cyberspace Operations Squadron") (December 1950 – December 1954\) Assigned to [407th Strategic Fighter Wing](/wiki/407th_Strategic_Fighter_Wing "407th Strategic Fighter Wing") (1953–54\){{rp\|221}} Absorbed the personnel and resources of the 31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron in Japan. Using [RB\-29](/wiki/RB-29_Superfortress "RB-29 Superfortress"), [RB\-45](/wiki/B-45_Tornado "B-45 Tornado"), [RB\-50](/wiki/Boeing_B-50_Superfortress "Boeing B-50 Superfortress") and [RB\-36](/wiki/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker "Convair B-36 Peacemaker") aircraft, it performed target and bomb\-damage assessment photo and visual reconnaissance for FEAF Bomber Command, flew other special photographic missions, and conducted [electronic "ferret" reconnaissance](/wiki/Signals_intelligence "Signals intelligence") to determine frequency, location, and other characteristics of enemy ground radar. The squadron also performed shipping surveillance over the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan "Sea of Japan") near the [Siberian](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia") coast and [leaflet drops](/wiki/Airborne_leaflet_propaganda "Airborne leaflet propaganda") over North Korea. Beginning in late 1952, rotating aircrews of the Philippine\-based [581st Air Resupply and Communications Wing](/wiki/581st_Air_Resupply_and_Communications_Wing "581st Air Resupply and Communications Wing") augmented the 91st SRS in flying leaflet missions. + [512th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/512th_Bombardment_Squadron "512th Bombardment Squadron") (January – August 1950\) Operated the B/RB/WB\-29 aircraft and flew weather reconnaissance missions. + [56th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/56th_Weather_Reconnaissance_Squadron "56th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron") (September 1951 – July 1972\) Replaced the 512th Bomb Squadron in their weather reconnaissance mission. They operated WB\-29, WB\-50, [WC\-135B](/wiki/Boeing_WC-135_Constant_Phoenix "Boeing WC-135 Constant Phoenix") and [RB\-57](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra "Martin B-57 Canberra") aircraft used to sample airborne nuclear debris as well as weather patterns in the Pacific. ### Cold War With the Korean War reaching an armistice in July 1953, Yokota Air Base returned to a peacetime [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") status. Two major wings were stationed at the base during the 1950s, the [67th Reconnaissance Wing](/wiki/67th_Reconnaissance_Wing "67th Reconnaissance Wing") (1956–60\) flying RF\-80s, [RF\-84s](/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet "Republic F-84 Thunderjet") and lastly [RF\-101s](/wiki/McDonnell_F-101_Voodoo "McDonnell F-101 Voodoo").{{rp\|106}} The 35th Fighter\-Interceptor Wing (1954–57\) flew [F\-86 Sabres](/wiki/North_American_F-86_Sabre "North American F-86 Sabre") from the base.{{rp\|106}} A [Tactical Air Command](/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command "Tactical Air Command") (TAC) air refueling unit, the [421st Air Refueling Squadron](/wiki/421st_Air_Refueling_Squadron "421st Air Refueling Squadron") flew KB\-29s, and later KB\-50Js from Yokota from 1953 to 1965\. All of these units were under the command of the [41st Air Division](/wiki/41st_Air_Division "41st Air Division"). The 35th TFW was reassigned in 1957 and the 67th TRW in 1960\. Defense budget restrictions in the late 1950s caused several PACAF wings based in Japan to be reassigned or inactivated. These tactical fighter units were replaced by the [B\-57](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra "Martin B-57 Canberra") equipped [3rd Bombardment Wing](/wiki/3rd_Bombardment_Wing "3rd Bombardment Wing") where it trained in bombardment, reconnaissance and aerial refueling operations. The [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command "Air Defense Command") [40th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron](/wiki/40th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron "40th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron") (December 1961 – May 1962\) equipped with the [F\-102 Delta Dagger](/wiki/Convair_F-102_Delta_Dagger "Convair F-102 Delta Dagger") performing an air defense mission. The [6102d Air Base Wing](/wiki/6102d_Air_Base_Wing "6102d Air Base Wing") assumed host unit status for the base, being replaced by the [441st Combat Support Group](/wiki/441st_Combat_Support_Group "441st Combat Support Group") in 1964\. [thumb\|right\|Housing for unaccompanied personnel](/wiki/File:Yokota_base_housing.jpg "Yokota base housing.jpg") The [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") resulted in an increased combat and airlift aircraft presence at the base. Yokota was used for ferrying [B\-52 Stratofortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress "Boeing B-52 Stratofortress") to Southeast Asia along with being a base for US\-based deployed [F\-105 Thunderchief](/wiki/Republic_F-105_Thunderchief "Republic F-105 Thunderchief") [35th](/wiki/35th_Fighter_Squadron "35th Fighter Squadron"), [36th](/wiki/36th_Fighter_Squadron "36th Fighter Squadron") and [80th Tactical Fighter Squadrons](/wiki/80th_Fighter_Squadron "80th Fighter Squadron"). The [610th Military Airlift Support Squadron](/wiki/610th_Military_Airlift_Support_Squadron "610th Military Airlift Support Squadron") (1966–78\) was created by [Military Airlift Command](/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command "Military Airlift Command") (MAC) to service the large increase in transiting airlift. The 65th Military Airlift Support Group (1969–71\) was a headquarters organization for MAC airlift support squadrons in the Pacific and Far East. The F\-105 squadrons deployed frequently to USAF\-operated bases in [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") to fly combat missions over [North](/wiki/North_Vietnam "North Vietnam") and [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam"), and to South Korea for alert missions. Initially the fighter squadrons were under the command of the [41st Air Division](/wiki/41st_Air_Division "41st Air Division"), but was reassigned shortly after to the [6441st Tactical Fighter Wing](/wiki/6441st_Tactical_Fighter_Wing "6441st Tactical Fighter Wing"), activated in April 1965 to control the F\-105 squadrons after their parent organization, the [8th Tactical Fighter Wing](/wiki/8th_Fighter_Wing "8th Fighter Wing"), relocated to [George Air Force Base](/wiki/George_Air_Force_Base "George Air Force Base"), [California](/wiki/California "California") to become an [F\-4 Phantom II](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II "McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II") unit. With the reassignment of the [347th Fighter Wing](/wiki/347th_Fighter_Wing "347th Fighter Wing") to Yokota in 1968, the 347th assumed responsibility for all tactical fighters until its reassignment to [Kunsan Air Base](/wiki/Kunsan_Air_Base "Kunsan Air Base"), South Korea in March 1971\.{{rp\|183}} In 1971, all combat squadrons were transferred to [Kadena](/wiki/Kadena_Air_Base "Kadena Air Base") and [Misawa Air Base](/wiki/Misawa_Air_Base "Misawa Air Base") and Yokota became a non\-flying station hosted by the [475th Air Base Wing](/wiki/475th_Air_Base_Wing "475th Air Base Wing").{{rp\|264}} The 475th had no numbered flying squadrons, but operated a few [T\-39 Saberliners](/wiki/North_American_Sabreliner "North American Sabreliner") and [UH\-1](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois "Bell UH-1 Iroquois") helicopters, along with supporting transient MAC cargo and passenger aircraft. Assigned flying squadrons returned to Yokota in 1975 when the [345th Tactical Airlift Squadron](/wiki/345th_Tactical_Airlift_Squadron "345th Tactical Airlift Squadron") was assigned with its [C\-130Es](/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules "Lockheed C-130 Hercules"). Headquarters, [Fifth Air Force](/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force "Fifth Air Force") was transferred to Yokota on 11 November 1974 from [Fuchū Air Base](/wiki/Fuch%C5%AB_Air_Base_%28Tokyo%29 "Fuchū Air Base (Tokyo)"), Japan. ### Post\-Cold War In 2005, the Japanese government announced that the headquarters of the [Japan Air Self\-Defense Force](/wiki/Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force "Japan Air Self-Defense Force") Air Defense Command would be moved to Yokota. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has advocated opening Yokota to civilian flights as a method of relieving traffic at [Haneda](/wiki/Haneda_Airport "Haneda Airport") and [Narita Airport](/wiki/Narita_Airport "Narita Airport"). Governor [Shintaro Ishihara](/wiki/Shintaro_Ishihara "Shintaro Ishihara") raised the joint\-use proposal during the 2003 gubernatorial election, and Governor [Naoki Inose](/wiki/Naoki_Inose "Naoki Inose") made comments in 2013 that suggested joint use as a possible solution to cope with visitor demand during the [2020 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics "2020 Summer Olympics") in Tokyo.{{cite news\|title\=Tokyo governor eyes Yokota Air Base for civilian flights during 2020 Olympics\|url\=http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/tokyo\-governor\-eyes\-yokota\-air\-base\-for\-civilian\-flights\-during\-2020\-olympics\|access\-date\=19 December 2013\|newspaper\=Kyodo News\|date\=17 September 2013}} A broad agreement on civil\-military use of the base was agreed on in 2005\.[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2005/01/05/national/japan\-u\-s\-reach\-agreement\-on\-civilian\-military\-use\-of\-yokota\-base/](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2005/01/05/national/japan-u-s-reach-agreement-on-civilian-military-use-of-yokota-base/) In November 2009, the base was attacked by [Kakurōkyō](/wiki/Kakur%C5%8Dky%C5%8D "Kakurōkyō") members using improvised [mortar](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)") barrages.[Japanese police raid operational bases of anti\-U.S. military group – Japan – Stripes](http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/japan/japanese-police-raid-operational-bases-of-anti-u-s-military-group-1.122516?localLinksEnabled=false) [thumb\|Tents used to house U.S. Pacific Command's (USPACOM) Deployable Joint Command and Control (DJC2\) system during *Operation Tomodachi*](/wiki/File:YokotaTomodachi.jpg "YokotaTomodachi.jpg") In April 2010 Colonel Frank Eppich, the USAF commander of base, banned screenings of the film *[The Cove](/wiki/The_Cove_%28film%29 "The Cove (film)")* at the base theater. A base spokesman said that *The Cove* was banned because using a base venue to display the film could be seen as an endorsement of the film. The spokesman added, "We have a lot of issues with Japan... and anything done on an American base would be seen as an approval of that event."Harnell, Boyd, "[Yokota base bans 'Cove' to be neutral](http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100413a1.html)", *[Japan Times](/wiki/Japan_Times "Japan Times")*, 13 April 2010, p. 1\. Personnel and aircraft from the base assisted with [Operation Tomodachi](/wiki/Operation_Tomodachi "Operation Tomodachi") following and during the March [2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami](/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami "2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami") and [Fukushima I nuclear accidents](/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents "Fukushima I nuclear accidents"). The base also served as an important hub for airlifted assistance during the disaster recovery efforts. During the crisis, around 600 American family members voluntarily departed the base for locations outside Japan.Reed, Charlie, "[Military wraps up first round of departures from Japan](http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/japan/military-wraps-up-first-round-of-departures-from-japan-1.138869)", *[Stars and Stripes](/wiki/Stars_and_Stripes_%28newspaper%29 "Stars and Stripes (newspaper)")*, 25 March 2011, retrieved 28 March 2011\. [thumb\|JASDF Air Defense Command Headquarters](/wiki/File:US_and_Japanese_leaders_cut_the_ribbon_during_the_opening_ceremony_for_the_new_Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force_Air_Defense_Command_Headquarters.jpg "US and Japanese leaders cut the ribbon during the opening ceremony for the new Japan Air Self-Defense Force Air Defense Command Headquarters.jpg") On 21 March 2012 JASDF units completed moving from [Fuchū Air Base (Tokyo)](/wiki/Fuch%C5%AB_Air_Base_%28Tokyo%29 "Fuchū Air Base (Tokyo)"). On 26 March, JASDF Yokota Air Base started operations. In 2013, the air base was again attacked by Kakurokyo members by improvised mortar barrages.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/11/29/national/explosions\-heard\-near\-u\-s\-air\-base/ \|title\=Explosions heard near U.S. air base \|date\=29 November 2013 \|work\=\[\[The Japan Times]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913121002/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/11/29/national/explosions\-heard\-near\-u\-s\-air\-base/ \|archive\-date\=13 September 2016 \|url\-status\=dead}} On 5 April 2018 five [CV\-22 Osprey](/wiki/CV-22_Osprey "CV-22 Osprey") tiltrotor aircraft deployed to the base. They had originally been scheduled to deploy to Yokota in 2020, but the deployment was brought forward. As the first permanent deployment of the aircraft outside of Okinawa, the move sparked local protests.{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=CV\-22 Osprey set to deploy at Yokota Air Base also being used for night training in Okinawa, has a higher accident rate than the MV\-22 \|url\=http://english.ryukyushimpo.jp/2018/04/04/28672/ \|work\=\[\[Ryukyu Shimpo]] \|date\=29 March 2018 \|access\-date\=18 June 2018 }}{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=U.S. military announces early deployment of CV\-22 Ospreys to Japan's Yokota Air Base \|url\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/03/national/u\-s\-military\-announces\-early\-deployment\-cv\-22\-ospreys\-japans\-yokota\-air\-base/\#.WycWji2B2i4 \|work\=\[\[Japan Times]] \|date\=3 April 2018 \|access\-date\=18 June 2018 }}{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Local residents protest Osprey deployment at US Yokota base \|url\=https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20180406/p2a/00m/0na/011000c \|work\=\[\[Mainichi Shimbun]] \|date\=6 April 2018 \|access\-date\=18 June 2018 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.usfj.mil/Media/Press\-Releases/Article\-View/Article/1482806/us\-air\-force\-cv\-22\-osprey\-aircraft\-to\-arrive\-at\-yokota\-ab/ \|title\=U.S. Air Force CV\-22 Osprey aircraft to arrive at Yokota AB \|author\= \|date\=3 April 2018 \|publisher\=\[\[United States Forces Japan]] \|access\-date\=18 June 2018 }}{{cite news \|last\=Yoshizawa \|first\=Hidemasa \|date\=5 April 2018 \|title\=5 Ospreys fly to Yokota Air Base amid protests from residents \|url\=http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ201804050025\.html \|work\=\[\[Asahi Shimbun]] \|access\-date\=18 June 2018 }} The number of aircraft will eventually reach 10\.{{cite news \|last\=Robson \|first\=Seth \|date\=3 April 2018 \|title\=Ospreys to arrive at Yokota this week, 2 years ahead of schedule \|url\=https://www.stripes.com/news/ospreys\-to\-arrive\-at\-yokota\-this\-week\-2\-years\-ahead\-of\-schedule\-1\.520137 \|work\=\[\[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)\|Stars and Stripes]] \|access\-date\=18 June 2018 }} ### Major commands to which assigned * [1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_States%29 "1st Cavalry Division (United States)"), United States Army Forces Pacific, (September 1945\) * [Pacific Air Command](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Command%2C_United_States_Army "Pacific Air Command, United States Army"), US Army, (September 1945 – January 1947\) * [Far East Air Forces](/wiki/Far_East_Air_Forces "Far East Air Forces") (January 1947 – July 1957\) * [Pacific Air Forces](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces "Pacific Air Forces") (July 1957 – present)
[ "History\n-------", "### Tama Airfield", "The facility which houses Yokota Air Base was originally constructed by the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army \"Imperial Japanese Army\") (IJA) in 1940 as Tama Airfield, and used as a flight test center. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") Yokota became the center of Japanese Army Air Forces flight test activities and the base was the site of the first meeting between Japanese and Italian wartime allies.", "Tama was first identified by [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") (USAAF) in November 1944 by a [3rd Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/3rd_Space_Operations_Squadron \"3rd Space Operations Squadron\") [F\\-13 Superfortress](/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress_variants%23RB-29J_%28RB-29%2C_FB-29J%2C_F-13%2C_F-13A%29 \"Boeing B-29 Superfortress variants#RB-29J (RB-29, FB-29J, F-13, F-13A)\") photo\\-reconnaissance aircraft, flying from [Tinian](/wiki/Tinian \"Tinian\") in the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\"). It was identified as being associated with the aircraft manufacturing plant belonging to [Nakajima Aircraft Company](/wiki/Nakajima_Aircraft_Company \"Nakajima Aircraft Company\") in the nearby town (now city) of [Musashino](/wiki/Musashino%2C_Tokyo \"Musashino, Tokyo\"). Along with [Tachikawa Air Base](/wiki/Tachikawa_Air_Base \"Tachikawa Air Base\") to the east and the factory of [Showa Aircraft Industry](/wiki/Showa_Aircraft_Industry \"Showa Aircraft Industry\") to the south, it was compared to the aircraft development complex of the USAAF [Wright\\-Patterson Field](/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base \"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base\") in Ohio. According to the USAAF intelligence at the time, the two bases conducted all IJA flight testing. In the spring of 1945, [XXI Bomber Command](/wiki/XXI_Bomber_Command \"XXI Bomber Command\") attacked the base eight times along with the aircraft manufacturing plant, but each time heavy clouds forced the bombers to attack secondary targets. The Nakajima plant was finally attacked in April 1945, but the Tama airfield never was bombed.", "### Postwar years", "With the [Surrender of Japan](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\") on 2 September 1945, a detachment of the [United States Army 1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"1st Infantry Division (United States)\") arrived at the base on 4 September. The airfield's buildings were largely intact, and some 280 of the IJA's most modern aircraft were discovered in hangars.", "The 1st Cavalry named the facility Fussa Army Airfield, then at the end of September renamed it Yokota Army Airfield after a nearby village (now incorporated in [Musashimurayama](/wiki/Musashimurayama%2C_Tokyo \"Musashimurayama, Tokyo\")) the name of which appeared on a 1944 US map.", "The name was to have been changed to Wilkins Army Air Base (WAAB) after [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\") recipient [Raymond \"Ray\" Wilkins](/wiki/Raymond_H._Wilkins \"Raymond H. Wilkins\"), but orders for this never arrived and it remained under the name Yokota Army Airfield until the USAAF became the USAF in 1947, at which point it became Yokota Air Base.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yokota.af.mil/News/Article\\-Display/Article/774060/yokota\\-history\\-part\\-2\\-occupation\\-period\\-1945\\-51/\\|title\\=Yokota History Part 2: Occupation Period, 1945–51\\|publisher\\=Yokota Air Base\\|access\\-date\\=16 September 2017}} Some metal manhole covers stamped \"WAAB\" remain in use around the base as of 2017\\.", "The initial USAAF use for the base was for airlift operations when the [2d Combat Cargo Group](/wiki/2d_Combat_Cargo_Group \"2d Combat Cargo Group\") arrived with four [C\\-47 Skytrain](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain \"Douglas C-47 Skytrain\") squadrons. When the old runway deteriorated under heavy usage, the runway was repaired and Yokota supported operations of the [A\\-26 Invader](/wiki/Douglas_A-26_Invader \"Douglas A-26 Invader\")\\-equipped [3d Bombardment Group](/wiki/3d_Bombardment_Group \"3d Bombardment Group\") by August 1946\\. Additional construction during the 1940s and 1950s was completed and the base reached its current size around 1960\\.", "On the occasion of extension, the course of [Hachiko Line](/wiki/Hachiko_Line \"Hachiko Line\") and [National Route 16](/wiki/Japan_National_Route_16 \"Japan National Route 16\") was changed, and [Itsukaichi Kaidō](/wiki/Itsukaichi_Kaid%C5%8D \"Itsukaichi Kaidō\") was divided.", "During the initial postwar occupation years, Yokota hosted the following known USAAF/USAF units:", "* [20th Combat Mapping Group](/wiki/20th_Combat_Mapping_Group \"20th Combat Mapping Group\") (October 1945 – April 1946\\) ([F\\-7 Liberator](/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator \"Consolidated B-24 Liberator\"))\n* [8th Reconnaissance Group](/wiki/8th_Reconnaissance_Group \"8th Reconnaissance Group\") (June 1946 – October 1947\\) (F\\-7\\)\n* [71st Reconnaissance Group](/wiki/71st_Reconnaissance_Group \"71st Reconnaissance Group\") (February 1947 – April 1949\\) ([RB\\-17](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\"), [RB\\-29](/wiki/RB-29_Superfortress \"RB-29 Superfortress\"), [RF\\-51](/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang \"North American P-51 Mustang\"), [RF\\-61](/wiki/Northrop_F-15_Reporter \"Northrop F-15 Reporter\") and [RF\\-80](/wiki/Lockheed_P-80_Shooting_Star \"Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star\"))", "These units performed photographic reconnaissance and mapping of Japan and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\").", "* [6th Night Fighter Squadron](/wiki/6th_Night_Fighter_Squadron \"6th Night Fighter Squadron\") (1946–47\\) ([P\\-61A/B](/wiki/Northrop_P-61_Black_Widow \"Northrop P-61 Black Widow\")) \nInactivated and personnel, mission and equipment transferred to [339th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/339th_Fighter_Squadron \"339th Fighter Squadron\") ([347th Fighter Group](/wiki/347th_Fighter_Group \"347th Fighter Group\")) with [F\\-82F/G Twin Mustangs](/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang \"North American F-82 Twin Mustang\") at [Nagoya Air Base](/wiki/Nagoya_Air_Base \"Nagoya Air Base\").\n* [82nd Photo Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/82nd_Photo_Reconnaissance_Squadron \"82nd Photo Reconnaissance Squadron\") (1947–48\\) ([FP\\-80](/wiki/FP-80_Shooting_Star \"FP-80 Shooting Star\"))\n* [3d Emergency Rescue Squadron](/wiki/3d_Emergency_Rescue_Squadron \"3d Emergency Rescue Squadron\") (July 1947 – April 1950\\) ([SB\\-17G](/wiki/List_of_Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress_variants \"List of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants\")) \nFlew modified [B\\-17G](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\") bombers equipped with a 27\\-foot boat (termed the [A\\-1](/wiki/A-1_lifeboat \"A-1 lifeboat\")) under their bellies that could be dropped by parachute and contained enough food, water, and clothing for twelve survivors to last for about twenty days in the ocean.", "#### Korean War", "During the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"), Yokota was used for combat missions over North and South Korea. Known units based there were:", "* **Fighter units**\n\t+ [27th Fighter\\-Escort Wing](/wiki/27th_Fighter_Wing \"27th Fighter Wing\") (November – December 1950\\){{cite book\\|last\\=Ravenstein\\|first\\=Charles A.\\|title\\=Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage \\& Honors Histories 1947–1977\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave/page/51\\|publisher\\=Office of Air Force History\\|year\\=1984\\|isbn\\=0912799129\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave/page/51 51]}} \n\tFlew [F\\-84E Thunderjets](/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet \"Republic F-84 Thunderjet\") on armed reconnaissance, interdiction, fighter escort, and close air support missions.\n\t+ [35th Fighter\\-Interceptor Wing](/wiki/35th_Fighter_Wing \"35th Fighter Wing\") (April \\- August 1950\\){{rp\\|61}} \n\tFlew [F\\-80Cs](/wiki/F-80C \"F-80C\") on air defense missions.\n\t\t- [339th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/339th_Fighter_Squadron \"339th Fighter Squadron\") (April – August 1950\\) \n\t\tAttached to 35th Fighter\\-Interceptor Wing and flew [F\\-82F/G Twin Mustang](/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang \"North American F-82 Twin Mustang\") missions over South Korea during the first few months of hostilities.\n* **Bombardment units**\n\t+ [92d Bombardment Group](/wiki/92d_Air_Refueling_Wing \"92d Air Refueling Wing\") ([325th](/wiki/325th_Weapons_Squadron \"325th Weapons Squadron\"), [326th](/wiki/326th_Bombardment_Squadron \"326th Bombardment Squadron\") and [327th Bombardment Squadrons](/wiki/327th_Bombardment_Squadron \"327th Bombardment Squadron\")) (July – October 1950\\) \n\tDeployed squadrons from [Spokane Army Airfield](/wiki/Spokane_Army_Airfield \"Spokane Army Airfield\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"). Flew B\\-29 Bombing missions over North Korea.\n\t+ [98th Bombardment Wing](/wiki/98th_Range_Wing \"98th Range Wing\") ([343d](/wiki/343d_Bomb_Squadron \"343d Bomb Squadron\"), [344th](/wiki/344th_Air_Refueling_Squadron \"344th Air Refueling Squadron\") and [345th Bomb Squadrons](/wiki/345th_Bomb_Squadron \"345th Bomb Squadron\")) (August 1950 – July 1954\\){{rp\\|139}} \n\tGroup, then Wing deployed from Spokane Army Airfield. Flew B\\-29 Bombing missions over North Korea. Two days after arriving at Yokota, the squadrons conducted a bomb mission against marshalling yards at [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang \"Pyongyang\"), North Korea. The 98th BG engaged primarily in interdiction of enemy communications centers but also supported UN ground forces. Interdiction targets included marshalling yards, oil centers, rail facilities, bridges, roads, troop concentrations, airfields, and military installations.\n* **Reconnaissance units**\n\t+ [31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron Photographic](/wiki/31st_Strategic_Reconnaissance_Squadron \"31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron\") (July–August 1950\\) \n\tFlew combat missions to provide [FEAF](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces \"Pacific Air Forces\") (Far East Air Forces) Bomber Command with target and bomb\\-damage assessment photography.\n\t+ [91st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron, Medium, Photographic](/wiki/91st_Cyberspace_Operations_Squadron \"91st Cyberspace Operations Squadron\") (December 1950 – December 1954\\) \n\tAssigned to [407th Strategic Fighter Wing](/wiki/407th_Strategic_Fighter_Wing \"407th Strategic Fighter Wing\") (1953–54\\){{rp\\|221}} \n\tAbsorbed the personnel and resources of the 31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron in Japan. Using [RB\\-29](/wiki/RB-29_Superfortress \"RB-29 Superfortress\"), [RB\\-45](/wiki/B-45_Tornado \"B-45 Tornado\"), [RB\\-50](/wiki/Boeing_B-50_Superfortress \"Boeing B-50 Superfortress\") and [RB\\-36](/wiki/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker \"Convair B-36 Peacemaker\") aircraft, it performed target and bomb\\-damage assessment photo and visual reconnaissance for FEAF Bomber Command, flew other special photographic missions, and conducted [electronic \"ferret\" reconnaissance](/wiki/Signals_intelligence \"Signals intelligence\") to determine frequency, location, and other characteristics of enemy ground radar. The squadron also performed shipping surveillance over the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan \"Sea of Japan\") near the [Siberian](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\") coast and [leaflet drops](/wiki/Airborne_leaflet_propaganda \"Airborne leaflet propaganda\") over North Korea. Beginning in late 1952, rotating aircrews of the Philippine\\-based [581st Air Resupply and Communications Wing](/wiki/581st_Air_Resupply_and_Communications_Wing \"581st Air Resupply and Communications Wing\") augmented the 91st SRS in flying leaflet missions.\n\t+ [512th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/512th_Bombardment_Squadron \"512th Bombardment Squadron\") (January – August 1950\\) \n\tOperated the B/RB/WB\\-29 aircraft and flew weather reconnaissance missions.\n\t+ [56th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/56th_Weather_Reconnaissance_Squadron \"56th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron\") (September 1951 – July 1972\\) \n\tReplaced the 512th Bomb Squadron in their weather reconnaissance mission. They operated WB\\-29, WB\\-50, [WC\\-135B](/wiki/Boeing_WC-135_Constant_Phoenix \"Boeing WC-135 Constant Phoenix\") and [RB\\-57](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra \"Martin B-57 Canberra\") aircraft used to sample airborne nuclear debris as well as weather patterns in the Pacific.", "### Cold War", "With the Korean War reaching an armistice in July 1953, Yokota Air Base returned to a peacetime [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") status. Two major wings were stationed at the base during the 1950s, the [67th Reconnaissance Wing](/wiki/67th_Reconnaissance_Wing \"67th Reconnaissance Wing\") (1956–60\\) flying RF\\-80s, [RF\\-84s](/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet \"Republic F-84 Thunderjet\") and lastly [RF\\-101s](/wiki/McDonnell_F-101_Voodoo \"McDonnell F-101 Voodoo\").{{rp\\|106}} The 35th Fighter\\-Interceptor Wing (1954–57\\) flew [F\\-86 Sabres](/wiki/North_American_F-86_Sabre \"North American F-86 Sabre\") from the base.{{rp\\|106}} A [Tactical Air Command](/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command \"Tactical Air Command\") (TAC) air refueling unit, the [421st Air Refueling Squadron](/wiki/421st_Air_Refueling_Squadron \"421st Air Refueling Squadron\") flew KB\\-29s, and later KB\\-50Js from Yokota from 1953 to 1965\\. All of these units were under the command of the [41st Air Division](/wiki/41st_Air_Division \"41st Air Division\").", "The 35th TFW was reassigned in 1957 and the 67th TRW in 1960\\. Defense budget restrictions in the late 1950s caused several PACAF wings based in Japan to be reassigned or inactivated. These tactical fighter units were replaced by the [B\\-57](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra \"Martin B-57 Canberra\") equipped [3rd Bombardment Wing](/wiki/3rd_Bombardment_Wing \"3rd Bombardment Wing\") where it trained in bombardment, reconnaissance and aerial refueling operations. The [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command \"Air Defense Command\") [40th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron](/wiki/40th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron \"40th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron\") (December 1961 – May 1962\\) equipped with the [F\\-102 Delta Dagger](/wiki/Convair_F-102_Delta_Dagger \"Convair F-102 Delta Dagger\") performing an air defense mission.", "The [6102d Air Base Wing](/wiki/6102d_Air_Base_Wing \"6102d Air Base Wing\") assumed host unit status for the base, being replaced by the [441st Combat Support Group](/wiki/441st_Combat_Support_Group \"441st Combat Support Group\") in 1964\\.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Housing for unaccompanied personnel](/wiki/File:Yokota_base_housing.jpg \"Yokota base housing.jpg\")\nThe [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") resulted in an increased combat and airlift aircraft presence at the base. Yokota was used for ferrying [B\\-52 Stratofortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress \"Boeing B-52 Stratofortress\") to Southeast Asia along with being a base for US\\-based deployed [F\\-105 Thunderchief](/wiki/Republic_F-105_Thunderchief \"Republic F-105 Thunderchief\") [35th](/wiki/35th_Fighter_Squadron \"35th Fighter Squadron\"), [36th](/wiki/36th_Fighter_Squadron \"36th Fighter Squadron\") and [80th Tactical Fighter Squadrons](/wiki/80th_Fighter_Squadron \"80th Fighter Squadron\"). The [610th Military Airlift Support Squadron](/wiki/610th_Military_Airlift_Support_Squadron \"610th Military Airlift Support Squadron\") (1966–78\\) was created by [Military Airlift Command](/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command \"Military Airlift Command\") (MAC) to service the large increase in transiting airlift. The 65th Military Airlift Support Group (1969–71\\) was a headquarters organization for MAC airlift support squadrons in the Pacific and Far East.", "The F\\-105 squadrons deployed frequently to USAF\\-operated bases in [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") to fly combat missions over [North](/wiki/North_Vietnam \"North Vietnam\") and [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\"), and to South Korea for alert missions. Initially the fighter squadrons were under the command of the [41st Air Division](/wiki/41st_Air_Division \"41st Air Division\"), but was reassigned shortly after to the [6441st Tactical Fighter Wing](/wiki/6441st_Tactical_Fighter_Wing \"6441st Tactical Fighter Wing\"), activated in April 1965 to control the F\\-105 squadrons after their parent organization, the [8th Tactical Fighter Wing](/wiki/8th_Fighter_Wing \"8th Fighter Wing\"), relocated to [George Air Force Base](/wiki/George_Air_Force_Base \"George Air Force Base\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\") to become an [F\\-4 Phantom II](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II \"McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II\") unit. With the reassignment of the [347th Fighter Wing](/wiki/347th_Fighter_Wing \"347th Fighter Wing\") to Yokota in 1968, the 347th assumed responsibility for all tactical fighters until its reassignment to [Kunsan Air Base](/wiki/Kunsan_Air_Base \"Kunsan Air Base\"), South Korea in March 1971\\.{{rp\\|183}}", "In 1971, all combat squadrons were transferred to [Kadena](/wiki/Kadena_Air_Base \"Kadena Air Base\") and [Misawa Air Base](/wiki/Misawa_Air_Base \"Misawa Air Base\") and Yokota became a non\\-flying station hosted by the [475th Air Base Wing](/wiki/475th_Air_Base_Wing \"475th Air Base Wing\").{{rp\\|264}} The 475th had no numbered flying squadrons, but operated a few [T\\-39 Saberliners](/wiki/North_American_Sabreliner \"North American Sabreliner\") and [UH\\-1](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois \"Bell UH-1 Iroquois\") helicopters, along with supporting transient MAC cargo and passenger aircraft. Assigned flying squadrons returned to Yokota in 1975 when the [345th Tactical Airlift Squadron](/wiki/345th_Tactical_Airlift_Squadron \"345th Tactical Airlift Squadron\") was assigned with its [C\\-130Es](/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules \"Lockheed C-130 Hercules\").", "Headquarters, [Fifth Air Force](/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force \"Fifth Air Force\") was transferred to Yokota on 11 November 1974 from [Fuchū Air Base](/wiki/Fuch%C5%AB_Air_Base_%28Tokyo%29 \"Fuchū Air Base (Tokyo)\"), Japan.", "### Post\\-Cold War", "In 2005, the Japanese government announced that the headquarters of the [Japan Air Self\\-Defense Force](/wiki/Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force \"Japan Air Self-Defense Force\") Air Defense Command would be moved to Yokota.", "The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has advocated opening Yokota to civilian flights as a method of relieving traffic at [Haneda](/wiki/Haneda_Airport \"Haneda Airport\") and [Narita Airport](/wiki/Narita_Airport \"Narita Airport\"). Governor [Shintaro Ishihara](/wiki/Shintaro_Ishihara \"Shintaro Ishihara\") raised the joint\\-use proposal during the 2003 gubernatorial election, and Governor [Naoki Inose](/wiki/Naoki_Inose \"Naoki Inose\") made comments in 2013 that suggested joint use as a possible solution to cope with visitor demand during the [2020 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics \"2020 Summer Olympics\") in Tokyo.{{cite news\\|title\\=Tokyo governor eyes Yokota Air Base for civilian flights during 2020 Olympics\\|url\\=http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/tokyo\\-governor\\-eyes\\-yokota\\-air\\-base\\-for\\-civilian\\-flights\\-during\\-2020\\-olympics\\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2013\\|newspaper\\=Kyodo News\\|date\\=17 September 2013}} A broad agreement on civil\\-military use of the base was agreed on in 2005\\.[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2005/01/05/national/japan\\-u\\-s\\-reach\\-agreement\\-on\\-civilian\\-military\\-use\\-of\\-yokota\\-base/](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2005/01/05/national/japan-u-s-reach-agreement-on-civilian-military-use-of-yokota-base/)", "In November 2009, the base was attacked by [Kakurōkyō](/wiki/Kakur%C5%8Dky%C5%8D \"Kakurōkyō\") members using improvised [mortar](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\") barrages.[Japanese police raid operational bases of anti\\-U.S. military group – Japan – Stripes](http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/japan/japanese-police-raid-operational-bases-of-anti-u-s-military-group-1.122516?localLinksEnabled=false)", "[thumb\\|Tents used to house U.S. Pacific Command's (USPACOM) Deployable Joint Command and Control (DJC2\\) system during *Operation Tomodachi*](/wiki/File:YokotaTomodachi.jpg \"YokotaTomodachi.jpg\")\nIn April 2010 Colonel Frank Eppich, the USAF commander of base, banned screenings of the film *[The Cove](/wiki/The_Cove_%28film%29 \"The Cove (film)\")* at the base theater. A base spokesman said that *The Cove* was banned because using a base venue to display the film could be seen as an endorsement of the film. The spokesman added, \"We have a lot of issues with Japan... and anything done on an American base would be seen as an approval of that event.\"Harnell, Boyd, \"[Yokota base bans 'Cove' to be neutral](http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100413a1.html)\", *[Japan Times](/wiki/Japan_Times \"Japan Times\")*, 13 April 2010, p. 1\\.", "Personnel and aircraft from the base assisted with [Operation Tomodachi](/wiki/Operation_Tomodachi \"Operation Tomodachi\") following and during the March [2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami](/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami \"2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami\") and [Fukushima I nuclear accidents](/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents \"Fukushima I nuclear accidents\"). The base also served as an important hub for airlifted assistance during the disaster recovery efforts. During the crisis, around 600 American family members voluntarily departed the base for locations outside Japan.Reed, Charlie, \"[Military wraps up first round of departures from Japan](http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/japan/military-wraps-up-first-round-of-departures-from-japan-1.138869)\", *[Stars and Stripes](/wiki/Stars_and_Stripes_%28newspaper%29 \"Stars and Stripes (newspaper)\")*, 25 March 2011, retrieved 28 March 2011\\.", "[thumb\\|JASDF Air Defense Command Headquarters](/wiki/File:US_and_Japanese_leaders_cut_the_ribbon_during_the_opening_ceremony_for_the_new_Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force_Air_Defense_Command_Headquarters.jpg \"US and Japanese leaders cut the ribbon during the opening ceremony for the new Japan Air Self-Defense Force Air Defense Command Headquarters.jpg\")\nOn 21 March 2012 JASDF units completed moving from [Fuchū Air Base (Tokyo)](/wiki/Fuch%C5%AB_Air_Base_%28Tokyo%29 \"Fuchū Air Base (Tokyo)\"). On 26 March, JASDF Yokota Air Base started operations.", "In 2013, the air base was again attacked by Kakurokyo members by improvised mortar barrages.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/11/29/national/explosions\\-heard\\-near\\-u\\-s\\-air\\-base/ \\|title\\=Explosions heard near U.S. air base \\|date\\=29 November 2013 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Japan Times]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913121002/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/11/29/national/explosions\\-heard\\-near\\-u\\-s\\-air\\-base/ \\|archive\\-date\\=13 September 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "On 5 April 2018 five [CV\\-22 Osprey](/wiki/CV-22_Osprey \"CV-22 Osprey\") tiltrotor aircraft deployed to the base. They had originally been scheduled to deploy to Yokota in 2020, but the deployment was brought forward. As the first permanent deployment of the aircraft outside of Okinawa, the move sparked local protests.{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=CV\\-22 Osprey set to deploy at Yokota Air Base also being used for night training in Okinawa, has a higher accident rate than the MV\\-22 \\|url\\=http://english.ryukyushimpo.jp/2018/04/04/28672/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[Ryukyu Shimpo]] \\|date\\=29 March 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2018 }}{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=U.S. military announces early deployment of CV\\-22 Ospreys to Japan's Yokota Air Base \\|url\\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/03/national/u\\-s\\-military\\-announces\\-early\\-deployment\\-cv\\-22\\-ospreys\\-japans\\-yokota\\-air\\-base/\\#.WycWji2B2i4 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Japan Times]] \\|date\\=3 April 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2018 }}{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Local residents protest Osprey deployment at US Yokota base \\|url\\=https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20180406/p2a/00m/0na/011000c \\|work\\=\\[\\[Mainichi Shimbun]] \\|date\\=6 April 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2018 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.usfj.mil/Media/Press\\-Releases/Article\\-View/Article/1482806/us\\-air\\-force\\-cv\\-22\\-osprey\\-aircraft\\-to\\-arrive\\-at\\-yokota\\-ab/ \\|title\\=U.S. Air Force CV\\-22 Osprey aircraft to arrive at Yokota AB \\|author\\= \\|date\\=3 April 2018 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Forces Japan]] \\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2018 }}{{cite news \\|last\\=Yoshizawa \\|first\\=Hidemasa \\|date\\=5 April 2018 \\|title\\=5 Ospreys fly to Yokota Air Base amid protests from residents \\|url\\=http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ201804050025\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[Asahi Shimbun]] \\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2018 }} The number of aircraft will eventually reach 10\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Robson \\|first\\=Seth \\|date\\=3 April 2018 \\|title\\=Ospreys to arrive at Yokota this week, 2 years ahead of schedule \\|url\\=https://www.stripes.com/news/ospreys\\-to\\-arrive\\-at\\-yokota\\-this\\-week\\-2\\-years\\-ahead\\-of\\-schedule\\-1\\.520137 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)\\|Stars and Stripes]] \\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2018 }}", "### Major commands to which assigned", "* [1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"1st Cavalry Division (United States)\"), United States Army Forces Pacific, (September 1945\\)\n* [Pacific Air Command](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Command%2C_United_States_Army \"Pacific Air Command, United States Army\"), US Army, (September 1945 – January 1947\\)\n* [Far East Air Forces](/wiki/Far_East_Air_Forces \"Far East Air Forces\") (January 1947 – July 1957\\)\n* [Pacific Air Forces](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces \"Pacific Air Forces\") (July 1957 – present)" ]
### Postwar years With the [Surrender of Japan](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan") on 2 September 1945, a detachment of the [United States Army 1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "1st Infantry Division (United States)") arrived at the base on 4 September. The airfield's buildings were largely intact, and some 280 of the IJA's most modern aircraft were discovered in hangars. The 1st Cavalry named the facility Fussa Army Airfield, then at the end of September renamed it Yokota Army Airfield after a nearby village (now incorporated in [Musashimurayama](/wiki/Musashimurayama%2C_Tokyo "Musashimurayama, Tokyo")) the name of which appeared on a 1944 US map. The name was to have been changed to Wilkins Army Air Base (WAAB) after [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor") recipient [Raymond "Ray" Wilkins](/wiki/Raymond_H._Wilkins "Raymond H. Wilkins"), but orders for this never arrived and it remained under the name Yokota Army Airfield until the USAAF became the USAF in 1947, at which point it became Yokota Air Base.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yokota.af.mil/News/Article\-Display/Article/774060/yokota\-history\-part\-2\-occupation\-period\-1945\-51/\|title\=Yokota History Part 2: Occupation Period, 1945–51\|publisher\=Yokota Air Base\|access\-date\=16 September 2017}} Some metal manhole covers stamped "WAAB" remain in use around the base as of 2017\. The initial USAAF use for the base was for airlift operations when the [2d Combat Cargo Group](/wiki/2d_Combat_Cargo_Group "2d Combat Cargo Group") arrived with four [C\-47 Skytrain](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain "Douglas C-47 Skytrain") squadrons. When the old runway deteriorated under heavy usage, the runway was repaired and Yokota supported operations of the [A\-26 Invader](/wiki/Douglas_A-26_Invader "Douglas A-26 Invader")\-equipped [3d Bombardment Group](/wiki/3d_Bombardment_Group "3d Bombardment Group") by August 1946\. Additional construction during the 1940s and 1950s was completed and the base reached its current size around 1960\. On the occasion of extension, the course of [Hachiko Line](/wiki/Hachiko_Line "Hachiko Line") and [National Route 16](/wiki/Japan_National_Route_16 "Japan National Route 16") was changed, and [Itsukaichi Kaidō](/wiki/Itsukaichi_Kaid%C5%8D "Itsukaichi Kaidō") was divided. During the initial postwar occupation years, Yokota hosted the following known USAAF/USAF units: * [20th Combat Mapping Group](/wiki/20th_Combat_Mapping_Group "20th Combat Mapping Group") (October 1945 – April 1946\) ([F\-7 Liberator](/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator "Consolidated B-24 Liberator")) * [8th Reconnaissance Group](/wiki/8th_Reconnaissance_Group "8th Reconnaissance Group") (June 1946 – October 1947\) (F\-7\) * [71st Reconnaissance Group](/wiki/71st_Reconnaissance_Group "71st Reconnaissance Group") (February 1947 – April 1949\) ([RB\-17](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress"), [RB\-29](/wiki/RB-29_Superfortress "RB-29 Superfortress"), [RF\-51](/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang "North American P-51 Mustang"), [RF\-61](/wiki/Northrop_F-15_Reporter "Northrop F-15 Reporter") and [RF\-80](/wiki/Lockheed_P-80_Shooting_Star "Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star")) These units performed photographic reconnaissance and mapping of Japan and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"). * [6th Night Fighter Squadron](/wiki/6th_Night_Fighter_Squadron "6th Night Fighter Squadron") (1946–47\) ([P\-61A/B](/wiki/Northrop_P-61_Black_Widow "Northrop P-61 Black Widow")) Inactivated and personnel, mission and equipment transferred to [339th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/339th_Fighter_Squadron "339th Fighter Squadron") ([347th Fighter Group](/wiki/347th_Fighter_Group "347th Fighter Group")) with [F\-82F/G Twin Mustangs](/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang "North American F-82 Twin Mustang") at [Nagoya Air Base](/wiki/Nagoya_Air_Base "Nagoya Air Base"). * [82nd Photo Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/82nd_Photo_Reconnaissance_Squadron "82nd Photo Reconnaissance Squadron") (1947–48\) ([FP\-80](/wiki/FP-80_Shooting_Star "FP-80 Shooting Star")) * [3d Emergency Rescue Squadron](/wiki/3d_Emergency_Rescue_Squadron "3d Emergency Rescue Squadron") (July 1947 – April 1950\) ([SB\-17G](/wiki/List_of_Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress_variants "List of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants")) Flew modified [B\-17G](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress") bombers equipped with a 27\-foot boat (termed the [A\-1](/wiki/A-1_lifeboat "A-1 lifeboat")) under their bellies that could be dropped by parachute and contained enough food, water, and clothing for twelve survivors to last for about twenty days in the ocean. #### Korean War During the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"), Yokota was used for combat missions over North and South Korea. Known units based there were: * **Fighter units** + [27th Fighter\-Escort Wing](/wiki/27th_Fighter_Wing "27th Fighter Wing") (November – December 1950\){{cite book\|last\=Ravenstein\|first\=Charles A.\|title\=Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage \& Honors Histories 1947–1977\|url\=https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave/page/51\|publisher\=Office of Air Force History\|year\=1984\|isbn\=0912799129\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave/page/51 51]}} Flew [F\-84E Thunderjets](/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet "Republic F-84 Thunderjet") on armed reconnaissance, interdiction, fighter escort, and close air support missions. + [35th Fighter\-Interceptor Wing](/wiki/35th_Fighter_Wing "35th Fighter Wing") (April \- August 1950\){{rp\|61}} Flew [F\-80Cs](/wiki/F-80C "F-80C") on air defense missions. - [339th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/339th_Fighter_Squadron "339th Fighter Squadron") (April – August 1950\) Attached to 35th Fighter\-Interceptor Wing and flew [F\-82F/G Twin Mustang](/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang "North American F-82 Twin Mustang") missions over South Korea during the first few months of hostilities. * **Bombardment units** + [92d Bombardment Group](/wiki/92d_Air_Refueling_Wing "92d Air Refueling Wing") ([325th](/wiki/325th_Weapons_Squadron "325th Weapons Squadron"), [326th](/wiki/326th_Bombardment_Squadron "326th Bombardment Squadron") and [327th Bombardment Squadrons](/wiki/327th_Bombardment_Squadron "327th Bombardment Squadron")) (July – October 1950\) Deployed squadrons from [Spokane Army Airfield](/wiki/Spokane_Army_Airfield "Spokane Army Airfield"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"). Flew B\-29 Bombing missions over North Korea. + [98th Bombardment Wing](/wiki/98th_Range_Wing "98th Range Wing") ([343d](/wiki/343d_Bomb_Squadron "343d Bomb Squadron"), [344th](/wiki/344th_Air_Refueling_Squadron "344th Air Refueling Squadron") and [345th Bomb Squadrons](/wiki/345th_Bomb_Squadron "345th Bomb Squadron")) (August 1950 – July 1954\){{rp\|139}} Group, then Wing deployed from Spokane Army Airfield. Flew B\-29 Bombing missions over North Korea. Two days after arriving at Yokota, the squadrons conducted a bomb mission against marshalling yards at [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang "Pyongyang"), North Korea. The 98th BG engaged primarily in interdiction of enemy communications centers but also supported UN ground forces. Interdiction targets included marshalling yards, oil centers, rail facilities, bridges, roads, troop concentrations, airfields, and military installations. * **Reconnaissance units** + [31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron Photographic](/wiki/31st_Strategic_Reconnaissance_Squadron "31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron") (July–August 1950\) Flew combat missions to provide [FEAF](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces "Pacific Air Forces") (Far East Air Forces) Bomber Command with target and bomb\-damage assessment photography. + [91st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron, Medium, Photographic](/wiki/91st_Cyberspace_Operations_Squadron "91st Cyberspace Operations Squadron") (December 1950 – December 1954\) Assigned to [407th Strategic Fighter Wing](/wiki/407th_Strategic_Fighter_Wing "407th Strategic Fighter Wing") (1953–54\){{rp\|221}} Absorbed the personnel and resources of the 31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron in Japan. Using [RB\-29](/wiki/RB-29_Superfortress "RB-29 Superfortress"), [RB\-45](/wiki/B-45_Tornado "B-45 Tornado"), [RB\-50](/wiki/Boeing_B-50_Superfortress "Boeing B-50 Superfortress") and [RB\-36](/wiki/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker "Convair B-36 Peacemaker") aircraft, it performed target and bomb\-damage assessment photo and visual reconnaissance for FEAF Bomber Command, flew other special photographic missions, and conducted [electronic "ferret" reconnaissance](/wiki/Signals_intelligence "Signals intelligence") to determine frequency, location, and other characteristics of enemy ground radar. The squadron also performed shipping surveillance over the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan "Sea of Japan") near the [Siberian](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia") coast and [leaflet drops](/wiki/Airborne_leaflet_propaganda "Airborne leaflet propaganda") over North Korea. Beginning in late 1952, rotating aircrews of the Philippine\-based [581st Air Resupply and Communications Wing](/wiki/581st_Air_Resupply_and_Communications_Wing "581st Air Resupply and Communications Wing") augmented the 91st SRS in flying leaflet missions. + [512th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/512th_Bombardment_Squadron "512th Bombardment Squadron") (January – August 1950\) Operated the B/RB/WB\-29 aircraft and flew weather reconnaissance missions. + [56th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/56th_Weather_Reconnaissance_Squadron "56th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron") (September 1951 – July 1972\) Replaced the 512th Bomb Squadron in their weather reconnaissance mission. They operated WB\-29, WB\-50, [WC\-135B](/wiki/Boeing_WC-135_Constant_Phoenix "Boeing WC-135 Constant Phoenix") and [RB\-57](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra "Martin B-57 Canberra") aircraft used to sample airborne nuclear debris as well as weather patterns in the Pacific.
[ "### Postwar years", "With the [Surrender of Japan](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\") on 2 September 1945, a detachment of the [United States Army 1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"1st Infantry Division (United States)\") arrived at the base on 4 September. The airfield's buildings were largely intact, and some 280 of the IJA's most modern aircraft were discovered in hangars.", "The 1st Cavalry named the facility Fussa Army Airfield, then at the end of September renamed it Yokota Army Airfield after a nearby village (now incorporated in [Musashimurayama](/wiki/Musashimurayama%2C_Tokyo \"Musashimurayama, Tokyo\")) the name of which appeared on a 1944 US map.", "The name was to have been changed to Wilkins Army Air Base (WAAB) after [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\") recipient [Raymond \"Ray\" Wilkins](/wiki/Raymond_H._Wilkins \"Raymond H. Wilkins\"), but orders for this never arrived and it remained under the name Yokota Army Airfield until the USAAF became the USAF in 1947, at which point it became Yokota Air Base.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yokota.af.mil/News/Article\\-Display/Article/774060/yokota\\-history\\-part\\-2\\-occupation\\-period\\-1945\\-51/\\|title\\=Yokota History Part 2: Occupation Period, 1945–51\\|publisher\\=Yokota Air Base\\|access\\-date\\=16 September 2017}} Some metal manhole covers stamped \"WAAB\" remain in use around the base as of 2017\\.", "The initial USAAF use for the base was for airlift operations when the [2d Combat Cargo Group](/wiki/2d_Combat_Cargo_Group \"2d Combat Cargo Group\") arrived with four [C\\-47 Skytrain](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain \"Douglas C-47 Skytrain\") squadrons. When the old runway deteriorated under heavy usage, the runway was repaired and Yokota supported operations of the [A\\-26 Invader](/wiki/Douglas_A-26_Invader \"Douglas A-26 Invader\")\\-equipped [3d Bombardment Group](/wiki/3d_Bombardment_Group \"3d Bombardment Group\") by August 1946\\. Additional construction during the 1940s and 1950s was completed and the base reached its current size around 1960\\.", "On the occasion of extension, the course of [Hachiko Line](/wiki/Hachiko_Line \"Hachiko Line\") and [National Route 16](/wiki/Japan_National_Route_16 \"Japan National Route 16\") was changed, and [Itsukaichi Kaidō](/wiki/Itsukaichi_Kaid%C5%8D \"Itsukaichi Kaidō\") was divided.", "During the initial postwar occupation years, Yokota hosted the following known USAAF/USAF units:", "* [20th Combat Mapping Group](/wiki/20th_Combat_Mapping_Group \"20th Combat Mapping Group\") (October 1945 – April 1946\\) ([F\\-7 Liberator](/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator \"Consolidated B-24 Liberator\"))\n* [8th Reconnaissance Group](/wiki/8th_Reconnaissance_Group \"8th Reconnaissance Group\") (June 1946 – October 1947\\) (F\\-7\\)\n* [71st Reconnaissance Group](/wiki/71st_Reconnaissance_Group \"71st Reconnaissance Group\") (February 1947 – April 1949\\) ([RB\\-17](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\"), [RB\\-29](/wiki/RB-29_Superfortress \"RB-29 Superfortress\"), [RF\\-51](/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang \"North American P-51 Mustang\"), [RF\\-61](/wiki/Northrop_F-15_Reporter \"Northrop F-15 Reporter\") and [RF\\-80](/wiki/Lockheed_P-80_Shooting_Star \"Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star\"))", "These units performed photographic reconnaissance and mapping of Japan and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\").", "* [6th Night Fighter Squadron](/wiki/6th_Night_Fighter_Squadron \"6th Night Fighter Squadron\") (1946–47\\) ([P\\-61A/B](/wiki/Northrop_P-61_Black_Widow \"Northrop P-61 Black Widow\")) \nInactivated and personnel, mission and equipment transferred to [339th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/339th_Fighter_Squadron \"339th Fighter Squadron\") ([347th Fighter Group](/wiki/347th_Fighter_Group \"347th Fighter Group\")) with [F\\-82F/G Twin Mustangs](/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang \"North American F-82 Twin Mustang\") at [Nagoya Air Base](/wiki/Nagoya_Air_Base \"Nagoya Air Base\").\n* [82nd Photo Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/82nd_Photo_Reconnaissance_Squadron \"82nd Photo Reconnaissance Squadron\") (1947–48\\) ([FP\\-80](/wiki/FP-80_Shooting_Star \"FP-80 Shooting Star\"))\n* [3d Emergency Rescue Squadron](/wiki/3d_Emergency_Rescue_Squadron \"3d Emergency Rescue Squadron\") (July 1947 – April 1950\\) ([SB\\-17G](/wiki/List_of_Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress_variants \"List of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants\")) \nFlew modified [B\\-17G](/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress \"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress\") bombers equipped with a 27\\-foot boat (termed the [A\\-1](/wiki/A-1_lifeboat \"A-1 lifeboat\")) under their bellies that could be dropped by parachute and contained enough food, water, and clothing for twelve survivors to last for about twenty days in the ocean.", "#### Korean War", "During the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"), Yokota was used for combat missions over North and South Korea. Known units based there were:", "* **Fighter units**\n\t+ [27th Fighter\\-Escort Wing](/wiki/27th_Fighter_Wing \"27th Fighter Wing\") (November – December 1950\\){{cite book\\|last\\=Ravenstein\\|first\\=Charles A.\\|title\\=Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage \\& Honors Histories 1947–1977\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave/page/51\\|publisher\\=Office of Air Force History\\|year\\=1984\\|isbn\\=0912799129\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave/page/51 51]}} \n\tFlew [F\\-84E Thunderjets](/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet \"Republic F-84 Thunderjet\") on armed reconnaissance, interdiction, fighter escort, and close air support missions.\n\t+ [35th Fighter\\-Interceptor Wing](/wiki/35th_Fighter_Wing \"35th Fighter Wing\") (April \\- August 1950\\){{rp\\|61}} \n\tFlew [F\\-80Cs](/wiki/F-80C \"F-80C\") on air defense missions.\n\t\t- [339th Fighter Squadron](/wiki/339th_Fighter_Squadron \"339th Fighter Squadron\") (April – August 1950\\) \n\t\tAttached to 35th Fighter\\-Interceptor Wing and flew [F\\-82F/G Twin Mustang](/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang \"North American F-82 Twin Mustang\") missions over South Korea during the first few months of hostilities.\n* **Bombardment units**\n\t+ [92d Bombardment Group](/wiki/92d_Air_Refueling_Wing \"92d Air Refueling Wing\") ([325th](/wiki/325th_Weapons_Squadron \"325th Weapons Squadron\"), [326th](/wiki/326th_Bombardment_Squadron \"326th Bombardment Squadron\") and [327th Bombardment Squadrons](/wiki/327th_Bombardment_Squadron \"327th Bombardment Squadron\")) (July – October 1950\\) \n\tDeployed squadrons from [Spokane Army Airfield](/wiki/Spokane_Army_Airfield \"Spokane Army Airfield\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"). Flew B\\-29 Bombing missions over North Korea.\n\t+ [98th Bombardment Wing](/wiki/98th_Range_Wing \"98th Range Wing\") ([343d](/wiki/343d_Bomb_Squadron \"343d Bomb Squadron\"), [344th](/wiki/344th_Air_Refueling_Squadron \"344th Air Refueling Squadron\") and [345th Bomb Squadrons](/wiki/345th_Bomb_Squadron \"345th Bomb Squadron\")) (August 1950 – July 1954\\){{rp\\|139}} \n\tGroup, then Wing deployed from Spokane Army Airfield. Flew B\\-29 Bombing missions over North Korea. Two days after arriving at Yokota, the squadrons conducted a bomb mission against marshalling yards at [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang \"Pyongyang\"), North Korea. The 98th BG engaged primarily in interdiction of enemy communications centers but also supported UN ground forces. Interdiction targets included marshalling yards, oil centers, rail facilities, bridges, roads, troop concentrations, airfields, and military installations.\n* **Reconnaissance units**\n\t+ [31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron Photographic](/wiki/31st_Strategic_Reconnaissance_Squadron \"31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron\") (July–August 1950\\) \n\tFlew combat missions to provide [FEAF](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces \"Pacific Air Forces\") (Far East Air Forces) Bomber Command with target and bomb\\-damage assessment photography.\n\t+ [91st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron, Medium, Photographic](/wiki/91st_Cyberspace_Operations_Squadron \"91st Cyberspace Operations Squadron\") (December 1950 – December 1954\\) \n\tAssigned to [407th Strategic Fighter Wing](/wiki/407th_Strategic_Fighter_Wing \"407th Strategic Fighter Wing\") (1953–54\\){{rp\\|221}} \n\tAbsorbed the personnel and resources of the 31st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron in Japan. Using [RB\\-29](/wiki/RB-29_Superfortress \"RB-29 Superfortress\"), [RB\\-45](/wiki/B-45_Tornado \"B-45 Tornado\"), [RB\\-50](/wiki/Boeing_B-50_Superfortress \"Boeing B-50 Superfortress\") and [RB\\-36](/wiki/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker \"Convair B-36 Peacemaker\") aircraft, it performed target and bomb\\-damage assessment photo and visual reconnaissance for FEAF Bomber Command, flew other special photographic missions, and conducted [electronic \"ferret\" reconnaissance](/wiki/Signals_intelligence \"Signals intelligence\") to determine frequency, location, and other characteristics of enemy ground radar. The squadron also performed shipping surveillance over the [Sea of Japan](/wiki/Sea_of_Japan \"Sea of Japan\") near the [Siberian](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\") coast and [leaflet drops](/wiki/Airborne_leaflet_propaganda \"Airborne leaflet propaganda\") over North Korea. Beginning in late 1952, rotating aircrews of the Philippine\\-based [581st Air Resupply and Communications Wing](/wiki/581st_Air_Resupply_and_Communications_Wing \"581st Air Resupply and Communications Wing\") augmented the 91st SRS in flying leaflet missions.\n\t+ [512th Bombardment Squadron](/wiki/512th_Bombardment_Squadron \"512th Bombardment Squadron\") (January – August 1950\\) \n\tOperated the B/RB/WB\\-29 aircraft and flew weather reconnaissance missions.\n\t+ [56th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron](/wiki/56th_Weather_Reconnaissance_Squadron \"56th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron\") (September 1951 – July 1972\\) \n\tReplaced the 512th Bomb Squadron in their weather reconnaissance mission. They operated WB\\-29, WB\\-50, [WC\\-135B](/wiki/Boeing_WC-135_Constant_Phoenix \"Boeing WC-135 Constant Phoenix\") and [RB\\-57](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra \"Martin B-57 Canberra\") aircraft used to sample airborne nuclear debris as well as weather patterns in the Pacific." ]
### Cold War With the Korean War reaching an armistice in July 1953, Yokota Air Base returned to a peacetime [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") status. Two major wings were stationed at the base during the 1950s, the [67th Reconnaissance Wing](/wiki/67th_Reconnaissance_Wing "67th Reconnaissance Wing") (1956–60\) flying RF\-80s, [RF\-84s](/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet "Republic F-84 Thunderjet") and lastly [RF\-101s](/wiki/McDonnell_F-101_Voodoo "McDonnell F-101 Voodoo").{{rp\|106}} The 35th Fighter\-Interceptor Wing (1954–57\) flew [F\-86 Sabres](/wiki/North_American_F-86_Sabre "North American F-86 Sabre") from the base.{{rp\|106}} A [Tactical Air Command](/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command "Tactical Air Command") (TAC) air refueling unit, the [421st Air Refueling Squadron](/wiki/421st_Air_Refueling_Squadron "421st Air Refueling Squadron") flew KB\-29s, and later KB\-50Js from Yokota from 1953 to 1965\. All of these units were under the command of the [41st Air Division](/wiki/41st_Air_Division "41st Air Division"). The 35th TFW was reassigned in 1957 and the 67th TRW in 1960\. Defense budget restrictions in the late 1950s caused several PACAF wings based in Japan to be reassigned or inactivated. These tactical fighter units were replaced by the [B\-57](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra "Martin B-57 Canberra") equipped [3rd Bombardment Wing](/wiki/3rd_Bombardment_Wing "3rd Bombardment Wing") where it trained in bombardment, reconnaissance and aerial refueling operations. The [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command "Air Defense Command") [40th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron](/wiki/40th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron "40th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron") (December 1961 – May 1962\) equipped with the [F\-102 Delta Dagger](/wiki/Convair_F-102_Delta_Dagger "Convair F-102 Delta Dagger") performing an air defense mission. The [6102d Air Base Wing](/wiki/6102d_Air_Base_Wing "6102d Air Base Wing") assumed host unit status for the base, being replaced by the [441st Combat Support Group](/wiki/441st_Combat_Support_Group "441st Combat Support Group") in 1964\. [thumb\|right\|Housing for unaccompanied personnel](/wiki/File:Yokota_base_housing.jpg "Yokota base housing.jpg") The [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") resulted in an increased combat and airlift aircraft presence at the base. Yokota was used for ferrying [B\-52 Stratofortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress "Boeing B-52 Stratofortress") to Southeast Asia along with being a base for US\-based deployed [F\-105 Thunderchief](/wiki/Republic_F-105_Thunderchief "Republic F-105 Thunderchief") [35th](/wiki/35th_Fighter_Squadron "35th Fighter Squadron"), [36th](/wiki/36th_Fighter_Squadron "36th Fighter Squadron") and [80th Tactical Fighter Squadrons](/wiki/80th_Fighter_Squadron "80th Fighter Squadron"). The [610th Military Airlift Support Squadron](/wiki/610th_Military_Airlift_Support_Squadron "610th Military Airlift Support Squadron") (1966–78\) was created by [Military Airlift Command](/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command "Military Airlift Command") (MAC) to service the large increase in transiting airlift. The 65th Military Airlift Support Group (1969–71\) was a headquarters organization for MAC airlift support squadrons in the Pacific and Far East. The F\-105 squadrons deployed frequently to USAF\-operated bases in [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") to fly combat missions over [North](/wiki/North_Vietnam "North Vietnam") and [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam"), and to South Korea for alert missions. Initially the fighter squadrons were under the command of the [41st Air Division](/wiki/41st_Air_Division "41st Air Division"), but was reassigned shortly after to the [6441st Tactical Fighter Wing](/wiki/6441st_Tactical_Fighter_Wing "6441st Tactical Fighter Wing"), activated in April 1965 to control the F\-105 squadrons after their parent organization, the [8th Tactical Fighter Wing](/wiki/8th_Fighter_Wing "8th Fighter Wing"), relocated to [George Air Force Base](/wiki/George_Air_Force_Base "George Air Force Base"), [California](/wiki/California "California") to become an [F\-4 Phantom II](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II "McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II") unit. With the reassignment of the [347th Fighter Wing](/wiki/347th_Fighter_Wing "347th Fighter Wing") to Yokota in 1968, the 347th assumed responsibility for all tactical fighters until its reassignment to [Kunsan Air Base](/wiki/Kunsan_Air_Base "Kunsan Air Base"), South Korea in March 1971\.{{rp\|183}} In 1971, all combat squadrons were transferred to [Kadena](/wiki/Kadena_Air_Base "Kadena Air Base") and [Misawa Air Base](/wiki/Misawa_Air_Base "Misawa Air Base") and Yokota became a non\-flying station hosted by the [475th Air Base Wing](/wiki/475th_Air_Base_Wing "475th Air Base Wing").{{rp\|264}} The 475th had no numbered flying squadrons, but operated a few [T\-39 Saberliners](/wiki/North_American_Sabreliner "North American Sabreliner") and [UH\-1](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois "Bell UH-1 Iroquois") helicopters, along with supporting transient MAC cargo and passenger aircraft. Assigned flying squadrons returned to Yokota in 1975 when the [345th Tactical Airlift Squadron](/wiki/345th_Tactical_Airlift_Squadron "345th Tactical Airlift Squadron") was assigned with its [C\-130Es](/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules "Lockheed C-130 Hercules"). Headquarters, [Fifth Air Force](/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force "Fifth Air Force") was transferred to Yokota on 11 November 1974 from [Fuchū Air Base](/wiki/Fuch%C5%AB_Air_Base_%28Tokyo%29 "Fuchū Air Base (Tokyo)"), Japan.
[ "### Cold War", "With the Korean War reaching an armistice in July 1953, Yokota Air Base returned to a peacetime [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") status. Two major wings were stationed at the base during the 1950s, the [67th Reconnaissance Wing](/wiki/67th_Reconnaissance_Wing \"67th Reconnaissance Wing\") (1956–60\\) flying RF\\-80s, [RF\\-84s](/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet \"Republic F-84 Thunderjet\") and lastly [RF\\-101s](/wiki/McDonnell_F-101_Voodoo \"McDonnell F-101 Voodoo\").{{rp\\|106}} The 35th Fighter\\-Interceptor Wing (1954–57\\) flew [F\\-86 Sabres](/wiki/North_American_F-86_Sabre \"North American F-86 Sabre\") from the base.{{rp\\|106}} A [Tactical Air Command](/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command \"Tactical Air Command\") (TAC) air refueling unit, the [421st Air Refueling Squadron](/wiki/421st_Air_Refueling_Squadron \"421st Air Refueling Squadron\") flew KB\\-29s, and later KB\\-50Js from Yokota from 1953 to 1965\\. All of these units were under the command of the [41st Air Division](/wiki/41st_Air_Division \"41st Air Division\").", "The 35th TFW was reassigned in 1957 and the 67th TRW in 1960\\. Defense budget restrictions in the late 1950s caused several PACAF wings based in Japan to be reassigned or inactivated. These tactical fighter units were replaced by the [B\\-57](/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra \"Martin B-57 Canberra\") equipped [3rd Bombardment Wing](/wiki/3rd_Bombardment_Wing \"3rd Bombardment Wing\") where it trained in bombardment, reconnaissance and aerial refueling operations. The [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command \"Air Defense Command\") [40th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron](/wiki/40th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron \"40th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron\") (December 1961 – May 1962\\) equipped with the [F\\-102 Delta Dagger](/wiki/Convair_F-102_Delta_Dagger \"Convair F-102 Delta Dagger\") performing an air defense mission.", "The [6102d Air Base Wing](/wiki/6102d_Air_Base_Wing \"6102d Air Base Wing\") assumed host unit status for the base, being replaced by the [441st Combat Support Group](/wiki/441st_Combat_Support_Group \"441st Combat Support Group\") in 1964\\.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Housing for unaccompanied personnel](/wiki/File:Yokota_base_housing.jpg \"Yokota base housing.jpg\")\nThe [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") resulted in an increased combat and airlift aircraft presence at the base. Yokota was used for ferrying [B\\-52 Stratofortresses](/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress \"Boeing B-52 Stratofortress\") to Southeast Asia along with being a base for US\\-based deployed [F\\-105 Thunderchief](/wiki/Republic_F-105_Thunderchief \"Republic F-105 Thunderchief\") [35th](/wiki/35th_Fighter_Squadron \"35th Fighter Squadron\"), [36th](/wiki/36th_Fighter_Squadron \"36th Fighter Squadron\") and [80th Tactical Fighter Squadrons](/wiki/80th_Fighter_Squadron \"80th Fighter Squadron\"). The [610th Military Airlift Support Squadron](/wiki/610th_Military_Airlift_Support_Squadron \"610th Military Airlift Support Squadron\") (1966–78\\) was created by [Military Airlift Command](/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command \"Military Airlift Command\") (MAC) to service the large increase in transiting airlift. The 65th Military Airlift Support Group (1969–71\\) was a headquarters organization for MAC airlift support squadrons in the Pacific and Far East.", "The F\\-105 squadrons deployed frequently to USAF\\-operated bases in [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\") to fly combat missions over [North](/wiki/North_Vietnam \"North Vietnam\") and [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\"), and to South Korea for alert missions. Initially the fighter squadrons were under the command of the [41st Air Division](/wiki/41st_Air_Division \"41st Air Division\"), but was reassigned shortly after to the [6441st Tactical Fighter Wing](/wiki/6441st_Tactical_Fighter_Wing \"6441st Tactical Fighter Wing\"), activated in April 1965 to control the F\\-105 squadrons after their parent organization, the [8th Tactical Fighter Wing](/wiki/8th_Fighter_Wing \"8th Fighter Wing\"), relocated to [George Air Force Base](/wiki/George_Air_Force_Base \"George Air Force Base\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\") to become an [F\\-4 Phantom II](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II \"McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II\") unit. With the reassignment of the [347th Fighter Wing](/wiki/347th_Fighter_Wing \"347th Fighter Wing\") to Yokota in 1968, the 347th assumed responsibility for all tactical fighters until its reassignment to [Kunsan Air Base](/wiki/Kunsan_Air_Base \"Kunsan Air Base\"), South Korea in March 1971\\.{{rp\\|183}}", "In 1971, all combat squadrons were transferred to [Kadena](/wiki/Kadena_Air_Base \"Kadena Air Base\") and [Misawa Air Base](/wiki/Misawa_Air_Base \"Misawa Air Base\") and Yokota became a non\\-flying station hosted by the [475th Air Base Wing](/wiki/475th_Air_Base_Wing \"475th Air Base Wing\").{{rp\\|264}} The 475th had no numbered flying squadrons, but operated a few [T\\-39 Saberliners](/wiki/North_American_Sabreliner \"North American Sabreliner\") and [UH\\-1](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois \"Bell UH-1 Iroquois\") helicopters, along with supporting transient MAC cargo and passenger aircraft. Assigned flying squadrons returned to Yokota in 1975 when the [345th Tactical Airlift Squadron](/wiki/345th_Tactical_Airlift_Squadron \"345th Tactical Airlift Squadron\") was assigned with its [C\\-130Es](/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules \"Lockheed C-130 Hercules\").", "Headquarters, [Fifth Air Force](/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force \"Fifth Air Force\") was transferred to Yokota on 11 November 1974 from [Fuchū Air Base](/wiki/Fuch%C5%AB_Air_Base_%28Tokyo%29 \"Fuchū Air Base (Tokyo)\"), Japan.", "" ]
Geography and economics ----------------------- The climate is mild, the annual temperature averaging 11 degrees Celsius. The *département* remains rural: three\-quarters of the area consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the main products grown, as well as potatoes, apples, and walnuts. [Niort](/wiki/Niort "Niort") is the center for growing vegetables and [angelica](/wiki/Angelica "Angelica"). Some beetroot is grown in the district of [Melle](/wiki/Melle%2C_Deux-S%C3%A8vres "Melle, Deux-Sèvres"). Vineyards are numerous in the north ({{Interlanguage link multi\|Haut\-poitou (AOVDQS)\|fr}}), and there are some in the south. The *département* is also well known for the breeding of cattle, mules, and horses. The [Parthenais](/wiki/Parthenais "Parthenais") breed of cattle is named after the town of [Parthenay](/wiki/Parthenay "Parthenay") in the north of the *département*. Also, dairy products are produced in significant quantities (butter in [Échiré](/wiki/%C3%89chir%C3%A9 "Échiré") and goats' cheese. Some quarries are in operation (in [Mazières\-en\-Gâtine](/wiki/Mazi%C3%A8res-en-G%C3%A2tine "Mazières-en-Gâtine"), [La Peyratte](/wiki/La_Peyratte "La Peyratte") or [Saint\-Varent](/wiki/Saint-Varent "Saint-Varent")), as well as lime extraction operations. Textiles, leather\-tanning, and flour milling were the traditional industries of Niort, the capital and major city. Nowadays, Niort, with 60,000 inhabitants, is an important commercial and administrative center. In particular it is one of the main financial centers in France (fourth in rank after Paris, Lyon and Lille). Niort is the national headquarters of some of the major insurance companies in France ({{Interlanguage link multi\|Mutuelle d'assurance des artisans de France\|fr}} (MAAF), {{Interlanguage link multi\|Mutuelle assurance des commerçants et industriels de France et des cadres et des salariés de l'industrie et du commerce\|fr}} (MACIF), {{Interlanguage link multi\|Mutuelle d'assurance des instituteurs de France\|fr}} (MAIF) and others) and regional headquarters of others such as [Groupama](/wiki/Groupama "Groupama"). The regional headquarters of several national banks, including [Banque Populaire](/wiki/Banque_Populaire "Banque Populaire") and [Crédit Agricole](/wiki/Cr%C3%A9dit_Agricole "Crédit Agricole"), are also located there. The services sector is also heavily represented in Niort, in consulting, accounting, brokerage and software. Chemistry, pharmacy ([Boiron](/wiki/Boiron "Boiron")) and aeronautics ([Zodiac Group](/wiki/Zodiac_Group "Zodiac Group"), [Leach International](/wiki/Leach_International "Leach International")){{Cite web \|url\=http://www.leachintl2\.com/french/historyf.html \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-28 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304044415/http://www.leachintl2\.com/french/historyf.html \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-04 \|url\-status\=dead }} are the main industries. Textiles and shoe making, furnitures, mechanics, automotive ([Heuliez](/wiki/Heuliez "Heuliez") and [Irisbus](/wiki/Iveco_Bus "Iveco Bus")), chemistry ([Rhodia](/wiki/Rhodia_%28company%29 "Rhodia (company)") in Melle), food industry and food packaging are the major industries outside of the capital. The unemployment rate in the *département* is very low (less than 5%) especially in the north\-west, where many small and medium companies are developing rapidly. The south\-west of the *département* attracts tourists with the [Marais Poitevin](/wiki/Marais_Poitevin "Marais Poitevin") natural area; the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean") coast is close at hand.
[ "Geography and economics\n-----------------------", "The climate is mild, the annual temperature averaging 11 degrees Celsius.", "The *département* remains rural: three\\-quarters of the area consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the main products grown, as well as potatoes, apples, and walnuts. [Niort](/wiki/Niort \"Niort\") is the center for growing vegetables and [angelica](/wiki/Angelica \"Angelica\"). Some beetroot is grown in the district of [Melle](/wiki/Melle%2C_Deux-S%C3%A8vres \"Melle, Deux-Sèvres\"). Vineyards are numerous in the north ({{Interlanguage link multi\\|Haut\\-poitou (AOVDQS)\\|fr}}), and there are some in the south.", "The *département* is also well known for the breeding of cattle, mules, and horses. The [Parthenais](/wiki/Parthenais \"Parthenais\") breed of cattle is named after the town of [Parthenay](/wiki/Parthenay \"Parthenay\") in the north of the *département*. Also, dairy products are produced in significant quantities (butter in [Échiré](/wiki/%C3%89chir%C3%A9 \"Échiré\") and goats' cheese.", "Some quarries are in operation (in [Mazières\\-en\\-Gâtine](/wiki/Mazi%C3%A8res-en-G%C3%A2tine \"Mazières-en-Gâtine\"), [La Peyratte](/wiki/La_Peyratte \"La Peyratte\") or [Saint\\-Varent](/wiki/Saint-Varent \"Saint-Varent\")), as well as lime extraction operations.", "Textiles, leather\\-tanning, and flour milling were the traditional industries of Niort, the capital and major city. Nowadays, Niort, with 60,000 inhabitants, is an important commercial and administrative center. In particular it is one of the main financial centers in France (fourth in rank after Paris, Lyon and Lille). Niort is the national headquarters of some of the major insurance companies in France ({{Interlanguage link multi\\|Mutuelle d'assurance des artisans de France\\|fr}} (MAAF), {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Mutuelle assurance des commerçants et industriels de France et des cadres et des salariés de l'industrie et du commerce\\|fr}} (MACIF), {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Mutuelle d'assurance des instituteurs de France\\|fr}} (MAIF) and others) and regional headquarters of others such as [Groupama](/wiki/Groupama \"Groupama\"). The regional headquarters of several national banks, including [Banque Populaire](/wiki/Banque_Populaire \"Banque Populaire\") and [Crédit Agricole](/wiki/Cr%C3%A9dit_Agricole \"Crédit Agricole\"), are also located there. The services sector is also heavily represented in Niort, in consulting, accounting, brokerage and software. Chemistry, pharmacy ([Boiron](/wiki/Boiron \"Boiron\")) and aeronautics ([Zodiac Group](/wiki/Zodiac_Group \"Zodiac Group\"), [Leach International](/wiki/Leach_International \"Leach International\")){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leachintl2\\.com/french/historyf.html \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-28 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304044415/http://www.leachintl2\\.com/french/historyf.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-04 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} are the main industries.", "Textiles and shoe making, furnitures, mechanics, automotive ([Heuliez](/wiki/Heuliez \"Heuliez\") and [Irisbus](/wiki/Iveco_Bus \"Iveco Bus\")), chemistry ([Rhodia](/wiki/Rhodia_%28company%29 \"Rhodia (company)\") in Melle), food industry and food packaging are the major industries outside of the capital.", "The unemployment rate in the *département* is very low (less than 5%) especially in the north\\-west, where many small and medium companies are developing rapidly.", "The south\\-west of the *département* attracts tourists with the [Marais Poitevin](/wiki/Marais_Poitevin \"Marais Poitevin\") natural area; the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\") coast is close at hand.", "" ]
History ------- ### 2007–2012: Road to the Regionalliga [thumb\|Historical chart of league performance](/wiki/File:Pasching_Performance_Graph.png "Pasching Performance Graph.png") [100px\|thumb\|Logo until renamed in July 2017](/wiki/File:FC_Pasching.png "FC Pasching.png") The club started as a syndicate with the SV Wallern in the 2007–08 season in the fifth\-highest Austrian level. After the immediate championship title and the associated promotion to the fourth division, the [OÖ Liga](/wiki/O%C3%96_Liga "OÖ Liga"), Wallern, restarted in the lowest league, and the club was financially compensated for the downgrade. After the immediate title in the 2008–09 Oberösterreich Liga, the third\-highest class, The FC Pasching was promoted to the [Regionalliga Mitte](/wiki/Austrian_Regionalliga_Central "Austrian Regionalliga Central"). In the [season 2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Austrian_Football_Bundesliga "2009–10 Austrian Football Bundesliga"), the FC Pasching had by far the highest average age of the entire Regionalliga Mitte (27\.5 years). There were eleven players in the squad during this season, who had already passed the age of 30\. Two of them ([Josef Schicklgruber](/wiki/Josef_Schicklgruber "Josef Schicklgruber") and [Eduard Glieder](/wiki/Eduard_Glieder "Eduard Glieder")) were already over 40 years old. After the first round of the 2009–10 season Pasching was four points behind the leaders [WAC/St. Andrä](/wiki/Wolfsberger_AC "Wolfsberger AC") on the second place in the table. However, the club announced that it did not want to apply for a license for the First League. After the predecessor ASKÖ Pasching was relocated to Carinthia, the [Bundesliga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_Bundesliga "Austrian Football Bundesliga") introduced a rule that prohibited a club promotion to the [Erste Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League "Austrian Football First League"), unless it has played at least three years in a league that is played by his national association. Since the FC Pasching had played until then only one year each in the highest and second highest Upper Austrian level, the club did not meet this condition. Pasching achieved the championship title in the Regionalliga 2010\. Because of the waiver of a license application for the [Erste Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League "Austrian Football First League"), the club was deducted 13 points. After the season, the club board resigned; a new board had to be elected. As at the end of the season 2010–11 Superfund stepped out as the main sponsor and could not be adequately replaced, the club was forced to cut the budget for the next season massively together. Consequently, almost the entire professional squad was replaced by a new one, which consisted mainly of amateur players. At the end of the autumn season Pasching was in last place. In early 2012, a cooperation with [Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg "FC Red Bull Salzburg") was entered. The first consequence of this collaboration was the acquisition of the coaching office by [Gerald Baumgartner](/wiki/Gerald_Baumgartner "Gerald Baumgartner"), the former coach of the second team of Salzburg. The club managed thanks to an 8–0 victory in the last game against the already established as a champion [Grazer AK](/wiki/Grazer_AK "Grazer AK") the league. ### 2012–2014: Cup win and decline [250px\|thumb\|FC Pasching – Cup Winners 2012–13](/wiki/File:%C3%96FB-Cupfinale_2013_001.JPG "ÖFB-Cupfinale 2013 001.JPG") In the 2012–13 season, Pasching was back at the other end of the table. The team won the autumn championship and went into the winter break four points ahead of [LASK Linz](/wiki/LASK_Linz "LASK Linz"). However, this advantage was lost in the spring and Pasching finished the season two points behind Linz in second place. In the [2012–13 Austrian Cup](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Austrian_Cup "2012–13 Austrian Cup"), Pasching achieved the biggest sensation in the history of the competition. After [Austria Salzburg](/wiki/SV_Austria_Salzburg "SV Austria Salzburg"), [Austria Lustenau](/wiki/SC_Austria_Lustenau "SC Austria Lustenau") and [Austria Klagenfurt](/wiki/SK_Austria_Klagenfurt_%282007%29 "SK Austria Klagenfurt (2007)") were eliminated in the first three rounds, the elite of Austrian football waited for the regional league team in the last three rounds. In the quarter finals, Pasching beat [Rapid Wien](/wiki/SK_Rapid_Wien "SK Rapid Wien") 1–0 away from home. In the semi\-final, they faced cooperation partner [Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg "FC Red Bull Salzburg") away from home and turned a 0–1 deficit into a 2–1 victory, becoming the first team from the third division to reach the final of the ÖFB Cup in its 94\-year history.{{cite magazine\|magazine\=\[\[World Soccer (magazine)\|World Soccer]]\|date\=Summer 2013\|page\=10\|title\=Winners}} The opponent in the final at the [Ernst\-Happel\-Stadion](/wiki/Ernst-Happel-Stadion "Ernst-Happel-Stadion") in Vienna was [Austria Wien](/wiki/FK_Austria_Wien "FK Austria Wien"). [Daniel Sobkova](/wiki/Daniel_Sobkova "Daniel Sobkova") scored shortly after half time giving Pasching a 1–0 lead, which they defended to win the final. Thus, FC Pasching defeated the champion, the runner\-up and third team in the Bundesliga season 2012–13, without ever having had the home advantage for themselves. The Cup victory saw the Upper Austrians qualify for the [2013–14 UEFA Europa League](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_UEFA_Europa_League "2013–14 UEFA Europa League") play\-off round, where they met the Portuguese club [Estoril Praia](/wiki/G.D._Estoril_Praia "G.D. Estoril Praia") and lost with two defeats. In early September 2013, coach [Gerald Baumgartner](/wiki/Gerald_Baumgartner "Gerald Baumgartner") moved to [SKN St. Pölten](/wiki/SKN_St._P%C3%B6lten "SKN St. Pölten") and the former co\-coach [Martin Hiden](/wiki/Martin_Hiden "Martin Hiden") took over the team. In the [2013–14 Austrian Cup](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Austrian_Cup "2013–14 Austrian Cup"), Pasching beat Bundesliga side, [FC Wacker Innsbruck](/wiki/FC_Wacker_Innsbruck "FC Wacker Innsbruck"), in the second round before they lost against [Wolfsberger AC](/wiki/Wolfsberger_AC "Wolfsberger AC") on penalties in the third round. In the championship, the season goal of winning the championship was missed, with LASK finishing in first place again. ### 2014–2018: Syndicate with LASK and renaming Even before that it became clear that Red Bull would leave Pasching as a sponsor. As a result, the club entered into a cooperation with LASK, which meant joint youth\-team work and the use of the Pasching training center by [LASK Linz](/wiki/LASK_Linz "LASK Linz"). After promotion and the return of LASK to professional football, it was announced in June 2014 that FC Pasching – in the 2014–15 season under the name SPG FC Pasching/LASK Juniors – would compete in a syndicate with the second team of the Linz club. Associated with this was the replacement of the entire squad and the loss of a separate team. The syndicate club were not eligible for promotion. In the [debut season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Austrian_Regionalliga%23Regionalliga_Mitte "2014–15 Austrian Regionalliga#Regionalliga Mitte") of the syndicate, the team in the third\-tier Regionalliga gained 43 points to finish 9th place in the table. In the [2015–16 season](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Austrian_Regionalliga%23Regionalliga_Mitte "2015–16 Austrian Regionalliga#Regionalliga Mitte"), the team was able to improve their point yield and finished with 50 points in 5th place. In the [2016–17 season](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Austrian_Regionalliga%23Regionalliga_Mitte "2016–17 Austrian Regionalliga#Regionalliga Mitte"), the syndicate won only 31 points and finished just one place above the relegation zone in 14th. Before the [2017–18 season](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Austrian_Regionalliga%23Regionalliga_Mitte "2017–18 Austrian Regionalliga#Regionalliga Mitte"), the syndicate was realigned to better attract talent from [Upper Austria](/wiki/Upper_Austria "Upper Austria"). In July 2017, FC Pasching was renamed *FC Juniors OÖ*. The syndicate changed its name to *LASK Juniors OÖ*. In addition, the former hobby club *SV Pasching 16* was incorporated into the FC Juniors OÖ and since then formed the second team, which plays under the name *SV Pasching 16 OÖ Juniors* in the eighth\-tier 2\. Klasse Nord\-Ost. ### Since 2018: Present After the rise of LASK Juniors OÖ in the [2\. Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League "Austrian Football First League") in the 2017–18 season, the syndicate is dissolved. The FC Juniors OÖ will play as an independent club in the second league, but continue to cooperate with the LASK.
[ "History\n-------", "### 2007–2012: Road to the Regionalliga", "[thumb\\|Historical chart of league performance](/wiki/File:Pasching_Performance_Graph.png \"Pasching Performance Graph.png\")", "[100px\\|thumb\\|Logo until renamed in July 2017](/wiki/File:FC_Pasching.png \"FC Pasching.png\")\nThe club started as a syndicate with the SV Wallern in the 2007–08 season in the fifth\\-highest Austrian level. After the immediate championship title and the associated promotion to the fourth division, the [OÖ Liga](/wiki/O%C3%96_Liga \"OÖ Liga\"), Wallern, restarted in the lowest league, and the club was financially compensated for the downgrade.", "After the immediate title in the 2008–09 Oberösterreich Liga, the third\\-highest class, The FC Pasching was promoted to the [Regionalliga Mitte](/wiki/Austrian_Regionalliga_Central \"Austrian Regionalliga Central\").", "In the [season 2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Austrian_Football_Bundesliga \"2009–10 Austrian Football Bundesliga\"), the FC Pasching had by far the highest average age of the entire Regionalliga Mitte (27\\.5 years). There were eleven players in the squad during this season, who had already passed the age of 30\\. Two of them ([Josef Schicklgruber](/wiki/Josef_Schicklgruber \"Josef Schicklgruber\") and [Eduard Glieder](/wiki/Eduard_Glieder \"Eduard Glieder\")) were already over 40 years old.", "After the first round of the 2009–10 season Pasching was four points behind the leaders [WAC/St. Andrä](/wiki/Wolfsberger_AC \"Wolfsberger AC\") on the second place in the table. However, the club announced that it did not want to apply for a license for the First League. After the predecessor ASKÖ Pasching was relocated to Carinthia, the [Bundesliga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_Bundesliga \"Austrian Football Bundesliga\") introduced a rule that prohibited a club promotion to the [Erste Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League \"Austrian Football First League\"), unless it has played at least three years in a league that is played by his national association. Since the FC Pasching had played until then only one year each in the highest and second highest Upper Austrian level, the club did not meet this condition.", "Pasching achieved the championship title in the Regionalliga 2010\\. Because of the waiver of a license application for the [Erste Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League \"Austrian Football First League\"), the club was deducted 13 points. After the season, the club board resigned; a new board had to be elected.", "As at the end of the season 2010–11 Superfund stepped out as the main sponsor and could not be adequately replaced, the club was forced to cut the budget for the next season massively together. Consequently, almost the entire professional squad was replaced by a new one, which consisted mainly of amateur players. At the end of the autumn season Pasching was in last place. In early 2012, a cooperation with [Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg \"FC Red Bull Salzburg\") was entered. The first consequence of this collaboration was the acquisition of the coaching office by [Gerald Baumgartner](/wiki/Gerald_Baumgartner \"Gerald Baumgartner\"), the former coach of the second team of Salzburg. The club managed thanks to an 8–0 victory in the last game against the already established as a champion [Grazer AK](/wiki/Grazer_AK \"Grazer AK\") the league.", "### 2012–2014: Cup win and decline", "[250px\\|thumb\\|FC Pasching – Cup Winners 2012–13](/wiki/File:%C3%96FB-Cupfinale_2013_001.JPG \"ÖFB-Cupfinale 2013 001.JPG\")\nIn the 2012–13 season, Pasching was back at the other end of the table. The team won the autumn championship and went into the winter break four points ahead of [LASK Linz](/wiki/LASK_Linz \"LASK Linz\"). However, this advantage was lost in the spring and Pasching finished the season two points behind Linz in second place.", "In the [2012–13 Austrian Cup](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Austrian_Cup \"2012–13 Austrian Cup\"), Pasching achieved the biggest sensation in the history of the competition. After [Austria Salzburg](/wiki/SV_Austria_Salzburg \"SV Austria Salzburg\"), [Austria Lustenau](/wiki/SC_Austria_Lustenau \"SC Austria Lustenau\") and [Austria Klagenfurt](/wiki/SK_Austria_Klagenfurt_%282007%29 \"SK Austria Klagenfurt (2007)\") were eliminated in the first three rounds, the elite of Austrian football waited for the regional league team in the last three rounds. In the quarter finals, Pasching beat [Rapid Wien](/wiki/SK_Rapid_Wien \"SK Rapid Wien\") 1–0 away from home. In the semi\\-final, they faced cooperation partner [Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg \"FC Red Bull Salzburg\") away from home and turned a 0–1 deficit into a 2–1 victory, becoming the first team from the third division to reach the final of the ÖFB Cup in its 94\\-year history.{{cite magazine\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[World Soccer (magazine)\\|World Soccer]]\\|date\\=Summer 2013\\|page\\=10\\|title\\=Winners}} The opponent in the final at the [Ernst\\-Happel\\-Stadion](/wiki/Ernst-Happel-Stadion \"Ernst-Happel-Stadion\") in Vienna was [Austria Wien](/wiki/FK_Austria_Wien \"FK Austria Wien\"). [Daniel Sobkova](/wiki/Daniel_Sobkova \"Daniel Sobkova\") scored shortly after half time giving Pasching a 1–0 lead, which they defended to win the final. Thus, FC Pasching defeated the champion, the runner\\-up and third team in the Bundesliga season 2012–13, without ever having had the home advantage for themselves. The Cup victory saw the Upper Austrians qualify for the [2013–14 UEFA Europa League](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_UEFA_Europa_League \"2013–14 UEFA Europa League\") play\\-off round, where they met the Portuguese club [Estoril Praia](/wiki/G.D._Estoril_Praia \"G.D. Estoril Praia\") and lost with two defeats.", "In early September 2013, coach [Gerald Baumgartner](/wiki/Gerald_Baumgartner \"Gerald Baumgartner\") moved to [SKN St. Pölten](/wiki/SKN_St._P%C3%B6lten \"SKN St. Pölten\") and the former co\\-coach [Martin Hiden](/wiki/Martin_Hiden \"Martin Hiden\") took over the team. In the [2013–14 Austrian Cup](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Austrian_Cup \"2013–14 Austrian Cup\"), Pasching beat Bundesliga side, [FC Wacker Innsbruck](/wiki/FC_Wacker_Innsbruck \"FC Wacker Innsbruck\"), in the second round before they lost against [Wolfsberger AC](/wiki/Wolfsberger_AC \"Wolfsberger AC\") on penalties in the third round. In the championship, the season goal of winning the championship was missed, with LASK finishing in first place again.", "### 2014–2018: Syndicate with LASK and renaming", "Even before that it became clear that Red Bull would leave Pasching as a sponsor. As a result, the club entered into a cooperation with LASK, which meant joint youth\\-team work and the use of the Pasching training center by [LASK Linz](/wiki/LASK_Linz \"LASK Linz\"). After promotion and the return of LASK to professional football, it was announced in June 2014 that FC Pasching – in the 2014–15 season under the name SPG FC Pasching/LASK Juniors – would compete in a syndicate with the second team of the Linz club. Associated with this was the replacement of the entire squad and the loss of a separate team. The syndicate club were not eligible for promotion.", "In the [debut season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Austrian_Regionalliga%23Regionalliga_Mitte \"2014–15 Austrian Regionalliga#Regionalliga Mitte\") of the syndicate, the team in the third\\-tier Regionalliga gained 43 points to finish 9th place in the table. In the [2015–16 season](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Austrian_Regionalliga%23Regionalliga_Mitte \"2015–16 Austrian Regionalliga#Regionalliga Mitte\"), the team was able to improve their point yield and finished with 50 points in 5th place. In the [2016–17 season](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Austrian_Regionalliga%23Regionalliga_Mitte \"2016–17 Austrian Regionalliga#Regionalliga Mitte\"), the syndicate won only 31 points and finished just one place above the relegation zone in 14th.", "Before the [2017–18 season](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Austrian_Regionalliga%23Regionalliga_Mitte \"2017–18 Austrian Regionalliga#Regionalliga Mitte\"), the syndicate was realigned to better attract talent from [Upper Austria](/wiki/Upper_Austria \"Upper Austria\"). In July 2017, FC Pasching was renamed *FC Juniors OÖ*. The syndicate changed its name to *LASK Juniors OÖ*. In addition, the former hobby club *SV Pasching 16* was incorporated into the FC Juniors OÖ and since then formed the second team, which plays under the name *SV Pasching 16 OÖ Juniors* in the eighth\\-tier 2\\. Klasse Nord\\-Ost.", "### Since 2018: Present", "After the rise of LASK Juniors OÖ in the [2\\. Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League \"Austrian Football First League\") in the 2017–18 season, the syndicate is dissolved. The FC Juniors OÖ will play as an independent club in the second league, but continue to cooperate with the LASK.", "" ]
### 2007–2012: Road to the Regionalliga [thumb\|Historical chart of league performance](/wiki/File:Pasching_Performance_Graph.png "Pasching Performance Graph.png") [100px\|thumb\|Logo until renamed in July 2017](/wiki/File:FC_Pasching.png "FC Pasching.png") The club started as a syndicate with the SV Wallern in the 2007–08 season in the fifth\-highest Austrian level. After the immediate championship title and the associated promotion to the fourth division, the [OÖ Liga](/wiki/O%C3%96_Liga "OÖ Liga"), Wallern, restarted in the lowest league, and the club was financially compensated for the downgrade. After the immediate title in the 2008–09 Oberösterreich Liga, the third\-highest class, The FC Pasching was promoted to the [Regionalliga Mitte](/wiki/Austrian_Regionalliga_Central "Austrian Regionalliga Central"). In the [season 2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Austrian_Football_Bundesliga "2009–10 Austrian Football Bundesliga"), the FC Pasching had by far the highest average age of the entire Regionalliga Mitte (27\.5 years). There were eleven players in the squad during this season, who had already passed the age of 30\. Two of them ([Josef Schicklgruber](/wiki/Josef_Schicklgruber "Josef Schicklgruber") and [Eduard Glieder](/wiki/Eduard_Glieder "Eduard Glieder")) were already over 40 years old. After the first round of the 2009–10 season Pasching was four points behind the leaders [WAC/St. Andrä](/wiki/Wolfsberger_AC "Wolfsberger AC") on the second place in the table. However, the club announced that it did not want to apply for a license for the First League. After the predecessor ASKÖ Pasching was relocated to Carinthia, the [Bundesliga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_Bundesliga "Austrian Football Bundesliga") introduced a rule that prohibited a club promotion to the [Erste Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League "Austrian Football First League"), unless it has played at least three years in a league that is played by his national association. Since the FC Pasching had played until then only one year each in the highest and second highest Upper Austrian level, the club did not meet this condition. Pasching achieved the championship title in the Regionalliga 2010\. Because of the waiver of a license application for the [Erste Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League "Austrian Football First League"), the club was deducted 13 points. After the season, the club board resigned; a new board had to be elected. As at the end of the season 2010–11 Superfund stepped out as the main sponsor and could not be adequately replaced, the club was forced to cut the budget for the next season massively together. Consequently, almost the entire professional squad was replaced by a new one, which consisted mainly of amateur players. At the end of the autumn season Pasching was in last place. In early 2012, a cooperation with [Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg "FC Red Bull Salzburg") was entered. The first consequence of this collaboration was the acquisition of the coaching office by [Gerald Baumgartner](/wiki/Gerald_Baumgartner "Gerald Baumgartner"), the former coach of the second team of Salzburg. The club managed thanks to an 8–0 victory in the last game against the already established as a champion [Grazer AK](/wiki/Grazer_AK "Grazer AK") the league.
[ "### 2007–2012: Road to the Regionalliga", "[thumb\\|Historical chart of league performance](/wiki/File:Pasching_Performance_Graph.png \"Pasching Performance Graph.png\")", "[100px\\|thumb\\|Logo until renamed in July 2017](/wiki/File:FC_Pasching.png \"FC Pasching.png\")\nThe club started as a syndicate with the SV Wallern in the 2007–08 season in the fifth\\-highest Austrian level. After the immediate championship title and the associated promotion to the fourth division, the [OÖ Liga](/wiki/O%C3%96_Liga \"OÖ Liga\"), Wallern, restarted in the lowest league, and the club was financially compensated for the downgrade.", "After the immediate title in the 2008–09 Oberösterreich Liga, the third\\-highest class, The FC Pasching was promoted to the [Regionalliga Mitte](/wiki/Austrian_Regionalliga_Central \"Austrian Regionalliga Central\").", "In the [season 2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Austrian_Football_Bundesliga \"2009–10 Austrian Football Bundesliga\"), the FC Pasching had by far the highest average age of the entire Regionalliga Mitte (27\\.5 years). There were eleven players in the squad during this season, who had already passed the age of 30\\. Two of them ([Josef Schicklgruber](/wiki/Josef_Schicklgruber \"Josef Schicklgruber\") and [Eduard Glieder](/wiki/Eduard_Glieder \"Eduard Glieder\")) were already over 40 years old.", "After the first round of the 2009–10 season Pasching was four points behind the leaders [WAC/St. Andrä](/wiki/Wolfsberger_AC \"Wolfsberger AC\") on the second place in the table. However, the club announced that it did not want to apply for a license for the First League. After the predecessor ASKÖ Pasching was relocated to Carinthia, the [Bundesliga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_Bundesliga \"Austrian Football Bundesliga\") introduced a rule that prohibited a club promotion to the [Erste Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League \"Austrian Football First League\"), unless it has played at least three years in a league that is played by his national association. Since the FC Pasching had played until then only one year each in the highest and second highest Upper Austrian level, the club did not meet this condition.", "Pasching achieved the championship title in the Regionalliga 2010\\. Because of the waiver of a license application for the [Erste Liga](/wiki/Austrian_Football_First_League \"Austrian Football First League\"), the club was deducted 13 points. After the season, the club board resigned; a new board had to be elected.", "As at the end of the season 2010–11 Superfund stepped out as the main sponsor and could not be adequately replaced, the club was forced to cut the budget for the next season massively together. Consequently, almost the entire professional squad was replaced by a new one, which consisted mainly of amateur players. At the end of the autumn season Pasching was in last place. In early 2012, a cooperation with [Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg \"FC Red Bull Salzburg\") was entered. The first consequence of this collaboration was the acquisition of the coaching office by [Gerald Baumgartner](/wiki/Gerald_Baumgartner \"Gerald Baumgartner\"), the former coach of the second team of Salzburg. The club managed thanks to an 8–0 victory in the last game against the already established as a champion [Grazer AK](/wiki/Grazer_AK \"Grazer AK\") the league.", "" ]
Biography --------- The original singer, Mati, left the band soon afterwards, leaving Venno on [drums](/wiki/Drum_kit "Drum kit"), [Tarvo Hanno Varres](/wiki/Tarvo_Hanno_Varres "Tarvo Hanno Varres") on [bass](/wiki/Bass_guitar "Bass guitar"), and Villu Tamme on [vocals](/wiki/Singing "Singing") and [guitar](/wiki/Guitar "Guitar"), sometimes working together with guest singers (with [Tõnu Trubetsky](/wiki/T%C3%B5nu_Trubetsky "Tõnu Trubetsky") from [Vennaskond](/wiki/Vennaskond "Vennaskond") playing under the name "Vürst Trubetsky \& J.M.K.E."). For the first three years they mainly played concerts in Estonia, with a few also in Latvia, Lithuania and Russia. Later the band has toured Europe several times. They became one of the more popular rock outfits in Estonia.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2016}} In 1987 Villu wrote "Tere Perestroika", initially singing it alone with guitar. Later the band made numerous different versions of the song. It became a big hit because of its humorous topicality ([Perestroika](/wiki/Perestroika "Perestroika")) and in 1988 won a song contest on a popular Estonian TV show. In 1988 came the first line\-up change – Tarvo Hanno Varres{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.solness.ee/maja/?mid\=133\&id\=629\|title\=Ajakiri MAJA\|website\=www.solness.ee\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-05}} left the band, later to join Estonian [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock "Indie rock") group [Röövel Ööbik](/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6vel_%C3%96%C3%B6bik "Röövel Ööbik") and a new bass player, Lembit, joined the band. In 1989 the newly created Finnish record label [Stupido Twins](/wiki/Stupido_Twins_Records "Stupido Twins Records"), with the aim of publishing some Estonian bands. J.M.K.E.'s "Tere Perestroika" was the first release. The winds of change in the Soviet Union had already blown some chains away, and so J.M.K.E. were able to travel abroad for the first time in April 1989, playing their first concert in Finland to middle\-aged communists at the Leftist Forum in [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki "Helsinki"). Later that autumn they recorded for Stupido Twins their first LP, *[Külmale Maale](/wiki/K%C3%BClmale_maale "Külmale maale")* (*To the Cold Country*), which was the first Estonian rock record made abroad. Maximum Rock'n'Roll called it "absolutely excellent". At the end of 1989, Venno left the band declaring that J.M.K.E. had “Become too commercial for me”, and Ardo took his place. The band toured Estonia, the [Nordic countries](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), made a couple of [EPs](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play"), and only by 1993 started to record a new album, *[Gringode Kultuur](/wiki/Gringode_Kultuur "Gringode Kultuur")* (*Culture of Gringos*). Meanwhile, Estonia had regained its independence and J.M.K.E. couldn't continue with their anti\-Soviet songs, so they found their new "enemy" in the invading "[burger](/wiki/Hamburger "Hamburger")\-culture", increasing [poverty](/wiki/Poverty "Poverty"), and other early\-[capitalistic](/wiki/Capitalism "Capitalism") distresses. Lembit left the band in 1994 and was replaced by Sten. J.M.K.E. got also a new drummer, Andres. Their third album, *Sputniks in Pectopah* ("Sputniks at Restaurant"), was released in 1995\. The album is an eclectic collection of popular Russian songs, sung in high energy [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language"). The cover versions include the national anthem of [czarist](/wiki/Tsar "Tsar") [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), old revolutionary marches, soldiers' songs from [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), and melodies from popular cartoons. In January 1996 J.M.K.E. celebrated their 10th birthday with the longest lasting concert of their history presenting on stage almost all persons who had ever played with the band, permanently or temporarily, and with a cassette\-only\-release, *Rumal Nali* (*Silly Joke*, on [Fucking Cunt Records](/wiki/Fucking_Cunt_Records "Fucking Cunt Records")). This contained old D.I.Y. recordings mainly from 1986 and 1987\. J.M.K.E. didn't make their first "tidy" studio recording until 1989 in Finland although by that stage they had enough songs for three or four albums. It was just impossible to release punk rock records under the vigilant glance of sickle and hammer. J.M.K.E. have gradually abandoned their directly political slogans and now tell more varied stories than before. Their fifth album, *{{lang\|et\|Jäneste invasioon}}* (*Invasion of Rabbits*, 1996\), is a good example of their present character. Some consider it to be J.M.K.E.'s best product since "Külmale Maale". In 2000, after 4 years of silence, the album *{{lang\|et\|Õhtumaa viimased tunnid}}* was released. By then female back\-up singers Livia Kurik ("Tirts") and Kerti Alev ("Promille Promille") joined the band; they left in 2012\. In 2006 J.M.K.E. released another album. This one for their 20th birthday, called *Mälestusi Eesti NSV\-st* (*A Memoir of the Estonian SSR*). This includes songs that were recorded in a professional studio for the first time, for example "{{lang\|et\|Ma ei saa sust aru}}", "{{lang\|et\|Rumal nali}}", "{{lang\|et\|Veri mullas}}" and many more. In 2011, the album *Jasonit ei huvita* was released, which features a selection of [cover songs](/wiki/Cover_song "Cover song"). In 2012, drummer Roland Sutt joined the band. The albums *Kirves, haamer, kühvel ja saag* and *Joon* were released in 2016 and 2018, respectively.
[ "Biography\n---------", "The original singer, Mati, left the band soon afterwards, leaving Venno on [drums](/wiki/Drum_kit \"Drum kit\"), [Tarvo Hanno Varres](/wiki/Tarvo_Hanno_Varres \"Tarvo Hanno Varres\") on [bass](/wiki/Bass_guitar \"Bass guitar\"), and Villu Tamme on [vocals](/wiki/Singing \"Singing\") and [guitar](/wiki/Guitar \"Guitar\"), sometimes working together with guest singers (with [Tõnu Trubetsky](/wiki/T%C3%B5nu_Trubetsky \"Tõnu Trubetsky\") from [Vennaskond](/wiki/Vennaskond \"Vennaskond\") playing under the name \"Vürst Trubetsky \\& J.M.K.E.\"). For the first three years they mainly played concerts in Estonia, with a few also in Latvia, Lithuania and Russia. Later the band has toured Europe several times.", "They became one of the more popular rock outfits in Estonia.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2016}} In 1987 Villu wrote \"Tere Perestroika\", initially singing it alone with guitar. Later the band made numerous different versions of the song. It became a big hit because of its humorous topicality ([Perestroika](/wiki/Perestroika \"Perestroika\")) and in 1988 won a song contest on a popular Estonian TV show. In 1988 came the first line\\-up change – Tarvo Hanno Varres{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.solness.ee/maja/?mid\\=133\\&id\\=629\\|title\\=Ajakiri MAJA\\|website\\=www.solness.ee\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-05}} left the band, later to join Estonian [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock \"Indie rock\") group [Röövel Ööbik](/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6vel_%C3%96%C3%B6bik \"Röövel Ööbik\") and a new bass player, Lembit, joined the band.", "In 1989 the newly created Finnish record label [Stupido Twins](/wiki/Stupido_Twins_Records \"Stupido Twins Records\"), with the aim of publishing some Estonian bands. J.M.K.E.'s \"Tere Perestroika\" was the first release. The winds of change in the Soviet Union had already blown some chains away, and so J.M.K.E. were able to travel abroad for the first time in April 1989, playing their first concert in Finland to middle\\-aged communists at the Leftist Forum in [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki \"Helsinki\"). Later that autumn they recorded for Stupido Twins their first LP, *[Külmale Maale](/wiki/K%C3%BClmale_maale \"Külmale maale\")* (*To the Cold Country*), which was the first Estonian rock record made abroad. Maximum Rock'n'Roll called it \"absolutely excellent\". At the end of 1989, Venno left the band declaring that J.M.K.E. had “Become too commercial for me”, and Ardo took his place.", "The band toured Estonia, the [Nordic countries](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), made a couple of [EPs](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\"), and only by 1993 started to record a new album, *[Gringode Kultuur](/wiki/Gringode_Kultuur \"Gringode Kultuur\")* (*Culture of Gringos*). Meanwhile, Estonia had regained its independence and J.M.K.E. couldn't continue with their anti\\-Soviet songs, so they found their new \"enemy\" in the invading \"[burger](/wiki/Hamburger \"Hamburger\")\\-culture\", increasing [poverty](/wiki/Poverty \"Poverty\"), and other early\\-[capitalistic](/wiki/Capitalism \"Capitalism\") distresses. Lembit left the band in 1994 and was replaced by Sten. J.M.K.E. got also a new drummer, Andres.", "Their third album, *Sputniks in Pectopah* (\"Sputniks at Restaurant\"), was released in 1995\\. The album is an eclectic collection of popular Russian songs, sung in high energy [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language \"Russian language\"). The cover versions include the national anthem of [czarist](/wiki/Tsar \"Tsar\") [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), old revolutionary marches, soldiers' songs from [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), and melodies from popular cartoons.", "In January 1996 J.M.K.E. celebrated their 10th birthday with the longest lasting concert of their history presenting on stage almost all persons who had ever played with the band, permanently or temporarily, and with a cassette\\-only\\-release, *Rumal Nali* (*Silly Joke*, on [Fucking Cunt Records](/wiki/Fucking_Cunt_Records \"Fucking Cunt Records\")). This contained old D.I.Y. recordings mainly from 1986 and 1987\\. J.M.K.E. didn't make their first \"tidy\" studio recording until 1989 in Finland although by that stage they had enough songs for three or four albums. It was just impossible to release punk rock records under the vigilant glance of sickle and hammer.", "J.M.K.E. have gradually abandoned their directly political slogans and now tell more varied stories than before. Their fifth album, *{{lang\\|et\\|Jäneste invasioon}}* (*Invasion of Rabbits*, 1996\\), is a good example of their present character. Some consider it to be J.M.K.E.'s best product since \"Külmale Maale\".", "In 2000, after 4 years of silence, the album *{{lang\\|et\\|Õhtumaa viimased tunnid}}* was released. By then female back\\-up singers Livia Kurik (\"Tirts\") and Kerti Alev (\"Promille Promille\") joined the band; they left in 2012\\.", "In 2006 J.M.K.E. released another album. This one for their 20th birthday, called *Mälestusi Eesti NSV\\-st* (*A Memoir of the Estonian SSR*). This includes songs that were recorded in a professional studio for the first time, for example \"{{lang\\|et\\|Ma ei saa sust aru}}\", \"{{lang\\|et\\|Rumal nali}}\", \"{{lang\\|et\\|Veri mullas}}\" and many more.", "In 2011, the album *Jasonit ei huvita* was released, which features a selection of [cover songs](/wiki/Cover_song \"Cover song\"). In 2012, drummer Roland Sutt joined the band. The albums *Kirves, haamer, kühvel ja saag* and *Joon* were released in 2016 and 2018, respectively.", "" ]
Evolution, tactics and organization ----------------------------------- Many Lehi combatants had received military training. Some had attended the Military Engineers School in [Civitavecchia](/wiki/Civitavecchia "Civitavecchia"), in Fascist Italy.{{in lang\|pl}} Jakub Mielnik: [Jak polacy stworzyli Izrael](http://www.focus.pl/historia/artykuly/zobacz/publikacje/jak-polacy-stworzyli-izrael/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407042937/http://www.focus.pl/historia/artykuly/zobacz/publikacje/jak\-polacy\-stworzyli\-izrael/ \|date\=7 April 2009 }}, Focus.pl Historia, 5 May 2008 Others received military training from instructors of the [Polish Armed Forces](/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces "Polish Armed Forces") in 1938–1939\. This training was conducted in [Trochenbrod](/wiki/Trochenbrod "Trochenbrod") (Zofiówka) in [Wołyń Voivodeship](/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_%281921%E2%80%931939%29 "Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939)"), Podębin near [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA "Łódź"), and the forests around [Andrychów](/wiki/Andrych%C3%B3w "Andrychów"). They were taught how to use explosives. One of them reported later: "Poles treated terrorism as a science. We have mastered mathematical principles of demolishing constructions made of concrete, iron, wood, bricks and dirt." The group was initially unsuccessful. Early attempts to raise funds through criminal activities, including a bank robbery in Tel Aviv in 1940 and another robbery on 9 January 1942 in which Jewish passers\-by were killed, brought about the temporary collapse of the group. An attempt to assassinate the head of the British secret police in [Lod](/wiki/Lod "Lod") in which three police personnel were killed, two Jewish and one British, elicited a severe response from the British and Jewish establishments who collaborated against Lehi.Perliger and Weinberg, 2003, p. 109\. [thumb\| right \|Wanted Poster of the [Palestine Police Force](/wiki/Palestine_Police_Force "Palestine Police Force") offering rewards for the capture of Stern Gang members: [Jaacov Levstein](/wiki/Jaacov_Levstein "Jaacov Levstein") (Eliav), [Yitzhak Yezernitzky](/wiki/Yitzhak_Yezernitzky "Yitzhak Yezernitzky") (Shamir), and [Natan Friedman\-Yelin](/wiki/Nathan_Yellin-Mor "Nathan Yellin-Mor")](/wiki/File:Palestine_Police_Force_Wanted_List_%28Lehi%29.jpg "Palestine Police Force Wanted List (Lehi).jpg") Stern's group was seen as a terrorist organisation by the British authorities, who instructed the Defence Security Office (the colonial branch of [MI5](/wiki/MI5 "MI5")) to track down its leaders. In 1942, Stern, after he was arrested, was shot dead in disputed circumstances by Inspector [Geoffrey J. Morton](/wiki/Geoffrey_J._Morton "Geoffrey J. Morton") of the [CID](/wiki/Criminal_Investigation_Department_%28Mandatory_Palestine%29 "Criminal Investigation Department (Mandatory Palestine)").Boyer Bell, 1996, p. 71\. The arrest of several other members led momentarily to the group's eclipse, until it was revived after the September 1942 escape of two of its leaders, [Yitzhak Shamir](/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir "Yitzhak Shamir") and [Eliyahu Giladi](/wiki/Eliyahu_Giladi "Eliyahu Giladi"), aided by two other escapees [Natan Yellin\-Mor](/wiki/Natan_Yellin-Mor "Natan Yellin-Mor") (Friedman) and [Israel Eldad](/wiki/Israel_Eldad "Israel Eldad") (Sheib). (Giladi was later killed by Lehi under circumstances that remain mysterious.) Shamir's codename was "Michael", a reference to one of Shamir's heroes, [Michael Collins](/wiki/Michael_Collins_%28Irish_leader%29 "Michael Collins (Irish leader)"). Lehi was guided by spiritual and philosophical leaders such as [Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg "Uri Zvi Greenberg") and [Israel Eldad](/wiki/Israel_Eldad "Israel Eldad"). After the killing of Giladi, the organization was led by a triumvirate of Eldad, Shamir, and Yellin\-Mor. Lehi adopted a non\-socialist platform of anti\-[imperialist](/wiki/Imperialism "Imperialism") ideology. It viewed the continued British rule of Palestine as a violation of the Mandate's provision generally, and its restrictions on Jewish immigration to be an intolerable breach of [international law](/wiki/International_law "International law"). However they also targeted Jews whom they regarded as traitors, and during the 1948 Arab\-Israeli War they joined in operations with the [Haganah](/wiki/Haganah "Haganah") and [Irgun](/wiki/Irgun "Irgun") against Arab targets, for example [Deir Yassin](/wiki/Deir_Yassin "Deir Yassin"). According to a compilation by Nachman Ben\-Yehuda, Lehi was responsible for 42 assassinations, more than twice as many as the Irgun and Haganah combined during the same period. Of those Lehi assassinations that Ben\-Yehuda classified as political, more than half the victims were Jews.N. Ben\-Yehuda, *Political Assassinations by Jews* (State University of New York, 1993\), p. 397\. Lehi also rejected the authority of the [Jewish Agency for Israel](/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel "Jewish Agency for Israel") and related organizations, operating entirely on its own throughout nearly all of its existence. Lehi prisoners captured by the British generally refused to employ lawyers in their defence. The defendants would conduct their own defence, and would deny the right of the military court to try them, saying that in accordance with the Hague Convention they should be accorded the status of prisoners of war. For the same reason, Lehi prisoners refused to plead for amnesty, even when it was clear that this would have spared them the death penalty.[*The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940–1949*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qfIrBgAAQBAJ&dq=Lehi+trial+refused+to+present+a+defense&pg=PA263), Joseph Halper, Routledge p. 129 [Moshe Barazani](/wiki/Moshe_Barazani "Moshe Barazani"), a Lehi member, and [Meir Feinstein](/wiki/Meir_Feinstein "Meir Feinstein"), an Irgun member, took their own lives in prison with a grenade smuggled inside an orange so the British could not hang them.[*Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YoXUXvBUUjgC&dq=Moshe+Barazani+Meir+Feinstein&pg=PA143), Nachman Ben\-Yehuda, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 143
[ "Evolution, tactics and organization\n-----------------------------------", "Many Lehi combatants had received military training. Some had attended the Military Engineers School in [Civitavecchia](/wiki/Civitavecchia \"Civitavecchia\"), in Fascist Italy.{{in lang\\|pl}} Jakub Mielnik: [Jak polacy stworzyli Izrael](http://www.focus.pl/historia/artykuly/zobacz/publikacje/jak-polacy-stworzyli-izrael/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407042937/http://www.focus.pl/historia/artykuly/zobacz/publikacje/jak\\-polacy\\-stworzyli\\-izrael/ \\|date\\=7 April 2009 }}, Focus.pl Historia, 5 May 2008 Others received military training from instructors of the [Polish Armed Forces](/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces \"Polish Armed Forces\") in 1938–1939\\. This training was conducted in [Trochenbrod](/wiki/Trochenbrod \"Trochenbrod\") (Zofiówka) in [Wołyń Voivodeship](/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_%281921%E2%80%931939%29 \"Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939)\"), Podębin near [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA \"Łódź\"), and the forests around [Andrychów](/wiki/Andrych%C3%B3w \"Andrychów\"). They were taught how to use explosives. One of them reported later: \"Poles treated terrorism as a science. We have mastered mathematical principles of demolishing constructions made of concrete, iron, wood, bricks and dirt.\"", "The group was initially unsuccessful. Early attempts to raise funds through criminal activities, including a bank robbery in Tel Aviv in 1940 and another robbery on 9 January 1942 in which Jewish passers\\-by were killed, brought about the temporary collapse of the group. An attempt to assassinate the head of the British secret police in [Lod](/wiki/Lod \"Lod\") in which three police personnel were killed, two Jewish and one British, elicited a severe response from the British and Jewish establishments who collaborated against Lehi.Perliger and Weinberg, 2003, p. 109\\.", "[thumb\\| right \\|Wanted Poster of the [Palestine Police Force](/wiki/Palestine_Police_Force \"Palestine Police Force\") offering rewards for the capture of Stern Gang members: [Jaacov Levstein](/wiki/Jaacov_Levstein \"Jaacov Levstein\") (Eliav), [Yitzhak Yezernitzky](/wiki/Yitzhak_Yezernitzky \"Yitzhak Yezernitzky\") (Shamir), and [Natan Friedman\\-Yelin](/wiki/Nathan_Yellin-Mor \"Nathan Yellin-Mor\")](/wiki/File:Palestine_Police_Force_Wanted_List_%28Lehi%29.jpg \"Palestine Police Force Wanted List (Lehi).jpg\")", "Stern's group was seen as a terrorist organisation by the British authorities, who instructed the Defence Security Office (the colonial branch of [MI5](/wiki/MI5 \"MI5\")) to track down its leaders. In 1942, Stern, after he was arrested, was shot dead in disputed circumstances by Inspector [Geoffrey J. Morton](/wiki/Geoffrey_J._Morton \"Geoffrey J. Morton\") of the [CID](/wiki/Criminal_Investigation_Department_%28Mandatory_Palestine%29 \"Criminal Investigation Department (Mandatory Palestine)\").Boyer Bell, 1996, p. 71\\. The arrest of several other members led momentarily to the group's eclipse, until it was revived after the September 1942 escape of two of its leaders, [Yitzhak Shamir](/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir \"Yitzhak Shamir\") and [Eliyahu Giladi](/wiki/Eliyahu_Giladi \"Eliyahu Giladi\"), aided by two other escapees [Natan Yellin\\-Mor](/wiki/Natan_Yellin-Mor \"Natan Yellin-Mor\") (Friedman) and [Israel Eldad](/wiki/Israel_Eldad \"Israel Eldad\") (Sheib). (Giladi was later killed by Lehi under circumstances that remain mysterious.) Shamir's codename was \"Michael\", a reference to one of Shamir's heroes, [Michael Collins](/wiki/Michael_Collins_%28Irish_leader%29 \"Michael Collins (Irish leader)\"). Lehi was guided by spiritual and philosophical leaders such as [Uri Zvi Greenberg](/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Greenberg \"Uri Zvi Greenberg\") and [Israel Eldad](/wiki/Israel_Eldad \"Israel Eldad\"). After the killing of Giladi, the organization was led by a triumvirate of Eldad, Shamir, and Yellin\\-Mor.", "Lehi adopted a non\\-socialist platform of anti\\-[imperialist](/wiki/Imperialism \"Imperialism\") ideology. It viewed the continued British rule of Palestine as a violation of the Mandate's provision generally, and its restrictions on Jewish immigration to be an intolerable breach of [international law](/wiki/International_law \"International law\"). However they also targeted Jews whom they regarded as traitors, and during the 1948 Arab\\-Israeli War they joined in operations with the [Haganah](/wiki/Haganah \"Haganah\") and [Irgun](/wiki/Irgun \"Irgun\") against Arab targets, for example [Deir Yassin](/wiki/Deir_Yassin \"Deir Yassin\").", "According to a compilation by Nachman Ben\\-Yehuda, Lehi was responsible for 42 assassinations, more than twice as many as the Irgun and Haganah combined during the same period. Of those Lehi assassinations that Ben\\-Yehuda classified as political, more than half the victims were Jews.N. Ben\\-Yehuda, *Political Assassinations by Jews* (State University of New York, 1993\\), p. 397\\.", "Lehi also rejected the authority of the [Jewish Agency for Israel](/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel \"Jewish Agency for Israel\") and related organizations, operating entirely on its own throughout nearly all of its existence.", "Lehi prisoners captured by the British generally refused to employ lawyers in their defence. The defendants would conduct their own defence, and would deny the right of the military court to try them, saying that in accordance with the Hague Convention they should be accorded the status of prisoners of war. For the same reason, Lehi prisoners refused to plead for amnesty, even when it was clear that this would have spared them the death penalty.[*The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940–1949*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qfIrBgAAQBAJ&dq=Lehi+trial+refused+to+present+a+defense&pg=PA263), Joseph Halper, Routledge p. 129 [Moshe Barazani](/wiki/Moshe_Barazani \"Moshe Barazani\"), a Lehi member, and [Meir Feinstein](/wiki/Meir_Feinstein \"Meir Feinstein\"), an Irgun member, took their own lives in prison with a grenade smuggled inside an orange so the British could not hang them.[*Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YoXUXvBUUjgC&dq=Moshe+Barazani+Meir+Feinstein&pg=PA143), Nachman Ben\\-Yehuda, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 143", "" ]
Post war terrorist campaign and insurgency ------------------------------------------ As a group that never had more than a few hundred members, Lehi relied on audacious but small\-scale operations to drive its message home. They adopted the tactics of groups such as the [Socialist Revolutionaries](/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionaries "Socialist Revolutionaries") and the [Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party](/wiki/Combat_Organization_of_the_Polish_Socialist_Party "Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party") in Czarist Russia,Iviansky 1986, 72–73\. and the [Irish Republican Army](/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army "Irish Republican Army"). To this end, Lehi conducted small\-scale operations such as individual assassinations of British officials (notable targets included [Lord Moyne](/wiki/Walter_Guinness%2C_1st_Baron_Moyne "Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne"), [CID](/wiki/Criminal_Investigation_Department "Criminal Investigation Department") detectives, and Jewish "collaborators"), and random shootings against soldiers and police officers.Bell, Bowyer J.: *Terror out of Zion* (1976\) Another strategy, adopted in 1946, was to send bombs in the mail to British politicians. Other actions included sabotaging infrastructure targets: bridges, [railroads](/wiki/Railroad "Railroad"), telephone and telegraph lines, and [oil](/wiki/Petroleum "Petroleum") refineries, as well as the use of vehicle bombs against British military, police, and administrative targets. Lehi financed its operations from private donations, [extortion](/wiki/Extortion "Extortion"), and [bank robbery](/wiki/Bank_robbery "Bank robbery"). Its campaign of violence lasted from 1944 to 1948\. Initially conducted together with the Irgun, it included a six\-month suspension to avoid being targeted by the [Haganah](/wiki/Haganah "Haganah") during the [Hunting Season](/wiki/The_Hunting_Season "The Hunting Season"), and later operated jointly with the Haganah and Irgun under the [Jewish Resistance Movement](/wiki/Jewish_Resistance_Movement "Jewish Resistance Movement"). After the Jewish Resistance Movement was dissolved, it operated independently as part of the general [Jewish insurgency in Palestine](/wiki/Jewish_insurgency_in_Palestine "Jewish insurgency in Palestine").{{cn\|date\=July 2022}} ### Tel Aviv car park raid On 25 April 1946, a Lehi unit attacked a car park in [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") occupied by the British [6th Airborne Division](/wiki/6th_Airborne_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "6th Airborne Division (United Kingdom)"). Under a barrage of heavy covering fire, Lehi fighters broke into the car park, shot soldiers they encountered at close range, stole rifles from arms racks, laid mines to cover the retreat, and withdrew. Seven soldiers were killed in the attack, which caused widespread outrage among the British security forces in Palestine. It resulted in retaliatory anti\-Jewish violence by British troops and a punitive curfew imposed on Tel Aviv's roads and the closure of places of entertainment in the city by the British Army. ### British police station in Haifa On 12 January 1947, Lehi members drove a truckload of explosives into a British police station in [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa "Haifa"), killing four and injuring 140, in what has been called 'the world's first true truck bomb'.{{cite book \|title\=Terrorism: A History \|author\=Law, Randall David \|year\=2009 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/terrorismhistory0000lawr/page \|place\=Cambridge MA \|publisher\=Polity Press \|page\=186}} ### Operations in Europe [thumb\|100px\|Betty Knouth, Tel Aviv, 24 August 1948](/wiki/File:Martin_Bayles.jpg "Martin Bayles.jpg") Following the bombing of the British embassy in Rome, in October 1946, a series of operations against targets in the United Kingdom were launched. On 7 March 1947, Lehi's only successful operation in Britain was carried out when a Lehi bomb severely damaged the British Colonial Club, a [London](/wiki/London "London") recreational facility for soldiers and students from Britain's colonies in Africa and the West Indies.Cesarani, David: *Major Farran's Hat: The Untold Story of the Struggle to Establish the Jewish State* (2009\) On 15 April 1947 a bomb consisting of twenty\-four sticks of explosives was planted in the Colonial Office, [Whitehall](/wiki/Whitehall "Whitehall"). It failed to explode due to a fault in the timer. Five weeks later, on 22 May, five alleged Lehi members were arrested in Paris with bomb making material including explosives of the same type as found in London. On 2 June, two Lehi members, Betty Knouth and Yaakov Levstein, were arrested crossing from [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium") to [France](/wiki/France "France"). Envelopes addressed to British officials, with detonators, batteries and a time fuse were found in one of Knouth's suitcases. The British Security Services identified Knouth as the person who planted the bomb in the Colonial Office. Shortly after their arrest, 21 letter bombs addressed to senior British figures were intercepted. The letters had been posted in Italy. The intended recipients included [Bevin](/wiki/Ernest_Bevin "Ernest Bevin"), [Attlee](/wiki/Clement_Attlee "Clement Attlee"), [Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill") and [Eden](/wiki/Anthony_Eden "Anthony Eden").Andrew, Christopher (2009\) *The Defence of the Realm. The Authorized History of MI5*. Allen Lane. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7139\-9885\-6}}. p. 922\. Note 39\. pp. 355–359\. Eden carried a letter bomb in his suitcase for a whole day, thinking it was a Whitehall pamphlet that he would read later in the day. He only realized it was a bomb after being warned by the police, who were informed by MI5\.{{Cite web \|last\=Walton \|first\=Calder \|date\=2024\-06\-28 \|title\=How Zionist Extremism Became British Spies’ Biggest Enemy \|url\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/01/how\-zionist\-extremism\-became\-british\-spies\-biggest\-enemy/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-24 \|website\=Foreign Policy \|language\=en\-US}} Knouth was also known as Gilberte/Elizabeth Lazarus. Levstein was travelling as Jacob Elias; his fingerprints connected him to the deaths of several Palestine Policemen as well as an attempt on the life of the British High Commissioner. In September 1947, a Belgian court sentenced Knouth to one year in prison and Levstein to eight months in prison for illegally transporting explosives with intent to commit a felony.{{Cite book \|last\=Andrew \|first\=Christopher \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=M84O5pYh3rcC \|title\=Defend the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5 \|date\=2009 \|publisher\=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group \|isbn\=978\-0\-307\-27291\-1 \|pages\=357 \|language\=en}} In 1973, [Margaret Truman](/wiki/Margaret_Truman "Margaret Truman") wrote that letter bombs were also posted to her father, U.S. President [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman "Harry S. Truman"), in 1947\.{{cite book \|title\=Political Assassinations by Jews: A Rhetorical Device for Justice \|author\=Nachman Ben\-Yehuda \|page\=331 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qW6QpWs2CHoC\&pg\=PA331 \|publisher\=SUNY Press \|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-0791496374 }} Former Lehi leader Yellin\-Mor admitted that letter bombs had been sent to British targets but denied that any had been sent to Truman.Ira Smith and Joe Alex Morris, *Dear Mr President*, Julian Messner Inc. New York 1947 p. 230 writes that "the same kind of terrorist letters" which Lehi claimed responsibility for sending to British politicians had been detected in mail to the White House: ### Death threat against Hugh Trevor\-Roper Shortly after the 1947 publication of *The Last Days of Hitler*, Lehi issued a death threat against the author, [Hugh Trevor\-Roper](/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper "Hugh Trevor-Roper"), for his portrayal of Hitler, feeling that Trevor\-Roper had attempted to exonerate the German populace from responsibility.{{cite book\|title\=Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil \|first\=Ron \|last\=Rosenbaum \|page\=63}} ### Cairo\-Haifa train bombings {{Main\|Cairo–Haifa train bombings 1948}} During the lead\-up to the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War "1948 Arab–Israeli War"), Lehi [mined the Cairo–Haifa train](/wiki/Cairo%E2%80%93Haifa_train_bombings_1948 "Cairo–Haifa train bombings 1948") several times. On 29 February 1948, Lehi mined the train north of [Rehovot](/wiki/Rehovot "Rehovot"), killing 28 British soldiers and wounding 35\. On 31 March, Lehi mined the train near [Binyamina](/wiki/Binyamina "Binyamina"), killing 40 civilians and wounding 60\. ### Attempted Nablus terror attack [Shlomo Sand](/wiki/Shlomo_Sand "Shlomo Sand") writes that as a method of applying pressure on Arab villagers to abandon their settlements, Lehi planned a terror attack on [Nablus](/wiki/Nablus "Nablus") and its Arab city headquarters; Lehi fighter Elisha Ibzov (Avraham Cohen) was captured with a truck filled with explosives on his way to the city. Lehi fighters in return abducted four adult villagers and youth from al\-Sheikh Muwannis with no connection to Ibzov's capture and threatened to kill them. As rumours spread that they were already murdered, panic set out in the villagers and the settlement became increasingly abandoned, despite the eventual release of the hostagesSand, Shlomo *The Invention of the Land of Israel: From Holy Land to Homeland* p. 268 ### Deir Yassin massacre {{Main\|Deir Yassin massacre}} One of the most widely known acts of Lehi was the attack on the Palestinian\-Arab village of [Deir Yassin](/wiki/Deir_Yassin "Deir Yassin"). In the months before the British evacuation from Palestine, the [Arab League](/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League")\-sponsored [Arab Liberation Army](/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army "Arab Liberation Army") (ALA) occupied several strategic points along the road between [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") and [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv"), cutting off supplies to the Jewish part of Jerusalem. One of these points was Deir Yassin. By March 1948, the road was cut off and Jewish Jerusalem was under siege. The Haganah launched [Operation Nachshon](/wiki/Operation_Nachshon "Operation Nachshon") to break the siege. On 6 April, the Haganah attacked [al\-Qastal](/wiki/Al-Qastal "Al-Qastal"), a village two kilometres north of Deir Yassin, also overlooking the Jerusalem\-Tel Aviv road.Silver 1984, p. 91\. Then on 9 April 1948, about 120 Lehi and Irgun fighters, acting in cooperation with the Haganah, attacked and captured Deir Yassin. The attack was at night, the fighting was confused, and many civilian inhabitants of the village were killed.Yoav Gelber, *Palestine 1948*, [Appendix II](http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/~censor/katz-directory/05-12-14gelber-palestine-1948-appendix-II-what-happened-in-deir-yassin-english.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114421/http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/\~censor/katz\-directory/05\-12\-14gelber\-palestine\-1948\-appendix\-II\-what\-happened\-in\-deir\-yassin\-english.pdf \|date\=27 February 2008 }} This action had great consequences for the war, and remains a cause célèbre for Palestinians ever since. Exactly what happened has never been established clearly. The Arab League reported a great massacre: 254 killed, with rape and lurid mutilations. Israeli investigations claimed the actual number of dead was between 100 and 120, and there were no mass rapes, but most of the dead were civilians and admitted some were killed deliberately. Lehi and Irgun both denied an organized massacre. Accounts by Lehi veterans such as Ezra Yakhin note that many of the attackers were killed or wounded, assert that Arabs fired from every building and that Iraqi and Syrian soldiers were among the dead, and even that some Arab fighters dressed as women.[Ezra Yakhin](/wiki/Ezra_Yakhin "Ezra Yakhin") (1992\), *Elnakam*, pp. 261–272\. However, Jewish authorities, including Haganah, the Chief Rabbinate, the Jewish Agency, and [David Ben\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion"), also condemned the attack, lending credence to the charge of massacre.[Yoav Gelber](/wiki/Yoav_Gelber "Yoav Gelber") (2006\), *Palestine 1948*, p. 317\. The Jewish Agency even sent a letter of condemnation, apology, and condolence to King [Abdullah I of Jordan](/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan "Abdullah I of Jordan").[Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris "Benny Morris") (2003\), *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*, p. 239\. [thumb\|Female Lehi fighters in 1948](/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_1105_Israel_Defense_Forces_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%99.jpg "PikiWiki Israel 1105 Israel Defense Forces חיילות לחי.jpg") Both the Arab reports and Jewish responses had hidden motives: the Arab leaders wanted to encourage Palestinian Arabs to fight rather than surrender, to discredit the Zionists with international opinion, and to increase popular support in their countries for an invasion of Palestine. The Jewish leaders wanted to discredit Irgun and Lehi. Ironically, the Arab reports backfired in one respect: frightened Palestinian Arabs did not surrender, but did not fight either – [they fled](/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight "1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight"), allowing Israel to gain much territory with little fighting and also without absorbing many Arabs.[Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris "Benny Morris") (2003\), *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*, p. 239\. "the most important immediate effect of the atrocity and the media campaign that followed it was how one started to report the fear felt in Palestinian Arab towns and villages, and, later, the panicked fleeing from them." Lehi similarly interpreted events at Deir Yassin as turning the tide of war in favour of the Jews. Lehi leader [Israel Eldad](/wiki/Israel_Eldad "Israel Eldad") later wrote in his memoirs from the underground period that "without Deir Yassin the State of Israel could never have been established".Israel Eldad (1950\), *The First Tithe*, pp. 334–335\.Heller, 1995, p. 209\. The Deir Yassin story did not much sway international opinion.{{cn\|date\=July 2022}} It did increase, not only support but pressure on Arab governments to intervene. Abdullah of Jordan was now compelled to join the invasion of Palestine after [Israel's declaration of independence](/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_%28Israel%29 "Declaration of Independence (Israel)") on 14 May.{{cn\|date\=July 2022}} ### Assassination of Count Folke Bernadotte [thumb\|upright\|UN mediator Count [Folke Bernadotte](/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte "Folke Bernadotte") was assassinated by *Lehi* in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") in 1948\.](/wiki/File:Folke-Bernadotte.jpg "Folke-Bernadotte.jpg") {{Further\|Folke Bernadotte\#Assassination}} Although Lehi had stopped operating nationally after May 1948, the group continued to function in Jerusalem. On 17 September 1948, Lehi assassinated UN mediator Count [Folke Bernadotte](/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte "Folke Bernadotte"). The assassination was directed by [Yehoshua Zettler](/wiki/Yehoshua_Zettler "Yehoshua Zettler") and carried out by a four\-man team led by Meshulam Makover. The fatal shots were fired by [Yehoshua Cohen](/wiki/Yehoshua_Cohen "Yehoshua Cohen"). The [Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council") described the assassination as a "cowardly act which appears to have been committed by a criminal group of terrorists".UNSC {{cite web\|url\=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/48C06A0C497863F1852560C2005BEB32 \|title\=S/RES/57 (1948\) of 18 September 1948 \|access\-date\=30 November 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203141435/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/48C06A0C497863F1852560C2005BEB32 \|archive\-date\= 3 December 2013 }} resolution 57 (18 September 1948\). Three days after the assassination, the Israeli government passed the Ordinance to Prevent Terrorism and declared Lehi to be a terrorist organization.Sprinzak, p. 45Ami Pedahzur, *The Israeli Response to Jewish Terrorism and Violence: Defending Democracy*, Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York 2002 p. 77 Many Lehi members were arrested, including leaders [Nathan Yellin\-Mor](/wiki/Nathan_Yellin-Mor "Nathan Yellin-Mor") and Matityahu Shmulevitz who were arrested on 29 September. Eldad and Shamir managed to escape arrest. Yellin\-Mor and Schmulevitz were charged with leadership of a terrorist organization and on 10 February 1949 were sentenced to 8 years and 5 years imprisonment, respectively.Sprinzak, p. 47Heller, p. 265\."LHY leaders get 8,5 years", *[Palestine Post](/wiki/Palestine_Post "Palestine Post")*, 11 February 1949\. However the State (Temporary) Council soon announced a general amnesty for Lehi members and they were released.Heller, p. 267\. ### The Lehi trial and the Fighters' Party [thumb\|Declaration of Lehi as a terrorist organization, September 20, 1948"For the purposes of Regulation 8 of the Emergency Regulations – Prevention of Terrorism – 5748–1948, the Provisional Government has decided to declare that the group of people known as 'Freedom Fighters of Israel' and the members of the so\-called 'Homeland Front' are terrorist organizations. By order of the provisional administration. Ze'ev Sharaf (Government Secretary)."](/wiki/File:LehiTerroristDesignation.jpg "LehiTerroristDesignation.jpg") Between 5 December 1948 and 25 January 1949, Yellin\-Mor and Shmuelevitz were tried in a military court on terrorism charges.Heller (1995\), pp. 261–266 The prosecution accused them of the murder of Bernadotte, though they were not specifically charged with it. Senior officers of the IDF, including [Yisrael Galili](/wiki/Yisrael_Galili "Yisrael Galili") and [David Shaltiel](/wiki/David_Shaltiel "David Shaltiel"), told the court that Lehi had hindered, rather than assisted the fight against the British and the Arabs. While the trial was in progress, some of the Lehi leadership founded a USSR\-leaning political party called the [Fighters' List](/wiki/Fighters%27_List "Fighters' List") with Yellin\-Mor as its leader.Heller (1995\), pp. 265–267 The party took part in the [elections in January 1949](/wiki/1949_Israeli_legislative_election "1949 Israeli legislative election") with Yellin\-Mor and Shmuelevitz heading the list. The trial verdict was handed down on 10 February, soon after the Fighters' List had won one seat with only 1\.2% of the vote. Yellin\-Mor was sentenced to 8 years and Shmuelevitz to 5 years imprisonment, but the court agreed to remit the sentences if the prisoners agreed to a list of conditions. The Provisional State Council then authorised their pardon. The party disbanded after several years and did not contest the [1951 elections](/wiki/1951_Israeli_legislative_election "1951 Israeli legislative election").Heller (1995\), pp. 279–284 In 1956, some Lehi veterans established the [Semitic Action](/wiki/Semitic_Action "Semitic Action") movement, which sought the creation of a regional federation encompassing Israel and its Arab neighbours on the basis of an anti\-colonialist alliance with other indigenous inhabitants of the Middle East. Not all Lehi alumni gave up [political violence](/wiki/Political_violence "Political violence") after independence: former members were involved in the activities of the [Kingdom of Israel](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_%28group%29 "Kingdom of Israel (group)") militant group, the 1957 assassination of [Rudolf Kastner](/wiki/Rudolf_Kastner "Rudolf Kastner"), and likely the 1952 attempted assassination of [David\-Zvi Pinkas](/wiki/David-Zvi_Pinkas "David-Zvi Pinkas").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/amos\-keinan\-controversial\-israeli\-journalist\-writer\-and\-artist\-1784599\.html\|title\=Amos Keinan: Controversial Israeli journalist, writer and artist\|last\=Baram\|first\=Daphna\|date\=10 September 2009\|work\=\[\[The Independent]]\|access\-date\=8 November 2009}}{{Cite news\|last\=Melman\|first\=Yossi\|title\= Time bomb\|work\=Haaretz\|access\-date \=8 September 2009\|date\=13 August 2009\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1107261\.html}}{{cite book \|last\=Segev \|first\=Tom \|author\-link\=Tom Segev \|author2\=Arlen Neal Weinstein \|title\=1949: The First Israelis \|publisher\=Macmillan \|year\=1998 \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/1949firstisraeli00sege/page/230 230–231] \|isbn\=0\-02\-929180\-1 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/1949firstisraeli00sege/page/230 }}Pedahzur, Ami, and Arie Perliger (2009\). *Jewish Terrorism in Israel*. [Columbia University Press](/wiki/Columbia_University_Press "Columbia University Press"). pp. 31–33
[ "Post war terrorist campaign and insurgency\n------------------------------------------", "As a group that never had more than a few hundred members, Lehi relied on audacious but small\\-scale operations to drive its message home. They adopted the tactics of groups such as the [Socialist Revolutionaries](/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionaries \"Socialist Revolutionaries\") and the [Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party](/wiki/Combat_Organization_of_the_Polish_Socialist_Party \"Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party\") in Czarist Russia,Iviansky 1986, 72–73\\. and the [Irish Republican Army](/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army \"Irish Republican Army\"). To this end, Lehi conducted small\\-scale operations such as individual assassinations of British officials (notable targets included [Lord Moyne](/wiki/Walter_Guinness%2C_1st_Baron_Moyne \"Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne\"), [CID](/wiki/Criminal_Investigation_Department \"Criminal Investigation Department\") detectives, and Jewish \"collaborators\"), and random shootings against soldiers and police officers.Bell, Bowyer J.: *Terror out of Zion* (1976\\) Another strategy, adopted in 1946, was to send bombs in the mail to British politicians. Other actions included sabotaging infrastructure targets: bridges, [railroads](/wiki/Railroad \"Railroad\"), telephone and telegraph lines, and [oil](/wiki/Petroleum \"Petroleum\") refineries, as well as the use of vehicle bombs against British military, police, and administrative targets. Lehi financed its operations from private donations, [extortion](/wiki/Extortion \"Extortion\"), and [bank robbery](/wiki/Bank_robbery \"Bank robbery\"). Its campaign of violence lasted from 1944 to 1948\\. Initially conducted together with the Irgun, it included a six\\-month suspension to avoid being targeted by the [Haganah](/wiki/Haganah \"Haganah\") during the [Hunting Season](/wiki/The_Hunting_Season \"The Hunting Season\"), and later operated jointly with the Haganah and Irgun under the [Jewish Resistance Movement](/wiki/Jewish_Resistance_Movement \"Jewish Resistance Movement\"). After the Jewish Resistance Movement was dissolved, it operated independently as part of the general [Jewish insurgency in Palestine](/wiki/Jewish_insurgency_in_Palestine \"Jewish insurgency in Palestine\").{{cn\\|date\\=July 2022}}", "### Tel Aviv car park raid", "On 25 April 1946, a Lehi unit attacked a car park in [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv \"Tel Aviv\") occupied by the British [6th Airborne Division](/wiki/6th_Airborne_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"6th Airborne Division (United Kingdom)\"). Under a barrage of heavy covering fire, Lehi fighters broke into the car park, shot soldiers they encountered at close range, stole rifles from arms racks, laid mines to cover the retreat, and withdrew. Seven soldiers were killed in the attack, which caused widespread outrage among the British security forces in Palestine. It resulted in retaliatory anti\\-Jewish violence by British troops and a punitive curfew imposed on Tel Aviv's roads and the closure of places of entertainment in the city by the British Army.", "### British police station in Haifa", "On 12 January 1947, Lehi members drove a truckload of explosives into a British police station in [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa \"Haifa\"), killing four and injuring 140, in what has been called 'the world's first true truck bomb'.{{cite book \\|title\\=Terrorism: A History \\|author\\=Law, Randall David \\|year\\=2009 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/terrorismhistory0000lawr/page \\|place\\=Cambridge MA \\|publisher\\=Polity Press \\|page\\=186}}", "### Operations in Europe", "[thumb\\|100px\\|Betty Knouth, Tel Aviv, 24 August 1948](/wiki/File:Martin_Bayles.jpg \"Martin Bayles.jpg\")", "Following the bombing of the British embassy in Rome, in October 1946, a series of operations against targets in the United Kingdom were launched. On 7 March 1947, Lehi's only successful operation in Britain was carried out when a Lehi bomb severely damaged the British Colonial Club, a [London](/wiki/London \"London\") recreational facility for soldiers and students from Britain's colonies in Africa and the West Indies.Cesarani, David: *Major Farran's Hat: The Untold Story of the Struggle to Establish the Jewish State* (2009\\) On 15 April 1947 a bomb consisting of twenty\\-four sticks of explosives was planted in the Colonial Office, [Whitehall](/wiki/Whitehall \"Whitehall\"). It failed to explode due to a fault in the timer. Five weeks later, on 22 May, five alleged Lehi members were arrested in Paris with bomb making material including explosives of the same type as found in London. On 2 June, two Lehi members, Betty Knouth and Yaakov Levstein, were arrested crossing from [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\") to [France](/wiki/France \"France\"). Envelopes addressed to British officials, with detonators, batteries and a time fuse were found in one of Knouth's suitcases. The British Security Services identified Knouth as the person who planted the bomb in the Colonial Office. Shortly after their arrest, 21 letter bombs addressed to senior British figures were intercepted. The letters had been posted in Italy. The intended recipients included [Bevin](/wiki/Ernest_Bevin \"Ernest Bevin\"), [Attlee](/wiki/Clement_Attlee \"Clement Attlee\"), [Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill \"Winston Churchill\") and [Eden](/wiki/Anthony_Eden \"Anthony Eden\").Andrew, Christopher (2009\\) *The Defence of the Realm. The Authorized History of MI5*. Allen Lane. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7139\\-9885\\-6}}. p. 922\\. Note 39\\. pp. 355–359\\. Eden carried a letter bomb in his suitcase for a whole day, thinking it was a Whitehall pamphlet that he would read later in the day. He only realized it was a bomb after being warned by the police, who were informed by MI5\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Walton \\|first\\=Calder \\|date\\=2024\\-06\\-28 \\|title\\=How Zionist Extremism Became British Spies’ Biggest Enemy \\|url\\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/01/how\\-zionist\\-extremism\\-became\\-british\\-spies\\-biggest\\-enemy/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-24 \\|website\\=Foreign Policy \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "Knouth was also known as Gilberte/Elizabeth Lazarus. Levstein was travelling as Jacob Elias; his fingerprints connected him to the deaths of several Palestine Policemen as well as an attempt on the life of the British High Commissioner. In September 1947, a Belgian court sentenced Knouth to one year in prison and Levstein to eight months in prison for illegally transporting explosives with intent to commit a felony.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Andrew \\|first\\=Christopher \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=M84O5pYh3rcC \\|title\\=Defend the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5 \\|date\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-307\\-27291\\-1 \\|pages\\=357 \\|language\\=en}} In 1973, [Margaret Truman](/wiki/Margaret_Truman \"Margaret Truman\") wrote that letter bombs were also posted to her father, U.S. President [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman \"Harry S. Truman\"), in 1947\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Political Assassinations by Jews: A Rhetorical Device for Justice \\|author\\=Nachman Ben\\-Yehuda \\|page\\=331 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qW6QpWs2CHoC\\&pg\\=PA331 \\|publisher\\=SUNY Press \\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-0791496374 }} Former Lehi leader Yellin\\-Mor admitted that letter bombs had been sent to British targets but denied that any had been sent to Truman.Ira Smith and Joe Alex Morris, *Dear Mr President*, Julian Messner Inc. New York 1947 p. 230 writes that \"the same kind of terrorist letters\" which Lehi claimed responsibility for sending to British politicians had been detected in mail to the White House:", "### Death threat against Hugh Trevor\\-Roper", "Shortly after the 1947 publication of *The Last Days of Hitler*, Lehi issued a death threat against the author, [Hugh Trevor\\-Roper](/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper \"Hugh Trevor-Roper\"), for his portrayal of Hitler, feeling that Trevor\\-Roper had attempted to exonerate the German populace from responsibility.{{cite book\\|title\\=Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil \\|first\\=Ron \\|last\\=Rosenbaum \\|page\\=63}}", "### Cairo\\-Haifa train bombings", "{{Main\\|Cairo–Haifa train bombings 1948}}\nDuring the lead\\-up to the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War \"1948 Arab–Israeli War\"), Lehi [mined the Cairo–Haifa train](/wiki/Cairo%E2%80%93Haifa_train_bombings_1948 \"Cairo–Haifa train bombings 1948\") several times. On 29 February 1948, Lehi mined the train north of [Rehovot](/wiki/Rehovot \"Rehovot\"), killing 28 British soldiers and wounding 35\\. On 31 March, Lehi mined the train near [Binyamina](/wiki/Binyamina \"Binyamina\"), killing 40 civilians and wounding 60\\.", "### Attempted Nablus terror attack", "[Shlomo Sand](/wiki/Shlomo_Sand \"Shlomo Sand\") writes that as a method of applying pressure on Arab villagers to abandon their settlements, Lehi planned a terror attack on [Nablus](/wiki/Nablus \"Nablus\") and its Arab city headquarters; Lehi fighter Elisha Ibzov (Avraham Cohen) was captured with a truck filled with explosives on his way to the city. Lehi fighters in return abducted four adult villagers and youth from al\\-Sheikh Muwannis with no connection to Ibzov's capture and threatened to kill them. As rumours spread that they were already murdered, panic set out in the villagers and the settlement became increasingly abandoned, despite the eventual release of the hostagesSand, Shlomo *The Invention of the Land of Israel: From Holy Land to Homeland* p. 268", "### Deir Yassin massacre", "{{Main\\|Deir Yassin massacre}}\nOne of the most widely known acts of Lehi was the attack on the Palestinian\\-Arab village of [Deir Yassin](/wiki/Deir_Yassin \"Deir Yassin\").", "In the months before the British evacuation from Palestine, the [Arab League](/wiki/Arab_League \"Arab League\")\\-sponsored [Arab Liberation Army](/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army \"Arab Liberation Army\") (ALA) occupied several strategic points along the road between [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") and [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv \"Tel Aviv\"), cutting off supplies to the Jewish part of Jerusalem. One of these points was Deir Yassin. By March 1948, the road was cut off and Jewish Jerusalem was under siege. The Haganah launched [Operation Nachshon](/wiki/Operation_Nachshon \"Operation Nachshon\") to break the siege.", "On 6 April, the Haganah attacked [al\\-Qastal](/wiki/Al-Qastal \"Al-Qastal\"), a village two kilometres north of Deir Yassin, also overlooking the Jerusalem\\-Tel Aviv road.Silver 1984, p. 91\\.", "Then on 9 April 1948, about 120 Lehi and Irgun fighters, acting in cooperation with the Haganah, attacked and captured Deir Yassin. The attack was at night, the fighting was confused, and many civilian inhabitants of the village were killed.Yoav Gelber, *Palestine 1948*, [Appendix II](http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/~censor/katz-directory/05-12-14gelber-palestine-1948-appendix-II-what-happened-in-deir-yassin-english.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114421/http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/\\~censor/katz\\-directory/05\\-12\\-14gelber\\-palestine\\-1948\\-appendix\\-II\\-what\\-happened\\-in\\-deir\\-yassin\\-english.pdf \\|date\\=27 February 2008 }} This action had great consequences for the war, and remains a cause célèbre for Palestinians ever since.", "Exactly what happened has never been established clearly. The Arab League reported a great massacre: 254 killed, with rape and lurid mutilations. Israeli investigations claimed the actual number of dead was between 100 and 120, and there were no mass rapes, but most of the dead were civilians and admitted some were killed deliberately. Lehi and Irgun both denied an organized massacre. Accounts by Lehi veterans such as Ezra Yakhin note that many of the attackers were killed or wounded, assert that Arabs fired from every building and that Iraqi and Syrian soldiers were among the dead, and even that some Arab fighters dressed as women.[Ezra Yakhin](/wiki/Ezra_Yakhin \"Ezra Yakhin\") (1992\\), *Elnakam*, pp. 261–272\\.", "However, Jewish authorities, including Haganah, the Chief Rabbinate, the Jewish Agency, and [David Ben\\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion \"David Ben-Gurion\"), also condemned the attack, lending credence to the charge of massacre.[Yoav Gelber](/wiki/Yoav_Gelber \"Yoav Gelber\") (2006\\), *Palestine 1948*, p. 317\\. The Jewish Agency even sent a letter of condemnation, apology, and condolence to King [Abdullah I of Jordan](/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan \"Abdullah I of Jordan\").[Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris \"Benny Morris\") (2003\\), *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*, p. 239\\.\n[thumb\\|Female Lehi fighters in 1948](/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_1105_Israel_Defense_Forces_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%99.jpg \"PikiWiki Israel 1105 Israel Defense Forces חיילות לחי.jpg\")\nBoth the Arab reports and Jewish responses had hidden motives: the Arab leaders wanted to encourage Palestinian Arabs to fight rather than surrender, to discredit the Zionists with international opinion, and to increase popular support in their countries for an invasion of Palestine. The Jewish leaders wanted to discredit Irgun and Lehi.", "Ironically, the Arab reports backfired in one respect: frightened Palestinian Arabs did not surrender, but did not fight either – [they fled](/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight \"1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight\"), allowing Israel to gain much territory with little fighting and also without absorbing many Arabs.[Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris \"Benny Morris\") (2003\\), *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*, p. 239\\. \"the most important immediate effect of the atrocity and the media campaign that followed it was how one started to report the fear felt in Palestinian Arab towns and villages, and, later, the panicked fleeing from them.\"", "Lehi similarly interpreted events at Deir Yassin as turning the tide of war in favour of the Jews. Lehi leader [Israel Eldad](/wiki/Israel_Eldad \"Israel Eldad\") later wrote in his memoirs from the underground period that \"without Deir Yassin the State of Israel could never have been established\".Israel Eldad (1950\\), *The First Tithe*, pp. 334–335\\.Heller, 1995, p. 209\\.", "The Deir Yassin story did not much sway international opinion.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2022}} It did increase, not only support but pressure on Arab governments to intervene. Abdullah of Jordan was now compelled to join the invasion of Palestine after [Israel's declaration of independence](/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_%28Israel%29 \"Declaration of Independence (Israel)\") on 14 May.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2022}}", "### Assassination of Count Folke Bernadotte", "[thumb\\|upright\\|UN mediator Count [Folke Bernadotte](/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte \"Folke Bernadotte\") was assassinated by *Lehi* in [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") in 1948\\.](/wiki/File:Folke-Bernadotte.jpg \"Folke-Bernadotte.jpg\")\n{{Further\\|Folke Bernadotte\\#Assassination}}\nAlthough Lehi had stopped operating nationally after May 1948, the group continued to function in Jerusalem. On 17 September 1948, Lehi assassinated UN mediator Count [Folke Bernadotte](/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte \"Folke Bernadotte\"). The assassination was directed by [Yehoshua Zettler](/wiki/Yehoshua_Zettler \"Yehoshua Zettler\") and carried out by a four\\-man team led by Meshulam Makover. The fatal shots were fired by [Yehoshua Cohen](/wiki/Yehoshua_Cohen \"Yehoshua Cohen\"). The [Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council \"United Nations Security Council\") described the assassination as a \"cowardly act which appears to have been committed by a criminal group of terrorists\".UNSC {{cite web\\|url\\=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/48C06A0C497863F1852560C2005BEB32 \\|title\\=S/RES/57 (1948\\) of 18 September 1948 \\|access\\-date\\=30 November 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203141435/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/48C06A0C497863F1852560C2005BEB32 \\|archive\\-date\\= 3 December 2013 }} resolution 57 (18 September 1948\\).", "Three days after the assassination, the Israeli government passed the Ordinance to Prevent Terrorism and declared Lehi to be a terrorist organization.Sprinzak, p. 45Ami Pedahzur, *The Israeli Response to Jewish Terrorism and Violence: Defending Democracy*, Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York 2002 p. 77 Many Lehi members were arrested, including leaders [Nathan Yellin\\-Mor](/wiki/Nathan_Yellin-Mor \"Nathan Yellin-Mor\") and Matityahu Shmulevitz who were arrested on 29 September. Eldad and Shamir managed to escape arrest. Yellin\\-Mor and Schmulevitz were charged with leadership of a terrorist organization and on 10 February 1949 were sentenced to 8 years and 5 years imprisonment, respectively.Sprinzak, p. 47Heller, p. 265\\.\"LHY leaders get 8,5 years\", *[Palestine Post](/wiki/Palestine_Post \"Palestine Post\")*, 11 February 1949\\. However the State (Temporary) Council soon announced a general amnesty for Lehi members and they were released.Heller, p. 267\\.", "### The Lehi trial and the Fighters' Party", "[thumb\\|Declaration of Lehi as a terrorist organization, September 20, 1948\"For the purposes of Regulation 8 of the Emergency Regulations – Prevention of Terrorism – 5748–1948, the Provisional Government has decided to declare that the group of people known as 'Freedom Fighters of Israel' and the members of the so\\-called 'Homeland Front' are terrorist organizations. By order of the provisional administration. Ze'ev Sharaf (Government Secretary).\"](/wiki/File:LehiTerroristDesignation.jpg \"LehiTerroristDesignation.jpg\")\nBetween 5 December 1948 and 25 January 1949, Yellin\\-Mor and Shmuelevitz were tried in a military court on terrorism charges.Heller (1995\\), pp. 261–266 The prosecution accused them of the murder of Bernadotte, though they were not specifically charged with it. Senior officers of the IDF, including [Yisrael Galili](/wiki/Yisrael_Galili \"Yisrael Galili\") and [David Shaltiel](/wiki/David_Shaltiel \"David Shaltiel\"), told the court that Lehi had hindered, rather than assisted the fight against the British and the Arabs.", "While the trial was in progress, some of the Lehi leadership founded a USSR\\-leaning political party called the [Fighters' List](/wiki/Fighters%27_List \"Fighters' List\") with Yellin\\-Mor as its leader.Heller (1995\\), pp. 265–267 The party took part in the [elections in January 1949](/wiki/1949_Israeli_legislative_election \"1949 Israeli legislative election\") with Yellin\\-Mor and Shmuelevitz heading the list. The trial verdict was handed down on 10 February, soon after the Fighters' List had won one seat with only 1\\.2% of the vote. Yellin\\-Mor was sentenced to 8 years and Shmuelevitz to 5 years imprisonment, but the court agreed to remit the sentences if the prisoners agreed to a list of conditions. The Provisional State Council then authorised their pardon. The party disbanded after several years and did not contest the [1951 elections](/wiki/1951_Israeli_legislative_election \"1951 Israeli legislative election\").Heller (1995\\), pp. 279–284", "In 1956, some Lehi veterans established the [Semitic Action](/wiki/Semitic_Action \"Semitic Action\") movement, which sought the creation of a regional federation encompassing Israel and its Arab neighbours on the basis of an anti\\-colonialist alliance with other indigenous inhabitants of the Middle East.", "Not all Lehi alumni gave up [political violence](/wiki/Political_violence \"Political violence\") after independence: former members were involved in the activities of the [Kingdom of Israel](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_%28group%29 \"Kingdom of Israel (group)\") militant group, the 1957 assassination of [Rudolf Kastner](/wiki/Rudolf_Kastner \"Rudolf Kastner\"), and likely the 1952 attempted assassination of [David\\-Zvi Pinkas](/wiki/David-Zvi_Pinkas \"David-Zvi Pinkas\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/amos\\-keinan\\-controversial\\-israeli\\-journalist\\-writer\\-and\\-artist\\-1784599\\.html\\|title\\=Amos Keinan: Controversial Israeli journalist, writer and artist\\|last\\=Baram\\|first\\=Daphna\\|date\\=10 September 2009\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]]\\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2009}}{{Cite news\\|last\\=Melman\\|first\\=Yossi\\|title\\= Time bomb\\|work\\=Haaretz\\|access\\-date \\=8 September 2009\\|date\\=13 August 2009\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1107261\\.html}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Segev \\|first\\=Tom \\|author\\-link\\=Tom Segev \\|author2\\=Arlen Neal Weinstein \\|title\\=1949: The First Israelis \\|publisher\\=Macmillan \\|year\\=1998 \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/1949firstisraeli00sege/page/230 230–231] \\|isbn\\=0\\-02\\-929180\\-1 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/1949firstisraeli00sege/page/230 }}Pedahzur, Ami, and Arie Perliger (2009\\). *Jewish Terrorism in Israel*. [Columbia University Press](/wiki/Columbia_University_Press \"Columbia University Press\"). pp. 31–33", "" ]
### Deir Yassin massacre {{Main\|Deir Yassin massacre}} One of the most widely known acts of Lehi was the attack on the Palestinian\-Arab village of [Deir Yassin](/wiki/Deir_Yassin "Deir Yassin"). In the months before the British evacuation from Palestine, the [Arab League](/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League")\-sponsored [Arab Liberation Army](/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army "Arab Liberation Army") (ALA) occupied several strategic points along the road between [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") and [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv"), cutting off supplies to the Jewish part of Jerusalem. One of these points was Deir Yassin. By March 1948, the road was cut off and Jewish Jerusalem was under siege. The Haganah launched [Operation Nachshon](/wiki/Operation_Nachshon "Operation Nachshon") to break the siege. On 6 April, the Haganah attacked [al\-Qastal](/wiki/Al-Qastal "Al-Qastal"), a village two kilometres north of Deir Yassin, also overlooking the Jerusalem\-Tel Aviv road.Silver 1984, p. 91\. Then on 9 April 1948, about 120 Lehi and Irgun fighters, acting in cooperation with the Haganah, attacked and captured Deir Yassin. The attack was at night, the fighting was confused, and many civilian inhabitants of the village were killed.Yoav Gelber, *Palestine 1948*, [Appendix II](http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/~censor/katz-directory/05-12-14gelber-palestine-1948-appendix-II-what-happened-in-deir-yassin-english.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114421/http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/\~censor/katz\-directory/05\-12\-14gelber\-palestine\-1948\-appendix\-II\-what\-happened\-in\-deir\-yassin\-english.pdf \|date\=27 February 2008 }} This action had great consequences for the war, and remains a cause célèbre for Palestinians ever since. Exactly what happened has never been established clearly. The Arab League reported a great massacre: 254 killed, with rape and lurid mutilations. Israeli investigations claimed the actual number of dead was between 100 and 120, and there were no mass rapes, but most of the dead were civilians and admitted some were killed deliberately. Lehi and Irgun both denied an organized massacre. Accounts by Lehi veterans such as Ezra Yakhin note that many of the attackers were killed or wounded, assert that Arabs fired from every building and that Iraqi and Syrian soldiers were among the dead, and even that some Arab fighters dressed as women.[Ezra Yakhin](/wiki/Ezra_Yakhin "Ezra Yakhin") (1992\), *Elnakam*, pp. 261–272\. However, Jewish authorities, including Haganah, the Chief Rabbinate, the Jewish Agency, and [David Ben\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion"), also condemned the attack, lending credence to the charge of massacre.[Yoav Gelber](/wiki/Yoav_Gelber "Yoav Gelber") (2006\), *Palestine 1948*, p. 317\. The Jewish Agency even sent a letter of condemnation, apology, and condolence to King [Abdullah I of Jordan](/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan "Abdullah I of Jordan").[Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris "Benny Morris") (2003\), *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*, p. 239\. [thumb\|Female Lehi fighters in 1948](/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_1105_Israel_Defense_Forces_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%99.jpg "PikiWiki Israel 1105 Israel Defense Forces חיילות לחי.jpg") Both the Arab reports and Jewish responses had hidden motives: the Arab leaders wanted to encourage Palestinian Arabs to fight rather than surrender, to discredit the Zionists with international opinion, and to increase popular support in their countries for an invasion of Palestine. The Jewish leaders wanted to discredit Irgun and Lehi. Ironically, the Arab reports backfired in one respect: frightened Palestinian Arabs did not surrender, but did not fight either – [they fled](/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight "1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight"), allowing Israel to gain much territory with little fighting and also without absorbing many Arabs.[Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris "Benny Morris") (2003\), *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*, p. 239\. "the most important immediate effect of the atrocity and the media campaign that followed it was how one started to report the fear felt in Palestinian Arab towns and villages, and, later, the panicked fleeing from them." Lehi similarly interpreted events at Deir Yassin as turning the tide of war in favour of the Jews. Lehi leader [Israel Eldad](/wiki/Israel_Eldad "Israel Eldad") later wrote in his memoirs from the underground period that "without Deir Yassin the State of Israel could never have been established".Israel Eldad (1950\), *The First Tithe*, pp. 334–335\.Heller, 1995, p. 209\. The Deir Yassin story did not much sway international opinion.{{cn\|date\=July 2022}} It did increase, not only support but pressure on Arab governments to intervene. Abdullah of Jordan was now compelled to join the invasion of Palestine after [Israel's declaration of independence](/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_%28Israel%29 "Declaration of Independence (Israel)") on 14 May.{{cn\|date\=July 2022}}
[ "### Deir Yassin massacre", "{{Main\\|Deir Yassin massacre}}\nOne of the most widely known acts of Lehi was the attack on the Palestinian\\-Arab village of [Deir Yassin](/wiki/Deir_Yassin \"Deir Yassin\").", "In the months before the British evacuation from Palestine, the [Arab League](/wiki/Arab_League \"Arab League\")\\-sponsored [Arab Liberation Army](/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army \"Arab Liberation Army\") (ALA) occupied several strategic points along the road between [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") and [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv \"Tel Aviv\"), cutting off supplies to the Jewish part of Jerusalem. One of these points was Deir Yassin. By March 1948, the road was cut off and Jewish Jerusalem was under siege. The Haganah launched [Operation Nachshon](/wiki/Operation_Nachshon \"Operation Nachshon\") to break the siege.", "On 6 April, the Haganah attacked [al\\-Qastal](/wiki/Al-Qastal \"Al-Qastal\"), a village two kilometres north of Deir Yassin, also overlooking the Jerusalem\\-Tel Aviv road.Silver 1984, p. 91\\.", "Then on 9 April 1948, about 120 Lehi and Irgun fighters, acting in cooperation with the Haganah, attacked and captured Deir Yassin. The attack was at night, the fighting was confused, and many civilian inhabitants of the village were killed.Yoav Gelber, *Palestine 1948*, [Appendix II](http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/~censor/katz-directory/05-12-14gelber-palestine-1948-appendix-II-what-happened-in-deir-yassin-english.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114421/http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/\\~censor/katz\\-directory/05\\-12\\-14gelber\\-palestine\\-1948\\-appendix\\-II\\-what\\-happened\\-in\\-deir\\-yassin\\-english.pdf \\|date\\=27 February 2008 }} This action had great consequences for the war, and remains a cause célèbre for Palestinians ever since.", "Exactly what happened has never been established clearly. The Arab League reported a great massacre: 254 killed, with rape and lurid mutilations. Israeli investigations claimed the actual number of dead was between 100 and 120, and there were no mass rapes, but most of the dead were civilians and admitted some were killed deliberately. Lehi and Irgun both denied an organized massacre. Accounts by Lehi veterans such as Ezra Yakhin note that many of the attackers were killed or wounded, assert that Arabs fired from every building and that Iraqi and Syrian soldiers were among the dead, and even that some Arab fighters dressed as women.[Ezra Yakhin](/wiki/Ezra_Yakhin \"Ezra Yakhin\") (1992\\), *Elnakam*, pp. 261–272\\.", "However, Jewish authorities, including Haganah, the Chief Rabbinate, the Jewish Agency, and [David Ben\\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion \"David Ben-Gurion\"), also condemned the attack, lending credence to the charge of massacre.[Yoav Gelber](/wiki/Yoav_Gelber \"Yoav Gelber\") (2006\\), *Palestine 1948*, p. 317\\. The Jewish Agency even sent a letter of condemnation, apology, and condolence to King [Abdullah I of Jordan](/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan \"Abdullah I of Jordan\").[Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris \"Benny Morris\") (2003\\), *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*, p. 239\\.\n[thumb\\|Female Lehi fighters in 1948](/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_1105_Israel_Defense_Forces_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%99.jpg \"PikiWiki Israel 1105 Israel Defense Forces חיילות לחי.jpg\")\nBoth the Arab reports and Jewish responses had hidden motives: the Arab leaders wanted to encourage Palestinian Arabs to fight rather than surrender, to discredit the Zionists with international opinion, and to increase popular support in their countries for an invasion of Palestine. The Jewish leaders wanted to discredit Irgun and Lehi.", "Ironically, the Arab reports backfired in one respect: frightened Palestinian Arabs did not surrender, but did not fight either – [they fled](/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight \"1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight\"), allowing Israel to gain much territory with little fighting and also without absorbing many Arabs.[Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris \"Benny Morris\") (2003\\), *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*, p. 239\\. \"the most important immediate effect of the atrocity and the media campaign that followed it was how one started to report the fear felt in Palestinian Arab towns and villages, and, later, the panicked fleeing from them.\"", "Lehi similarly interpreted events at Deir Yassin as turning the tide of war in favour of the Jews. Lehi leader [Israel Eldad](/wiki/Israel_Eldad \"Israel Eldad\") later wrote in his memoirs from the underground period that \"without Deir Yassin the State of Israel could never have been established\".Israel Eldad (1950\\), *The First Tithe*, pp. 334–335\\.Heller, 1995, p. 209\\.", "The Deir Yassin story did not much sway international opinion.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2022}} It did increase, not only support but pressure on Arab governments to intervene. Abdullah of Jordan was now compelled to join the invasion of Palestine after [Israel's declaration of independence](/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_%28Israel%29 \"Declaration of Independence (Israel)\") on 14 May.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2022}}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1920\= 512 \|1930\= 489 \|1940\= 496 \|1950\= 557 \|1960\= 600 \|1970\= 677 \|1980\= 876 \|1990\= 912 \|2000\= 1159 \|2010\= 1153 \|2020\= 1206 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=December 11, 2012}} of 2010, there were 1,153 people, 421 households, and 291 families living in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|662\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 456 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|262\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 94\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 1\.6% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.6% of the population. There were 421 households, of which 43\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30\.9% were non\-families. 26\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.74 and the average family size was 3\.34\. The median age in the town was 29\.6 years. 33\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28\.2% were from 25 to 44; 21% were from 45 to 64; and 8\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 47\.8% male and 52\.2% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 1,159 people, 448 households, and 310 families living in the town. The population density was {{convert\|841\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 482 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|349\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 95\.34% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.69% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 1\.38% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 2\.59% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.67% of the population. There were 448 households, out of which 37\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\.6% were non\-families. 26\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.59 and the average family size was 3\.10\. In the town, the population was spread out, with 31\.1% under the age of 18, 11\.4% from 18 to 24, 30\.5% from 25 to 44, 17\.1% from 45 to 64, and 9\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 95\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95\.1 males. The median income for a household in the town was $37,105, and the median income for a family was $42,232\. Males had a median income of $32,356 versus $23,542 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $17,269\. About 7\.3% of families and 9\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 11\.7% of those under age 18 and 10\.1% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1920\\= 512\n\\|1930\\= 489\n\\|1940\\= 496\n\\|1950\\= 557\n\\|1960\\= 600\n\\|1970\\= 677\n\\|1980\\= 876\n\\|1990\\= 912\n\\|2000\\= 1159\n\\|2010\\= 1153\n\\|2020\\= 1206\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=December 11, 2012}} of 2010, there were 1,153 people, 421 households, and 291 families living in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|662\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 456 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|262\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 94\\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.6% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.6% of the population.", "There were 421 households, of which 43\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30\\.9% were non\\-families. 26\\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.74 and the average family size was 3\\.34\\.", "The median age in the town was 29\\.6 years. 33\\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 8\\.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28\\.2% were from 25 to 44; 21% were from 45 to 64; and 8\\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 47\\.8% male and 52\\.2% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 1,159 people, 448 households, and 310 families living in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|841\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 482 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|349\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 95\\.34% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.69% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.38% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.59% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.67% of the population.", "There were 448 households, out of which 37\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\\.6% were non\\-families. 26\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.59 and the average family size was 3\\.10\\.", "In the town, the population was spread out, with 31\\.1% under the age of 18, 11\\.4% from 18 to 24, 30\\.5% from 25 to 44, 17\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 9\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 95\\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95\\.1 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $37,105, and the median income for a family was $42,232\\. Males had a median income of $32,356 versus $23,542 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $17,269\\. About 7\\.3% of families and 9\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 11\\.7% of those under age 18 and 10\\.1% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Development of polyphony ------------------------ Little is known about the introduction of [polyphony](/wiki/Polyphony "Polyphony") in Portugal. Polyphony was used in nearby places, such as [Santiago de Compostela](/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela "Santiago de Compostela") in [Galicia (Spain)](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 "Galicia (Spain)"), and it was imported to Portugal in the well\-developed stage. [Jehan Simon de Haspre](/wiki/Johannes_Symonis_Hasprois "Johannes Symonis Hasprois") was a well\-known composer and defender of the [ars subtilior](/wiki/Ars_subtilior "Ars subtilior") and helped popularize polyphony while in the court of [Fernando I of Portugal](/wiki/Fernando_I_of_Portugal "Fernando I of Portugal"). The main centers for Portuguese musical development during this period was the [royal chapel](/wiki/Royal_chapel "Royal chapel"), the [monasteries](/wiki/Monastery "Monastery") ([Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Monastery "Santa Cruz Monastery") and the [Alcobaça Monastery](/wiki/Alcoba%C3%A7a_Monastery "Alcobaça Monastery")), [royal court](/wiki/Royal_court "Royal court"), [cathedrals](/wiki/Cathedral "Cathedral") (specially the [Cathedral of Évora](/wiki/Cathedral_of_%C3%89vora "Cathedral of Évora")) and the [university](/wiki/University "University"). ### The royal chapel The [Capela Real](/wiki/Capela_Real "Capela Real"), royal chapel, was founded by D. Dinis in 1299\. D. Duarte (1391–1438\) elaborated a Regiment (Ordenaçam) of the Chapel, which indicates that the standard practice was a three\-voice singing. His son, [Afonso V](/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal "Afonso V of Portugal") (1432–1481\), sent the Mestre de Capela (Master of the Chapel), Álvaro Afonso, to the court of [Henry VI of England](/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England "Henry VI of England") (1421–1471\) in order to get a copy of the statutes, regiment and liturgy practiced in the English Royal Chapel. The detailed description written by William Say is still kept at Évora. ### The court [left\|thumb\|*Testou minha ventura*, one of the 65 anonymous works compiled in the [Cancioneiro de Elvas](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Elvas "Cancioneiro de Elvas").](/wiki/File:CancioneiroDeElvas.jpg "CancioneiroDeElvas.jpg") As with the trovadoresque poetry, we keep important collections of texts of the 15th and 16th century (e.g. Cancioneiro Geral, compiled by Garcia de Resende), but the musical documents are fewer. The main sources of the court music in the Renaissance and Mannerist periods are: [Cancioneiro de Elvas](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Elvas "Cancioneiro de Elvas") (Públia Hortênsia Library, at Elvas), [Cancioneiro de Lisboa](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Lisboa "Cancioneiro de Lisboa") (National Library, Lisbon), [Cancioneiro de Paris](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Paris "Cancioneiro de Paris") (École nationale supérieure des Beaux\-Arts, Paris), [Cancioneiro de Belém](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Bel%C3%A9m "Cancioneiro de Belém") (Museu Nacional de Arqueologia e Etnologia, Lisbon) The poetical forms are the [vilancete](/wiki/Villancico "Villancico") (or villancico), the [cantiga](/wiki/Cantiga "Cantiga") and the romance. The first two, similar to the French [virelai](/wiki/Virelai "Virelai") and to the Italian [ballata](/wiki/Ballata "Ballata"), are generally dedicated to the love thematic, though satire and social criticism are not excluded. They share a refrain and stanzas structure. The romance is dedicated to celebrate historical events, applying the same musical text to all the stanzas of the poem. ### The cathedrals Cardinal\-Princes D. Afonso (1509–1540\) and D. Henrique (1512–1580\), sons of D. [Manuel I of Portugal](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal") (1469–1521\) administrated the main Portuguese dioceses through the 16th century. Afonso administrated the Évora and Lisboa dioceses until his death. Henrique was successively Archbishop of Braga, Lisboa and Évora, as well as head of the Portuguese Inquisition. He became King of Portugal when his grand\-nephew [Sebastião I](/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_I "Sebastião I") (1554–1578\) died at Alcácer\-Quibir (1578\). As princes, they had their personal chapels and imposed a magnificent liturgy in the cathedrals they administrated. [right\|thumb\|[Cardinal\-Infante Afonso of Portugal](/wiki/Cardinal-Infante_Afonso_of_Portugal "Cardinal-Infante Afonso of Portugal")](/wiki/File:Cardeal_Infante_D._Afonso_-.jpg "Cardeal Infante D. Afonso -.jpg") In Évora, D. Afonso attracted high\-quality musicians (like Mateus de Aranda, Mestre de Capela from 1528 to 1544\) for the cathedral by establishing significant wages; [Pedro do Porto](/wiki/Pedro_de_Escobar "Pedro de Escobar") (also known as Pedro Escobar, El Portugués), Cantor of the chapel of [Isabel I of Castile](/wiki/Isabel_I_of_Castile "Isabel I of Castile"), the Catholic Queen, and Master of the choir boys at Sevilla, comes as Mestre de Capela to Évora. He is the author of the most ancient polyphonic piece by a Portuguese author (a three\-voice [Magnificat](/wiki/Magnificat "Magnificat")), as well as the most ancient polyphonic treatment of the [Requiem](/wiki/Requiem "Requiem") in the Iberian Peninsula. D. Afonso also founded a school for the choir boys, allowing them to study after the voice\-change; many of these boys became professional musicians. This Évora school formed high\-standard musicians for more than 150 years. Besides Évora, Braga and Coimbra show a particular care in the liturgy. The most ancient version from a Mass by a Portuguese author is from a Cantor of the Coimbra cathedral, Fernão Gomes Correia (active 1505–32\). ### The main monasteries [thumb\|left\|The [Santa Cruz Monastery](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Monastery "Santa Cruz Monastery")](/wiki/File:Coimbra_igr_sta_cruz_1.JPG "Coimbra igr sta cruz 1.JPG") The most important monasteries kept a solemn liturgy. From these, the [Santa Cruz Monastery](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Monastery "Santa Cruz Monastery"), in Coimbra, had a particular importance. Founded in the 12th century by D. [Afonso Henriques](/wiki/Afonso_Henriques "Afonso Henriques"), it was the first school of superior studies in Portugal ([St. Anthony of Padua](/wiki/St._Anthony_of_Padua "St. Anthony of Padua") – or of Lisbon – studied there). In the 16th century, several monks distinguished by their musical gifts, as D. Heliodoro de Paiva and D. Francisco de Santa Maria. The musical performances at Santa Cruz competed with those at [El Escorial](/wiki/El_Escorial "El Escorial"), and were praised for their conciliation between polyphony and the respect for the sacred texts. ### The university The Portuguese University was founded in Lisbon by D. Dinis in 1290 and had a Music teacher as early as 1323\. After several transfers between Coimbra and Lisbon, King [João III](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_III "João III") (1502–1557\) established it definitively at Coimbra in 1537\. The move to Coimbra was followed by a reorganization in 1544, in which the King himself proposed Mateus de Aranda (Mestre de Capela at Évora after Pedro do Porto) as music teacher. The music teacher was also Mestre de Capela of the University.
[ "Development of polyphony\n------------------------", "Little is known about the introduction of [polyphony](/wiki/Polyphony \"Polyphony\") in Portugal. Polyphony was used in nearby places, such as [Santiago de Compostela](/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela \"Santiago de Compostela\") in [Galicia (Spain)](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 \"Galicia (Spain)\"), and it was imported to Portugal in the well\\-developed stage. [Jehan Simon de Haspre](/wiki/Johannes_Symonis_Hasprois \"Johannes Symonis Hasprois\") was a well\\-known composer and defender of the [ars subtilior](/wiki/Ars_subtilior \"Ars subtilior\") and helped popularize polyphony while in the court of [Fernando I of Portugal](/wiki/Fernando_I_of_Portugal \"Fernando I of Portugal\").", "The main centers for Portuguese musical development during this period was the [royal chapel](/wiki/Royal_chapel \"Royal chapel\"), the [monasteries](/wiki/Monastery \"Monastery\") ([Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Monastery \"Santa Cruz Monastery\") and the [Alcobaça Monastery](/wiki/Alcoba%C3%A7a_Monastery \"Alcobaça Monastery\")), [royal court](/wiki/Royal_court \"Royal court\"), [cathedrals](/wiki/Cathedral \"Cathedral\") (specially the [Cathedral of Évora](/wiki/Cathedral_of_%C3%89vora \"Cathedral of Évora\")) and the [university](/wiki/University \"University\").", "### The royal chapel", "The [Capela Real](/wiki/Capela_Real \"Capela Real\"), royal chapel, was founded by D. Dinis in 1299\\. D. Duarte (1391–1438\\) elaborated a Regiment (Ordenaçam) of the Chapel, which indicates that the standard practice was a three\\-voice singing. His son, [Afonso V](/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal \"Afonso V of Portugal\") (1432–1481\\), sent the Mestre de Capela (Master of the Chapel), Álvaro Afonso, to the court of [Henry VI of England](/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England \"Henry VI of England\") (1421–1471\\) in order to get a copy of the statutes, regiment and liturgy practiced in the English Royal Chapel. The detailed description written by William Say is still kept at Évora.", "### The court", "[left\\|thumb\\|*Testou minha ventura*, one of the 65 anonymous works compiled in the [Cancioneiro de Elvas](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Elvas \"Cancioneiro de Elvas\").](/wiki/File:CancioneiroDeElvas.jpg \"CancioneiroDeElvas.jpg\")\nAs with the trovadoresque poetry, we keep important collections of texts of the 15th and 16th century (e.g. Cancioneiro Geral, compiled by Garcia de Resende), but the musical documents are fewer. The main sources of the court music in the Renaissance and Mannerist periods are: [Cancioneiro de Elvas](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Elvas \"Cancioneiro de Elvas\") (Públia Hortênsia Library, at Elvas), [Cancioneiro de Lisboa](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Lisboa \"Cancioneiro de Lisboa\") (National Library, Lisbon), [Cancioneiro de Paris](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Paris \"Cancioneiro de Paris\") (École nationale supérieure des Beaux\\-Arts, Paris), [Cancioneiro de Belém](/wiki/Cancioneiro_de_Bel%C3%A9m \"Cancioneiro de Belém\") (Museu Nacional de Arqueologia e Etnologia, Lisbon)", "The poetical forms are the [vilancete](/wiki/Villancico \"Villancico\") (or villancico), the [cantiga](/wiki/Cantiga \"Cantiga\") and the romance. The first two, similar to the French [virelai](/wiki/Virelai \"Virelai\") and to the Italian [ballata](/wiki/Ballata \"Ballata\"), are generally dedicated to the love thematic, though satire and social criticism are not excluded. They share a refrain and stanzas structure. The romance is dedicated to celebrate historical events, applying the same musical text to all the stanzas of the poem.", "### The cathedrals", "Cardinal\\-Princes D. Afonso (1509–1540\\) and D. Henrique (1512–1580\\), sons of D. [Manuel I of Portugal](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\") (1469–1521\\) administrated the main Portuguese dioceses through the 16th century. Afonso administrated the Évora and Lisboa dioceses until his death. Henrique was successively Archbishop of Braga, Lisboa and Évora, as well as head of the Portuguese Inquisition. He became King of Portugal when his grand\\-nephew [Sebastião I](/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_I \"Sebastião I\") (1554–1578\\) died at Alcácer\\-Quibir (1578\\). As princes, they had their personal chapels and imposed a magnificent liturgy in the cathedrals they administrated.", "[right\\|thumb\\|[Cardinal\\-Infante Afonso of Portugal](/wiki/Cardinal-Infante_Afonso_of_Portugal \"Cardinal-Infante Afonso of Portugal\")](/wiki/File:Cardeal_Infante_D._Afonso_-.jpg \"Cardeal Infante D. Afonso -.jpg\")", "In Évora, D. Afonso attracted high\\-quality musicians (like Mateus de Aranda, Mestre de Capela from 1528 to 1544\\) for the cathedral by establishing significant wages; [Pedro do Porto](/wiki/Pedro_de_Escobar \"Pedro de Escobar\") (also known as Pedro Escobar, El Portugués), Cantor of the chapel of [Isabel I of Castile](/wiki/Isabel_I_of_Castile \"Isabel I of Castile\"), the Catholic Queen, and Master of the choir boys at Sevilla, comes as Mestre de Capela to Évora. He is the author of the most ancient polyphonic piece by a Portuguese author (a three\\-voice [Magnificat](/wiki/Magnificat \"Magnificat\")), as well as the most ancient polyphonic treatment of the [Requiem](/wiki/Requiem \"Requiem\") in the Iberian Peninsula. D. Afonso also founded a school for the choir boys, allowing them to study after the voice\\-change; many of these boys became professional musicians. This Évora school formed high\\-standard musicians for more than 150 years.\nBesides Évora, Braga and Coimbra show a particular care in the liturgy. The most ancient version from a Mass by a Portuguese author is from a Cantor of the Coimbra cathedral, Fernão Gomes Correia (active 1505–32\\).", "### The main monasteries", "[thumb\\|left\\|The [Santa Cruz Monastery](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Monastery \"Santa Cruz Monastery\")](/wiki/File:Coimbra_igr_sta_cruz_1.JPG \"Coimbra igr sta cruz 1.JPG\")\nThe most important monasteries kept a solemn liturgy. From these, the [Santa Cruz Monastery](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Monastery \"Santa Cruz Monastery\"), in Coimbra, had a particular importance. Founded in the 12th century by D. [Afonso Henriques](/wiki/Afonso_Henriques \"Afonso Henriques\"), it was the first school of superior studies in Portugal ([St. Anthony of Padua](/wiki/St._Anthony_of_Padua \"St. Anthony of Padua\") – or of Lisbon – studied there). In the 16th century, several monks distinguished by their musical gifts, as D. Heliodoro de Paiva and D. Francisco de Santa Maria. The musical performances at Santa Cruz competed with those at [El Escorial](/wiki/El_Escorial \"El Escorial\"), and were praised for their conciliation between polyphony and the respect for the sacred texts.", "### The university", "The Portuguese University was founded in Lisbon by D. Dinis in 1290 and had a Music teacher as early as 1323\\. After several transfers between Coimbra and Lisbon, King [João III](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_III \"João III\") (1502–1557\\) established it definitively at Coimbra in 1537\\. The move to Coimbra was followed by a reorganization in 1544, in which the King himself proposed Mateus de Aranda (Mestre de Capela at Évora after Pedro do Porto) as music teacher. The music teacher was also Mestre de Capela of the University.", "" ]
The Mannerist Period (2nd half 16th and 17th centuries) ------------------------------------------------------- ### Historical context By the end of the 16th century, circumstances led to the disappearance of profane music in Portugal and religious music taking over. There are economical and political factors, like the troubles to keep the Portuguese conquests in Morocco and the competition led by Venetians and Turks (later by Dutch and English) to the spice trade, which leads to the closing of the Portuguese [feitoria](/wiki/Factory_%28trading_post%29 "Factory (trading post)") (which was a kind of "spice supermarket") in Antwerp. In cultural terms, the influence of the [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation") in Portugal is enormous: i) João III introduces the Inquisition in Portugal in 1536; his brother Henrique will be the first General Inquisitor; ii) the Jesuits come to Portugal in 1540 and soon start teaching in their own colleges in Coimbra and Lisbon. In 1555, they are in charge of the Arts College in Coimbra (the superior school in Portugal with most prestige), after the expulsion by the Inquisition of its most reputed teachers (like [André de Gouveia](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_de_Gouveia "André de Gouveia")); iii) the Portuguese church participated actively in the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent "Council of Trent") and, in 1564, Portugal becomes the only Catholic country where the council decisions (namely those concerning the musical practice in the church) are integrally published as laws. [thumb\|right\|[Duarte Lobo](/wiki/Duarte_Lobo "Duarte Lobo")](/wiki/File:Duarte_Lobo_%281%29.jpg "Duarte Lobo (1).jpg") In this context, the profane music declined in the courts of João III and his grandson Sebastião I. In 1578, with the death of Sebastião I, Cardinal Henrique becomes king of Portugal. After his death in 1580, Portugal loses its independence, as the throne is inherited by [Felipe II](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain "Philip II of Spain"), king of Spain (1527–1598\). With the disappearance of the court in Lisbon, the aristocracy retired to their homes in the countryside, and the profane music nearly vanishes. The development of the Portuguese music in the end of 16th is thus mainly in the sacred polyphony. ### Climax of the Évora school In 1575, Cardinal Henrique brought [Manuel Mendes](/wiki/Manuel_Mendes "Manuel Mendes") (1547 \- 1605\), Mestre de Capela at Portalegre, to Évora, where he took the Mestre de Claustra position. Besides his qualities as a composer, Manuel Mendes is remarkable as a teacher. He formed the most part of the extremely competent professional musicians who would have the most reputed musical positions in Portugal in the next decades. Between his students at Évora, we have the most noted polyphonists of the next generation: Fr. [Manuel Cardoso](/wiki/Manuel_Cardoso_%28composer%29 "Manuel Cardoso (composer)") (1566–1650\), Filipe de Magalhães ( – 1652\) and [Duarte Lobo](/wiki/Duarte_Lobo "Duarte Lobo") (1564/69\-1646\) \[6]. These continued the pedagogical action of their teacher, worthing him references as «mestre de toda boa musica deste reino» («teacher of every good music in this kingdom») and «el Mendes Sonoroso que de Musicos llena toda a Europa» («the sound Mendes who replenishes Europe with musicians»). ### Other centres of musical activity in the 17th century #### Santa Cruz at Coimbra The main composers in the 17th century are D. Pedro de Cristo, D. Pedro da Esperança and D. Gabriel de S. João. The manuscripts kept at the General Library of the University of Coimbra reveal innovative polyphonic practices, such as polychorality, accompanied monody and instrument obligato. #### The Royal Chapel In spite of the absence of the King, it remains an important centre, with Mestres de Capela such as Francisco Garro, Filipe de Magalhães and Marcos Soares Pereira. #### Chapel of the Dukes of Bragança at Vila Viçosa [thumb\|left\|[João Lourenço Rebelo](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Louren%C3%A7o_Rebelo "João Lourenço Rebelo"), pictured by [José de Avelar Rebelo](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Avelar_Rebelo "José de Avelar Rebelo"), c. 1646\.](/wiki/File:Retrato_de_Joao_Soares_Rebelo.jpg "Retrato de Joao Soares Rebelo.jpg") During the Spanish domination, the [duke of Bragança](/wiki/Duke_of_Bragan%C3%A7a "Duke of Bragança") retired to his palace in [Vila Viçosa](/wiki/Vila_Vi%C3%A7osa "Vila Viçosa"). The ducal chapel maintained a magnificent liturgy and, in 1609, Teodósio II founded the Santos Reis Magos College, working in a similar way to the Évora school. Roberto Tornar, mestre de Capela at Vila Viçosa, would become the musical instructor of the young Duke of Barcelos, D. João (later D. [João IV](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_IV "João IV"), king of Portugal). This king, both before and after succeeding to the Portuguese throne, enlarged immensely the musical library of his father, transforming it in the biggest musical library of the time in Europe. Further, João IV was a composer and a theorist himself, as well as a devoted patron of [João Lourenço Rebelo](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Louren%C3%A7o_Rebelo "João Lourenço Rebelo") (1610–1661\), whose works he would send for printing at Rome. Robelo, some of whose pieces have been issued on CD, composed in an innovative style, making use of opulent polychoral writing *à la* [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") and combining it with the more conservative idiom of [Palestrina](/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina "Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina"). ### Instrumental music It was in the domain of [organ](/wiki/Organ_%28music%29 "Organ (music)") music, the organ being itself the liturgical instrument *par excellence*, that Portugal's composers of the 16th and 17th centuries achieved particularly high standards. Portuguese organs, as well as Spanish ones, usually had just one [manual](/wiki/Manual_%28music%29 "Manual (music)"), without [pedalboard](/wiki/Pedal_clavier "Pedal clavier"). (Or, if a pedalboard was included, it was very basic, and it forbade any melodic complexity of the sort that German composers of organ music from the early 16th century, such as [Arnolt Schlick](/wiki/Arnolt_Schlick "Arnolt Schlick"), took for granted in their own pedal parts.) Nevertheless, the surviving music conceived for these organs does often show considerable contrapuntal ingenuity as far as the writing for keyboard is concerned. Several organ mechanisms were cultivated more in the Iberian peninsula than anywhere else. For example, these organs frequently incorporated a device known as *meio\-registo* ("half\-stop"), which, when activated, divided the keyboard into two distinct parts with sharp contrasts in timbre, giving the effect of two manuals instead of one. Another conspicuous feature in both Portugal and Spain was the horizontal placing (*em chamada*, the Portuguese called it) of particularly powerful, strident [reed](/wiki/Reed_%28instrument%29 "Reed (instrument)") stops, very useful for imitating trumpet fanfares. In the 16th century [António Carreira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Carreira "António Carreira") was the chief Portuguese organist\-composer (his significance to Portugal resembles that of his slightly older contemporary [Antonio de Cabezón](/wiki/Antonio_de_Cabez%C3%B3n "Antonio de Cabezón") to Spain). But Carreira's output was never published during his lifetime. The first printed volume of Portuguese instrumental music did not appear until 1620: *Flores de Música para o instrumento de tecla e harpa* ("Music flowers for the keyboard instrument and harp"), by [Manuel Rodrigues Coelho](/wiki/Manuel_Rodrigues_Coelho "Manuel Rodrigues Coelho"), who died in around 1635\. This contains only sacred compositions. Coelho worked as an organist in the cathedrals of Badajoz, Elvas and Lisbon. During the 17th century a notable school of organists developed in Braga. The main figures in this connection were Gaspar dos Reis, employed at Braga Cathedral; Pedro de Araújo; and a priest\-composer, Diogo da Conceição. Two prominent genres of early Portuguese organ music were the *Tento de Meio\-Registo* (Half\-Stop Tento) and the *Batalha* (Battle). This last form goes back to one of the most famous pieces by [Clément Janequin](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Janequin "Clément Janequin"): *La bataille de Marignan ou La Guerre*, in which the characteristic sounds of a battle are imitated. The Iberian composers would often quote whole phrases from Janequin's original, adding to these phrases distinctive keyboard figuration.
[ "The Mannerist Period (2nd half 16th and 17th centuries)\n-------------------------------------------------------", "### Historical context", "By the end of the 16th century, circumstances led to the disappearance of profane music in Portugal and religious music taking over. There are economical and political factors, like the troubles to keep the Portuguese conquests in Morocco and the competition led by Venetians and Turks (later by Dutch and English) to the spice trade, which leads to the closing of the Portuguese [feitoria](/wiki/Factory_%28trading_post%29 \"Factory (trading post)\") (which was a kind of \"spice supermarket\") in Antwerp. In cultural terms, the influence of the [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\") in Portugal is enormous: i) João III introduces the Inquisition in Portugal in 1536; his brother Henrique will be the first General Inquisitor; ii) the Jesuits come to Portugal in 1540 and soon start teaching in their own colleges in Coimbra and Lisbon. In 1555, they are in charge of the Arts College in Coimbra (the superior school in Portugal with most prestige), after the expulsion by the Inquisition of its most reputed teachers (like [André de Gouveia](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_de_Gouveia \"André de Gouveia\")); iii) the Portuguese church participated actively in the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent \"Council of Trent\") and, in 1564, Portugal becomes the only Catholic country where the council decisions (namely those concerning the musical practice in the church) are integrally published as laws.", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Duarte Lobo](/wiki/Duarte_Lobo \"Duarte Lobo\")](/wiki/File:Duarte_Lobo_%281%29.jpg \"Duarte Lobo (1).jpg\")", "In this context, the profane music declined in the courts of João III and his grandson Sebastião I. In 1578, with the death of Sebastião I, Cardinal Henrique becomes king of Portugal. After his death in 1580, Portugal loses its independence, as the throne is inherited by [Felipe II](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\"), king of Spain (1527–1598\\). With the disappearance of the court in Lisbon, the aristocracy retired to their homes in the countryside, and the profane music nearly vanishes. The development of the Portuguese music in the end of 16th is thus mainly in the sacred polyphony.", "### Climax of the Évora school", "In 1575, Cardinal Henrique brought [Manuel Mendes](/wiki/Manuel_Mendes \"Manuel Mendes\") (1547 \\- 1605\\), Mestre de Capela at Portalegre, to Évora, where he took the Mestre de Claustra position. Besides his qualities as a composer, Manuel Mendes is remarkable as a teacher. He formed the most part of the extremely competent professional musicians who would have the most reputed musical positions in Portugal in the next decades. Between his students at Évora, we have the most noted polyphonists of the next generation: Fr. [Manuel Cardoso](/wiki/Manuel_Cardoso_%28composer%29 \"Manuel Cardoso (composer)\") (1566–1650\\), Filipe de Magalhães ( – 1652\\) and [Duarte Lobo](/wiki/Duarte_Lobo \"Duarte Lobo\") (1564/69\\-1646\\) \\[6]. These continued the pedagogical action of their teacher, worthing him references as «mestre de toda boa musica deste reino» («teacher of every good music in this kingdom») and «el Mendes Sonoroso que de Musicos llena toda a Europa» («the sound Mendes who replenishes Europe with musicians»).", "### Other centres of musical activity in the 17th century", "#### Santa Cruz at Coimbra", "The main composers in the 17th century are D. Pedro de Cristo, D. Pedro da Esperança and D. Gabriel de S. João. The manuscripts kept at the General Library of the University of Coimbra reveal innovative polyphonic practices, such as polychorality, accompanied monody and instrument obligato.", "#### The Royal Chapel", "In spite of the absence of the King, it remains an important centre, with Mestres de Capela such as Francisco Garro, Filipe de Magalhães and Marcos Soares Pereira.", "#### Chapel of the Dukes of Bragança at Vila Viçosa", "[thumb\\|left\\|[João Lourenço Rebelo](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Louren%C3%A7o_Rebelo \"João Lourenço Rebelo\"), pictured by [José de Avelar Rebelo](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Avelar_Rebelo \"José de Avelar Rebelo\"), c. 1646\\.](/wiki/File:Retrato_de_Joao_Soares_Rebelo.jpg \"Retrato de Joao Soares Rebelo.jpg\")\nDuring the Spanish domination, the [duke of Bragança](/wiki/Duke_of_Bragan%C3%A7a \"Duke of Bragança\") retired to his palace in [Vila Viçosa](/wiki/Vila_Vi%C3%A7osa \"Vila Viçosa\"). The ducal chapel maintained a magnificent liturgy and, in 1609, Teodósio II founded the Santos Reis Magos College, working in a similar way to the Évora school. Roberto Tornar, mestre de Capela at Vila Viçosa, would become the musical instructor of the young Duke of Barcelos, D. João (later D. [João IV](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_IV \"João IV\"), king of Portugal). This king, both before and after succeeding to the Portuguese throne, enlarged immensely the musical library of his father, transforming it in the biggest musical library of the time in Europe. Further, João IV was a composer and a theorist himself, as well as a devoted patron of [João Lourenço Rebelo](/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Louren%C3%A7o_Rebelo \"João Lourenço Rebelo\") (1610–1661\\), whose works he would send for printing at Rome. Robelo, some of whose pieces have been issued on CD, composed in an innovative style, making use of opulent polychoral writing *à la* [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") and combining it with the more conservative idiom of [Palestrina](/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina \"Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina\").", "### Instrumental music", "It was in the domain of [organ](/wiki/Organ_%28music%29 \"Organ (music)\") music, the organ being itself the liturgical instrument *par excellence*, that Portugal's composers of the 16th and 17th centuries achieved particularly high standards. Portuguese organs, as well as Spanish ones, usually had just one [manual](/wiki/Manual_%28music%29 \"Manual (music)\"), without [pedalboard](/wiki/Pedal_clavier \"Pedal clavier\"). (Or, if a pedalboard was included, it was very basic, and it forbade any melodic complexity of the sort that German composers of organ music from the early 16th century, such as [Arnolt Schlick](/wiki/Arnolt_Schlick \"Arnolt Schlick\"), took for granted in their own pedal parts.) Nevertheless, the surviving music conceived for these organs does often show considerable contrapuntal ingenuity as far as the writing for keyboard is concerned.", "Several organ mechanisms were cultivated more in the Iberian peninsula than anywhere else. For example, these organs frequently incorporated a device known as *meio\\-registo* (\"half\\-stop\"), which, when activated, divided the keyboard into two distinct parts with sharp contrasts in timbre, giving the effect of two manuals instead of one. Another conspicuous feature in both Portugal and Spain was the horizontal placing (*em chamada*, the Portuguese called it) of particularly powerful, strident [reed](/wiki/Reed_%28instrument%29 \"Reed (instrument)\") stops, very useful for imitating trumpet fanfares.", "In the 16th century [António Carreira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Carreira \"António Carreira\") was the chief Portuguese organist\\-composer (his significance to Portugal resembles that of his slightly older contemporary [Antonio de Cabezón](/wiki/Antonio_de_Cabez%C3%B3n \"Antonio de Cabezón\") to Spain). But Carreira's output was never published during his lifetime. The first printed volume of Portuguese instrumental music did not appear until 1620: *Flores de Música para o instrumento de tecla e harpa* (\"Music flowers for the keyboard instrument and harp\"), by [Manuel Rodrigues Coelho](/wiki/Manuel_Rodrigues_Coelho \"Manuel Rodrigues Coelho\"), who died in around 1635\\. This contains only sacred compositions. Coelho worked as an organist in the cathedrals of Badajoz, Elvas and Lisbon.", "During the 17th century a notable school of organists developed in Braga. The main figures in this connection were Gaspar dos Reis, employed at Braga Cathedral; Pedro de Araújo; and a priest\\-composer, Diogo da Conceição.", "Two prominent genres of early Portuguese organ music were the *Tento de Meio\\-Registo* (Half\\-Stop Tento) and the *Batalha* (Battle). This last form goes back to one of the most famous pieces by [Clément Janequin](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Janequin \"Clément Janequin\"): *La bataille de Marignan ou La Guerre*, in which the characteristic sounds of a battle are imitated. The Iberian composers would often quote whole phrases from Janequin's original, adding to these phrases distinctive keyboard figuration.", "" ]
### Instrumental music It was in the domain of [organ](/wiki/Organ_%28music%29 "Organ (music)") music, the organ being itself the liturgical instrument *par excellence*, that Portugal's composers of the 16th and 17th centuries achieved particularly high standards. Portuguese organs, as well as Spanish ones, usually had just one [manual](/wiki/Manual_%28music%29 "Manual (music)"), without [pedalboard](/wiki/Pedal_clavier "Pedal clavier"). (Or, if a pedalboard was included, it was very basic, and it forbade any melodic complexity of the sort that German composers of organ music from the early 16th century, such as [Arnolt Schlick](/wiki/Arnolt_Schlick "Arnolt Schlick"), took for granted in their own pedal parts.) Nevertheless, the surviving music conceived for these organs does often show considerable contrapuntal ingenuity as far as the writing for keyboard is concerned. Several organ mechanisms were cultivated more in the Iberian peninsula than anywhere else. For example, these organs frequently incorporated a device known as *meio\-registo* ("half\-stop"), which, when activated, divided the keyboard into two distinct parts with sharp contrasts in timbre, giving the effect of two manuals instead of one. Another conspicuous feature in both Portugal and Spain was the horizontal placing (*em chamada*, the Portuguese called it) of particularly powerful, strident [reed](/wiki/Reed_%28instrument%29 "Reed (instrument)") stops, very useful for imitating trumpet fanfares. In the 16th century [António Carreira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Carreira "António Carreira") was the chief Portuguese organist\-composer (his significance to Portugal resembles that of his slightly older contemporary [Antonio de Cabezón](/wiki/Antonio_de_Cabez%C3%B3n "Antonio de Cabezón") to Spain). But Carreira's output was never published during his lifetime. The first printed volume of Portuguese instrumental music did not appear until 1620: *Flores de Música para o instrumento de tecla e harpa* ("Music flowers for the keyboard instrument and harp"), by [Manuel Rodrigues Coelho](/wiki/Manuel_Rodrigues_Coelho "Manuel Rodrigues Coelho"), who died in around 1635\. This contains only sacred compositions. Coelho worked as an organist in the cathedrals of Badajoz, Elvas and Lisbon. During the 17th century a notable school of organists developed in Braga. The main figures in this connection were Gaspar dos Reis, employed at Braga Cathedral; Pedro de Araújo; and a priest\-composer, Diogo da Conceição. Two prominent genres of early Portuguese organ music were the *Tento de Meio\-Registo* (Half\-Stop Tento) and the *Batalha* (Battle). This last form goes back to one of the most famous pieces by [Clément Janequin](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Janequin "Clément Janequin"): *La bataille de Marignan ou La Guerre*, in which the characteristic sounds of a battle are imitated. The Iberian composers would often quote whole phrases from Janequin's original, adding to these phrases distinctive keyboard figuration.
[ "### Instrumental music", "It was in the domain of [organ](/wiki/Organ_%28music%29 \"Organ (music)\") music, the organ being itself the liturgical instrument *par excellence*, that Portugal's composers of the 16th and 17th centuries achieved particularly high standards. Portuguese organs, as well as Spanish ones, usually had just one [manual](/wiki/Manual_%28music%29 \"Manual (music)\"), without [pedalboard](/wiki/Pedal_clavier \"Pedal clavier\"). (Or, if a pedalboard was included, it was very basic, and it forbade any melodic complexity of the sort that German composers of organ music from the early 16th century, such as [Arnolt Schlick](/wiki/Arnolt_Schlick \"Arnolt Schlick\"), took for granted in their own pedal parts.) Nevertheless, the surviving music conceived for these organs does often show considerable contrapuntal ingenuity as far as the writing for keyboard is concerned.", "Several organ mechanisms were cultivated more in the Iberian peninsula than anywhere else. For example, these organs frequently incorporated a device known as *meio\\-registo* (\"half\\-stop\"), which, when activated, divided the keyboard into two distinct parts with sharp contrasts in timbre, giving the effect of two manuals instead of one. Another conspicuous feature in both Portugal and Spain was the horizontal placing (*em chamada*, the Portuguese called it) of particularly powerful, strident [reed](/wiki/Reed_%28instrument%29 \"Reed (instrument)\") stops, very useful for imitating trumpet fanfares.", "In the 16th century [António Carreira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Carreira \"António Carreira\") was the chief Portuguese organist\\-composer (his significance to Portugal resembles that of his slightly older contemporary [Antonio de Cabezón](/wiki/Antonio_de_Cabez%C3%B3n \"Antonio de Cabezón\") to Spain). But Carreira's output was never published during his lifetime. The first printed volume of Portuguese instrumental music did not appear until 1620: *Flores de Música para o instrumento de tecla e harpa* (\"Music flowers for the keyboard instrument and harp\"), by [Manuel Rodrigues Coelho](/wiki/Manuel_Rodrigues_Coelho \"Manuel Rodrigues Coelho\"), who died in around 1635\\. This contains only sacred compositions. Coelho worked as an organist in the cathedrals of Badajoz, Elvas and Lisbon.", "During the 17th century a notable school of organists developed in Braga. The main figures in this connection were Gaspar dos Reis, employed at Braga Cathedral; Pedro de Araújo; and a priest\\-composer, Diogo da Conceição.", "Two prominent genres of early Portuguese organ music were the *Tento de Meio\\-Registo* (Half\\-Stop Tento) and the *Batalha* (Battle). This last form goes back to one of the most famous pieces by [Clément Janequin](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Janequin \"Clément Janequin\"): *La bataille de Marignan ou La Guerre*, in which the characteristic sounds of a battle are imitated. The Iberian composers would often quote whole phrases from Janequin's original, adding to these phrases distinctive keyboard figuration.", "" ]
History ------- The class formed part of the Southern Region's express fleet, and were fitted with the standard {{convert\|90\|mph\|abbr\=on}} express gear ratio, for such units. This was primarily because a number of their duties involved working in multiple with the [4 CEP](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_411 "British Rail Class 411") Express fleet, also of 90 mph maximum speed. Three batches (209 units) were built. The class was built in two different styles ,the first style was to the newer standard [Mark 1 coach](/wiki/British_Railways_Mark_1 "British Railways Mark 1") profile, in two batches from June 1957 onwards,{{sfn\|Moody\|1979\|p\=246}} and were numbered 6001–6042 and 6043–6173 respectively. Both of these batches were formed DMBSO \+ DTCsoL, as opposed to the DTCK in the second style. The DMBSO vehicles were to Diagram 400, the same as in the BR\-designed Southern Region [2 EPB](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_416 "British Rail Class 416") units, and orders in the second batch consisted of vehicles for both unit types.{{cn\|date\=May 2022\|reason\=\[\[WP:UGC]]/\[\[WP:SPS]] unreliable reference removed}} From 1974, 51 units had their first class accommodation downgraded to second class. They were also reclassified as 2\-SAP and renumbered 5901–5951\. They were converted back to their original configuration in 1980 (with the exception of one disbanded in 1978 due to accident damage) when many of these two later batches of units were reformed to [class 413/2 and 413/3 4\-CAP units](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_413 "British Rail Class 413"). 5951 was again converted back to a 2\-SAP in 1982\. The second style of thirty\-six units was built from 1958 onwards on the reclaimed [underframes](/wiki/Underframe "Underframe") of older [2 NOL](/wiki/SR_Class_2NOL "SR Class 2NOL") units, to the old SR\-style Bulleid design and numbered in the range 5601–5636\. These units had the formation Driving Motor Brake Open Second (DMBSO) \+ Driving Trailer Composite with lavatory (DTCK).{{sfn\|Moody\|1979\|p\=246}} In 1969, the first class seating in 12 units was downgraded in the DTCKL, becoming DTSK. The units were then reclassified as [2\-SAP](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_418 "British Rail Class 418"). First class was restored in 1970 and they regained their former identities. All were withdrawn by 1982, with the DMBSO getting refurbished and integrated into the class 415 refurbishment programme. The DTSKs were scrapped. With the introduction of yellow warning panels from late 1963 the motor coaches of all Southern Region 2 and 3\-car units were equipped with an inverted black triangle in order to provide an early visual indication to station staff that there was no brake van at the other end of the unit. As units such the 4 CAP stock had a brake van at each end of the unit they were not so equipped. In compliance with the TOPS numbering system, surviving units from the range 6001–6042 were renumbered into the 42xx series (class 414/2\); the surviving units of 6043–6173 became 43xx (class 414/3\). Withdrawals of the class began in 1982 and modernisation of the units began in 1983, when 10 DMBSO from withdrawn units were converted for use on the Gatwick Express service in conjunction with converted loco\-hauled Open First (FO) and Open Second (SO) vehicles and class 73 locomotives. These vehicles were classified as {{brc\|489}} with "units" numbered 9101–9110 and individual carriage numbers 68500–68509\.
[ "History\n-------", "The class formed part of the Southern Region's express fleet, and were fitted with the standard {{convert\\|90\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}} express gear ratio, for such units. This was primarily because a number of their duties involved working in multiple with the [4 CEP](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_411 \"British Rail Class 411\") Express fleet, also of 90 mph maximum speed. Three batches (209 units) were built.", "The class was built in two different styles ,the first style was to the newer standard [Mark 1 coach](/wiki/British_Railways_Mark_1 \"British Railways Mark 1\") profile, in two batches from June 1957 onwards,{{sfn\\|Moody\\|1979\\|p\\=246}} and were numbered 6001–6042 and 6043–6173 respectively. Both of these batches were formed DMBSO \\+ DTCsoL, as opposed to the DTCK in the second style. The DMBSO vehicles were to Diagram 400, the same as in the BR\\-designed Southern Region [2 EPB](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_416 \"British Rail Class 416\") units, and orders in the second batch consisted of vehicles for both unit types.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2022\\|reason\\=\\[\\[WP:UGC]]/\\[\\[WP:SPS]] unreliable reference removed}} From 1974, 51 units had their first class accommodation downgraded to second class. They were also reclassified as 2\\-SAP and renumbered 5901–5951\\. They were converted back to their original configuration in 1980 (with the exception of one disbanded in 1978 due to accident damage) when many of these two later batches of units were reformed to [class 413/2 and 413/3 4\\-CAP units](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_413 \"British Rail Class 413\"). 5951 was again converted back to a 2\\-SAP in 1982\\.", "The second style of thirty\\-six units was built from 1958 onwards on the reclaimed [underframes](/wiki/Underframe \"Underframe\") of older [2 NOL](/wiki/SR_Class_2NOL \"SR Class 2NOL\") units, to the old SR\\-style Bulleid design and numbered in the range 5601–5636\\. These units had the formation Driving Motor Brake Open Second (DMBSO) \\+ Driving Trailer Composite with lavatory (DTCK).{{sfn\\|Moody\\|1979\\|p\\=246}} In 1969, the first class seating in 12 units was downgraded in the DTCKL, becoming DTSK. The units were then reclassified as [2\\-SAP](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_418 \"British Rail Class 418\"). First class was restored in 1970 and they regained their former identities. All were withdrawn by 1982, with the DMBSO getting refurbished and integrated into the class 415 refurbishment programme. The DTSKs were scrapped.", "With the introduction of yellow warning panels from late 1963 the motor coaches of all Southern Region 2 and 3\\-car units were equipped with an inverted black triangle in order to provide an early visual indication to station staff that there was no brake van at the other end of the unit. As units such the 4 CAP stock had a brake van at each end of the unit they were not so equipped.", "In compliance with the TOPS numbering system, surviving units from the range 6001–6042 were renumbered into the 42xx series (class 414/2\\); the surviving units of 6043–6173 became 43xx (class 414/3\\).", "Withdrawals of the class began in 1982 and modernisation of the units began in 1983, when 10 DMBSO from withdrawn units were converted for use on the Gatwick Express service in conjunction with converted loco\\-hauled Open First (FO) and Open Second (SO) vehicles and class 73 locomotives. These vehicles were classified as {{brc\\|489}} with \"units\" numbered 9101–9110 and individual carriage numbers 68500–68509\\.", "" ]
History ------- Representative [Howard W. Smith](/wiki/Howard_W._Smith "Howard W. Smith") of [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia") took up the [boll weevil](/wiki/Boll_weevil "Boll weevil") as a symbol in the 1950s, during [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower")'s administration,{{cite book\|last\=Safire\|first\=William\|title\=Safire's Political Dictionary\|year\=2008\|publisher\=Oxford Univ. Press\|location\=New York \[u.a.]\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-534334\-2\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=c4UoX6\-Sv1AC\&pg\=PA69E\|page\=69}} but the term did not gain currency until the 1980s, when it was revived by Representative [Charles W. Stenholm](/wiki/Charles_W._Stenholm "Charles W. Stenholm") of [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"). The group adopted the name of the boll weevil, a pest destructive to cotton crops, because of the difficulty of eradicating the weevil and the pest's range in the [Southern United States](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States")."Boll Weevils" in *Elections A–Z* (ed. John L. Moore: *Congressional Quarterly*, 1999\). Routledge ed. 2013\. pp. 27–28\. Nonetheless, a bloc of conservative Democrats, mostly Southerners, remained in the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") throughout the 1970s and 1980s. These included Democratic House members as conservative as [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)")'s [Larry McDonald](/wiki/Larry_McDonald "Larry McDonald"), who was also a leader in the [John Birch Society](/wiki/John_Birch_Society "John Birch Society"). During the administration of [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan"), the term "boll weevils" was applied to this bloc of conservative Democrats, who consistently voted for Reagan administration policies, such as tax cuts, increases in military spending, and [deregulation](/wiki/Deregulation "Deregulation").{{Cite journal\|last\=Bartho\|first\=Jonathan\|date\=2020\|title\=Reagan's Southern Comfort: The "Boll Weevil" Democrats in the "Reagan Revolution" of 1981\|journal\=Journal of Policy History\|language\=en\|volume\=32\|issue\=2\|pages\=214–238\|doi\=10\.1017/S0898030620000044\|issn\=0898\-0306\|doi\-access\=}} The boll weevils were contrasted with the "[gypsy moth Republicans](/wiki/Gypsy_moth_Republican "Gypsy moth Republican")"—moderate Republicans from the [Northeast](/wiki/Northeastern_United_States "Northeastern United States") and [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States") who opposed many of [Reagan's economic policies](/wiki/Reaganomics "Reaganomics"). Most of the Democratic boll weevils eventually retired from politics, or in the case of some, such as Senators [Phil Gramm](/wiki/Phil_Gramm "Phil Gramm") of Texas and [Richard Shelby](/wiki/Richard_Shelby "Richard Shelby") of [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama "Alabama"), switched parties and joined the Republicans.{{cite book\|last\=Aistrup\|first\=Joseph A.\|title\=The Southern Strategy Revisited: Republican top\-down advancement in the South\|year\=1996\|publisher\=University Press of Kentucky\|location\=Lexington, Ky.\|isbn\=978\-0\-8131\-1904\-5\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7wXtKuyerpsC\&pg\=PA131\|page\=131}} Since 1988, the term "boll weevils" has fallen out of favor. A bloc of conservative Democrats in the House, including some younger or newer members as well as the remaining boll weevils who refused to bow to pressure to switch parties, organized themselves as the ["Blue Dogs"](/wiki/Blue_Dog_Coalition "Blue Dog Coalition") in the early 1990s. A different bloc of Democrats also emerged in the 1990s, under the [Democratic Leadership Council](/wiki/Democratic_Leadership_Council "Democratic Leadership Council") (DLC), espousing pro\-business views on economic issues and moderate views on social issues.
[ "History\n-------", "Representative [Howard W. Smith](/wiki/Howard_W._Smith \"Howard W. Smith\") of [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\") took up the [boll weevil](/wiki/Boll_weevil \"Boll weevil\") as a symbol in the 1950s, during [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\")'s administration,{{cite book\\|last\\=Safire\\|first\\=William\\|title\\=Safire's Political Dictionary\\|year\\=2008\\|publisher\\=Oxford Univ. Press\\|location\\=New York \\[u.a.]\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-534334\\-2\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=c4UoX6\\-Sv1AC\\&pg\\=PA69E\\|page\\=69}} but the term did not gain currency until the 1980s, when it was revived by Representative [Charles W. Stenholm](/wiki/Charles_W._Stenholm \"Charles W. Stenholm\") of [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"). The group adopted the name of the boll weevil, a pest destructive to cotton crops, because of the difficulty of eradicating the weevil and the pest's range in the [Southern United States](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\").\"Boll Weevils\" in *Elections A–Z* (ed. John L. Moore: *Congressional Quarterly*, 1999\\). Routledge ed. 2013\\. pp. 27–28\\.", "Nonetheless, a bloc of conservative Democrats, mostly Southerners, remained in the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") throughout the 1970s and 1980s. These included Democratic House members as conservative as [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\")'s [Larry McDonald](/wiki/Larry_McDonald \"Larry McDonald\"), who was also a leader in the [John Birch Society](/wiki/John_Birch_Society \"John Birch Society\").", "During the administration of [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\"), the term \"boll weevils\" was applied to this bloc of conservative Democrats, who consistently voted for Reagan administration policies, such as tax cuts, increases in military spending, and [deregulation](/wiki/Deregulation \"Deregulation\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Bartho\\|first\\=Jonathan\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=Reagan's Southern Comfort: The \"Boll Weevil\" Democrats in the \"Reagan Revolution\" of 1981\\|journal\\=Journal of Policy History\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=32\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=214–238\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0898030620000044\\|issn\\=0898\\-0306\\|doi\\-access\\=}} The boll weevils were contrasted with the \"[gypsy moth Republicans](/wiki/Gypsy_moth_Republican \"Gypsy moth Republican\")\"—moderate Republicans from the [Northeast](/wiki/Northeastern_United_States \"Northeastern United States\") and [Midwest](/wiki/Midwestern_United_States \"Midwestern United States\") who opposed many of [Reagan's economic policies](/wiki/Reaganomics \"Reaganomics\").", "Most of the Democratic boll weevils eventually retired from politics, or in the case of some, such as Senators [Phil Gramm](/wiki/Phil_Gramm \"Phil Gramm\") of Texas and [Richard Shelby](/wiki/Richard_Shelby \"Richard Shelby\") of [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama \"Alabama\"), switched parties and joined the Republicans.{{cite book\\|last\\=Aistrup\\|first\\=Joseph A.\\|title\\=The Southern Strategy Revisited: Republican top\\-down advancement in the South\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=University Press of Kentucky\\|location\\=Lexington, Ky.\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8131\\-1904\\-5\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7wXtKuyerpsC\\&pg\\=PA131\\|page\\=131}} Since 1988, the term \"boll weevils\" has fallen out of favor.", "A bloc of conservative Democrats in the House, including some younger or newer members as well as the remaining boll weevils who refused to bow to pressure to switch parties, organized themselves as the [\"Blue Dogs\"](/wiki/Blue_Dog_Coalition \"Blue Dog Coalition\") in the early 1990s. A different bloc of Democrats also emerged in the 1990s, under the [Democratic Leadership Council](/wiki/Democratic_Leadership_Council \"Democratic Leadership Council\") (DLC), espousing pro\\-business views on economic issues and moderate views on social issues.", "" ]
Plot ---- After a crazy night in [Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas"), Abby and Travis wake up as accidental newlyweds. Travis receives a call from Benny, who previously tried to con Abby into settling her father's debts to him by playing poker. He warns them not to leave town to avoid settling their debt to him. Abby and Travis, along with their friends Shepley and America, take a helicopter to a resort in Gatito, Mexico for their honeymoon. They are greeted by their host, Sancho and a mariachi band. At dinner, Abby presents Travis with a point\-based pros and cons list for getting their marriage annulled. During this dinner he pretends to be sick to watch the NBA finals with Shepley until she catches them. When the power at the resort goes out, Abby reveals that she has always wanted to live in Paris, upsetting Travis. They reconcile via pool sex. The next day, Travis finds Abby juggling with a shirtless Manuel, the local priest in training. He is enraged and they fight until they reach the beach. There, Travis is hit on by topless women, prompting Abby to remove her bikini top and causing him to get into a fight with mutliple other beach goers. The couple ends up in Mexican jail, where they are bailed out by Sancho. Benny is notified that Abby and Travis are in Mexico and suggests to his boyfriend Darius that they go down to Mexico to settle the debt. However, Darius leaves Benny. Travis confesses always wanting a bachelor party, so his brothers fly down to Mexico to join the group. During the party, the same two women who had flirted with Travis topless, answer Abby's FaceTime call to his phone again topless. Abby feels prompted to seek revenge. Abby and America are spending the night at the house of a women they met that day at the spa, who also turns out to be the mother of Parker Hayes, who she had dated briefly in college. Abby crawls into Parker's bed in an attempt to take a selfie with him while he is asleep. In the morning, Travis finds Abby in bed with Parker and a fight ensues. This leads the couple to counseling with Manuel where Travis walks out. On her way to speak with Travis, Abby runs into Benny and they engage in a physical fight. He explains he is in Mexico to try and reconcile with Darius, not to threaten Travis and Abby. They return to the resort and make peace. Travis and Abby then hold a wedding reception at the resort and agree to no longer keep track of points in their marriage.
[ "Plot\n----", "After a crazy night in [Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\"), Abby and Travis wake up as accidental newlyweds. Travis receives a call from Benny, who previously tried to con Abby into settling her father's debts to him by playing poker. He warns them not to leave town to avoid settling their debt to him.", "Abby and Travis, along with their friends Shepley and America, take a helicopter to a resort in Gatito, Mexico for their honeymoon. They are greeted by their host, Sancho and a mariachi band.", "At dinner, Abby presents Travis with a point\\-based pros and cons list for getting their marriage annulled. During this dinner he pretends to be sick to watch the NBA finals with Shepley until she catches them.", "When the power at the resort goes out, Abby reveals that she has always wanted to live in Paris, upsetting Travis. They reconcile via pool sex. The next day, Travis finds Abby juggling with a shirtless Manuel, the local priest in training. He is enraged and they fight until they reach the beach. There, Travis is hit on by topless women, prompting Abby to remove her bikini top and causing him to get into a fight with mutliple other beach goers. The couple ends up in Mexican jail, where they are bailed out by Sancho.", "Benny is notified that Abby and Travis are in Mexico and suggests to his boyfriend Darius that they go down to Mexico to settle the debt. However, Darius leaves Benny.", "Travis confesses always wanting a bachelor party, so his brothers fly down to Mexico to join the group. During the party, the same two women who had flirted with Travis topless, answer Abby's FaceTime call to his phone again topless. Abby feels prompted to seek revenge.", "Abby and America are spending the night at the house of a women they met that day at the spa, who also turns out to be the mother of Parker Hayes, who she had dated briefly in college. Abby crawls into Parker's bed in an attempt to take a selfie with him while he is asleep. In the morning, Travis finds Abby in bed with Parker and a fight ensues. This leads the couple to counseling with Manuel where Travis walks out.", "On her way to speak with Travis, Abby runs into Benny and they engage in a physical fight. He explains he is in Mexico to try and reconcile with Darius, not to threaten Travis and Abby. They return to the resort and make peace. Travis and Abby then hold a wedding reception at the resort and agree to no longer keep track of points in their marriage.", "" ]
Research -------- ### Syndicated surveys Evans Data Corporation publishes several annual and semiannual reports. These are: Global Development Survey Series: EDC's oldest continuous report, the North American Development Survey, is published semiannually as part of their Global Development Series, once in the spring and again in the fall. The Global Series also includes reports for the Asia Pacific region, including the Indian subcontinent, Australia, and Oceania; and Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The question set for all regions is the same and at least 400 software developers are interviewed for each region. Emerging Markets Development Series: Providing a particular focus on China, Eastern Europe, India, and Latin America, this survey report has the same question set as the Global series. Mobile Development Series: A semi\-annual survey of over 400 developers worldwide who are actively engaged in mobile development. This series was started in 2003 and contains both trending data and dynamic content current to the flux and change in mobile development. Cloud Development Survey Series: Started in 2009, this semi\-annual survey series of over 400 developers active in Cloud development or deployment. Evans Data also publishes annual reports focusing on Developer Marketing and Developer Relations Programs. The latter of these two reports is the focal point for Evans Data Corporation's annual Developer Relations Conference, held in the early spring of each calendar year. #### Targeted Analytics The Targeted Analytics team at Evans Data Corp. offers clients a secondary research service, providing extensive additional data analysis that is not included in the multi\-client survey reports. ### Custom research Evans Data Corporation also conducts private custom research for clients interested in any aspect of software development. Capabilities include worldwide survey reach, translations, questionnaire design, complete research project design and management, sophisticated analytical techniques such as conjoint analysis, max diff and clustering, plus full reporting.
[ "Research\n--------", "### Syndicated surveys", "Evans Data Corporation publishes several annual and semiannual reports. These are:", "Global Development Survey Series:\nEDC's oldest continuous report, the North American Development Survey, is published semiannually as part of their Global Development Series, once in the spring and again in the fall. The Global Series also includes reports for the Asia Pacific region, including the Indian subcontinent, Australia, and Oceania; and Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The question set for all regions is the same and at least 400 software developers are interviewed for each region.", "Emerging Markets Development Series:\nProviding a particular focus on China, Eastern Europe, India, and Latin America, this survey report has the same question set as the Global series.", "Mobile Development Series:\nA semi\\-annual survey of over 400 developers worldwide who are actively engaged in mobile development. This series was started in 2003 and contains both trending data and dynamic content current to the flux and change in mobile development.", "Cloud Development Survey Series:\nStarted in 2009, this semi\\-annual survey series of over 400 developers active in Cloud development or deployment.", "Evans Data also publishes annual reports focusing on Developer Marketing and Developer Relations Programs. The latter of these two reports is the focal point for Evans Data Corporation's annual Developer Relations Conference, held in the early spring of each calendar year.", "#### Targeted Analytics", "The Targeted Analytics team at Evans Data Corp. offers clients a secondary research service, providing extensive additional data analysis that is not included in the multi\\-client survey reports.", "### Custom research", "Evans Data Corporation also conducts private custom research for clients interested in any aspect of software development. Capabilities include worldwide survey reach, translations, questionnaire design, complete research project design and management, sophisticated analytical techniques such as conjoint analysis, max diff and clustering, plus full reporting.", "" ]
### Syndicated surveys Evans Data Corporation publishes several annual and semiannual reports. These are: Global Development Survey Series: EDC's oldest continuous report, the North American Development Survey, is published semiannually as part of their Global Development Series, once in the spring and again in the fall. The Global Series also includes reports for the Asia Pacific region, including the Indian subcontinent, Australia, and Oceania; and Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The question set for all regions is the same and at least 400 software developers are interviewed for each region. Emerging Markets Development Series: Providing a particular focus on China, Eastern Europe, India, and Latin America, this survey report has the same question set as the Global series. Mobile Development Series: A semi\-annual survey of over 400 developers worldwide who are actively engaged in mobile development. This series was started in 2003 and contains both trending data and dynamic content current to the flux and change in mobile development. Cloud Development Survey Series: Started in 2009, this semi\-annual survey series of over 400 developers active in Cloud development or deployment. Evans Data also publishes annual reports focusing on Developer Marketing and Developer Relations Programs. The latter of these two reports is the focal point for Evans Data Corporation's annual Developer Relations Conference, held in the early spring of each calendar year. #### Targeted Analytics The Targeted Analytics team at Evans Data Corp. offers clients a secondary research service, providing extensive additional data analysis that is not included in the multi\-client survey reports.
[ "### Syndicated surveys", "Evans Data Corporation publishes several annual and semiannual reports. These are:", "Global Development Survey Series:\nEDC's oldest continuous report, the North American Development Survey, is published semiannually as part of their Global Development Series, once in the spring and again in the fall. The Global Series also includes reports for the Asia Pacific region, including the Indian subcontinent, Australia, and Oceania; and Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The question set for all regions is the same and at least 400 software developers are interviewed for each region.", "Emerging Markets Development Series:\nProviding a particular focus on China, Eastern Europe, India, and Latin America, this survey report has the same question set as the Global series.", "Mobile Development Series:\nA semi\\-annual survey of over 400 developers worldwide who are actively engaged in mobile development. This series was started in 2003 and contains both trending data and dynamic content current to the flux and change in mobile development.", "Cloud Development Survey Series:\nStarted in 2009, this semi\\-annual survey series of over 400 developers active in Cloud development or deployment.", "Evans Data also publishes annual reports focusing on Developer Marketing and Developer Relations Programs. The latter of these two reports is the focal point for Evans Data Corporation's annual Developer Relations Conference, held in the early spring of each calendar year.", "#### Targeted Analytics", "The Targeted Analytics team at Evans Data Corp. offers clients a secondary research service, providing extensive additional data analysis that is not included in the multi\\-client survey reports.", "" ]
Biography --------- Dedekind was born in [Reinsdorf, Thuringia](/wiki/Reinsdorf%2C_Thuringia "Reinsdorf, Thuringia") into a musical family, the son of musician Stefan Dedekind (1595–1636\) and the grandson of composer [Henning Dedekind](/wiki/Henning_Dedekind "Henning Dedekind") (1562–1626\). He was educated at [Quedlinburg Abbey](/wiki/Quedlinburg_Abbey "Quedlinburg Abbey"). From about 1647 he lived in [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden "Dresden"). Early recognition of his poetic talent came in 1652 when [Johann Rist](/wiki/Johann_Rist "Johann Rist"), in his role of [Imperial Count Palatine](/wiki/Count_Palatine_%28Imperial%29 "Count Palatine (Imperial)"), awarded him the *Dichterkrone* (equivalent to making him [Poet Laureate](/wiki/Poet_Laureate "Poet Laureate")). A few years later Dedekind became a member of the *{{lang\|de\|\[\[Elbschwanenorden]]}}* (Order of Elbe Swans), Rist's poetical society. He also pursued a musical career. From 1654 he was a [bass singer](/wiki/Bass_singer "Bass singer") in the *Kapelle* of [Johann Georg II, Elector of Saxony](/wiki/Johann_Georg_II%2C_Elector_of_Saxony "Johann Georg II, Elector of Saxony") in Dresden. From 1666 to 1675 he held the position of *Konzertmeister* there; however, he directed only the German singers within the *Kapelle*, a grouping referred to as the *kleine deutsche Musik*, as distinct from the Italian ones. He himself had requested this split in a letter of 1666 to Johann Georg II.Spagnoli (1993\). p. 174 His resignation of the position in 1675 seems to have been an eventual outcome of this rivalry.Sadie. However, becoming a tax collector for the Elector enabled him to accumulate a fortune. He was also a publisher, mainly of musical scores, though not a very successful one. Dedekind's wide circle of friends in Dresden included composers such as [Heinrich Albert](/wiki/Heinrich_Albert_%28composer%29 "Heinrich Albert (composer)"), [Adam Krieger](/wiki/Adam_Krieger "Adam Krieger") and [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz "Heinrich Schütz"), as well as poets like [Johann Joseph Beckh](/wiki/Johann_Joseph_Beckh "Johann Joseph Beckh"), [Michael Kongehl](/wiki/Michael_Kongehl "Michael Kongehl"), [Christoph Kormart](/wiki/Christoph_Kormart "Christoph Kormart") and [David Schirmer](/wiki/David_Schirmer_%28poet%29 "David Schirmer (poet)"). His 1657 songbook *Aelbianische Musen\-Lust* was a large collection of musical settings of German [strophic](/wiki/Strophic_form "Strophic form") poetry, for solo voice. It featured a wide selection of poets from across Germany, including [Martin Opitz](/wiki/Martin_Opitz "Martin Opitz"), [Paul Fleming](/wiki/Paul_Fleming_%28poet%29 "Paul Fleming (poet)"), [Simon Dach](/wiki/Simon_Dach "Simon Dach"), [Gottfried Finckelthaus](/wiki/Gottfried_Finckelthaus "Gottfried Finckelthaus"), [Johann Rist](/wiki/Johann_Rist "Johann Rist"), David Schirmer, [Andreas Tscherning](/wiki/Andreas_Tscherning "Andreas Tscherning")Harper (2003\). pp. 193–194 and [Georg Neumark](/wiki/Georg_Neumark "Georg Neumark"), as well as Dedekind himself.Buelow (2004\). p. 247 He also created a very large number of sacred songs and dramas. His 1673/74 collection *Musicalischer Jahrgang und Vesper\-Gesang* alone includes 120 sacred concertos, for two voices and [continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo "Basso continuo"). The works *Neue geistliche Schauspiele* (1670\) and *Heilige Arbeit über Freud und Leid der alten und neuen Zeit* (1676\) were sacred collections containing operatic [libretti](/wiki/Libretti "Libretti") and texts for [cantatas](/wiki/Cantata "Cantata").Aiken. He counts as one of the most important German artists of his time in sacred drama. His significance in that field was emphasised by the [Nuremberg](/wiki/Nuremberg "Nuremberg") poet [Sigmund von Birken](/wiki/Sigmund_von_Birken "Sigmund von Birken") in his *Teutschen Rede\-bind\- und Dicht\-Kunst* (1679\). He and Dedekind exchanged correspondence for many years. In 1680 the outbreak of [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 "Plague (disease)") caused Dedekind to flee Dresden for [Meissen](/wiki/Meissen "Meissen"). In his last years he composed much less; his late work was almost entirely sacred poetry. He was married first to Anna Elisabeth Müller and secondly to Maria Dorothea Weber. Altogether there were five children. Dedekind died in Dresden and was buried on 2 September 1715\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Dedekind was born in [Reinsdorf, Thuringia](/wiki/Reinsdorf%2C_Thuringia \"Reinsdorf, Thuringia\") into a musical family, the son of musician Stefan Dedekind (1595–1636\\) and the grandson of composer [Henning Dedekind](/wiki/Henning_Dedekind \"Henning Dedekind\") (1562–1626\\). He was educated at [Quedlinburg Abbey](/wiki/Quedlinburg_Abbey \"Quedlinburg Abbey\"). From about 1647 he lived in [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden \"Dresden\"). Early recognition of his poetic talent came in 1652 when [Johann Rist](/wiki/Johann_Rist \"Johann Rist\"), in his role of [Imperial Count Palatine](/wiki/Count_Palatine_%28Imperial%29 \"Count Palatine (Imperial)\"), awarded him the *Dichterkrone* (equivalent to making him [Poet Laureate](/wiki/Poet_Laureate \"Poet Laureate\")). A few years later Dedekind became a member of the *{{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Elbschwanenorden]]}}* (Order of Elbe Swans), Rist's poetical society.", "He also pursued a musical career. From 1654 he was a [bass singer](/wiki/Bass_singer \"Bass singer\") in the *Kapelle* of [Johann Georg II, Elector of Saxony](/wiki/Johann_Georg_II%2C_Elector_of_Saxony \"Johann Georg II, Elector of Saxony\") in Dresden. From 1666 to 1675 he held the position of *Konzertmeister* there; however, he directed only the German singers within the *Kapelle*, a grouping referred to as the *kleine deutsche Musik*, as distinct from the Italian ones. He himself had requested this split in a letter of 1666 to Johann Georg II.Spagnoli (1993\\). p. 174 His resignation of the position in 1675 seems to have been an eventual outcome of this rivalry.Sadie. However, becoming a tax collector for the Elector enabled him to accumulate a fortune. He was also a publisher, mainly of musical scores, though not a very successful one. Dedekind's wide circle of friends in Dresden included composers such as [Heinrich Albert](/wiki/Heinrich_Albert_%28composer%29 \"Heinrich Albert (composer)\"), [Adam Krieger](/wiki/Adam_Krieger \"Adam Krieger\") and [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Heinrich Schütz\"), as well as poets like [Johann Joseph Beckh](/wiki/Johann_Joseph_Beckh \"Johann Joseph Beckh\"), [Michael Kongehl](/wiki/Michael_Kongehl \"Michael Kongehl\"), [Christoph Kormart](/wiki/Christoph_Kormart \"Christoph Kormart\") and [David Schirmer](/wiki/David_Schirmer_%28poet%29 \"David Schirmer (poet)\").", "His 1657 songbook *Aelbianische Musen\\-Lust* was a large collection of musical settings of German [strophic](/wiki/Strophic_form \"Strophic form\") poetry, for solo voice. It featured a wide selection of poets from across Germany, including [Martin Opitz](/wiki/Martin_Opitz \"Martin Opitz\"), [Paul Fleming](/wiki/Paul_Fleming_%28poet%29 \"Paul Fleming (poet)\"), [Simon Dach](/wiki/Simon_Dach \"Simon Dach\"), [Gottfried Finckelthaus](/wiki/Gottfried_Finckelthaus \"Gottfried Finckelthaus\"), [Johann Rist](/wiki/Johann_Rist \"Johann Rist\"), David Schirmer, [Andreas Tscherning](/wiki/Andreas_Tscherning \"Andreas Tscherning\")Harper (2003\\). pp. 193–194 and [Georg Neumark](/wiki/Georg_Neumark \"Georg Neumark\"), as well as Dedekind himself.Buelow (2004\\). p. 247 He also created a very large number of sacred songs and dramas. His 1673/74 collection *Musicalischer Jahrgang und Vesper\\-Gesang* alone includes 120 sacred concertos, for two voices and [continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo \"Basso continuo\"). The works *Neue geistliche Schauspiele* (1670\\) and *Heilige Arbeit über Freud und Leid der alten und neuen Zeit* (1676\\) were sacred collections containing operatic [libretti](/wiki/Libretti \"Libretti\") and texts for [cantatas](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\").Aiken. He counts as one of the most important German artists of his time in sacred drama. His significance in that field was emphasised by the [Nuremberg](/wiki/Nuremberg \"Nuremberg\") poet [Sigmund von Birken](/wiki/Sigmund_von_Birken \"Sigmund von Birken\") in his *Teutschen Rede\\-bind\\- und Dicht\\-Kunst* (1679\\). He and Dedekind exchanged correspondence for many years.", "In 1680 the outbreak of [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 \"Plague (disease)\") caused Dedekind to flee Dresden for [Meissen](/wiki/Meissen \"Meissen\"). In his last years he composed much less; his late work was almost entirely sacred poetry.", "He was married first to Anna Elisabeth Müller and secondly to Maria Dorothea Weber. Altogether there were five children. Dedekind died in Dresden and was buried on 2 September 1715\\.", "" ]
Cause ----- [thumb\|right\|In acute lymphoblastic leukemia, lymphoid cell development stops at the lymphoblast (arrow), which are also overproduced.](/wiki/File:Diagram_showing_the_cell_that_ALL_starts_in_CRUK_295.svg "Diagram showing the cell that ALL starts in CRUK 295.svg") The cancerous cell in ALL is the lymphoblast. Normal lymphoblasts develop into mature, infection\-fighting B\-cells or T\-cells, also called [lymphocytes](/wiki/Lymphocyte "Lymphocyte"). Signals in the body control the number of lymphocytes so neither too few nor too many are made. In ALL, both the normal development of some lymphocytes and the control over the number of lymphoid cells become defective.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Terwilliger T, Abdul\-Hay M \| title \= Acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a comprehensive review and 2017 update \| journal \= Blood Cancer Journal \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= e577 \| date \= June 2017 \| pmid \= 28665419 \| pmc \= 5520400 \| doi \= 10\.1038/bcj.2017\.53 }} Acute lymphoblastic leukemia emerges when a single lymphoblast gains many [mutations](/wiki/Mutation "Mutation") to [genes](/wiki/Gene "Gene") that affect [blood cell](/wiki/Blood_cell "Blood cell") development and proliferation. In childhood ALL, this process begins at conception with the inheritance of some of these genes. These genes, in turn, increase the risk that more mutations will occur in developing lymphoid cells. Certain genetic syndromes, like [Down Syndrome](/wiki/Down_syndrome "Down syndrome"), have the same effect. Environmental risk factors are also needed to help create enough genetic mutations to cause disease. Evidence for the role of the environment is seen in childhood ALL among twins, where only 10–15% of both [genetically identical twins](/wiki/Identical_twins "Identical twins") get ALL. Since they have the same genes, different environmental exposures explain why one twin gets ALL and the other does not. Infant ALL is a rare variant that occurs in babies less than one year old. *[KMT2A](/wiki/KMT2A "KMT2A")* (formerly *MLL*) gene rearrangements are most common and occur in the embryo or fetus before birth. These rearrangements result in increased expression of blood cell development genes by promoting gene transcription and through [epigenetic](/wiki/Epigenetics "Epigenetics") changes.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Meyer C, Hofmann J, Burmeister T, Gröger D, Park TS, Emerenciano M, Pombo de Oliveira M, Renneville A, Villarese P, Macintyre E, Cavé H, Clappier E, Mass\-Malo K, Zuna J, Trka J, De Braekeleer E, De Braekeleer M, Oh SH, Tsaur G, Fechina L, van der Velden VH, van Dongen JJ, Delabesse E, Binato R, Silva ML, Kustanovich A, Aleinikova O, Harris MH, Lund\-Aho T, Juvonen V, Heidenreich O, Vormoor J, Choi WW, Jarosova M, Kolenova A, Bueno C, Menendez P, Wehner S, Eckert C, Talmant P, Tondeur S, Lippert E, Launay E, Henry C, Ballerini P, Lapillone H, Callanan MB, Cayuela JM, Herbaux C, Cazzaniga G, Kakadiya PM, Bohlander S, Ahlmann M, Choi JR, Gameiro P, Lee DS, Krauter J, Cornillet\-Lefebvre P, Te Kronnie G, Schäfer BW, Kubetzko S, Alonso CN, zur Stadt U, Sutton R, Venn NC, Izraeli S, Trakhtenbrot L, Madsen HO, Archer P, Hancock J, Cerveira N, Teixeira MR, Lo Nigro L, Möricke A, Stanulla M, Schrappe M, Sedék L, Szczepański T, Zwaan CM, Coenen EA, van den Heuvel\-Eibrink MM, Strehl S, Dworzak M, Panzer\-Grümayer R, Dingermann T, Klingebiel T, Marschalek R \| title \= The MLL recombinome of acute leukemias in 2013 \| journal \= Leukemia \| volume \= 27 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 2165–76 \| date \= November 2013 \| pmid \= 23628958 \| pmc \= 3826032 \| doi \= 10\.1038/leu.2013\.135 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Benedikt A, Baltruschat S, Scholz B, Bursen A, Arrey TN, Meyer B, Varagnolo L, Müller AM, Karas M, Dingermann T, Marschalek R \| title \= The leukemogenic AF4\-MLL fusion protein causes P\-TEFb kinase activation and altered epigenetic signatures \| journal \= Leukemia \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 135–44 \| date \= January 2011 \| pmid \= 21030982 \| doi \= 10\.1038/leu.2010\.249 \| s2cid \= 6045674 \| doi\-access \= }} In contrast to childhood ALL, environmental factors are not thought to play a significant role. Aside from the *KMT2A* rearrangement, only one extra mutation is typically found. Environmental exposures are not needed to help create more mutations. ### Risk factors #### Genetics Common inherited risk factors include mutations in *[ARID5B](/wiki/ARID5B "ARID5B")*, *[CDKN2A](/wiki/CDKN2A "CDKN2A")/[2B](/wiki/CDKN2B "CDKN2B")*, *[CEBPE](/wiki/CEBPE "CEBPE")*, *[IKZF1](/wiki/IKZF1 "IKZF1")*, *[GATA3](/wiki/GATA3 "GATA3")*, *[PIP4K2A](/wiki/PIP4K2A "PIP4K2A")* and, more rarely, *[TP53](/wiki/TP53 "TP53")*. These genes play important roles in cellular development, proliferation, and differentiation. Individually, most of these mutations are low risk for ALL. Significant risk of disease occurs when a person inherits several of these mutations together. The uneven distribution of genetic risk factors may help explain differences in disease rates among ethnic groups. For instance, the *ARID5B* mutation is less common in ethnic African populations. Several genetic syndrome also carry increased risk of ALL. These include: [Down syndrome](/wiki/Down_syndrome "Down syndrome"), [Fanconi anemia](/wiki/Fanconi_anemia "Fanconi anemia"), [Bloom syndrome](/wiki/Bloom_syndrome "Bloom syndrome"), [X\-linked agammaglobulinemia](/wiki/X-linked_agammaglobulinemia "X-linked agammaglobulinemia"), [severe combined immunodeficiency](/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency "Severe combined immunodeficiency"), [Shwachman–Diamond syndrome](/wiki/Shwachman%E2%80%93Diamond_syndrome "Shwachman–Diamond syndrome"), [Kostmann syndrome](/wiki/Kostmann_syndrome "Kostmann syndrome"), [neurofibromatosis type 1](/wiki/Neurofibromatosis_type_1 "Neurofibromatosis type 1"), [ataxia\-telangiectasia](/wiki/Ataxia-telangiectasia "Ataxia-telangiectasia"), [paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria](/wiki/Paroxysmal_nocturnal_hemoglobinuria "Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria"), and [Li–Fraumeni syndrome](/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Fraumeni_syndrome "Li–Fraumeni syndrome"). Fewer than 5% of cases are associated with a known genetic syndrome. Rare mutations in *ETV6* and *[PAX5](/wiki/PAX5 "PAX5")* are associated with a familial form of ALL with [autosomal](/wiki/Autosome "Autosome") [dominant](/wiki/Dominance_%28genetics%29 "Dominance (genetics)") patterns of [inheritance](/wiki/Heredity "Heredity"). #### Environmental The environmental exposures that contribute to emergence of ALL is contentious and a subject of ongoing debate. High levels of radiation exposure from nuclear fallout is a known risk factor for developing leukemia.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Preston DL, Kusumi S, Tomonaga M, Izumi S, Ron E, Kuramoto A, Kamada N, Dohy H, Matsuo T, Matsuo T \| title \= Cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors. Part III. Leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma, 1950–1987 \| journal \= Radiation Research \| volume \= 137 \| issue \= 2 Suppl \| pages \= S68–97 \| date \= February 1994 \| pmid \= 8127953 \| doi \= 10\.2307/3578893 \| bibcode \= 1994RadR..137S..68P \| jstor \= 3578893 }} Evidence whether lesser radiation, as from [x\-ray imaging](/wiki/Radiography "Radiography") during pregnancy, increases risk of disease remains inconclusive. Studies that have identified an association between x\-ray imaging during pregnancy and ALL found only a slightly increased risk. Exposure to strong electromagnetic radiation from power lines has also been associated with a slightly increased risk of ALL. This result is questioned as no causal mechanism linking electromagnetic radiation with cancer is known. High birth weight (greater than 4000 g or 8\.8 lbs) is also associated with a small increased risk. The mechanism connecting high birth weight to ALL is also not known. Evidence suggests that [secondary leukemia](/wiki/Neoplasm%23Types "Neoplasm#Types") can develop in individuals treated with certain types of chemotherapy, such as [epipodophyllotoxins](/wiki/Epipodophyllotoxin "Epipodophyllotoxin") and [cyclophosphamide](/wiki/Cyclophosphamide "Cyclophosphamide").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Smith MA, Rubinstein L, Anderson JR, Arthur D, Catalano PJ, Freidlin B, Heyn R, Khayat A, Krailo M, Land VJ, Miser J, Shuster J, Vena D \| title \= Secondary leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome after treatment with epipodophyllotoxins \| journal \= Journal of Clinical Oncology \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 569–77 \| date \= February 1999 \| pmid \= 10080601 \| doi \= 10\.1200/JCO.1999\.17\.2\.569 \| df \= dmy\-all }} #### Infections There is some evidence that a common infection, such as [influenza](/wiki/Influenza "Influenza"), may indirectly promote the emergence of ALL. The delayed\-infection hypothesis states that ALL results from an abnormal immune response to infection in a person with genetic risk factors. Delayed development of the immune system due to limited disease exposure may result in excessive production of lymphocytes and increased mutation rate during an illness. Several studies have identified lower rates of ALL among children with greater exposure to illness early in life. Very young children who attend daycare have lower rates of ALL. Evidence from many other studies looking at disease exposure and ALL is inconclusive. Some researchers have linked the [hygiene hypothesis](/wiki/Hygiene_hypothesis "Hygiene hypothesis").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Greaves M \| title \= A causal mechanism for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia \| journal \= Nature Reviews. Cancer \| volume \= 18 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 471–484 \| date \= August 2018 \| pmid \= 29784935 \| pmc \= 6986894 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41568\-018\-0015\-6 }}
[ "Cause\n-----", "[thumb\\|right\\|In acute lymphoblastic leukemia, lymphoid cell development stops at the lymphoblast (arrow), which are also overproduced.](/wiki/File:Diagram_showing_the_cell_that_ALL_starts_in_CRUK_295.svg \"Diagram showing the cell that ALL starts in CRUK 295.svg\")", "The cancerous cell in ALL is the lymphoblast. Normal lymphoblasts develop into mature, infection\\-fighting B\\-cells or T\\-cells, also called [lymphocytes](/wiki/Lymphocyte \"Lymphocyte\"). Signals in the body control the number of lymphocytes so neither too few nor too many are made. In ALL, both the normal development of some lymphocytes and the control over the number of lymphoid cells become defective.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Terwilliger T, Abdul\\-Hay M \\| title \\= Acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a comprehensive review and 2017 update \\| journal \\= Blood Cancer Journal \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= e577 \\| date \\= June 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28665419 \\| pmc \\= 5520400 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/bcj.2017\\.53 }}", "Acute lymphoblastic leukemia emerges when a single lymphoblast gains many [mutations](/wiki/Mutation \"Mutation\") to [genes](/wiki/Gene \"Gene\") that affect [blood cell](/wiki/Blood_cell \"Blood cell\") development and proliferation. In childhood ALL, this process begins at conception with the inheritance of some of these genes. These genes, in turn, increase the risk that more mutations will occur in developing lymphoid cells. Certain genetic syndromes, like [Down Syndrome](/wiki/Down_syndrome \"Down syndrome\"), have the same effect. Environmental risk factors are also needed to help create enough genetic mutations to cause disease. Evidence for the role of the environment is seen in childhood ALL among twins, where only 10–15% of both [genetically identical twins](/wiki/Identical_twins \"Identical twins\") get ALL. Since they have the same genes, different environmental exposures explain why one twin gets ALL and the other does not.", "Infant ALL is a rare variant that occurs in babies less than one year old. *[KMT2A](/wiki/KMT2A \"KMT2A\")* (formerly *MLL*) gene rearrangements are most common and occur in the embryo or fetus before birth. These rearrangements result in increased expression of blood cell development genes by promoting gene transcription and through [epigenetic](/wiki/Epigenetics \"Epigenetics\") changes.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Meyer C, Hofmann J, Burmeister T, Gröger D, Park TS, Emerenciano M, Pombo de Oliveira M, Renneville A, Villarese P, Macintyre E, Cavé H, Clappier E, Mass\\-Malo K, Zuna J, Trka J, De Braekeleer E, De Braekeleer M, Oh SH, Tsaur G, Fechina L, van der Velden VH, van Dongen JJ, Delabesse E, Binato R, Silva ML, Kustanovich A, Aleinikova O, Harris MH, Lund\\-Aho T, Juvonen V, Heidenreich O, Vormoor J, Choi WW, Jarosova M, Kolenova A, Bueno C, Menendez P, Wehner S, Eckert C, Talmant P, Tondeur S, Lippert E, Launay E, Henry C, Ballerini P, Lapillone H, Callanan MB, Cayuela JM, Herbaux C, Cazzaniga G, Kakadiya PM, Bohlander S, Ahlmann M, Choi JR, Gameiro P, Lee DS, Krauter J, Cornillet\\-Lefebvre P, Te Kronnie G, Schäfer BW, Kubetzko S, Alonso CN, zur Stadt U, Sutton R, Venn NC, Izraeli S, Trakhtenbrot L, Madsen HO, Archer P, Hancock J, Cerveira N, Teixeira MR, Lo Nigro L, Möricke A, Stanulla M, Schrappe M, Sedék L, Szczepański T, Zwaan CM, Coenen EA, van den Heuvel\\-Eibrink MM, Strehl S, Dworzak M, Panzer\\-Grümayer R, Dingermann T, Klingebiel T, Marschalek R \\| title \\= The MLL recombinome of acute leukemias in 2013 \\| journal \\= Leukemia \\| volume \\= 27 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 2165–76 \\| date \\= November 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23628958 \\| pmc \\= 3826032 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/leu.2013\\.135 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Benedikt A, Baltruschat S, Scholz B, Bursen A, Arrey TN, Meyer B, Varagnolo L, Müller AM, Karas M, Dingermann T, Marschalek R \\| title \\= The leukemogenic AF4\\-MLL fusion protein causes P\\-TEFb kinase activation and altered epigenetic signatures \\| journal \\= Leukemia \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 135–44 \\| date \\= January 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21030982 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/leu.2010\\.249 \\| s2cid \\= 6045674 \\| doi\\-access \\= }} In contrast to childhood ALL, environmental factors are not thought to play a significant role. Aside from the *KMT2A* rearrangement, only one extra mutation is typically found. Environmental exposures are not needed to help create more mutations.", "### Risk factors", "#### Genetics", "Common inherited risk factors include mutations in *[ARID5B](/wiki/ARID5B \"ARID5B\")*, *[CDKN2A](/wiki/CDKN2A \"CDKN2A\")/[2B](/wiki/CDKN2B \"CDKN2B\")*, *[CEBPE](/wiki/CEBPE \"CEBPE\")*, *[IKZF1](/wiki/IKZF1 \"IKZF1\")*, *[GATA3](/wiki/GATA3 \"GATA3\")*, *[PIP4K2A](/wiki/PIP4K2A \"PIP4K2A\")* and, more rarely, *[TP53](/wiki/TP53 \"TP53\")*. These genes play important roles in cellular development, proliferation, and differentiation. Individually, most of these mutations are low risk for ALL. Significant risk of disease occurs when a person inherits several of these mutations together.", "The uneven distribution of genetic risk factors may help explain differences in disease rates among ethnic groups. For instance, the *ARID5B* mutation is less common in ethnic African populations.", "Several genetic syndrome also carry increased risk of ALL. These include: [Down syndrome](/wiki/Down_syndrome \"Down syndrome\"), [Fanconi anemia](/wiki/Fanconi_anemia \"Fanconi anemia\"), [Bloom syndrome](/wiki/Bloom_syndrome \"Bloom syndrome\"), [X\\-linked agammaglobulinemia](/wiki/X-linked_agammaglobulinemia \"X-linked agammaglobulinemia\"), [severe combined immunodeficiency](/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency \"Severe combined immunodeficiency\"), [Shwachman–Diamond syndrome](/wiki/Shwachman%E2%80%93Diamond_syndrome \"Shwachman–Diamond syndrome\"), [Kostmann syndrome](/wiki/Kostmann_syndrome \"Kostmann syndrome\"), [neurofibromatosis type 1](/wiki/Neurofibromatosis_type_1 \"Neurofibromatosis type 1\"), [ataxia\\-telangiectasia](/wiki/Ataxia-telangiectasia \"Ataxia-telangiectasia\"), [paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria](/wiki/Paroxysmal_nocturnal_hemoglobinuria \"Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria\"), and [Li–Fraumeni syndrome](/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Fraumeni_syndrome \"Li–Fraumeni syndrome\"). Fewer than 5% of cases are associated with a known genetic syndrome.", "Rare mutations in *ETV6* and *[PAX5](/wiki/PAX5 \"PAX5\")* are associated with a familial form of ALL with [autosomal](/wiki/Autosome \"Autosome\") [dominant](/wiki/Dominance_%28genetics%29 \"Dominance (genetics)\") patterns of [inheritance](/wiki/Heredity \"Heredity\").", "#### Environmental", "The environmental exposures that contribute to emergence of ALL is contentious and a subject of ongoing debate.", "High levels of radiation exposure from nuclear fallout is a known risk factor for developing leukemia.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Preston DL, Kusumi S, Tomonaga M, Izumi S, Ron E, Kuramoto A, Kamada N, Dohy H, Matsuo T, Matsuo T \\| title \\= Cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors. Part III. Leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma, 1950–1987 \\| journal \\= Radiation Research \\| volume \\= 137 \\| issue \\= 2 Suppl \\| pages \\= S68–97 \\| date \\= February 1994 \\| pmid \\= 8127953 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2307/3578893 \\| bibcode \\= 1994RadR..137S..68P \\| jstor \\= 3578893 }} Evidence whether lesser radiation, as from [x\\-ray imaging](/wiki/Radiography \"Radiography\") during pregnancy, increases risk of disease remains inconclusive. Studies that have identified an association between x\\-ray imaging during pregnancy and ALL found only a slightly increased risk. Exposure to strong electromagnetic radiation from power lines has also been associated with a slightly increased risk of ALL. This result is questioned as no causal mechanism linking electromagnetic radiation with cancer is known.", "High birth weight (greater than 4000 g or 8\\.8 lbs) is also associated with a small increased risk. The mechanism connecting high birth weight to ALL is also not known.", "Evidence suggests that [secondary leukemia](/wiki/Neoplasm%23Types \"Neoplasm#Types\") can develop in individuals treated with certain types of chemotherapy, such as [epipodophyllotoxins](/wiki/Epipodophyllotoxin \"Epipodophyllotoxin\") and [cyclophosphamide](/wiki/Cyclophosphamide \"Cyclophosphamide\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Smith MA, Rubinstein L, Anderson JR, Arthur D, Catalano PJ, Freidlin B, Heyn R, Khayat A, Krailo M, Land VJ, Miser J, Shuster J, Vena D \\| title \\= Secondary leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome after treatment with epipodophyllotoxins \\| journal \\= Journal of Clinical Oncology \\| volume \\= 17 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 569–77 \\| date \\= February 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10080601 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1200/JCO.1999\\.17\\.2\\.569 \\| df \\= dmy\\-all }}", "#### Infections", "There is some evidence that a common infection, such as [influenza](/wiki/Influenza \"Influenza\"), may indirectly promote the emergence of ALL. The delayed\\-infection hypothesis states that ALL results from an abnormal immune response to infection in a person with genetic risk factors. Delayed development of the immune system due to limited disease exposure may result in excessive production of lymphocytes and increased mutation rate during an illness. Several studies have identified lower rates of ALL among children with greater exposure to illness early in life. Very young children who attend daycare have lower rates of ALL. Evidence from many other studies looking at disease exposure and ALL is inconclusive. Some researchers have linked the [hygiene hypothesis](/wiki/Hygiene_hypothesis \"Hygiene hypothesis\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Greaves M \\| title \\= A causal mechanism for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia \\| journal \\= Nature Reviews. Cancer \\| volume \\= 18 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 471–484 \\| date \\= August 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29784935 \\| pmc \\= 6986894 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41568\\-018\\-0015\\-6 }}", "" ]
### Risk factors #### Genetics Common inherited risk factors include mutations in *[ARID5B](/wiki/ARID5B "ARID5B")*, *[CDKN2A](/wiki/CDKN2A "CDKN2A")/[2B](/wiki/CDKN2B "CDKN2B")*, *[CEBPE](/wiki/CEBPE "CEBPE")*, *[IKZF1](/wiki/IKZF1 "IKZF1")*, *[GATA3](/wiki/GATA3 "GATA3")*, *[PIP4K2A](/wiki/PIP4K2A "PIP4K2A")* and, more rarely, *[TP53](/wiki/TP53 "TP53")*. These genes play important roles in cellular development, proliferation, and differentiation. Individually, most of these mutations are low risk for ALL. Significant risk of disease occurs when a person inherits several of these mutations together. The uneven distribution of genetic risk factors may help explain differences in disease rates among ethnic groups. For instance, the *ARID5B* mutation is less common in ethnic African populations. Several genetic syndrome also carry increased risk of ALL. These include: [Down syndrome](/wiki/Down_syndrome "Down syndrome"), [Fanconi anemia](/wiki/Fanconi_anemia "Fanconi anemia"), [Bloom syndrome](/wiki/Bloom_syndrome "Bloom syndrome"), [X\-linked agammaglobulinemia](/wiki/X-linked_agammaglobulinemia "X-linked agammaglobulinemia"), [severe combined immunodeficiency](/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency "Severe combined immunodeficiency"), [Shwachman–Diamond syndrome](/wiki/Shwachman%E2%80%93Diamond_syndrome "Shwachman–Diamond syndrome"), [Kostmann syndrome](/wiki/Kostmann_syndrome "Kostmann syndrome"), [neurofibromatosis type 1](/wiki/Neurofibromatosis_type_1 "Neurofibromatosis type 1"), [ataxia\-telangiectasia](/wiki/Ataxia-telangiectasia "Ataxia-telangiectasia"), [paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria](/wiki/Paroxysmal_nocturnal_hemoglobinuria "Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria"), and [Li–Fraumeni syndrome](/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Fraumeni_syndrome "Li–Fraumeni syndrome"). Fewer than 5% of cases are associated with a known genetic syndrome. Rare mutations in *ETV6* and *[PAX5](/wiki/PAX5 "PAX5")* are associated with a familial form of ALL with [autosomal](/wiki/Autosome "Autosome") [dominant](/wiki/Dominance_%28genetics%29 "Dominance (genetics)") patterns of [inheritance](/wiki/Heredity "Heredity"). #### Environmental The environmental exposures that contribute to emergence of ALL is contentious and a subject of ongoing debate. High levels of radiation exposure from nuclear fallout is a known risk factor for developing leukemia.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Preston DL, Kusumi S, Tomonaga M, Izumi S, Ron E, Kuramoto A, Kamada N, Dohy H, Matsuo T, Matsuo T \| title \= Cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors. Part III. Leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma, 1950–1987 \| journal \= Radiation Research \| volume \= 137 \| issue \= 2 Suppl \| pages \= S68–97 \| date \= February 1994 \| pmid \= 8127953 \| doi \= 10\.2307/3578893 \| bibcode \= 1994RadR..137S..68P \| jstor \= 3578893 }} Evidence whether lesser radiation, as from [x\-ray imaging](/wiki/Radiography "Radiography") during pregnancy, increases risk of disease remains inconclusive. Studies that have identified an association between x\-ray imaging during pregnancy and ALL found only a slightly increased risk. Exposure to strong electromagnetic radiation from power lines has also been associated with a slightly increased risk of ALL. This result is questioned as no causal mechanism linking electromagnetic radiation with cancer is known. High birth weight (greater than 4000 g or 8\.8 lbs) is also associated with a small increased risk. The mechanism connecting high birth weight to ALL is also not known. Evidence suggests that [secondary leukemia](/wiki/Neoplasm%23Types "Neoplasm#Types") can develop in individuals treated with certain types of chemotherapy, such as [epipodophyllotoxins](/wiki/Epipodophyllotoxin "Epipodophyllotoxin") and [cyclophosphamide](/wiki/Cyclophosphamide "Cyclophosphamide").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Smith MA, Rubinstein L, Anderson JR, Arthur D, Catalano PJ, Freidlin B, Heyn R, Khayat A, Krailo M, Land VJ, Miser J, Shuster J, Vena D \| title \= Secondary leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome after treatment with epipodophyllotoxins \| journal \= Journal of Clinical Oncology \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 569–77 \| date \= February 1999 \| pmid \= 10080601 \| doi \= 10\.1200/JCO.1999\.17\.2\.569 \| df \= dmy\-all }} #### Infections There is some evidence that a common infection, such as [influenza](/wiki/Influenza "Influenza"), may indirectly promote the emergence of ALL. The delayed\-infection hypothesis states that ALL results from an abnormal immune response to infection in a person with genetic risk factors. Delayed development of the immune system due to limited disease exposure may result in excessive production of lymphocytes and increased mutation rate during an illness. Several studies have identified lower rates of ALL among children with greater exposure to illness early in life. Very young children who attend daycare have lower rates of ALL. Evidence from many other studies looking at disease exposure and ALL is inconclusive. Some researchers have linked the [hygiene hypothesis](/wiki/Hygiene_hypothesis "Hygiene hypothesis").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Greaves M \| title \= A causal mechanism for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia \| journal \= Nature Reviews. Cancer \| volume \= 18 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 471–484 \| date \= August 2018 \| pmid \= 29784935 \| pmc \= 6986894 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41568\-018\-0015\-6 }}
[ "### Risk factors", "#### Genetics", "Common inherited risk factors include mutations in *[ARID5B](/wiki/ARID5B \"ARID5B\")*, *[CDKN2A](/wiki/CDKN2A \"CDKN2A\")/[2B](/wiki/CDKN2B \"CDKN2B\")*, *[CEBPE](/wiki/CEBPE \"CEBPE\")*, *[IKZF1](/wiki/IKZF1 \"IKZF1\")*, *[GATA3](/wiki/GATA3 \"GATA3\")*, *[PIP4K2A](/wiki/PIP4K2A \"PIP4K2A\")* and, more rarely, *[TP53](/wiki/TP53 \"TP53\")*. These genes play important roles in cellular development, proliferation, and differentiation. Individually, most of these mutations are low risk for ALL. Significant risk of disease occurs when a person inherits several of these mutations together.", "The uneven distribution of genetic risk factors may help explain differences in disease rates among ethnic groups. For instance, the *ARID5B* mutation is less common in ethnic African populations.", "Several genetic syndrome also carry increased risk of ALL. These include: [Down syndrome](/wiki/Down_syndrome \"Down syndrome\"), [Fanconi anemia](/wiki/Fanconi_anemia \"Fanconi anemia\"), [Bloom syndrome](/wiki/Bloom_syndrome \"Bloom syndrome\"), [X\\-linked agammaglobulinemia](/wiki/X-linked_agammaglobulinemia \"X-linked agammaglobulinemia\"), [severe combined immunodeficiency](/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency \"Severe combined immunodeficiency\"), [Shwachman–Diamond syndrome](/wiki/Shwachman%E2%80%93Diamond_syndrome \"Shwachman–Diamond syndrome\"), [Kostmann syndrome](/wiki/Kostmann_syndrome \"Kostmann syndrome\"), [neurofibromatosis type 1](/wiki/Neurofibromatosis_type_1 \"Neurofibromatosis type 1\"), [ataxia\\-telangiectasia](/wiki/Ataxia-telangiectasia \"Ataxia-telangiectasia\"), [paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria](/wiki/Paroxysmal_nocturnal_hemoglobinuria \"Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria\"), and [Li–Fraumeni syndrome](/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Fraumeni_syndrome \"Li–Fraumeni syndrome\"). Fewer than 5% of cases are associated with a known genetic syndrome.", "Rare mutations in *ETV6* and *[PAX5](/wiki/PAX5 \"PAX5\")* are associated with a familial form of ALL with [autosomal](/wiki/Autosome \"Autosome\") [dominant](/wiki/Dominance_%28genetics%29 \"Dominance (genetics)\") patterns of [inheritance](/wiki/Heredity \"Heredity\").", "#### Environmental", "The environmental exposures that contribute to emergence of ALL is contentious and a subject of ongoing debate.", "High levels of radiation exposure from nuclear fallout is a known risk factor for developing leukemia.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Preston DL, Kusumi S, Tomonaga M, Izumi S, Ron E, Kuramoto A, Kamada N, Dohy H, Matsuo T, Matsuo T \\| title \\= Cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors. Part III. Leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma, 1950–1987 \\| journal \\= Radiation Research \\| volume \\= 137 \\| issue \\= 2 Suppl \\| pages \\= S68–97 \\| date \\= February 1994 \\| pmid \\= 8127953 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2307/3578893 \\| bibcode \\= 1994RadR..137S..68P \\| jstor \\= 3578893 }} Evidence whether lesser radiation, as from [x\\-ray imaging](/wiki/Radiography \"Radiography\") during pregnancy, increases risk of disease remains inconclusive. Studies that have identified an association between x\\-ray imaging during pregnancy and ALL found only a slightly increased risk. Exposure to strong electromagnetic radiation from power lines has also been associated with a slightly increased risk of ALL. This result is questioned as no causal mechanism linking electromagnetic radiation with cancer is known.", "High birth weight (greater than 4000 g or 8\\.8 lbs) is also associated with a small increased risk. The mechanism connecting high birth weight to ALL is also not known.", "Evidence suggests that [secondary leukemia](/wiki/Neoplasm%23Types \"Neoplasm#Types\") can develop in individuals treated with certain types of chemotherapy, such as [epipodophyllotoxins](/wiki/Epipodophyllotoxin \"Epipodophyllotoxin\") and [cyclophosphamide](/wiki/Cyclophosphamide \"Cyclophosphamide\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Smith MA, Rubinstein L, Anderson JR, Arthur D, Catalano PJ, Freidlin B, Heyn R, Khayat A, Krailo M, Land VJ, Miser J, Shuster J, Vena D \\| title \\= Secondary leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome after treatment with epipodophyllotoxins \\| journal \\= Journal of Clinical Oncology \\| volume \\= 17 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 569–77 \\| date \\= February 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10080601 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1200/JCO.1999\\.17\\.2\\.569 \\| df \\= dmy\\-all }}", "#### Infections", "There is some evidence that a common infection, such as [influenza](/wiki/Influenza \"Influenza\"), may indirectly promote the emergence of ALL. The delayed\\-infection hypothesis states that ALL results from an abnormal immune response to infection in a person with genetic risk factors. Delayed development of the immune system due to limited disease exposure may result in excessive production of lymphocytes and increased mutation rate during an illness. Several studies have identified lower rates of ALL among children with greater exposure to illness early in life. Very young children who attend daycare have lower rates of ALL. Evidence from many other studies looking at disease exposure and ALL is inconclusive. Some researchers have linked the [hygiene hypothesis](/wiki/Hygiene_hypothesis \"Hygiene hypothesis\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Greaves M \\| title \\= A causal mechanism for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia \\| journal \\= Nature Reviews. Cancer \\| volume \\= 18 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 471–484 \\| date \\= August 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29784935 \\| pmc \\= 6986894 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41568\\-018\\-0015\\-6 }}", "" ]
Diagnosis --------- [Diagnosing](/wiki/Medical_diagnosis "Medical diagnosis") ALL begins with a thorough medical history, [physical examination](/wiki/Physical_examination "Physical examination"), [complete blood count](/wiki/Full_blood_count "Full blood count"), and blood smears. While many symptoms of ALL can be found in common illnesses, persistent or unexplained symptoms raise suspicion of cancer. Because many features on the medical history and exam are not specific to ALL, further testing is often needed. A large number of white blood cells and lymphoblasts in the circulating blood can be suspicious for ALL because they indicate a rapid production of lymphoid cells in the marrow. The higher these numbers typically point to a worse prognosis.{{cite book \|last \= Collier \|first \= J.A.B \|title \= Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties, Third Edition \|publisher \= Oxford \|year \= 1991 \|page \= 810 \|isbn \= 978\-0\-19\-262116\-0 }} While white blood cell counts at initial presentation can vary significantly, circulating lymphoblast cells are seen on peripheral [blood smears](/wiki/Blood_film "Blood film") in the majority of cases.{{cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid\=1772\&sectionid\=121896350 \|title\=The MD Anderson Manual of Medical Oncology \| vauthors \= Baljevic M, Jabbour E, O'Brien S, Kantarjian HM \|date\=2016\|publisher\=McGraw\-Hill Education\| veditors \= Kantarjian HM, Wolff RA \|edition\=3\|location\=New York\|chapter\=Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia\|access\-date\=22 November 2017 }} A [bone marrow biopsy](/wiki/Bone_marrow_biopsy "Bone marrow biopsy") provides conclusive proof of ALL, typically with \>20% of all cells being leukemic lymphoblasts.{{cite book \|title \= Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine \|publisher \= McGraw\-Hill Professional \|year \= 2011 \|isbn \= 978\-0\-07\-174889\-6 \|edition \= 18 \|location \= New York \|chapter \= Chapter 110: Malignancies of Lymphoid Cells \|last1 \= Longo \|first1 \= D }} A [lumbar puncture](/wiki/Lumbar_puncture "Lumbar puncture") (also known as a spinal tap) can determine whether the [spinal column and brain](/wiki/Central_nervous_system "Central nervous system") have been invaded. Brain and spinal column involvement can be diagnosed either through confirmation of leukemic cells in the lumbar puncture or through clinical signs of CNS leukemia as described above. Laboratory tests that might show abnormalities include blood count, kidney function, electrolyte, and liver enzyme tests. [Pathological](/wiki/Histopathology "Histopathology") examination, [cytogenetics](/wiki/Cytogenetics "Cytogenetics") (in particular the presence of [Philadelphia chromosome](/wiki/Philadelphia_chromosome "Philadelphia chromosome")), and [immunophenotyping](/wiki/Immunophenotyping "Immunophenotyping") establish whether the leukemic cells are [myeloblastic](/wiki/Myeloblast "Myeloblast") (neutrophils, eosinophils, or basophils) or lymphoblastic ([B lymphocytes](/wiki/B_lymphocyte "B lymphocyte") or [T lymphocytes](/wiki/T_lymphocyte "T lymphocyte")). [Cytogenetic testing](/wiki/Genetic_testing "Genetic testing") on the marrow samples can help classify disease and predict how aggressive the disease course will be. Different mutations have been associated with shorter or longer survival. [Immunohistochemical](/wiki/Immunohistochemistry "Immunohistochemistry") testing may reveal [TdT](/wiki/Terminal_deoxynucleotidyl_transferase "Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase") or [CALLA](/wiki/Neprilysin "Neprilysin") antigens on the surface of leukemic cells. TdT is a protein expressed early in the development of pre\-T and pre\-B cells, whereas [CALLA](/wiki/Neprilysin "Neprilysin") is an antigen found in 80% of ALL cases and also in the "blast crisis" of [CML](/wiki/Chronic_myelogenous_leukemia "Chronic myelogenous leukemia"). [Medical imaging](/wiki/Medical_imaging "Medical imaging") (such as [ultrasound](/wiki/Medical_ultrasonography "Medical ultrasonography") or [CT scanning](/wiki/CT_scan "CT scan")) can find invasion of other [organs](/wiki/Organ_%28anatomy%29 "Organ (anatomy)"), commonly the [lungs](/wiki/Lung "Lung"), liver, spleen, lymph nodes, brain, kidneys, and reproductive organs.{{cite web \|url \= http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology\_and\_oncology/leukemias/acute\_leukemia.html \|title \= Acute Leukemia \|date \= November 2013 \|publisher \= Merck Sharp \& Dohme Corp. \|work \= Merck Manual Professional \|access\-date \= 17 April 2014 \|editor \= Rytting, ME \|url\-status \= live \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140715103150/http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology\_and\_oncology/leukemias/acute\_leukemia.html \|archive\-date \= 15 July 2014 \|df \= dmy\-all }} File:ALL \- Peripherial Blood \- Diagnosis \- 01\.jpg\|Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), peripheral blood of a child, Pappenheim stain, magnification x100 File:ALL\-KM\-2\.jpg\|Bone marrow smear (large magnification) from a person with acute lymphoblastic leukemia File:ALL\-KM\-3\.jpg\|Bone marrow smear from a person with acute lymphoblastic leukemia ### Immunophenotyping In addition to cell morphology and cytogenetics, [immunophenotyping](/wiki/Immunophenotyping "Immunophenotyping"), a laboratory technique used to identify proteins that are expressed on their cell surface, is a key component in the diagnosis of ALL. The preferred method of immunophenotyping is through [flow cytometry](/wiki/Flow_cytometry "Flow cytometry"). In the malignant lymphoblasts of ALL, expression of [terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase](/wiki/Terminal_deoxynucleotidyl_transferase "Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase") (TdT) on the cell surface can help differentiate malignant lymphocyte cells from [reactive lymphocytes](/wiki/Reactive_lymphocyte "Reactive lymphocyte"), white blood cells that are reacting normally to an infection in the body. On the other hand, [myeloperoxidase](/wiki/Myeloperoxidase "Myeloperoxidase") (MPO), a marker for the [myeloid](/wiki/Myeloid_leukemia "Myeloid leukemia") lineage, is typically not expressed. Because precursor B cell and precursor T cells look the same, immunophenotyping can help differentiate the subtype of ALL and the level of maturity of the malignant white blood cells. The subtypes of ALL as determined by immunophenotype and according to the stages of maturation. | B cell lineage | T cell lineage | | --- | --- | | pre\-pre\-B ALL (pro\-B\-ALL) | precursor T\- ALL | | common ALL | mature T\-cell ALL | | pre\-B ALL | | | mature B\-cell ALL (Burkitt leukemia – FAB L3\) | | An extensive panel of monoclonal antibodies to cell surface markers, particularly CD or cluster of differentiation markers, are used to classify cells by lineage. Below are immunological markers associated with B cell and T cell ALL. | Immunological markers | B cell Lineage | T cell Lineage | | --- | --- | --- | | *B cell lineage* | CD19, CD22, CD79a | \+ | − | | CD10 | − or \+ (common ALL) | | | cytoplasmic Ig | − or \+ (pre\-B ALL) | | | surface Ig | − or \+ (mature B\-cell ALL) | | | TdT | \+ | \+ | | *T cell lineage* | CD2, CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7, CD8 | − | \+ | | TdT | \+ | \+ | ### Cytogenetics Cytogenetic analysis has shown different proportions and frequencies of genetic abnormalities in cases of ALL from different age groups. This information is particularly valuable for classification and can in part explain the different prognoses of these groups. In regards to genetic analysis, cases can be stratified according to [ploidy](/wiki/Ploidy "Ploidy"), a number of sets of chromosomes in the cell, and specific genetic abnormalities, such as [translocations](/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation "Chromosomal translocation"). Hyperdiploid cells are defined as cells with more than 50 chromosomes, while hypodiploid are defined as cells with less than 44 chromosomes. Hyperdiploid cases tend to carry a good prognosis while hypodiploid cases do not. For example, the most common specific abnormality in childhood B\-ALL is the t(12;21\) *[ETV6](/wiki/ETV6 "ETV6")*–*RUNX1* translocation, in which the *[RUNX1](/wiki/RUNX1 "RUNX1")* gene, encoding a protein involved in transcriptional control of [hemopoiesis](/wiki/Haematopoiesis "Haematopoiesis"), has been translocated and repressed by the *ETV6*–*RUNX1* fusion protein.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bhojwani D, Pei D, Sandlund JT, Jeha S, Ribeiro RC, Rubnitz JE, Raimondi SC, Shurtleff S, Onciu M, Cheng C, Coustan\-Smith E, Bowman WP, Howard SC, Metzger ML, Inaba H, Leung W, Evans WE, Campana D, Relling MV, Pui CH \| title \= ETV6\-RUNX1\-positive childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: improved outcome with contemporary therapy \| journal \= Leukemia \| volume \= 26 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 265–70 \| date \= February 2012 \| pmid \= 21869842 \| pmc \= 3345278 \| doi \= 10\.1038/leu.2011\.227 }} Below is a table with the frequencies of some cytogenetic [translocations](/wiki/Translocations "Translocations") and molecular genetic abnormalities in ALL. | Cytogenetic translocation | Molecular genetic abnormality | % | | --- | --- | --- | | cryptic t(12;21\) | [TEL](/wiki/ETV6 "ETV6")–[AML1](/wiki/RUNX1 "RUNX1") fusion{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Stams WA, den Boer ML, Beverloo HB, Meijerink JP, van Wering ER, Janka\-Schaub GE, Pieters R \| title \= Expression levels of TEL, AML1, and the fusion products TEL\-AML1 and AML1\-TEL versus drug sensitivity and clinical outcome in t(12;21\)\-positive pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia \| journal \= Clinical Cancer Research \| volume \= 11 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 2974–80 \| date \= April 2005 \| pmid \= 15837750 \| doi \= 10\.1158/1078\-0432\.CCR\-04\-1829 \| url \= http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view\=long\&pmid\=15837750 \| doi\-access \= free }} | 25\.4%{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Pakakasama S, Kajanachumpol S, Kanjanapongkul S, Sirachainan N, Meekaewkunchorn A, Ningsanond V, Hongeng S \| title \= Simple multiplex RT\-PCR for identifying common fusion transcripts in childhood acute leukemia \| journal \= International Journal of Laboratory Hematology \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 286–91 \| date \= August 2008 \| pmid \= 18665825 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1751\-553X.2007\.00954\.x \| doi\-access \= free }} | | t(1;19\)(q23;p13\) | [E2A](/wiki/TCF3 "TCF3")–[PBX](/wiki/Pre-B-cell_leukemia_homeobox "Pre-B-cell leukemia homeobox") ([PBX1](/wiki/PBX1 "PBX1")) fusion{{cite journal \| vauthors \= McWhirter JR, Neuteboom ST, Wancewicz EV, Monia BP, Downing JR, Murre C \| title \= Oncogenic homeodomain transcription factor E2A\-Pbx1 activates a novel WNT gene in pre\-B acute lymphoblastoid leukemia \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 96 \| issue \= 20 \| pages \= 11464–9 \| date \= September 1999 \| pmid \= 10500199 \| pmc \= 18056 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.96\.20\.11464 \| bibcode \= 1999PNAS...9611464M \| doi\-access \= free }} | 4\.8% | | t(9;22\)(q34;q11\) | [BCR\-ABL](/wiki/BCR-ABL "BCR-ABL") fusion(P185\){{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rudolph C, Hegazy AN, von Neuhoff N, Steinemann D, Schröck E, Stripecke R, Klein C, Schlegelberger B \| title \= Cytogenetic characterization of a BCR\-ABL transduced mouse cell line \| journal \= Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics \| volume \= 161 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 51–6 \| date \= August 2005 \| pmid \= 16080957 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cancergencyto.2004\.12\.021 }} | 1\.6% | | t(4;11\)(q21;q23\) | [MLL](/wiki/MLL_%28gene%29 "MLL (gene)")–[AF4](/wiki/AF4/FMR2_family_member_1 "AF4/FMR2 family member 1") fusion{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Caslini C, Serna A, Rossi V, Introna M, Biondi A \| title \= Modulation of cell cycle by graded expression of MLL\-AF4 fusion oncoprotein \| journal \= Leukemia \| volume \= 18 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 1064–71 \| date \= June 2004 \| pmid \= 14990976 \| doi \= 10\.1038/sj.leu.2403321 \| s2cid \= 19189264 \| doi\-access \= }} | 1\.6% | | t(8;14\)(q24;q32\) | [IGH](/wiki/Immunoglobulin_heavy_chain "Immunoglobulin heavy chain")–[MYC](/wiki/MYC "MYC") fusion{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Martín\-Subero JI, Odero MD, Hernandez R, Cigudosa JC, Agirre X, Saez B, Sanz\-García E, Ardanaz MT, Novo FJ, Gascoyne RD, Calasanz MJ, Siebert R \| title \= Amplification of IGH/MYC fusion in clinically aggressive IGH/BCL2\-positive germinal center B\-cell lymphomas \| journal \= Genes, Chromosomes \& Cancer \| volume \= 43 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 414–23 \| date \= August 2005 \| pmid \= 15852472 \| doi \= 10\.1002/gcc.20187 \| s2cid \= 2025900 \| hdl \= 10171/19527 \| hdl\-access \= free }} | | | t(11;14\)(p13;q11\) | [TCR](/wiki/T-cell_receptor "T-cell receptor")–[RBTN2](/wiki/RBTN2 "RBTN2") fusion{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zalcberg IQ, Silva ML, Abdelhay E, Tabak DG, Ornellas MH, Simões FV, Pucheri W, Ribeiro R, Seuánez HN \| title \= Translocation 11;14 in three children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia of T\-cell origin \| journal \= Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics \| volume \= 84 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 32–8 \| date \= October 1995 \| pmid \= 7497440 \| doi \= 10\.1016/0165\-4608(95\)00062\-3 }} | | ### Classification **French\-American\-British** Historically, prior to 2008, ALL was classified morphologically using the French\-American\-British (FAB) system that heavily relied on morphological assessment. The FAB system takes into account information on size, [cytoplasm](/wiki/Cytoplasm "Cytoplasm"), [nucleoli](/wiki/Nucleolus "Nucleolus"), [basophilia](/wiki/Basophilia "Basophilia") (color of cytoplasm), and [vacuolation](/wiki/Vacuole "Vacuole") (bubble\-like properties).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bennett JM, Catovsky D, Daniel MT, Flandrin G, Galton DA, Gralnick HR, Sultan C \| title \= Proposals for the classification of the acute leukaemias. French\-American\-British (FAB) co\-operative group \| journal \= British Journal of Haematology \| volume \= 33 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 451–8 \| date \= August 1976 \| pmid \= 188440 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1365\-2141\.1976\.tb03563\.x \| s2cid \= 9985915 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI\_2\_4\_3X\_How\_Is\_Acute\_Lymphocytic\_Leukemia\_Classified.asp?rnav\=cri\|title\=ACS :: How Is Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia Classified?\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080323074708/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI\_2\_4\_3X\_How\_Is\_Acute\_Lymphocytic\_Leukemia\_Classified.asp?rnav\=cri\|archive\-date\=23 March 2008\|url\-status\=dead}} | FAB Subtype | Cell Type | Characteristics | Comments | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ALL \- L1 | T cell or pre\-B cell | Small and homogeneous (uniform) cells | | | ALL \- L2 | T cell or pre\-B cell | Large and heterogeneous (varied) cells | | | ALL \- L3 | B cell | Large and varied cells with vacuoles | Mature B\-cell ALL also named Burkitt leukemia. Typically, poor prognosis with standard therapy | While some clinicians still use the FAB scheme to describe tumor cell appearance, much of this classification has been abandoned because of its limited impact on treatment choice and prognostic value.{{rp\|491}} **World Health Organization** In 2008, the World Health Organization classification of acute lymphoblastic leukemia was developed in an attempt to create a classification system that was more clinically relevant and could produce meaningful prognostic and treatment decisions. This system recognized differences in genetic, [immunophenotype](/wiki/Immunophenotyping "Immunophenotyping"), molecular, and morphological features found through [cytogenetic](/wiki/Cytogenetics "Cytogenetics") and [molecular diagnostics](/wiki/Molecular_diagnostics "Molecular diagnostics") tests.{{rp\|1531–1535}}{{cite book\|title\=Hoffbrand's essential haematology \| vauthors \= Hoffbrand AV, Moss PA \|isbn\=9781118408636\|edition\=Seventh\|location\=Chichester, West Sussex\|oclc\=910009732\|date \= 6 October 2015}}{{page needed\|date\=April 2020}} This subtyping helps determine the prognosis and the most appropriate treatment for each specific case of ALL. The WHO subtypes related to ALL are:{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Arber DA, Orazi A, Hasserjian R, Thiele J, Borowitz MJ, Le Beau MM, Bloomfield CD, Cazzola M, Vardiman JW \| title \= The 2016 revision to the World Health Organization classification of myeloid neoplasms and acute leukemia \| journal \= Blood \| volume \= 127 \| issue \= 20 \| pages \= 2391–405 \| date \= May 2016 \| pmid \= 27069254 \| doi \= 10\.1182/blood\-2016\-03\-643544 \| s2cid \= 18338178 \| doi\-access \= free }} * B\-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma + Not otherwise specified (NOS) + with recurrent genetic abnormalities + with t(9;22\)(q34\.1;q11\.2\);*BCR\-ABL1* + with t(v;11q23\.3\);*KMT2A* rearranged + with t(12;21\)(p13\.2;q22\.1\); *ETV6\-RUNX1* + with t(5;14\)(q31\.1;q32\.3\) *IL3\-IGH* + with t(1;19\)(q23;p13\.3\);*TCF3\-PBX1* + with hyperdiploidy + with hypodiploidy * T\-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma * Acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage + Acute undifferentiated leukemia + [Mixed phenotype acute leukemia](/wiki/Mixed_phenotype_acute_leukemia "Mixed phenotype acute leukemia") (MPAL) with t(9;22\)(q34\.1;q11\.2\); *BCR–ABL1* + MPAL with t(v;11q23\.3\); *KMT2A* rearranged + MPAL, B/myeloid, NOS + MPAL, T/myeloid, NOS
[ "Diagnosis\n---------", "[Diagnosing](/wiki/Medical_diagnosis \"Medical diagnosis\") ALL begins with a thorough medical history, [physical examination](/wiki/Physical_examination \"Physical examination\"), [complete blood count](/wiki/Full_blood_count \"Full blood count\"), and blood smears. While many symptoms of ALL can be found in common illnesses, persistent or unexplained symptoms raise suspicion of cancer. Because many features on the medical history and exam are not specific to ALL, further testing is often needed. A large number of white blood cells and lymphoblasts in the circulating blood can be suspicious for ALL because they indicate a rapid production of lymphoid cells in the marrow. The higher these numbers typically point to a worse prognosis.{{cite book \\|last \\= Collier \\|first \\= J.A.B \\|title \\= Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties, Third Edition \\|publisher \\= Oxford \\|year \\= 1991 \\|page \\= 810 \\|isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-19\\-262116\\-0 }} While white blood cell counts at initial presentation can vary significantly, circulating lymphoblast cells are seen on peripheral [blood smears](/wiki/Blood_film \"Blood film\") in the majority of cases.{{cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid\\=1772\\&sectionid\\=121896350 \\|title\\=The MD Anderson Manual of Medical Oncology \\| vauthors \\= Baljevic M, Jabbour E, O'Brien S, Kantarjian HM \\|date\\=2016\\|publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill Education\\| veditors \\= Kantarjian HM, Wolff RA \\|edition\\=3\\|location\\=New York\\|chapter\\=Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2017 }}", "A [bone marrow biopsy](/wiki/Bone_marrow_biopsy \"Bone marrow biopsy\") provides conclusive proof of ALL, typically with \\>20% of all cells being leukemic lymphoblasts.{{cite book \\|title \\= Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine \\|publisher \\= McGraw\\-Hill Professional \\|year \\= 2011 \\|isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-07\\-174889\\-6 \\|edition \\= 18 \\|location \\= New York \\|chapter \\= Chapter 110: Malignancies of Lymphoid Cells \\|last1 \\= Longo \\|first1 \\= D }} A [lumbar puncture](/wiki/Lumbar_puncture \"Lumbar puncture\") (also known as a spinal tap) can determine whether the [spinal column and brain](/wiki/Central_nervous_system \"Central nervous system\") have been invaded. Brain and spinal column involvement can be diagnosed either through confirmation of leukemic cells in the lumbar puncture or through clinical signs of CNS leukemia as described above. Laboratory tests that might show abnormalities include blood count, kidney function, electrolyte, and liver enzyme tests.", "[Pathological](/wiki/Histopathology \"Histopathology\") examination, [cytogenetics](/wiki/Cytogenetics \"Cytogenetics\") (in particular the presence of [Philadelphia chromosome](/wiki/Philadelphia_chromosome \"Philadelphia chromosome\")), and [immunophenotyping](/wiki/Immunophenotyping \"Immunophenotyping\") establish whether the leukemic cells are [myeloblastic](/wiki/Myeloblast \"Myeloblast\") (neutrophils, eosinophils, or basophils) or lymphoblastic ([B lymphocytes](/wiki/B_lymphocyte \"B lymphocyte\") or [T lymphocytes](/wiki/T_lymphocyte \"T lymphocyte\")). [Cytogenetic testing](/wiki/Genetic_testing \"Genetic testing\") on the marrow samples can help classify disease and predict how aggressive the disease course will be. Different mutations have been associated with shorter or longer survival. [Immunohistochemical](/wiki/Immunohistochemistry \"Immunohistochemistry\") testing may reveal [TdT](/wiki/Terminal_deoxynucleotidyl_transferase \"Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase\") or [CALLA](/wiki/Neprilysin \"Neprilysin\") antigens on the surface of leukemic cells. TdT is a protein expressed early in the development of pre\\-T and pre\\-B cells, whereas [CALLA](/wiki/Neprilysin \"Neprilysin\") is an antigen found in 80% of ALL cases and also in the \"blast crisis\" of [CML](/wiki/Chronic_myelogenous_leukemia \"Chronic myelogenous leukemia\").", "[Medical imaging](/wiki/Medical_imaging \"Medical imaging\") (such as [ultrasound](/wiki/Medical_ultrasonography \"Medical ultrasonography\") or [CT scanning](/wiki/CT_scan \"CT scan\")) can find invasion of other [organs](/wiki/Organ_%28anatomy%29 \"Organ (anatomy)\"), commonly the [lungs](/wiki/Lung \"Lung\"), liver, spleen, lymph nodes, brain, kidneys, and reproductive organs.{{cite web \\|url \\= http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology\\_and\\_oncology/leukemias/acute\\_leukemia.html \\|title \\= Acute Leukemia \\|date \\= November 2013 \\|publisher \\= Merck Sharp \\& Dohme Corp. \\|work \\= Merck Manual Professional \\|access\\-date \\= 17 April 2014 \\|editor \\= Rytting, ME \\|url\\-status \\= live \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140715103150/http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology\\_and\\_oncology/leukemias/acute\\_leukemia.html \\|archive\\-date \\= 15 July 2014 \\|df \\= dmy\\-all }}", "", "File:ALL \\- Peripherial Blood \\- Diagnosis \\- 01\\.jpg\\|Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), peripheral blood of a child, Pappenheim stain, magnification x100\nFile:ALL\\-KM\\-2\\.jpg\\|Bone marrow smear (large magnification) from a person with acute lymphoblastic leukemia\nFile:ALL\\-KM\\-3\\.jpg\\|Bone marrow smear from a person with acute lymphoblastic leukemia", "", "### Immunophenotyping", "In addition to cell morphology and cytogenetics, [immunophenotyping](/wiki/Immunophenotyping \"Immunophenotyping\"), a laboratory technique used to identify proteins that are expressed on their cell surface, is a key component in the diagnosis of ALL. The preferred method of immunophenotyping is through [flow cytometry](/wiki/Flow_cytometry \"Flow cytometry\"). In the malignant lymphoblasts of ALL, expression of [terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase](/wiki/Terminal_deoxynucleotidyl_transferase \"Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase\") (TdT) on the cell surface can help differentiate malignant lymphocyte cells from [reactive lymphocytes](/wiki/Reactive_lymphocyte \"Reactive lymphocyte\"), white blood cells that are reacting normally to an infection in the body. On the other hand, [myeloperoxidase](/wiki/Myeloperoxidase \"Myeloperoxidase\") (MPO), a marker for the [myeloid](/wiki/Myeloid_leukemia \"Myeloid leukemia\") lineage, is typically not expressed. Because precursor B cell and precursor T cells look the same, immunophenotyping can help differentiate the subtype of ALL and the level of maturity of the malignant white blood cells. The subtypes of ALL as determined by immunophenotype and according to the stages of maturation.", "| B cell lineage | T cell lineage |\n| --- | --- |\n| pre\\-pre\\-B ALL (pro\\-B\\-ALL) | precursor T\\- ALL |\n| common ALL | mature T\\-cell ALL |\n| pre\\-B ALL | |\n| mature B\\-cell ALL (Burkitt leukemia – FAB L3\\) | |", "An extensive panel of monoclonal antibodies to cell surface markers, particularly CD or cluster of differentiation markers, are used to classify cells by lineage. Below are immunological markers associated with B cell and T cell ALL.", "| Immunological markers | B cell Lineage | T cell Lineage |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| *B cell lineage*", "| CD19, CD22, CD79a | \\+ | − |\n| CD10 | − or \\+ (common ALL) | |\n| cytoplasmic Ig | − or \\+ (pre\\-B ALL) | |\n| surface Ig | − or \\+ (mature B\\-cell ALL) | |\n| TdT | \\+ | \\+ |\n| *T cell lineage*", "| CD2, CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7, CD8 | − | \\+ |\n| TdT | \\+ | \\+ |", "", "### Cytogenetics", "Cytogenetic analysis has shown different proportions and frequencies of genetic abnormalities in cases of ALL from different age groups. This information is particularly valuable for classification and can in part explain the different prognoses of these groups. In regards to genetic analysis, cases can be stratified according to [ploidy](/wiki/Ploidy \"Ploidy\"), a number of sets of chromosomes in the cell, and specific genetic abnormalities, such as [translocations](/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation \"Chromosomal translocation\"). Hyperdiploid cells are defined as cells with more than 50 chromosomes, while hypodiploid are defined as cells with less than 44 chromosomes. Hyperdiploid cases tend to carry a good prognosis while hypodiploid cases do not. For example, the most common specific abnormality in childhood B\\-ALL is the t(12;21\\) *[ETV6](/wiki/ETV6 \"ETV6\")*–*RUNX1* translocation, in which the *[RUNX1](/wiki/RUNX1 \"RUNX1\")* gene, encoding a protein involved in transcriptional control of [hemopoiesis](/wiki/Haematopoiesis \"Haematopoiesis\"), has been translocated and repressed by the *ETV6*–*RUNX1* fusion protein.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bhojwani D, Pei D, Sandlund JT, Jeha S, Ribeiro RC, Rubnitz JE, Raimondi SC, Shurtleff S, Onciu M, Cheng C, Coustan\\-Smith E, Bowman WP, Howard SC, Metzger ML, Inaba H, Leung W, Evans WE, Campana D, Relling MV, Pui CH \\| title \\= ETV6\\-RUNX1\\-positive childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: improved outcome with contemporary therapy \\| journal \\= Leukemia \\| volume \\= 26 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 265–70 \\| date \\= February 2012 \\| pmid \\= 21869842 \\| pmc \\= 3345278 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/leu.2011\\.227 }}", "Below is a table with the frequencies of some cytogenetic [translocations](/wiki/Translocations \"Translocations\") and molecular genetic abnormalities in ALL.", "| Cytogenetic translocation | Molecular genetic abnormality | % |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| cryptic t(12;21\\) | [TEL](/wiki/ETV6 \"ETV6\")–[AML1](/wiki/RUNX1 \"RUNX1\") fusion{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Stams WA, den Boer ML, Beverloo HB, Meijerink JP, van Wering ER, Janka\\-Schaub GE, Pieters R \\| title \\= Expression levels of TEL, AML1, and the fusion products TEL\\-AML1 and AML1\\-TEL versus drug sensitivity and clinical outcome in t(12;21\\)\\-positive pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia \\| journal \\= Clinical Cancer Research \\| volume \\= 11 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 2974–80 \\| date \\= April 2005 \\| pmid \\= 15837750 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1158/1078\\-0432\\.CCR\\-04\\-1829 \\| url \\= http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view\\=long\\&pmid\\=15837750 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} | 25\\.4%{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Pakakasama S, Kajanachumpol S, Kanjanapongkul S, Sirachainan N, Meekaewkunchorn A, Ningsanond V, Hongeng S \\| title \\= Simple multiplex RT\\-PCR for identifying common fusion transcripts in childhood acute leukemia \\| journal \\= International Journal of Laboratory Hematology \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 286–91 \\| date \\= August 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18665825 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1751\\-553X.2007\\.00954\\.x \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} |\n| t(1;19\\)(q23;p13\\) | [E2A](/wiki/TCF3 \"TCF3\")–[PBX](/wiki/Pre-B-cell_leukemia_homeobox \"Pre-B-cell leukemia homeobox\") ([PBX1](/wiki/PBX1 \"PBX1\")) fusion{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= McWhirter JR, Neuteboom ST, Wancewicz EV, Monia BP, Downing JR, Murre C \\| title \\= Oncogenic homeodomain transcription factor E2A\\-Pbx1 activates a novel WNT gene in pre\\-B acute lymphoblastoid leukemia \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 96 \\| issue \\= 20 \\| pages \\= 11464–9 \\| date \\= September 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10500199 \\| pmc \\= 18056 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.96\\.20\\.11464 \\| bibcode \\= 1999PNAS...9611464M \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} | 4\\.8% |\n| t(9;22\\)(q34;q11\\) | [BCR\\-ABL](/wiki/BCR-ABL \"BCR-ABL\") fusion(P185\\){{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rudolph C, Hegazy AN, von Neuhoff N, Steinemann D, Schröck E, Stripecke R, Klein C, Schlegelberger B \\| title \\= Cytogenetic characterization of a BCR\\-ABL transduced mouse cell line \\| journal \\= Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics \\| volume \\= 161 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 51–6 \\| date \\= August 2005 \\| pmid \\= 16080957 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cancergencyto.2004\\.12\\.021 }} | 1\\.6% |\n| t(4;11\\)(q21;q23\\) | [MLL](/wiki/MLL_%28gene%29 \"MLL (gene)\")–[AF4](/wiki/AF4/FMR2_family_member_1 \"AF4/FMR2 family member 1\") fusion{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Caslini C, Serna A, Rossi V, Introna M, Biondi A \\| title \\= Modulation of cell cycle by graded expression of MLL\\-AF4 fusion oncoprotein \\| journal \\= Leukemia \\| volume \\= 18 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 1064–71 \\| date \\= June 2004 \\| pmid \\= 14990976 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/sj.leu.2403321 \\| s2cid \\= 19189264 \\| doi\\-access \\= }} | 1\\.6% |\n| t(8;14\\)(q24;q32\\) | [IGH](/wiki/Immunoglobulin_heavy_chain \"Immunoglobulin heavy chain\")–[MYC](/wiki/MYC \"MYC\") fusion{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Martín\\-Subero JI, Odero MD, Hernandez R, Cigudosa JC, Agirre X, Saez B, Sanz\\-García E, Ardanaz MT, Novo FJ, Gascoyne RD, Calasanz MJ, Siebert R \\| title \\= Amplification of IGH/MYC fusion in clinically aggressive IGH/BCL2\\-positive germinal center B\\-cell lymphomas \\| journal \\= Genes, Chromosomes \\& Cancer \\| volume \\= 43 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 414–23 \\| date \\= August 2005 \\| pmid \\= 15852472 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/gcc.20187 \\| s2cid \\= 2025900 \\| hdl \\= 10171/19527 \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }} | |\n| t(11;14\\)(p13;q11\\) | [TCR](/wiki/T-cell_receptor \"T-cell receptor\")–[RBTN2](/wiki/RBTN2 \"RBTN2\") fusion{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zalcberg IQ, Silva ML, Abdelhay E, Tabak DG, Ornellas MH, Simões FV, Pucheri W, Ribeiro R, Seuánez HN \\| title \\= Translocation 11;14 in three children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia of T\\-cell origin \\| journal \\= Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics \\| volume \\= 84 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 32–8 \\| date \\= October 1995 \\| pmid \\= 7497440 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/0165\\-4608(95\\)00062\\-3 }} | |", "", "### Classification", "**French\\-American\\-British**", "Historically, prior to 2008, ALL was classified morphologically using the French\\-American\\-British (FAB) system that heavily relied on morphological assessment. The FAB system takes into account information on size, [cytoplasm](/wiki/Cytoplasm \"Cytoplasm\"), [nucleoli](/wiki/Nucleolus \"Nucleolus\"), [basophilia](/wiki/Basophilia \"Basophilia\") (color of cytoplasm), and [vacuolation](/wiki/Vacuole \"Vacuole\") (bubble\\-like properties).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bennett JM, Catovsky D, Daniel MT, Flandrin G, Galton DA, Gralnick HR, Sultan C \\| title \\= Proposals for the classification of the acute leukaemias. French\\-American\\-British (FAB) co\\-operative group \\| journal \\= British Journal of Haematology \\| volume \\= 33 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 451–8 \\| date \\= August 1976 \\| pmid \\= 188440 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1365\\-2141\\.1976\\.tb03563\\.x \\| s2cid \\= 9985915 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI\\_2\\_4\\_3X\\_How\\_Is\\_Acute\\_Lymphocytic\\_Leukemia\\_Classified.asp?rnav\\=cri\\|title\\=ACS :: How Is Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia Classified?\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080323074708/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI\\_2\\_4\\_3X\\_How\\_Is\\_Acute\\_Lymphocytic\\_Leukemia\\_Classified.asp?rnav\\=cri\\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "| FAB Subtype | Cell Type | Characteristics | Comments |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| ALL \\- L1 | T cell or pre\\-B cell | Small and homogeneous (uniform) cells | |\n| ALL \\- L2 | T cell or pre\\-B cell | Large and heterogeneous (varied) cells | |\n| ALL \\- L3 | B cell | Large and varied cells with vacuoles | Mature B\\-cell ALL also named Burkitt leukemia. Typically, poor prognosis with standard therapy |", "While some clinicians still use the FAB scheme to describe tumor cell appearance, much of this classification has been abandoned because of its limited impact on treatment choice and prognostic value.{{rp\\|491}}", "**World Health Organization**", "In 2008, the World Health Organization classification of acute lymphoblastic leukemia was developed in an attempt to create a classification system that was more clinically relevant and could produce meaningful prognostic and treatment decisions. This system recognized differences in genetic, [immunophenotype](/wiki/Immunophenotyping \"Immunophenotyping\"), molecular, and morphological features found through [cytogenetic](/wiki/Cytogenetics \"Cytogenetics\") and [molecular diagnostics](/wiki/Molecular_diagnostics \"Molecular diagnostics\") tests.{{rp\\|1531–1535}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Hoffbrand's essential haematology \\| vauthors \\= Hoffbrand AV, Moss PA \\|isbn\\=9781118408636\\|edition\\=Seventh\\|location\\=Chichester, West Sussex\\|oclc\\=910009732\\|date \\= 6 October 2015}}{{page needed\\|date\\=April 2020}} This subtyping helps determine the prognosis and the most appropriate treatment for each specific case of ALL.", "The WHO subtypes related to ALL are:{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Arber DA, Orazi A, Hasserjian R, Thiele J, Borowitz MJ, Le Beau MM, Bloomfield CD, Cazzola M, Vardiman JW \\| title \\= The 2016 revision to the World Health Organization classification of myeloid neoplasms and acute leukemia \\| journal \\= Blood \\| volume \\= 127 \\| issue \\= 20 \\| pages \\= 2391–405 \\| date \\= May 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27069254 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1182/blood\\-2016\\-03\\-643544 \\| s2cid \\= 18338178 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}\n* B\\-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma\n\t+ Not otherwise specified (NOS)\n\t+ with recurrent genetic abnormalities\n\t+ with t(9;22\\)(q34\\.1;q11\\.2\\);*BCR\\-ABL1*\n\t+ with t(v;11q23\\.3\\);*KMT2A* rearranged\n\t+ with t(12;21\\)(p13\\.2;q22\\.1\\); *ETV6\\-RUNX1*\n\t+ with t(5;14\\)(q31\\.1;q32\\.3\\) *IL3\\-IGH*\n\t+ with t(1;19\\)(q23;p13\\.3\\);*TCF3\\-PBX1*\n\t+ with hyperdiploidy\n\t+ with hypodiploidy\n* T\\-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma\n* Acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage\n\t+ Acute undifferentiated leukemia\n\t+ [Mixed phenotype acute leukemia](/wiki/Mixed_phenotype_acute_leukemia \"Mixed phenotype acute leukemia\") (MPAL) with t(9;22\\)(q34\\.1;q11\\.2\\); *BCR–ABL1*\n\t+ MPAL with t(v;11q23\\.3\\); *KMT2A* rearranged\n\t+ MPAL, B/myeloid, NOS\n\t+ MPAL, T/myeloid, NOS", "" ]
Plot ---- The film is set during the reign of the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty"). Two aging martial artists get together once a year for a timed duel. One is master of the short sword, King of Sabres ([Sammo Hung](/wiki/Sammo_Hung "Sammo Hung")), and the other is King of Spears ([Lau Kar\-wing](/wiki/Lau_Kar-wing "Lau Kar-wing")). Every year the fight ends in a draw, and as the masters are getting old, they decide the best course of action is to each take on a student to determine who is the better teacher. They agree to meet up again 10 years later, with their students and let the next generation carry on the duel. A previously upright martial artist known as Old Yellow Dog ([Bryan Leung](/wiki/Bryan_Leung "Bryan Leung")) kidnaps the students (also played by Lau and Hung) before their duel can begin. It transpires in a flashback that the master was defeated in separate battles with the King of Sabres and the King of Spears, and was forced to retire from fighting. Now, after years of training in the long bladed staff and with a new name, Laughing Bandit, he wants to lure the old masters out to exact his revenge. The old masters arrive, first taking on the Laughing Bandit's four disciples and killing them. However, this was a ploy to tire them out, and individually they are unable to defeat Laughing Bandit and his new techniques. The evil master suggests the old men both attack at once, but because of their pride and belief in their own superiority, they refuse. The students are released, while each master is fighting, and are instructed to escape. After some protestation they do, and the old masters are killed. Fuelled by revenge, the students agree to join forces to defeat the evil master. Hung's character (the new King of Spears) comes up with a plan us to use magnets that can pull the Laughing Bandit's weapon from him. After luring him out into the open, they fight him unarmed, choosing to mimic their weapon styles with empty hands, but with the magnet they are able to disrupt his attacks, and after a gruelling fight they triumph. They kill the evil master. After burying their masters, they decide to honour their memory by fulfilling their request to duel. However, as with their masters before them, the fight ends in a draw. Instead, they decide to resolve who is the greatest by playing a game, rather than fighting. Each must try to place his weapon into their masters burial mound, whilst simultaneously stopping their opponent from doing so. After another long competition, the film ends with the pair laughing at the absurdity of the rivalry and realising that as friends they will never be able to determine who is the best.
[ "Plot\n----", "The film is set during the reign of the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\"). Two aging martial artists get together once a year for a timed duel. One is master of the short sword, King of Sabres ([Sammo Hung](/wiki/Sammo_Hung \"Sammo Hung\")), and the other is King of Spears ([Lau Kar\\-wing](/wiki/Lau_Kar-wing \"Lau Kar-wing\")). Every year the fight ends in a draw, and as the masters are getting old, they decide the best course of action is to each take on a student to determine who is the better teacher. They agree to meet up again 10 years later, with their students and let the next generation carry on the duel.", "A previously upright martial artist known as Old Yellow Dog ([Bryan Leung](/wiki/Bryan_Leung \"Bryan Leung\")) kidnaps the students (also played by Lau and Hung) before their duel can begin. It transpires in a flashback that the master was defeated in separate battles with the King of Sabres and the King of Spears, and was forced to retire from fighting. Now, after years of training in the long bladed staff and with a new name, Laughing Bandit, he wants to lure the old masters out to exact his revenge.", "The old masters arrive, first taking on the Laughing Bandit's four disciples and killing them. However, this was a ploy to tire them out, and individually they are unable to defeat Laughing Bandit and his new techniques. The evil master suggests the old men both attack at once, but because of their pride and belief in their own superiority, they refuse. The students are released, while each master is fighting, and are instructed to escape. After some protestation they do, and the old masters are killed.", "Fuelled by revenge, the students agree to join forces to defeat the evil master. Hung's character (the new King of Spears) comes up with a plan us to use magnets that can pull the Laughing Bandit's weapon from him. After luring him out into the open, they fight him unarmed, choosing to mimic their weapon styles with empty hands, but with the magnet they are able to disrupt his attacks, and after a gruelling fight they triumph. They kill the evil master.", "After burying their masters, they decide to honour their memory by fulfilling their request to duel. However, as with their masters before them, the fight ends in a draw. Instead, they decide to resolve who is the greatest by playing a game, rather than fighting. Each must try to place his weapon into their masters burial mound, whilst simultaneously stopping their opponent from doing so. After another long competition, the film ends with the pair laughing at the absurdity of the rivalry and realising that as friends they will never be able to determine who is the best.", "" ]
Life ---- ### Provenance and early years Tscherning was born in [Frederiksværk](/wiki/Frederiksv%C3%A6rk "Frederiksværk") during the run\-up to Denmark's involvement in the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"). [Frederiksværk](/wiki/Frederiksv%C3%A6rk "Frederiksværk") was a small town on [Zealand](/wiki/Zealand "Zealand") with a large gun factory. The family could trace its origins back to [Silesia](/wiki/Silesia "Silesia") from where they had migrated to Denmark at the time of the [Religious Wars](/wiki/European_wars_of_religion "European wars of religion"). [Colonel Eilert Tscherning](/wiki/Eilert_Tscherning_%28officer%29 "Eilert Tscherning (officer)"), his father, worked as an inspector at the town's important cannon and powder works.{{cite book\|author\=Nick Svendsen\|title\=The Battle at Bov\|work\=The First Schleswig\-Holstein War 1848–50\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pZvwAwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA48\|date\=19 July 2010\|publisher\=Helion and Company\| isbn\=978\-1\-906033\-44\-6\| pages\=46–50}} Like many war children, Tscherning was keen to join the fighting, enrolling for military training at the age of nine. The [English attack on Copenhagen](/wiki/Battle_of_Copenhagen_%281807%29 "Battle of Copenhagen (1807)") in 1807 intensified his soldierly ambitions. He enlisted as a [cadet](/wiki/Cadet "Cadet") in 1809, emerging four years later as a second lieutenant of artillery. He was sent with the army to [Holstein](/wiki/Holstein "Holstein") in 1813 and followed General von Kardorff into Germany, but his ambitions to become involved in the fighting were thwarted by the [Treaty of Kiel](/wiki/Treaty_of_Kiel "Treaty of Kiel"), concluded in January 1814, which finally put an end to two decades of war. Between 1816 and 1818 he served with a Danish company in northern France as part of the international army of occupation. He was based in Flanders, but was able to secure postings to [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and to [Metz](/wiki/Metz "Metz") which enabled him to engage in the academic study of science and, more specifically, of artillery warfare. He was also able to get to know [Peter Andreas Heiberg](/wiki/Peter_Andreas_Heiberg "Peter Andreas Heiberg") (1758–1841\), the egalitarian Danish born author and enlightenment scholar whose writings angered the Danish establishment, and who therefore lived out the second half of his life as a political exile in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"). Tscherning and Heiberg became lifelong friends. Returning in 1818 he worked as a volunteer assistant to his father at the gun factory. However, he turned down the [king's](/wiki/Frederick_VI_of_Denmark "Frederick VI of Denmark") offer that he should take over from his father. Tscherning rejoined the [army](/wiki/Royal_Danish_Army "Royal Danish Army") in 1828\. He was almost at once sent with a few fellow officers, including [Christian Frederik Hansen](/wiki/Christian_Frederik_Hansen_%28officer%29 "Christian Frederik Hansen (officer)") and Otto Schlegel, to observe the [French expeditionary force](/wiki/Morea_expedition "Morea expedition") that had been sent to provide support in the [Greek War of Independence](/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence "Greek War of Independence"). Not for the first time in his military career, by the time he arrived the fighting was over. The Egyptian troops had left. He nevertheless had the opportunity to join in, as a volunteer, with some fortification construction and other organisational work. He returned in 1829, stopping off for a period of further study in France before moving on, back to Copenhagen. In Copenhagen, Tscherning was deployed to teach artillery cadets and appointed a member of the commission created to propose reforms to army training. When the new [Military Academy](/wiki/Forsvarsakademiet "Forsvarsakademiet") opened in May 1830 he was appointed to a top teaching position in it, lecturing on artillery, his speciality. He won the respect of his students both through his technical knowledge and as a result of his human insights and teaching methods. In 1832 he was promoted to the rank of captain. However, Tscherning was a man of strong opinions on military matters and on the condition of Danish society more generally, and he was keen to share his views far beyond the confines of the classroom at the Copenhagen officers' academy. ### The reformer Tscherning was keen to stimulate a wider debate in the defence challenges facing the country. Although there was still a standing army in existence, its members were poorly remunerated and held in low esteem by wider Danish society. Several officers sought to raise the issue in public. Tscherning himself published no fewer than poor pamphlets on it between 1831 and 1833 in which he not merely set out the problems but also proposed solutions. In place of an isolated army, a sense of duty to defend the nation should be awakened in the population as a whole, applying a version of the French revolutionary idea of "the nation in arms". Those contributing to the nation's defence should enjoy better material support, just treatment by the state, promotion based fairly on merit and clear age limits. There was a host of other detailed reform proposals. Military style basic training should be integrated into education. Some of these ideas did not go unchallenged. There were those who felt that some of his ideas were impractical, that he under\-estimated the importance of basic routine skills as necessary underpinnings for wartime preparedness, that his well reasoned strictures on military administration were not matched by strategic and tactical insight. ### Exile His ideas for reconfiguring the relationship between the army and the state failed to convince the wider political establishment. As he persisted, others from the military found practical objections to his proposals, while in general terms, an attack on the status quo came to be presented as an attack on [the aging king](/wiki/Frederick_VI_of_Denmark "Frederick VI of Denmark"). There were mutterings that he was spreading republican ideas. Tscherning, finding himself on the receiving end of a royal rebuke, offered to retire; but the king refused to accept his retirement, preferring to find a more subtle way to cool the debate. Tscherning was ordered to embark on a study trip which, as the king put it, would take a long time (*"tage lang Tid"*). For the next five years he visited a succession of countries in Europe, carefully studying their military administrative structures and sending home a succession of detailed reports which, he quickly became convinced, were ignored. He also sent letters about foreign military arrangements to publicly available journals, causing intense annoyance to the king and his [chancelry](/wiki/Chancery_%28medieval_office%29 "Chancery (medieval office)").Harald Jørgensen, Trykkefrihedsspørgsmålet i Danmark 1799–1848, Ejnar Munksgaard 1948, pp. 120–121\. In 1838 Tscherning was informed that his study trip was completed and he was permitted/summoned to return home. On arriving back home he issued another booklet, arguing that the solution to the problem of integrating the military into the state apparatus must be part of a wider solution involving the reorganisation of the overall government structure and indeed something approaching a revitalisation of the national soul. He again applied to resign from the army but his application was turned down. Instead he went to France where he spent a couple of years working as a military engineer, appointed a battery commander in 1841\. ### Retirement from the army In 1841/1842, at last, his application to resign from the army was accepted. Shortly before that he had a serious disagreement with fellow officers who objected to his proposals on promotion and deployment of junior officers. It was his growing unpopularity with fellow officers over the past few years which accounted for his failure at this point to gain further promotion above the rank of captain. For the next few years Tscherning supported himself in the private sector, working with engineering and trading companies. There is also mention of his having undertaken architecture work. In addition, he participated in the political debates of the times as a journalist, continuing to advocate a more coherent approach to army reform, and beyond that topic establishing his credentials as a backer of a more "liberal" approach to government. During this time he found time to marry. Four months short of his fiftieth birthday, on 27 August 1845 Anton Frederik Tscherning married [Eleonora Christine Lützow](/wiki/Eleonora_Tscherning "Eleonora Tscherning"). Despite being 22 years younger than he, the bride was his first cousin,{{cite web\|url\=https://finnholbek.dk/getperson.php?personID\=I4417\&tree\=2\|title\=Anton Frederik von Lützow 1744 – 1819 (74 år)\|author\=Finn Holbek (compiler of the genealogy)\|work\=Danmarks Adels Aarbog, Thiset, Hiort\-Lorenzen, Bobé, Teisen., (Dansk Adelsforening), \[1884 – 2011]., DAA 1928:II:85\.\|accessdate\=18 January 2018}} although her father – Tscherning's maternal uncle, [General Major Adam Tobias Lützow](/wiki/Adam_Tobias_L%C3%BCtzow "Adam Tobias Lützow") (1775–1844\) – had acknowledged Eleonora as his daughter (and adopted her legally) only in 1837\. ### Minister for War [thumb\|right\|A contemporary caricature of Tscherning. The numerous chambers in his brain are intended to highlight the range of his various interests.](/wiki/File:Anton_Frederik_Tscherning_caricature.jpg "Anton Frederik Tscherning caricature.jpg") Having already gained a good knowledge of rural issues during his time in [Frederiksværk](/wiki/Frederiksv%C3%A6rk "Frederiksværk"), Tscherning became president of the [Society of the Friends of Peasants](/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_Peasants "Society of the Friends of Peasants") on its foundation in 1846\. This was a grouping that came together to press the case for political reform, with many of the features of a political party: Tscherning's acceptance of its leadership marked an important step along his path to a more overtly political role. He now played a leading part in events which culminated in what amounted to a quiet revolution in 1848/49\. When [King Christian](/wiki/Christian_VIII_of_Denmark "Christian VIII of Denmark") died in January 1848 he was still an ["absolutist monarch"](/wiki/Absolute_monarchy "Absolute monarchy"): After the wranglings that led to adoption of the written "June constitution" in 1849 his son, the popular [Frederick VII](/wiki/Frederick_VII_of_Denmark "Frederick VII of Denmark"), could be regarded as a ["constitutional monarch"](/wiki/Constitution_of_Denmark "Constitution of Denmark").{{cite web\|title\=Denmark – 1814–1849 – Assemblies and Constitution\|url\= https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/dk\-history\-04\.htm\|publisher\="GlobalSecurity", Alexandria, VA\|accessdate\=18 January 2018}} Following the dismissal of the [Stemann government](/wiki/Poul_Christian_Stemann "Poul Christian Stemann") in March 1848, having promoted the constitutional conference of 1848, it was natural that Tscherning should be invited to join the [new administration](/wiki/Moltke_I_Cabinet "Moltke I Cabinet") under [Adam Wilhelm Moltke](/wiki/Adam_Wilhelm_Moltke "Adam Wilhelm Moltke"), and his public profile over military reform meant that the [War Ministry](/wiki/List_of_Defence_Ministers_of_Denmark "List of Defence Ministers of Denmark") was the appropriate department for him to take over, albeit in the face of opposition from the conservative military establishment. The king promoted him to the rank of colonel in the wake of victory against at [Bov](/wiki/Battle_of_Bov "Battle of Bov") in April 1848, which was considered more appropriate than that of captain for the government's Minister for War (although relations between Tscherning and the king subsequently soured). The [Battle of Bov](/wiki/Battle_of_Bov "Battle of Bov") was the first significant conflict of the [First Schleswig War](/wiki/First_Schleswig_War "First Schleswig War") which was essentially a separatist rebellion by [Schleswig](/wiki/Schleswig "Schleswig") and [Holstein](/wiki/Holstein "Holstein"), territories which formed the southern part of the Danish kingdom but which also had increasing links to [Germany](/wiki/German_confederation "German confederation"), intensified by migration pressures and a shifting language frontier. To the south Holstein had also, till its abolition in 1806, formed part of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire "Holy Roman Empire"), and now combined its ties to the Danish crown with membership of the [German Confederation](/wiki/German_Confederation "German Confederation"). In a century of rising nationalism the tensions this situation created could only increase, and the rebellion took on the character of an international war when [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia") intervened on behalf of the separatists. By [July](/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericia "Battle of Fredericia") the Danish army had succeeded in stopping the rebels and their Prussian allies, although the underlying tensions that had triggered the war remained unresolved. Tscherning was felt to have provided excellent leadership, demonstrating clarity of thought and abundant stamina. He might not have been loved by the conservative military leaders, but he did enjoy widespread political support in the country, especially in the rural areas where support for the Society of the Friends of Peasants was concentrated. He was able to prepare the way for universal military service. He found the political backing to transform the army into a single coherent fighting entity, taking care at a detailed level of training and health issues, and very quickly, through changing the personnel at the top of the army and through personal example, gaining the loyalty of the forces. By the time the government resigned, in November 1848, Denmark could call on a well coordinated army of approximately 30,000 men. Tscherning's conduct of the war was not beyond criticism, however. There are suggestions that if he had maximised the forces sent to crush the rebellion that erupted in [Holstein](/wiki/Holstein "Holstein") at the outset, the subsequent coming together of a separatist Schleswig\-Holstein rebel force might have been avoided. There were occasions when disagreement at the top led to a lack of clarity over chains of command. Some of his strategic decisions were portrayed as gratuitously whimsical. However, he was also constrained by political considerations during the summer of 1848: the Danish government position was widely backed by foreign powers (aside from those in the [German confederation](/wiki/German_confederation "German confederation")), but there was a growing risk that allies might initiate peace talks on Denmark's behalf. When he resigned in November 1848 Tscherning was not convinced that a further three years of war was desirable and he increasingly came to the view that, while rebellion should be seen for what it was and put down accordingly, that did not mean that regional differences and language rights should be ignored. In political terms, his belief in democratic structures and principals was very much on display between 1849 and 1864, the years that he spent as a member of parliament. He also never lost his enthusiasm for military affairs, and never gave up on his belief in the "nation in arms" concept, in order to "holder Folket friskt og disciplinerer det" (*"keep the people energetic and disciplined"*).
[ "Life\n----", "### Provenance and early years", "Tscherning was born in [Frederiksværk](/wiki/Frederiksv%C3%A6rk \"Frederiksværk\") during the run\\-up to Denmark's involvement in the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"). [Frederiksværk](/wiki/Frederiksv%C3%A6rk \"Frederiksværk\") was a small town on [Zealand](/wiki/Zealand \"Zealand\") with a large gun factory. The family could trace its origins back to [Silesia](/wiki/Silesia \"Silesia\") from where they had migrated to Denmark at the time of the [Religious Wars](/wiki/European_wars_of_religion \"European wars of religion\"). [Colonel Eilert Tscherning](/wiki/Eilert_Tscherning_%28officer%29 \"Eilert Tscherning (officer)\"), his father, worked as an inspector at the town's important cannon and powder works.{{cite book\\|author\\=Nick Svendsen\\|title\\=The Battle at Bov\\|work\\=The First Schleswig\\-Holstein War 1848–50\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pZvwAwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA48\\|date\\=19 July 2010\\|publisher\\=Helion and Company\\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-906033\\-44\\-6\\| pages\\=46–50}} Like many war children, Tscherning was keen to join the fighting, enrolling for military training at the age of nine. The [English attack on Copenhagen](/wiki/Battle_of_Copenhagen_%281807%29 \"Battle of Copenhagen (1807)\") in 1807 intensified his soldierly ambitions. He enlisted as a [cadet](/wiki/Cadet \"Cadet\") in 1809, emerging four years later as a second lieutenant of artillery. He was sent with the army to [Holstein](/wiki/Holstein \"Holstein\") in 1813 and followed General von Kardorff into Germany, but his ambitions to become involved in the fighting were thwarted by the [Treaty of Kiel](/wiki/Treaty_of_Kiel \"Treaty of Kiel\"), concluded in January 1814, which finally put an end to two decades of war.", "Between 1816 and 1818 he served with a Danish company in northern France as part of the international army of occupation. He was based in Flanders, but was able to secure postings to [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and to [Metz](/wiki/Metz \"Metz\") which enabled him to engage in the academic study of science and, more specifically, of artillery warfare. He was also able to get to know [Peter Andreas Heiberg](/wiki/Peter_Andreas_Heiberg \"Peter Andreas Heiberg\") (1758–1841\\), the egalitarian Danish born author and enlightenment scholar whose writings angered the Danish establishment, and who therefore lived out the second half of his life as a political exile in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"). Tscherning and Heiberg became lifelong friends. Returning in 1818 he worked as a volunteer assistant to his father at the gun factory. However, he turned down the [king's](/wiki/Frederick_VI_of_Denmark \"Frederick VI of Denmark\") offer that he should take over from his father.", "Tscherning rejoined the [army](/wiki/Royal_Danish_Army \"Royal Danish Army\") in 1828\\. He was almost at once sent with a few fellow officers, including [Christian Frederik Hansen](/wiki/Christian_Frederik_Hansen_%28officer%29 \"Christian Frederik Hansen (officer)\") and Otto Schlegel, to observe the [French expeditionary force](/wiki/Morea_expedition \"Morea expedition\") that had been sent to provide support in the [Greek War of Independence](/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence \"Greek War of Independence\"). Not for the first time in his military career, by the time he arrived the fighting was over. The Egyptian troops had left. He nevertheless had the opportunity to join in, as a volunteer, with some fortification construction and other organisational work. He returned in 1829, stopping off for a period of further study in France before moving on, back to Copenhagen.", "In Copenhagen, Tscherning was deployed to teach artillery cadets and appointed a member of the commission created to propose reforms to army training. When the new [Military Academy](/wiki/Forsvarsakademiet \"Forsvarsakademiet\") opened in May 1830 he was appointed to a top teaching position in it, lecturing on artillery, his speciality. He won the respect of his students both through his technical knowledge and as a result of his human insights and teaching methods. In 1832 he was promoted to the rank of captain. However, Tscherning was a man of strong opinions on military matters and on the condition of Danish society more generally, and he was keen to share his views far beyond the confines of the classroom at the Copenhagen officers' academy.", "### The reformer", "Tscherning was keen to stimulate a wider debate in the defence challenges facing the country. Although there was still a standing army in existence, its members were poorly remunerated and held in low esteem by wider Danish society. Several officers sought to raise the issue in public. Tscherning himself published no fewer than poor pamphlets on it between 1831 and 1833 in which he not merely set out the problems but also proposed solutions. In place of an isolated army, a sense of duty to defend the nation should be awakened in the population as a whole, applying a version of the French revolutionary idea of \"the nation in arms\". Those contributing to the nation's defence should enjoy better material support, just treatment by the state, promotion based fairly on merit and clear age limits. There was a host of other detailed reform proposals. Military style basic training should be integrated into education. Some of these ideas did not go unchallenged. There were those who felt that some of his ideas were impractical, that he under\\-estimated the importance of basic routine skills as necessary underpinnings for wartime preparedness, that his well reasoned strictures on military administration were not matched by strategic and tactical insight.", "### Exile", "His ideas for reconfiguring the relationship between the army and the state failed to convince the wider political establishment. As he persisted, others from the military found practical objections to his proposals, while in general terms, an attack on the status quo came to be presented as an attack on [the aging king](/wiki/Frederick_VI_of_Denmark \"Frederick VI of Denmark\"). There were mutterings that he was spreading republican ideas. Tscherning, finding himself on the receiving end of a royal rebuke, offered to retire; but the king refused to accept his retirement, preferring to find a more subtle way to cool the debate. Tscherning was ordered to embark on a study trip which, as the king put it, would take a long time (*\"tage lang Tid\"*). For the next five years he visited a succession of countries in Europe, carefully studying their military administrative structures and sending home a succession of detailed reports which, he quickly became convinced, were ignored. He also sent letters about foreign military arrangements to publicly available journals, causing intense annoyance to the king and his [chancelry](/wiki/Chancery_%28medieval_office%29 \"Chancery (medieval office)\").Harald Jørgensen, Trykkefrihedsspørgsmålet i Danmark 1799–1848, Ejnar Munksgaard 1948, pp. 120–121\\. In 1838 Tscherning was informed that his study trip was completed and he was permitted/summoned to return home. On arriving back home he issued another booklet, arguing that the solution to the problem of integrating the military into the state apparatus must be part of a wider solution involving the reorganisation of the overall government structure and indeed something approaching a revitalisation of the national soul. He again applied to resign from the army but his application was turned down. Instead he went to France where he spent a couple of years working as a military engineer, appointed a battery commander in 1841\\.", "### Retirement from the army", "In 1841/1842, at last, his application to resign from the army was accepted. Shortly before that he had a serious disagreement with fellow officers who objected to his proposals on promotion and deployment of junior officers. It was his growing unpopularity with fellow officers over the past few years which accounted for his failure at this point to gain further promotion above the rank of captain.", "For the next few years Tscherning supported himself in the private sector, working with engineering and trading companies. There is also mention of his having undertaken architecture work. In addition, he participated in the political debates of the times as a journalist, continuing to advocate a more coherent approach to army reform, and beyond that topic establishing his credentials as a backer of a more \"liberal\" approach to government.", "During this time he found time to marry. Four months short of his fiftieth birthday, on 27 August 1845 Anton Frederik Tscherning married [Eleonora Christine Lützow](/wiki/Eleonora_Tscherning \"Eleonora Tscherning\"). Despite being 22 years younger than he, the bride was his first cousin,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://finnholbek.dk/getperson.php?personID\\=I4417\\&tree\\=2\\|title\\=Anton Frederik von Lützow 1744 – 1819 (74 år)\\|author\\=Finn Holbek (compiler of the genealogy)\\|work\\=Danmarks Adels Aarbog, Thiset, Hiort\\-Lorenzen, Bobé, Teisen., (Dansk Adelsforening), \\[1884 – 2011]., DAA 1928:II:85\\.\\|accessdate\\=18 January 2018}} although her father – Tscherning's maternal uncle, [General Major Adam Tobias Lützow](/wiki/Adam_Tobias_L%C3%BCtzow \"Adam Tobias Lützow\") (1775–1844\\) – had acknowledged Eleonora as his daughter (and adopted her legally) only in 1837\\.", "### Minister for War", "[thumb\\|right\\|A contemporary caricature of Tscherning. The numerous chambers in his brain are intended to highlight the range of his various interests.](/wiki/File:Anton_Frederik_Tscherning_caricature.jpg \"Anton Frederik Tscherning caricature.jpg\")\nHaving already gained a good knowledge of rural issues during his time in [Frederiksværk](/wiki/Frederiksv%C3%A6rk \"Frederiksværk\"), Tscherning became president of the [Society of the Friends of Peasants](/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_Peasants \"Society of the Friends of Peasants\") on its foundation in 1846\\. This was a grouping that came together to press the case for political reform, with many of the features of a political party: Tscherning's acceptance of its leadership marked an important step along his path to a more overtly political role. He now played a leading part in events which culminated in what amounted to a quiet revolution in 1848/49\\. When [King Christian](/wiki/Christian_VIII_of_Denmark \"Christian VIII of Denmark\") died in January 1848 he was still an [\"absolutist monarch\"](/wiki/Absolute_monarchy \"Absolute monarchy\"): After the wranglings that led to adoption of the written \"June constitution\" in 1849 his son, the popular [Frederick VII](/wiki/Frederick_VII_of_Denmark \"Frederick VII of Denmark\"), could be regarded as a [\"constitutional monarch\"](/wiki/Constitution_of_Denmark \"Constitution of Denmark\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Denmark – 1814–1849 – Assemblies and Constitution\\|url\\= https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/dk\\-history\\-04\\.htm\\|publisher\\=\"GlobalSecurity\", Alexandria, VA\\|accessdate\\=18 January 2018}} Following the dismissal of the [Stemann government](/wiki/Poul_Christian_Stemann \"Poul Christian Stemann\") in March 1848, having promoted the constitutional conference of 1848, it was natural that Tscherning should be invited to join the [new administration](/wiki/Moltke_I_Cabinet \"Moltke I Cabinet\") under [Adam Wilhelm Moltke](/wiki/Adam_Wilhelm_Moltke \"Adam Wilhelm Moltke\"), and his public profile over military reform meant that the [War Ministry](/wiki/List_of_Defence_Ministers_of_Denmark \"List of Defence Ministers of Denmark\") was the appropriate department for him to take over, albeit in the face of opposition from the conservative military establishment. The king promoted him to the rank of colonel in the wake of victory against at [Bov](/wiki/Battle_of_Bov \"Battle of Bov\") in April 1848, which was considered more appropriate than that of captain for the government's Minister for War (although relations between Tscherning and the king subsequently soured).", "The [Battle of Bov](/wiki/Battle_of_Bov \"Battle of Bov\") was the first significant conflict of the [First Schleswig War](/wiki/First_Schleswig_War \"First Schleswig War\") which was essentially a separatist rebellion by [Schleswig](/wiki/Schleswig \"Schleswig\") and [Holstein](/wiki/Holstein \"Holstein\"), territories which formed the southern part of the Danish kingdom but which also had increasing links to [Germany](/wiki/German_confederation \"German confederation\"), intensified by migration pressures and a shifting language frontier. To the south Holstein had also, till its abolition in 1806, formed part of the [Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire \"Holy Roman Empire\"), and now combined its ties to the Danish crown with membership of the [German Confederation](/wiki/German_Confederation \"German Confederation\"). In a century of rising nationalism the tensions this situation created could only increase, and the rebellion took on the character of an international war when [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\") intervened on behalf of the separatists. By [July](/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericia \"Battle of Fredericia\") the Danish army had succeeded in stopping the rebels and their Prussian allies, although the underlying tensions that had triggered the war remained unresolved. Tscherning was felt to have provided excellent leadership, demonstrating clarity of thought and abundant stamina. He might not have been loved by the conservative military leaders, but he did enjoy widespread political support in the country, especially in the rural areas where support for the Society of the Friends of Peasants was concentrated. He was able to prepare the way for universal military service. He found the political backing to transform the army into a single coherent fighting entity, taking care at a detailed level of training and health issues, and very quickly, through changing the personnel at the top of the army and through personal example, gaining the loyalty of the forces. By the time the government resigned, in November 1848, Denmark could call on a well coordinated army of approximately 30,000 men.", "Tscherning's conduct of the war was not beyond criticism, however. There are suggestions that if he had maximised the forces sent to crush the rebellion that erupted in [Holstein](/wiki/Holstein \"Holstein\") at the outset, the subsequent coming together of a separatist Schleswig\\-Holstein rebel force might have been avoided. There were occasions when disagreement at the top led to a lack of clarity over chains of command. Some of his strategic decisions were portrayed as gratuitously whimsical. However, he was also constrained by political considerations during the summer of 1848: the Danish government position was widely backed by foreign powers (aside from those in the [German confederation](/wiki/German_confederation \"German confederation\")), but there was a growing risk that allies might initiate peace talks on Denmark's behalf. When he resigned in November 1848 Tscherning was not convinced that a further three years of war was desirable and he increasingly came to the view that, while rebellion should be seen for what it was and put down accordingly, that did not mean that regional differences and language rights should be ignored. In political terms, his belief in democratic structures and principals was very much on display between 1849 and 1864, the years that he spent as a member of parliament. He also never lost his enthusiasm for military affairs, and never gave up on his belief in the \"nation in arms\" concept, in order to \"holder Folket friskt og disciplinerer det\" (*\"keep the people energetic and disciplined\"*).", "" ]
Gameplay -------- Ordinarily, the game follows a linear progression of battles. First, an opening cutscene is viewed (often preceded by a narrator's plot synopsis), after which the player is taken to a preparation screen where they may select the units and cards they wish to bring into battle, as well as restore characters' Morale or equipping new items. After this, the player enters the battle proper. Within each battle, units are displayed on a grid of spaces which decide where the characters can move. The player and the computer take turns in which movements are determined and one attack can be executed against an opposing character. The player may choose to end their turn at any time. Once all objectives in a battle are completed, the player is given the option to save, and either the next battle begins or the player will be returned to the mission selection screen. [right\|thumb\|200px\|Medoute explains how cannons function.](/wiki/Image:Blaze_Union_tutorial_screenshot.jpg "Blaze Union tutorial screenshot.jpg") ### Tutorials As in *Yggdra Union*, the player has the option of turning on in\-game tutorials, in which characters discuss and explain new gameplay elements as soon as they become available. However, for *Blaze Union* this option must be toggled under the Options section of the game's main menu, whereas in *Yggdra* Union the player was prompted to turn tutorials on or off whenever a new game was started. ### Union As in *Yggdra Union*, Unions are the eponymous game play mechanic. Unlike most games, the player is allowed one attack per turn. Attacks are performed in formations called unions. Most unions involve multiple units, but it is possible to attack with a "union" of one unit. Forming unions allows more than one unit to join the battle, allowing for battles between as many as one hundred and twenty soldiers, grouped into up to five individual battles between two units named "duels". Depending on the gender of the unit, the formation required for a union will be different. Males have an x\-shaped formation, whereas females have a \+\-shaped formation. Linked unions, which become available during Chapter 4, allow units within the core union to apply their union pattern to extend the overall union. #### Units Each unit that can be included in a union is composed of a leader, the "head", and as many as seven underlings, or "members". Each unit has a weapon type, with strengths and weaknesses in a rock\-paper\-scissors fashion. Each unit comes with six stats: Morale, an indicator with a function similar to [hit points](/wiki/Hit_points "Hit points"); GEN, generality; ATK, attack; TEC, technique; and LUK, luck. Player characters have a seventh statistic called REP, and enemy units' seventh statistic is POW.UP. In comparison to *Yggdra Union*, REP (or reputation) is no longer a stat based on one out of six; instead, it is shown on the status screen as a percentage of total battles won. POW.UP is a reducible stat that increases card POW upon player victory. Each unit also has the potential for five 'effects', which are strategy altering hooks that do many things, from the in\-clash voiding of damage enhanced with a particular element, to out of clash Morale restoration. Up to four effects can be innate to the unit, with one effect coming from the unit's equipped item. Items have two possible uses; they can be equipped for stat\-ups and effects, or they can be consumed to recover Morale. Equipped items cannot be removed, and will disappear after a set amount of battlefields. #### Unit Types There are fourteen base unit types, generally two differently\-gendered classes per weapon type (with the exceptions being Axe and Scythe). The basic types are: * Fencer (sword, male) * Valkyrie (sword, female) * Bandit (axe, male) * Griffon Rider (axe, female) * AxBattler (axe, female) \- *new to Blaze Union* * Knight (spear, male) * Undine (spear, female) * Necromancer (staff, male) * Witch (staff, female) * Hunter (bow, male) * Assassin (bow, female) * Golem (lump, genderless) * Skeleton (lump, genderless) * Imperial Knight (scythe, male) There are a number of story characters who possess derivative classes from one of these basic types with slightly different stat growth (Garlot's class is Rabid Knight, Siskier's class is Assault, etc.), Baretreenu's class is based on the *Yggdra Union* character Mistel, and Nessiah and Eater's classes are entirely unique. #### Aggression and Rage After the first battlefield has been cleared, the player may control how the character attacks in a clash by changing the Aggression modes, and the enemy's mode of attack will shift with the gradually increasing Rage meter, which has been a series staple since *Riviera*. When a unit is in Passive mode, Aggression will fill, but the damage the unit deals will be reduced. If there is Aggression in the gauge, the unit can enter Aggressive mode, depleting said Aggression, dealing more damage and also activating the innate element of the unit, if one exists. If Aggression reaches 100%, a card skill can be activated. The enemy's Rage works in a similar way, except that Rage continuously fills until either Max is reached, or is stopped by a skill or effect. When Rage becomes half full, the enemy will enter Rage mode, the damage the enemy deals will increase, and the enemy's innate element, if it has one, will activate. When Rage is completely full, the enemy enters Max mode, damage increases again, and any activated element is removed from damage. In Max mode, the enemy is also able to activate skills. Rage will carry over between clashes in a union based on the outcome of the union; if the enemy loses, all accumulated Rage will carry over, but if the enemy wins it will start empty in the next clash. Player Aggression carries over regardless. ### Cards #### Skills Each card also has a skill, ranging in effect from restoring allies and killing enemies, to changing the landscape and even invincibility. For these skills to be activated, the Union leader must first match the ACE of the card. In addition, there are two types of skills: Hold and Charge. Charge\-type skills require the □ button be held to charge a bar, at which point, if released, the skill will activate and deplete the Aggression gauge. Hold\-type skills are activated by pressing □, and holding it for as long as the skill's effects are desired, or until the Aggression gauge is completely depleted. Many skills have certain requirements of their own, such as Steal \- which steals any item the enemy might be holding \- being usable only by Siskier. When 100% Aggression or Max Rage mode is reached and all other conditions are met, a skill can be activated. Each skill has a rule or equation for its mechanic; for example, Steal will succeed if the user's TEC is larger than or equal to the target's GEN, otherwise it will fail and the opponent's item will not be stolen. These rules and equations can affect how effective the skill is when used by a certain unit. #### New Cards Blaze Union features three new cards: "Vise", which raises the entire Union's LUK to full throughout the entire battle; "Rauger", a Skill usable only by Byff which raises the ATK and GEN of all male Union members; and "Insanity", a Skill usable only by Thortie which causes damage and inflicts a random status effect. ### Mission Selection and Route Division A mechanic new to Blaze Union which was created due to its branching storylines. During chapters 3 and 5 of the story, the player is allowed to choose a certain number of missions to complete out of a large number. All missions cannot be taken in one playthrough. These missions all have different objectives, such as restoring public order or recruiting new allies. Certain missions are connected to the B or C story paths, and by playing through those missions, the player will affect the course of the story. If insufficient B or C path triggers have been seen, the story will continue along the A path, the default and canonical series of events.
[ "Gameplay\n--------", "Ordinarily, the game follows a linear progression of battles. First, an opening cutscene is viewed (often preceded by a narrator's plot synopsis), after which the player is taken to a preparation screen where they may select the units and cards they wish to bring into battle, as well as restore characters' Morale or equipping new items. After this, the player enters the battle proper. Within each battle, units are displayed on a grid of spaces which decide where the characters can move. The player and the computer take turns in which movements are determined and one attack can be executed against an opposing character. The player may choose to end their turn at any time. Once all objectives in a battle are completed, the player is given the option to save, and either the next battle begins or the player will be returned to the mission selection screen.", "[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Medoute explains how cannons function.](/wiki/Image:Blaze_Union_tutorial_screenshot.jpg \"Blaze Union tutorial screenshot.jpg\")", "### Tutorials", "As in *Yggdra Union*, the player has the option of turning on in\\-game tutorials, in which characters discuss and explain new gameplay elements as soon as they become available. However, for *Blaze Union* this option must be toggled under the Options section of the game's main menu, whereas in *Yggdra* Union the player was prompted to turn tutorials on or off whenever a new game was started.", "### Union", "As in *Yggdra Union*, Unions are the eponymous game play mechanic. Unlike most games, the player is allowed one attack per turn. Attacks are performed in formations called unions. Most unions involve multiple units, but it is possible to attack with a \"union\" of one unit. Forming unions allows more than one unit to join the battle, allowing for battles between as many as one hundred and twenty soldiers, grouped into up to five individual battles between two units named \"duels\". Depending on the gender of the unit, the formation required for a union will be different. Males have an x\\-shaped formation, whereas females have a \\+\\-shaped formation. Linked unions, which become available during Chapter 4, allow units within the core union to apply their union pattern to extend the overall union.", "#### Units", "Each unit that can be included in a union is composed of a leader, the \"head\", and as many as seven underlings, or \"members\". Each unit has a weapon type, with strengths and weaknesses in a rock\\-paper\\-scissors fashion. Each unit comes with six stats: Morale, an indicator with a function similar to [hit points](/wiki/Hit_points \"Hit points\"); GEN, generality; ATK, attack; TEC, technique; and LUK, luck. Player characters have a seventh statistic called REP, and enemy units' seventh statistic is POW.UP. In comparison to *Yggdra Union*, REP (or reputation) is no longer a stat based on one out of six; instead, it is shown on the status screen as a percentage of total battles won. POW.UP is a reducible stat that increases card POW upon player victory. Each unit also has the potential for five 'effects', which are strategy altering hooks that do many things, from the in\\-clash voiding of damage enhanced with a particular element, to out of clash Morale restoration. Up to four effects can be innate to the unit, with one effect coming from the unit's equipped item. Items have two possible uses; they can be equipped for stat\\-ups and effects, or they can be consumed to recover Morale. Equipped items cannot be removed, and will disappear after a set amount of battlefields.", "#### Unit Types", "There are fourteen base unit types, generally two differently\\-gendered classes per weapon type (with the exceptions being Axe and Scythe). The basic types are:\n* Fencer (sword, male)\n* Valkyrie (sword, female)\n* Bandit (axe, male)\n* Griffon Rider (axe, female)\n* AxBattler (axe, female) \\- *new to Blaze Union*\n* Knight (spear, male)\n* Undine (spear, female)\n* Necromancer (staff, male)\n* Witch (staff, female)\n* Hunter (bow, male)\n* Assassin (bow, female)\n* Golem (lump, genderless)\n* Skeleton (lump, genderless)\n* Imperial Knight (scythe, male)\nThere are a number of story characters who possess derivative classes from one of these basic types with slightly different stat growth (Garlot's class is Rabid Knight, Siskier's class is Assault, etc.), Baretreenu's class is based on the *Yggdra Union* character Mistel, and Nessiah and Eater's classes are entirely unique.", "#### Aggression and Rage", "After the first battlefield has been cleared, the player may control how the character attacks in a clash by changing the Aggression modes, and the enemy's mode of attack will shift with the gradually increasing Rage meter, which has been a series staple since *Riviera*. When a unit is in Passive mode, Aggression will fill, but the damage the unit deals will be reduced. If there is Aggression in the gauge, the unit can enter Aggressive mode, depleting said Aggression, dealing more damage and also activating the innate element of the unit, if one exists. If Aggression reaches 100%, a card skill can be activated. The enemy's Rage works in a similar way, except that Rage continuously fills until either Max is reached, or is stopped by a skill or effect. When Rage becomes half full, the enemy will enter Rage mode, the damage the enemy deals will increase, and the enemy's innate element, if it has one, will activate. When Rage is completely full, the enemy enters Max mode, damage increases again, and any activated element is removed from damage. In Max mode, the enemy is also able to activate skills. Rage will carry over between clashes in a union based on the outcome of the union; if the enemy loses, all accumulated Rage will carry over, but if the enemy wins it will start empty in the next clash. Player Aggression carries over regardless.", "### Cards", "#### Skills", "Each card also has a skill, ranging in effect from restoring allies and killing enemies, to changing the landscape and even invincibility. For these skills to be activated, the Union leader must first match the ACE of the card. In addition, there are two types of skills: Hold and Charge. Charge\\-type skills require the □ button be held to charge a bar, at which point, if released, the skill will activate and deplete the Aggression gauge. Hold\\-type skills are activated by pressing □, and holding it for as long as the skill's effects are desired, or until the Aggression gauge is completely depleted. Many skills have certain requirements of their own, such as Steal \\- which steals any item the enemy might be holding \\- being usable only by Siskier.", "When 100% Aggression or Max Rage mode is reached and all other conditions are met, a skill can be activated. Each skill has a rule or equation for its mechanic; for example, Steal will succeed if the user's TEC is larger than or equal to the target's GEN, otherwise it will fail and the opponent's item will not be stolen. These rules and equations can affect how effective the skill is when used by a certain unit.", "#### New Cards", "Blaze Union features three new cards: \"Vise\", which raises the entire Union's LUK to full throughout the entire battle; \"Rauger\", a Skill usable only by Byff which raises the ATK and GEN of all male Union members; and \"Insanity\", a Skill usable only by Thortie which causes damage and inflicts a random status effect.", "### Mission Selection and Route Division", "A mechanic new to Blaze Union which was created due to its branching storylines. During chapters 3 and 5 of the story, the player is allowed to choose a certain number of missions to complete out of a large number. All missions cannot be taken in one playthrough. These missions all have different objectives, such as restoring public order or recruiting new allies. Certain missions are connected to the B or C story paths, and by playing through those missions, the player will affect the course of the story. If insufficient B or C path triggers have been seen, the story will continue along the A path, the default and canonical series of events.", "" ]
Computer models --------------- ### nCUBE 10 One of the first nCUBE machines to be released was the **nCUBE 10** of late 1985\. It was originally called **NCUBE/ten** but the name morphed over time. These were based on a set of custom chips, where each compute node had a processor chip with [32\-bit](/wiki/32-bit "32-bit") [ALU](/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit "Arithmetic logic unit"), a [64\-bit](/wiki/64-bit "64-bit") [IEEE 754](/wiki/IEEE_754 "IEEE 754") [FPU](/wiki/Floating_point_unit "Floating point unit"), special communication instructions, and 128 [KB](/wiki/Kilobyte "Kilobyte") of [RAM](/wiki/Random_Access_Memory "Random Access Memory"). A node delivered 2 [MIPS](/wiki/Million_instructions_per_second "Million instructions per second"), 500 [kiloFLOPS](/wiki/FLOP "FLOP") (32\-bit [single precision](/wiki/Single_precision "Single precision")), or 300 kiloFLOPS (64\-bit [double precision](/wiki/Double_precision "Double precision")). There were 64 nodes per board. The host board, based on an [Intel 80286](/wiki/Intel_80286 "Intel 80286"), ran **Axis**, a custom Unix\-like [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system "Operating system"), and each compute node ran a 4 KB kernel, Vertex.{{Cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1109/MM.1986\.304707 \|author1\=Hayes, J. \|author2\=Mudge, T. \|author3\=Stout, Q. \|author4\=Colley, S. \|author5\=Palmer, J. \|name\-list\-style\=amp \| year \= 1986 \| title \= A microprocessor\-based hypercube supercomputer \| journal \= IEEE Micro \| volume \= 6 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 6–17 \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.645\.8596 \|s2cid\=7927930 }} **nCUBE 10** referred to the machine's ability to build an order\-ten [hypercube](/wiki/Hypercube "Hypercube"), supporting 1,024 CPUs in a single machine. Some of the modules would be used strictly for [input/output](/wiki/Input/output "Input/output"), which included the **nChannel** storage control card, [frame buffers](/wiki/Frame_buffers "Frame buffers"), and the InterSystem card that allowed nCUBEs to be attached to each other. At least one host board needed to be installed, acting as the terminal driver. It could also [partition the machine into "sub\-cubes"](/wiki/Virtualization "Virtualization") and allocate them separately to different users. ### nCUBE 2 [thumb\|[Die](/wiki/Die_%28integrated_circuit%29 "Die (integrated circuit)") of nCUBE 2 processor](/wiki/File:NCUBE_nCUBE-2_die.JPG "NCUBE nCUBE-2 die.JPG") For the second series the naming was changed, and they created the single\-chip **nCUBE 2** processor. This was otherwise similar to the nCUBE 10's CPU, but ran faster, at 25 [MHz](/wiki/Megahertz "Megahertz") to provide about 7 MIPS and 3\.5 megaFLOPS. This was later improved to 30 MHz in the 2S model. RAM was increased as well, with 4 to 16 [MB](/wiki/Megabyte "Megabyte") of RAM on a "single wide" 1 inch x 3\.5 inch module, with additional form factors of "double wide" (double modules), and quadruple that in a double wide, double side module. The I/O cards generally had less RAM, with different backend interfaces to support [SCSI](/wiki/SCSI "SCSI"), [HIPPI](/wiki/HIPPI "HIPPI") and other protocols. [thumb\|Three single\-chip nCUBE 2 processors on a 1" x 3\.5" module with memory.](/wiki/File:RR0_4171.JPG "RR0 4171.JPG") [thumb\|nCUBE 2 circuit board with 64 processors and memory](/wiki/File:RR0_4174b.jpg "RR0 4174b.jpg") Each nCUBE 2 CPU also included 13 I/O channels running at 20 Mbit/s. One of these was dedicated to I/O duties, while the other twelve were used as the interconnect system between CPUs. Each channel used [wormhole routing](/wiki/Wormhole_routing "Wormhole routing") to forward messages. The machines themselves were wired up as order\-twelve hypercubes, allowing for up to 4,096 CPUs in a single machine. Each module ran a 200 KB [microkernel](/wiki/Microkernel "Microkernel") called **nCX**, but the system now used a [Sun Microsystems](/wiki/Sun_Microsystems "Sun Microsystems") [workstation](/wiki/Workstation "Workstation") as the front end and no longer needed the Host Controller. nCX included a [parallel filesystem](/wiki/Clustered_file_system "Clustered file system") that could do 96\-way [striping](/wiki/Data_striping "Data striping") for high performance. [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 "C (programming language)") and [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++") languages are available, as is NQS, [Linda](/wiki/Linda_%28coordination_language%29 "Linda (coordination language)"), and [Parasoft](/wiki/Parasoft "Parasoft")'s Express. These were supported by an in\-house compiler team. The largest nCUBE 2 system installed was at [Sandia National Laboratories](/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories "Sandia National Laboratories"), a 1,024\-CPU system that reached 1\.91 gigaFLOPS in testing. In addition the nCX operating system, it also ran the [SUNMOS](/wiki/SUNMOS "SUNMOS") lightweight kernel for research purposes.{{cite report \| url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2397853 \| title\=What is SUNMOS? \| access\-date\=2021\-11\-22 \|author1\=Rolf Riesen \|author2\=Lee Ann Fisk \|display\-authors\=etal}}—a paper that explains what SUNMOS is (CiteSeer cached copy) Researchers Robert Benner, John Gustafson and Gary Montry of the Parallel Processing Division of Sandia National Laboratory first won the [Karp Prize](/wiki/Karp_Prize "Karp Prize") of $100 and then won the first [Gordon Bell Prize](/wiki/Gordon_Bell_Prize "Gordon Bell Prize") in 1987 using the nCUBE 10\.{{cite web \|url\=http://scicomp.ewha.ac.kr/netlib/benchmark/bell1 \|title\=The Gordon Bell Awards for 1987 \|access\-date\=2006\-04\-03 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051111140632/http://scicomp.ewha.ac.kr/netlib/benchmark/bell1 \|archive\-date\=2005\-11\-11 }} ### nCUBE\-3 The **nCUBE\-3** CPU used a 64\-bit [arithmetic logic unit](/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit "Arithmetic logic unit") (ALU). Its improvements included a process\-shrink to 0\.5u, allowing the speed to be increased to 50 MHz (with plans for 66 and 100 MHz). The CPU was also [superscalar](/wiki/Superscalar "Superscalar") and included 16 KB instruction and data [caches](/wiki/CPU_cache "CPU cache"), and a [memory management unit](/wiki/Memory_management_unit "Memory management unit") for virtual memory support. Additional I/O links were added, with 2 dedicated to I/O and 16 for interconnects, allowing for up to 65,536 CPUs in the hypercube. The channels operated at 100 Mbit/s, due to use of 2\-bit parallel lines, instead of the serial lines used previously. The nCUBE\-3 also added [fault\-tolerant](/wiki/Fault_tolerance "Fault tolerance") adaptive routing support, in addition to fixed routing, although in retrospect it's not entirely clear why. A fully loaded nCUBE\-3 machine can use up to 65,536 processors, for 3 million MIPS and 6\.5 teraFLOPS; the maximum memory would be 65 TB, with a network I/O capability of 24 TB/second.{{cite book\|last1\=Duzett\|first1\=B\|last2\=Buck\|first2\=R\|title\=\[Proceedings 1992] the Fourth Symposium on the Frontiers of Massively Parallel Computation\|chapter\=An overview of the nCUBE 3 supercomputer\|date\=19–21 Oct 1992\|volume\=\[Proceedings 1992]\|pages\=458–464\|doi\=10\.1109/FMPC.1992\.234880\|isbn\=978\-0\-8186\-2772\-9\|s2cid\=58781077}} Thus, the processor is biased in terms of I/O, which is usually the limitation. The nChannel board provides 16 I/O channels, where each channel can support transfers at 20 MB/s. A [microkernel](/wiki/Microkernel "Microkernel") was developed for the nCUBE\-3 machine, but it was never completed, having been abandoned in favor of [Plan 9](/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs "Plan 9 from Bell Labs")'s Transit operating system. ### nCUBE\-4 The nCUBE\-4 marked the transition to commodity processors, with each node containing an Intel [IA32](/wiki/IA-32 "IA-32") server\-class CPU. The n4 also brought exclusive focus on video streaming rather than scientific applications. Each hub contained one hypercube node, one CPU, a pair of [PCI buses](/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect "Peripheral Component Interconnect"), and up to 12 [SCSI](/wiki/SCSI "SCSI") drives. The n4 was followed by the n4x, the n4x r2, and the n4x r3\. These last two were based on the [Serverworks](/wiki/Serverworks "Serverworks") chipset rather than the Intel ones. The nCUBE\-5 was very similar to the n4 family but incorporated two hypercube nodes in each hub and only supported video streaming over [Gigabit Ethernet](/wiki/Gigabit_Ethernet "Gigabit Ethernet"). In 1999, nCUBE announced the MediaCUBE 4, which supported 80 simultaneous 3 Mbit/s streams to 44,000 simultaneous VOD streams, in concurrent [MPEG\-2](/wiki/MPEG-2 "MPEG-2"), [MPEG\-1](/wiki/MPEG-1 "MPEG-1") and mid bit\-rate encoding protocols.{{cite web\|title\=nCUBE to Integrate its Industry Leading Video\-on\-Demand Solutions With the Microsoft TV Platform\|url\=http://www.prnewswire.com/news\-releases/ncube\-to\-integrate\-its\-industry\-leading\-video\-on\-demand\-solutions\-with\-the\-microsoft\-tv\-platform\-77674197\.html\|access\-date\=10 February 2017}}
[ "Computer models\n---------------", "### nCUBE 10", "One of the first nCUBE machines to be released was the **nCUBE 10** of late 1985\\. It was originally called **NCUBE/ten** but the name morphed over time. These were based on a set of custom chips, where each compute node had a processor chip with [32\\-bit](/wiki/32-bit \"32-bit\") [ALU](/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit \"Arithmetic logic unit\"), a [64\\-bit](/wiki/64-bit \"64-bit\") [IEEE 754](/wiki/IEEE_754 \"IEEE 754\") [FPU](/wiki/Floating_point_unit \"Floating point unit\"), special communication instructions, and 128 [KB](/wiki/Kilobyte \"Kilobyte\") of [RAM](/wiki/Random_Access_Memory \"Random Access Memory\"). A node delivered 2 [MIPS](/wiki/Million_instructions_per_second \"Million instructions per second\"), 500 [kiloFLOPS](/wiki/FLOP \"FLOP\") (32\\-bit [single precision](/wiki/Single_precision \"Single precision\")), or 300 kiloFLOPS (64\\-bit [double precision](/wiki/Double_precision \"Double precision\")). There were 64 nodes per board. The host board, based on an [Intel 80286](/wiki/Intel_80286 \"Intel 80286\"), ran **Axis**, a custom Unix\\-like [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system \"Operating system\"), and each compute node ran a 4 KB kernel, Vertex.{{Cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1109/MM.1986\\.304707 \\|author1\\=Hayes, J. \\|author2\\=Mudge, T. \\|author3\\=Stout, Q. \\|author4\\=Colley, S. \\|author5\\=Palmer, J. \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\| year \\= 1986 \\| title \\= A microprocessor\\-based hypercube supercomputer \\| journal \\= IEEE Micro \\| volume \\= 6 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 6–17 \\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.645\\.8596 \\|s2cid\\=7927930 }}", "**nCUBE 10** referred to the machine's ability to build an order\\-ten [hypercube](/wiki/Hypercube \"Hypercube\"), supporting 1,024 CPUs in a single machine. Some of the modules would be used strictly for [input/output](/wiki/Input/output \"Input/output\"), which included the **nChannel** storage control card, [frame buffers](/wiki/Frame_buffers \"Frame buffers\"), and the InterSystem card that allowed nCUBEs to be attached to each other. At least one host board needed to be installed, acting as the terminal driver. It could also [partition the machine into \"sub\\-cubes\"](/wiki/Virtualization \"Virtualization\") and allocate them separately to different users.", "### nCUBE 2", "[thumb\\|[Die](/wiki/Die_%28integrated_circuit%29 \"Die (integrated circuit)\") of nCUBE 2 processor](/wiki/File:NCUBE_nCUBE-2_die.JPG \"NCUBE nCUBE-2 die.JPG\")\nFor the second series the naming was changed, and they created the single\\-chip **nCUBE 2** processor. This was otherwise similar to the nCUBE 10's CPU, but ran faster, at 25 [MHz](/wiki/Megahertz \"Megahertz\") to provide about 7 MIPS and 3\\.5 megaFLOPS. This was later improved to 30 MHz in the 2S model. RAM was increased as well, with 4 to 16 [MB](/wiki/Megabyte \"Megabyte\") of RAM on a \"single wide\" 1 inch x 3\\.5 inch module, with additional form factors of \"double wide\" (double modules), and quadruple that in a double wide, double side module. The I/O cards generally had less RAM, with different backend interfaces to support [SCSI](/wiki/SCSI \"SCSI\"), [HIPPI](/wiki/HIPPI \"HIPPI\") and other protocols.\n[thumb\\|Three single\\-chip nCUBE 2 processors on a 1\" x 3\\.5\" module with memory.](/wiki/File:RR0_4171.JPG \"RR0 4171.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|nCUBE 2 circuit board with 64 processors and memory](/wiki/File:RR0_4174b.jpg \"RR0 4174b.jpg\")", "Each nCUBE 2 CPU also included 13 I/O channels running at 20 Mbit/s. One of these was dedicated to I/O duties, while the other twelve were used as the interconnect system between CPUs. Each channel used [wormhole routing](/wiki/Wormhole_routing \"Wormhole routing\") to forward messages. The machines themselves were wired up as order\\-twelve hypercubes, allowing for up to 4,096 CPUs in a single machine.", "Each module ran a 200 KB [microkernel](/wiki/Microkernel \"Microkernel\") called **nCX**, but the system now used a [Sun Microsystems](/wiki/Sun_Microsystems \"Sun Microsystems\") [workstation](/wiki/Workstation \"Workstation\") as the front end and no longer needed the Host Controller. nCX included a [parallel filesystem](/wiki/Clustered_file_system \"Clustered file system\") that could do 96\\-way [striping](/wiki/Data_striping \"Data striping\") for high performance. [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") and [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\") languages are available, as is NQS, [Linda](/wiki/Linda_%28coordination_language%29 \"Linda (coordination language)\"), and [Parasoft](/wiki/Parasoft \"Parasoft\")'s Express. These were supported by an in\\-house compiler team.", "The largest nCUBE 2 system installed was at [Sandia National Laboratories](/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories \"Sandia National Laboratories\"), a 1,024\\-CPU system that reached 1\\.91 gigaFLOPS in testing. In addition the nCX operating system, it also ran the [SUNMOS](/wiki/SUNMOS \"SUNMOS\") lightweight kernel for research purposes.{{cite report \\| url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2397853 \\| title\\=What is SUNMOS? \\| access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-22 \\|author1\\=Rolf Riesen \\|author2\\=Lee Ann Fisk \\|display\\-authors\\=etal}}—a paper that explains what SUNMOS is (CiteSeer cached copy) Researchers Robert Benner, John Gustafson and Gary Montry of the Parallel Processing Division of Sandia National Laboratory first won the [Karp Prize](/wiki/Karp_Prize \"Karp Prize\") of $100 and then won the first [Gordon Bell Prize](/wiki/Gordon_Bell_Prize \"Gordon Bell Prize\") in 1987 using the nCUBE 10\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://scicomp.ewha.ac.kr/netlib/benchmark/bell1 \\|title\\=The Gordon Bell Awards for 1987 \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-04\\-03 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051111140632/http://scicomp.ewha.ac.kr/netlib/benchmark/bell1 \\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-11\\-11 }}", "### nCUBE\\-3", "The **nCUBE\\-3** CPU used a 64\\-bit [arithmetic logic unit](/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit \"Arithmetic logic unit\") (ALU). Its improvements included a process\\-shrink to 0\\.5u, allowing the speed to be increased to 50 MHz (with plans for 66 and 100 MHz). The CPU was also [superscalar](/wiki/Superscalar \"Superscalar\") and included 16 KB instruction and data [caches](/wiki/CPU_cache \"CPU cache\"), and a [memory management unit](/wiki/Memory_management_unit \"Memory management unit\") for virtual memory support.", "Additional I/O links were added, with 2 dedicated to I/O and 16 for interconnects, allowing for up to 65,536 CPUs in the hypercube. The channels operated at 100 Mbit/s, due to use of 2\\-bit parallel lines, instead of the serial lines used previously. The nCUBE\\-3 also added [fault\\-tolerant](/wiki/Fault_tolerance \"Fault tolerance\") adaptive routing support, in addition to fixed routing, although in retrospect it's not entirely clear why.", "A fully loaded nCUBE\\-3 machine can use up to 65,536 processors, for 3 million MIPS and 6\\.5 teraFLOPS; the maximum memory would be 65 TB, with a network I/O capability of 24 TB/second.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Duzett\\|first1\\=B\\|last2\\=Buck\\|first2\\=R\\|title\\=\\[Proceedings 1992] the Fourth Symposium on the Frontiers of Massively Parallel Computation\\|chapter\\=An overview of the nCUBE 3 supercomputer\\|date\\=19–21 Oct 1992\\|volume\\=\\[Proceedings 1992]\\|pages\\=458–464\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/FMPC.1992\\.234880\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8186\\-2772\\-9\\|s2cid\\=58781077}} Thus, the processor is biased in terms of I/O, which is usually the limitation. The nChannel board provides 16 I/O channels, where each channel can support transfers at 20 MB/s.", "A [microkernel](/wiki/Microkernel \"Microkernel\") was developed for the nCUBE\\-3 machine, but it was never completed, having been abandoned in favor of [Plan 9](/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs \"Plan 9 from Bell Labs\")'s Transit operating system.", "### nCUBE\\-4", "The nCUBE\\-4 marked the transition to commodity processors, with each node containing an Intel [IA32](/wiki/IA-32 \"IA-32\") server\\-class CPU. The n4 also brought exclusive focus on video streaming rather than scientific applications. Each hub contained one hypercube node, one CPU, a pair of [PCI buses](/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect \"Peripheral Component Interconnect\"), and up to 12 [SCSI](/wiki/SCSI \"SCSI\") drives. The n4 was followed by the n4x, the n4x r2, and the n4x r3\\. These last two were based on the [Serverworks](/wiki/Serverworks \"Serverworks\") chipset rather than the Intel ones. The nCUBE\\-5 was very similar to the n4 family but incorporated two hypercube nodes in each hub and only supported video streaming over [Gigabit Ethernet](/wiki/Gigabit_Ethernet \"Gigabit Ethernet\").", "In 1999, nCUBE announced the MediaCUBE 4, which supported 80 simultaneous 3 Mbit/s streams to 44,000 simultaneous VOD streams, in concurrent [MPEG\\-2](/wiki/MPEG-2 \"MPEG-2\"), [MPEG\\-1](/wiki/MPEG-1 \"MPEG-1\") and mid bit\\-rate encoding protocols.{{cite web\\|title\\=nCUBE to Integrate its Industry Leading Video\\-on\\-Demand Solutions With the Microsoft TV Platform\\|url\\=http://www.prnewswire.com/news\\-releases/ncube\\-to\\-integrate\\-its\\-industry\\-leading\\-video\\-on\\-demand\\-solutions\\-with\\-the\\-microsoft\\-tv\\-platform\\-77674197\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2017}}", "" ]
Lines ----- The system will be divided into 6 dedicated lines or "busways". Currently, the Green and Orange lines are operational, the Red and Yellow lines are under\-construction, and the Blue and Brown lines are in their planning stages. ### Green Line {{Main\|Green Line \- Karachi Metrobus}} [thumb\|Greenline passing through Nazimabad](/wiki/File:Downtown_Nazimabad_2.jpg "Downtown Nazimabad 2.jpg") The [green line](/wiki/Green_Line_-_Karachi_Metrobus "Green Line - Karachi Metrobus") is extend from [Merewether Tower](/wiki/Merewether_Clock_Tower "Merewether Clock Tower") in central Karachi, to [Surjani](/wiki/Surjani_Town "Surjani Town") in northern Karachi, with a total length of {{convert\|26\|km\|abbr\=on}}. The [Government of Pakistan](/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan "Government of Pakistan") financed the majority of the project.{{Cite web \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1055243/ground\-breaking\-ceremony\-green\-line\-brt\-finally\-gets\-go\-ahead/ \|title\=Ground\-breaking ceremony: Green Line BRT finally gets go\-ahead – The Express Tribune \|date\=2016\-02\-26 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|access\-date\=2016\-06\-11}} Construction of the Green Line began on February 26, 2016 ended in December 2021\.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-01\-10 \|title\=Green Line bus service becomes fully operational in Karachi \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/924126\-green\-line\-bus\-service\-becomes\-fully\-operational\-in\-karachi \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-23 \|website\=The News International}} The line has 22 bus stations.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.dawn.com/news/1241849 \|title\=Karachi's Green Line bus will be more beautiful than Lahore metro: PM Nawaz \|date\=2016\-02\-26 \|work\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]] \|access\-date\=2016\-06\-11}} *Engineering Associates* had been contracted as the designers and supervision consultants for Green Line while a Consortium of "Ernest \& Young", "Exponent Engineers" \& "Haider Mota \& BNR" had been contracted for "Transaction Advisory for Bus Operational Plan".{{Cite news \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1064250/extension\-plans\-green\-line\-goes\-the\-extra\-mile// \|title\=Green Line goes the extra mile – The Express Tribune \|date\=2016\-03\-11 \|work\=The Express Tribune \|access\-date\=2018\-06\-09}}{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.dawn.com/news/1241849 \|title\=Karachi's Green Line bus will be more beautiful than Lahore metro: PM Nawaz \|date\=2016\-02\-26 \|work\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]] \|access\-date\=2018\-06\-09}}{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1034126/ \|title\=گرین لائن ٹرانسپورٹ منصوبہ \|last\=اداریہ \|date\=2016\-02\-29 \|work\=\[\[Dawn News]] \|access\-date\=2018\-06\-09}} The line is served by 80 18\-metre\-long buses.{{Cite web \|url\=http://pprasindh.gov.pk/tenders/34059TRANSPORT\&MASS280717\.zip \|title\=Tender for Green Line and Orange Line \|date\=2017\-07\-28 \|website\=Sindh Public Procurement Regulatory Authority \|access\-date\=2017\-08\-17}} In addition, a Command and Control Centre is established at Garden West. The green line: {{div col}} * **Numiash Station** (to Blue Line) * Patel Para (Guru Mandir) Station * Lasbela Chowk Station * Sanitary Market (Gulbahar) Station * Nazimabad No.1 Station * Enquiry Office Station * Annu Bhai Park Station (to [North Nazimabad KCR Station](/wiki/North_Nazimabad_railway_station "North Nazimabad railway station")) * Board Office Station ( to [Orange Line](/wiki/Orange_Line_-_Karachi_Metrobus "Orange Line - Karachi Metrobus") ) * Hyderi Station * Five Star Chowrangi Station * Jummah Bazar Station * Erum Shopping Station * Nagan Chowrangi Station * U.P. More Station * Road 4200 (Saleem Centre) Station * Power House Chowrangi Station * Road 2400 (Aisha Complex) Station * 2 Minute Chowrangi Station * 4K Chowrangi Station * Karimi Chowrangi Station * KDA Flats Station * **Abdullah Chowk Terminal**. {{div col end}} ### Orange Line {{Main\|Orange Line \- Karachi Metrobus}} The [Orange Line](/wiki/Orange_Line_-_Karachi_Metrobus "Orange Line - Karachi Metrobus"), also called the Edhi Line in honour of philanthropist [Abdul Sattar Edhi](/wiki/Abdul_Sattar_Edhi "Abdul Sattar Edhi"),{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-12\-13 \|title\=Karachi's Orange Line BRT renamed after Edhi \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1262246/loving\-memory\-orange\-line\-brt\-renamed\-edhi \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16 \|website\=The Express Tribune}} is the shortest of the five lines, spreading over 3\.9 km with only four stations within [Orangi](/wiki/Orangi "Orangi"). The Orange line will be spread over 2\.3 km, of which 0\.7 km will be elevated while 1\.5 km will be on ground, whereas, the 1\.5 km will be semi dedicated section. The project is entirely funded and built by the Sindh government. It was started in 2016, but finally the project was completed in 10 Sep 2022 .{{Cite web \|title\=orange\-line\-bus\-service\-inaugurated\-in\-karachi \|url\=https://www.geo.tv/latest/439412\-orange\-line\-bus\-service\-inaugurated\-in\-karachi \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16 \|website\=Nation}} The project was criticised as being the only BRT line of the system that was not devised in conjunction with community input.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-15 \|title\=Construction work likely to complete in 6 months \|url\=https://nation.com.pk/30\-Jan\-2022/construction\-work\-on\-phase\-ii\-track\-likely\-to\-complete\-in\-next\-six\-months\-sindh\-governor \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16 \|website\=Nation}} The line transports around 3,000 passengers daily,{{Cite news \|last\=Ayub \|first\=Imran \|date\=2024\-05\-17 \|title\=Karachi's BRT Green and Orange lines now go hand in hand \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1833948 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-27 \|work\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]]}} with a station located at every kilometre of its length. The line begins at Shahrah\-e\-Quaideen, near TMO Office, to Board Office, where it joins the Green Line BRT, through a rotary flyover. The orange line: * **AO Chowk Terminal** (to [Green Line](/wiki/Green_Line_-_Karachi_Metrobus "Green Line - Karachi Metrobus")) * Orangi Station (to [Orangi KCR Station](/wiki/Orangi_railway_station "Orangi railway station")) * **Orangi Town Terminal** ### Blue Line The *Blue Line* will extend from [Merewether Tower](/wiki/Merewether_Clock_Tower "Merewether Clock Tower") in central Karachi, to Bahria Town in northeast Karachi at a total length of {{convert\|30\|km\|abbr\=on}} along Jahangir Road, and Shahrah\-e\-Pakistan to [Sohrab Goth](/wiki/Sohrab_Goth "Sohrab Goth") and onto [Superhighway](/wiki/M-9_motorway_%28Pakistan%29 "M-9 motorway (Pakistan)").{{Cite web \|title\=Blue Line Feasibility Study \|url\=http://greenline.gov.pk/doc/EID\-CR(6\)12149\-FR\-FEASIBILITY\-03\.pdf}} It will be the first privately funded transport system in Pakistan being funded by the [Bahria Town Group](/wiki/Bahria_Town_Group "Bahria Town Group").{{Cite web \|url\=http://bahriatowntoday.com/bahria\-town\-karachi\-to\-start\-bus\-rapid\-transit\-system\-brts/ \|title\=Bahria Town Karachi to Start "Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS)" \|date\=14 March 2014}} Provincial Minister for Transport Syed Nasir Shah told Jang that the Blue Line will have 9 stations with 3 of them underground. Under the project, 357,000 passengers will be able to travel annually. The blue line: * **Merewether Tower Terminal** * **Numaish Chowrangi Station** (to Green Line) * Liaquatabad Station (to [Liaquatabad KCR Station](/wiki/Liaquatabad_railway_station "Liaquatabad railway station")) * **Bahria Town Terminal** ### Yellow Line The 22\-kilometre\-long Yellow Line project will connect Numaish Chowrangi near the [Mazar\-e\-Quaid](/wiki/Mazar-e-Quaid "Mazar-e-Quaid") in central Karachi, to its eastern suburbs of [Korangi](/wiki/Korangi "Korangi") and [Landhi](/wiki/Landhi "Landhi"), terminating at Dawood Chowrangi.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-10\-01 \|title\=Work on Yellow Line BRT pushed to next year \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2266571/work\-on\-yellow\-line\-brt\-pushed\-to\-next\-year \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16 \|website\=The Express Tribune}} It has an estimated cost of $428 million, of which $382 million will be financed by the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank").{{Cite web \|title\=WB assures working to wrap up Karachi Yellow line design {{!}} SAMAA\|url\=https://www.samaa.tv/news/2020/11/wb\-assures\-working\-to\-wrap\-up\-karachi\-yellow\-line\-design/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-04\|website\=Samaa TV}} It will be serviced by 268 buses and 28 stations, including 22 at grade and 6 underground.{{Cite web \|title\=CM Murad Ali Shah orders transport department to complete Orange Line's infrastructure \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/722296\-city\-khi \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk}} Construction of the line was delayed due to the global [coronavirus pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), and is expected to start in 2022, with completion in 2025\. The Yellow Line: * **Numiash Chowrangi Terminal** (to Blue Line/Green Line) * **Landhi Station Terminal** (to [Landhi KCR Station](/wiki/Landhi_railway_station "Landhi railway station")) ### Red Line Construction of *Red Line* has been started and will connect central Karachi to its eastern suburbs.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-03\-19 \|title\=Construction work on Red Line BRT begins in Karachi \|url\=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/03/19/construction\-work\-on\-red\-line\-brt\-begins\-in\-karachi/ \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-09 \|website\=Pakistan Today}} It will extend from Numaish Chowrangi near the [Mazar\-e\-Quaid](/wiki/Mazar-e-Quaid "Mazar-e-Quaid") in central Karachi, to Malir Halt in eastern Karachi via University Road.{{Cite news \|last\=Ebrahim \|first\=Zofeen T. \|date\=2020\-01\-23 \|title\=Karachi's green buses to be powered by dung \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1530089 \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16 \|work\=\[\[Dawn (newspaper)\|Dawn]]}} The system will be a "third generation" BRT system in which local buses can enter/exit the system at designated points, to travel between city streets and the dedicated bus corridor.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-10\-25 \|title\=Red Line Bus project inches forward \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2269909/red\-line\-bus\-project\-inches\-forward \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16 \|website\=The Express Tribune}} It will have a total length of {{convert\|27\|km\|abbr\=on}}. Construction was to start in August 2020, but was delayed to 2021 due to the global [coronavirus pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), and was originally planned to be completed in 2022 at a cost of $503\.2 million.{{Cite web \|last\=Ali \|first\=Kashaf \|date\=2020\-11\-10 \|title\=Karachi BRT Red Line Project Will Boost Pakistan's Transport Sector Sustainably: ADB \|url\=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40031811 \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-04 \|website\=Brecorder}} The projected ridership of the system is 300,000 passengers per day. It is the first transportation project in the world to receive funding from the UN [Green Climate Fund](/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund "Green Climate Fund") for its use of [biomethane](/wiki/Biomethane "Biomethane") from cow dung to power buses. A facility will be established at [Cattle Colony](/wiki/Cattle_Colony "Cattle Colony") to produce 11 tonnes of biogas per day for the line's 213 buses.{{Cite web \|title\=BR\-ePaper {{!}} Nov 29, 2019 {{!}} Page National News Page 5\|url\=https://epaper.brecorder.com/\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16\|website\=epaper.brecorder.com}} A system of drains will also be built along the line to harvest rainwater for horticultural use, while the drains will also be perforated to allow rainwater to recharge water tables.{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-11\-22 \|title\=Red Line to introduce rainwater storage system \|url\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2273166/red\-line\-to\-introduce\-rainwater\-storage\-system \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-16 \|website\=The Express Tribune}} The red line: * **Regal Chowk Terminal** (to Blue Line/Yellow Line) * Regal Chowk Station Terminal (to KCR). ### Brown Line Brown line BRT will start from Singer Chowrangi of Korangi Industrial Area. The first station of Brown line BRT is integrated with Yellow line BRT. Brown Line BRT will pass through Shama Centre Shah Faisal Colony, Drigh Road where it has a combined station with Karachi Circular Railway (KCR), Nipa Chowrangi (combined station with Red Line and KCR), Sohrab Goth (combined station with Blue Line) and will end at Nagan Chowrangi (combined station with Green Line).
[ "Lines\n-----", "The system will be divided into 6 dedicated lines or \"busways\". Currently, the Green and Orange lines are operational, the Red and Yellow lines are under\\-construction, and the Blue and Brown lines are in their planning stages.", "### Green Line", "{{Main\\|Green Line \\- Karachi Metrobus}}\n[thumb\\|Greenline passing through Nazimabad](/wiki/File:Downtown_Nazimabad_2.jpg \"Downtown Nazimabad 2.jpg\")\nThe [green line](/wiki/Green_Line_-_Karachi_Metrobus \"Green Line - Karachi Metrobus\") is extend from [Merewether Tower](/wiki/Merewether_Clock_Tower \"Merewether Clock Tower\") in central Karachi, to [Surjani](/wiki/Surjani_Town \"Surjani Town\") in northern Karachi, with a total length of {{convert\\|26\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}}. The [Government of Pakistan](/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan \"Government of Pakistan\") financed the majority of the project.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1055243/ground\\-breaking\\-ceremony\\-green\\-line\\-brt\\-finally\\-gets\\-go\\-ahead/ \\|title\\=Ground\\-breaking ceremony: Green Line BRT finally gets go\\-ahead – The Express Tribune \\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-26 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-11}} Construction of the Green Line began on February 26, 2016 ended in December 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-01\\-10 \\|title\\=Green Line bus service becomes fully operational in Karachi \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/924126\\-green\\-line\\-bus\\-service\\-becomes\\-fully\\-operational\\-in\\-karachi \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=The News International}} The line has 22 bus stations.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.dawn.com/news/1241849 \\|title\\=Karachi's Green Line bus will be more beautiful than Lahore metro: PM Nawaz \\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-26 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]] \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-11}} *Engineering Associates* had been contracted as the designers and supervision consultants for Green Line while a Consortium of \"Ernest \\& Young\", \"Exponent Engineers\" \\& \"Haider Mota \\& BNR\" had been contracted for \"Transaction Advisory for Bus Operational Plan\".{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1064250/extension\\-plans\\-green\\-line\\-goes\\-the\\-extra\\-mile// \\|title\\=Green Line goes the extra mile – The Express Tribune \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-11 \\|work\\=The Express Tribune \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-09}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.dawn.com/news/1241849 \\|title\\=Karachi's Green Line bus will be more beautiful than Lahore metro: PM Nawaz \\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-26 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]] \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-09}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.dawnnews.tv/news/1034126/ \\|title\\=گرین لائن ٹرانسپورٹ منصوبہ \\|last\\=اداریہ \\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-29 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Dawn News]] \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-09}} The line is served by 80 18\\-metre\\-long buses.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://pprasindh.gov.pk/tenders/34059TRANSPORT\\&MASS280717\\.zip \\|title\\=Tender for Green Line and Orange Line \\|date\\=2017\\-07\\-28 \\|website\\=Sindh Public Procurement Regulatory Authority \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-17}} In addition, a Command and Control Centre is established at Garden West.", "The green line:\n{{div col}}\n* **Numiash Station** (to Blue Line)\n* Patel Para (Guru Mandir) Station\n* Lasbela Chowk Station\n* Sanitary Market (Gulbahar) Station\n* Nazimabad No.1 Station\n* Enquiry Office Station\n* Annu Bhai Park Station (to [North Nazimabad KCR Station](/wiki/North_Nazimabad_railway_station \"North Nazimabad railway station\"))\n* Board Office Station ( to [Orange Line](/wiki/Orange_Line_-_Karachi_Metrobus \"Orange Line - Karachi Metrobus\") )\n* Hyderi Station\n* Five Star Chowrangi Station\n* Jummah Bazar Station\n* Erum Shopping Station\n* Nagan Chowrangi Station\n* U.P. More Station\n* Road 4200 (Saleem Centre) Station\n* Power House Chowrangi Station\n* Road 2400 (Aisha Complex) Station\n* 2 Minute Chowrangi Station\n* 4K Chowrangi Station\n* Karimi Chowrangi Station\n* KDA Flats Station\n* **Abdullah Chowk Terminal**.\n{{div col end}}", "### Orange Line", "{{Main\\|Orange Line \\- Karachi Metrobus}}", "The [Orange Line](/wiki/Orange_Line_-_Karachi_Metrobus \"Orange Line - Karachi Metrobus\"), also called the Edhi Line in honour of philanthropist [Abdul Sattar Edhi](/wiki/Abdul_Sattar_Edhi \"Abdul Sattar Edhi\"),{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-13 \\|title\\=Karachi's Orange Line BRT renamed after Edhi \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1262246/loving\\-memory\\-orange\\-line\\-brt\\-renamed\\-edhi \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune}} is the shortest of the five lines, spreading over 3\\.9 km with only four stations within [Orangi](/wiki/Orangi \"Orangi\"). The Orange line will be spread over 2\\.3 km, of which 0\\.7 km will be elevated while 1\\.5 km will be on ground, whereas, the 1\\.5 km will be semi dedicated section. The project is entirely funded and built by the Sindh government. It was started in 2016, but finally the project was completed in 10 Sep 2022 .{{Cite web \\|title\\=orange\\-line\\-bus\\-service\\-inaugurated\\-in\\-karachi \\|url\\=https://www.geo.tv/latest/439412\\-orange\\-line\\-bus\\-service\\-inaugurated\\-in\\-karachi \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16 \\|website\\=Nation}} The project was criticised as being the only BRT line of the system that was not devised in conjunction with community input.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-15 \\|title\\=Construction work likely to complete in 6 months \\|url\\=https://nation.com.pk/30\\-Jan\\-2022/construction\\-work\\-on\\-phase\\-ii\\-track\\-likely\\-to\\-complete\\-in\\-next\\-six\\-months\\-sindh\\-governor \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16 \\|website\\=Nation}}", "The line transports around 3,000 passengers daily,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Ayub \\|first\\=Imran \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-17 \\|title\\=Karachi's BRT Green and Orange lines now go hand in hand \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1833948 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-27 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]]}} with a station located at every kilometre of its length. The line begins at Shahrah\\-e\\-Quaideen, near TMO Office, to Board Office, where it joins the Green Line BRT, through a rotary flyover.", "The orange line:\n* **AO Chowk Terminal** (to [Green Line](/wiki/Green_Line_-_Karachi_Metrobus \"Green Line - Karachi Metrobus\"))\n* Orangi Station (to [Orangi KCR Station](/wiki/Orangi_railway_station \"Orangi railway station\"))\n* **Orangi Town Terminal**", "### Blue Line", "The *Blue Line* will extend from [Merewether Tower](/wiki/Merewether_Clock_Tower \"Merewether Clock Tower\") in central Karachi, to Bahria Town in northeast Karachi at a total length of {{convert\\|30\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} along Jahangir Road, and Shahrah\\-e\\-Pakistan to [Sohrab Goth](/wiki/Sohrab_Goth \"Sohrab Goth\") and onto [Superhighway](/wiki/M-9_motorway_%28Pakistan%29 \"M-9 motorway (Pakistan)\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Blue Line Feasibility Study \\|url\\=http://greenline.gov.pk/doc/EID\\-CR(6\\)12149\\-FR\\-FEASIBILITY\\-03\\.pdf}} It will be the first privately funded transport system in Pakistan being funded by the [Bahria Town Group](/wiki/Bahria_Town_Group \"Bahria Town Group\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://bahriatowntoday.com/bahria\\-town\\-karachi\\-to\\-start\\-bus\\-rapid\\-transit\\-system\\-brts/ \\|title\\=Bahria Town Karachi to Start \"Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS)\" \\|date\\=14 March 2014}} Provincial Minister for Transport Syed Nasir Shah told Jang that the Blue Line will have 9 stations with 3 of them underground. Under the project, 357,000 passengers will be able to travel annually.", "The blue line:", "* **Merewether Tower Terminal**\n* **Numaish Chowrangi Station** (to Green Line)\n* Liaquatabad Station (to [Liaquatabad KCR Station](/wiki/Liaquatabad_railway_station \"Liaquatabad railway station\"))\n* **Bahria Town Terminal**", "### Yellow Line", "The 22\\-kilometre\\-long Yellow Line project will connect Numaish Chowrangi near the [Mazar\\-e\\-Quaid](/wiki/Mazar-e-Quaid \"Mazar-e-Quaid\") in central Karachi, to its eastern suburbs of [Korangi](/wiki/Korangi \"Korangi\") and [Landhi](/wiki/Landhi \"Landhi\"), terminating at Dawood Chowrangi.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-01 \\|title\\=Work on Yellow Line BRT pushed to next year \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2266571/work\\-on\\-yellow\\-line\\-brt\\-pushed\\-to\\-next\\-year \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune}} It has an estimated cost of $428 million, of which $382 million will be financed by the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=WB assures working to wrap up Karachi Yellow line design {{!}} SAMAA\\|url\\=https://www.samaa.tv/news/2020/11/wb\\-assures\\-working\\-to\\-wrap\\-up\\-karachi\\-yellow\\-line\\-design/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-04\\|website\\=Samaa TV}} It will be serviced by 268 buses and 28 stations, including 22 at grade and 6 underground.{{Cite web \\|title\\=CM Murad Ali Shah orders transport department to complete Orange Line's infrastructure \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/722296\\-city\\-khi \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk}} Construction of the line was delayed due to the global [coronavirus pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), and is expected to start in 2022, with completion in 2025\\.", "The Yellow Line:\n* **Numiash Chowrangi Terminal** (to Blue Line/Green Line)\n* **Landhi Station Terminal** (to [Landhi KCR Station](/wiki/Landhi_railway_station \"Landhi railway station\"))", "### Red Line", "Construction of *Red Line* has been started and will connect central Karachi to its eastern suburbs.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-19 \\|title\\=Construction work on Red Line BRT begins in Karachi \\|url\\=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/03/19/construction\\-work\\-on\\-red\\-line\\-brt\\-begins\\-in\\-karachi/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-09 \\|website\\=Pakistan Today}} It will extend from Numaish Chowrangi near the [Mazar\\-e\\-Quaid](/wiki/Mazar-e-Quaid \"Mazar-e-Quaid\") in central Karachi, to Malir Halt in eastern Karachi via University Road.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Ebrahim \\|first\\=Zofeen T. \\|date\\=2020\\-01\\-23 \\|title\\=Karachi's green buses to be powered by dung \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1530089 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Dawn (newspaper)\\|Dawn]]}} The system will be a \"third generation\" BRT system in which local buses can enter/exit the system at designated points, to travel between city streets and the dedicated bus corridor.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|title\\=Red Line Bus project inches forward \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2269909/red\\-line\\-bus\\-project\\-inches\\-forward \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune}} It will have a total length of {{convert\\|27\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}}. Construction was to start in August 2020, but was delayed to 2021 due to the global [coronavirus pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), and was originally planned to be completed in 2022 at a cost of $503\\.2 million.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ali \\|first\\=Kashaf \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-10 \\|title\\=Karachi BRT Red Line Project Will Boost Pakistan's Transport Sector Sustainably: ADB \\|url\\=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40031811 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-04 \\|website\\=Brecorder}} The projected ridership of the system is 300,000 passengers per day.", "It is the first transportation project in the world to receive funding from the UN [Green Climate Fund](/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund \"Green Climate Fund\") for its use of [biomethane](/wiki/Biomethane \"Biomethane\") from cow dung to power buses. A facility will be established at [Cattle Colony](/wiki/Cattle_Colony \"Cattle Colony\") to produce 11 tonnes of biogas per day for the line's 213 buses.{{Cite web \\|title\\=BR\\-ePaper {{!}} Nov 29, 2019 {{!}} Page National News Page 5\\|url\\=https://epaper.brecorder.com/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16\\|website\\=epaper.brecorder.com}} A system of drains will also be built along the line to harvest rainwater for horticultural use, while the drains will also be perforated to allow rainwater to recharge water tables.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-22 \\|title\\=Red Line to introduce rainwater storage system \\|url\\=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2273166/red\\-line\\-to\\-introduce\\-rainwater\\-storage\\-system \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-16 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune}}", "The red line:\n* **Regal Chowk Terminal** (to Blue Line/Yellow Line)\n* Regal Chowk Station Terminal (to KCR).", "### Brown Line", "Brown line BRT will start from Singer Chowrangi of Korangi Industrial Area. The first station of Brown line BRT is integrated with Yellow line BRT. Brown Line BRT will pass through Shama Centre Shah Faisal Colony, Drigh Road where it has a combined station with Karachi Circular Railway (KCR), Nipa Chowrangi (combined station with Red Line and KCR), Sohrab Goth (combined station with Blue Line) and will end at Nagan Chowrangi (combined station with Green Line).", "" ]
History ------- On 31 October 1988, **Viking Radio** split its frequencies and turned its medium wave service into "**Viking Gold**", thereby becoming Yorkshire Radio Network's first oldies station. **Pennine** and **Hallam** soon followed and **Classic Gold** launched on 1 May 1989\. For most of its life, Classic Gold was produced with a presenter in Hull, and local 'tech\-ops' in Bradford and Sheffield. In Bradford two sets of adverts would be played out \- one for Bradford and one for the [Halifax](/wiki/Halifax%2C_West_Yorkshire "Halifax, West Yorkshire")/[Huddersfield](/wiki/Huddersfield "Huddersfield") transmitter. Tech\-ops were instructed by talk\-back from the presenter studio in Hull what the 'out\-cue' was going to be. Part of the tech\-op's duties was to drive the desk for the news readers \- the first three minutes of which were taken by the FM station, while Classic Gold listeners got a full five minutes of news. A stand\-by CD was in [satellite](/wiki/Satellite "Satellite") studios in case of line failure; in Bradford, [Nina Simone](/wiki/Nina_Simone "Nina Simone")'s [My Baby Just Cares for Me](/wiki/My_Baby_Just_Cares_for_Me "My Baby Just Cares for Me") meant the line had gone dead. In the early 1990s GWR Group, which had just bought 2CR and 210, took YRN's Classic Gold from midnight until 6{{nbsp}}am. The name was used in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire "Yorkshire") by YRN some 12 months before the GWR Group. After being taken over by the [Metro Radio Group](/wiki/Metro_Radio_Group "Metro Radio Group") in the early 90s, Classic Gold was relaunched as "**Great Yorkshire Radio**", and in 1993 as "**Great Yorkshire Gold**". The station continued in all three areas, even after the sale of the Bradford\-based station (along with its FM sister station [The Pulse of West Yorkshire](/wiki/The_Pulse_of_West_Yorkshire "The Pulse of West Yorkshire")) to the [Radio Partnership](/wiki/Radio_Partnership "Radio Partnership") in 1996 due to [Radio Authority](/wiki/Radio_Authority "Radio Authority") rules at the time prevented the new owner from owning stations in both [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds") and Bradford due to the significant overlap. In 1997, promotional trailers began running across all three Great Yorkshire Gold stations saying that they would be soon changing to become **Magic**, despite the fact that this would not be the case in West Yorkshire, where negotiations were underway to take [GWR plc](/wiki/GWR_Group "GWR Group")'s Classic Gold service. Unhappy with the confusion being caused to listeners, bosses in Bradford decided to create an emergency local service whilst the talks continued with GWR plc and 1278 and 1530 AM West Yorkshire ran for a couple of weeks before GWR's Classic Gold was put to air.{{cite web\|title\=Aircheck UK \|url\=http://www.geocities.com/thehotw/aircheck\_UKYorks.htm \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091022155814/http://geocities.com/thehotw/aircheck\_UKYorks.htm \|archivedate\=22 October 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy }} The Classic Gold brand continued in [West Yorkshire](/wiki/West_Yorkshire "West Yorkshire") until 2007 (apart from a brief period when the station became **Big AM**), when it was rebranded as [Pulse Gold](/wiki/Pulse_Gold "Pulse Gold") taking programming from the [GCap](/wiki/GCap "GCap")\-owned "Gold" network; being relaunched again the following year (2008\) as [Pulse 2](/wiki/Pulse_2 "Pulse 2"), which remained on air until 1 September 2020 when the station was replaced with a relay of Bauer\-owned [Greatest Hits Radio](/wiki/Greatest_Hits_Radio "Greatest Hits Radio").[Most of acquired Bauer stations to become Greatest Hits Radio](https://radiotoday.co.uk/2020/05/most-of-acquired-bauer-stations-to-become-greatest-hits-radio/) Stuart Clarkson, Radio Today, 27 May 2020
[ "History\n-------", "On 31 October 1988, **Viking Radio** split its frequencies and turned its medium wave service into \"**Viking Gold**\", thereby becoming Yorkshire Radio Network's first oldies station. **Pennine** and **Hallam** soon followed and **Classic Gold** launched on 1 May 1989\\.", "For most of its life, Classic Gold was produced with a presenter in Hull, and local 'tech\\-ops' in Bradford and Sheffield. In Bradford two sets of adverts would be played out \\- one for Bradford and one for the [Halifax](/wiki/Halifax%2C_West_Yorkshire \"Halifax, West Yorkshire\")/[Huddersfield](/wiki/Huddersfield \"Huddersfield\") transmitter. \nTech\\-ops were instructed by talk\\-back from the presenter studio in Hull what the 'out\\-cue' was going to be. Part of the tech\\-op's duties was to drive the desk for the news readers \\- the first three minutes of which were taken by the FM station, while Classic Gold listeners got a full five minutes of news.", "A stand\\-by CD was in [satellite](/wiki/Satellite \"Satellite\") studios in case of line failure; in Bradford, [Nina Simone](/wiki/Nina_Simone \"Nina Simone\")'s [My Baby Just Cares for Me](/wiki/My_Baby_Just_Cares_for_Me \"My Baby Just Cares for Me\") meant the line had gone dead.", "In the early 1990s GWR Group, which had just bought 2CR and 210, took YRN's Classic Gold from midnight until 6{{nbsp}}am. The name was used in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\") by YRN some 12 months before the GWR Group.", "After being taken over by the [Metro Radio Group](/wiki/Metro_Radio_Group \"Metro Radio Group\") in the early 90s, Classic Gold was relaunched as \"**Great Yorkshire Radio**\", and in 1993 as \"**Great Yorkshire Gold**\". The station continued in all three areas, even after the sale of the Bradford\\-based station (along with its FM sister station [The Pulse of West Yorkshire](/wiki/The_Pulse_of_West_Yorkshire \"The Pulse of West Yorkshire\")) to the [Radio Partnership](/wiki/Radio_Partnership \"Radio Partnership\") in 1996 due to [Radio Authority](/wiki/Radio_Authority \"Radio Authority\") rules at the time prevented the new owner from owning stations in both [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\") and Bradford due to the significant overlap.", "In 1997, promotional trailers began running across all three Great Yorkshire Gold stations saying that they would be soon changing to become **Magic**, despite the fact that this would not be the case in West Yorkshire, where negotiations were underway to take [GWR plc](/wiki/GWR_Group \"GWR Group\")'s Classic Gold service. Unhappy with the confusion being caused to listeners, bosses in Bradford decided to create an emergency local service whilst the talks continued with GWR plc and 1278 and 1530 AM West Yorkshire ran for a couple of weeks before GWR's Classic Gold was put to air.{{cite web\\|title\\=Aircheck UK \\|url\\=http://www.geocities.com/thehotw/aircheck\\_UKYorks.htm \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091022155814/http://geocities.com/thehotw/aircheck\\_UKYorks.htm \\|archivedate\\=22 October 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy }} The Classic Gold brand continued in [West Yorkshire](/wiki/West_Yorkshire \"West Yorkshire\") until 2007 (apart from a brief period when the station became **Big AM**), when it was rebranded as [Pulse Gold](/wiki/Pulse_Gold \"Pulse Gold\") taking programming from the [GCap](/wiki/GCap \"GCap\")\\-owned \"Gold\" network; being relaunched again the following year (2008\\) as [Pulse 2](/wiki/Pulse_2 \"Pulse 2\"), which remained on air until 1 September 2020 when the station was replaced with a relay of Bauer\\-owned [Greatest Hits Radio](/wiki/Greatest_Hits_Radio \"Greatest Hits Radio\").[Most of acquired Bauer stations to become Greatest Hits Radio](https://radiotoday.co.uk/2020/05/most-of-acquired-bauer-stations-to-become-greatest-hits-radio/) Stuart Clarkson, Radio Today, 27 May 2020", "" ]
Gameplay -------- {{overly detailed\|date\=August 2022}} ### Races and Character Creation The ten species that were available to players included: [Human](/wiki/Human_%28Star_Wars%29 "Human (Star Wars)"), [Twi'lek](/wiki/Twi%27lek "Twi'lek"), [Zabrak](/wiki/Zabrak_%28Star_Wars%29 "Zabrak (Star Wars)"), [Wookiee](/wiki/Wookiee "Wookiee"), [Trandoshan](/wiki/Trandoshan "Trandoshan"), [Rodian](/wiki/Rodian "Rodian"), [Mon Calamari](/wiki/Mon_Calamari_%28fictional_race%29 "Mon Calamari (fictional race)"), [Bothan](/wiki/Bothan "Bothan"), [Sullustan](/wiki/Sullustan "Sullustan") and [Ithorian](/wiki/Ithorian "Ithorian"). Players could hire Entertainers to change their appearance in\-game, with even more options than those available at creation. Many visual aspects of a character were changeable after character creation except species and gender. ### In\-Game Professions Before the New Game Enhancements (commonly referred to as the "NGE"), players had access to 34 professions, with seven basic professions: Artisan, Brawler, Entertainer, Marksman, Medic, Politician, and Scout. Each profession had advanced tier options; including hybrids that combined traits of two professions. After the NGE, the developers added nine new professions: Jedi, Bounty Hunter, Smuggler, Commando, Spy, Officer, Medic, Entertainer, and Trader. Progress in these professions was divided into three separate experience source groups: combat, crafting, and entertaining. In addition to these professions, a character could also pursue three optional side professions: Pilot, Chronicler, and Politician. Players could specialize in three different areas of their primary professions by selecting "expertise" options, including Beast Mastery (BM). The Trader profession shared not only BM expertise but also general expertise. All professions could specialize through expertise and items. The only role requiring a single profession is healer. ### Spacecrafts The *Jump to Lightspeed* expansion made individual ships attainable by players for the first time. This allowed players to acquire and pilot ships of various sizes. Ships ranged in size from fighter crafts to gunships with up to three decks. This gave players the option between space\-based or planet\-based gameplay. ### Combat With the NGE, ground combat was changed to [real\-time](/wiki/Real-time_strategy "Real-time strategy") and similar to a [first\-person shooter](/wiki/First-person_shooter "First-person shooter"). The player would aim a targeting reticule and left\-click the mouse to fire. Auto\-aim and auto\-fire features were available, but players who eschewed those options were rewarded with an increased chance of maximum damage. As characters' levels increased, they gained access to additional combat abilities called "specials" which were activated by the right mouse button or by accessing the ability on a toolbar. In addition to providing high\-damage attacks, specials were also used to heal, buff, [debuff](/wiki/Debuff "Debuff"), and crowd control enemies. Players gained the ability to use more powerful weapons as they advanced in level. Players also earned "Expertise Points" as they leveled up, which were used to advance their professions. The player could allot 45 points to various abilities and attributes, from weapons specialties to healing and armor proficiency. Once a character reached level 90, they would gain access to collaborative "Heroic" missions. The five heroic missions were: Tusken Invasion, IG88, Axkva Min, Imperial Star Destroyer, and Exar Kun. ### In\-Game Economy, Infrastructure, and Political Structure Characters could erect, own, and decorate a variety of communal, personal, and governmental buildings. These buildings, when grouped, could be organized into cities. Players held elections via ballot box for Mayor. Elected mayors granted city members permission to place structures within the city. Elections were held every three weeks. If another player wished to run for mayor, they would add their name to the ballot box to run against the incumbent. As cities grew in population, they became eligible to add services and facilities such as vehicle repair garages, shuttle ports, cloning facilities, hospitals, cantinas, and garden displays. They could show up on planet maps alongside canonical cities such as [Theed](/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_cities%23Theed "List of Star Wars cities#Theed") and [Mos Eisley](/wiki/Mos_Eisley "Mos Eisley"). The gameplay design aimed towards realistic social institutions like a dynamic [virtual economy](/wiki/Virtual_economy "Virtual economy") and other real\-life social phenomena like a complicated [division of labor](/wiki/Division_of_labor "Division of labor"). In this virtual economy, players were responsible for creating many in\-game items including [blasters](/wiki/Blaster_%28star_wars%29 "Blaster (star wars)"), [starships](/wiki/Starship "Starship"), clothing, armor, food, housing, furniture and even a wide variety of [droids](/wiki/Droid_%28Star_Wars%29 "Droid (Star Wars)"). According to *Star Wars Galaxies and the Division of Labor*,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.swg.mrap.info/ \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies and the Division of Labor \|publisher\=Swg.mrap.info \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015223331/http://www.swg.mrap.info/ \|archive\-date\=October 15, 2011 }} the division of labor in *Star Wars Galaxies* produced in\-game results similar to those in real life.
[ "Gameplay\n--------", "{{overly detailed\\|date\\=August 2022}}", "### Races and Character Creation", "The ten species that were available to players included: [Human](/wiki/Human_%28Star_Wars%29 \"Human (Star Wars)\"), [Twi'lek](/wiki/Twi%27lek \"Twi'lek\"), [Zabrak](/wiki/Zabrak_%28Star_Wars%29 \"Zabrak (Star Wars)\"), [Wookiee](/wiki/Wookiee \"Wookiee\"), [Trandoshan](/wiki/Trandoshan \"Trandoshan\"), [Rodian](/wiki/Rodian \"Rodian\"), [Mon Calamari](/wiki/Mon_Calamari_%28fictional_race%29 \"Mon Calamari (fictional race)\"), [Bothan](/wiki/Bothan \"Bothan\"), [Sullustan](/wiki/Sullustan \"Sullustan\") and [Ithorian](/wiki/Ithorian \"Ithorian\").", "Players could hire Entertainers to change their appearance in\\-game, with even more options than those available at creation. Many visual aspects of a character were changeable after character creation except species and gender.", "### In\\-Game Professions", "Before the New Game Enhancements (commonly referred to as the \"NGE\"), players had access to 34 professions, with seven basic professions: Artisan, Brawler, Entertainer, Marksman, Medic, Politician, and Scout. Each profession had advanced tier options; including hybrids that combined traits of two professions. After the NGE, the developers added nine new professions: Jedi, Bounty Hunter, Smuggler, Commando, Spy, Officer, Medic, Entertainer, and Trader. Progress in these professions was divided into three separate experience source groups: combat, crafting, and entertaining. In addition to these professions, a character could also pursue three optional side professions: Pilot, Chronicler, and Politician.", "Players could specialize in three different areas of their primary professions by selecting \"expertise\" options, including Beast Mastery (BM). The Trader profession shared not only BM expertise but also general expertise. All professions could specialize through expertise and items. The only role requiring a single profession is healer.", "### Spacecrafts", "The *Jump to Lightspeed* expansion made individual ships attainable by players for the first time. This allowed players to acquire and pilot ships of various sizes. Ships ranged in size from fighter crafts to gunships with up to three decks. This gave players the option between space\\-based or planet\\-based gameplay.", "### Combat", "With the NGE, ground combat was changed to [real\\-time](/wiki/Real-time_strategy \"Real-time strategy\") and similar to a [first\\-person shooter](/wiki/First-person_shooter \"First-person shooter\"). The player would aim a targeting reticule and left\\-click the mouse to fire. Auto\\-aim and auto\\-fire features were available, but players who eschewed those options were rewarded with an increased chance of maximum damage. As characters' levels increased, they gained access to additional combat abilities called \"specials\" which were activated by the right mouse button or by accessing the ability on a toolbar. In addition to providing high\\-damage attacks, specials were also used to heal, buff, [debuff](/wiki/Debuff \"Debuff\"), and crowd control enemies. Players gained the ability to use more powerful weapons as they advanced in level. Players also earned \"Expertise Points\" as they leveled up, which were used to advance their professions. The player could allot 45 points to various abilities and attributes, from weapons specialties to healing and armor proficiency. Once a character reached level 90, they would gain access to collaborative \"Heroic\" missions. The five heroic missions were: Tusken Invasion, IG88, Axkva Min, Imperial Star Destroyer, and Exar Kun.", "### In\\-Game Economy, Infrastructure, and Political Structure", "Characters could erect, own, and decorate a variety of communal, personal, and governmental buildings. These buildings, when grouped, could be organized into cities. Players held elections via ballot box for Mayor. Elected mayors granted city members permission to place structures within the city. Elections were held every three weeks. If another player wished to run for mayor, they would add their name to the ballot box to run against the incumbent. As cities grew in population, they became eligible to add services and facilities such as vehicle repair garages, shuttle ports, cloning facilities, hospitals, cantinas, and garden displays. They could show up on planet maps alongside canonical cities such as [Theed](/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_cities%23Theed \"List of Star Wars cities#Theed\") and [Mos Eisley](/wiki/Mos_Eisley \"Mos Eisley\").", "The gameplay design aimed towards realistic social institutions like a dynamic [virtual economy](/wiki/Virtual_economy \"Virtual economy\") and other real\\-life social phenomena like a complicated [division of labor](/wiki/Division_of_labor \"Division of labor\"). In this virtual economy, players were responsible for creating many in\\-game items including [blasters](/wiki/Blaster_%28star_wars%29 \"Blaster (star wars)\"), [starships](/wiki/Starship \"Starship\"), clothing, armor, food, housing, furniture and even a wide variety of [droids](/wiki/Droid_%28Star_Wars%29 \"Droid (Star Wars)\"). According to *Star Wars Galaxies and the Division of Labor*,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.swg.mrap.info/ \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies and the Division of Labor \\|publisher\\=Swg.mrap.info \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015223331/http://www.swg.mrap.info/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 15, 2011 }} the division of labor in *Star Wars Galaxies* produced in\\-game results similar to those in real life.", "" ]
Setting ------- The game events were set following the destruction of the [Death Star](/wiki/Death_Star "Death Star") in *[Episode IV: A New Hope](/wiki/Star_Wars_%28film%29 "Star Wars (film)")*, but before the beginning of *[The Empire Strikes Back](/wiki/The_Empire_Strikes_Back "The Empire Strikes Back")*. The game launched with 10 planets: [Tatooine](/wiki/Tatooine "Tatooine"), [Naboo](/wiki/Naboo "Naboo"), [Corellia](/wiki/Corellia "Corellia"), Talus, [Rori](/wiki/Rori_%28Star_Wars%29 "Rori (Star Wars)"), [Dantooine](/wiki/Dantooine "Dantooine"), Lok, [Yavin 4](/wiki/Yavin_4 "Yavin 4"), the [Forest Moon of Endor](/wiki/Forest_moon_of_Endor "Forest moon of Endor"), and [Dathomir](/wiki/Dathomir "Dathomir"). The paid expansions added [Kashyyyk](/wiki/Wookiee "Wookiee") and [Mustafar](/wiki/Mustafar "Mustafar").*[Star Wars \- Star Wars News about the saga](http://holocron.net.br/star-wars) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420163025/http://holocron.net.br/star\-wars/ \|date\=April 20, 2016 }}*{{cite web\|url\=http://pc.ign.com/articles/673/673548p2\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060207012050/http://pc.ign.com/articles/673/673548p2\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=February 7, 2006 \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies: Trials of Obi\-Wan \|website\=IGN \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012}} There were 12 space zones, encompassing approximately 3400 [cubic kilometers](/wiki/Cubic_kilometer "Cubic kilometer") of navigable space. Nine space zones were associated with one or more of the playable planets, but [Kessel,](/wiki/Kessel_%28Star_Wars%29 "Kessel (Star Wars)") [Ord Mantell](/wiki/Ord_Mantell "Ord Mantell"), and Deep Space were solely used for space gameplay and player\-versus\-player combat. The planet [Hoth](/wiki/Hoth "Hoth") was added in November 2008, but could only be explored during the events of the Battle of Echo Base. ### Notable Characters and Locations Players could meet many characters from the main and [expanded](/wiki/Star_Wars_in_other_media "Star Wars in other media") universe of *Star Wars*. The main characters include: [Luke Skywalker](/wiki/Luke_Skywalker "Luke Skywalker"), [Han Solo](/wiki/Han_Solo "Han Solo"), [Princess Leia Organa](/wiki/Princess_Leia "Princess Leia"), [Darth Vader](/wiki/Darth_Vader "Darth Vader"), [Chewbacca](/wiki/Chewbacca "Chewbacca"), [Emperor Palpatine](/wiki/Palpatine "Palpatine"), [Admiral Ackbar](/wiki/Admiral_Ackbar "Admiral Ackbar"), [Jan Dodonna](/wiki/Jan_Dodonna "Jan Dodonna"), [Boba Fett](/wiki/Boba_Fett "Boba Fett"), [Jabba](/wiki/Jabba_the_Hutt "Jabba the Hutt"), [Borvo the Hutt](/wiki/Sio_Bibble "Sio Bibble"), [Bib Fortuna](/wiki/Bib_Fortuna "Bib Fortuna"), [Salacious Crumb](/wiki/Salacious_Crumb "Salacious Crumb"), [General Otto](/wiki/Admiral_Ozzel "Admiral Ozzel"), [Captain Panaka](/wiki/Captain_Panaka "Captain Panaka") (appears as Colonel Panaka), [Max Rebo](/wiki/Max_Rebo "Max Rebo"), [Wedge Antilles](/wiki/Wedge_Antilles "Wedge Antilles"), [Gavyn Sykes](/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_characters "List of Star Wars characters"), [Watto](/wiki/Watto "Watto"), [Boss Nass](/wiki/Boss_Nass "Boss Nass"), [Grand Inquisitor](/wiki/Grand_Inquisitor_%28Star_Wars%29 "Grand Inquisitor (Star Wars)") Ja'ce Yiaso, the "reincarnation" of [General Grievous](/wiki/General_Grievous "General Grievous") as NK\-Necrosis, Taga Olak, Jefa Bowa, and the Force ghost of [Obi\-Wan Kenobi](/wiki/Obi-Wan_Kenobi "Obi-Wan Kenobi"). Other characters and locations that players could visit within the game include: [R2\-D2](/wiki/R2-D2 "R2-D2"), [C\-3PO](/wiki/C-3PO "C-3PO"), their [escape pod](/wiki/Escape_pod "Escape pod") on [Tatooine](/wiki/Tatooine "Tatooine"), the [Naboo](/wiki/Naboo "Naboo") Royal Palace, the abandoned [Rebel](/wiki/Rebel_Alliance "Rebel Alliance") bases on [Dantooine](/wiki/Dantooine "Dantooine") and [Yavin 4](/wiki/Yavin_4 "Yavin 4"), [Ewoks](/wiki/Ewok "Ewok"), and [Rancors](/wiki/Rancor "Rancor").
[ "Setting\n-------", "The game events were set following the destruction of the [Death Star](/wiki/Death_Star \"Death Star\") in *[Episode IV: A New Hope](/wiki/Star_Wars_%28film%29 \"Star Wars (film)\")*, but before the beginning of *[The Empire Strikes Back](/wiki/The_Empire_Strikes_Back \"The Empire Strikes Back\")*.", "The game launched with 10 planets: [Tatooine](/wiki/Tatooine \"Tatooine\"), [Naboo](/wiki/Naboo \"Naboo\"), [Corellia](/wiki/Corellia \"Corellia\"), Talus, [Rori](/wiki/Rori_%28Star_Wars%29 \"Rori (Star Wars)\"), [Dantooine](/wiki/Dantooine \"Dantooine\"), Lok, [Yavin 4](/wiki/Yavin_4 \"Yavin 4\"), the [Forest Moon of Endor](/wiki/Forest_moon_of_Endor \"Forest moon of Endor\"), and [Dathomir](/wiki/Dathomir \"Dathomir\"). The paid expansions added [Kashyyyk](/wiki/Wookiee \"Wookiee\") and [Mustafar](/wiki/Mustafar \"Mustafar\").*[Star Wars \\- Star Wars News about the saga](http://holocron.net.br/star-wars) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420163025/http://holocron.net.br/star\\-wars/ \\|date\\=April 20, 2016 }}*{{cite web\\|url\\=http://pc.ign.com/articles/673/673548p2\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060207012050/http://pc.ign.com/articles/673/673548p2\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=February 7, 2006 \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies: Trials of Obi\\-Wan \\|website\\=IGN \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012}} There were 12 space zones, encompassing approximately 3400 [cubic kilometers](/wiki/Cubic_kilometer \"Cubic kilometer\") of navigable space. Nine space zones were associated with one or more of the playable planets, but [Kessel,](/wiki/Kessel_%28Star_Wars%29 \"Kessel (Star Wars)\") [Ord Mantell](/wiki/Ord_Mantell \"Ord Mantell\"), and Deep Space were solely used for space gameplay and player\\-versus\\-player combat. The planet [Hoth](/wiki/Hoth \"Hoth\") was added in November 2008, but could only be explored during the events of the Battle of Echo Base.", "### Notable Characters and Locations", "Players could meet many characters from the main and [expanded](/wiki/Star_Wars_in_other_media \"Star Wars in other media\") universe of *Star Wars*.", "The main characters include: [Luke Skywalker](/wiki/Luke_Skywalker \"Luke Skywalker\"), [Han Solo](/wiki/Han_Solo \"Han Solo\"), [Princess Leia Organa](/wiki/Princess_Leia \"Princess Leia\"), [Darth Vader](/wiki/Darth_Vader \"Darth Vader\"), [Chewbacca](/wiki/Chewbacca \"Chewbacca\"), [Emperor Palpatine](/wiki/Palpatine \"Palpatine\"), [Admiral Ackbar](/wiki/Admiral_Ackbar \"Admiral Ackbar\"), [Jan Dodonna](/wiki/Jan_Dodonna \"Jan Dodonna\"), [Boba Fett](/wiki/Boba_Fett \"Boba Fett\"), [Jabba](/wiki/Jabba_the_Hutt \"Jabba the Hutt\"), [Borvo the Hutt](/wiki/Sio_Bibble \"Sio Bibble\"), [Bib Fortuna](/wiki/Bib_Fortuna \"Bib Fortuna\"), [Salacious Crumb](/wiki/Salacious_Crumb \"Salacious Crumb\"), [General Otto](/wiki/Admiral_Ozzel \"Admiral Ozzel\"), [Captain Panaka](/wiki/Captain_Panaka \"Captain Panaka\") (appears as Colonel Panaka), [Max Rebo](/wiki/Max_Rebo \"Max Rebo\"), [Wedge Antilles](/wiki/Wedge_Antilles \"Wedge Antilles\"), [Gavyn Sykes](/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_characters \"List of Star Wars characters\"), [Watto](/wiki/Watto \"Watto\"), [Boss Nass](/wiki/Boss_Nass \"Boss Nass\"), [Grand Inquisitor](/wiki/Grand_Inquisitor_%28Star_Wars%29 \"Grand Inquisitor (Star Wars)\") Ja'ce Yiaso, the \"reincarnation\" of [General Grievous](/wiki/General_Grievous \"General Grievous\") as NK\\-Necrosis, Taga Olak, Jefa Bowa, and the Force ghost of [Obi\\-Wan Kenobi](/wiki/Obi-Wan_Kenobi \"Obi-Wan Kenobi\").", "Other characters and locations that players could visit within the game include: [R2\\-D2](/wiki/R2-D2 \"R2-D2\"), [C\\-3PO](/wiki/C-3PO \"C-3PO\"), their [escape pod](/wiki/Escape_pod \"Escape pod\") on [Tatooine](/wiki/Tatooine \"Tatooine\"), the [Naboo](/wiki/Naboo \"Naboo\") Royal Palace, the abandoned [Rebel](/wiki/Rebel_Alliance \"Rebel Alliance\") bases on [Dantooine](/wiki/Dantooine \"Dantooine\") and [Yavin 4](/wiki/Yavin_4 \"Yavin 4\"), [Ewoks](/wiki/Ewok \"Ewok\"), and [Rancors](/wiki/Rancor \"Rancor\").", "" ]
Release and continued development --------------------------------- The game was originally to be released on April 15, 2003\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lucasarts.com/company/release/news20021220\.html \|title\=LucasArts Confirms April 15, 2003, Release For Star Wars Galaxies: An Empire Divided \|access\-date\=March 24, 2007 \|date\=December 20, 2002 \|publisher\=\[\[LucasArts]] \|archive\-date\=September 12, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912035458/http://www.lucasarts.com/company/release/news20021220\.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://pc.ign.com/articles/380/380958p1\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20021224105706/http://pc.ign.com/articles/380/380958p1\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=December 24, 2002 \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies Release Date! \|access\-date\=March 24, 2007 \|date\=December 20, 2002 \|last\=Butts \|first\=Steve \|website\=IGN }} They also announced on December 20, 2002, that the ground\-based component of *Star Wars Galaxies* would be called ***An Empire Divided*** and that the game's online community had grown to over 400,000 users since its inception in November 2000\. At the time, this represented one of the largest ever fan communities amassed for any game prior to retail availability. *An Empire Divided* would later be delayed to June 26, 2003\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lucasarts.com/company/release/news20030617\.html \|title\=LucasArts Announces Star Wars Galaxies: An Empire Divided Will Release June 26, 2003 \|access\-date\=March 24, 2007 \|date\=June 17, 2003 \|publisher\=\[\[LucasArts]] \|archive\-date\=September 15, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915153649/http://www.lucasarts.com/company/release/news20030617\.html \|url\-status\=live }} The base game, titled *Star Wars Galaxies: An Empire Divided*, was released on June 26, 2003, in the US and on November 7, 2003, in Europe. A localized version for the Japanese market was published by [EA Japan](/wiki/Electronic_Arts "Electronic Arts") on December 23, 2004\. Japanese acceptance of the game was low, and in November 2005 the servers were shut down and existing accounts migrated to US servers. At the time of its initial release, the game was very different from how it ended up. Vehicles and creature mounts were not yet implemented. While player housing was available at the time of launch, the ability to incorporate groups of houses into cities didn't come until November 2003\. Each character and creature possessed three "pools" (called Health, Action, and Mind; or "HAM") that represented his or her physical and mental reserves. Most attacks specifically targeted one of these three pools and any action the character took also depleted one or more of the pools. When any one of those pools was fully depleted, the character would fall unconscious. Combat, then, required the player to carefully manage his or her actions to avoid depleting a pool. Character progression was vastly different at release as well. Characters started out in one of six basic professions (Medic, Brawler, Marksman, Scout, Entertainer, or Artisan) and could pick up any of the other five at any time after character creation. Each profession consisted of a tree\-like structure of skills, with a single Novice level, four independent branches of four levels each, and a Master level which required completion of all four branches. Characters purchased these skills with experience points gained through a related activity. For example, an Entertainer could purchase skills to get better at playing music, but only with Musician experience points. Dancing experience points were entirely separate and could only be used to purchase dancing skills. In addition to the basic professions, characters could specialize into advanced professions such as Bounty Hunter, Creature Handler, Ranger, Doctor, and Musician. There were a total of 24 advanced professions, although there was no way for characters to obtain all of them at once. Each advanced profession had certain skill requirements from the base professions that had to be met, some more restrictive than others. Jedi were not available as a starting profession, or even as an advanced profession. The developers stated only that certain in\-game actions would open up a Force\-sensitive character slot. The actions required were left for players to discover. It eventually turned out that characters had to achieve Master level in random professions. At first the player had to complete four master level classes which were randomly chosen and unknown to the player. The developers then introduced Holocrons which would inform the player of the first, then after completion second master class required. At various times the number of master levels needed ranged from four to seven and the number revealed by holocrons varied from two to four. Because of the difficulty in obtaining a force sensitive (Jedi) character, the profession had many advantages in combat, often capable of taking on very powerful enemies or defeating entire groups of other non\-Jedi characters in Player vs. Player combat. The first Force\-sensitive character slot was unlocked on November 7, 2003\.{{cite news\| author \= www.zam.com\| url \= http://www.zam.com/story.html?story\=2617\| title \= Star Wars Galaxies: News: Congratulations Monika T'Sarn for Unlocking the Force Sensitive Slot!\| access\-date \= February 6, 2015\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150207061326/http://www.zam.com/story.html?story\=2617\| archive\-date \= February 7, 2015}} ### Server closures On September 16, 2009, SOE informed all current and past account holders of the forthcoming closure of 12 servers (galaxies): Corbantis, Europe\-Infinity, Intrepid, Kauri, Kettemoor, Lowca, Naritus, Scylla, Tarquinas, Tempest, Valcyn and Wanderhome. Character creation on these servers was disabled on September 15, 2009, with the final closure of the servers on October 15, 2009\. Players with characters on the affected servers were offered free character transfer to one of the 13 remaining servers. ### Hacking incident On May 3, 2011, SOE issued a press release stating that all SOE had been isolated from the Internet, due to massive and widespread security infiltrations of various games, servers, databases. Security teams (and the [FBI](/wiki/FBI "FBI")) were called in and at that time no information was available regarding when the services would be restored. Initial reports indicated personal data of 20\-30 million customers had potentially been compromised, none within the USA. The information compromised was old information including addresses and CC information from 2007\. All SOE webpages were re\-directed temporarily to a customer announcement and a press release page.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.soe.com/securityupdate/ \|title\=Customer Service Notification \|publisher\=SOE \|date\=May 2, 2011 \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125082534/http://www.soe.com/securityupdate/ \|archive\-date\=November 25, 2012 }} On May 14, 2011, SOE declared everything safe and reopened all servers. SOE offered a free 30\-day membership for gamers with memberships and a 1:1 ratio of days lost. Once opened they gave every account 45 free days as well as a minor object of decoration as a "perk" for waiting out the cause. On May 17, 2011, SOE released Hotfix 19\.17 which introduced the new feature of bounty\-hunting in space. This allowed players to place a bounty on players of the opposite faction who had recently destroyed their ship in space combat. This allowed bounty hunters to pick these targets up as missions and pursue them in space for the monetary reward (up to 1 million credits) the player had placed on the target. ### Closure On June 24, 2011, SOE and LucasArts announced that they had mutually agreed to shut down *Star Wars Galaxies* on December 15, 2011\.{{cite web\|title\=IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT STAR WARS GALAXIES\|url\=http://starwarsgalaxies.station.sony.com/playerinfo/\|publisher\=Sony Online Entertainment\|access\-date\=June 24, 2011\|date\=June 24, 2011\|quote\=We write to you today to inform you that on December 15, 2011, Sony Online Entertainment (SOE) and LucasArts will end all services (MMO and Trading Card Game) for Star Wars Galaxies (SWG).\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110627210042/http://starwarsgalaxies.station.sony.com/playerinfo/\|archive\-date\=June 27, 2011}} According to the SOE announcement, both LucasArts and SOE came to the agreement that "If you are an active subscriber in good standing as of September 15, 2011, then you can play for free for the final months. Players wishing to play through the end of the game and participate in the galaxy\-ending event planned for the last week of live service in December will need to re\-activate or join the game on or before September 15\. No new or reactivated accounts will be accepted after September 15, 2011\."{{cite web\|title\=IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT STAR WARS GALAXIES \- STAR WARS GALAXIES SERVICE WILL END ON DECEMBER 15\|url\=http://starwarsgalaxies.station.sony.com/playerinfo\|work\=Star Wars Galaxies\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124133655/http://starwarsgalaxies.station.sony.com/playerinfo/\|archive\-date\=November 24, 2011}} On December 15, 2011, at 9:01 PM Pacific time, the servers of *Star Wars Galaxies* shut down, disconnecting those still playing and not allowing any entry back to the game. The final five hours were broadcast in a [live stream](/wiki/Streaming_media "Streaming media") by [Giant Bomb](/wiki/Giant_Bomb "Giant Bomb"), with [Kotaku](/wiki/Kotaku "Kotaku") reporting events as they happened on the Giant Bomb stream, including a final player versus player event between the Galactic Empire and The Rebels, as well as an appearance from the [Force Ghost](/wiki/Force_Ghost "Force Ghost") of [Obi\-Wan Kenobi](/wiki/Obi-Wan_Kenobi "Obi-Wan Kenobi") as depicted in *[The Empire Strikes Back](/wiki/The_Empire_Strikes_Back "The Empire Strikes Back")* and *[Return of the Jedi](/wiki/Return_of_the_Jedi "Return of the Jedi")*.{{cite web \|url\=http://kotaku.com/5868648/goodbye\-star\-wars\-galaxies \|title\=Goodbye, Star Wars Galaxies \|website\=Kotaku \|date\=December 15, 2011 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2011 \|archive\-date\=January 7, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107122837/http://kotaku.com/5868648/goodbye\-star\-wars\-galaxies \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.giantbomb.com/there\-is\-another\-the\-end\-of\-star\-wars\-galaxies\-part\-01/17\-5439/ \|title\=There Is Another: The End Of Star Wars Galaxies \- Part 01 \|publisher\=\[\[Giant Bomb]] \|date\=December 20, 2011 \|access\-date\=December 31, 2011 \|archive\-date\=January 7, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107150559/http://www.giantbomb.com/there\-is\-another\-the\-end\-of\-star\-wars\-galaxies\-part\-01/17\-5439/ \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "Release and continued development\n---------------------------------", "The game was originally to be released on April 15, 2003\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lucasarts.com/company/release/news20021220\\.html \\|title\\=LucasArts Confirms April 15, 2003, Release For Star Wars Galaxies: An Empire Divided \\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2007 \\|date\\=December 20, 2002 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[LucasArts]] \\|archive\\-date\\=September 12, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912035458/http://www.lucasarts.com/company/release/news20021220\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://pc.ign.com/articles/380/380958p1\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20021224105706/http://pc.ign.com/articles/380/380958p1\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=December 24, 2002 \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies Release Date! \\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2007 \\|date\\=December 20, 2002 \\|last\\=Butts \\|first\\=Steve \\|website\\=IGN }} They also announced on December 20, 2002, that the ground\\-based component of *Star Wars Galaxies* would be called ***An Empire Divided*** and that the game's online community had grown to over 400,000 users since its inception in November 2000\\. At the time, this represented one of the largest ever fan communities amassed for any game prior to retail availability. *An Empire Divided* would later be delayed to June 26, 2003\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lucasarts.com/company/release/news20030617\\.html \\|title\\=LucasArts Announces Star Wars Galaxies: An Empire Divided Will Release June 26, 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2007 \\|date\\=June 17, 2003 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[LucasArts]] \\|archive\\-date\\=September 15, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915153649/http://www.lucasarts.com/company/release/news20030617\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "The base game, titled *Star Wars Galaxies: An Empire Divided*, was released on June 26, 2003, in the US and on November 7, 2003, in Europe. A localized version for the Japanese market was published by [EA Japan](/wiki/Electronic_Arts \"Electronic Arts\") on December 23, 2004\\. Japanese acceptance of the game was low, and in November 2005 the servers were shut down and existing accounts migrated to US servers.\nAt the time of its initial release, the game was very different from how it ended up. Vehicles and creature mounts were not yet implemented. While player housing was available at the time of launch, the ability to incorporate groups of houses into cities didn't come until November 2003\\. Each character and creature possessed three \"pools\" (called Health, Action, and Mind; or \"HAM\") that represented his or her physical and mental reserves. Most attacks specifically targeted one of these three pools and any action the character took also depleted one or more of the pools. When any one of those pools was fully depleted, the character would fall unconscious. Combat, then, required the player to carefully manage his or her actions to avoid depleting a pool.", "Character progression was vastly different at release as well. Characters started out in one of six basic professions (Medic, Brawler, Marksman, Scout, Entertainer, or Artisan) and could pick up any of the other five at any time after character creation. Each profession consisted of a tree\\-like structure of skills, with a single Novice level, four independent branches of four levels each, and a Master level which required completion of all four branches. Characters purchased these skills with experience points gained through a related activity. For example, an Entertainer could purchase skills to get better at playing music, but only with Musician experience points. Dancing experience points were entirely separate and could only be used to purchase dancing skills.", "In addition to the basic professions, characters could specialize into advanced professions such as Bounty Hunter, Creature Handler, Ranger, Doctor, and Musician. There were a total of 24 advanced professions, although there was no way for characters to obtain all of them at once. Each advanced profession had certain skill requirements from the base professions that had to be met, some more restrictive than others.", "Jedi were not available as a starting profession, or even as an advanced profession. The developers stated only that certain in\\-game actions would open up a Force\\-sensitive character slot. The actions required were left for players to discover. It eventually turned out that characters had to achieve Master level in random professions. At first the player had to complete four master level classes which were randomly chosen and unknown to the player. The developers then introduced Holocrons which would inform the player of the first, then after completion second master class required. At various times the number of master levels needed ranged from four to seven and the number revealed by holocrons varied from two to four. Because of the difficulty in obtaining a force sensitive (Jedi) character, the profession had many advantages in combat, often capable of taking on very powerful enemies or defeating entire groups of other non\\-Jedi characters in Player vs. Player combat. The first Force\\-sensitive character slot was unlocked on November 7, 2003\\.{{cite news\\| author \\= www.zam.com\\| url \\= http://www.zam.com/story.html?story\\=2617\\| title \\= Star Wars Galaxies: News: Congratulations Monika T'Sarn for Unlocking the Force Sensitive Slot!\\| access\\-date \\= February 6, 2015\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150207061326/http://www.zam.com/story.html?story\\=2617\\| archive\\-date \\= February 7, 2015}}", "### Server closures", "On September 16, 2009, SOE informed all current and past account holders of the forthcoming closure of 12 servers (galaxies): Corbantis, Europe\\-Infinity, Intrepid, Kauri, Kettemoor, Lowca, Naritus, Scylla, Tarquinas, Tempest, Valcyn and Wanderhome. Character creation on these servers was disabled on September 15, 2009, with the final closure of the servers on October 15, 2009\\. Players with characters on the affected servers were offered free character transfer to one of the 13 remaining servers.", "### Hacking incident", "On May 3, 2011, SOE issued a press release stating that all SOE had been isolated from the Internet, due to massive and widespread security infiltrations of various games, servers, databases. Security teams (and the [FBI](/wiki/FBI \"FBI\")) were called in and at that time no information was available regarding when the services would be restored. Initial reports indicated personal data of 20\\-30 million customers had potentially been compromised, none within the USA. The information compromised was old information including addresses and CC information from 2007\\. All SOE webpages were re\\-directed temporarily to a customer announcement and a press release page.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.soe.com/securityupdate/ \\|title\\=Customer Service Notification \\|publisher\\=SOE \\|date\\=May 2, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125082534/http://www.soe.com/securityupdate/ \\|archive\\-date\\=November 25, 2012 }} On May 14, 2011, SOE declared everything safe and reopened all servers. SOE offered a free 30\\-day membership for gamers with memberships and a 1:1 ratio of days lost. Once opened they gave every account 45 free days as well as a minor object of decoration as a \"perk\" for waiting out the cause.", "On May 17, 2011, SOE released Hotfix 19\\.17 which introduced the new feature of bounty\\-hunting in space. This allowed players to place a bounty on players of the opposite faction who had recently destroyed their ship in space combat. This allowed bounty hunters to pick these targets up as missions and pursue them in space for the monetary reward (up to 1 million credits) the player had placed on the target.", "### Closure", "On June 24, 2011, SOE and LucasArts announced that they had mutually agreed to shut down *Star Wars Galaxies* on December 15, 2011\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT STAR WARS GALAXIES\\|url\\=http://starwarsgalaxies.station.sony.com/playerinfo/\\|publisher\\=Sony Online Entertainment\\|access\\-date\\=June 24, 2011\\|date\\=June 24, 2011\\|quote\\=We write to you today to inform you that on December 15, 2011, Sony Online Entertainment (SOE) and LucasArts will end all services (MMO and Trading Card Game) for Star Wars Galaxies (SWG).\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110627210042/http://starwarsgalaxies.station.sony.com/playerinfo/\\|archive\\-date\\=June 27, 2011}} According to the SOE announcement, both LucasArts and SOE came to the agreement that \"If you are an active subscriber in good standing as of September 15, 2011, then you can play for free for the final months. Players wishing to play through the end of the game and participate in the galaxy\\-ending event planned for the last week of live service in December will need to re\\-activate or join the game on or before September 15\\. No new or reactivated accounts will be accepted after September 15, 2011\\.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT STAR WARS GALAXIES \\- STAR WARS GALAXIES SERVICE WILL END ON DECEMBER 15\\|url\\=http://starwarsgalaxies.station.sony.com/playerinfo\\|work\\=Star Wars Galaxies\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124133655/http://starwarsgalaxies.station.sony.com/playerinfo/\\|archive\\-date\\=November 24, 2011}}", "On December 15, 2011, at 9:01 PM Pacific time, the servers of *Star Wars Galaxies* shut down, disconnecting those still playing and not allowing any entry back to the game. The final five hours were broadcast in a [live stream](/wiki/Streaming_media \"Streaming media\") by [Giant Bomb](/wiki/Giant_Bomb \"Giant Bomb\"), with [Kotaku](/wiki/Kotaku \"Kotaku\") reporting events as they happened on the Giant Bomb stream, including a final player versus player event between the Galactic Empire and The Rebels, as well as an appearance from the [Force Ghost](/wiki/Force_Ghost \"Force Ghost\") of [Obi\\-Wan Kenobi](/wiki/Obi-Wan_Kenobi \"Obi-Wan Kenobi\") as depicted in *[The Empire Strikes Back](/wiki/The_Empire_Strikes_Back \"The Empire Strikes Back\")* and *[Return of the Jedi](/wiki/Return_of_the_Jedi \"Return of the Jedi\")*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://kotaku.com/5868648/goodbye\\-star\\-wars\\-galaxies \\|title\\=Goodbye, Star Wars Galaxies \\|website\\=Kotaku \\|date\\=December 15, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 7, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107122837/http://kotaku.com/5868648/goodbye\\-star\\-wars\\-galaxies \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.giantbomb.com/there\\-is\\-another\\-the\\-end\\-of\\-star\\-wars\\-galaxies\\-part\\-01/17\\-5439/ \\|title\\=There Is Another: The End Of Star Wars Galaxies \\- Part 01 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Giant Bomb]] \\|date\\=December 20, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 7, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107150559/http://www.giantbomb.com/there\\-is\\-another\\-the\\-end\\-of\\-star\\-wars\\-galaxies\\-part\\-01/17\\-5439/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
Legacy ------ ### Expansions #### *Jump to Lightspeed* {{Main\|Star Wars Galaxies: Jump to Lightspeed}} This first expansion, ***Jump to Lightspeed***, was released on October 27, 2004\. Two new races were added: [Sullustan](/wiki/Sullustan "Sullustan") and [Ithorian](/wiki/Ithorian "Ithorian"). The expansion added space combat. Characters choose one of three factions in the new Pilot sub\-profession: Rebel, Imperial, or Freelance. The playable sectors include the space surrounding the 10 planets of the game as well as Ord Mantell, Kessel and "Deep Space." Combat is real\-time and twitch\-oriented like a [first\-person shooter](/wiki/First-person_shooter "First-person shooter") and can be played with a joystick at the player's option. A new Artisan profession, Shipwright (now subsumed into the Trader profession as part of the Structures specialty), was also introduced. This profession created ships, shields, armor, weapons, etc. for players. They also have the ability to take looted components from space and reverse engineer them into better components. Players can construct their own ships with a base chassis, adding their own reactors, weapons, armor, shields, aesthetics and more, all of which visually change the starship's appearance. In many ways, this is the spiritual successor to the hit LucasArt's space combat flight simulation game *[Star Wars: X\-Wing vs. TIE Fighter](/wiki/Star_Wars:X-Wing_vs._TIE_Fighter "X-Wing vs. TIE Fighter")*, as the theme, interface and objectives are quite similar. The reviews for the first expansion, *Jump to Lightspeed*, praised the new space combat but criticized the ground game for its lack of sufficient improvement.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesjumptolightspeed/ \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies: Jump to Lightspeed for PC Reviews, Ratings, Credits, and More \|website\=Metacritic \|date\=October 26, 2004 \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012 \|archive\-date\=June 18, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618064912/http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesjumptolightspeed \|url\-status\=live }} #### *Rage of the Wookiees* The second expansion, ***Episode III Rage of the Wookiees***, was announced on March 9, 2005, and released on May 5, 2005\. It added the Wookiee planet of Kashyyyk and its corresponding space sector. Kashyyyk is different from the previous 10 planets: rather than being 16 square kilometers of openly navigable area, it is divided into a small central area with several instanced "dungeon" areas. A new space zone was also added. Other content added in this expansion included the ability to add cybernetic limbs to a player character and [quests](/wiki/Quest_%28gaming%29 "Quest (gaming)") for two new creature mounts and three new starships. A substantial portion of the content for this expansion was adapted from the film *[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith "Episode III – Revenge of the Sith")* which was released to theaters in the U.S. on May 19, two weeks after the expansion release. Other features included new starfighters, resource mining in space, and cybernetic limbs for player characters. The cybernetic limbs, however, were not due to the loss of an arm in combat. The player had to obtain the arm and then surgically attach it. Customers who purchased the expansion also received a limited\-edition Varactyl pet as a player mount. *Rage of the Wookiees* expansion also added a few quests, one allowed the player to obtain a pet Bolotaur after going through several tasks. The Bolotaur is similar to the Veractyl but larger and brown. Gameplay mechanics for combat and armor/weapon systems received a major alteration on April 27, 2005,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.swgemu.com/archive/scrapbookv51/tree/frame.html \|title\=Output Tree as HTML \- ScrapBook \|publisher\=Swgemu.com \|access\-date\=July 23, 2019 \|archive\-date\=May 17, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517065221/https://www.swgemu.com/archive/scrapbookv51/tree/frame.html \|url\-status\=live }} when SOE released the Combat Upgrade that replaced a system that allowed players with combat professions to stack defensive abilities from various skill sets, while also fixing an exploit that allowed players to have their character attack freshly spawning [non\-player characters](/wiki/Non-player_character "Non-player character") (NPC) and creatures while away from their computers in order to gain combat skill experience. The reviews for the second expansion, *Rage of the Wookiees*, lauded the new quest content for current subscribers but lamented the combat gameplay updates and the continued bugginess of the game.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesepisode3rageofthewookies/ \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies: Episode III Rage of the Wookiees for PC \|website\=Metacritic \|date\=May 5, 2005 \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012 \|archive\-date\=October 21, 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021064205/http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesepisode3rageofthewookies \|url\-status\=live }} #### *Trials of Obi\-Wan* The third expansion, ***Star Wars Galaxies: Trials of Obi\-Wan***, was announced on August 19, 2005, and released on November 1, 2005\. This expansion added the ground planet of Mustafar to the game. No new space sector was added with this expansion. Like the previous expansion, much of the content is related to *Revenge of the Sith*, which was released to [DVD](/wiki/DVD "DVD") on the same day as the expansion was released. Additional content, including the presence of the droid HK\-47, is based on the *Knights of the Old Republic* games. One week after this release the entire character development process was changed in the New Game Enhancements (NGE). Major changes included the reduction and simplification of professions, simplification of gameplay mechanics, and [Jedi](/wiki/Jedi "Jedi") becoming a starting profession. This led to a number of players demanding their money back for the expansion. After a week or two of protests Sony offered refunds to anyone who asked for it. Many player towns became ghost towns due to the reaction of long term players who decided to depart en masse. {{Multiple image\|direction\=vertical\|align\=right\|image1\=SWG July 2005\.jpg\|image2\=SWG June 2007\.jpg\|width\=200\|caption1\=''Star Wars Galaxies'' after the Combat Upgrade\|caption2\=''Star Wars Galaxies'' after the NGE}} ### *Star Wars Galaxies* compilations On top of the expansions, SOE released several compilations of their games: *Star Wars Galaxies \- The Total Experience* This pack included the original *Star Wars Galaxies* (*An Empire Divided*), *Jump to Lightspeed* and the *Rage of the Wookiees* expansion packs. Customers who bought this pack also received a BARC speeder as a gift. *Star Wars Galaxies \- Starter Kit* The kit was the first version of the New Game Enhancement (NGE). It contained *An Empire Divided* and *Jump to Lightspeed*. Customers who bought this pack also received an [X\-wing](/wiki/X-wing "X-wing") or [TIE fighter](/wiki/TIE_fighter "TIE fighter") instant transport vehicle as a gift.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/starwarsgalaxiesstarterkit/ \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies: Starter Kit \|publisher\=GameSpot.com \|date\=November 17, 2005 \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012 \|archive\-date\=October 16, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016120408/http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/starwarsgalaxiesstarterkit/ \|url\-status\=live }} *Star Wars Galaxies \- The Complete Online Adventures* This included the original game with the first three expansion packs, a DVD of never\-before released bonus features, a slide show of more than 800 pieces of *Star Wars Galaxies* concept art and screenshots, all set to more than an hour of orchestral in\-game music, excerpts from the popular *From Pencil to Pixel* book that chronicles the art of *Star Wars Galaxies* and interviews with the producers, and all the cinematic trailers for the game. It also included an exclusive in\-game item for use while playing – a personal AT\-RT vehicle as seen in *Revenge of the Sith*.{{cite web \|first\=Tim \|last\=Surette \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/swgcompleteonlineadventures/news.html?sid\=6154452\&om\_act\=convert\&om\_clk\=mostpop \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies gets Complete collection \|publisher\=GameSpot.com \|date\=July 9, 2003 \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012 \|archive\-date\=October 16, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016141717/http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/swgcompleteonlineadventures/news.html?sid\=6154452\&om\_act\=convert\&om\_clk\=mostpop \|url\-status\=live }} This version was the first to be released in [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), instead of *An Empire Divided*. *Star Wars Galaxies \- The Complete Online Adventures Premium Digital Download* This included *An Empire Divided*, *Jump to Lightspeed*, *Rage of the Wookiees*, *Trials of Obi\-Wan*, and players who purchase it also receive a bonus instant travel vehicle, the Queen Amidala Transport Ship and an AT\-RT walker. No disc media is provided as it is an Internet download, which later came with a Queen Amidala Transport Ship (one per character), a General Grievous Wheel Bike, a Double seated Bike for the player and a friend (one per character), a Lava Flea mount (one per account), an Underground Mustafar Bunker player house (one per account), an AT\-RT walker mount (one per account), a Varactyl mount (one per account). ### Novelization *Star Wars Galaxies: The Ruins of Dantooine* is a novel based in part on places and events in the game. It was authored by Voronica Whitney\-Robinson and [Haden Blackman](/wiki/Haden_Blackman "Haden Blackman"), the LucasArts producer of the game.{{cite book \|author\=Haden Blackman; Voronica Whitney\-Robinson \|title\=The Ruins of Dantooine (Star Wars: Galaxies) \|date\=December 2003 \|publisher\=Del Rey \|location\=New York \|isbn\=0\-345\-47066\-4 }} It was released in December 2003\.{{cite web\|title\=A Closer Look: The Ruins of Dantooine\|url\=https://www.starwars.com/eu/lit/novel/news20031016\.html\|website\=starwars.com\|access\-date\=November 4, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050307170237/http://www.starwars.com/eu/lit/novel/news20031016\.html\|archive\-date\=March 7, 2005\|date\=October 16, 2003}} ### *Trading Card Game* On August 27, 2008, following the success of SOE's *[Legends of Norrath](/wiki/Legends_of_Norrath "Legends of Norrath")*, LucasArts and SOE released *Champions of the Force*, an online [trading card game](/wiki/Trading_card_game "Trading card game") based on *Star Wars Galaxies*. In the game, players could collect, battle, and trade with each other as well as buy new cards with money and get new in\-game items from the cards to use; such as podracers and house paintings. Over one hundred cards were created for players to find and play against others with new artwork featured on each card. ### Emulation {{external links\|section\|date\=August 2023}} In 2004, the [SWGEmu](https://swgemu.com) project was founded with the intention of re\-creating the Pre\-Combat Upgrade version of Star Wars Galaxies from scratch through [emulation](/wiki/Video_game_console_emulator "Video game console emulator") by reverse engineering the official game client and writing a server that communicates with it in the same way the original SOE servers did.{{cite web\|url\=http://kernelmag.dailydot.com/issue\-sections/headline\-story/15335/star\-wars\-galaxies\-swgemu\-project/\|title\=The rise, fall, and return of Star Wars Galaxies \- The Kernel\|last\=Scimeca\|first\=Dennis\|date\=December 20, 2015\|publisher\=Kernelmag.dailydot.com\|access\-date\=July 23, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 26, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726003848/https://kernelmag.dailydot.com/issue\-sections/headline\-story/15335/star\-wars\-galaxies\-swgemu\-project/\|url\-status\=live}} The goal of SWGEmu is to emulate the game to its entirety as it was on the live servers through patch 14\.1\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/content.php?r\=704\-What\-is\-SWGEmu\-FAQ\|title\=SWGEmu Forums \- What is SWGEmu? FAQ\|website\=www.swgemu.com\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-date\=March 20, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320052406/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/content.php?r\=704\-What\-is\-SWGEmu\-FAQ\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\=69\|title\=SWGEmu Mission Statement\|website\=www.swgemu.com\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 27, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127091259/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\=69\|url\-status\=live}} In 2020, the SWGEmu project announced it was near completion of the base game (colloquially referred to as version 1\.0\) and that many of the existing developers who had invested significant time over the past ten or more years would be taking a back seat role moving forward{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\=228703\|title\=SWGEmu, The Next Decade...\|website\=www.swgemu.com\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-date\=May 13, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513054205/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\=228703\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\=75\|title\=Project Status List\|website\=www.swgemu.com\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-date\=March 22, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322123214/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\=75\|url\-status\=live}} and also announced that the Jump to Lightspeed expansion may no longer be included in version 1\.0 due to the complexities of implementing the system.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\=225181\|title\=SWGEmu \- 1\.0 and the future of JTL\|website\=www.swgemu.com\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-date\=March 17, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317102523/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\=225181\|url\-status\=live}} SWGEmu is an [open source](/wiki/Open-source_software "Open-source software") project distributed under the [GNU Affero General Public License](/wiki/GNU_Affero_General_Public_License "GNU Affero General Public License"). The server code base, known as Core3, has been open source since before 2010, allowing for volunteers to easily contribute to its development. In 2019, SWGEmu also open sourced its engine, known as Engine3\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/content.php?r\=834\-Open\-sourcing\-the\-engine\|title\=SWGEmu Forums \- Open sourcing the engine\|website\=www.swgemu.com\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-date\=July 21, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721083054/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/content.php?r\=834\-Open\-sourcing\-the\-engine\|url\-status\=live}} Because SWGEmu is open source, any members are able to easily launch their own server for their own community. There are several community\-ran servers which develop content beyond the 14\.1 publish goal of SWGEmu, such as [Awakening](https://swgawakening.com/), [Dark Rebellion](https://darkrebellionrp.wordpress.com/), [Empire in Flames](https://empireinflames.com/), [Infinity](https://www.swginfinity.com/) and [Reckoning](http://swgreckoning.com/). Other projects like [CUEmu](https://discord.gg/RJ6eEsW) look to use SWGEmu's Core3 code base to emulate the publish 15 era of Star Wars Galaxies, also known as the Combat Upgrade. In 2011, after Sony Online Entertainment announced the intention of shutting down Star Wars Galaxies, [Project SWG](https://projectswg.com) was founded under the same sentiment as SWGEmu to emulate the New Game Enhancements version of Star Wars Galaxies.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.projectswg.com/about.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723061028/http://www.projectswg.com/about.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 23, 2012\|title\=ProjectSWG NGE Emulator\|date\=July 23, 2012\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020}} Project SWG has not been as objectively successful as SWGEmu and has undergone multiple [refactors](/wiki/Code_refactoring "Code refactoring") of their code since conception. Their current server, [Holocore](https://github.com/ProjectSWGCore/Holocore), is still under development by a small team and is several years away from completion.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.projectswg.com/wcf/index.php?roadmap\_development\_nge/\|title\=Roadmap Development NGE\|website\=Project SWG \- a Star Wars Galaxies Emulator \- Resurrecting the Galaxy\|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-date\=April 23, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423045643/https://www.projectswg.com/wcf/index.php?roadmap\_development\_nge/\|url\-status\=live}} Other interested developers are also using Project SWG's framework to develop a Combat Upgrade version of the game. Project SWG's once thriving community has dwindled due to the leak of the official source code and launch of game servers running the leaked code. Both SWGEmu and Project SWG are regarded as the primary emulation projects for Star Wars Galaxies with other communities utilizing their source code to run their own server, sometimes contributing specific code to create their own content or by using shared content from resources such as [ModTheGalaxy](http://modthegalaxy.com), a game modification distribution forum. All emulation projects are free\-to\-play and donation\-supported to respect the sensitivities around the legality of emulation to begin with. Some player\-made tools created while Star Wars Galaxies was live, such as [SWGCraft](http://www.swgcraft.co.uk/dev/home.php) and [GalaxyHarvester](https://galaxyharvester.net/ghHome.py), are still up and running with connections to most hosted servers today. ### Source code leak In 2013, a former [Sony Online Entertainment](/wiki/Sony_Online_Entertainment "Sony Online Entertainment") employee leaked a copy of the 2010 production release source code for the Star Wars Galaxies client, server, 3rd party libraries and development tools to a few former players involved with the "New Game Enhancements" Star Wars Galaxies emulator [Project SWG](https://projectswg.com). The code was later leaked beyond its intended recipients and made available online.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/30/star\-wars\-galaxy\-mmo\-preservation/\|title\=How Players Revived Star Wars Galaxies And EverQuest\|last\=Messner\|first\=Steven\|date\=December 30, 2015\|website\=Rock, Paper, Shotgun\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-date\=March 4, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304055837/https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/30/star\-wars\-galaxy\-mmo\-preservation/\|url\-status\=live}}
[ "Legacy\n------", "### Expansions", "#### *Jump to Lightspeed*", "{{Main\\|Star Wars Galaxies: Jump to Lightspeed}}", "This first expansion, ***Jump to Lightspeed***, was released on October 27, 2004\\. Two new races were added: [Sullustan](/wiki/Sullustan \"Sullustan\") and [Ithorian](/wiki/Ithorian \"Ithorian\"). The expansion added space combat. Characters choose one of three factions in the new Pilot sub\\-profession: Rebel, Imperial, or Freelance. The playable sectors include the space surrounding the 10 planets of the game as well as Ord Mantell, Kessel and \"Deep Space.\" Combat is real\\-time and twitch\\-oriented like a [first\\-person shooter](/wiki/First-person_shooter \"First-person shooter\") and can be played with a joystick at the player's option. A new Artisan profession, Shipwright (now subsumed into the Trader profession as part of the Structures specialty), was also introduced. This profession created ships, shields, armor, weapons, etc. for players. They also have the ability to take looted components from space and reverse engineer them into better components. Players can construct their own ships with a base chassis, adding their own reactors, weapons, armor, shields, aesthetics and more, all of which visually change the starship's appearance. In many ways, this is the spiritual successor to the hit LucasArt's space combat flight simulation game *[Star Wars: X\\-Wing vs. TIE Fighter](/wiki/Star_Wars:X-Wing_vs._TIE_Fighter \"X-Wing vs. TIE Fighter\")*, as the theme, interface and objectives are quite similar.", "The reviews for the first expansion, *Jump to Lightspeed*, praised the new space combat but criticized the ground game for its lack of sufficient improvement.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesjumptolightspeed/ \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies: Jump to Lightspeed for PC Reviews, Ratings, Credits, and More \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|date\\=October 26, 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618064912/http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesjumptolightspeed \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "#### *Rage of the Wookiees*", "The second expansion, ***Episode III Rage of the Wookiees***, was announced on March 9, 2005, and released on May 5, 2005\\. It added the Wookiee planet of Kashyyyk and its corresponding space sector. Kashyyyk is different from the previous 10 planets: rather than being 16 square kilometers of openly navigable area, it is divided into a small central area with several instanced \"dungeon\" areas. A new space zone was also added. Other content added in this expansion included the ability to add cybernetic limbs to a player character and [quests](/wiki/Quest_%28gaming%29 \"Quest (gaming)\") for two new creature mounts and three new starships. A substantial portion of the content for this expansion was adapted from the film *[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith \"Episode III – Revenge of the Sith\")* which was released to theaters in the U.S. on May 19, two weeks after the expansion release.", "Other features included new starfighters, resource mining in space, and cybernetic limbs for player characters. The cybernetic limbs, however, were not due to the loss of an arm in combat. The player had to obtain the arm and then surgically attach it. Customers who purchased the expansion also received a limited\\-edition Varactyl pet as a player mount. *Rage of the Wookiees* expansion also added a few quests, one allowed the player to obtain a pet Bolotaur after going through several tasks. The Bolotaur is similar to the Veractyl but larger and brown.", "Gameplay mechanics for combat and armor/weapon systems received a major alteration on April 27, 2005,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.swgemu.com/archive/scrapbookv51/tree/frame.html \\|title\\=Output Tree as HTML \\- ScrapBook \\|publisher\\=Swgemu.com \\|access\\-date\\=July 23, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 17, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517065221/https://www.swgemu.com/archive/scrapbookv51/tree/frame.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} when SOE released the Combat Upgrade that replaced a system that allowed players with combat professions to stack defensive abilities from various skill sets, while also fixing an exploit that allowed players to have their character attack freshly spawning [non\\-player characters](/wiki/Non-player_character \"Non-player character\") (NPC) and creatures while away from their computers in order to gain combat skill experience.", "The reviews for the second expansion, *Rage of the Wookiees*, lauded the new quest content for current subscribers but lamented the combat gameplay updates and the continued bugginess of the game.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesepisode3rageofthewookies/ \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies: Episode III Rage of the Wookiees for PC \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|date\\=May 5, 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 21, 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021064205/http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesepisode3rageofthewookies \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "#### *Trials of Obi\\-Wan*", "The third expansion, ***Star Wars Galaxies: Trials of Obi\\-Wan***, was announced on August 19, 2005, and released on November 1, 2005\\. This expansion added the ground planet of Mustafar to the game. No new space sector was added with this expansion. Like the previous expansion, much of the content is related to *Revenge of the Sith*, which was released to [DVD](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") on the same day as the expansion was released. Additional content, including the presence of the droid HK\\-47, is based on the *Knights of the Old Republic* games.", "One week after this release the entire character development process was changed in the New Game Enhancements (NGE). Major changes included the reduction and simplification of professions, simplification of gameplay mechanics, and [Jedi](/wiki/Jedi \"Jedi\") becoming a starting profession. This led to a number of players demanding their money back for the expansion. After a week or two of protests Sony offered refunds to anyone who asked for it. Many player towns became ghost towns due to the reaction of long term players who decided to depart en masse.", "{{Multiple image\\|direction\\=vertical\\|align\\=right\\|image1\\=SWG July 2005\\.jpg\\|image2\\=SWG June 2007\\.jpg\\|width\\=200\\|caption1\\=''Star Wars Galaxies'' after the Combat Upgrade\\|caption2\\=''Star Wars Galaxies'' after the NGE}}", "### *Star Wars Galaxies* compilations", "On top of the expansions, SOE released several compilations of their games:", "*Star Wars Galaxies \\- The Total Experience*\nThis pack included the original *Star Wars Galaxies* (*An Empire Divided*), *Jump to Lightspeed* and the *Rage of the Wookiees* expansion packs. Customers who bought this pack also received a BARC speeder as a gift.\n*Star Wars Galaxies \\- Starter Kit*\nThe kit was the first version of the New Game Enhancement (NGE). It contained *An Empire Divided* and *Jump to Lightspeed*. Customers who bought this pack also received an [X\\-wing](/wiki/X-wing \"X-wing\") or [TIE fighter](/wiki/TIE_fighter \"TIE fighter\") instant transport vehicle as a gift.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/starwarsgalaxiesstarterkit/ \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies: Starter Kit \\|publisher\\=GameSpot.com \\|date\\=November 17, 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 16, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016120408/http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/starwarsgalaxiesstarterkit/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n*Star Wars Galaxies \\- The Complete Online Adventures*\nThis included the original game with the first three expansion packs, a DVD of never\\-before released bonus features, a slide show of more than 800 pieces of *Star Wars Galaxies* concept art and screenshots, all set to more than an hour of orchestral in\\-game music, excerpts from the popular *From Pencil to Pixel* book that chronicles the art of *Star Wars Galaxies* and interviews with the producers, and all the cinematic trailers for the game. It also included an exclusive in\\-game item for use while playing – a personal AT\\-RT vehicle as seen in *Revenge of the Sith*.{{cite web \\|first\\=Tim \\|last\\=Surette \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/swgcompleteonlineadventures/news.html?sid\\=6154452\\&om\\_act\\=convert\\&om\\_clk\\=mostpop \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies gets Complete collection \\|publisher\\=GameSpot.com \\|date\\=July 9, 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 16, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016141717/http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/swgcompleteonlineadventures/news.html?sid\\=6154452\\&om\\_act\\=convert\\&om\\_clk\\=mostpop \\|url\\-status\\=live }} This version was the first to be released in [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), instead of *An Empire Divided*.\n*Star Wars Galaxies \\- The Complete Online Adventures Premium Digital Download*\nThis included *An Empire Divided*, *Jump to Lightspeed*, *Rage of the Wookiees*, *Trials of Obi\\-Wan*, and players who purchase it also receive a bonus instant travel vehicle, the Queen Amidala Transport Ship and an AT\\-RT walker. No disc media is provided as it is an Internet download, which later came with a Queen Amidala Transport Ship (one per character), a General Grievous Wheel Bike, a Double seated Bike for the player and a friend (one per character), a Lava Flea mount (one per account), an Underground Mustafar Bunker player house (one per account), an AT\\-RT walker mount (one per account), a Varactyl mount (one per account).\n### Novelization", "*Star Wars Galaxies: The Ruins of Dantooine* is a novel based in part on places and events in the game. It was authored by Voronica Whitney\\-Robinson and [Haden Blackman](/wiki/Haden_Blackman \"Haden Blackman\"), the LucasArts producer of the game.{{cite book \\|author\\=Haden Blackman; Voronica Whitney\\-Robinson \\|title\\=The Ruins of Dantooine (Star Wars: Galaxies) \\|date\\=December 2003 \\|publisher\\=Del Rey \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=0\\-345\\-47066\\-4 }} It was released in December 2003\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=A Closer Look: The Ruins of Dantooine\\|url\\=https://www.starwars.com/eu/lit/novel/news20031016\\.html\\|website\\=starwars.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 4, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050307170237/http://www.starwars.com/eu/lit/novel/news20031016\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=March 7, 2005\\|date\\=October 16, 2003}}", "### *Trading Card Game*", "On August 27, 2008, following the success of SOE's *[Legends of Norrath](/wiki/Legends_of_Norrath \"Legends of Norrath\")*, LucasArts and SOE released *Champions of the Force*, an online [trading card game](/wiki/Trading_card_game \"Trading card game\") based on *Star Wars Galaxies*. In the game, players could collect, battle, and trade with each other as well as buy new cards with money and get new in\\-game items from the cards to use; such as podracers and house paintings. Over one hundred cards were created for players to find and play against others with new artwork featured on each card.", "### Emulation", "{{external links\\|section\\|date\\=August 2023}}\nIn 2004, the [SWGEmu](https://swgemu.com) project was founded with the intention of re\\-creating the Pre\\-Combat Upgrade version of Star Wars Galaxies from scratch through [emulation](/wiki/Video_game_console_emulator \"Video game console emulator\") by reverse engineering the official game client and writing a server that communicates with it in the same way the original SOE servers did.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kernelmag.dailydot.com/issue\\-sections/headline\\-story/15335/star\\-wars\\-galaxies\\-swgemu\\-project/\\|title\\=The rise, fall, and return of Star Wars Galaxies \\- The Kernel\\|last\\=Scimeca\\|first\\=Dennis\\|date\\=December 20, 2015\\|publisher\\=Kernelmag.dailydot.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 23, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 26, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726003848/https://kernelmag.dailydot.com/issue\\-sections/headline\\-story/15335/star\\-wars\\-galaxies\\-swgemu\\-project/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The goal of SWGEmu is to emulate the game to its entirety as it was on the live servers through patch 14\\.1\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/content.php?r\\=704\\-What\\-is\\-SWGEmu\\-FAQ\\|title\\=SWGEmu Forums \\- What is SWGEmu? FAQ\\|website\\=www.swgemu.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=March 20, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320052406/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/content.php?r\\=704\\-What\\-is\\-SWGEmu\\-FAQ\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\\=69\\|title\\=SWGEmu Mission Statement\\|website\\=www.swgemu.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 27, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127091259/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\\=69\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2020, the SWGEmu project announced it was near completion of the base game (colloquially referred to as version 1\\.0\\) and that many of the existing developers who had invested significant time over the past ten or more years would be taking a back seat role moving forward{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\\=228703\\|title\\=SWGEmu, The Next Decade...\\|website\\=www.swgemu.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=May 13, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513054205/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\\=228703\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\\=75\\|title\\=Project Status List\\|website\\=www.swgemu.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=March 22, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322123214/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\\=75\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and also announced that the Jump to Lightspeed expansion may no longer be included in version 1\\.0 due to the complexities of implementing the system.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\\=225181\\|title\\=SWGEmu \\- 1\\.0 and the future of JTL\\|website\\=www.swgemu.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=March 17, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317102523/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/showthread.php?t\\=225181\\|url\\-status\\=live}} SWGEmu is an [open source](/wiki/Open-source_software \"Open-source software\") project distributed under the [GNU Affero General Public License](/wiki/GNU_Affero_General_Public_License \"GNU Affero General Public License\"). The server code base, known as Core3, has been open source since before 2010, allowing for volunteers to easily contribute to its development. In 2019, SWGEmu also open sourced its engine, known as Engine3\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.swgemu.com/forums/content.php?r\\=834\\-Open\\-sourcing\\-the\\-engine\\|title\\=SWGEmu Forums \\- Open sourcing the engine\\|website\\=www.swgemu.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=July 21, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721083054/https://www.swgemu.com/forums/content.php?r\\=834\\-Open\\-sourcing\\-the\\-engine\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Because SWGEmu is open source, any members are able to easily launch their own server for their own community. There are several community\\-ran servers which develop content beyond the 14\\.1 publish goal of SWGEmu, such as [Awakening](https://swgawakening.com/), [Dark Rebellion](https://darkrebellionrp.wordpress.com/), [Empire in Flames](https://empireinflames.com/), [Infinity](https://www.swginfinity.com/) and [Reckoning](http://swgreckoning.com/). Other projects like [CUEmu](https://discord.gg/RJ6eEsW) look to use SWGEmu's Core3 code base to emulate the publish 15 era of Star Wars Galaxies, also known as the Combat Upgrade.", "In 2011, after Sony Online Entertainment announced the intention of shutting down Star Wars Galaxies, [Project SWG](https://projectswg.com) was founded under the same sentiment as SWGEmu to emulate the New Game Enhancements version of Star Wars Galaxies.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.projectswg.com/about.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723061028/http://www.projectswg.com/about.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 23, 2012\\|title\\=ProjectSWG NGE Emulator\\|date\\=July 23, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020}} Project SWG has not been as objectively successful as SWGEmu and has undergone multiple [refactors](/wiki/Code_refactoring \"Code refactoring\") of their code since conception. Their current server, [Holocore](https://github.com/ProjectSWGCore/Holocore), is still under development by a small team and is several years away from completion.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.projectswg.com/wcf/index.php?roadmap\\_development\\_nge/\\|title\\=Roadmap Development NGE\\|website\\=Project SWG \\- a Star Wars Galaxies Emulator \\- Resurrecting the Galaxy\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=April 23, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423045643/https://www.projectswg.com/wcf/index.php?roadmap\\_development\\_nge/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Other interested developers are also using Project SWG's framework to develop a Combat Upgrade version of the game. Project SWG's once thriving community has dwindled due to the leak of the official source code and launch of game servers running the leaked code.", "Both SWGEmu and Project SWG are regarded as the primary emulation projects for Star Wars Galaxies with other communities utilizing their source code to run their own server, sometimes contributing specific code to create their own content or by using shared content from resources such as [ModTheGalaxy](http://modthegalaxy.com), a game modification distribution forum. All emulation projects are free\\-to\\-play and donation\\-supported to respect the sensitivities around the legality of emulation to begin with. Some player\\-made tools created while Star Wars Galaxies was live, such as [SWGCraft](http://www.swgcraft.co.uk/dev/home.php) and [GalaxyHarvester](https://galaxyharvester.net/ghHome.py), are still up and running with connections to most hosted servers today.", "### Source code leak", "In 2013, a former [Sony Online Entertainment](/wiki/Sony_Online_Entertainment \"Sony Online Entertainment\") employee leaked a copy of the 2010 production release source code for the Star Wars Galaxies client, server, 3rd party libraries and development tools to a few former players involved with the \"New Game Enhancements\" Star Wars Galaxies emulator [Project SWG](https://projectswg.com). The code was later leaked beyond its intended recipients and made available online.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/30/star\\-wars\\-galaxy\\-mmo\\-preservation/\\|title\\=How Players Revived Star Wars Galaxies And EverQuest\\|last\\=Messner\\|first\\=Steven\\|date\\=December 30, 2015\\|website\\=Rock, Paper, Shotgun\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304055837/https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/30/star\\-wars\\-galaxy\\-mmo\\-preservation/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
### Expansions #### *Jump to Lightspeed* {{Main\|Star Wars Galaxies: Jump to Lightspeed}} This first expansion, ***Jump to Lightspeed***, was released on October 27, 2004\. Two new races were added: [Sullustan](/wiki/Sullustan "Sullustan") and [Ithorian](/wiki/Ithorian "Ithorian"). The expansion added space combat. Characters choose one of three factions in the new Pilot sub\-profession: Rebel, Imperial, or Freelance. The playable sectors include the space surrounding the 10 planets of the game as well as Ord Mantell, Kessel and "Deep Space." Combat is real\-time and twitch\-oriented like a [first\-person shooter](/wiki/First-person_shooter "First-person shooter") and can be played with a joystick at the player's option. A new Artisan profession, Shipwright (now subsumed into the Trader profession as part of the Structures specialty), was also introduced. This profession created ships, shields, armor, weapons, etc. for players. They also have the ability to take looted components from space and reverse engineer them into better components. Players can construct their own ships with a base chassis, adding their own reactors, weapons, armor, shields, aesthetics and more, all of which visually change the starship's appearance. In many ways, this is the spiritual successor to the hit LucasArt's space combat flight simulation game *[Star Wars: X\-Wing vs. TIE Fighter](/wiki/Star_Wars:X-Wing_vs._TIE_Fighter "X-Wing vs. TIE Fighter")*, as the theme, interface and objectives are quite similar. The reviews for the first expansion, *Jump to Lightspeed*, praised the new space combat but criticized the ground game for its lack of sufficient improvement.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesjumptolightspeed/ \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies: Jump to Lightspeed for PC Reviews, Ratings, Credits, and More \|website\=Metacritic \|date\=October 26, 2004 \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012 \|archive\-date\=June 18, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618064912/http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesjumptolightspeed \|url\-status\=live }} #### *Rage of the Wookiees* The second expansion, ***Episode III Rage of the Wookiees***, was announced on March 9, 2005, and released on May 5, 2005\. It added the Wookiee planet of Kashyyyk and its corresponding space sector. Kashyyyk is different from the previous 10 planets: rather than being 16 square kilometers of openly navigable area, it is divided into a small central area with several instanced "dungeon" areas. A new space zone was also added. Other content added in this expansion included the ability to add cybernetic limbs to a player character and [quests](/wiki/Quest_%28gaming%29 "Quest (gaming)") for two new creature mounts and three new starships. A substantial portion of the content for this expansion was adapted from the film *[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith "Episode III – Revenge of the Sith")* which was released to theaters in the U.S. on May 19, two weeks after the expansion release. Other features included new starfighters, resource mining in space, and cybernetic limbs for player characters. The cybernetic limbs, however, were not due to the loss of an arm in combat. The player had to obtain the arm and then surgically attach it. Customers who purchased the expansion also received a limited\-edition Varactyl pet as a player mount. *Rage of the Wookiees* expansion also added a few quests, one allowed the player to obtain a pet Bolotaur after going through several tasks. The Bolotaur is similar to the Veractyl but larger and brown. Gameplay mechanics for combat and armor/weapon systems received a major alteration on April 27, 2005,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.swgemu.com/archive/scrapbookv51/tree/frame.html \|title\=Output Tree as HTML \- ScrapBook \|publisher\=Swgemu.com \|access\-date\=July 23, 2019 \|archive\-date\=May 17, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517065221/https://www.swgemu.com/archive/scrapbookv51/tree/frame.html \|url\-status\=live }} when SOE released the Combat Upgrade that replaced a system that allowed players with combat professions to stack defensive abilities from various skill sets, while also fixing an exploit that allowed players to have their character attack freshly spawning [non\-player characters](/wiki/Non-player_character "Non-player character") (NPC) and creatures while away from their computers in order to gain combat skill experience. The reviews for the second expansion, *Rage of the Wookiees*, lauded the new quest content for current subscribers but lamented the combat gameplay updates and the continued bugginess of the game.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesepisode3rageofthewookies/ \|title\=Star Wars Galaxies: Episode III Rage of the Wookiees for PC \|website\=Metacritic \|date\=May 5, 2005 \|access\-date\=November 28, 2012 \|archive\-date\=October 21, 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021064205/http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesepisode3rageofthewookies \|url\-status\=live }} #### *Trials of Obi\-Wan* The third expansion, ***Star Wars Galaxies: Trials of Obi\-Wan***, was announced on August 19, 2005, and released on November 1, 2005\. This expansion added the ground planet of Mustafar to the game. No new space sector was added with this expansion. Like the previous expansion, much of the content is related to *Revenge of the Sith*, which was released to [DVD](/wiki/DVD "DVD") on the same day as the expansion was released. Additional content, including the presence of the droid HK\-47, is based on the *Knights of the Old Republic* games. One week after this release the entire character development process was changed in the New Game Enhancements (NGE). Major changes included the reduction and simplification of professions, simplification of gameplay mechanics, and [Jedi](/wiki/Jedi "Jedi") becoming a starting profession. This led to a number of players demanding their money back for the expansion. After a week or two of protests Sony offered refunds to anyone who asked for it. Many player towns became ghost towns due to the reaction of long term players who decided to depart en masse. {{Multiple image\|direction\=vertical\|align\=right\|image1\=SWG July 2005\.jpg\|image2\=SWG June 2007\.jpg\|width\=200\|caption1\=''Star Wars Galaxies'' after the Combat Upgrade\|caption2\=''Star Wars Galaxies'' after the NGE}}
[ "### Expansions", "#### *Jump to Lightspeed*", "{{Main\\|Star Wars Galaxies: Jump to Lightspeed}}", "This first expansion, ***Jump to Lightspeed***, was released on October 27, 2004\\. Two new races were added: [Sullustan](/wiki/Sullustan \"Sullustan\") and [Ithorian](/wiki/Ithorian \"Ithorian\"). The expansion added space combat. Characters choose one of three factions in the new Pilot sub\\-profession: Rebel, Imperial, or Freelance. The playable sectors include the space surrounding the 10 planets of the game as well as Ord Mantell, Kessel and \"Deep Space.\" Combat is real\\-time and twitch\\-oriented like a [first\\-person shooter](/wiki/First-person_shooter \"First-person shooter\") and can be played with a joystick at the player's option. A new Artisan profession, Shipwright (now subsumed into the Trader profession as part of the Structures specialty), was also introduced. This profession created ships, shields, armor, weapons, etc. for players. They also have the ability to take looted components from space and reverse engineer them into better components. Players can construct their own ships with a base chassis, adding their own reactors, weapons, armor, shields, aesthetics and more, all of which visually change the starship's appearance. In many ways, this is the spiritual successor to the hit LucasArt's space combat flight simulation game *[Star Wars: X\\-Wing vs. TIE Fighter](/wiki/Star_Wars:X-Wing_vs._TIE_Fighter \"X-Wing vs. TIE Fighter\")*, as the theme, interface and objectives are quite similar.", "The reviews for the first expansion, *Jump to Lightspeed*, praised the new space combat but criticized the ground game for its lack of sufficient improvement.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesjumptolightspeed/ \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies: Jump to Lightspeed for PC Reviews, Ratings, Credits, and More \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|date\\=October 26, 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618064912/http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesjumptolightspeed \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "#### *Rage of the Wookiees*", "The second expansion, ***Episode III Rage of the Wookiees***, was announced on March 9, 2005, and released on May 5, 2005\\. It added the Wookiee planet of Kashyyyk and its corresponding space sector. Kashyyyk is different from the previous 10 planets: rather than being 16 square kilometers of openly navigable area, it is divided into a small central area with several instanced \"dungeon\" areas. A new space zone was also added. Other content added in this expansion included the ability to add cybernetic limbs to a player character and [quests](/wiki/Quest_%28gaming%29 \"Quest (gaming)\") for two new creature mounts and three new starships. A substantial portion of the content for this expansion was adapted from the film *[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith \"Episode III – Revenge of the Sith\")* which was released to theaters in the U.S. on May 19, two weeks after the expansion release.", "Other features included new starfighters, resource mining in space, and cybernetic limbs for player characters. The cybernetic limbs, however, were not due to the loss of an arm in combat. The player had to obtain the arm and then surgically attach it. Customers who purchased the expansion also received a limited\\-edition Varactyl pet as a player mount. *Rage of the Wookiees* expansion also added a few quests, one allowed the player to obtain a pet Bolotaur after going through several tasks. The Bolotaur is similar to the Veractyl but larger and brown.", "Gameplay mechanics for combat and armor/weapon systems received a major alteration on April 27, 2005,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.swgemu.com/archive/scrapbookv51/tree/frame.html \\|title\\=Output Tree as HTML \\- ScrapBook \\|publisher\\=Swgemu.com \\|access\\-date\\=July 23, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 17, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517065221/https://www.swgemu.com/archive/scrapbookv51/tree/frame.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} when SOE released the Combat Upgrade that replaced a system that allowed players with combat professions to stack defensive abilities from various skill sets, while also fixing an exploit that allowed players to have their character attack freshly spawning [non\\-player characters](/wiki/Non-player_character \"Non-player character\") (NPC) and creatures while away from their computers in order to gain combat skill experience.", "The reviews for the second expansion, *Rage of the Wookiees*, lauded the new quest content for current subscribers but lamented the combat gameplay updates and the continued bugginess of the game.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesepisode3rageofthewookies/ \\|title\\=Star Wars Galaxies: Episode III Rage of the Wookiees for PC \\|website\\=Metacritic \\|date\\=May 5, 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=November 28, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 21, 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021064205/http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/pc/starwarsgalaxiesepisode3rageofthewookies \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "#### *Trials of Obi\\-Wan*", "The third expansion, ***Star Wars Galaxies: Trials of Obi\\-Wan***, was announced on August 19, 2005, and released on November 1, 2005\\. This expansion added the ground planet of Mustafar to the game. No new space sector was added with this expansion. Like the previous expansion, much of the content is related to *Revenge of the Sith*, which was released to [DVD](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") on the same day as the expansion was released. Additional content, including the presence of the droid HK\\-47, is based on the *Knights of the Old Republic* games.", "One week after this release the entire character development process was changed in the New Game Enhancements (NGE). Major changes included the reduction and simplification of professions, simplification of gameplay mechanics, and [Jedi](/wiki/Jedi \"Jedi\") becoming a starting profession. This led to a number of players demanding their money back for the expansion. After a week or two of protests Sony offered refunds to anyone who asked for it. Many player towns became ghost towns due to the reaction of long term players who decided to depart en masse.", "{{Multiple image\\|direction\\=vertical\\|align\\=right\\|image1\\=SWG July 2005\\.jpg\\|image2\\=SWG June 2007\\.jpg\\|width\\=200\\|caption1\\=''Star Wars Galaxies'' after the Combat Upgrade\\|caption2\\=''Star Wars Galaxies'' after the NGE}}", "" ]
Men --- ### League structure The Canadian soccer system consists of several unconnected leagues and it does not have [promotion and relegation](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation "Promotion and relegation"). Leagues in the Canadian system are classified as either professional, [pro\-am](/wiki/Pro-am "Pro-am"), or amateur. The [Canadian Soccer Association](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_Association "Canadian Soccer Association") (CSA) is the governing body for the sport in Canada and directly sanctions leagues that operate in more than one province.{{cite web \|title\=Canadian Soccer Association Rules and Regulations \|url\=https://www.canadasoccer.com/wp\-content/uploads/2020/11/Canada\_Soccer\_\-Rules\-Regulations\_2021\_Final\_EN.pdf \|website\=Canada Soccer \|access\-date\=October 16, 2021 \|date\=May 2021}} Leagues operating in a single province receive sanctioning from their provincial soccer association. #### Professional (tier 1\) The [Canadian Premier League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_League "Canadian Premier League") (CPL) is the top division of soccer in Canada. It is the only fully professional, and only fully national league in the system. Founded in 2019, the CPL is composed of eight teams and is sanctioned by the CSA. Each year, the top CPL clubs qualify for the [CONCACAF Champions Cup](/wiki/CONCACAF_Champions_Cup "CONCACAF Champions Cup"). There are also three Canadian teams which play in [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer "Major League Soccer"), the division 1 league sanctioned by the [United States Soccer Federation](/wiki/United_States_Soccer_Federation "United States Soccer Federation"), reflecting a longstanding practice of major Canadian sports teams competing in American leagues. The Canadian clubs in this league are members of the CSA and compete in the [Canadian Championship](/wiki/Canadian_Championship "Canadian Championship"), rather than in the [U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/U.S._Open_Cup "U.S. Open Cup"), alongside clubs from the CPL and qualified lower division clubs. The three Canadian MLS clubs also compete in the [Leagues Cup](/wiki/Leagues_Cup "Leagues Cup"), a competition held between MLS and [Liga MX](/wiki/Liga_MX "Liga MX") clubs, as the sub\-regional competition within [CONCACAF](/wiki/CONCACAF "CONCACAF"). The CPL does not take part in this competition. #### Pro\-am (tier 3\) Pro\-am (or semi\-pro) soccer competitions in Canada are regionally\-based due to its large geography and dispersed pockets of population. Teams playing in pro\-am leagues are permitted to be composed of professional and amateur players. There are four of such leagues in Canada: [League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta "League1 Alberta") (L1AB); [League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia "League1 British Columbia") (L1BC); [League1 Ontario](/wiki/League1_Ontario "League1 Ontario") (L1O); and [Ligue1 Québec](/wiki/Ligue1_Qu%C3%A9bec "Ligue1 Québec") (L1Q). They are based in the provinces of [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta"), [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario"), and [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec") respectively, and are sanctioned by their relevant provincial soccer associations. There are more than 40 sanctioned teams playing in these leagues. These four leagues belong to the parent organization [League1 Canada](/wiki/League1_Canada "League1 Canada") which was founded in 2022\.{{cite web \|title\=League1 Canada officially launched today \|url\=https://canpl.ca/article/league1\-canada\-officially\-launched\-today \|website\=Canadian Premier League \|access\-date\=April 1, 2022 \|date\=March 31, 2022}} The PLSQ was founded as a semi\-pro league in 2012 and is sanctioned by [Soccer Quebec](/wiki/Soccer_Quebec "Soccer Quebec"). The league includes a team from Eastern Ontario, who compete with special permission from the CSA.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.league1ontario.com/news\_article/show/1081804\|title\=Ottawa South United announces historic move to PLSQ\|date\=January 30, 2020\|work\=\[\[League1 Ontario]]}} Following the release of *The Easton Report* in 2013, the CSA set out to create a Division 3 semi\-pro structure divided by region, similar to the major junior hockey leagues in Canada, with regional champions competing in a national tournament.{{Cite web \| title\=The Easton Report: What it means for Div. 3 in Canada \| author\=Charles \| work\=The 11 \| date\=February 5, 2013 \| access\-date\=July 7, 2018 \| url\=https://the11\.ca/the\-easton\-report\-what\-it\-means\-for\-div\-3\-in\-canada\-2/ }} In November 2013, the [Ontario Soccer Association](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_Association "Ontario Soccer Association") announced the sanction of League1 Ontario as part of this new structure.{{cite news \| url\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?5069\-OSA\-will\-sanction\-semi\-pro\-League\-One \| title\=OSA will sanction semi\-pro League One \| publisher\=CanadianSoccerNews.com \| date\=November 16, 2013 \| access\-date\=December 8, 2013 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213205647/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?5069\-OSA\-will\-sanction\-semi\-pro\-League\-One \| archive\-date\=December 13, 2013 \| url\-status\=dead }} On October 5, 2021, [BC Soccer](/wiki/BC_Soccer "BC Soccer") announced the establishment of [League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia "League1 British Columbia") as the nation's third regional pro\-am soccer league.{{Cite web\|url\=https://bcsoccer.net/news/post/bc\-soccer\-officially\-launches\-league1\-british\-columbia\|title\=BC Soccer officially launches League1 British Columbia\|date\=October 5, 2021\|work\=\[\[British Columbia Soccer Association\|BC Soccer]]\|access\-date\=October 6, 2021\|archive\-date\=April 4, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404014334/https://www.bcsoccer.net/news/post/bc\-soccer\-officially\-launches\-league1\-british\-columbia\|url\-status\=dead}} The league began play in May 2022 with seven clubs. In 2022, [Toronto FC II](/wiki/Toronto_FC_II "Toronto FC II") and [Whitecaps FC 2](/wiki/Whitecaps_FC_2 "Whitecaps FC 2") began play in [MLS Next Pro](/wiki/MLS_Next_Pro "MLS Next Pro"), a USSF\-sanctioned division 3 league. Both Canadian clubs are members of the CSA.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2022}} Toronto FC II had played in the division 2 [USL Championship](/wiki/USL_Championship "USL Championship") until 2018 and in the division 3 [USL League One](/wiki/USL_League_One "USL League One") from 2019 to 2021\. In March 2023, [League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta "League1 Alberta") was founded by the Alberta Soccer Association. With only five teams in the men's and women's division (one short of the requirement for sanctioning), the league played an [exhibition series in 2023](/wiki/2023_League1_Alberta_Exhibition_Series "2023 League1 Alberta Exhibition Series"). By December 2023, league membership had grown to seven teams and so the league joined League1 Canada and received full sanctioning ahead of the 2024 season. #### Amateur There are various amateur provincial leagues that are sanctioned under their individual provincial or territorial associations. This includes such leagues as the [Pacific Coast Soccer League](/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Soccer_League "Pacific Coast Soccer League"), [Vancouver Island Soccer League](/wiki/Vancouver_Island_Soccer_League "Vancouver Island Soccer League"), [Vancouver Metro Soccer League](/wiki/Vancouver_Metro_Soccer_League "Vancouver Metro Soccer League"), [Fraser Valley Soccer League](/wiki/Fraser_Valley_Soccer_League "Fraser Valley Soccer League"), [Alberta Major Soccer League](/wiki/Alberta_Major_Soccer_League "Alberta Major Soccer League"), [Saskatchewan Premier Soccer League](/wiki/Saskatchewan_Premier_Soccer_League "Saskatchewan Premier Soccer League"), [Manitoba Major Soccer League](/wiki/Manitoba_Major_Soccer_League "Manitoba Major Soccer League"), [Ontario Soccer League](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_League "Ontario Soccer League"),{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.ontariosoccer.net/competitions/leagues.aspx \|title\=The Ontario Soccer Association \- Leagues \|access\-date\=February 21, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727080223/http://www.ontariosoccer.net/Competitions/Leagues.aspx \|archive\-date\=July 27, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead }} [Ligue de Soccer Elite Quebec](/wiki/Ligue_de_Soccer_Elite_Quebec "Ligue de Soccer Elite Quebec"), [Nova Scotia Soccer League](/wiki/Nova_Scotia_Soccer_League "Nova Scotia Soccer League"), and [New Brunswick Premier Senior Soccer League](/wiki/New_Brunswick_Premier_Senior_Soccer_League "New Brunswick Premier Senior Soccer League"). This collection of leagues across the country collectively compete for the [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy "Challenge Trophy"). There are 13 [provincial and territorial](/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada "Provinces and territories of Canada") soccer associations in Canada, with a number of leagues organized as amateur competitions at adult and/or youth levels. Typically there is promotion and relegation plus league and cup competitions in each provincial and territorial association, which culminates in the national [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy "Challenge Trophy"). However, not all associations consistently send representative teams to national championships. The [United Soccer League](/wiki/United_Soccer_League "United Soccer League") (USL) manages several leagues, including the amateur [USL League Two](/wiki/USL_League_Two "USL League Two") (USL2\). USL2 is sanctioned and administered under the [USASA](/wiki/United_States_Adult_Soccer_Association "United States Adult Soccer Association") and is below Division 3 in the [United States soccer league system](/wiki/United_States_soccer_league_system "United States soccer league system"). On November 18, 2015, four Ontario teams (including [FC London](/wiki/FC_London "FC London"), who then moved to L1O) were given notice by the Ontario Soccer Association that they would no longer be permitted to participate in the league starting in 2017\.{{cite web \|title\=Ontario gives notice on PDL in province\|url\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/index.php?/page/articles.html/\_/24th\-minute/ontario\-gives\-notice\-on\-pdl\-in\-province\-r5507\|website\=Canadian Soccer News\|access\-date\=November 20, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120101117/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/index.php?/page/articles.html/\_/24th\-minute/ontario\-gives\-notice\-on\-pdl\-in\-province\-r5507 \|archive\-date\=November 20, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{Update inline\|date\=March 2023\|reason\=Ontario teams continued to play in USL2 after 2017}} ### Pyramid breakdown As of the 2024 season. | \+ Canadian leagues grouped by [CSA](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_Association "Canadian Soccer Association") sanctioning level | | --- | | Tier | League | | | | | Professional(Tier 1\) | **[Canadian Premier League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_League "Canadian Premier League")** (CPL)*8 teams* | | | | | Pro\-am(Tier 3\) | **[League1 Canada](/wiki/League1_Canada "League1 Canada")** | | | | | **[League1 Ontario Premier](/wiki/League1_Ontario "League1 Ontario")** (L1OP)*12 teams* *↓ relegate 1 or 2* | **[Ligue1 Québec](/wiki/Ligue1_Qu%C3%A9bec "Ligue1 Québec")** (L1QC)*11 teams* | **[League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia "League1 British Columbia")** (L1BC)*7 teams* | **[League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta "League1 Alberta")** (L1AB)*7 teams* | | **[League1 Ontario Championship](/wiki/League1_Ontario%23League1_Championship "League1 Ontario#League1 Championship")** (L1OC)*10 teams* *↑ promote 1 or 2**↓ relegate 0 or 1* | | **[League2 Ontario](/wiki/League1_Ontario%23League2_Ontario "League1 Ontario#League2 Ontario")** (L2O)*24 teams in 3 conferences* *↑ promote 2 or 3* | | Amateur | **[Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy "Challenge Trophy")***13 provincial/territorial associations* {{hlist\|list\_style\=text\-align: center \|\[\[Alberta Soccer Association\|AB]] \|\[\[British Columbia Soccer Association\|BC]] \|\[\[Manitoba Soccer Association\|MB]] \|\[\[Soccer New Brunswick\|NB]] \|\[\[Newfoundland and Labrador Soccer Association\|NL]] \|\[\[Soccer Nova Scotia\|NS]] \|\[\[Northwest Territories Soccer Association\|NT]] \|\[\[Nunavut Soccer Association\|NU]] \|\[\[Ontario Soccer Association\|ON]] \|\[\[Prince Edward Island Soccer Association\|PE]] \|\[\[Quebec Soccer Federation\|QC]] \|\[\[Saskatchewan Soccer Association\|SK]] \|\[\[Yukon Soccer Association\|YT]] }} | | | | | \+ Canadian leagues grouped by de facto level | | --- | | Level | League | | | | | 1 | **[Canadian Premier League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_League "Canadian Premier League")** | | | | | 2 | **[League1 Ontario Premier](/wiki/League1_Ontario "League1 Ontario")***↓ relegate 1 or 2* | **[Ligue1 Québec](/wiki/Ligue1_Qu%C3%A9bec "Ligue1 Québec")** | **[League1 BC](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia "League1 British Columbia")** | **[League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta "League1 Alberta")** | | 3 | **[League1 Ontario Championship](/wiki/League1_Ontario%23League1_Championship "League1 Ontario#League1 Championship")***↑ promote 1 or 2**↓ relegate 0 or 1* | *No leagues at this level* | | | | 4 | **[League2 Ontario](/wiki/League1_Ontario%23League2_Ontario "League1 Ontario#League2 Ontario")***↑ promote 2 or 3* | | {{see also\|United States soccer league system\#Men's league structure}} | \+ American leagues grouped by [USSF](/wiki/United_States_Soccer_Federation "United States Soccer Federation") sanctioning level | | --- | | Division | League | | 1 | **[Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer "Major League Soccer")** (MLS)*29 teams, including 3 in Canada* {{hlist\|list\_style\=text\-align: center\|\[\[CF Montréal]]\|\[\[Toronto FC]]\|\[\[Vancouver Whitecaps FC]]}} | | 2 | No Canadian clubs at this level | | 3 | **[MLS Next Pro](/wiki/MLS_Next_Pro "MLS Next Pro")***27 teams, including 2 in Canada* {{hlist\|list\_style\=text\-align: center\|\[\[Toronto FC II]]\|\[\[Whitecaps FC 2]]}} | | *Positions below this point are amateur and are not designated by the USSF* | | | N/A | **[USL League Two](/wiki/USL_League_Two "USL League Two")** (USL2\)*128 teams, including 1 in Canada* {{hlist\|list\_style\=text\-align: center\|\[\[Thunder Bay Chill]]}} | | **[United Premier Soccer League](/wiki/United_Premier_Soccer_League "United Premier Soccer League")** (UPSL)*250\+ teams, including 2 from Canada*{{hlist\|list\_style\=text\-align: center\|\[\[FC Berlin (Canada/United States)\|FC Berlin]]\|\[\[Chantilly Forever FC]]}} (home matches in the U.S.) | ### National cups The [Canadian Championship](/wiki/Canadian_Championship "Canadian Championship") is the primary [domestic cup](/wiki/Domestic_cup "Domestic cup") in Canada. It was established in 2008 to determine the nation's representative at the [CONCACAF Champions Cup](/wiki/CONCACAF_Champions_Cup "CONCACAF Champions Cup"). The tournament is organized by the Canadian Soccer Association and is open to fully professional Canadian teams (playing in American or Canadian leagues) and the winners of the Canadian regional pro\-am leagues. The winner of the Canadian Championship is awarded the fan\-created [Voyageurs Cup](/wiki/Voyageurs_Cup "Voyageurs Cup") which predates the tournament. The [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy "Challenge Trophy") is Canada's national men's amateur championship. It has been contested since 1913\. ### Professional leagues background By the mid\-1960s, there were four major leagues across Canada including the [Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League](/wiki/Eastern_Canada_Professional_Soccer_League "Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League") (1961–1967\). From west to east, the other major leagues were the [Pacific Coast Soccer League](/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Soccer_League_%281908-73%29 "Pacific Coast Soccer League (1908-73)") (British Columbia), the [Western Canada Soccer League](/wiki/Western_Canada_Soccer_League "Western Canada Soccer League") (Alberta, Saskatchewan and eventually Manitoba and British Columbia), and the [National Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_National_Soccer_League "Canadian National Soccer League") (Ontario and Quebec). In 1968, Canadian soccer turned its attention to the cross\-nation [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%281968%E2%80%931984%29 "North American Soccer League (1968–1984)") that initially featured professional teams in Vancouver and Toronto. Over the next 15 years, the professional league also featured teams in Calgary, Edmonton, and Montreal. After the collapse of the original North American Soccer League, and Canada's participation in the [1986 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup "1986 FIFA World Cup") the original [Canadian Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_League_%281987%E2%80%9392%29 "Canadian Soccer League (1987–92)") started operations as a nationally based CSA sanctioned Division 1 league.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=ifIdVpG6JtcC\&dat\=19870226\&printsec\=frontpage\&hl\=en\|title\=Soccer rebirth\|work\=Vancouver Sun Newspaper\|first\=Archie\|last\=MacDonald\|date\=February 26, 1987\|access\-date\=January 18, 2015}} When the original CSL folded in 1993, three Canadian teams moved to the [American Professional Soccer League](/wiki/American_Professional_Soccer_League "American Professional Soccer League") (APSL) where several had played preseason games and competed in post season tournaments. Later in 1993, Major League Soccer (MLS) beat the APSL and won the USSF's competition for U.S. Division 1 status. Canadian teams continued to participate in the [APSL](/wiki/American_Professional_Soccer_League "American Professional Soccer League") and subsequently with the United Soccer Leagues merger in the [A League](/wiki/A-League_%281995%E2%80%932004%29 "A-League (1995–2004)") / [USL\-1](/wiki/USL_First_Division "USL First Division"). [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA "FIFA") did not allow the U.S. Division 1 sanctioned league to include foreign teams which was why the APSL was never officially recognized as Division 1 before MLS.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2020}} MLS would eventually expand into Canadian cities with existing U.S. Division 2 teams. Newly created [Toronto FC](/wiki/Toronto_FC "Toronto FC") joined MLS for the 2007 season, whereas the existing [Toronto Lynx](/wiki/Toronto_Lynx "Toronto Lynx") self relegated from the USL\-1 and began playing in the amateur\-only [USL Premier Development League](/wiki/USL_Premier_Development_League "USL Premier Development League").{{cite news\| url \= http://www.sportsnews24h.com/Soccer/Canada/Toronto\-Lynx/11027\.html\| title \= Toronto Lynx a costly labour of love\| publisher \= www.sportsnews24h.com\| access\-date \= December 10, 2010\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20101206192038/http://www.sportsnews24h.com/Soccer/Canada/Toronto\-Lynx/11027\.html\| archive\-date \= December 6, 2010\| url\-status \= dead}} The owners of [Vancouver Whitecaps FC](/wiki/Vancouver_Whitecaps_%281986%E2%80%932010%29 "Vancouver Whitecaps (1986–2010)") of the [USSF Division 2 Professional League](/wiki/USSF_Division_2_Professional_League "USSF Division 2 Professional League") formed a team that joined MLS in 2011, and the owners [Montreal Impact](/wiki/Montreal_Impact_%281992%E2%80%932011%29 "Montreal Impact (1992–2011)") of the [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%282011%29 "North American Soccer League (2011)") created a team that joined in 2012\.{{cite news\| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/20/sports/soccer/20mls.html\| title \= Canada Looks to MLS Expansion as Aid to International Success\| work \= www.nytimes.com\| date \= November 19, 2010\| access\-date \= December 10, 2010}} One of the other original CSL teams did not join the APSL, they joined the National Soccer League based in southern Ontario. The National Soccer League renamed itself the [Canadian National Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_National_Soccer_League "Canadian National Soccer League") (CNSL) with the addition of an out of province team. The CNSL had four teams found the second league named the Canadian Professional Soccer League (1998–2006\) or CPSL with four other new teams. In 2006, the CPSL teams restarted in a new league, the second [Canadian Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_League "Canadian Soccer League") (CSL). This second version of the CSL was initially sanctioned the [Ontario Soccer Association](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_Association "Ontario Soccer Association") and later by the [Canadian Soccer Association](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_Association "Canadian Soccer Association") as Division 3 in 2009\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.rocketrobinsoccerintoronto.com/reports09/09csl005\.htm\|title\=CSL kicks off Friday while making plans for the future\|website\=www.rocketrobinsoccerintoronto.com\|publisher\=CSL media release\|access\-date\=September 23, 2017}}{{cite news\|url\=https://vancouversun.com/sports/looks\+field\+true\+national\+league/3393800/story.html \|title\=CSL looks to field a true national league \|publisher\=www.vancouversun.com \|date\=August 13, 2010 \|access\-date\=November 2, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922161710/http://www.vancouversun.com/sports/looks\+field\+true\+national\+league/3393800/story.html \|archive\-date\=September 22, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead}} Following a match fixing scandal the league was then de\-sanctioned in 2014 and continues to operate as a member of the Soccer Federation of Canada (SFC) that is not associated with any international body.{{cite news \|date\=February 13, 2010 \|url\=http://www.bcsoccerweb.com/articles\-december/csl\-dec\-03\-new\-federation.htm \|title\=Canadian Soccer League joins Newly\-Formed Soccer Federation \|publisher\=canadiansoccerleague.ca \|access\-date\=February 13, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212105039/http://www.bcsoccerweb.com/articles\-december/csl\-dec\-03\-new\-federation.htm \|archive\-date\=December 12, 2013 }} In February 2010, the [Canadian Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_League "Canadian Soccer League") was granted full membership by the CSA and sanctioned as a semi\-professional league. Sitting behind MLS and the NASL, the CSL operated as one of the Division 3 leagues within the Canadian pyramid.{{cite news \| url\=http://www.milltownfc.ca/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=59:csl\-granted\-full\-national\-membership\-in\-csa\&catid\=36:leaguenews\&Itemid\=68 \| title\=CSL Granted Full National Membership in CSA \| publisher\=MilltownFC.ca \| date\=February 24, 2010 \| access\-date\=July 8, 2011}} However, following the release of a development study and subsequent change in CSA policy for the future growth and development of regional leagues, also coinciding with [match fixing](/wiki/Match_fixing "Match fixing") allegations in 2012,{{cite web \| url\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/exclusive\-canadian\-soccer\-an\-easy\-target\-for\-match\-fixing\-1\.1212414 \| title\=Canadian soccer an easy target for match fixing \| publisher\=\[\[CBC News]] \| date\=September 12, 2012 \| access\-date\=December 8, 2013}} the CSL was de\-sanctioned by the CSA in 2013{{cite news \| url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/soccer/canadian\-soccer\-league\-to\-fight\-csa\-decertification/article9296490/ \| title\=Canadian Soccer League to fight CSA decertification \| publisher\=TheGlobeAndMail.com \| date\=March 5, 2013 \| access\-date\=December 8, 2013}} and would not be considered a CSA sanctioned semi\-pro league for the 2014 season. In order to limit the Americanization of all of Canada's professional soccer clubs, the CSA issued a [moratorium](/wiki/Moratorium_%28law%29 "Moratorium (law)") on the sanctioning of any new Division 2, 3, or 4 teams on November 15, 2010, which lasted until September 30, 2011\.{{cite news \| url\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?528\-CSA\-puts\-brakes\-on\-future\-D2\-sanctioning\-in\-US\-leagues \| title\=CSA puts brakes on future D2 sanctioning in US leagues \| date\=November 15, 2010 \| author\=Duane Rollins \| publisher\=Canadian Soccer News \| access\-date\=July 7, 2011 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123172942/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?528\-CSA\-puts\-brakes\-on\-future\-D2\-sanctioning\-in\-US\-leagues \| archive\-date\=November 23, 2010 \| url\-status\=dead }} Despite the moratorium, the NASL announced that [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa") had been awarded a franchise on June 20, 2011\.{{cite news \| url\=http://www.nasl.com/index.php?id\=3\&newsid\=707 \| title\=Ottawa to Join NASL \| date\=June 20, 2011 \| publisher\=North American Soccer League \| access\-date\=July 7, 2011}}
[ "Men\n---", "### League structure", "The Canadian soccer system consists of several unconnected leagues and it does not have [promotion and relegation](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation \"Promotion and relegation\"). Leagues in the Canadian system are classified as either professional, [pro\\-am](/wiki/Pro-am \"Pro-am\"), or amateur. The [Canadian Soccer Association](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_Association \"Canadian Soccer Association\") (CSA) is the governing body for the sport in Canada and directly sanctions leagues that operate in more than one province.{{cite web \\|title\\=Canadian Soccer Association Rules and Regulations \\|url\\=https://www.canadasoccer.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2020/11/Canada\\_Soccer\\_\\-Rules\\-Regulations\\_2021\\_Final\\_EN.pdf \\|website\\=Canada Soccer \\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2021 \\|date\\=May 2021}} Leagues operating in a single province receive sanctioning from their provincial soccer association.", "#### Professional (tier 1\\)", "The [Canadian Premier League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_League \"Canadian Premier League\") (CPL) is the top division of soccer in Canada. It is the only fully professional, and only fully national league in the system. Founded in 2019, the CPL is composed of eight teams and is sanctioned by the CSA. Each year, the top CPL clubs qualify for the [CONCACAF Champions Cup](/wiki/CONCACAF_Champions_Cup \"CONCACAF Champions Cup\").", "There are also three Canadian teams which play in [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer \"Major League Soccer\"), the division 1 league sanctioned by the [United States Soccer Federation](/wiki/United_States_Soccer_Federation \"United States Soccer Federation\"), reflecting a longstanding practice of major Canadian sports teams competing in American leagues. The Canadian clubs in this league are members of the CSA and compete in the [Canadian Championship](/wiki/Canadian_Championship \"Canadian Championship\"), rather than in the [U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/U.S._Open_Cup \"U.S. Open Cup\"), alongside clubs from the CPL and qualified lower division clubs.", "The three Canadian MLS clubs also compete in the [Leagues Cup](/wiki/Leagues_Cup \"Leagues Cup\"), a competition held between MLS and [Liga MX](/wiki/Liga_MX \"Liga MX\") clubs, as the sub\\-regional competition within [CONCACAF](/wiki/CONCACAF \"CONCACAF\"). The CPL does not take part in this competition.", "#### Pro\\-am (tier 3\\)", "Pro\\-am (or semi\\-pro) soccer competitions in Canada are regionally\\-based due to its large geography and dispersed pockets of population. Teams playing in pro\\-am leagues are permitted to be composed of professional and amateur players. There are four of such leagues in Canada: [League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta \"League1 Alberta\") (L1AB); [League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia \"League1 British Columbia\") (L1BC); [League1 Ontario](/wiki/League1_Ontario \"League1 Ontario\") (L1O); and [Ligue1 Québec](/wiki/Ligue1_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Ligue1 Québec\") (L1Q). They are based in the provinces of [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\"), [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\"), and [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\") respectively, and are sanctioned by their relevant provincial soccer associations. There are more than 40 sanctioned teams playing in these leagues. These four leagues belong to the parent organization [League1 Canada](/wiki/League1_Canada \"League1 Canada\") which was founded in 2022\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=League1 Canada officially launched today \\|url\\=https://canpl.ca/article/league1\\-canada\\-officially\\-launched\\-today \\|website\\=Canadian Premier League \\|access\\-date\\=April 1, 2022 \\|date\\=March 31, 2022}}", "The PLSQ was founded as a semi\\-pro league in 2012 and is sanctioned by [Soccer Quebec](/wiki/Soccer_Quebec \"Soccer Quebec\"). The league includes a team from Eastern Ontario, who compete with special permission from the CSA.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.league1ontario.com/news\\_article/show/1081804\\|title\\=Ottawa South United announces historic move to PLSQ\\|date\\=January 30, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[League1 Ontario]]}}", "Following the release of *The Easton Report* in 2013, the CSA set out to create a Division 3 semi\\-pro structure divided by region, similar to the major junior hockey leagues in Canada, with regional champions competing in a national tournament.{{Cite web \\| title\\=The Easton Report: What it means for Div. 3 in Canada \\| author\\=Charles \\| work\\=The 11 \\| date\\=February 5, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=July 7, 2018 \\| url\\=https://the11\\.ca/the\\-easton\\-report\\-what\\-it\\-means\\-for\\-div\\-3\\-in\\-canada\\-2/ }} In November 2013, the [Ontario Soccer Association](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_Association \"Ontario Soccer Association\") announced the sanction of League1 Ontario as part of this new structure.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?5069\\-OSA\\-will\\-sanction\\-semi\\-pro\\-League\\-One \\| title\\=OSA will sanction semi\\-pro League One \\| publisher\\=CanadianSoccerNews.com \\| date\\=November 16, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=December 8, 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213205647/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?5069\\-OSA\\-will\\-sanction\\-semi\\-pro\\-League\\-One \\| archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2013 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}", "On October 5, 2021, [BC Soccer](/wiki/BC_Soccer \"BC Soccer\") announced the establishment of [League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia \"League1 British Columbia\") as the nation's third regional pro\\-am soccer league.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://bcsoccer.net/news/post/bc\\-soccer\\-officially\\-launches\\-league1\\-british\\-columbia\\|title\\=BC Soccer officially launches League1 British Columbia\\|date\\=October 5, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[British Columbia Soccer Association\\|BC Soccer]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 6, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404014334/https://www.bcsoccer.net/news/post/bc\\-soccer\\-officially\\-launches\\-league1\\-british\\-columbia\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The league began play in May 2022 with seven clubs.", "In 2022, [Toronto FC II](/wiki/Toronto_FC_II \"Toronto FC II\") and [Whitecaps FC 2](/wiki/Whitecaps_FC_2 \"Whitecaps FC 2\") began play in [MLS Next Pro](/wiki/MLS_Next_Pro \"MLS Next Pro\"), a USSF\\-sanctioned division 3 league. Both Canadian clubs are members of the CSA.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2022}} Toronto FC II had played in the division 2 [USL Championship](/wiki/USL_Championship \"USL Championship\") until 2018 and in the division 3 [USL League One](/wiki/USL_League_One \"USL League One\") from 2019 to 2021\\.", "In March 2023, [League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta \"League1 Alberta\") was founded by the Alberta Soccer Association. With only five teams in the men's and women's division (one short of the requirement for sanctioning), the league played an [exhibition series in 2023](/wiki/2023_League1_Alberta_Exhibition_Series \"2023 League1 Alberta Exhibition Series\"). By December 2023, league membership had grown to seven teams and so the league joined League1 Canada and received full sanctioning ahead of the 2024 season.", "#### Amateur", "There are various amateur provincial leagues that are sanctioned under their individual provincial or territorial associations. This includes such leagues as the [Pacific Coast Soccer League](/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Soccer_League \"Pacific Coast Soccer League\"), [Vancouver Island Soccer League](/wiki/Vancouver_Island_Soccer_League \"Vancouver Island Soccer League\"), [Vancouver Metro Soccer League](/wiki/Vancouver_Metro_Soccer_League \"Vancouver Metro Soccer League\"), [Fraser Valley Soccer League](/wiki/Fraser_Valley_Soccer_League \"Fraser Valley Soccer League\"), [Alberta Major Soccer League](/wiki/Alberta_Major_Soccer_League \"Alberta Major Soccer League\"), [Saskatchewan Premier Soccer League](/wiki/Saskatchewan_Premier_Soccer_League \"Saskatchewan Premier Soccer League\"), [Manitoba Major Soccer League](/wiki/Manitoba_Major_Soccer_League \"Manitoba Major Soccer League\"), [Ontario Soccer League](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_League \"Ontario Soccer League\"),{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ontariosoccer.net/competitions/leagues.aspx \\|title\\=The Ontario Soccer Association \\- Leagues \\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727080223/http://www.ontariosoccer.net/Competitions/Leagues.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=July 27, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} [Ligue de Soccer Elite Quebec](/wiki/Ligue_de_Soccer_Elite_Quebec \"Ligue de Soccer Elite Quebec\"), [Nova Scotia Soccer League](/wiki/Nova_Scotia_Soccer_League \"Nova Scotia Soccer League\"), and [New Brunswick Premier Senior Soccer League](/wiki/New_Brunswick_Premier_Senior_Soccer_League \"New Brunswick Premier Senior Soccer League\"). This collection of leagues across the country collectively compete for the [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy \"Challenge Trophy\").", "There are 13 [provincial and territorial](/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada \"Provinces and territories of Canada\") soccer associations in Canada, with a number of leagues organized as amateur competitions at adult and/or youth levels. Typically there is promotion and relegation plus league and cup competitions in each provincial and territorial association, which culminates in the national [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy \"Challenge Trophy\"). However, not all associations consistently send representative teams to national championships.", "The [United Soccer League](/wiki/United_Soccer_League \"United Soccer League\") (USL) manages several leagues, including the amateur [USL League Two](/wiki/USL_League_Two \"USL League Two\") (USL2\\). USL2 is sanctioned and administered under the [USASA](/wiki/United_States_Adult_Soccer_Association \"United States Adult Soccer Association\") and is below Division 3 in the [United States soccer league system](/wiki/United_States_soccer_league_system \"United States soccer league system\"). On November 18, 2015, four Ontario teams (including [FC London](/wiki/FC_London \"FC London\"), who then moved to L1O) were given notice by the Ontario Soccer Association that they would no longer be permitted to participate in the league starting in 2017\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ontario gives notice on PDL in province\\|url\\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/index.php?/page/articles.html/\\_/24th\\-minute/ontario\\-gives\\-notice\\-on\\-pdl\\-in\\-province\\-r5507\\|website\\=Canadian Soccer News\\|access\\-date\\=November 20, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120101117/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/index.php?/page/articles.html/\\_/24th\\-minute/ontario\\-gives\\-notice\\-on\\-pdl\\-in\\-province\\-r5507 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 20, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Update inline\\|date\\=March 2023\\|reason\\=Ontario teams continued to play in USL2 after 2017}}", "### Pyramid breakdown", "As of the 2024 season.", "| \\+ Canadian leagues grouped by [CSA](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_Association \"Canadian Soccer Association\") sanctioning level |\n| --- |\n| Tier | League | | | |\n| Professional(Tier 1\\) | **[Canadian Premier League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_League \"Canadian Premier League\")** (CPL)*8 teams* | | | |\n| Pro\\-am(Tier 3\\) | **[League1 Canada](/wiki/League1_Canada \"League1 Canada\")** | | | |\n| **[League1 Ontario Premier](/wiki/League1_Ontario \"League1 Ontario\")** (L1OP)*12 teams* *↓ relegate 1 or 2* | **[Ligue1 Québec](/wiki/Ligue1_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Ligue1 Québec\")** (L1QC)*11 teams* | **[League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia \"League1 British Columbia\")** (L1BC)*7 teams* | **[League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta \"League1 Alberta\")** (L1AB)*7 teams* |\n| **[League1 Ontario Championship](/wiki/League1_Ontario%23League1_Championship \"League1 Ontario#League1 Championship\")** (L1OC)*10 teams* *↑ promote 1 or 2**↓ relegate 0 or 1* |\n| **[League2 Ontario](/wiki/League1_Ontario%23League2_Ontario \"League1 Ontario#League2 Ontario\")** (L2O)*24 teams in 3 conferences* *↑ promote 2 or 3* |\n| Amateur | **[Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy \"Challenge Trophy\")***13 provincial/territorial associations* {{hlist\\|list\\_style\\=text\\-align: center \\|\\[\\[Alberta Soccer Association\\|AB]] \\|\\[\\[British Columbia Soccer Association\\|BC]] \\|\\[\\[Manitoba Soccer Association\\|MB]] \\|\\[\\[Soccer New Brunswick\\|NB]] \\|\\[\\[Newfoundland and Labrador Soccer Association\\|NL]] \\|\\[\\[Soccer Nova Scotia\\|NS]] \\|\\[\\[Northwest Territories Soccer Association\\|NT]] \\|\\[\\[Nunavut Soccer Association\\|NU]] \\|\\[\\[Ontario Soccer Association\\|ON]] \\|\\[\\[Prince Edward Island Soccer Association\\|PE]] \\|\\[\\[Quebec Soccer Federation\\|QC]] \\|\\[\\[Saskatchewan Soccer Association\\|SK]] \\|\\[\\[Yukon Soccer Association\\|YT]] }} | | | |", "", "", "| \\+ Canadian leagues grouped by de facto level |\n| --- |\n| Level | League | | | |\n| 1 | **[Canadian Premier League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_League \"Canadian Premier League\")** | | | |\n| 2 | **[League1 Ontario Premier](/wiki/League1_Ontario \"League1 Ontario\")***↓ relegate 1 or 2* | **[Ligue1 Québec](/wiki/Ligue1_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Ligue1 Québec\")** | **[League1 BC](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia \"League1 British Columbia\")** | **[League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta \"League1 Alberta\")** |\n| 3 | **[League1 Ontario Championship](/wiki/League1_Ontario%23League1_Championship \"League1 Ontario#League1 Championship\")***↑ promote 1 or 2**↓ relegate 0 or 1* | *No leagues at this level* | | |\n| 4 | **[League2 Ontario](/wiki/League1_Ontario%23League2_Ontario \"League1 Ontario#League2 Ontario\")***↑ promote 2 or 3* |\n|", "{{see also\\|United States soccer league system\\#Men's league structure}}", "| \\+ American leagues grouped by [USSF](/wiki/United_States_Soccer_Federation \"United States Soccer Federation\") sanctioning level |\n| --- |\n| Division | League |\n| 1 | **[Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer \"Major League Soccer\")** (MLS)*29 teams, including 3 in Canada* {{hlist\\|list\\_style\\=text\\-align: center\\|\\[\\[CF Montréal]]\\|\\[\\[Toronto FC]]\\|\\[\\[Vancouver Whitecaps FC]]}} |\n| 2 | No Canadian clubs at this level |\n| 3 | **[MLS Next Pro](/wiki/MLS_Next_Pro \"MLS Next Pro\")***27 teams, including 2 in Canada* {{hlist\\|list\\_style\\=text\\-align: center\\|\\[\\[Toronto FC II]]\\|\\[\\[Whitecaps FC 2]]}} |\n| *Positions below this point are amateur and are not designated by the USSF* | |\n| N/A | **[USL League Two](/wiki/USL_League_Two \"USL League Two\")** (USL2\\)*128 teams, including 1 in Canada* {{hlist\\|list\\_style\\=text\\-align: center\\|\\[\\[Thunder Bay Chill]]}} |\n| **[United Premier Soccer League](/wiki/United_Premier_Soccer_League \"United Premier Soccer League\")** (UPSL)*250\\+ teams, including 2 from Canada*{{hlist\\|list\\_style\\=text\\-align: center\\|\\[\\[FC Berlin (Canada/United States)\\|FC Berlin]]\\|\\[\\[Chantilly Forever FC]]}} (home matches in the U.S.) |", "", "### National cups", "The [Canadian Championship](/wiki/Canadian_Championship \"Canadian Championship\") is the primary [domestic cup](/wiki/Domestic_cup \"Domestic cup\") in Canada. It was established in 2008 to determine the nation's representative at the [CONCACAF Champions Cup](/wiki/CONCACAF_Champions_Cup \"CONCACAF Champions Cup\"). The tournament is organized by the Canadian Soccer Association and is open to fully professional Canadian teams (playing in American or Canadian leagues) and the winners of the Canadian regional pro\\-am leagues. The winner of the Canadian Championship is awarded the fan\\-created [Voyageurs Cup](/wiki/Voyageurs_Cup \"Voyageurs Cup\") which predates the tournament.", "The [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy \"Challenge Trophy\") is Canada's national men's amateur championship. It has been contested since 1913\\.", "### Professional leagues background", "By the mid\\-1960s, there were four major leagues across Canada including the [Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League](/wiki/Eastern_Canada_Professional_Soccer_League \"Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League\") (1961–1967\\). From west to east, the other major leagues were the [Pacific Coast Soccer League](/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Soccer_League_%281908-73%29 \"Pacific Coast Soccer League (1908-73)\") (British Columbia), the [Western Canada Soccer League](/wiki/Western_Canada_Soccer_League \"Western Canada Soccer League\") (Alberta, Saskatchewan and eventually Manitoba and British Columbia), and the [National Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_National_Soccer_League \"Canadian National Soccer League\") (Ontario and Quebec). In 1968, Canadian soccer turned its attention to the cross\\-nation [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%281968%E2%80%931984%29 \"North American Soccer League (1968–1984)\") that initially featured professional teams in Vancouver and Toronto. Over the next 15 years, the professional league also featured teams in Calgary, Edmonton, and Montreal.", "After the collapse of the original North American Soccer League, and Canada's participation in the [1986 FIFA World Cup](/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup \"1986 FIFA World Cup\") the original [Canadian Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_League_%281987%E2%80%9392%29 \"Canadian Soccer League (1987–92)\") started operations as a nationally based CSA sanctioned Division 1 league.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=ifIdVpG6JtcC\\&dat\\=19870226\\&printsec\\=frontpage\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Soccer rebirth\\|work\\=Vancouver Sun Newspaper\\|first\\=Archie\\|last\\=MacDonald\\|date\\=February 26, 1987\\|access\\-date\\=January 18, 2015}} When the original CSL folded in 1993, three Canadian teams moved to the [American Professional Soccer League](/wiki/American_Professional_Soccer_League \"American Professional Soccer League\") (APSL) where several had played preseason games and competed in post season tournaments. Later in 1993, Major League Soccer (MLS) beat the APSL and won the USSF's competition for U.S. Division 1 status. Canadian teams continued to participate in the [APSL](/wiki/American_Professional_Soccer_League \"American Professional Soccer League\") and subsequently with the United Soccer Leagues merger in the [A League](/wiki/A-League_%281995%E2%80%932004%29 \"A-League (1995–2004)\") / [USL\\-1](/wiki/USL_First_Division \"USL First Division\"). [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA \"FIFA\") did not allow the U.S. Division 1 sanctioned league to include foreign teams which was why the APSL was never officially recognized as Division 1 before MLS.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2020}}", "MLS would eventually expand into Canadian cities with existing U.S. Division 2 teams. Newly created [Toronto FC](/wiki/Toronto_FC \"Toronto FC\") joined MLS for the 2007 season, whereas the existing [Toronto Lynx](/wiki/Toronto_Lynx \"Toronto Lynx\") self relegated from the USL\\-1 and began playing in the amateur\\-only [USL Premier Development League](/wiki/USL_Premier_Development_League \"USL Premier Development League\").{{cite news\\| url \\= http://www.sportsnews24h.com/Soccer/Canada/Toronto\\-Lynx/11027\\.html\\| title \\= Toronto Lynx a costly labour of love\\| publisher \\= www.sportsnews24h.com\\| access\\-date \\= December 10, 2010\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101206192038/http://www.sportsnews24h.com/Soccer/Canada/Toronto\\-Lynx/11027\\.html\\| archive\\-date \\= December 6, 2010\\| url\\-status \\= dead}} The owners of [Vancouver Whitecaps FC](/wiki/Vancouver_Whitecaps_%281986%E2%80%932010%29 \"Vancouver Whitecaps (1986–2010)\") of the [USSF Division 2 Professional League](/wiki/USSF_Division_2_Professional_League \"USSF Division 2 Professional League\") formed a team that joined MLS in 2011, and the owners [Montreal Impact](/wiki/Montreal_Impact_%281992%E2%80%932011%29 \"Montreal Impact (1992–2011)\") of the [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%282011%29 \"North American Soccer League (2011)\") created a team that joined in 2012\\.{{cite news\\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/20/sports/soccer/20mls.html\\| title \\= Canada Looks to MLS Expansion as Aid to International Success\\| work \\= www.nytimes.com\\| date \\= November 19, 2010\\| access\\-date \\= December 10, 2010}}", "One of the other original CSL teams did not join the APSL, they joined the National Soccer League based in southern Ontario. The National Soccer League renamed itself the [Canadian National Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_National_Soccer_League \"Canadian National Soccer League\") (CNSL) with the addition of an out of province team. The CNSL had four teams found the second league named the Canadian Professional Soccer League (1998–2006\\) or CPSL with four other new teams. In 2006, the CPSL teams restarted in a new league, the second [Canadian Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_League \"Canadian Soccer League\") (CSL). This second version of the CSL was initially sanctioned the [Ontario Soccer Association](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_Association \"Ontario Soccer Association\") and later by the [Canadian Soccer Association](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_Association \"Canadian Soccer Association\") as Division 3 in 2009\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rocketrobinsoccerintoronto.com/reports09/09csl005\\.htm\\|title\\=CSL kicks off Friday while making plans for the future\\|website\\=www.rocketrobinsoccerintoronto.com\\|publisher\\=CSL media release\\|access\\-date\\=September 23, 2017}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://vancouversun.com/sports/looks\\+field\\+true\\+national\\+league/3393800/story.html \\|title\\=CSL looks to field a true national league \\|publisher\\=www.vancouversun.com \\|date\\=August 13, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=November 2, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922161710/http://www.vancouversun.com/sports/looks\\+field\\+true\\+national\\+league/3393800/story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=September 22, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Following a match fixing scandal the league was then de\\-sanctioned in 2014 and continues to operate as a member of the Soccer Federation of Canada (SFC) that is not associated with any international body.{{cite news \\|date\\=February 13, 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.bcsoccerweb.com/articles\\-december/csl\\-dec\\-03\\-new\\-federation.htm \\|title\\=Canadian Soccer League joins Newly\\-Formed Soccer Federation \\|publisher\\=canadiansoccerleague.ca \\|access\\-date\\=February 13, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212105039/http://www.bcsoccerweb.com/articles\\-december/csl\\-dec\\-03\\-new\\-federation.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=December 12, 2013 }}", "In February 2010, the [Canadian Soccer League](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_League \"Canadian Soccer League\") was granted full membership by the CSA and sanctioned as a semi\\-professional league. Sitting behind MLS and the NASL, the CSL operated as one of the Division 3 leagues within the Canadian pyramid.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.milltownfc.ca/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=59:csl\\-granted\\-full\\-national\\-membership\\-in\\-csa\\&catid\\=36:leaguenews\\&Itemid\\=68 \\| title\\=CSL Granted Full National Membership in CSA \\| publisher\\=MilltownFC.ca \\| date\\=February 24, 2010 \\| access\\-date\\=July 8, 2011}} However, following the release of a development study and subsequent change in CSA policy for the future growth and development of regional leagues, also coinciding with [match fixing](/wiki/Match_fixing \"Match fixing\") allegations in 2012,{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/exclusive\\-canadian\\-soccer\\-an\\-easy\\-target\\-for\\-match\\-fixing\\-1\\.1212414 \\| title\\=Canadian soccer an easy target for match fixing \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[CBC News]] \\| date\\=September 12, 2012 \\| access\\-date\\=December 8, 2013}} the CSL was de\\-sanctioned by the CSA in 2013{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/soccer/canadian\\-soccer\\-league\\-to\\-fight\\-csa\\-decertification/article9296490/ \\| title\\=Canadian Soccer League to fight CSA decertification \\| publisher\\=TheGlobeAndMail.com \\| date\\=March 5, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=December 8, 2013}} and would not be considered a CSA sanctioned semi\\-pro league for the 2014 season.", "In order to limit the Americanization of all of Canada's professional soccer clubs, the CSA issued a [moratorium](/wiki/Moratorium_%28law%29 \"Moratorium (law)\") on the sanctioning of any new Division 2, 3, or 4 teams on November 15, 2010, which lasted until September 30, 2011\\.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?528\\-CSA\\-puts\\-brakes\\-on\\-future\\-D2\\-sanctioning\\-in\\-US\\-leagues \\| title\\=CSA puts brakes on future D2 sanctioning in US leagues \\| date\\=November 15, 2010 \\| author\\=Duane Rollins \\| publisher\\=Canadian Soccer News \\| access\\-date\\=July 7, 2011 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123172942/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?528\\-CSA\\-puts\\-brakes\\-on\\-future\\-D2\\-sanctioning\\-in\\-US\\-leagues \\| archive\\-date\\=November 23, 2010 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} Despite the moratorium, the NASL announced that [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\") had been awarded a franchise on June 20, 2011\\.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.nasl.com/index.php?id\\=3\\&newsid\\=707 \\| title\\=Ottawa to Join NASL \\| date\\=June 20, 2011 \\| publisher\\=North American Soccer League \\| access\\-date\\=July 7, 2011}}", "" ]
### League structure The Canadian soccer system consists of several unconnected leagues and it does not have [promotion and relegation](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation "Promotion and relegation"). Leagues in the Canadian system are classified as either professional, [pro\-am](/wiki/Pro-am "Pro-am"), or amateur. The [Canadian Soccer Association](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_Association "Canadian Soccer Association") (CSA) is the governing body for the sport in Canada and directly sanctions leagues that operate in more than one province.{{cite web \|title\=Canadian Soccer Association Rules and Regulations \|url\=https://www.canadasoccer.com/wp\-content/uploads/2020/11/Canada\_Soccer\_\-Rules\-Regulations\_2021\_Final\_EN.pdf \|website\=Canada Soccer \|access\-date\=October 16, 2021 \|date\=May 2021}} Leagues operating in a single province receive sanctioning from their provincial soccer association. #### Professional (tier 1\) The [Canadian Premier League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_League "Canadian Premier League") (CPL) is the top division of soccer in Canada. It is the only fully professional, and only fully national league in the system. Founded in 2019, the CPL is composed of eight teams and is sanctioned by the CSA. Each year, the top CPL clubs qualify for the [CONCACAF Champions Cup](/wiki/CONCACAF_Champions_Cup "CONCACAF Champions Cup"). There are also three Canadian teams which play in [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer "Major League Soccer"), the division 1 league sanctioned by the [United States Soccer Federation](/wiki/United_States_Soccer_Federation "United States Soccer Federation"), reflecting a longstanding practice of major Canadian sports teams competing in American leagues. The Canadian clubs in this league are members of the CSA and compete in the [Canadian Championship](/wiki/Canadian_Championship "Canadian Championship"), rather than in the [U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/U.S._Open_Cup "U.S. Open Cup"), alongside clubs from the CPL and qualified lower division clubs. The three Canadian MLS clubs also compete in the [Leagues Cup](/wiki/Leagues_Cup "Leagues Cup"), a competition held between MLS and [Liga MX](/wiki/Liga_MX "Liga MX") clubs, as the sub\-regional competition within [CONCACAF](/wiki/CONCACAF "CONCACAF"). The CPL does not take part in this competition. #### Pro\-am (tier 3\) Pro\-am (or semi\-pro) soccer competitions in Canada are regionally\-based due to its large geography and dispersed pockets of population. Teams playing in pro\-am leagues are permitted to be composed of professional and amateur players. There are four of such leagues in Canada: [League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta "League1 Alberta") (L1AB); [League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia "League1 British Columbia") (L1BC); [League1 Ontario](/wiki/League1_Ontario "League1 Ontario") (L1O); and [Ligue1 Québec](/wiki/Ligue1_Qu%C3%A9bec "Ligue1 Québec") (L1Q). They are based in the provinces of [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta"), [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario"), and [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec") respectively, and are sanctioned by their relevant provincial soccer associations. There are more than 40 sanctioned teams playing in these leagues. These four leagues belong to the parent organization [League1 Canada](/wiki/League1_Canada "League1 Canada") which was founded in 2022\.{{cite web \|title\=League1 Canada officially launched today \|url\=https://canpl.ca/article/league1\-canada\-officially\-launched\-today \|website\=Canadian Premier League \|access\-date\=April 1, 2022 \|date\=March 31, 2022}} The PLSQ was founded as a semi\-pro league in 2012 and is sanctioned by [Soccer Quebec](/wiki/Soccer_Quebec "Soccer Quebec"). The league includes a team from Eastern Ontario, who compete with special permission from the CSA.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.league1ontario.com/news\_article/show/1081804\|title\=Ottawa South United announces historic move to PLSQ\|date\=January 30, 2020\|work\=\[\[League1 Ontario]]}} Following the release of *The Easton Report* in 2013, the CSA set out to create a Division 3 semi\-pro structure divided by region, similar to the major junior hockey leagues in Canada, with regional champions competing in a national tournament.{{Cite web \| title\=The Easton Report: What it means for Div. 3 in Canada \| author\=Charles \| work\=The 11 \| date\=February 5, 2013 \| access\-date\=July 7, 2018 \| url\=https://the11\.ca/the\-easton\-report\-what\-it\-means\-for\-div\-3\-in\-canada\-2/ }} In November 2013, the [Ontario Soccer Association](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_Association "Ontario Soccer Association") announced the sanction of League1 Ontario as part of this new structure.{{cite news \| url\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?5069\-OSA\-will\-sanction\-semi\-pro\-League\-One \| title\=OSA will sanction semi\-pro League One \| publisher\=CanadianSoccerNews.com \| date\=November 16, 2013 \| access\-date\=December 8, 2013 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213205647/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?5069\-OSA\-will\-sanction\-semi\-pro\-League\-One \| archive\-date\=December 13, 2013 \| url\-status\=dead }} On October 5, 2021, [BC Soccer](/wiki/BC_Soccer "BC Soccer") announced the establishment of [League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia "League1 British Columbia") as the nation's third regional pro\-am soccer league.{{Cite web\|url\=https://bcsoccer.net/news/post/bc\-soccer\-officially\-launches\-league1\-british\-columbia\|title\=BC Soccer officially launches League1 British Columbia\|date\=October 5, 2021\|work\=\[\[British Columbia Soccer Association\|BC Soccer]]\|access\-date\=October 6, 2021\|archive\-date\=April 4, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404014334/https://www.bcsoccer.net/news/post/bc\-soccer\-officially\-launches\-league1\-british\-columbia\|url\-status\=dead}} The league began play in May 2022 with seven clubs. In 2022, [Toronto FC II](/wiki/Toronto_FC_II "Toronto FC II") and [Whitecaps FC 2](/wiki/Whitecaps_FC_2 "Whitecaps FC 2") began play in [MLS Next Pro](/wiki/MLS_Next_Pro "MLS Next Pro"), a USSF\-sanctioned division 3 league. Both Canadian clubs are members of the CSA.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2022}} Toronto FC II had played in the division 2 [USL Championship](/wiki/USL_Championship "USL Championship") until 2018 and in the division 3 [USL League One](/wiki/USL_League_One "USL League One") from 2019 to 2021\. In March 2023, [League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta "League1 Alberta") was founded by the Alberta Soccer Association. With only five teams in the men's and women's division (one short of the requirement for sanctioning), the league played an [exhibition series in 2023](/wiki/2023_League1_Alberta_Exhibition_Series "2023 League1 Alberta Exhibition Series"). By December 2023, league membership had grown to seven teams and so the league joined League1 Canada and received full sanctioning ahead of the 2024 season. #### Amateur There are various amateur provincial leagues that are sanctioned under their individual provincial or territorial associations. This includes such leagues as the [Pacific Coast Soccer League](/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Soccer_League "Pacific Coast Soccer League"), [Vancouver Island Soccer League](/wiki/Vancouver_Island_Soccer_League "Vancouver Island Soccer League"), [Vancouver Metro Soccer League](/wiki/Vancouver_Metro_Soccer_League "Vancouver Metro Soccer League"), [Fraser Valley Soccer League](/wiki/Fraser_Valley_Soccer_League "Fraser Valley Soccer League"), [Alberta Major Soccer League](/wiki/Alberta_Major_Soccer_League "Alberta Major Soccer League"), [Saskatchewan Premier Soccer League](/wiki/Saskatchewan_Premier_Soccer_League "Saskatchewan Premier Soccer League"), [Manitoba Major Soccer League](/wiki/Manitoba_Major_Soccer_League "Manitoba Major Soccer League"), [Ontario Soccer League](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_League "Ontario Soccer League"),{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.ontariosoccer.net/competitions/leagues.aspx \|title\=The Ontario Soccer Association \- Leagues \|access\-date\=February 21, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727080223/http://www.ontariosoccer.net/Competitions/Leagues.aspx \|archive\-date\=July 27, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead }} [Ligue de Soccer Elite Quebec](/wiki/Ligue_de_Soccer_Elite_Quebec "Ligue de Soccer Elite Quebec"), [Nova Scotia Soccer League](/wiki/Nova_Scotia_Soccer_League "Nova Scotia Soccer League"), and [New Brunswick Premier Senior Soccer League](/wiki/New_Brunswick_Premier_Senior_Soccer_League "New Brunswick Premier Senior Soccer League"). This collection of leagues across the country collectively compete for the [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy "Challenge Trophy"). There are 13 [provincial and territorial](/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada "Provinces and territories of Canada") soccer associations in Canada, with a number of leagues organized as amateur competitions at adult and/or youth levels. Typically there is promotion and relegation plus league and cup competitions in each provincial and territorial association, which culminates in the national [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy "Challenge Trophy"). However, not all associations consistently send representative teams to national championships. The [United Soccer League](/wiki/United_Soccer_League "United Soccer League") (USL) manages several leagues, including the amateur [USL League Two](/wiki/USL_League_Two "USL League Two") (USL2\). USL2 is sanctioned and administered under the [USASA](/wiki/United_States_Adult_Soccer_Association "United States Adult Soccer Association") and is below Division 3 in the [United States soccer league system](/wiki/United_States_soccer_league_system "United States soccer league system"). On November 18, 2015, four Ontario teams (including [FC London](/wiki/FC_London "FC London"), who then moved to L1O) were given notice by the Ontario Soccer Association that they would no longer be permitted to participate in the league starting in 2017\.{{cite web \|title\=Ontario gives notice on PDL in province\|url\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/index.php?/page/articles.html/\_/24th\-minute/ontario\-gives\-notice\-on\-pdl\-in\-province\-r5507\|website\=Canadian Soccer News\|access\-date\=November 20, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120101117/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/index.php?/page/articles.html/\_/24th\-minute/ontario\-gives\-notice\-on\-pdl\-in\-province\-r5507 \|archive\-date\=November 20, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{Update inline\|date\=March 2023\|reason\=Ontario teams continued to play in USL2 after 2017}}
[ "### League structure", "The Canadian soccer system consists of several unconnected leagues and it does not have [promotion and relegation](/wiki/Promotion_and_relegation \"Promotion and relegation\"). Leagues in the Canadian system are classified as either professional, [pro\\-am](/wiki/Pro-am \"Pro-am\"), or amateur. The [Canadian Soccer Association](/wiki/Canadian_Soccer_Association \"Canadian Soccer Association\") (CSA) is the governing body for the sport in Canada and directly sanctions leagues that operate in more than one province.{{cite web \\|title\\=Canadian Soccer Association Rules and Regulations \\|url\\=https://www.canadasoccer.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2020/11/Canada\\_Soccer\\_\\-Rules\\-Regulations\\_2021\\_Final\\_EN.pdf \\|website\\=Canada Soccer \\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2021 \\|date\\=May 2021}} Leagues operating in a single province receive sanctioning from their provincial soccer association.", "#### Professional (tier 1\\)", "The [Canadian Premier League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_League \"Canadian Premier League\") (CPL) is the top division of soccer in Canada. It is the only fully professional, and only fully national league in the system. Founded in 2019, the CPL is composed of eight teams and is sanctioned by the CSA. Each year, the top CPL clubs qualify for the [CONCACAF Champions Cup](/wiki/CONCACAF_Champions_Cup \"CONCACAF Champions Cup\").", "There are also three Canadian teams which play in [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer \"Major League Soccer\"), the division 1 league sanctioned by the [United States Soccer Federation](/wiki/United_States_Soccer_Federation \"United States Soccer Federation\"), reflecting a longstanding practice of major Canadian sports teams competing in American leagues. The Canadian clubs in this league are members of the CSA and compete in the [Canadian Championship](/wiki/Canadian_Championship \"Canadian Championship\"), rather than in the [U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/U.S._Open_Cup \"U.S. Open Cup\"), alongside clubs from the CPL and qualified lower division clubs.", "The three Canadian MLS clubs also compete in the [Leagues Cup](/wiki/Leagues_Cup \"Leagues Cup\"), a competition held between MLS and [Liga MX](/wiki/Liga_MX \"Liga MX\") clubs, as the sub\\-regional competition within [CONCACAF](/wiki/CONCACAF \"CONCACAF\"). The CPL does not take part in this competition.", "#### Pro\\-am (tier 3\\)", "Pro\\-am (or semi\\-pro) soccer competitions in Canada are regionally\\-based due to its large geography and dispersed pockets of population. Teams playing in pro\\-am leagues are permitted to be composed of professional and amateur players. There are four of such leagues in Canada: [League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta \"League1 Alberta\") (L1AB); [League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia \"League1 British Columbia\") (L1BC); [League1 Ontario](/wiki/League1_Ontario \"League1 Ontario\") (L1O); and [Ligue1 Québec](/wiki/Ligue1_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Ligue1 Québec\") (L1Q). They are based in the provinces of [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\"), [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\"), and [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\") respectively, and are sanctioned by their relevant provincial soccer associations. There are more than 40 sanctioned teams playing in these leagues. These four leagues belong to the parent organization [League1 Canada](/wiki/League1_Canada \"League1 Canada\") which was founded in 2022\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=League1 Canada officially launched today \\|url\\=https://canpl.ca/article/league1\\-canada\\-officially\\-launched\\-today \\|website\\=Canadian Premier League \\|access\\-date\\=April 1, 2022 \\|date\\=March 31, 2022}}", "The PLSQ was founded as a semi\\-pro league in 2012 and is sanctioned by [Soccer Quebec](/wiki/Soccer_Quebec \"Soccer Quebec\"). The league includes a team from Eastern Ontario, who compete with special permission from the CSA.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.league1ontario.com/news\\_article/show/1081804\\|title\\=Ottawa South United announces historic move to PLSQ\\|date\\=January 30, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[League1 Ontario]]}}", "Following the release of *The Easton Report* in 2013, the CSA set out to create a Division 3 semi\\-pro structure divided by region, similar to the major junior hockey leagues in Canada, with regional champions competing in a national tournament.{{Cite web \\| title\\=The Easton Report: What it means for Div. 3 in Canada \\| author\\=Charles \\| work\\=The 11 \\| date\\=February 5, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=July 7, 2018 \\| url\\=https://the11\\.ca/the\\-easton\\-report\\-what\\-it\\-means\\-for\\-div\\-3\\-in\\-canada\\-2/ }} In November 2013, the [Ontario Soccer Association](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_Association \"Ontario Soccer Association\") announced the sanction of League1 Ontario as part of this new structure.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?5069\\-OSA\\-will\\-sanction\\-semi\\-pro\\-League\\-One \\| title\\=OSA will sanction semi\\-pro League One \\| publisher\\=CanadianSoccerNews.com \\| date\\=November 16, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=December 8, 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213205647/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/content.php?5069\\-OSA\\-will\\-sanction\\-semi\\-pro\\-League\\-One \\| archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2013 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}", "On October 5, 2021, [BC Soccer](/wiki/BC_Soccer \"BC Soccer\") announced the establishment of [League1 British Columbia](/wiki/League1_British_Columbia \"League1 British Columbia\") as the nation's third regional pro\\-am soccer league.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://bcsoccer.net/news/post/bc\\-soccer\\-officially\\-launches\\-league1\\-british\\-columbia\\|title\\=BC Soccer officially launches League1 British Columbia\\|date\\=October 5, 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[British Columbia Soccer Association\\|BC Soccer]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 6, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404014334/https://www.bcsoccer.net/news/post/bc\\-soccer\\-officially\\-launches\\-league1\\-british\\-columbia\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The league began play in May 2022 with seven clubs.", "In 2022, [Toronto FC II](/wiki/Toronto_FC_II \"Toronto FC II\") and [Whitecaps FC 2](/wiki/Whitecaps_FC_2 \"Whitecaps FC 2\") began play in [MLS Next Pro](/wiki/MLS_Next_Pro \"MLS Next Pro\"), a USSF\\-sanctioned division 3 league. Both Canadian clubs are members of the CSA.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2022}} Toronto FC II had played in the division 2 [USL Championship](/wiki/USL_Championship \"USL Championship\") until 2018 and in the division 3 [USL League One](/wiki/USL_League_One \"USL League One\") from 2019 to 2021\\.", "In March 2023, [League1 Alberta](/wiki/League1_Alberta \"League1 Alberta\") was founded by the Alberta Soccer Association. With only five teams in the men's and women's division (one short of the requirement for sanctioning), the league played an [exhibition series in 2023](/wiki/2023_League1_Alberta_Exhibition_Series \"2023 League1 Alberta Exhibition Series\"). By December 2023, league membership had grown to seven teams and so the league joined League1 Canada and received full sanctioning ahead of the 2024 season.", "#### Amateur", "There are various amateur provincial leagues that are sanctioned under their individual provincial or territorial associations. This includes such leagues as the [Pacific Coast Soccer League](/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Soccer_League \"Pacific Coast Soccer League\"), [Vancouver Island Soccer League](/wiki/Vancouver_Island_Soccer_League \"Vancouver Island Soccer League\"), [Vancouver Metro Soccer League](/wiki/Vancouver_Metro_Soccer_League \"Vancouver Metro Soccer League\"), [Fraser Valley Soccer League](/wiki/Fraser_Valley_Soccer_League \"Fraser Valley Soccer League\"), [Alberta Major Soccer League](/wiki/Alberta_Major_Soccer_League \"Alberta Major Soccer League\"), [Saskatchewan Premier Soccer League](/wiki/Saskatchewan_Premier_Soccer_League \"Saskatchewan Premier Soccer League\"), [Manitoba Major Soccer League](/wiki/Manitoba_Major_Soccer_League \"Manitoba Major Soccer League\"), [Ontario Soccer League](/wiki/Ontario_Soccer_League \"Ontario Soccer League\"),{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ontariosoccer.net/competitions/leagues.aspx \\|title\\=The Ontario Soccer Association \\- Leagues \\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727080223/http://www.ontariosoccer.net/Competitions/Leagues.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=July 27, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} [Ligue de Soccer Elite Quebec](/wiki/Ligue_de_Soccer_Elite_Quebec \"Ligue de Soccer Elite Quebec\"), [Nova Scotia Soccer League](/wiki/Nova_Scotia_Soccer_League \"Nova Scotia Soccer League\"), and [New Brunswick Premier Senior Soccer League](/wiki/New_Brunswick_Premier_Senior_Soccer_League \"New Brunswick Premier Senior Soccer League\"). This collection of leagues across the country collectively compete for the [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy \"Challenge Trophy\").", "There are 13 [provincial and territorial](/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada \"Provinces and territories of Canada\") soccer associations in Canada, with a number of leagues organized as amateur competitions at adult and/or youth levels. Typically there is promotion and relegation plus league and cup competitions in each provincial and territorial association, which culminates in the national [Challenge Trophy](/wiki/Challenge_Trophy \"Challenge Trophy\"). However, not all associations consistently send representative teams to national championships.", "The [United Soccer League](/wiki/United_Soccer_League \"United Soccer League\") (USL) manages several leagues, including the amateur [USL League Two](/wiki/USL_League_Two \"USL League Two\") (USL2\\). USL2 is sanctioned and administered under the [USASA](/wiki/United_States_Adult_Soccer_Association \"United States Adult Soccer Association\") and is below Division 3 in the [United States soccer league system](/wiki/United_States_soccer_league_system \"United States soccer league system\"). On November 18, 2015, four Ontario teams (including [FC London](/wiki/FC_London \"FC London\"), who then moved to L1O) were given notice by the Ontario Soccer Association that they would no longer be permitted to participate in the league starting in 2017\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ontario gives notice on PDL in province\\|url\\=http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/index.php?/page/articles.html/\\_/24th\\-minute/ontario\\-gives\\-notice\\-on\\-pdl\\-in\\-province\\-r5507\\|website\\=Canadian Soccer News\\|access\\-date\\=November 20, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120101117/http://www.canadiansoccernews.com/index.php?/page/articles.html/\\_/24th\\-minute/ontario\\-gives\\-notice\\-on\\-pdl\\-in\\-province\\-r5507 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 20, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Update inline\\|date\\=March 2023\\|reason\\=Ontario teams continued to play in USL2 after 2017}}", "" ]
Background ---------- Within the European Union, entry into the [Eurozone](/wiki/Economic_and_Monetary_Union_of_the_European_Union "Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union") depends on the applicant nation meeting certain economic criteria.{{cite web\|url\=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY\_PUBLIC/GREECE/EN/GREECE\-EN.PDF\|title\=Report by Eurostat on the Revision of the Greek Government Deficit and Debt Figures\|date\=22 November 2004\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205001847/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY\_PUBLIC/GREECE/EN/GREECE\-EN.PDF\|archivedate\=5 February 2012}} Measures such as [budget deficits](/wiki/Government_budget_deficit "Government budget deficit") and [public debt](/wiki/Public_debt "Public debt") levels are assessed, as well as the [inflation](/wiki/Inflation "Inflation") situation and the stability of the national currency [exchange rate](/wiki/Exchange_rate "Exchange rate") of a [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") member state. Requirements include a budget deficit below 3% of [gross domestic product](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") (GDP), and debt below 60% of GDP, or if above, declining. Up until 1994, Greece recorded very high deficits, for some years above 10% of GDP. During the late nineties, according to the figures submitted by the Greek government to the European Union, Greece's high budget deficits were significantly lowered. In 2000, given a deficit below 3% of GDP in 1999, Greece was accepted as the 12th member of the European monetary union. ### Eurostat refusal to validate Greek figures In March 2002, [Eurostat](/wiki/Eurostat "Eurostat") refused to validate data transmitted by the Greek government. In reaction, the NSSG ([National Statistical Service of Greece](/wiki/National_Statistical_Service_of_Greece "National Statistical Service of Greece")) revised the debt level by several percentage points. In September 2002, Eurostat again refused to validate the data. The debt was revised upwards once again, and the government balance, which the Greek government had presented as a surplus, became a deficit. In March 2004, Eurostat refused again to validate the Greek numbers. That was shortly before Greek elections, and a new government by [New Democracy](/wiki/New_Democracy_%28Greece%29 "New Democracy (Greece)") was inaugurated. After the [March 7 elections](/wiki/Greek_legislative_election%2C_2004 "Greek legislative election, 2004"), the new government said that it would start an objective [financial audit](/wiki/Financial_audit "Financial audit") of the government accounts. [George Papandreou](/wiki/George_Andreas_Papandreou "George Andreas Papandreou"), of [Panhellenic Socialist Movement](/wiki/Panhellenic_Socialist_Movement "Panhellenic Socialist Movement") (PASOK), the main opposition at that time, and the other two smaller parties initially agreed with the need for an audit. The agreement lasted a very short time, and outside auditing firms and the central bank were not asked to carry out such an audit.
[ "Background\n----------", "Within the European Union, entry into the [Eurozone](/wiki/Economic_and_Monetary_Union_of_the_European_Union \"Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union\") depends on the applicant nation meeting certain economic criteria.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY\\_PUBLIC/GREECE/EN/GREECE\\-EN.PDF\\|title\\=Report by Eurostat on the Revision of the Greek Government Deficit and Debt Figures\\|date\\=22 November 2004\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205001847/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY\\_PUBLIC/GREECE/EN/GREECE\\-EN.PDF\\|archivedate\\=5 February 2012}} Measures such as [budget deficits](/wiki/Government_budget_deficit \"Government budget deficit\") and [public debt](/wiki/Public_debt \"Public debt\") levels are assessed, as well as the [inflation](/wiki/Inflation \"Inflation\") situation and the stability of the national currency [exchange rate](/wiki/Exchange_rate \"Exchange rate\") of a [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") member state. Requirements include a budget deficit below 3% of [gross domestic product](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") (GDP), and debt below 60% of GDP, or if above, declining.", "Up until 1994, Greece recorded very high deficits, for some years above 10% of GDP. During the late nineties, according to the figures submitted by the Greek government to the European Union, Greece's high budget deficits were significantly lowered. In 2000, given a deficit below 3% of GDP in 1999, Greece was accepted as the 12th member of the European monetary union.", "### Eurostat refusal to validate Greek figures", "In March 2002, [Eurostat](/wiki/Eurostat \"Eurostat\") refused to validate data transmitted by the Greek government. In reaction, the NSSG ([National Statistical Service of Greece](/wiki/National_Statistical_Service_of_Greece \"National Statistical Service of Greece\")) revised the debt level by several percentage points. In September 2002, Eurostat again refused to validate the data. The debt was revised upwards once again, and the government balance, which the Greek government had presented as a surplus, became a deficit.", "In March 2004, Eurostat refused again to validate the Greek numbers. That was shortly before Greek elections, and a new government by [New Democracy](/wiki/New_Democracy_%28Greece%29 \"New Democracy (Greece)\") was inaugurated.", "After the [March 7 elections](/wiki/Greek_legislative_election%2C_2004 \"Greek legislative election, 2004\"), the new government said that it would start an objective [financial audit](/wiki/Financial_audit \"Financial audit\") of the government accounts. [George Papandreou](/wiki/George_Andreas_Papandreou \"George Andreas Papandreou\"), of [Panhellenic Socialist Movement](/wiki/Panhellenic_Socialist_Movement \"Panhellenic Socialist Movement\") (PASOK), the main opposition at that time, and the other two smaller parties initially agreed with the need for an audit. The agreement lasted a very short time, and outside auditing firms and the central bank were not asked to carry out such an audit.", "" ]
New government audit -------------------- Instead, the government produced new estimates while it investigated the years 1997 to 2003, and the resulting data was given to Eurostat, which then went on and published a report. The requirement that the 1999 budget deficit should have been below 3% of GDP was one of the key criteria for Eurozone entry. Its revision to 3\.07%, according to Eurostat (AMECO), led to a controversy about Greece's admission. In the [2005 OECD report for Greece](https://books.google.com/books?id=Wstn-8rGQZQC) (p. 47\) it was clearly stated that "the impact of new accounting rules on the fiscal figures for the years 1997 to 1999 ranged from 0\.7 to 1 percentage point of GDP; this retroactive change of methodology was responsible for the revised deficit exceeding 3% in 1999, the year of EMU membership qualification". The above has led the Greek minister of finance to clarify that the 1999 budget deficit was below the prescribed 3% limit when it was calculated with the ESA79 methodology in force at the time of Greece's application. Since the remaining criteria had also been met, was [properly](http://www.hri.org/news/greek/ana/2004/04-12-08.ana.html#09) accepted into the Eurozone. ESA79 was also the methodology employed to calculate the deficits of all other Eurozone members at the time of their applications. The original accounting practice for military expenses was later restored in line with Eurostat recommendations, theoretically lowering even the ESA95\-calculated 1999 Greek budget deficit to below 3% (an official Eurostat calculation is still pending for 1999\). An error frequently made in press reports is the confusion of the discussion regarding Greece's Eurozone entry with the controversy regarding usage of derivatives’ deals with US banks by Greece and other Eurozone countries to hide their reported budget deficits. A [currency swap](http://georgewashington2.blogspot.com/2011/07/goldman-bet-against-its-european.html) arranged with [Goldman Sachs](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs "Goldman Sachs") allowed Greece to 'hide' 2\.8 billion euros of debt, but that affected deficit values after 2001 (when Greece had already been admitted into the Eurozone) and is not related to Greece's Eurozone entry. ### Implications Several arguments have been expressed about the implications of the audit. Some commentators talked about data falsification. Others held a completely different viewpoint. "Irregularities" (the word falsification never officially used) in deficit reporting were also revealed for other Eurozone members, most notably Italy and Portugal,{{citation needed\|date\=March 2012}} with significant revisions imposed. Also, there were arguments about massive "[creative accounting](/wiki/Creative_accounting "Creative accounting")" employed by many states in order to meet the deficit criterion for entry into the Eurozone. Even the practice of one\-off measures by so many states has been criticised since in several cases their deficits rose back over 3% soon after the reference year, however larger economies such as Germany and France seem to defy the rules for years. Last but not least, changes in accounting method often seriously affected the deficit numbers (Spain and Portugal had, like Greece, marginally exceeded 3% in their reference year for entry,{{citation needed\|date\=March 2012}} when their deficit was revised according to ESA95\). It was argued that New Democracy government simply miscalculated the consequences of its actions, which brought a strong reaction by Eurostat, stronger than that for other violators.
[ "New government audit\n--------------------", "Instead, the government produced new estimates while it investigated the years 1997 to 2003, and the resulting data was given to Eurostat, which then went on and published a report. The requirement that the 1999 budget deficit should have been below 3% of GDP was one of the key criteria for Eurozone entry. Its revision to 3\\.07%, according to Eurostat (AMECO), led to a controversy about Greece's admission.", "In the [2005 OECD report for Greece](https://books.google.com/books?id=Wstn-8rGQZQC) (p. 47\\) it was clearly stated that \"the impact of new accounting rules on the fiscal figures for the years 1997 to 1999 ranged from 0\\.7 to 1 percentage point of GDP; this retroactive change of methodology was responsible for the revised deficit exceeding 3% in 1999, the year of EMU membership qualification\". The above has led the Greek minister of finance to clarify that the 1999 budget deficit was below the prescribed 3% limit when it was calculated with the ESA79 methodology in force at the time of Greece's application. Since the remaining criteria had also been met, was [properly](http://www.hri.org/news/greek/ana/2004/04-12-08.ana.html#09) accepted into the Eurozone. ESA79 was also the methodology employed to calculate the deficits of all other Eurozone members at the time of their applications.", "The original accounting practice for military expenses was later restored in line with Eurostat recommendations, theoretically lowering even the ESA95\\-calculated 1999 Greek budget deficit to below 3% (an official Eurostat calculation is still pending for 1999\\).", "An error frequently made in press reports is the confusion of the discussion regarding Greece's Eurozone entry with the controversy regarding usage of derivatives’ deals with US banks by Greece and other Eurozone countries to hide their reported budget deficits. A [currency swap](http://georgewashington2.blogspot.com/2011/07/goldman-bet-against-its-european.html) arranged with [Goldman Sachs](/wiki/Goldman_Sachs \"Goldman Sachs\") allowed Greece to 'hide' 2\\.8 billion euros of debt, but that affected deficit values after 2001 (when Greece had already been admitted into the Eurozone) and is not related to Greece's Eurozone entry.", "### Implications", "Several arguments have been expressed about the implications of the audit. Some commentators talked about data falsification. Others held a completely different viewpoint. \"Irregularities\" (the word falsification never officially used) in deficit reporting were also revealed for other Eurozone members, most notably Italy and Portugal,{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2012}} with significant revisions imposed. Also, there were arguments about massive \"[creative accounting](/wiki/Creative_accounting \"Creative accounting\")\" employed by many states in order to meet the deficit criterion for entry into the Eurozone.", "Even the practice of one\\-off measures by so many states has been criticised since in several cases their deficits rose back over 3% soon after the reference year, however larger economies such as Germany and France seem to defy the rules for years. Last but not least, changes in accounting method often seriously affected the deficit numbers (Spain and Portugal had, like Greece, marginally exceeded 3% in their reference year for entry,{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2012}} when their deficit was revised according to ESA95\\). It was argued that New Democracy government simply miscalculated the consequences of its actions, which brought a strong reaction by Eurostat, stronger than that for other violators.", "" ]
Design and development ---------------------- [thumb\|The Anzani\-powered Touroplane B first prototype](/wiki/File:Wallace_Touroplane_Aero_Digest_June_1928.jpg "Wallace Touroplane Aero Digest June 1928.jpg") In 1928 Stanley Wallace set up a company to produce a three seat, [high wing](/wiki/High_wing "High wing") [monoplane](/wiki/Monoplane "Monoplane") which he had designed and named the Touroplane. It was powered by an {{cvt\|80\|hp\|kW}} [Anzani](/wiki/Anzani "Anzani") [radial engine](/wiki/Radial_engine "Radial engine") and as many as six of these may have been built. In 1929 Wallace Aircraft Co. marketed a development designated Touroplane B which had a {{cvt\|100\|hp\|kW}} [Kinner K\-5](/wiki/Kinner_K-5 "Kinner K-5") radial. During 1929 Wallace Aircraft became a division of [American Eagle](/wiki/American_Eagle_Aircraft_Corporation "American Eagle Aircraft Corporation"), who called the type B the 330 Touroplane. The wing of the Touroplane was of blunted rectangular plan, built on twin [spruce](/wiki/Spruce "Spruce") [spars](/wiki/Spar_%28aeronautics%29 "Spar (aeronautics)") and [fabric\-covered](/wiki/Aircraft_fabric_covering "Aircraft fabric covering"). Its [ailerons](/wiki/Ailerons "Ailerons"), which reached over half the span from the wingtips, had tube metal structures. The wings were mounted on the upper fuselage structure over the cabin and braced to the lower fuselage [longerons](/wiki/Longeron "Longeron") by pairs of struts which converged slightly from the lower fuselage [longerons](/wiki/Longeron "Longeron") to the spars. The wings could be folded, a task that took only a few minutes and reduced the width to {{cvt\|12\|ft\|4\|in\|m}}. The Touroplane's Kinner engine was mounted with cylinders exposed for cooling. The fuselage was a welded, flat\-sided, steel tube structure and was fabric\-covered. The cabin placed pilot and co\-pilot (or student or passenger) side by side under the [leading edge](/wiki/Leading_edge "Leading edge") of the wing, with a windscreen reaching forwards of it and with side windows. Dual controls were fitted. A third seat was placed centrally behind them, with its own windows. Access was via windowed doors under mid\-[chord](/wiki/Chord_%28aeronautics%29 "Chord (aeronautics)"), between the wing struts. The tube steel tail was conventional with a flight\-adjustable [tailplane](/wiki/Tailplane "Tailplane") mounted on top of the fuselage carrying rounded [elevators](/wiki/Elevator_%28aeronautics%29 "Elevator (aeronautics)"). Its [fin](/wiki/Fin_%28aeronautics%29 "Fin (aeronautics)") was straight\-edged, with a rounded tip and was braced to the tailplane. The [unbalanced rudder](/wiki/Balanced_rudder "Balanced rudder") was full and rounded. The Touroplane had a fixed, conventional [undercarriage](/wiki/Landing_gear "Landing gear") with a track of {{cvt\|6\|ft\|6\|in\|m}}. Its mainwheels, fitted with brakes, were on split axles from the central fuselage underside. [Oleo strut](/wiki/Oleo_strut "Oleo strut") legs and drag struts were mounted on the lower longerons. It had a long, sprung, tailskid. The original Touroplane first flew in 1928 though the date is not known. The prototype type B gained its ATC in 1929, then still Anzani\-powered. Later, it was fitted with a {{cvt\|165\|hp\|kW}} [Wright J\-5](/wiki/Wright_J-5 "Wright J-5") radial. After the prototype 13 were produced. Some were flown with other engines: two had [Curtiss OX\-5s](/wiki/Curtiss_OX-5 "Curtiss OX-5") and one a seven cylinder {{cvt\|150\|hp\|kW}} [MacClatchie Panther](/wiki/MacClatchie_Panther "MacClatchie Panther") radial. The latter was designated type **C\-31**.
[ "Design and development\n----------------------", "[thumb\\|The Anzani\\-powered Touroplane B first prototype](/wiki/File:Wallace_Touroplane_Aero_Digest_June_1928.jpg \"Wallace Touroplane Aero Digest June 1928.jpg\")", "In 1928 Stanley Wallace set up a company to produce a three seat, [high wing](/wiki/High_wing \"High wing\") [monoplane](/wiki/Monoplane \"Monoplane\") which he had designed and named the Touroplane. It was powered by an {{cvt\\|80\\|hp\\|kW}} [Anzani](/wiki/Anzani \"Anzani\") [radial engine](/wiki/Radial_engine \"Radial engine\") and as many as six of these may have been built. In 1929 Wallace Aircraft Co. marketed a development designated Touroplane B which had a {{cvt\\|100\\|hp\\|kW}} [Kinner K\\-5](/wiki/Kinner_K-5 \"Kinner K-5\") radial. During 1929 Wallace Aircraft became a division of [American Eagle](/wiki/American_Eagle_Aircraft_Corporation \"American Eagle Aircraft Corporation\"), who called the type B the 330 Touroplane.", "The wing of the Touroplane was of blunted rectangular plan, built on twin [spruce](/wiki/Spruce \"Spruce\") [spars](/wiki/Spar_%28aeronautics%29 \"Spar (aeronautics)\") and [fabric\\-covered](/wiki/Aircraft_fabric_covering \"Aircraft fabric covering\"). Its [ailerons](/wiki/Ailerons \"Ailerons\"), which reached over half the span from the wingtips, had tube metal structures. The wings were mounted on the upper fuselage structure over the cabin and braced to the lower fuselage [longerons](/wiki/Longeron \"Longeron\") by pairs of struts which converged slightly from the lower fuselage [longerons](/wiki/Longeron \"Longeron\") to the spars. The wings could be folded, a task that took only a few minutes and reduced the width to {{cvt\\|12\\|ft\\|4\\|in\\|m}}.", "The Touroplane's Kinner engine was mounted with cylinders exposed for cooling. The fuselage was a welded, flat\\-sided, steel tube structure and was fabric\\-covered. The cabin placed pilot and co\\-pilot (or student or passenger) side by side under the [leading edge](/wiki/Leading_edge \"Leading edge\") of the wing, with a windscreen reaching forwards of it and with side windows. Dual controls were fitted. A third seat was placed centrally behind them, with its own windows. Access was via windowed doors under mid\\-[chord](/wiki/Chord_%28aeronautics%29 \"Chord (aeronautics)\"), between the wing struts.", "The tube steel tail was conventional with a flight\\-adjustable [tailplane](/wiki/Tailplane \"Tailplane\") mounted on top of the fuselage carrying rounded [elevators](/wiki/Elevator_%28aeronautics%29 \"Elevator (aeronautics)\"). Its [fin](/wiki/Fin_%28aeronautics%29 \"Fin (aeronautics)\") was straight\\-edged, with a rounded tip and was braced to the tailplane. The [unbalanced rudder](/wiki/Balanced_rudder \"Balanced rudder\") was full and rounded.", "The Touroplane had a fixed, conventional [undercarriage](/wiki/Landing_gear \"Landing gear\") with a track of {{cvt\\|6\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|m}}. Its mainwheels, fitted with brakes, were on split axles from the central fuselage underside. [Oleo strut](/wiki/Oleo_strut \"Oleo strut\") legs and drag struts were mounted on the lower longerons. It had a long, sprung, tailskid.", "The original Touroplane first flew in 1928 though the date is not known. The prototype type B gained its ATC in 1929, then still Anzani\\-powered. Later, it was fitted with a {{cvt\\|165\\|hp\\|kW}} [Wright J\\-5](/wiki/Wright_J-5 \"Wright J-5\") radial. After the prototype 13 were produced. Some were flown with other engines: two had [Curtiss OX\\-5s](/wiki/Curtiss_OX-5 \"Curtiss OX-5\") and one a seven cylinder {{cvt\\|150\\|hp\\|kW}} [MacClatchie Panther](/wiki/MacClatchie_Panther \"MacClatchie Panther\") radial. The latter was designated type **C\\-31**.", "" ]
History of the Order of Saint John ---------------------------------- {{Main\|Knights Hospitaller}} {{More citations needed section\|date\=June 2021}} ### Founding [thumb\|[Blessed Gerard](/wiki/Blessed_Gerard "Blessed Gerard"), founder of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem. Copper engraving by [Laurent Cars](/wiki/Laurent_Cars "Laurent Cars"), about 1725\.](/wiki/File:Gravure_de_Fra_Gerard_fondateur_des_Hospitaliers_de_Saint-Jean.jpg "Gravure de Fra Gerard fondateur des Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean.jpg") [thumb\|Portrait of an unknown Knight of Malta, by [Titian](/wiki/Titian "Titian"), c. 1508, [Uffizi](/wiki/Uffizi "Uffizi")](/wiki/File:Tiziano%2C_cavaliere_di_malta.jpg "Tiziano, cavaliere di malta.jpg") The birth of the [Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller "Knights Hospitaller") dates back to around 1048\. Merchants from the ancient [Marine Republic of Amalfi](/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi "Duchy of Amalfi") obtained from the Caliph of Egypt the authorisation to build a church, convent, and hospital in Jerusalem, to care for pilgrims of any religious faith or race. The Order of St. John of Jerusalem – the monastic community that ran the hospital for the pilgrims in the Holy Land – became independent under the guidance of its founder, the religious brother [Gerard](/wiki/Blessed_Gerard "Blessed Gerard"). With the [Papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull "Papal bull") *[Pie postulatio voluntatis](/wiki/Pie_postulatio_voluntatis "Pie postulatio voluntatis")* dated 15 February 1113, [Pope Paschal II](/wiki/Pope_Paschal_II "Pope Paschal II") approved the foundation of the Hospital and placed it under the aegis of the Holy See, granting it the right to freely elect its superiors without interference from other secular or religious authorities. By virtue of the Papal Bull, the hospital became an order exempt from the control of the local church. All the Knights were religious, bound by the three monastic vows of [poverty, chastity and obedience](/wiki/Evangelical_counsels "Evangelical counsels"). The constitution of the Christian [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem") during the [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades") obliged the order to take on the military defence of the sick, the pilgrims, and the captured territories. The order thus added the task of defending the faith to that of its hospitaller mission. As time went on, the order adopted the white, eight\-pointed Cross that is still its symbol today. The eight points represent the eight beatitudes that Jesus pronounced in his [Sermon on the Mount](/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount "Sermon on the Mount"). ### Cyprus When the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land fell after the [Siege of Acre](/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_%281291%29 "Siege of Acre (1291)") in 1291, the order settled first in [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus"). ### Rhodes {{Main\|History of Rhodes under the Order of Saint John}} In 1310, led by Grand Master Fra' [Foulques de Villaret](/wiki/Foulques_de_Villaret "Foulques de Villaret"), the knights regrouped on the island of [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes "Rhodes"). From there, the defense of the Christian world required the organization of a naval force, so the Order built a powerful fleet and sailed the [eastern Mediterranean](/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean "Eastern Mediterranean"), fighting battles for the sake of [Christendom](/wiki/Christendom "Christendom"), including [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades") in [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") and [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"). In the early 14th century, the institutions of the Order and the [knights](/wiki/Knight "Knight") who came to [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes "Rhodes") from every corner of [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") were grouped according to the languages they spoke. The first seven such groups, or [*Langues* (Tongues)](/wiki/Langue_%28Knights_Hospitaller%29 "Langue (Knights Hospitaller)") – from [Provence](/wiki/Provence "Provence"), [Auvergne](/wiki/Auvergne "Auvergne"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), [Aragon](/wiki/Aragon "Aragon") ([Navarre](/wiki/Navarre "Navarre")), [England](/wiki/England "England") (with [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and Ireland), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") – became eight in 1492, when [Castile](/wiki/Castile_%28historical_region%29 "Castile (historical region)") and [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") were separated from the *Langue* of Aragon. Each *Langue* included [Priories](/wiki/Priories "Priories") or Grand Priories, [Bailiwicks](/wiki/Bailiwick "Bailiwick"), and [Commanderies](/wiki/Commandry_%28feudalism%29 "Commandry (feudalism)"). The Order was governed by its Grand Master, the Prince of Rhodes, and its Council. From its beginning, independence from other nations granted by pontifical charter and the universally recognised right to maintain and deploy armed forces constituted grounds for the international sovereignty of the Order, which minted its own coins and maintained diplomatic relations with other states. The senior positions of the Order were given to representatives of different *Langues*. In 1523, after six months of siege and fierce combat against the fleet and army of Sultan [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent "Suleiman the Magnificent"), the walls collapsed from undermining explosives, and by a negotiated surrender the Knights left Rhodes carrying their arms. ### Malta {{Main\|History of Malta under the Order of Saint John}} [thumb\|The [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto") (1571\), unknown artist, late 16th century](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg "Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg") The Order remained without a territory of its own until 1530, when Grand Master Fra' [Philippe de Villiers de l'Isle Adam](/wiki/Philippe_Villiers_de_L%27Isle-Adam "Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam") took possession of the island of [Malta](/wiki/Malta "Malta"), granted to the order by Emperor [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor") and his mother Queen [Joanna of Castile](/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile "Joanna of Castile") as monarchs of Sicily, with the approval of [Pope Clement VII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII "Pope Clement VII"), for which the order had to honour the conditions of the [Tribute of the Maltese Falcon](/wiki/Tribute_of_the_Maltese_Falcon "Tribute of the Maltese Falcon").{{Cite journal \|last\=Eiland \|first\=Murray \|date\=2013 \|title\=A Snapshot of Malta \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/8013398 \|journal\=The Armiger's News \|volume\=35 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=2–11 \|via\=academia.edu}} In 1565, the Knights, led by Grand Master Fra' [Jean de Valette](/wiki/Jean_de_Valette "Jean de Valette") (after whom the capital of Malta, [Valletta](/wiki/Valletta "Valletta"), was named), defended the island for more than three months during the [Great Siege](/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta "Great Siege of Malta") by the [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). The fleet of the Order contributed to the ultimate destruction of the Ottoman naval power in the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto") in 1571, led by [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria "John of Austria"), half brother of King [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain "Philip II of Spain"). The [Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation "Protestant Reformation"), which split Western Europe into [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") and [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic "Catholic") states, affected the knights as well. In several countries, including England, Scotland, and Sweden, the order dissolved. In others, including the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") and Germany, entire bailiwicks or commanderies (administrative divisions of the order) experienced Protestant conversions; these "[Johanniter orders](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_John_%28Bailiwick_of_Brandenburg%29 "Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg)")" survive in Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden and many other countries, including the United States and South Africa. It was established that the order should remain neutral in any war between Christian nations.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2017}} From 1651 to 1665, the Order [ruled four islands in the Caribbean](/wiki/Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas "Hospitaller colonization of the Americas"). On 21 May 1651 it acquired the islands of [Saint Barthélemy](/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy "Saint Barthélemy"), [Saint Christopher](/wiki/Saint_Kitts "Saint Kitts"), [Saint Croix](/wiki/Saint_Croix%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands "Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands") and [Saint Martin](/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin "Collectivity of Saint Martin"). These were purchased from the French [Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique](/wiki/Compagnie_des_%C3%8Eles_de_l%27Am%C3%A9rique "Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique") which had just been dissolved. In 1665, the four islands were sold to the [French West India Company](/wiki/French_West_India_Company "French West India Company"). [thumb\|[Emperor Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia") of [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") wearing the Crown of the Grand Master of the [Order of Malta](/wiki/Order_of_Malta "Order of Malta") (1799\).](/wiki/File:Emperor_Paul_in_the_Crown_of_the_Grand_Master_of_the_Order_of_Malta.jpeg "Emperor Paul in the Crown of the Grand Master of the Order of Malta.jpeg") In 1798, [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") led the [French occupation of Malta](/wiki/French_occupation_of_Malta "French occupation of Malta"). Napoleon demanded from [Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Princes_and_Grand_Masters_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta "List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta") [Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim](/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Hompesch_zu_Bolheim "Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim") that his ships be allowed to enter the port and to take on water and supplies. The Grand Master replied that only two foreign ships could be allowed to enter the port at a time. Bonaparte, aware that such a procedure would take a long time and leave his forces vulnerable to British Admiral [Horatio Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson"), immediately ordered a cannon fusillade against Malta.{{cite book \|last\=Cole \|first\=Juan \|author\-link\= \|date\=2007 \|title\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \|url\= \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|pages\=8–9 \|isbn\=978\-1403964311}} The French soldiers disembarked in Malta at seven points on the morning of 11 June and attacked. After several hours of fierce fighting, the Maltese in the west were forced to surrender.{{cite book \|last\=Cole \|first\=Juan \|author\-link\= \|date\=2007 \|title\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \|url\= \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|page\=9 \|isbn\=978\-1403964311}} Napoleon opened negotiations with the fortress capital of Valletta. Faced with vastly superior French forces and the loss of western Malta, the Grand Master negotiated a surrender to the invasion.{{cite book \|last\=Cole \|first\=Juan \|author\-link\= \|date\=2007 \|title\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \|url\= \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|page\=10 \|isbn\=978\-1403964311}} Hompesch left Malta for Trieste on 18 June.[Whitworth Porter](/wiki/Whitworth_Porter "Whitworth Porter"), *A History of the Knights of Malta* (London: Longman, Brown, Green, 1858\). p. 457\. He resigned as Grand Master on 6 July 1799\. The knights were dispersed, though the Order continued to exist in a diminished form and negotiated with European governments for a return to power as part of the agreement between France and Holy Roman Empire during the [German mediatisation](/wiki/German_mediatisation "German mediatisation"). The Russian Emperor, [Paul I](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia"), gave the largest number of knights shelter in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"), an action that gave rise to the [Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Russian_tradition_of_the_Knights_Hospitaller "Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller") and the Order's recognition among the Russian Imperial Orders.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.focusmm.com/malta/ma\_hist3\.htm \|title\=Focus on Malta – History \|publisher\=Focusmm.com \|access\-date\=12 October 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304043839/http://www.focusmm.com/malta/ma\_hist3\.htm \|archive\-date\=4 March 2012 \|url\-status\=live}} The refugee knights in Saint Petersburg proceeded to elect Tsar Paul as their Grand Master – a rival to Grand Master von Hompesch until the latter's abdication left Paul as the sole Grand Master. Grand Master Paul I created, in addition to the Catholic Grand Priory, a "Russian Grand Priory" of no fewer than 118 Commanderies, dwarfing the rest of the Order and open to all Christians. Paul's election as Grand Master was, however, never ratified under Catholic canon law, and he was the *de facto* rather than *[de jure](/wiki/De_jure "De jure")* Grand Master of the Order. By the early 19th century, the Order was severely weakened by the loss of its priories throughout Europe. Only 10% of the order's income came from traditional sources in Europe, with the remaining 90% being generated by the Russian Grand Priory until 1810\. This was partly reflected in the government of the Order being under Lieutenants, rather than Grand Masters, in the period 1805 to 1879, when [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII "Pope Leo XIII") restored a Grand Master to the order. This signaled the renewal of the Order's fortunes as a humanitarian and religious organization. On 19 September 1806, the Swedish government offered the sovereignty of the island of [Gotland](/wiki/Gotland "Gotland") to the Order. The offer was rejected since it would have meant the Order renouncing their claim to Malta.{{cite web \|last1\=Sainty\|first1\=Guy Stair \|title\=From the Loss of Malta to the Modern Era \|url\=http://www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/maltmod.htm \|website\=ChivalricOrders.org \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306192355/http://www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/maltmod.htm \|archive\-date\=6 March 2012 \|year\=2000}} ### Exile The French forces occupying Malta expelled the [Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller "Knights Hospitaller") from the country.{{cite book\| url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=SghCAAAAcAAJ\&pg\=PA32 \|page\=32\| title\= Pièces diverses relatives aux operations militaires et pol. du gén. Bonaparte \|publisher\=De l'imprimerie de P. Didot l'aîné\| location\= Paris\| year\= 1800 \|language\=fr \|access\-date\= 2 November 2017 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20141110054721/http://books.google.com.mt/books?id\=SghCAAAAcAAJ\&pg\=PA32 \|archive\-date\=10 November 2014 \|url\-status\=live }} During the seventeen years that separated the seizure of Malta and the General Peace, "the formality of electing a brother Chief to discharge the office of [Grand Master](/wiki/Grand_Master_%28Masonic%29 "Grand Master (Masonic)"), and thus to preserve the vitality of the Sovereign Institute, was duty attended to".{{cite book \|author\=Sir Richard Broun, K.T. \|author2\=Bart, G.C.J.J. \|location\=london \|year\=1857 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/BrownSirRSynopticalSketchOfTheOrderOfKnightsHospitallers1857/page/n27/mode/2up \|title\=Synoptical Sketch of the Illustrious \& Sovereign Order of Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem and of the Venerable Langue of England \| page \= 21 \| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20200911080504/https://archive.org/stream/BrownSirRSynopticalSketchOfTheOrderOfKnightsHospitallers1857/Brown%20Sir%20R%20\-%20Synoptical%20Sketch%20of%20the%20Order%20of%20Knights%20Hospitallers%201857\_djvu.txt \|archive\-date \= 11 September 2020 \| url\-status \= live}} The office of Lieutenant of the Magistery and *ad interim* of Grand Master was held by the [Grand Baillies Field Marshal Counto Soltikoff](/wiki/Nikolay_Saltykov "Nikolay Saltykov"), [Giovanni Tommasi](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Tommasi "Giovanni Battista Tommasi"), [De Gaevera](/wiki/Innico_Maria_Guevara-Suardo "Innico Maria Guevara-Suardo"), [Giovanni y Centelles](/wiki/Andrea_Di_Giovanni_y_Centell%C3%A9s "Andrea Di Giovanni y Centellés"), [De Candida](/wiki/Carlo_Candida "Carlo Candida") and the [Count Colloredo](/wiki/Filippo_di_Colloredo-Mels "Filippo di Colloredo-Mels"). Their mandates complexively covered the period until the death of the Emperor Paul in 1801\.{{cite journal \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/nq/article\-abstract/s3\-III/66/270/4472530?redirectedFrom\=fulltext \| doi \= 10\.1093/nq/s3\-III.66\.270d \|title\=The Order of St. John of Jerusalem \|journal\=\[\[Notes and Queries]] \|volume\=s3\-III \|issue\=66 \|date \= 4 April 1863 \| pages \= 270–273 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200911071714/https://academic.oup.com/nq/article\-abstract/s3\-III/66/270/4472530?redirectedFrom\=fulltext \|archive\-date\=11 September 2020 \|url\-status \= live}} The paper cited the *Synoptical Sketch* as the best source available for the subject matter. The text was identically repeated in [*The Freemasons' Monthly Magazine*](https://archive.today/20200911080417/https://masonicperiodicals.org/periodicals/mmr/issues/mmr_18041863/page/3/articles/ar00301/), 18 April 1863, p. 3\. The [Treaty of Amiens](/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens "Treaty of Amiens") (1802\) obliged the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland") to evacuate [Malta](/wiki/Malta "Malta"), which was to be restored to a recreated [Order of St. John](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller "Knights Hospitaller"), whose sovereignty was to be guaranteed by all of the major European powers, to be determined at the final peace. However, this did not happen because of objections to the treaty that quickly grew in the United Kingdom. [Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon")'s rejection of a British offer involving a ten\-year lease of Malta prompted the reactivation of the British blockade of the French coast; Britain declared war on France on 18 May.Pocock, Tom (2005\). *The Terror Before Trafalgar: Nelson, Napoleon, And The Secret War*. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-59114\-681\-0}}. OCLC 56419314\.p. 78 The 1802 treaty was never implemented. The United Kingdom resumed hostilities citing France's imperialist policies in the [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies "West Indies"), Italy, and Switzerland.Illustrated History of Europe: A Unique Guide to Europe's Common Heritage (1992\) p. 282 ### Sovereign Military Order of Malta [thumb\|[Palazzo Malta](/wiki/Palazzo_Malta "Palazzo Malta"), Rome, Italy](/wiki/File:Palazzo_di_Malta_%28Roma%29.jpg "Palazzo di Malta (Roma).jpg") The [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna") of 1815 confirmed the loss of Malta. After having temporarily resided in Messina, Catania and [Ferrara](/wiki/Ferrara "Ferrara"), the seat of the order was moved to Ferrara in 1826 and to Rome in 1834\. The [Magistral Palace](/wiki/Palazzo_Malta "Palazzo Malta") in Via Condotti 68 and the [Magistral Villa](/wiki/Villa_del_Priorato_di_Malta "Villa del Priorato di Malta") on the [Aventine Hill](/wiki/Aventine_Hill "Aventine Hill") enjoy [extraterritorial](/wiki/Extraterritoriality "Extraterritoriality") status. The grand priories of Lombardy\-Venetia and of Sicily were restored from 1839 to 1841\. The office of Grand Master was restored by Pope Leo XIII in 1879, after a vacancy of 75 years, confirming [Giovanni Battista Ceschi a Santa Croce](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Ceschi_a_Santa_Croce "Giovanni Battista Ceschi a Santa Croce") as the first Grand Master of the restored Order of Malta. However, the loss of possession of Malta during this period did not affect the right of active and passive [legation](/wiki/Legation "Legation") for the Order, which is legally important for the absolute continuity of international status, regardless of the former territorial possession.{{cite journal \| last\=Karski \| first\=Karol \| title\=The International Legal Status of the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta \| journal\=International Community Law Review \| publisher\=Brill \| volume\=14 \| issue\=1 \| year\=2012 \| issn\=1871\-9740 \| doi\=10\.1163/187197312x617674 \| pages\=19–32 \| url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270721729 \| quote\=The Order does not exercise territorial sovereignty over any territory, including its headquarters in Rome and Fort San Angelo, leased from Malta. Both are regarded only as exterritorial property.}} The original hospitaller mission became the main activity of the order, growing ever stronger during the 20th century, most especially because of the contribution of the activities carried out by the Grand Priories and National Associations in many countries around the world. Large\-scale hospitaller and charitable activities were carried out during World Wars I and II under Grand Master Fra' [Ludovico Chigi Albani della Rovere](/wiki/Ludovico_Chigi_Albani_della_Rovere "Ludovico Chigi Albani della Rovere") (1931–1951\). Under the Grand Masters Fra' [Angelo de Mojana di Cologna](/wiki/Angelo_de_Mojana_di_Cologna "Angelo de Mojana di Cologna") (1962–88\) and Fra' [Andrew Bertie](/wiki/Andrew_Bertie "Andrew Bertie") (1988–2008\), the projects expanded. In February 2013, the Order celebrated the 900th anniversary of its papal recognition with a general audience with [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI "Pope Benedict XVI") and a Mass celebrated by Cardinal [Tarcisio Bertone](/wiki/Tarcisio_Bertone "Tarcisio Bertone") in [Saint Peter's Basilica](/wiki/Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica "Saint Peter's Basilica").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-21388516 \|title\=Knights of Malta Catholic order celebrates 900 years \|date\=9 February 2013 \|work\=BBC News\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209072857/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-21388516 \|archive\-date\=9 February 2013\|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=10 February 2013}} ### Constitutional reform The Order experienced a leadership crisis beginning in December 2016, when [Albrecht Freiherr von Boeselager](/wiki/Albrecht_von_Boeselager "Albrecht von Boeselager") protested his removal as Grand Chancellor by Grand Master Fra' [Matthew Festing](/wiki/Matthew_Festing "Matthew Festing"). Von Boeselager was removed after [condoms](/wiki/Condoms "Condoms") were found to have been distributed by other aid groups in [Myanmar](/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar") as part of a joint charitable project with the order’s Malteser International to help sex slaves protect themselves from AIDS.{{cite web\|url\=https://apnews.com/general\-news\-feaacad67f7f42ef871b5acd6848564f\|title\=Pope probes Order of Malta ouster over old condom scandal\|first\=Nicole\|last\=Winfield\|date\= 22 December 2016\|website\=The Associated Press\|access\-date\=30 August 2024}} In January 2017, [Pope Francis](/wiki/Pope_Francis "Pope Francis") ordered von Boeselager reinstated and required Festing's resignation.{{cite news\|work\=La Stampa\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|date\=26 January 2017\|url\=http://www.lastampa.it/2017/01/26/vaticaninsider/eng/the\-vatican/the\-order\-of\-maltas\-crisis\-z3YT6XiFgkgdTytPA4StJP/pagina.html\|title\=The Order of Malta's crisis\|first\=Andrea\|last\=Tornielli\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126170233/http://www.lastampa.it/2017/01/26/vaticaninsider/eng/the\-vatican/the\-order\-of\-maltas\-crisis\-z3YT6XiFgkgdTytPA4StJP/pagina.html\|archive\-date\=26 January 2017\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|access\-date\=24 January 2017\|date\=24 January 2017\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/25/vatican\-condom\-row\-pope\-prevails\-as\-knights\-of\-malta\-chief\-resigns\|work\=The Guardian\|title\=Vatican condom row: pope prevails as Knights of Malta chief resigns\|agency\=Reuters in Vatican City\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125033200/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/25/vatican\-condom\-row\-pope\-prevails\-as\-knights\-of\-malta\-chief\-resigns\|archive\-date\=25 January 2017\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=28 January 2017\|date\=29 January 2017\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/pope\-knights\-feud\-inisight\-idUSKBN15D0X0\|title\=The Knights of Malta\-Vatican feud: a tale of chivalry and sovereignty\|first\=Philip\|last\=Pullella\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129195242/http://www.reuters.com/article/pope\-knights\-feud\-inisight\-idUSKBN15D0X0\|archive\-date\=29 January 2017\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|access\-date\=24 January 2017\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-pope\-knights\-idUSKBN159001\|date\=24 January 2017\|work\=Reuters\|title\=Pope intervenes in Knights of Malta after head resigns under pressure\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125005224/http://www.reuters.com/article/us\-pope\-knights\-idUSKBN159001\|archive\-date\=25 January 2017\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|work\=National Catholic Register\|url\=http://www.ncregister.com/blog/edward\-pentin/pope\-francis\-declares\-all\-of\-fra\-festings\-recent\-acts\-null\-and\-void\|date\=26 January 2017\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|title\=Pope Francis Declares All of Festing's Recent Acts 'Null and Void'\|first\=Edward\|last\=Pentin\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127015428/http://www.ncregister.com/blog/edward\-pentin/pope\-francis\-declares\-all\-of\-fra\-festings\-recent\-acts\-null\-and\-void\|archive\-date\=27 January 2017\|url\-status\=live}} Francis also named Archbishop (later Cardinal) [Giovanni Becciu](/wiki/Giovanni_Angelo_Becciu "Giovanni Angelo Becciu"){{cite news\|last1\=Allen J.\|first1\=John L.\|title\=A triptych on Benedict's papacy, and hints of what lies beyond\|url\=https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/all\-things\-catholic/triptych\-benedicts\-papacy\-and\-hints\-what\-lies\-beyond\|access\-date\=8 February 2017\|work\=National Catholic Reporter\|date\=13 May 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612015635/https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/all\-things\-catholic/triptych\-benedicts\-papacy\-and\-hints\-what\-lies\-beyond\|archive\-date\=12 June 2017\|url\-status\=live}} Becciu was Substitute for General Affairs of the Secretariat of State, a position akin to that of a papal chief of staff. as his personal representative to the Order – sidelining the Order's Cardinal Patron [Raymond Burke](/wiki/Raymond_Leo_Burke "Raymond Leo Burke") – until the election of a new Grand Master.{{cite web\|url\=http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2017/02/04/0075/00185\.html\|access\-date\=16 May 2018\|date\=2 February 2017\|language\=it\|title\=Lettera Pontificia al Sostituto per gli Affari Generali della Segreteria di Stato per la nomina a Delegato Speciale presso il Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta\|publisher\=Holy See Press Office\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117034703/http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2017/02/04/0075/00185\.html\|archive\-date\=17 January 2018\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|last1\=Lamb\|first1\=Christopher\|title\=Cardinal Burke 'in Office but out of Power' as Job Handed to Papal Delegate\|url\=http://www.thetablet.co.uk/news/6662/0/cardinal\-burke\-in\-office\-but\-out\-of\-power\-as\-job\-handed\-to\-papal\-delegate\-\|access\-date\=30 January 2017\|work\=The Tablet\|date\=30 January 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130121151/http://www.thetablet.co.uk/news/6662/0/cardinal\-burke\-in\-office\-but\-out\-of\-power\-as\-job\-handed\-to\-papal\-delegate\-\|archive\-date\=30 January 2017\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|work\=\[\[America (magazine)\|America Magazine]]\|url\=https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2017/02/03/dust\-order\-malta\-ends\-not\-bang\-reinstatement\|location\=New York\|date\=3 February 2017\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|title\=Dust up with Order of Malta ends not with a bang but a reinstatement\|first\=Gerard\|last\=O'Connell\|quote\=\[Francis] made clear that the delegate would not have any role in the order's governance, out of respect for the order's sovereignty.\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418081035/https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2017/02/03/dust\-order\-malta\-ends\-not\-bang\-reinstatement\|archive\-date\=18 April 2017\|url\-status\=live}} The pope effectively taking control over the Order was seen by some as a break with tradition and the Order's independence.{{cite news \| url \= https://www.economist.com/the\-economist\-explains/2017/02/07/why\-the\-pope\-has\-taken\-control\-of\-the\-knights\-of\-malta \| newspaper \= The Economist \| access\-date \= 8 May 2020 \| date\=7 February 2017 \| title \= Why the pope has taken control of the Knights of Malta }} In May 2017, the Order named Mauro Bertero Gutiérrez, a Bolivian member of the Government Council, to lead its constitutional reform process.{{cite news \|last1\=Arocho Esteves \|first1\=Junno \|title\=Ancient order, modern times: Order of Malta focuses on renewal \|url\=https://www.ncronline.org/news/vatican/ancient\-order\-modern\-times\-order\-malta\-focuses\-renewal \|access\-date\=21 August 2017\|work\=National Catholic Reporter \|agency\=Catholic News Service\|date\=3 August 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821214454/https://www.ncronline.org/news/vatican/ancient\-order\-modern\-times\-order\-malta\-focuses\-renewal \|archive\-date\=21 August 2017 \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=The Constitutional Reform of the Sovereign Order of Malta \|website\=orderofmalta.int \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/06/28/the\-constitutional\-reform\-of\-the\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ \|access\-date\=21 August 2017 \|date\=28 June 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822011944/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/06/28/the\-constitutional\-reform\-of\-the\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/\|archive\-date\=22 August 2017 \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|title\=Working to update the Constitution of the Sovereign Order of Malta \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/11/17/working\-to\-update\-the\-constitution\-of\-the\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|website\=orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=7 June 2018 \|date\=17 November 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612175226/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/11/17/working\-to\-update\-the\-constitution\-of\-the\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ \|archive\-date\=12 June 2018\|url\-status\=live}} In June 2017, in a departure from tradition, the leadership of the Order wore [informal attire](/wiki/Informal_attire "Informal attire") rather than [formal wear](/wiki/Formal_wear "Formal wear") [full dress uniforms](/wiki/Full_dress_uniform "Full dress uniform") to their annual papal audience.{{cite news \|last1\=McElwee \|first1\=Joshua J. \|title\=New Knights of Malta leader genuflects before Francis in Vatican meeting \|url\=https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr\-today/new\-knights\-malta\-leader\-genuflects\-francis\-vatican\-meeting \|access\-date\=21 August 2017 \|work\=National Catholic Reporter\|date\=23 June 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821214159/https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr\-today/new\-knights\-malta\-leader\-genuflects\-francis\-vatican\-meeting \|archive\-date\=21 August 2017 \|url\-status\=live}} In May 2018 when a new Grand Master was elected, Francis extended Becciu's mandate indefinitely.{{cite press release\|access\-date\=4 May 2018 \|title\=Letter of the Holy Father to the Special Delegate at the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (S.M.O.M.), 04\.05\.2018 \|date\=4 May 2018 \|publisher\=Holy See Press Office \|url\=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2018/05/04/180504b.html\|quote\=... up to the conclusion of the reform process and in any case until I consider it useful for the Order itself. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180505070549/https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2018/05/04/180504b.html \|archive\-date\=5 May 2018\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/38335/pope\-francis\-extends\-mandate\-of\-special\-delegate\-to\-knights\-of\-malta \|first\=Hannah \|last\=Brockhaus \|title\=Pope Francis extends mandate of special delegate to Knights of Malta\|access\-date\=4 May 2018\|date\=4 May 2018 \|agency\=Catholic News Agency\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504225534/https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/pope\-francis\-extends\-mandate\-of\-special\-delegate\-to\-knights\-of\-malta\-24261 \|archive\-date\=4 May 2018 \|url\-status\=live}} When the Order's [Chapter General](/wiki/Chapter_General_of_the_Order_of_Malta "Chapter General of the Order of Malta") met in May 2019 three of the 62 participants were women for the first time.{{cite web \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2019/05/02/chapter\-general\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta\-has\-been\-held\-rome/ \|website\=orderofmalta.int \|title\=The Chapter General of the Sovereign Order of Malta has been held in Rome \|date\=2 May 2019 \|access\-date\=20 May 2019 \|archive\-date\=4 May 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504120325/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2019/05/02/chapter\-general\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta\-has\-been\-held\-rome/ \|url\-status\=dead }} On 1 November 2020, Pope Francis named Archbishop (later Cardinal) [Silvano Tomasi](/wiki/Silvano_Tomasi "Silvano Tomasi") to replace Becciu as his Special Delegate to the Order, reiterating the responsibilities of that office as his sole representative.{{cite press release \|publisher\=Holy See Press Office \|access\-date\=1 November 2020 \| date\= 1 November 2020 \|language\=it \|title\= Lettera Pontificia al Cardinale eletto Silvano Maria Tomasi per la nomina a Delegato Speciale presso il Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta, 01\.11\.2020 \|url\=http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2020/11/01/0567/01314\.html }} On 3 September 2022, Pope Francis [promulgated](/wiki/Promulgation_%28Catholic_canon_law%29 "Promulgation (Catholic canon law)") the new constitution of the Order and made provisional appointments to the Sovereign Council; he scheduled a convocation of the Extraordinary General Chapter for 25 January 2023, when regular appointments can be made in place of his provisional ones.{{Cite web \|date\=3 September 2022\|title\=Pope promulgates new Constitution of the Order of Malta \|url\=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2022\-09/pope\-promulgates\-new\-constitution\-order\-malta.html \|access\-date\=4 September 2022 \|website\=Vatican News \|language\=en}}{{cite web \| title \= Decree for the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (S.M.O.M.), 03\.09\.2022 \| url\= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2022/09/03/decree\-for\-the\-sovereign\-military\-hospitaller\-order\-of\-saint\-joh.html \| date \= 3 September 2022 \| access\-date \= 31 January 2023 \| publisher \= Holy See Press Office }} On 26 January, the General Chapter elected to six\-year terms on the Sovereign Council the same four members Francis had appointed the previous September{{cite news \| access\-date \= 31 January 2023 \| language \= it \| url \= https://www.ilmetropolitano.it/2023/01/27/ordine\-di\-malta\-sovrano\-consiglio\-elette\-le\-alte\-4\-cariche/ \| newspaper \= Il Metropolitano \| title \= Ordine di Malta. Sovrano Consiglio, elette le alte 4 cariche \| date \= 27 January 2023 }} and six of the nine Councillors he had named.{{cite web \| access\-date \= 31 January 2023 \| url \= https://www.orderofmalta.int/news/extraordinary\-chapter\-general\-elected\-sovereign\-council/ \| date \= 28 January 2023 \| title \= The Extraordinary Chapter General Elected the Sovereign Council \| website \= Sovereign Order of Malta}} On 19 June 2023, Pope Francis named Cardinal [Gianfranco Ghirlanda](/wiki/Gianfranco_Ghirlanda "Gianfranco Ghirlanda") to succeed Burke as patron.{{cite press release \| publisher \= Holy See Press Office \| date \= June 19, 2023 \| access\-date \= June 19, 2023 \| title \= Rinunce e nomine, 19\.06\.2023\| language \= it\| url \= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2023/06/19/0453/01013\.html }}
[ "History of the Order of Saint John\n----------------------------------", "{{Main\\|Knights Hospitaller}}\n{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "### Founding", "[thumb\\|[Blessed Gerard](/wiki/Blessed_Gerard \"Blessed Gerard\"), founder of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem. Copper engraving by [Laurent Cars](/wiki/Laurent_Cars \"Laurent Cars\"), about 1725\\.](/wiki/File:Gravure_de_Fra_Gerard_fondateur_des_Hospitaliers_de_Saint-Jean.jpg \"Gravure de Fra Gerard fondateur des Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Portrait of an unknown Knight of Malta, by [Titian](/wiki/Titian \"Titian\"), c. 1508, [Uffizi](/wiki/Uffizi \"Uffizi\")](/wiki/File:Tiziano%2C_cavaliere_di_malta.jpg \"Tiziano, cavaliere di malta.jpg\")", "The birth of the [Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller \"Knights Hospitaller\") dates back to around 1048\\. Merchants from the ancient [Marine Republic of Amalfi](/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi \"Duchy of Amalfi\") obtained from the Caliph of Egypt the authorisation to build a church, convent, and hospital in Jerusalem, to care for pilgrims of any religious faith or race. The Order of St. John of Jerusalem – the monastic community that ran the hospital for the pilgrims in the Holy Land – became independent under the guidance of its founder, the religious brother [Gerard](/wiki/Blessed_Gerard \"Blessed Gerard\").", "With the [Papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull \"Papal bull\") *[Pie postulatio voluntatis](/wiki/Pie_postulatio_voluntatis \"Pie postulatio voluntatis\")* dated 15 February 1113, [Pope Paschal II](/wiki/Pope_Paschal_II \"Pope Paschal II\") approved the foundation of the Hospital and placed it under the aegis of the Holy See, granting it the right to freely elect its superiors without interference from other secular or religious authorities. By virtue of the Papal Bull, the hospital became an order exempt from the control of the local church. All the Knights were religious, bound by the three monastic vows of [poverty, chastity and obedience](/wiki/Evangelical_counsels \"Evangelical counsels\").", "The constitution of the Christian [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\") during the [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\") obliged the order to take on the military defence of the sick, the pilgrims, and the captured territories. The order thus added the task of defending the faith to that of its hospitaller mission.", "As time went on, the order adopted the white, eight\\-pointed Cross that is still its symbol today. The eight points represent the eight beatitudes that Jesus pronounced in his [Sermon on the Mount](/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount \"Sermon on the Mount\").", "### Cyprus", "When the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land fell after the [Siege of Acre](/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_%281291%29 \"Siege of Acre (1291)\") in 1291, the order settled first in [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\").", "### Rhodes", "{{Main\\|History of Rhodes under the Order of Saint John}}\nIn 1310, led by Grand Master Fra' [Foulques de Villaret](/wiki/Foulques_de_Villaret \"Foulques de Villaret\"), the knights regrouped on the island of [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes \"Rhodes\"). From there, the defense of the Christian world required the organization of a naval force, so the Order built a powerful fleet and sailed the [eastern Mediterranean](/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean \"Eastern Mediterranean\"), fighting battles for the sake of [Christendom](/wiki/Christendom \"Christendom\"), including [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\") in [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") and [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\").", "In the early 14th century, the institutions of the Order and the [knights](/wiki/Knight \"Knight\") who came to [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes \"Rhodes\") from every corner of [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") were grouped according to the languages they spoke. The first seven such groups, or [*Langues* (Tongues)](/wiki/Langue_%28Knights_Hospitaller%29 \"Langue (Knights Hospitaller)\") – from [Provence](/wiki/Provence \"Provence\"), [Auvergne](/wiki/Auvergne \"Auvergne\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), [Aragon](/wiki/Aragon \"Aragon\") ([Navarre](/wiki/Navarre \"Navarre\")), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") (with [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") and Ireland), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") – became eight in 1492, when [Castile](/wiki/Castile_%28historical_region%29 \"Castile (historical region)\") and [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") were separated from the *Langue* of Aragon. Each *Langue* included [Priories](/wiki/Priories \"Priories\") or Grand Priories, [Bailiwicks](/wiki/Bailiwick \"Bailiwick\"), and [Commanderies](/wiki/Commandry_%28feudalism%29 \"Commandry (feudalism)\").", "The Order was governed by its Grand Master, the Prince of Rhodes, and its Council. From its beginning, independence from other nations granted by pontifical charter and the universally recognised right to maintain and deploy armed forces constituted grounds for the international sovereignty of the Order, which minted its own coins and maintained diplomatic relations with other states. The senior positions of the Order were given to representatives of different *Langues*.", "In 1523, after six months of siege and fierce combat against the fleet and army of Sultan [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent \"Suleiman the Magnificent\"), the walls collapsed from undermining explosives, and by a negotiated surrender the Knights left Rhodes carrying their arms.", "### Malta", "{{Main\\|History of Malta under the Order of Saint John}}", "[thumb\\|The [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\") (1571\\), unknown artist, late 16th century](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg \"Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg\")", "The Order remained without a territory of its own until 1530, when Grand Master Fra' [Philippe de Villiers de l'Isle Adam](/wiki/Philippe_Villiers_de_L%27Isle-Adam \"Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam\") took possession of the island of [Malta](/wiki/Malta \"Malta\"), granted to the order by Emperor [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\") and his mother Queen [Joanna of Castile](/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile \"Joanna of Castile\") as monarchs of Sicily, with the approval of [Pope Clement VII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII \"Pope Clement VII\"), for which the order had to honour the conditions of the [Tribute of the Maltese Falcon](/wiki/Tribute_of_the_Maltese_Falcon \"Tribute of the Maltese Falcon\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Eiland \\|first\\=Murray \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=A Snapshot of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/8013398 \\|journal\\=The Armiger's News \\|volume\\=35 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=2–11 \\|via\\=academia.edu}}", "In 1565, the Knights, led by Grand Master Fra' [Jean de Valette](/wiki/Jean_de_Valette \"Jean de Valette\") (after whom the capital of Malta, [Valletta](/wiki/Valletta \"Valletta\"), was named), defended the island for more than three months during the [Great Siege](/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta \"Great Siege of Malta\") by the [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\").", "The fleet of the Order contributed to the ultimate destruction of the Ottoman naval power in the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\") in 1571, led by [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria \"John of Austria\"), half brother of King [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\").", "The [Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\"), which split Western Europe into [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") and [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic \"Catholic\") states, affected the knights as well. In several countries, including England, Scotland, and Sweden, the order dissolved. In others, including the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") and Germany, entire bailiwicks or commanderies (administrative divisions of the order) experienced Protestant conversions; these \"[Johanniter orders](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_John_%28Bailiwick_of_Brandenburg%29 \"Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg)\")\" survive in Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden and many other countries, including the United States and South Africa. It was established that the order should remain neutral in any war between Christian nations.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2017}}", "From 1651 to 1665, the Order [ruled four islands in the Caribbean](/wiki/Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas \"Hospitaller colonization of the Americas\"). On 21 May 1651 it acquired the islands of [Saint Barthélemy](/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy \"Saint Barthélemy\"), [Saint Christopher](/wiki/Saint_Kitts \"Saint Kitts\"), [Saint Croix](/wiki/Saint_Croix%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands \"Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands\") and [Saint Martin](/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin \"Collectivity of Saint Martin\"). These were purchased from the French [Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique](/wiki/Compagnie_des_%C3%8Eles_de_l%27Am%C3%A9rique \"Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique\") which had just been dissolved. In 1665, the four islands were sold to the [French West India Company](/wiki/French_West_India_Company \"French West India Company\").", "[thumb\\|[Emperor Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\") of [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") wearing the Crown of the Grand Master of the [Order of Malta](/wiki/Order_of_Malta \"Order of Malta\") (1799\\).](/wiki/File:Emperor_Paul_in_the_Crown_of_the_Grand_Master_of_the_Order_of_Malta.jpeg \"Emperor Paul in the Crown of the Grand Master of the Order of Malta.jpeg\")", "In 1798, [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") led the [French occupation of Malta](/wiki/French_occupation_of_Malta \"French occupation of Malta\"). Napoleon demanded from [Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Princes_and_Grand_Masters_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta\") [Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim](/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Hompesch_zu_Bolheim \"Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim\") that his ships be allowed to enter the port and to take on water and supplies. The Grand Master replied that only two foreign ships could be allowed to enter the port at a time. Bonaparte, aware that such a procedure would take a long time and leave his forces vulnerable to British Admiral [Horatio Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\"), immediately ordered a cannon fusillade against Malta.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cole \\|first\\=Juan \\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \\|url\\= \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|pages\\=8–9 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1403964311}} The French soldiers disembarked in Malta at seven points on the morning of 11 June and attacked. After several hours of fierce fighting, the Maltese in the west were forced to surrender.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cole \\|first\\=Juan \\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \\|url\\= \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|page\\=9 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1403964311}}", "Napoleon opened negotiations with the fortress capital of Valletta. Faced with vastly superior French forces and the loss of western Malta, the Grand Master negotiated a surrender to the invasion.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cole \\|first\\=Juan \\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \\|url\\= \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|page\\=10 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1403964311}} Hompesch left Malta for Trieste on 18 June.[Whitworth Porter](/wiki/Whitworth_Porter \"Whitworth Porter\"), *A History of the Knights of Malta* (London: Longman, Brown, Green, 1858\\). p. 457\\. He resigned as Grand Master on 6 July 1799\\.", "The knights were dispersed, though the Order continued to exist in a diminished form and negotiated with European governments for a return to power as part of the agreement between France and Holy Roman Empire during the [German mediatisation](/wiki/German_mediatisation \"German mediatisation\"). The Russian Emperor, [Paul I](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\"), gave the largest number of knights shelter in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"), an action that gave rise to the [Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Russian_tradition_of_the_Knights_Hospitaller \"Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller\") and the Order's recognition among the Russian Imperial Orders.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.focusmm.com/malta/ma\\_hist3\\.htm \\|title\\=Focus on Malta – History \\|publisher\\=Focusmm.com \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304043839/http://www.focusmm.com/malta/ma\\_hist3\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The refugee knights in Saint Petersburg proceeded to elect Tsar Paul as their Grand Master – a rival to Grand Master von Hompesch until the latter's abdication left Paul as the sole Grand Master. Grand Master Paul I created, in addition to the Catholic Grand Priory, a \"Russian Grand Priory\" of no fewer than 118 Commanderies, dwarfing the rest of the Order and open to all Christians. Paul's election as Grand Master was, however, never ratified under Catholic canon law, and he was the *de facto* rather than *[de jure](/wiki/De_jure \"De jure\")* Grand Master of the Order.", "By the early 19th century, the Order was severely weakened by the loss of its priories throughout Europe. Only 10% of the order's income came from traditional sources in Europe, with the remaining 90% being generated by the Russian Grand Priory until 1810\\. This was partly reflected in the government of the Order being under Lieutenants, rather than Grand Masters, in the period 1805 to 1879, when [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\") restored a Grand Master to the order. This signaled the renewal of the Order's fortunes as a humanitarian and religious organization.", "On 19 September 1806, the Swedish government offered the sovereignty of the island of [Gotland](/wiki/Gotland \"Gotland\") to the Order. The offer was rejected since it would have meant the Order renouncing their claim to Malta.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Sainty\\|first1\\=Guy Stair \\|title\\=From the Loss of Malta to the Modern Era \\|url\\=http://www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/maltmod.htm \\|website\\=ChivalricOrders.org \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306192355/http://www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/maltmod.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=6 March 2012 \\|year\\=2000}}", "### Exile", "The French forces occupying Malta expelled the [Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller \"Knights Hospitaller\") from the country.{{cite book\\| url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SghCAAAAcAAJ\\&pg\\=PA32 \\|page\\=32\\| title\\= Pièces diverses relatives aux operations militaires et pol. du gén. Bonaparte \\|publisher\\=De l'imprimerie de P. Didot l'aîné\\| location\\= Paris\\| year\\= 1800 \\|language\\=fr \\|access\\-date\\= 2 November 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20141110054721/http://books.google.com.mt/books?id\\=SghCAAAAcAAJ\\&pg\\=PA32 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "During the seventeen years that separated the seizure of Malta and the General Peace, \"the formality of electing a brother Chief to discharge the office of [Grand Master](/wiki/Grand_Master_%28Masonic%29 \"Grand Master (Masonic)\"), and thus to preserve the vitality of the Sovereign Institute, was duty attended to\".{{cite book \\|author\\=Sir Richard Broun, K.T. \\|author2\\=Bart, G.C.J.J. \\|location\\=london \\|year\\=1857 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/BrownSirRSynopticalSketchOfTheOrderOfKnightsHospitallers1857/page/n27/mode/2up \\|title\\=Synoptical Sketch of the Illustrious \\& Sovereign Order of Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem and of the Venerable Langue of England \\| page \\= 21 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20200911080504/https://archive.org/stream/BrownSirRSynopticalSketchOfTheOrderOfKnightsHospitallers1857/Brown%20Sir%20R%20\\-%20Synoptical%20Sketch%20of%20the%20Order%20of%20Knights%20Hospitallers%201857\\_djvu.txt \\|archive\\-date \\= 11 September 2020 \\| url\\-status \\= live}} The office of Lieutenant of the Magistery and *ad interim* of Grand Master was held by the [Grand Baillies Field Marshal Counto Soltikoff](/wiki/Nikolay_Saltykov \"Nikolay Saltykov\"), [Giovanni Tommasi](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Tommasi \"Giovanni Battista Tommasi\"), [De Gaevera](/wiki/Innico_Maria_Guevara-Suardo \"Innico Maria Guevara-Suardo\"), [Giovanni y Centelles](/wiki/Andrea_Di_Giovanni_y_Centell%C3%A9s \"Andrea Di Giovanni y Centellés\"), [De Candida](/wiki/Carlo_Candida \"Carlo Candida\") and the [Count Colloredo](/wiki/Filippo_di_Colloredo-Mels \"Filippo di Colloredo-Mels\"). Their mandates complexively covered the period until the death of the Emperor Paul in 1801\\.{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/nq/article\\-abstract/s3\\-III/66/270/4472530?redirectedFrom\\=fulltext \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/nq/s3\\-III.66\\.270d \\|title\\=The Order of St. John of Jerusalem \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Notes and Queries]] \\|volume\\=s3\\-III \\|issue\\=66 \\|date \\= 4 April 1863 \\| pages \\= 270–273 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200911071714/https://academic.oup.com/nq/article\\-abstract/s3\\-III/66/270/4472530?redirectedFrom\\=fulltext \\|archive\\-date\\=11 September 2020 \\|url\\-status \\= live}} The paper cited the *Synoptical Sketch* as the best source available for the subject matter. The text was identically repeated in [*The Freemasons' Monthly Magazine*](https://archive.today/20200911080417/https://masonicperiodicals.org/periodicals/mmr/issues/mmr_18041863/page/3/articles/ar00301/), 18 April 1863, p. 3\\.", "The [Treaty of Amiens](/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens \"Treaty of Amiens\") (1802\\) obliged the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland \"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland\") to evacuate [Malta](/wiki/Malta \"Malta\"), which was to be restored to a recreated [Order of St. John](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller \"Knights Hospitaller\"), whose sovereignty was to be guaranteed by all of the major European powers, to be determined at the final peace. However, this did not happen because of objections to the treaty that quickly grew in the United Kingdom.", "[Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\")'s rejection of a British offer involving a ten\\-year lease of Malta prompted the reactivation of the British blockade of the French coast; Britain declared war on France on 18 May.Pocock, Tom (2005\\). *The Terror Before Trafalgar: Nelson, Napoleon, And The Secret War*. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-59114\\-681\\-0}}. OCLC 56419314\\.p. 78", "The 1802 treaty was never implemented. The United Kingdom resumed hostilities citing France's imperialist policies in the [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies \"West Indies\"), Italy, and Switzerland.Illustrated History of Europe: A Unique Guide to Europe's Common Heritage (1992\\) p. 282", "### Sovereign Military Order of Malta", "[thumb\\|[Palazzo Malta](/wiki/Palazzo_Malta \"Palazzo Malta\"), Rome, Italy](/wiki/File:Palazzo_di_Malta_%28Roma%29.jpg \"Palazzo di Malta (Roma).jpg\")", "The [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\") of 1815 confirmed the loss of Malta. After having temporarily resided in Messina, Catania and [Ferrara](/wiki/Ferrara \"Ferrara\"), the seat of the order was moved to Ferrara in 1826 and to Rome in 1834\\. The [Magistral Palace](/wiki/Palazzo_Malta \"Palazzo Malta\") in Via Condotti 68 and the [Magistral Villa](/wiki/Villa_del_Priorato_di_Malta \"Villa del Priorato di Malta\") on the [Aventine Hill](/wiki/Aventine_Hill \"Aventine Hill\") enjoy [extraterritorial](/wiki/Extraterritoriality \"Extraterritoriality\") status. The grand priories of Lombardy\\-Venetia and of Sicily were restored from 1839 to 1841\\. The office of Grand Master was restored by Pope Leo XIII in 1879, after a vacancy of 75 years, confirming [Giovanni Battista Ceschi a Santa Croce](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Ceschi_a_Santa_Croce \"Giovanni Battista Ceschi a Santa Croce\") as the first Grand Master of the restored Order of Malta. However, the loss of possession of Malta during this period did not affect the right of active and passive [legation](/wiki/Legation \"Legation\") for the Order, which is legally important for the absolute continuity of international status, regardless of the former territorial possession.{{cite journal \\| last\\=Karski \\| first\\=Karol \\| title\\=The International Legal Status of the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta \\| journal\\=International Community Law Review \\| publisher\\=Brill \\| volume\\=14 \\| issue\\=1 \\| year\\=2012 \\| issn\\=1871\\-9740 \\| doi\\=10\\.1163/187197312x617674 \\| pages\\=19–32 \\| url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270721729 \\| quote\\=The Order does not exercise territorial sovereignty over any territory, including its headquarters in Rome and Fort San Angelo, leased from Malta. Both are regarded only as exterritorial property.}}", "The original hospitaller mission became the main activity of the order, growing ever stronger during the 20th century, most especially because of the contribution of the activities carried out by the Grand Priories and National Associations in many countries around the world. Large\\-scale hospitaller and charitable activities were carried out during World Wars I and II under Grand Master Fra' [Ludovico Chigi Albani della Rovere](/wiki/Ludovico_Chigi_Albani_della_Rovere \"Ludovico Chigi Albani della Rovere\") (1931–1951\\). Under the Grand Masters Fra' [Angelo de Mojana di Cologna](/wiki/Angelo_de_Mojana_di_Cologna \"Angelo de Mojana di Cologna\") (1962–88\\) and Fra' [Andrew Bertie](/wiki/Andrew_Bertie \"Andrew Bertie\") (1988–2008\\), the projects expanded.", "In February 2013, the Order celebrated the 900th anniversary of its papal recognition with a general audience with [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI \"Pope Benedict XVI\") and a Mass celebrated by Cardinal [Tarcisio Bertone](/wiki/Tarcisio_Bertone \"Tarcisio Bertone\") in [Saint Peter's Basilica](/wiki/Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica \"Saint Peter's Basilica\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-21388516 \\|title\\=Knights of Malta Catholic order celebrates 900 years \\|date\\=9 February 2013 \\|work\\=BBC News\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209072857/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-21388516 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 February 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2013}}", "### Constitutional reform", "The Order experienced a leadership crisis beginning in December 2016, when [Albrecht Freiherr von Boeselager](/wiki/Albrecht_von_Boeselager \"Albrecht von Boeselager\") protested his removal as Grand Chancellor by Grand Master Fra' [Matthew Festing](/wiki/Matthew_Festing \"Matthew Festing\"). Von Boeselager was removed after [condoms](/wiki/Condoms \"Condoms\") were found to have been distributed by other aid groups in [Myanmar](/wiki/Myanmar \"Myanmar\") as part of a joint charitable project with the order’s Malteser International to help sex slaves protect themselves from AIDS.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://apnews.com/general\\-news\\-feaacad67f7f42ef871b5acd6848564f\\|title\\=Pope probes Order of Malta ouster over old condom scandal\\|first\\=Nicole\\|last\\=Winfield\\|date\\= 22 December 2016\\|website\\=The Associated Press\\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2024}} In January 2017, [Pope Francis](/wiki/Pope_Francis \"Pope Francis\") ordered von Boeselager reinstated and required Festing's resignation.{{cite news\\|work\\=La Stampa\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|date\\=26 January 2017\\|url\\=http://www.lastampa.it/2017/01/26/vaticaninsider/eng/the\\-vatican/the\\-order\\-of\\-maltas\\-crisis\\-z3YT6XiFgkgdTytPA4StJP/pagina.html\\|title\\=The Order of Malta's crisis\\|first\\=Andrea\\|last\\=Tornielli\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126170233/http://www.lastampa.it/2017/01/26/vaticaninsider/eng/the\\-vatican/the\\-order\\-of\\-maltas\\-crisis\\-z3YT6XiFgkgdTytPA4StJP/pagina.html\\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|access\\-date\\=24 January 2017\\|date\\=24 January 2017\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/25/vatican\\-condom\\-row\\-pope\\-prevails\\-as\\-knights\\-of\\-malta\\-chief\\-resigns\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|title\\=Vatican condom row: pope prevails as Knights of Malta chief resigns\\|agency\\=Reuters in Vatican City\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125033200/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/25/vatican\\-condom\\-row\\-pope\\-prevails\\-as\\-knights\\-of\\-malta\\-chief\\-resigns\\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2017\\|date\\=29 January 2017\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/pope\\-knights\\-feud\\-inisight\\-idUSKBN15D0X0\\|title\\=The Knights of Malta\\-Vatican feud: a tale of chivalry and sovereignty\\|first\\=Philip\\|last\\=Pullella\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129195242/http://www.reuters.com/article/pope\\-knights\\-feud\\-inisight\\-idUSKBN15D0X0\\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|access\\-date\\=24 January 2017\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-pope\\-knights\\-idUSKBN159001\\|date\\=24 January 2017\\|work\\=Reuters\\|title\\=Pope intervenes in Knights of Malta after head resigns under pressure\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125005224/http://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-pope\\-knights\\-idUSKBN159001\\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|work\\=National Catholic Register\\|url\\=http://www.ncregister.com/blog/edward\\-pentin/pope\\-francis\\-declares\\-all\\-of\\-fra\\-festings\\-recent\\-acts\\-null\\-and\\-void\\|date\\=26 January 2017\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|title\\=Pope Francis Declares All of Festing's Recent Acts 'Null and Void'\\|first\\=Edward\\|last\\=Pentin\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127015428/http://www.ncregister.com/blog/edward\\-pentin/pope\\-francis\\-declares\\-all\\-of\\-fra\\-festings\\-recent\\-acts\\-null\\-and\\-void\\|archive\\-date\\=27 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Francis also named Archbishop (later Cardinal) [Giovanni Becciu](/wiki/Giovanni_Angelo_Becciu \"Giovanni Angelo Becciu\"){{cite news\\|last1\\=Allen J.\\|first1\\=John L.\\|title\\=A triptych on Benedict's papacy, and hints of what lies beyond\\|url\\=https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/all\\-things\\-catholic/triptych\\-benedicts\\-papacy\\-and\\-hints\\-what\\-lies\\-beyond\\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2017\\|work\\=National Catholic Reporter\\|date\\=13 May 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612015635/https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/all\\-things\\-catholic/triptych\\-benedicts\\-papacy\\-and\\-hints\\-what\\-lies\\-beyond\\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Becciu was Substitute for General Affairs of the Secretariat of State, a position akin to that of a papal chief of staff. as his personal representative to the Order – sidelining the Order's Cardinal Patron [Raymond Burke](/wiki/Raymond_Leo_Burke \"Raymond Leo Burke\") – until the election of a new Grand Master.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2017/02/04/0075/00185\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=16 May 2018\\|date\\=2 February 2017\\|language\\=it\\|title\\=Lettera Pontificia al Sostituto per gli Affari Generali della Segreteria di Stato per la nomina a Delegato Speciale presso il Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta\\|publisher\\=Holy See Press Office\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117034703/http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2017/02/04/0075/00185\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=17 January 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Lamb\\|first1\\=Christopher\\|title\\=Cardinal Burke 'in Office but out of Power' as Job Handed to Papal Delegate\\|url\\=http://www.thetablet.co.uk/news/6662/0/cardinal\\-burke\\-in\\-office\\-but\\-out\\-of\\-power\\-as\\-job\\-handed\\-to\\-papal\\-delegate\\-\\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2017\\|work\\=The Tablet\\|date\\=30 January 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130121151/http://www.thetablet.co.uk/news/6662/0/cardinal\\-burke\\-in\\-office\\-but\\-out\\-of\\-power\\-as\\-job\\-handed\\-to\\-papal\\-delegate\\-\\|archive\\-date\\=30 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|work\\=\\[\\[America (magazine)\\|America Magazine]]\\|url\\=https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2017/02/03/dust\\-order\\-malta\\-ends\\-not\\-bang\\-reinstatement\\|location\\=New York\\|date\\=3 February 2017\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|title\\=Dust up with Order of Malta ends not with a bang but a reinstatement\\|first\\=Gerard\\|last\\=O'Connell\\|quote\\=\\[Francis] made clear that the delegate would not have any role in the order's governance, out of respect for the order's sovereignty.\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418081035/https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2017/02/03/dust\\-order\\-malta\\-ends\\-not\\-bang\\-reinstatement\\|archive\\-date\\=18 April 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The pope effectively taking control over the Order was seen by some as a break with tradition and the Order's independence.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://www.economist.com/the\\-economist\\-explains/2017/02/07/why\\-the\\-pope\\-has\\-taken\\-control\\-of\\-the\\-knights\\-of\\-malta \\| newspaper \\= The Economist \\| access\\-date \\= 8 May 2020 \\| date\\=7 February 2017 \\| title \\= Why the pope has taken control of the Knights of Malta }}", "In May 2017, the Order named Mauro Bertero Gutiérrez, a Bolivian member of the Government Council, to lead its constitutional reform process.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Arocho Esteves \\|first1\\=Junno \\|title\\=Ancient order, modern times: Order of Malta focuses on renewal \\|url\\=https://www.ncronline.org/news/vatican/ancient\\-order\\-modern\\-times\\-order\\-malta\\-focuses\\-renewal \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2017\\|work\\=National Catholic Reporter \\|agency\\=Catholic News Service\\|date\\=3 August 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821214454/https://www.ncronline.org/news/vatican/ancient\\-order\\-modern\\-times\\-order\\-malta\\-focuses\\-renewal \\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=The Constitutional Reform of the Sovereign Order of Malta \\|website\\=orderofmalta.int \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/06/28/the\\-constitutional\\-reform\\-of\\-the\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2017 \\|date\\=28 June 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822011944/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/06/28/the\\-constitutional\\-reform\\-of\\-the\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 August 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Working to update the Constitution of the Sovereign Order of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/11/17/working\\-to\\-update\\-the\\-constitution\\-of\\-the\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|website\\=orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=7 June 2018 \\|date\\=17 November 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612175226/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/11/17/working\\-to\\-update\\-the\\-constitution\\-of\\-the\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ \\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In June 2017, in a departure from tradition, the leadership of the Order wore [informal attire](/wiki/Informal_attire \"Informal attire\") rather than [formal wear](/wiki/Formal_wear \"Formal wear\") [full dress uniforms](/wiki/Full_dress_uniform \"Full dress uniform\") to their annual papal audience.{{cite news \\|last1\\=McElwee \\|first1\\=Joshua J. \\|title\\=New Knights of Malta leader genuflects before Francis in Vatican meeting \\|url\\=https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr\\-today/new\\-knights\\-malta\\-leader\\-genuflects\\-francis\\-vatican\\-meeting \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2017 \\|work\\=National Catholic Reporter\\|date\\=23 June 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821214159/https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr\\-today/new\\-knights\\-malta\\-leader\\-genuflects\\-francis\\-vatican\\-meeting \\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In May 2018 when a new Grand Master was elected, Francis extended Becciu's mandate indefinitely.{{cite press release\\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2018 \\|title\\=Letter of the Holy Father to the Special Delegate at the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (S.M.O.M.), 04\\.05\\.2018 \\|date\\=4 May 2018 \\|publisher\\=Holy See Press Office \\|url\\=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2018/05/04/180504b.html\\|quote\\=... up to the conclusion of the reform process and in any case until I consider it useful for the Order itself. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180505070549/https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2018/05/04/180504b.html \\|archive\\-date\\=5 May 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/38335/pope\\-francis\\-extends\\-mandate\\-of\\-special\\-delegate\\-to\\-knights\\-of\\-malta \\|first\\=Hannah \\|last\\=Brockhaus \\|title\\=Pope Francis extends mandate of special delegate to Knights of Malta\\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2018\\|date\\=4 May 2018 \\|agency\\=Catholic News Agency\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504225534/https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/pope\\-francis\\-extends\\-mandate\\-of\\-special\\-delegate\\-to\\-knights\\-of\\-malta\\-24261 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 May 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} When the Order's [Chapter General](/wiki/Chapter_General_of_the_Order_of_Malta \"Chapter General of the Order of Malta\") met in May 2019 three of the 62 participants were women for the first time.{{cite web \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2019/05/02/chapter\\-general\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta\\-has\\-been\\-held\\-rome/ \\|website\\=orderofmalta.int \\|title\\=The Chapter General of the Sovereign Order of Malta has been held in Rome \\|date\\=2 May 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=20 May 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 May 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504120325/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2019/05/02/chapter\\-general\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta\\-has\\-been\\-held\\-rome/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "On 1 November 2020, Pope Francis named Archbishop (later Cardinal) [Silvano Tomasi](/wiki/Silvano_Tomasi \"Silvano Tomasi\") to replace Becciu as his Special Delegate to the Order, reiterating the responsibilities of that office as his sole representative.{{cite press release \\|publisher\\=Holy See Press Office \\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2020 \\| date\\= 1 November 2020 \\|language\\=it \\|title\\= Lettera Pontificia al Cardinale eletto Silvano Maria Tomasi per la nomina a Delegato Speciale presso il Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta, 01\\.11\\.2020 \\|url\\=http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2020/11/01/0567/01314\\.html }}", "On 3 September 2022, Pope Francis [promulgated](/wiki/Promulgation_%28Catholic_canon_law%29 \"Promulgation (Catholic canon law)\") the new constitution of the Order and made provisional appointments to the Sovereign Council; he scheduled a convocation of the Extraordinary General Chapter for 25 January 2023, when regular appointments can be made in place of his provisional ones.{{Cite web \\|date\\=3 September 2022\\|title\\=Pope promulgates new Constitution of the Order of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2022\\-09/pope\\-promulgates\\-new\\-constitution\\-order\\-malta.html \\|access\\-date\\=4 September 2022 \\|website\\=Vatican News \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web \\| title \\= Decree for the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (S.M.O.M.), 03\\.09\\.2022 \\| url\\= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2022/09/03/decree\\-for\\-the\\-sovereign\\-military\\-hospitaller\\-order\\-of\\-saint\\-joh.html \\| date \\= 3 September 2022 \\| access\\-date \\= 31 January 2023 \\| publisher \\= Holy See Press Office }} On 26 January, the General Chapter elected to six\\-year terms on the Sovereign Council the same four members Francis had appointed the previous September{{cite news \\| access\\-date \\= 31 January 2023 \\| language \\= it \\| url \\= https://www.ilmetropolitano.it/2023/01/27/ordine\\-di\\-malta\\-sovrano\\-consiglio\\-elette\\-le\\-alte\\-4\\-cariche/ \\| newspaper \\= Il Metropolitano \\| title \\= Ordine di Malta. Sovrano Consiglio, elette le alte 4 cariche \\| date \\= 27 January 2023 }} and six of the nine Councillors he had named.{{cite web \\| access\\-date \\= 31 January 2023 \\| url \\= https://www.orderofmalta.int/news/extraordinary\\-chapter\\-general\\-elected\\-sovereign\\-council/ \\| date \\= 28 January 2023 \\| title \\= The Extraordinary Chapter General Elected the Sovereign Council \\| website \\= Sovereign Order of Malta}}", "On 19 June 2023, Pope Francis named Cardinal [Gianfranco Ghirlanda](/wiki/Gianfranco_Ghirlanda \"Gianfranco Ghirlanda\") to succeed Burke as patron.{{cite press release \\| publisher \\= Holy See Press Office \\| date \\= June 19, 2023 \\| access\\-date \\= June 19, 2023 \\| title \\= Rinunce e nomine, 19\\.06\\.2023\\| language \\= it\\| url \\= https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2023/06/19/0453/01013\\.html }}", "" ]
### Malta {{Main\|History of Malta under the Order of Saint John}} [thumb\|The [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto") (1571\), unknown artist, late 16th century](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg "Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg") The Order remained without a territory of its own until 1530, when Grand Master Fra' [Philippe de Villiers de l'Isle Adam](/wiki/Philippe_Villiers_de_L%27Isle-Adam "Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam") took possession of the island of [Malta](/wiki/Malta "Malta"), granted to the order by Emperor [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor") and his mother Queen [Joanna of Castile](/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile "Joanna of Castile") as monarchs of Sicily, with the approval of [Pope Clement VII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII "Pope Clement VII"), for which the order had to honour the conditions of the [Tribute of the Maltese Falcon](/wiki/Tribute_of_the_Maltese_Falcon "Tribute of the Maltese Falcon").{{Cite journal \|last\=Eiland \|first\=Murray \|date\=2013 \|title\=A Snapshot of Malta \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/8013398 \|journal\=The Armiger's News \|volume\=35 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=2–11 \|via\=academia.edu}} In 1565, the Knights, led by Grand Master Fra' [Jean de Valette](/wiki/Jean_de_Valette "Jean de Valette") (after whom the capital of Malta, [Valletta](/wiki/Valletta "Valletta"), was named), defended the island for more than three months during the [Great Siege](/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta "Great Siege of Malta") by the [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). The fleet of the Order contributed to the ultimate destruction of the Ottoman naval power in the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto "Battle of Lepanto") in 1571, led by [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria "John of Austria"), half brother of King [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain "Philip II of Spain"). The [Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation "Protestant Reformation"), which split Western Europe into [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") and [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic "Catholic") states, affected the knights as well. In several countries, including England, Scotland, and Sweden, the order dissolved. In others, including the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") and Germany, entire bailiwicks or commanderies (administrative divisions of the order) experienced Protestant conversions; these "[Johanniter orders](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_John_%28Bailiwick_of_Brandenburg%29 "Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg)")" survive in Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden and many other countries, including the United States and South Africa. It was established that the order should remain neutral in any war between Christian nations.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2017}} From 1651 to 1665, the Order [ruled four islands in the Caribbean](/wiki/Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas "Hospitaller colonization of the Americas"). On 21 May 1651 it acquired the islands of [Saint Barthélemy](/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy "Saint Barthélemy"), [Saint Christopher](/wiki/Saint_Kitts "Saint Kitts"), [Saint Croix](/wiki/Saint_Croix%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands "Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands") and [Saint Martin](/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin "Collectivity of Saint Martin"). These were purchased from the French [Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique](/wiki/Compagnie_des_%C3%8Eles_de_l%27Am%C3%A9rique "Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique") which had just been dissolved. In 1665, the four islands were sold to the [French West India Company](/wiki/French_West_India_Company "French West India Company"). [thumb\|[Emperor Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia") of [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") wearing the Crown of the Grand Master of the [Order of Malta](/wiki/Order_of_Malta "Order of Malta") (1799\).](/wiki/File:Emperor_Paul_in_the_Crown_of_the_Grand_Master_of_the_Order_of_Malta.jpeg "Emperor Paul in the Crown of the Grand Master of the Order of Malta.jpeg") In 1798, [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") led the [French occupation of Malta](/wiki/French_occupation_of_Malta "French occupation of Malta"). Napoleon demanded from [Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Princes_and_Grand_Masters_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta "List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta") [Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim](/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Hompesch_zu_Bolheim "Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim") that his ships be allowed to enter the port and to take on water and supplies. The Grand Master replied that only two foreign ships could be allowed to enter the port at a time. Bonaparte, aware that such a procedure would take a long time and leave his forces vulnerable to British Admiral [Horatio Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson"), immediately ordered a cannon fusillade against Malta.{{cite book \|last\=Cole \|first\=Juan \|author\-link\= \|date\=2007 \|title\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \|url\= \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|pages\=8–9 \|isbn\=978\-1403964311}} The French soldiers disembarked in Malta at seven points on the morning of 11 June and attacked. After several hours of fierce fighting, the Maltese in the west were forced to surrender.{{cite book \|last\=Cole \|first\=Juan \|author\-link\= \|date\=2007 \|title\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \|url\= \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|page\=9 \|isbn\=978\-1403964311}} Napoleon opened negotiations with the fortress capital of Valletta. Faced with vastly superior French forces and the loss of western Malta, the Grand Master negotiated a surrender to the invasion.{{cite book \|last\=Cole \|first\=Juan \|author\-link\= \|date\=2007 \|title\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \|url\= \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|page\=10 \|isbn\=978\-1403964311}} Hompesch left Malta for Trieste on 18 June.[Whitworth Porter](/wiki/Whitworth_Porter "Whitworth Porter"), *A History of the Knights of Malta* (London: Longman, Brown, Green, 1858\). p. 457\. He resigned as Grand Master on 6 July 1799\. The knights were dispersed, though the Order continued to exist in a diminished form and negotiated with European governments for a return to power as part of the agreement between France and Holy Roman Empire during the [German mediatisation](/wiki/German_mediatisation "German mediatisation"). The Russian Emperor, [Paul I](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia"), gave the largest number of knights shelter in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"), an action that gave rise to the [Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Russian_tradition_of_the_Knights_Hospitaller "Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller") and the Order's recognition among the Russian Imperial Orders.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.focusmm.com/malta/ma\_hist3\.htm \|title\=Focus on Malta – History \|publisher\=Focusmm.com \|access\-date\=12 October 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304043839/http://www.focusmm.com/malta/ma\_hist3\.htm \|archive\-date\=4 March 2012 \|url\-status\=live}} The refugee knights in Saint Petersburg proceeded to elect Tsar Paul as their Grand Master – a rival to Grand Master von Hompesch until the latter's abdication left Paul as the sole Grand Master. Grand Master Paul I created, in addition to the Catholic Grand Priory, a "Russian Grand Priory" of no fewer than 118 Commanderies, dwarfing the rest of the Order and open to all Christians. Paul's election as Grand Master was, however, never ratified under Catholic canon law, and he was the *de facto* rather than *[de jure](/wiki/De_jure "De jure")* Grand Master of the Order. By the early 19th century, the Order was severely weakened by the loss of its priories throughout Europe. Only 10% of the order's income came from traditional sources in Europe, with the remaining 90% being generated by the Russian Grand Priory until 1810\. This was partly reflected in the government of the Order being under Lieutenants, rather than Grand Masters, in the period 1805 to 1879, when [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII "Pope Leo XIII") restored a Grand Master to the order. This signaled the renewal of the Order's fortunes as a humanitarian and religious organization. On 19 September 1806, the Swedish government offered the sovereignty of the island of [Gotland](/wiki/Gotland "Gotland") to the Order. The offer was rejected since it would have meant the Order renouncing their claim to Malta.{{cite web \|last1\=Sainty\|first1\=Guy Stair \|title\=From the Loss of Malta to the Modern Era \|url\=http://www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/maltmod.htm \|website\=ChivalricOrders.org \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306192355/http://www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/maltmod.htm \|archive\-date\=6 March 2012 \|year\=2000}}
[ "### Malta", "{{Main\\|History of Malta under the Order of Saint John}}", "[thumb\\|The [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\") (1571\\), unknown artist, late 16th century](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg \"Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg\")", "The Order remained without a territory of its own until 1530, when Grand Master Fra' [Philippe de Villiers de l'Isle Adam](/wiki/Philippe_Villiers_de_L%27Isle-Adam \"Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam\") took possession of the island of [Malta](/wiki/Malta \"Malta\"), granted to the order by Emperor [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\") and his mother Queen [Joanna of Castile](/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile \"Joanna of Castile\") as monarchs of Sicily, with the approval of [Pope Clement VII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII \"Pope Clement VII\"), for which the order had to honour the conditions of the [Tribute of the Maltese Falcon](/wiki/Tribute_of_the_Maltese_Falcon \"Tribute of the Maltese Falcon\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Eiland \\|first\\=Murray \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=A Snapshot of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/8013398 \\|journal\\=The Armiger's News \\|volume\\=35 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=2–11 \\|via\\=academia.edu}}", "In 1565, the Knights, led by Grand Master Fra' [Jean de Valette](/wiki/Jean_de_Valette \"Jean de Valette\") (after whom the capital of Malta, [Valletta](/wiki/Valletta \"Valletta\"), was named), defended the island for more than three months during the [Great Siege](/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta \"Great Siege of Malta\") by the [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\").", "The fleet of the Order contributed to the ultimate destruction of the Ottoman naval power in the [Battle of Lepanto](/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto \"Battle of Lepanto\") in 1571, led by [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria \"John of Austria\"), half brother of King [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\").", "The [Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\"), which split Western Europe into [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") and [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic \"Catholic\") states, affected the knights as well. In several countries, including England, Scotland, and Sweden, the order dissolved. In others, including the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") and Germany, entire bailiwicks or commanderies (administrative divisions of the order) experienced Protestant conversions; these \"[Johanniter orders](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_John_%28Bailiwick_of_Brandenburg%29 \"Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg)\")\" survive in Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden and many other countries, including the United States and South Africa. It was established that the order should remain neutral in any war between Christian nations.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2017}}", "From 1651 to 1665, the Order [ruled four islands in the Caribbean](/wiki/Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas \"Hospitaller colonization of the Americas\"). On 21 May 1651 it acquired the islands of [Saint Barthélemy](/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy \"Saint Barthélemy\"), [Saint Christopher](/wiki/Saint_Kitts \"Saint Kitts\"), [Saint Croix](/wiki/Saint_Croix%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands \"Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands\") and [Saint Martin](/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin \"Collectivity of Saint Martin\"). These were purchased from the French [Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique](/wiki/Compagnie_des_%C3%8Eles_de_l%27Am%C3%A9rique \"Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique\") which had just been dissolved. In 1665, the four islands were sold to the [French West India Company](/wiki/French_West_India_Company \"French West India Company\").", "[thumb\\|[Emperor Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\") of [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") wearing the Crown of the Grand Master of the [Order of Malta](/wiki/Order_of_Malta \"Order of Malta\") (1799\\).](/wiki/File:Emperor_Paul_in_the_Crown_of_the_Grand_Master_of_the_Order_of_Malta.jpeg \"Emperor Paul in the Crown of the Grand Master of the Order of Malta.jpeg\")", "In 1798, [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") led the [French occupation of Malta](/wiki/French_occupation_of_Malta \"French occupation of Malta\"). Napoleon demanded from [Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Princes_and_Grand_Masters_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta\") [Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim](/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Hompesch_zu_Bolheim \"Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim\") that his ships be allowed to enter the port and to take on water and supplies. The Grand Master replied that only two foreign ships could be allowed to enter the port at a time. Bonaparte, aware that such a procedure would take a long time and leave his forces vulnerable to British Admiral [Horatio Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\"), immediately ordered a cannon fusillade against Malta.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cole \\|first\\=Juan \\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \\|url\\= \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|pages\\=8–9 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1403964311}} The French soldiers disembarked in Malta at seven points on the morning of 11 June and attacked. After several hours of fierce fighting, the Maltese in the west were forced to surrender.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cole \\|first\\=Juan \\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \\|url\\= \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|page\\=9 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1403964311}}", "Napoleon opened negotiations with the fortress capital of Valletta. Faced with vastly superior French forces and the loss of western Malta, the Grand Master negotiated a surrender to the invasion.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cole \\|first\\=Juan \\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East \\|url\\= \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|page\\=10 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1403964311}} Hompesch left Malta for Trieste on 18 June.[Whitworth Porter](/wiki/Whitworth_Porter \"Whitworth Porter\"), *A History of the Knights of Malta* (London: Longman, Brown, Green, 1858\\). p. 457\\. He resigned as Grand Master on 6 July 1799\\.", "The knights were dispersed, though the Order continued to exist in a diminished form and negotiated with European governments for a return to power as part of the agreement between France and Holy Roman Empire during the [German mediatisation](/wiki/German_mediatisation \"German mediatisation\"). The Russian Emperor, [Paul I](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\"), gave the largest number of knights shelter in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"), an action that gave rise to the [Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Russian_tradition_of_the_Knights_Hospitaller \"Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller\") and the Order's recognition among the Russian Imperial Orders.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.focusmm.com/malta/ma\\_hist3\\.htm \\|title\\=Focus on Malta – History \\|publisher\\=Focusmm.com \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304043839/http://www.focusmm.com/malta/ma\\_hist3\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The refugee knights in Saint Petersburg proceeded to elect Tsar Paul as their Grand Master – a rival to Grand Master von Hompesch until the latter's abdication left Paul as the sole Grand Master. Grand Master Paul I created, in addition to the Catholic Grand Priory, a \"Russian Grand Priory\" of no fewer than 118 Commanderies, dwarfing the rest of the Order and open to all Christians. Paul's election as Grand Master was, however, never ratified under Catholic canon law, and he was the *de facto* rather than *[de jure](/wiki/De_jure \"De jure\")* Grand Master of the Order.", "By the early 19th century, the Order was severely weakened by the loss of its priories throughout Europe. Only 10% of the order's income came from traditional sources in Europe, with the remaining 90% being generated by the Russian Grand Priory until 1810\\. This was partly reflected in the government of the Order being under Lieutenants, rather than Grand Masters, in the period 1805 to 1879, when [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\") restored a Grand Master to the order. This signaled the renewal of the Order's fortunes as a humanitarian and religious organization.", "On 19 September 1806, the Swedish government offered the sovereignty of the island of [Gotland](/wiki/Gotland \"Gotland\") to the Order. The offer was rejected since it would have meant the Order renouncing their claim to Malta.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Sainty\\|first1\\=Guy Stair \\|title\\=From the Loss of Malta to the Modern Era \\|url\\=http://www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/maltmod.htm \\|website\\=ChivalricOrders.org \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306192355/http://www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/maltmod.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=6 March 2012 \\|year\\=2000}}", "" ]
Organisation ------------ [thumb\|upright\|Fra' [John T. Dunlap](/wiki/John_T._Dunlap "John T. Dunlap"), 81st [Prince and Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Grand_Masters_of_the_Knights_Hospitaller%23Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta "List of Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller#Sovereign Military Order of Malta")](/wiki/File:Fra_John_Dunlap_in_Lourdes_2023.jpg "Fra John Dunlap in Lourdes 2023.jpg") ### Governance The proceedings of the Order are governed by its Constitutional Charter and Code. The **[Prince and Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Princes_and_Grand_Masters_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta "List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta")** is the head of the order and governs both as sovereign and as religious superior. He is "entitled to sovereign prerogatives and honors as well as the title of "[Most Eminent Highness](/wiki/Most_Eminent_Highness "Most Eminent Highness")".{{rp\|Constitution Article 12}} He is elected to a term of ten years and may be elected to a second term, but may not serve beyond the completion of his 85th year.{{rp\|Constitution Article 13, §2}} The Prince and Grand Master is Fra' [John T. Dunlap](/wiki/John_T._Dunlap "John T. Dunlap") who was elected on 3 May 2023\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/news/fra\-john\-dunlap\-81st\-grand\-master\-of\-the\-order\-of\-malta/\|title\=Fra' John Dunlap 81st Grand Master of the Order of Malta\|website\=Sovereign Order of Malta}} "In the event of permanent impediment, resignation or death of the Grand Master, the Order is governed by a Lieutenant *ad interim* in the person of the Grand Commander, who can only perform acts of ordinary administration without making any innovations."{{rp\|Constitution Article 18}} If it is not possible to elect a Grand Master, a Lieutenant of the Grand Master is elected, who has the same powers as the Grand Master with the exception of the prerogatives of honour pertaining to a sovereign. Both the Lieutenant *ad interim* and the Lieutenant of the Grand Master are styled *Eccellenza* ([Excellency](/wiki/Excellency "Excellency")). The **[Sovereign Council](/wiki/Sovereign_Council_of_the_Order_of_Malta "Sovereign Council of the Order of Malta")** is the primary governing body of the Order that handles regular business. The members are the Grand Master (or Lieutenant), the holders of the four High Officers (the Grand Commander,{{cite web \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\-commander/\|title\=Grand Commander \|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=13 November 2017 }} the Grand Chancellor,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\-chancellor/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Grand Chancellor \|website\=Orderofmalta.int\|access\-date\=13 November 2017 }} the Grand Hospitaller{{cite web\|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\-hospitaller/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Grand Hospitaller \|website\=Orderofmalta.int\|access\-date\=13 November 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623102434/https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\-hospitaller/\|archive\-date\=23 June 2017\|url\-status\=live}} and the Receiver of the Common Treasure),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/receiver\-of\-the\-common\-treasure/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Receiver of the Common Treasure\|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=13 November 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623102400/https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/receiver\-of\-the\-common\-treasure/\|archive\-date\=23 June 2017\|url\-status\=live}} the five Councilors of the Council of the Professed Knights, and four Councilors.{{rp\|Constitution Article 25}} The **Council of the Professed Knights** "assists the Grand Master in the spiritual care of the Order and in the governance of the First and Second Class".{{rp\|Constitution Article 26}} It includes the Grand Master (or Lieutenant), the Grand Commander, and five Councilors elected by the Chapter of the Professed. The **[Chapter General](/wiki/Chapter_General_of_the_Order_of_Malta "Chapter General of the Order of Malta")** is the legislative body of the Order, which meets every six years. It elects the members of the Sovereign Council. The **Council Complete of State** elects the Grand Master or the Lieutenant of the Grand Master. The **Board of Auditors** audits the Order's finances. It includes a President elected among the seven Councillors, all elected by the Chapter General. The **Government Council** is the advisory board to the Sovereign Council in charge of studying political, religious, humanitarian assistance and international issues. The Order's judicial powers are exercised by a group of Magistral Courts, whose judges are appointed by the Grand Master and the Sovereign Council. ### Regional divisions The order is divided regionally into six Grand Priories, six Sub\-Priories and 48 associations.{{cite web \|title\=National Institutions \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/national\-institutions/ \|website\= orderofmalta.int \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|access\-date\=2 September 2016 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160915200616/https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/national\-institutions/ \|archive\-date\=15 September 2016\|url\-status\=live }} The six Grand Priories are: * Grand Priory of Rome (founded 1214; expropriated 1808; restored 1816\){{cite book \|last\=Sire \|first\=H.J.A. \|title\=The Knights of Malta: A Modern Resurrection \| location\=London \|publisher\=Third Millennium \|year\=2016 \|page\=286}} * Grand Priory of Lombardy and Venice (founded as two priories about 1180; expropriated 1796–1806; restored as a single priory 1839\) * Grand Priory of Naples and Sicily (founded as the Priory of Messina, the Priory of Barletta, and the Priory of Capua in the 12th and 13th centuries; suppressed 1806–1826; restored as a single priory 1839\) * Grand Priory of Bohemia (founded 1182\) * Grand Priory of Austria (separated from the Grand Priory of Bohemia 1938\) * Grand Priory of England (re\-established 1993\) The six Sub\-Priories are: * Sub\-Priory of St. Michael (Cologne, Germany) * Sub\-Priory of St. George and St. James (Madrid, Spain) * Sub\-Priory of Our Lady of Philermo (San Francisco, United States) * Sub\-Priory of Our Lady of Lourdes (New York, United States) * Sub\-Priory of The Immaculate Conception (Melbourne, Australia) * Sub\-Priory of St. Oliver Plunkett (Ireland) Most of the 48 associations are national, but several countries (Brazil, Germany, the United States) have more than one association. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century the Order was divided regionally into [Langues](/wiki/Langue_%28Knights_Hospitaller%29 "Langue (Knights Hospitaller)"). ### Membership [thumb\|upright\|A Knight of Grace and Devotion in contemporary church robes](/wiki/File:Knight_of_Malta_XXI_century.JPG "Knight of Malta XXI century.JPG") Membership in the Order is divided into three classes each of which is subdivided into several categories:{{cite web \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/knights\-of\-malta/ \|title\=Knights of Malta \|access\-date\=2 January 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103053930/https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/knights\-of\-malta/ \|archive\-date\=3 January 2017 \|url\-status\=live}} * **First Class**, who make [religious vows](/wiki/Religious_vows "Religious vows") of poverty, chastity, and obedience: + [Knights of Justice](/wiki/Knight_of_Justice "Knight of Justice") or Professed Knights + Professed Conventual Chaplains There are currently (2023\) 33 Knights of Justice and six Professed Conventual Chaplains.{{rp\|p. 18}} * **Second Class**: [Knights and Dames in Obedience](/wiki/Knight_in_Obedience "Knight in Obedience") make a Promise of Obedience: + Knights and Dames of Honour and Devotion in Obedience + Knights and Dames of Grace and Devotion in Obedience + Knights and Dames of Magistral Grace in Obedience There are currently (2023\) 541 Knights in Obedience and 137 Dames in Obedience.{{rp\|p. 18}} * **Third Class**, who make no vows or promises, but live according to the principles of the Church and the Order: + Knights and Dames of Honour and Devotion + Conventual Chaplains ad honorem + Knights and Dames of Grace and Devotion + Magistral Chaplains + Knights and Dames of Magistral Grace + Donats (male and female) of Devotion{{cite book \|last\=De Anna \|first\=Luigi G. \|chapter\=I Donati nell’organizzazione giovannita e melitense \|date\=2004 \|title\=Byzance et ses périphéries (Mondes grec, balkanique et musulman): Hommage à Alain Ducellier \|chapter\-url\=https://books.openedition.org/pumi/26206 \|location\=Toulouse \|publisher\=Presses universitaires du Midi \|page\=407\-416 \|isbn\=9782912025142}} There are currently (2023\) 12,395 members of the Third Class.{{rp\|p. 38}} Within each class and category of knights there are ranks of Knight, Knight Grand Cross, and Bailiff Knight Grand Cross. Bishops and priests are generally admitted as chaplains of the Order of Malta. There are some priests who are knights of the order, usually because they were admitted to the order prior to ordination. The priests of the Order of Malta are ranked as Honorary Canons, as in the Order of the Holy Sepulchre; and they are entitled to wear the black mozetta with purple piping and purple fascia.{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2022}} Prior to the 1990s, all officers of the order had to be of noble birth (defined differently in different countries), as they were all Knights of Justice or Knights in Obedience. However, Knights of Magistral Grace (i.e. those who do not have proof of noble birth) now may make the Promise of Obedience and, at the discretion of the Grand Master and Sovereign Council, may enter the [novitiate](/wiki/Novitiate "Novitiate") to become professed Knights of Justice.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2017}} ### Religious officers #### Cardinal Patron The *Cardinalis Patronus* (Cardinal Patron), who is either a [cardinal](/wiki/Cardinal_%28Catholicism%29 "Cardinal (Catholicism)") when appointed by the pope or soon raised to that rank,{{cite news \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|access\-date\=6 February 2017 \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2010/11/25/order\-malta\-patron\-paolo\-sardi\-been\-created\-cardinal/ \|title\=The Order of Malta's patron Paolo Sardi has been created cardinal \|website\=orderofmalta.int \|date\=25 November 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206022235/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2010/11/25/order\-malta\-patron\-paolo\-sardi\-been\-created\-cardinal/ \| archive\-date\=6 February 2017 \|url\-status\=live}} promotes the spiritual interests of the order and its members, and its relations with the Holy See.{{rp\|Constitution Article 5 § 5}} * [Paolo Giobbe](/wiki/Paolo_Giobbe "Paolo Giobbe") (8 August 1961 – 3 July 1969\){{sfn\|Lentz III\|2015\|p\=80}} * [Giacomo Violardo](/wiki/Giacomo_Violardo "Giacomo Violardo") (3 July 1969 – 17 March 1978\){{sfn\|Lentz III\|2015\|p\=198}} * [Paul\-Pierre Philippe](/wiki/Paul-Pierre_Philippe "Paul-Pierre Philippe"), O.P. (10 November 1978 – 9 April 1984\){{sfn\|Lentz III\|2015\|p\=143}} * [Sebastiano Baggio](/wiki/Sebastiano_Baggio "Sebastiano Baggio") (26 May 1984 – 21 March 1993\){{sfn\|Lentz III\|2015\|p\=17}} * [Pio Laghi](/wiki/Pio_Laghi "Pio Laghi") (8 May 1993 – 11 January 2009\){{sfn\|Lentz III\|2015\|p\=102}} * [Paolo Sardi](/wiki/Paolo_Sardi "Paolo Sardi") (6 June 2009 – 8 November 2014\){{cite news \|url\=https://international.la\-croix.com/news/cardinal\-paolo\-sardi\-former\-patron\-of\-order\-of\-malta\-dies\-at\-84/10530 \|title\=Cardinal Paolo Sardi, former patron of Order of Malta, dies at 84 \|date\=15 July 2019 \|access\-date\=15 July 2019 \|newspaper\=\[\[La Croix (newspaper)\|La Croix]]}} * [Raymond Burke](/wiki/Raymond_Leo_Burke "Raymond Leo Burke") (8 November 2014–19 June 2023\){{cite news \|last1\=Douthat \|first1\=Ross \|title\=Cardinal Burke: 'I'm Called the Enemy of the Pope, Which I Am Not' \|url\=https://www.aei.org/op\-eds/cardinal\-burke\-im\-called\-the\-enemy\-of\-the\-pope\-which\-i\-am\-not/ \|date\=12 November 2019}} * [Gianfranco Ghirlanda](/wiki/Gianfranco_Ghirlanda "Gianfranco Ghirlanda") (19 June 2023\-present)[Rinunce e nomine, 19\.06\.2023](https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2023/06/19/0453/01013.html) #### Special delegate Since 2017, Pope Francis has appointed special delegates to fulfill the role that was previously assigned to the patron. On 2 February 2017 Pope Francis appointed Archbishop Giovanni Angelo Becciu as his special delegate to the order.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/02/06/pope\-francis\-appoints\-his\-special\-delegate\-to\-the\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Pope Francis appoints his Special Delegate to the Sovereign Order of Malta \|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|date\=6 February 2017 \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=29 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=29 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129234323/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/02/06/pope\-francis\-appoints\-his\-special\-delegate\-to\-the\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ }}{{cite web \|url\=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2017/02/04/0075/00185\.html \|title\=Lettera Pontificia al Sostituto per gli Affari Generali della Segreteria di Stato per la nomina a Delegato Speciale presso il Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta \|website\=vatican.va \|date\=4 February 2017 }} After Becciu resigned from the rights and privileges of a cardinal after being implicated in a financial corruption scandal, in October 2020,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.npr.org/2020/10/14/923306264/you\-cannot\-serve\-both\-god\-and\-money\-vatican\-s\-financial\-scandal\-takes\-new\-twist\|title\='You Cannot Serve Both God And Money': Vatican's Financial Scandal Takes New Twist\|first\=Sylvia\|last\=Poggioli\|publisher\=NPR\|date\=October 14, 2020\|access\-date\=October 15, 2020}} Pope Francis appointed Archbishop Silvano Tomasi as his special delegate to the order on 1 November 2020\.{{cite web \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2020/11/01/archbishop\-silvano\-tomasi\-new\-special\-delegate\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ \|title\=Archbishop Silvano Tomasi is the new Special Delegate to the Sovereign Order of Malta \|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|date\=1 November 2020 \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=29 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=29 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129234323/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2020/11/01/archbishop\-silvano\-tomasi\-new\-special\-delegate\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ }}{{cite web \|url\=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2020/11/01/0567/01314\.html \|title\=Lettera Pontificia al Cardinale eletto Silvano Maria Tomasi per la nomina a Delegato Speciale presso il Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta \|website\=vatican.va \|date\=1 November 2020 }} #### Prelate The Prelate of the order is responsible for the clergy of the order and assists the Grand Master, the Grand Commander and the Coordinator of the Second Class in the care of the spiritual life and in the religious observance of all members of the order.{{rp\|Constitution Articolo 22}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/prelate/ \|title\=Prelate: Ecclesiastical superior of the Order of Malta clergy \|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|date\=6 February 2017 }} He is appointed by the Pope on the advice of the Cardinal Patron. On 4 July 2015 Pope Francis named as Prelate Bishop [Jean Laffitte](/wiki/Jean_Laffitte "Jean Laffitte").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2015/07/04/pope\-francis\-nominates\-the\-new\-prelate\-of\-the\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Pope Francis nominates the new Prelate of the Sovereign Order of Malta \|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|date\=4 July 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=29 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 October 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025131957/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2015/07/04/pope\-francis\-nominates\-the\-new\-prelate\-of\-the\-sovereign\-order\-of\-malta/ }} Laffitte succeeded Archbishop [Angelo Acerbi](/wiki/Angelo_Acerbi "Angelo Acerbi"), who had held the office since 2001\. As of 2024, the prelate is the Spaniard Rev. Msgr. Luis Manuel Cuña Ramos. Born in 1966 and ordained in 1992, Msgr. Cuña Ramos hails from Orense in Spain, but has spent the majority of his life in Rome, Italy as a consultant and professor of church history as the Pontifical Urban University and the Pontifical Gregorian University.[https://www.orderofmalta.int/press\-releases/pope\-francis\-has\-appointed\-msgr\-luis\-manuel\-cuna\-ramos\-as\-the\-new\-prelate\-of\-the\-order\-of\-malta/](https://www.orderofmalta.int/press-releases/pope-francis-has-appointed-msgr-luis-manuel-cuna-ramos-as-the-new-prelate-of-the-order-of-malta/) ### Relationship with other mutually\-recognised Orders of Saint John The Sovereign Military Order of Malta has collaborated with other [mutually\-recognized Orders of Saint John](/wiki/Alliance_of_the_Orders_of_Saint_John_of_Jerusalem%23Mutually-recognised_Orders_of_Saint_John "Alliance of the Orders of Saint John of Jerusalem#Mutually-recognised Orders of Saint John"); for example, the SMOM is a major donor of the [St John Eye Hospital](/wiki/Saint_John_Eye_Hospital_Group "Saint John Eye Hospital Group") in Jerusalem, which is primarily operated by the [Most Venerable Order of Saint John](/wiki/Most_Venerable_Order_of_Saint_John "Most Venerable Order of Saint John").{{cite web \|title\=Jerusalem Scene: The Newsletter of St John of Jerusalem Eye Hospital Group – Spring 2017 – Funding Today \|url\=https://www.stjohneyehospital.org/\_\_media/libraries/jerusalem\-scene/JS25\-Spring\-2017\_WEB.pdf \|year \= 2017 \|publisher\=Saint John Eye Hospital Group \|access\-date\=1 September 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902084134/https://www.stjohneyehospital.org/\_\_media/libraries/jerusalem\-scene/JS25\-Spring\-2017\_WEB.pdf \|archive\-date\=2 September 2018 \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "Organisation\n------------", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Fra' [John T. Dunlap](/wiki/John_T._Dunlap \"John T. Dunlap\"), 81st [Prince and Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Grand_Masters_of_the_Knights_Hospitaller%23Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"List of Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller#Sovereign Military Order of Malta\")](/wiki/File:Fra_John_Dunlap_in_Lourdes_2023.jpg \"Fra John Dunlap in Lourdes 2023.jpg\")", "### Governance", "The proceedings of the Order are governed by its Constitutional Charter and Code.", "The **[Prince and Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Princes_and_Grand_Masters_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta\")** is the head of the order and governs both as sovereign and as religious superior. He is \"entitled to sovereign prerogatives and honors as well as the title of \"[Most Eminent Highness](/wiki/Most_Eminent_Highness \"Most Eminent Highness\")\".{{rp\\|Constitution Article 12}} He is elected to a term of ten years and may be elected to a second term, but may not serve beyond the completion of his 85th year.{{rp\\|Constitution Article 13, §2}} The Prince and Grand Master is Fra' [John T. Dunlap](/wiki/John_T._Dunlap \"John T. Dunlap\") who was elected on 3 May 2023\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/news/fra\\-john\\-dunlap\\-81st\\-grand\\-master\\-of\\-the\\-order\\-of\\-malta/\\|title\\=Fra' John Dunlap 81st Grand Master of the Order of Malta\\|website\\=Sovereign Order of Malta}} \"In the event of permanent impediment, resignation or death of the Grand Master, the Order is governed by a Lieutenant *ad interim* in the person of the Grand Commander, who can only perform acts of ordinary administration without making any innovations.\"{{rp\\|Constitution Article 18}} If it is not possible to elect a Grand Master, a Lieutenant of the Grand Master is elected, who has the same powers as the Grand Master with the exception of the prerogatives of honour pertaining to a sovereign. Both the Lieutenant *ad interim* and the Lieutenant of the Grand Master are styled *Eccellenza* ([Excellency](/wiki/Excellency \"Excellency\")).", "The **[Sovereign Council](/wiki/Sovereign_Council_of_the_Order_of_Malta \"Sovereign Council of the Order of Malta\")** is the primary governing body of the Order that handles regular business. The members are the Grand Master (or Lieutenant), the holders of the four High Officers (the Grand Commander,{{cite web \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\\-commander/\\|title\\=Grand Commander \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017 }} the Grand Chancellor,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\\-chancellor/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Grand Chancellor \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int\\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017 }} the Grand Hospitaller{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\\-hospitaller/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Grand Hospitaller \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int\\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623102434/https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\\-hospitaller/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and the Receiver of the Common Treasure),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/receiver\\-of\\-the\\-common\\-treasure/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Receiver of the Common Treasure\\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623102400/https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/receiver\\-of\\-the\\-common\\-treasure/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} the five Councilors of the Council of the Professed Knights, and four Councilors.{{rp\\|Constitution Article 25}}", "The **Council of the Professed Knights** \"assists the Grand Master in the spiritual care of the Order and in the governance of the First and Second Class\".{{rp\\|Constitution Article 26}} It includes the Grand Master (or Lieutenant), the Grand Commander, and five Councilors elected by the Chapter of the Professed.", "The **[Chapter General](/wiki/Chapter_General_of_the_Order_of_Malta \"Chapter General of the Order of Malta\")** is the legislative body of the Order, which meets every six years. It elects the members of the Sovereign Council.", "The **Council Complete of State** elects the Grand Master or the Lieutenant of the Grand Master.", "The **Board of Auditors** audits the Order's finances. It includes a President elected among the seven Councillors, all elected by the Chapter General.", "The **Government Council** is the advisory board to the Sovereign Council in charge of studying political, religious, humanitarian assistance and international issues.", "The Order's judicial powers are exercised by a group of Magistral Courts, whose judges are appointed by the Grand Master and the Sovereign Council.", "### Regional divisions", "The order is divided regionally into six Grand Priories, six Sub\\-Priories and 48 associations.{{cite web \\|title\\=National Institutions \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/national\\-institutions/ \\|website\\= orderofmalta.int \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|access\\-date\\=2 September 2016 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160915200616/https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/national\\-institutions/ \\|archive\\-date\\=15 September 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "The six Grand Priories are:\n* Grand Priory of Rome (founded 1214; expropriated 1808; restored 1816\\){{cite book \\|last\\=Sire \\|first\\=H.J.A. \\|title\\=The Knights of Malta: A Modern Resurrection \\| location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Third Millennium \\|year\\=2016 \\|page\\=286}}\n* Grand Priory of Lombardy and Venice (founded as two priories about 1180; expropriated 1796–1806; restored as a single priory 1839\\)\n* Grand Priory of Naples and Sicily (founded as the Priory of Messina, the Priory of Barletta, and the Priory of Capua in the 12th and 13th centuries; suppressed 1806–1826; restored as a single priory 1839\\)\n* Grand Priory of Bohemia (founded 1182\\)\n* Grand Priory of Austria (separated from the Grand Priory of Bohemia 1938\\)\n* Grand Priory of England (re\\-established 1993\\)", "The six Sub\\-Priories are:\n* Sub\\-Priory of St. Michael (Cologne, Germany)\n* Sub\\-Priory of St. George and St. James (Madrid, Spain)\n* Sub\\-Priory of Our Lady of Philermo (San Francisco, United States)\n* Sub\\-Priory of Our Lady of Lourdes (New York, United States)\n* Sub\\-Priory of The Immaculate Conception (Melbourne, Australia)\n* Sub\\-Priory of St. Oliver Plunkett (Ireland)", "Most of the 48 associations are national, but several countries (Brazil, Germany, the United States) have more than one association.", "Until the beginning of the nineteenth century the Order was divided regionally into [Langues](/wiki/Langue_%28Knights_Hospitaller%29 \"Langue (Knights Hospitaller)\").", "### Membership", "[thumb\\|upright\\|A Knight of Grace and Devotion in contemporary church robes](/wiki/File:Knight_of_Malta_XXI_century.JPG \"Knight of Malta XXI century.JPG\")", "Membership in the Order is divided into three classes each of which is subdivided into several categories:{{cite web \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/knights\\-of\\-malta/ \\|title\\=Knights of Malta \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103053930/https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/knights\\-of\\-malta/ \\|archive\\-date\\=3 January 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "* **First Class**, who make [religious vows](/wiki/Religious_vows \"Religious vows\") of poverty, chastity, and obedience:\n\t+ [Knights of Justice](/wiki/Knight_of_Justice \"Knight of Justice\") or Professed Knights\n\t+ Professed Conventual Chaplains", "There are currently (2023\\) 33 Knights of Justice and six Professed Conventual Chaplains.{{rp\\|p. 18}}\n* **Second Class**: [Knights and Dames in Obedience](/wiki/Knight_in_Obedience \"Knight in Obedience\") make a Promise of Obedience:\n\t+ Knights and Dames of Honour and Devotion in Obedience\n\t+ Knights and Dames of Grace and Devotion in Obedience\n\t+ Knights and Dames of Magistral Grace in Obedience", "There are currently (2023\\) 541 Knights in Obedience and 137 Dames in Obedience.{{rp\\|p. 18}}\n* **Third Class**, who make no vows or promises, but live according to the principles of the Church and the Order:\n\t+ Knights and Dames of Honour and Devotion\n\t+ Conventual Chaplains ad honorem\n\t+ Knights and Dames of Grace and Devotion\n\t+ Magistral Chaplains\n\t+ Knights and Dames of Magistral Grace\n\t+ Donats (male and female) of Devotion{{cite book \\|last\\=De Anna \\|first\\=Luigi G. \\|chapter\\=I Donati nell’organizzazione giovannita e melitense \\|date\\=2004 \\|title\\=Byzance et ses périphéries (Mondes grec, balkanique et musulman): Hommage à Alain Ducellier \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.openedition.org/pumi/26206 \\|location\\=Toulouse \\|publisher\\=Presses universitaires du Midi \\|page\\=407\\-416 \\|isbn\\=9782912025142}}", "There are currently (2023\\) 12,395 members of the Third Class.{{rp\\|p. 38}}\nWithin each class and category of knights there are ranks of Knight, Knight Grand Cross, and Bailiff Knight Grand Cross.", "Bishops and priests are generally admitted as chaplains of the Order of Malta. There are some priests who are knights of the order, usually because they were admitted to the order prior to ordination. The priests of the Order of Malta are ranked as Honorary Canons, as in the Order of the Holy Sepulchre; and they are entitled to wear the black mozetta with purple piping and purple fascia.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2022}}", "Prior to the 1990s, all officers of the order had to be of noble birth (defined differently in different countries), as they were all Knights of Justice or Knights in Obedience. However, Knights of Magistral Grace (i.e. those who do not have proof of noble birth) now may make the Promise of Obedience and, at the discretion of the Grand Master and Sovereign Council, may enter the [novitiate](/wiki/Novitiate \"Novitiate\") to become professed Knights of Justice.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2017}}", "### Religious officers", "#### Cardinal Patron", "The *Cardinalis Patronus* (Cardinal Patron), who is either a [cardinal](/wiki/Cardinal_%28Catholicism%29 \"Cardinal (Catholicism)\") when appointed by the pope or soon raised to that rank,{{cite news \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2017 \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2010/11/25/order\\-malta\\-patron\\-paolo\\-sardi\\-been\\-created\\-cardinal/ \\|title\\=The Order of Malta's patron Paolo Sardi has been created cardinal \\|website\\=orderofmalta.int \\|date\\=25 November 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206022235/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2010/11/25/order\\-malta\\-patron\\-paolo\\-sardi\\-been\\-created\\-cardinal/ \\| archive\\-date\\=6 February 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} promotes the spiritual interests of the order and its members, and its relations with the Holy See.{{rp\\|Constitution Article 5 § 5}}", "* [Paolo Giobbe](/wiki/Paolo_Giobbe \"Paolo Giobbe\") (8 August 1961 – 3 July 1969\\){{sfn\\|Lentz III\\|2015\\|p\\=80}}\n* [Giacomo Violardo](/wiki/Giacomo_Violardo \"Giacomo Violardo\") (3 July 1969 – 17 March 1978\\){{sfn\\|Lentz III\\|2015\\|p\\=198}}\n* [Paul\\-Pierre Philippe](/wiki/Paul-Pierre_Philippe \"Paul-Pierre Philippe\"), O.P. (10 November 1978 – 9 April 1984\\){{sfn\\|Lentz III\\|2015\\|p\\=143}}\n* [Sebastiano Baggio](/wiki/Sebastiano_Baggio \"Sebastiano Baggio\") (26 May 1984 – 21 March 1993\\){{sfn\\|Lentz III\\|2015\\|p\\=17}}\n* [Pio Laghi](/wiki/Pio_Laghi \"Pio Laghi\") (8 May 1993 – 11 January 2009\\){{sfn\\|Lentz III\\|2015\\|p\\=102}}\n* [Paolo Sardi](/wiki/Paolo_Sardi \"Paolo Sardi\") (6 June 2009 – 8 November 2014\\){{cite news \\|url\\=https://international.la\\-croix.com/news/cardinal\\-paolo\\-sardi\\-former\\-patron\\-of\\-order\\-of\\-malta\\-dies\\-at\\-84/10530 \\|title\\=Cardinal Paolo Sardi, former patron of Order of Malta, dies at 84 \\|date\\=15 July 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2019 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[La Croix (newspaper)\\|La Croix]]}}\n* [Raymond Burke](/wiki/Raymond_Leo_Burke \"Raymond Leo Burke\") (8 November 2014–19 June 2023\\){{cite news \\|last1\\=Douthat \\|first1\\=Ross \\|title\\=Cardinal Burke: 'I'm Called the Enemy of the Pope, Which I Am Not' \\|url\\=https://www.aei.org/op\\-eds/cardinal\\-burke\\-im\\-called\\-the\\-enemy\\-of\\-the\\-pope\\-which\\-i\\-am\\-not/ \\|date\\=12 November 2019}}\n* [Gianfranco Ghirlanda](/wiki/Gianfranco_Ghirlanda \"Gianfranco Ghirlanda\") (19 June 2023\\-present)[Rinunce e nomine, 19\\.06\\.2023](https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2023/06/19/0453/01013.html)", "#### Special delegate", "Since 2017, Pope Francis has appointed special delegates to fulfill the role that was previously assigned to the patron.", "On 2 February 2017 Pope Francis appointed Archbishop Giovanni Angelo Becciu as his special delegate to the order.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/02/06/pope\\-francis\\-appoints\\-his\\-special\\-delegate\\-to\\-the\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Pope Francis appoints his Special Delegate to the Sovereign Order of Malta \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|date\\=6 February 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129234323/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2017/02/06/pope\\-francis\\-appoints\\-his\\-special\\-delegate\\-to\\-the\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2017/02/04/0075/00185\\.html \\|title\\=Lettera Pontificia al Sostituto per gli Affari Generali della Segreteria di Stato per la nomina a Delegato Speciale presso il Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta \\|website\\=vatican.va \\|date\\=4 February 2017 }}", "After Becciu resigned from the rights and privileges of a cardinal after being implicated in a financial corruption scandal, in October 2020,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2020/10/14/923306264/you\\-cannot\\-serve\\-both\\-god\\-and\\-money\\-vatican\\-s\\-financial\\-scandal\\-takes\\-new\\-twist\\|title\\='You Cannot Serve Both God And Money': Vatican's Financial Scandal Takes New Twist\\|first\\=Sylvia\\|last\\=Poggioli\\|publisher\\=NPR\\|date\\=October 14, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=October 15, 2020}} Pope Francis appointed Archbishop Silvano Tomasi as his special delegate to the order on 1 November 2020\\.{{cite web \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2020/11/01/archbishop\\-silvano\\-tomasi\\-new\\-special\\-delegate\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ \\|title\\=Archbishop Silvano Tomasi is the new Special Delegate to the Sovereign Order of Malta \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|date\\=1 November 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129234323/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2020/11/01/archbishop\\-silvano\\-tomasi\\-new\\-special\\-delegate\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2020/11/01/0567/01314\\.html \\|title\\=Lettera Pontificia al Cardinale eletto Silvano Maria Tomasi per la nomina a Delegato Speciale presso il Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta \\|website\\=vatican.va \\|date\\=1 November 2020 }}", "#### Prelate", "The Prelate of the order is responsible for the clergy of the order and assists the Grand Master, the Grand Commander and the Coordinator of the Second Class in the care of the spiritual life and in the religious observance of all members of the order.{{rp\\|Constitution Articolo 22}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/prelate/ \\|title\\=Prelate: Ecclesiastical superior of the Order of Malta clergy \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|date\\=6 February 2017 }} He is appointed by the Pope on the advice of the Cardinal Patron.", "On 4 July 2015 Pope Francis named as Prelate Bishop [Jean Laffitte](/wiki/Jean_Laffitte \"Jean Laffitte\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2015/07/04/pope\\-francis\\-nominates\\-the\\-new\\-prelate\\-of\\-the\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Pope Francis nominates the new Prelate of the Sovereign Order of Malta \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|date\\=4 July 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 October 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025131957/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2015/07/04/pope\\-francis\\-nominates\\-the\\-new\\-prelate\\-of\\-the\\-sovereign\\-order\\-of\\-malta/ }} Laffitte succeeded Archbishop [Angelo Acerbi](/wiki/Angelo_Acerbi \"Angelo Acerbi\"), who had held the office since 2001\\. As of 2024, the prelate is the Spaniard Rev. Msgr. Luis Manuel Cuña Ramos. Born in 1966 and ordained in 1992, Msgr. Cuña Ramos hails from Orense in Spain, but has spent the majority of his life in Rome, Italy as a consultant and professor of church history as the Pontifical Urban University and the Pontifical Gregorian University.[https://www.orderofmalta.int/press\\-releases/pope\\-francis\\-has\\-appointed\\-msgr\\-luis\\-manuel\\-cuna\\-ramos\\-as\\-the\\-new\\-prelate\\-of\\-the\\-order\\-of\\-malta/](https://www.orderofmalta.int/press-releases/pope-francis-has-appointed-msgr-luis-manuel-cuna-ramos-as-the-new-prelate-of-the-order-of-malta/)", "### Relationship with other mutually\\-recognised Orders of Saint John", "The Sovereign Military Order of Malta has collaborated with other [mutually\\-recognized Orders of Saint John](/wiki/Alliance_of_the_Orders_of_Saint_John_of_Jerusalem%23Mutually-recognised_Orders_of_Saint_John \"Alliance of the Orders of Saint John of Jerusalem#Mutually-recognised Orders of Saint John\"); for example, the SMOM is a major donor of the [St John Eye Hospital](/wiki/Saint_John_Eye_Hospital_Group \"Saint John Eye Hospital Group\") in Jerusalem, which is primarily operated by the [Most Venerable Order of Saint John](/wiki/Most_Venerable_Order_of_Saint_John \"Most Venerable Order of Saint John\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Jerusalem Scene: The Newsletter of St John of Jerusalem Eye Hospital Group – Spring 2017 – Funding Today \\|url\\=https://www.stjohneyehospital.org/\\_\\_media/libraries/jerusalem\\-scene/JS25\\-Spring\\-2017\\_WEB.pdf \\|year \\= 2017 \\|publisher\\=Saint John Eye Hospital Group \\|access\\-date\\=1 September 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902084134/https://www.stjohneyehospital.org/\\_\\_media/libraries/jerusalem\\-scene/JS25\\-Spring\\-2017\\_WEB.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2 September 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
### Governance The proceedings of the Order are governed by its Constitutional Charter and Code. The **[Prince and Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Princes_and_Grand_Masters_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta "List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta")** is the head of the order and governs both as sovereign and as religious superior. He is "entitled to sovereign prerogatives and honors as well as the title of "[Most Eminent Highness](/wiki/Most_Eminent_Highness "Most Eminent Highness")".{{rp\|Constitution Article 12}} He is elected to a term of ten years and may be elected to a second term, but may not serve beyond the completion of his 85th year.{{rp\|Constitution Article 13, §2}} The Prince and Grand Master is Fra' [John T. Dunlap](/wiki/John_T._Dunlap "John T. Dunlap") who was elected on 3 May 2023\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/news/fra\-john\-dunlap\-81st\-grand\-master\-of\-the\-order\-of\-malta/\|title\=Fra' John Dunlap 81st Grand Master of the Order of Malta\|website\=Sovereign Order of Malta}} "In the event of permanent impediment, resignation or death of the Grand Master, the Order is governed by a Lieutenant *ad interim* in the person of the Grand Commander, who can only perform acts of ordinary administration without making any innovations."{{rp\|Constitution Article 18}} If it is not possible to elect a Grand Master, a Lieutenant of the Grand Master is elected, who has the same powers as the Grand Master with the exception of the prerogatives of honour pertaining to a sovereign. Both the Lieutenant *ad interim* and the Lieutenant of the Grand Master are styled *Eccellenza* ([Excellency](/wiki/Excellency "Excellency")). The **[Sovereign Council](/wiki/Sovereign_Council_of_the_Order_of_Malta "Sovereign Council of the Order of Malta")** is the primary governing body of the Order that handles regular business. The members are the Grand Master (or Lieutenant), the holders of the four High Officers (the Grand Commander,{{cite web \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\-commander/\|title\=Grand Commander \|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=13 November 2017 }} the Grand Chancellor,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\-chancellor/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Grand Chancellor \|website\=Orderofmalta.int\|access\-date\=13 November 2017 }} the Grand Hospitaller{{cite web\|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\-hospitaller/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Grand Hospitaller \|website\=Orderofmalta.int\|access\-date\=13 November 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623102434/https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\-hospitaller/\|archive\-date\=23 June 2017\|url\-status\=live}} and the Receiver of the Common Treasure),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/receiver\-of\-the\-common\-treasure/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Receiver of the Common Treasure\|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=13 November 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623102400/https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/receiver\-of\-the\-common\-treasure/\|archive\-date\=23 June 2017\|url\-status\=live}} the five Councilors of the Council of the Professed Knights, and four Councilors.{{rp\|Constitution Article 25}} The **Council of the Professed Knights** "assists the Grand Master in the spiritual care of the Order and in the governance of the First and Second Class".{{rp\|Constitution Article 26}} It includes the Grand Master (or Lieutenant), the Grand Commander, and five Councilors elected by the Chapter of the Professed. The **[Chapter General](/wiki/Chapter_General_of_the_Order_of_Malta "Chapter General of the Order of Malta")** is the legislative body of the Order, which meets every six years. It elects the members of the Sovereign Council. The **Council Complete of State** elects the Grand Master or the Lieutenant of the Grand Master. The **Board of Auditors** audits the Order's finances. It includes a President elected among the seven Councillors, all elected by the Chapter General. The **Government Council** is the advisory board to the Sovereign Council in charge of studying political, religious, humanitarian assistance and international issues. The Order's judicial powers are exercised by a group of Magistral Courts, whose judges are appointed by the Grand Master and the Sovereign Council.
[ "### Governance", "The proceedings of the Order are governed by its Constitutional Charter and Code.", "The **[Prince and Grand Master](/wiki/List_of_Princes_and_Grand_Masters_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta\")** is the head of the order and governs both as sovereign and as religious superior. He is \"entitled to sovereign prerogatives and honors as well as the title of \"[Most Eminent Highness](/wiki/Most_Eminent_Highness \"Most Eminent Highness\")\".{{rp\\|Constitution Article 12}} He is elected to a term of ten years and may be elected to a second term, but may not serve beyond the completion of his 85th year.{{rp\\|Constitution Article 13, §2}} The Prince and Grand Master is Fra' [John T. Dunlap](/wiki/John_T._Dunlap \"John T. Dunlap\") who was elected on 3 May 2023\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/news/fra\\-john\\-dunlap\\-81st\\-grand\\-master\\-of\\-the\\-order\\-of\\-malta/\\|title\\=Fra' John Dunlap 81st Grand Master of the Order of Malta\\|website\\=Sovereign Order of Malta}} \"In the event of permanent impediment, resignation or death of the Grand Master, the Order is governed by a Lieutenant *ad interim* in the person of the Grand Commander, who can only perform acts of ordinary administration without making any innovations.\"{{rp\\|Constitution Article 18}} If it is not possible to elect a Grand Master, a Lieutenant of the Grand Master is elected, who has the same powers as the Grand Master with the exception of the prerogatives of honour pertaining to a sovereign. Both the Lieutenant *ad interim* and the Lieutenant of the Grand Master are styled *Eccellenza* ([Excellency](/wiki/Excellency \"Excellency\")).", "The **[Sovereign Council](/wiki/Sovereign_Council_of_the_Order_of_Malta \"Sovereign Council of the Order of Malta\")** is the primary governing body of the Order that handles regular business. The members are the Grand Master (or Lieutenant), the holders of the four High Officers (the Grand Commander,{{cite web \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\\-commander/\\|title\\=Grand Commander \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017 }} the Grand Chancellor,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\\-chancellor/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Grand Chancellor \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int\\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017 }} the Grand Hospitaller{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\\-hospitaller/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Grand Hospitaller \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int\\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623102434/https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/grand\\-hospitaller/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and the Receiver of the Common Treasure),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/receiver\\-of\\-the\\-common\\-treasure/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Receiver of the Common Treasure\\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623102400/https://www.orderofmalta.int/government/receiver\\-of\\-the\\-common\\-treasure/\\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} the five Councilors of the Council of the Professed Knights, and four Councilors.{{rp\\|Constitution Article 25}}", "The **Council of the Professed Knights** \"assists the Grand Master in the spiritual care of the Order and in the governance of the First and Second Class\".{{rp\\|Constitution Article 26}} It includes the Grand Master (or Lieutenant), the Grand Commander, and five Councilors elected by the Chapter of the Professed.", "The **[Chapter General](/wiki/Chapter_General_of_the_Order_of_Malta \"Chapter General of the Order of Malta\")** is the legislative body of the Order, which meets every six years. It elects the members of the Sovereign Council.", "The **Council Complete of State** elects the Grand Master or the Lieutenant of the Grand Master.", "The **Board of Auditors** audits the Order's finances. It includes a President elected among the seven Councillors, all elected by the Chapter General.", "The **Government Council** is the advisory board to the Sovereign Council in charge of studying political, religious, humanitarian assistance and international issues.", "The Order's judicial powers are exercised by a group of Magistral Courts, whose judges are appointed by the Grand Master and the Sovereign Council.", "" ]
International status -------------------- [thumb\|500px\|Foreign relations with the SMOM: {{legend\|red\|Diplomatic relations}} {{legend\|orange\|Other official relations}}](/wiki/File:Diplomatic_relations_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta.svg "Diplomatic relations of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.svg") [thumb\|Coat of arms of the Knights of Malta from the façade of the church of [San Giovannino dei Cavalieri](/wiki/San_Giovannino_dei_Cavalieri "San Giovannino dei Cavalieri"), [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence"), Italy](/wiki/File:San_Giovannino_dei_Cavalieri_stemma_Cavalieri_di_Malta.JPG "San Giovannino dei Cavalieri stemma Cavalieri di Malta.JPG") {{Anchor\|Vehicle registration plate}} [thumb\|[Vehicle registration plate](/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plate "Vehicle registration plate") of the Order, as seen in Rome, Italy](/wiki/File:Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_license_plate.jpg "Sovereign Military Order of Malta license plate.jpg") [thumb\|Flags of Knights Hospitaller in [Saint Peter's Castle](/wiki/Bodrum_Castle "Bodrum Castle"), [Bodrum](/wiki/Bodrum "Bodrum"), Turkey. Left to right: {{nowrap\|Fabrizio Carretto (1513–1514\); Amaury d'Amboise (1503–1512\); Pierre d'Aubusson (1476–1503\); Jacques de Milly (1454–1461\).}}](/wiki/File:Turkey.Bodrum082.jpg "Turkey.Bodrum082.jpg") {{Main\|Foreign relations of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta}} {{Further\|List of Permanent Observers of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta to the United Nations\|List of diplomatic missions of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta}} The Order "as a subject of international law, exercises sovereign functions with regard to \[its] purposes",Carta Costituzionale e Codice, Articolo 4 namely "promoting the glory of God and the sanctification of its members" and performing works of mercy "towards the sick, the needy, and people without a country without distinction of religion, race, sex, origin and age".Carta Costituzionale e Codice, Articolo 2 The Order has formal diplomatic relations with 113 states (including the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See "Holy See")) and has official relations with another five states and [with the European Union](/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta%E2%80%93European_Union_relations "Sovereign Military Order of Malta–European Union relations"). The Order maintains [diplomatic missions](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta "List of diplomatic missions of Sovereign Military Order of Malta") around the world and many of the states reciprocate by [accrediting ambassadors to the Order](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_to_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta "List of diplomatic missions to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta") (usually their ambassador to the Holy See). During the reign of Fra' Andrew Bertie as Prince and Grand Master (1988–2008\), the number of nations extending diplomatic relations to the Order more than doubled from 49 to 100\.{{cite news \|title\=Mass commemorates knights leader \|work\=\[\[BBC News]] \|date \= 8 March 2008 \|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7284655\.stm?lsm \|access\-date \= 2 May 2009}} The Order has [observer status](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers%23Other_entities "United Nations General Assembly observers#Other entities") at the [General Assembly of the United Nations](/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_United_Nations "General Assembly of the United Nations") and some of the [specialized agencies of the United Nations](/wiki/List_of_specialized_agencies_of_the_United_Nations "List of specialized agencies of the United Nations").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/diplomatic\-activities/multilateral\-relations/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=Multilateral Relations \|website\=Orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=21 August 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009093650/http://www.orderofmalta.int/diplomatic\-relations/755/multilateral\-relations/?lang\=en \|archive\-date\=9 October 2011 \|url\-status\=live}} One such example is the [UN Central Emergency Response Fund](/wiki/Central_Emergency_Response_Fund "Central Emergency Response Fund"), to which it contributed USD $36,000 from 2006–2022\.{{Cite web \|title\=Contributions by donor \|url\=https://cerf.un.org/our\-donors/contributions\-by\-donor \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823063217/https://cerf.un.org/our\-donors/contributions\-by\-donor \|archive\-date\=2022\-08\-23 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-23 \|website\=\[\[Central Emergency Response Fund]]}} The Order is not classified as a "non\-member state" nor as an "[intergovernmental organization](/wiki/Intergovernmental_organization "Intergovernmental organization")", but rather as one of the "other entities having received a standing invitation to participate as observers."{{Cite web \|last\=Nations \|first\=United \|title\=Intergovernmental and Other Organizations \|url\=https://www.un.org/en/about\-us/intergovernmental\-and\-other\-organizations \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-14 \|website\=United Nations \|language\=en}} The Order has relations with the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross "International Committee of the Red Cross") and a number of international organizations. While the [International Telecommunication Union](/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union "International Telecommunication Union") has granted radio identification prefixes to the United Nations and the [Palestinian Authority](/wiki/Palestinian_Authority "Palestinian Authority"), the Order has never received one. For awards purposes, amateur radio operators consider the Order a separate "entity"—but stations transmitting from there use an unofficial [callsign](/wiki/Callsign "Callsign"), starting with the prefix "1A".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.arrl.org/awards/dxcc/list\_1a0\.html \|title \= ARRLWeb: DXCC Entities List (Current, 1A0\-9Z) \|website \= Arrl.org \|date\=6 May 2008 \|access\-date\=17 March 2010 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20071011034457/http://www.arrl.org/awards/dxcc/list\_1a0\.html \|archive\-date \= 11 October 2007}} The Order has neither sought nor been granted a [top\-level domain](/wiki/Top-level_domain "Top-level domain") for the Internet or an [international dialing code](/wiki/Country_calling_code "Country calling code") for telephone purposes. The Order's international nature is useful in enabling it to pursue its humanitarian activities without being seen as an operative of any particular nation. Its sovereignty is also expressed in the issuance of [passports](/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_passport "Sovereign Military Order of Malta passport"), licence plates,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.targheitaliane.it/smom/smom.html \|title\=SMOM Plates \|publisher\=Targheitaliane.it \|date\=24 August 1994 \|access\-date\=17 March 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719071417/http://www.targheitaliane.it/smom/smom.html \|archive\-date\=19 July 2011 \|url\-status\=live}} [stamps](/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta "Postage stamps and postal history of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/stamps/?lang\=en \|title\=Sovereign Order of Malta – Official site \|publisher\=Orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=17 January 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223050715/https://www.orderofmalta.int/stamps/?lang\=en \|archive\-date\=23 February 2018 \|url\-status\=live}} and [coins](/wiki/Maltese_scudo%23Coins "Maltese scudo#Coins").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/coins/ \|title\=The Coins of the Sovereign Order of Malta \|publisher\=Orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=17 January 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028145632/https://www.orderofmalta.int/coins/ \|archive\-date\=28 October 2017 \|url\-status\=live}} ### Scholarly debate With its unique history and unusual present circumstances, the exact status of the Order in international law has been the subject of debate. Some scholars have questioned the Order's sovereignty based on the fact that the Order has very limited geographical territories and on account of the Order's relationship with the Holy See. The connection between the Holy See and the Order of Malta was seen as so close as to call into question the actual sovereignty of the order as a separate entity. This has prompted constitutional changes on the part of the Order, which were implemented in 1997\. Since then, the Order has been widely recognized as a sovereign subject of international law in its own right."On account of some arguments presented in the 1950s, to the effect that the ties with the Holy See in a constitutional and international law context were so close and frequent that the true sovereignty of the Order could be called in question, constitutional changes were made by the Order. These were established in 1997\. While the previous constitution laid down that the Order of Malta was a "legal entity solemnly recognised by the Holy See," this formulation has now been removed from the Order's constitution. The previous constitution prescribed that, after being elected, the head of state of the Order of Malta, that is to say the Grand Master, must be approved by the Pope, the new wording in the constitution only prescribes that after election the Grand Master shall inform the Pope of his election. Changes have been implemented throughout to show that the Order is independent of the Holy See from the constitutional and international law perspective." Bo J. Theutenberg, [The Holy See, the Order of Malta and International Law](http://www.theutenberg.se/pdf/the_holy_see_the_order_of_malta_and_international_law.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121180847/http://www.theutenberg.se/pdf/the\_holy\_see\_the\_order\_of\_malta\_and\_international\_law.pdf\|date\=21 November 2015}} (2003\), {{ISBN\|91\-974235\-6\-4}} Some legal experts claim that the Order's claim to sovereignty cannot be maintained. Even taking into account the Order's ambassadorial diplomatic status among many nations, some scholars reject the country's sovereign status.{{Cite web \|date\=1997\-02\-07 \|title\=Point de Presse Declarations du Porte\-Parole \|url\=http://62\.160\.66\.20/BASIS/epic/www/doc/DDW?M\=1\&K\=967999489\&W\=DATE\+%3D\+%2707\.02\.1997%27\+AND\+TEXTE\+PH\+IS\+%27ordre\+de\+malte%27\+ORDER\+BY\+DATE/Descend \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060504065900/http://62\.160\.66\.20/BASIS/epic/www/doc/DDW?M\=1\&K\=967999489\&W\=DATE\+%3D\+%2707\.02\.1997%27\+AND\+TEXTE\+PH\+IS\+%27ordre\+de\+malte%27\+ORDER\+BY\+DATE/Descend \|archive\-date\=2006\-05\-04 \|website\=\[\[Ministère des Affaires étrangères]] \|language\=fr \|quote\=Pour le droit français, l'Ordre de Malte n'est pas un sujet de droit international. \|trans\-quote\=For French law, the Order of Malta is not a subject of international law.}} Wilhelm Wengler rejects the notion that recognition of the Order by some states (for example, the Republic of San Marino in 1935 recognized SMOM as a sovereign state in its own right.{{cite book\|last\=Cansacchi\|first\=Giorgio\|title\=Il diritto di legazione attivo e passivo dell'Ordine de Malta\|date\=1940\|page\=65}}{{cite journal\|last\=Astraudo\|first\=A.\|title\=Saint\-marin et l'Ordre de Malta\|date\=1935\|journal\=La Revue Diplomatique\|volume\=7}}Cox, Noel S.B., The Continuing Question of Sovereignty and the Sovereign Military Order of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (June 2008\). Available at SSRN: [https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1140462](https://ssrn.com/abstract=1140462) or [http://dx.doi.org/10\.2139/ssrn.1140462](http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1140462)) makes it a subject of international law.{{cite book \|last\=Wengler \|first\=Wilhelm \|title\=Völkerrecht \|location\=Berlin \|publisher\=Springer \|year\=1964 \|edition\= }} Ian Brownlie writes that, "Even in the sphere of recognition and bilateral relations, the legal capacities of institutions like the Sovereign Order of Jerusalem and Malta must be limited simply because they lack the territorial and demographic characteristics of states."{{cite book \|last\=Brownlie \|first\=Ian \|title\=Principles of Public International Law \|location\=Oxford \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=2019 \|edition\=9th }} Helmut Steinberger states that, "With the historical exception of the Holy See, which maintains diplomatic relations with more than 100 States, in contemporary international law only States as distinguished from international organizations or other subjects of international law are accorded sovereignty."{{cite book \|last\=Steinberger \|first\=Helmut \|chapter\=Sovereignty \|title\=Encyclopaedia of Public International Law \|location\=Amsterdam \|publisher\=North Holland \|year\=2000 \|pages\=IV, 512}} Other legal experts argue in favour of the Order's claim to sovereignty. Georg Dahm affirms that the Order is a "subject of international law without territory".{{cite book \|last\=Dahm \|first\=Georg \|title\=Völkerrecht. \|location\=Stuttgart \|publisher\=W. Kohlhammer \|year\=1958–1961}} Berthold Waldstein\-Wartenberg writes that the sovereignty of the Order and its personality in international law is "generally recognized by international law doctrine".{{cite book \|last\=Waldstein\-Wartenberg \|first\=Berthold \|title\=Rechtsgeschichte des Malteserordens \|location\=Wien \|publisher\=Verlag Herold \|year\=1969 \|page\=264}} Gerhard von Glahn affirms that "the Order can be classified as a nonstate subject of international law, although of a somewhat peculiar nature."{{cite book \|last\=Von Glahn \|first\=Gerhard \|title\=Law Among Nations: An Introduction to Public International Law \|publisher\=Sweet \& Maxwell \|year\=1992 \|edition\=6th revised}} Rebecca Wallace explains that a sovereign entity does not have to be a country, and that the Order is an example of this.{{cite book \|last\=Wallace \|first\=Rebecca \|title\=International Law: A Student Introduction \|publisher\=Sweet \& Maxwell \|year\=2005 \|edition\=5th \|isbn\=042188410X}} ### Relations with the Holy See On 24 January 1953, the Tribunal of Cardinals appointed by [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII "Pope Pius XII") stated that, "The quality of the sovereign Order of the institution is functional, that is, aimed at ensuring the achievement of the purposes of the Order itself and its development in the world." The Tribunal of Cardinals further stated that, "The status of sovereign Order...consists in the enjoyment of certain prerogatives inherent to the Order itself as a Subject of international law. These prerogatives, which are proper to sovereignty{{em dash}}in accordance with the principles of international law{{em dash}}and which, following the example of the Holy See, have also been recognized by some States, do not however constitute in the Order that complex of powers and prerogatives, which it belongs to sovereign bodies in the full sense of the word."{{cite journal\| url\=https://www.vatican.va/archive/aas/documents/AAS\-45\-1953\-ocr.pdf\| journal\=Acta Apostolicae Sedis\| title\=Tribunal e Cardinalizi O Costituto Con Pontificio Chirografo Del 10 Diciembre 1951 (judgment dated 24 January 1953\)\| volume\=XLV\| number\=15\| date\=30 November 1953\| pages\=765–767\| language\=it\| publisher\=The Holy See\| access\-date\=13 February 2015\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214164058/https://www.vatican.va/archive/aas/documents/AAS\-45\-1953\-ocr.pdf\| archive\-date\=14 February 2015\| url\-status\=live\| df\=dmy\-all}} On 24 June 1961, [Pope John XXIII](/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII "Pope John XXIII") approved the Constitutional Charter of the Order, which stated that "the Order is a legal entity formally approved by the Holy See. It has the quality of a subject of international law" (Article 1\) and that "the intimate connection existing between the two qualities of a religious order and a sovereign order do not oppose the autonomy of the order in the exercise of its sovereignty and prerogatives inherent to it as a subject of international law in relation to States." (Article 3\) ### Relations with Italy The Order has signed treaties with Italy dated 20 February 1884, 23 December 1915, 4 January 1938, and 1956\.{{cite web \|url\=http://library.gayhomeland.org/0010/EN/EN\_Souvereignity\_and\_international\_Law\_G\_S\_Sainty.htm\#BM1 \|title\=The Order of Malta, Sovereignty, and International Law \|last\=Sainty \|first\=Guy Stair \|website\= \|access\-date\=10 April 2022 }} The [Supreme Court of Cassation](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cassation_%28Italy%29 "Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)") decreed on 6 June 1974 that, "the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Malta constitutes a sovereign international subject, in all terms equal, even if without territory, to a foreign state with which Italy has normal diplomatic relations, so there is no doubt, as already this Supreme Court has warned, that it has the legal treatment of foreign states".{{cite journal \|url\=https://swab.zlibcdn.com/dtoken/d9b09dd57910bda736e1e1045ece596b/23164645\.pdf \|title\=Corte Suprema di Cassazione; Sezioni unite civili; sentenza 6 giugno 1974, n. 1653 \|journal\=Il Foro Italiano \|volume\=98 \|issue\=6 \|date\=June 1975 \|pages\=1471/1472–1475/1476 \|access\-date\= 10 April 2022}} The two most important properties of the Order in Rome – the Palazzo Malta in Via dei Condotti 68, where the Grand Master resides and Government Bodies meet, and the Villa del Priorato di Malta on the Aventine Hill, which hosts the Grand Priory of Rome – as well as the Embassy of the Order to Holy See and the Embassy of the Order to Italy are all recognised as extraterritorial by Italy.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.maineworldnewsservice.com/caltrap/anessay.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030702021513/http://www.maineworldnewsservice.com/caltrap/anessay.htm \|title\=An Essay on the Order of St. John (S.M.O.M.) \|author\=Paul, Chevalier (pseudonym of a French knight of the SMOM) \|access\-date\=8 October 2012\|archive\-date\=2 July 2003\| url\-status\=dead\| quote\=Minuscule as it is, the Order does also possess sovereign territory. This consists of the land in Rome on which stands the Grand Magistracy in the Via Condotti and the Villa Malta.}} As Italy recognizes, in addition to extraterritoriality, the exercise by SMOM of all the prerogatives of sovereignty in its headquarters, Italian sovereignty and SMOM sovereignty uniquely coexist without overlapping.{{cite web\| url\= https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B9LDb9lFYjVPUnFkaUVjVVdVUnM/view?usp\=sharing\| publisher\=Analítica.com\| location\=Caracas, Distrito Capital, Venezuela\| access\-date\=1 October 2012\| last\=Arocha\|first\=Magaly \| title\= La Orden de Malta y su Naturaleza Jurídica (The Order of Malta and Its Legal Nature) \| date\=May 1999\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150801044650/http://analitica.com/opinion/opinion\-nacional/la\-orden\-de\-malta\-y\-su\-naturaleza\-juridica/\|archive\-date\= 1 August 2015\|url\-status\= live}} By a decree of King [Victor Emmanuel III of Italy](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy "Victor Emmanuel III of Italy") of 28 November 1929, "The Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta enjoys in Italy the honors due to the Cardinals, and takes place after them." Further, "The representation of the Grand Magistry of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta . . . immediately follows the representations of the Foreign Diplomatic Corps." Finally, the decree affirms that the Bailiffs Knights Grand Cross of Justice in Italy shall be styled "Excellency" ({{lang\-it\|Eccellenza}}).{{cite news \|last\=Vittorio Emanuele III \|date\=2 December 1929 \|title\=Norme relative al trattamento del Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta nell'ordine delle precedenze a Corte e nelle pubbliche funzioni. \|url\=https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/gu/1929/12/02/280/sg/pdf \|work\=Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia \|pages\=5393–5394 \|access\-date\=10 April 2022}} The Order is one of the largest landowners in Italy; its properties are exempted from certain Italian fiscal jurisdiction. Diplomatic vehicles of the Order in Italy receive diplomatic license plates with the code "XA". Other vehicles of the Order receive Italian license plates with the prefix SMOM. ### Relations with the Republic of Malta [thumb\|Flags of Malta and the SMOM on [Fort St. Angelo](/wiki/Fort_St._Angelo "Fort St. Angelo")](/wiki/File:St-Angelo-Malta.jpg "St-Angelo-Malta.jpg") Two bilateral treaties have been concluded between the Order and the [Republic of Malta](/wiki/Republic_of_Malta "Republic of Malta"). The first treaty, dated 21 June 1991, is now no longer in force.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mfa.gov.mt/TreatyDetails.aspx?id%3D1469 \|title\= Agreement between the Republic of Malta and the Sovereign Military Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta for the Restoration and Utilisation of Parts of Fort St. Angelo \|access\-date\=13 November 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119024945/http://www.mfa.gov.mt/TreatyDetails.aspx?id\=1469 \|archive\-date\=19 November 2014 }} The second treaty was signed on 5 December 1998 and ratified on 1 November 2001\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mfa.gov.mt/TreatyDetails.aspx?id%3D464 \|title\= Agreement between the Government of Malta and the Government of the Sovereign Hospitalier Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta for the restoration and utilisation of parts of Fort St. Angelo \|access\-date\=13 November 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119024832/http://www.mfa.gov.mt/TreatyDetails.aspx?id\=464 \|archive\-date\=19 November 2014 }} This agreement grants the Order the use with limited extraterritoriality of the upper portion of [Fort St. Angelo](/wiki/Fort_St._Angelo "Fort St. Angelo") in the city of [Birgu](/wiki/Birgu "Birgu"). Its stated purpose is "to give the Order the opportunity to be better enabled to carry out its humanitarian activities as Knights Hospitallers from Saint Angelo, as well as to better define the legal status of Saint Angelo subject to the sovereignty of Malta over it".Agreement between the Government of Malta and the Government of the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (signed 5 December 1998\), Article 3(4\)–(5\), Article 3(2\)–(3\), Article 7(4\) The agreement has a duration of 99 years, but the document allows the Government of Malta to terminate it at any time after 50 years.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2001/03/13/after\-two\-centuries\-the\-order\-of\-malta\-flag\-flies\-over\-fort\-st\-angelo\-beside\-the\-maltese\-flag/ \|author\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \|title\=After Two Centuries, the Order of Malta Flag Flies over Fort St. Angelo beside the Maltese Flag \|website\=orderofmalta.int \|access\-date\=13 November 2014 \|date\=13 March 2001 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916163852/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2001/03/13/after\-two\-centuries\-the\-order\-of\-malta\-flag\-flies\-over\-fort\-st\-angelo\-beside\-the\-maltese\-flag/ \|archive\-date\=16 September 2016 \|url\-status\=live}} Under the terms of the agreement, the flag of Malta is to be flown together with the flag of the Order in a prominent position over Fort St. Angelo. No asylum may be granted by the Order and generally the Maltese courts have full jurisdiction and Maltese law shall apply. The second bilateral treaty mentions a number of immunities and privileges, none of which appeared in the earlier treaty. ### Currency and postage stamps {{see also\|Postage stamps and postal history of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta}} The Order's coins are appreciated more as collector's items than for use as currency. Some 58 countries recognize the Order's postage stamps for [franking](/wiki/Franking "Franking") purposes, including several such as Canada and [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia") that lack full diplomatic relations with the Order.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/associate\-countries/ \|title\=Associate Countries \|access\-date\=22 January 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222225731/https://www.orderofmalta.int/associate\-countries/ \|archive\-date\=22 February 2018 \|url\-status\=live}} In 2005, [Poste italiane](/wiki/Poste_italiane "Poste italiane"), the Italian postal service, agreed with the Order to deliver internationally most classes of mail other than registered, insured, and special\-delivery mail. The Order began issuing [euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro")\-denominated postage stamps in 2005, although the [scudo](/wiki/Maltese_scudo "Maltese scudo") remains the official currency of the Order.
[ "International status\n--------------------", "[thumb\\|500px\\|Foreign relations with the SMOM:\n{{legend\\|red\\|Diplomatic relations}}\n{{legend\\|orange\\|Other official relations}}](/wiki/File:Diplomatic_relations_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta.svg \"Diplomatic relations of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.svg\")\n[thumb\\|Coat of arms of the Knights of Malta from the façade of the church of [San Giovannino dei Cavalieri](/wiki/San_Giovannino_dei_Cavalieri \"San Giovannino dei Cavalieri\"), [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\"), Italy](/wiki/File:San_Giovannino_dei_Cavalieri_stemma_Cavalieri_di_Malta.JPG \"San Giovannino dei Cavalieri stemma Cavalieri di Malta.JPG\")\n{{Anchor\\|Vehicle registration plate}} [thumb\\|[Vehicle registration plate](/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plate \"Vehicle registration plate\") of the Order, as seen in Rome, Italy](/wiki/File:Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_license_plate.jpg \"Sovereign Military Order of Malta license plate.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Flags of Knights Hospitaller in [Saint Peter's Castle](/wiki/Bodrum_Castle \"Bodrum Castle\"), [Bodrum](/wiki/Bodrum \"Bodrum\"), Turkey. \nLeft to right: {{nowrap\\|Fabrizio Carretto (1513–1514\\); \nAmaury d'Amboise (1503–1512\\); \nPierre d'Aubusson (1476–1503\\); \nJacques de Milly (1454–1461\\).}}](/wiki/File:Turkey.Bodrum082.jpg \"Turkey.Bodrum082.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|Foreign relations of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}\n{{Further\\|List of Permanent Observers of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta to the United Nations\\|List of diplomatic missions of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}", "The Order \"as a subject of international law, exercises sovereign functions with regard to \\[its] purposes\",Carta Costituzionale e Codice, Articolo 4 namely \"promoting the glory of God and the sanctification of its members\" and performing works of mercy \"towards the sick, the needy, and people without a country without distinction of religion, race, sex, origin and age\".Carta Costituzionale e Codice, Articolo 2", "The Order has formal diplomatic relations with 113 states (including the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See \"Holy See\")) and has official relations with another five states and [with the European Union](/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta%E2%80%93European_Union_relations \"Sovereign Military Order of Malta–European Union relations\"). The Order maintains [diplomatic missions](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"List of diplomatic missions of Sovereign Military Order of Malta\") around the world and many of the states reciprocate by [accrediting ambassadors to the Order](/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_to_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"List of diplomatic missions to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta\") (usually their ambassador to the Holy See). During the reign of Fra' Andrew Bertie as Prince and Grand Master (1988–2008\\), the number of nations extending diplomatic relations to the Order more than doubled from 49 to 100\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Mass commemorates knights leader \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|date \\= 8 March 2008 \\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7284655\\.stm?lsm \\|access\\-date \\= 2 May 2009}}", "The Order has [observer status](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers%23Other_entities \"United Nations General Assembly observers#Other entities\") at the [General Assembly of the United Nations](/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_United_Nations \"General Assembly of the United Nations\") and some of the [specialized agencies of the United Nations](/wiki/List_of_specialized_agencies_of_the_United_Nations \"List of specialized agencies of the United Nations\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/diplomatic\\-activities/multilateral\\-relations/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=Multilateral Relations \\|website\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009093650/http://www.orderofmalta.int/diplomatic\\-relations/755/multilateral\\-relations/?lang\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} One such example is the [UN Central Emergency Response Fund](/wiki/Central_Emergency_Response_Fund \"Central Emergency Response Fund\"), to which it contributed USD $36,000 from 2006–2022\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Contributions by donor \\|url\\=https://cerf.un.org/our\\-donors/contributions\\-by\\-donor \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823063217/https://cerf.un.org/our\\-donors/contributions\\-by\\-donor \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-23 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-23 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Central Emergency Response Fund]]}} The Order is not classified as a \"non\\-member state\" nor as an \"[intergovernmental organization](/wiki/Intergovernmental_organization \"Intergovernmental organization\")\", but rather as one of the \"other entities having received a standing invitation to participate as observers.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nations \\|first\\=United \\|title\\=Intergovernmental and Other Organizations \\|url\\=https://www.un.org/en/about\\-us/intergovernmental\\-and\\-other\\-organizations \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-14 \\|website\\=United Nations \\|language\\=en}}", "The Order has relations with the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross \"International Committee of the Red Cross\") and a number of international organizations. While the [International Telecommunication Union](/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union \"International Telecommunication Union\") has granted radio identification prefixes to the United Nations and the [Palestinian Authority](/wiki/Palestinian_Authority \"Palestinian Authority\"), the Order has never received one. For awards purposes, amateur radio operators consider the Order a separate \"entity\"—but stations transmitting from there use an unofficial [callsign](/wiki/Callsign \"Callsign\"), starting with the prefix \"1A\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.arrl.org/awards/dxcc/list\\_1a0\\.html \\|title \\= ARRLWeb: DXCC Entities List (Current, 1A0\\-9Z) \\|website \\= Arrl.org \\|date\\=6 May 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2010 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20071011034457/http://www.arrl.org/awards/dxcc/list\\_1a0\\.html \\|archive\\-date \\= 11 October 2007}} The Order has neither sought nor been granted a [top\\-level domain](/wiki/Top-level_domain \"Top-level domain\") for the Internet or an [international dialing code](/wiki/Country_calling_code \"Country calling code\") for telephone purposes.", "The Order's international nature is useful in enabling it to pursue its humanitarian activities without being seen as an operative of any particular nation. Its sovereignty is also expressed in the issuance of [passports](/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_passport \"Sovereign Military Order of Malta passport\"), licence plates,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.targheitaliane.it/smom/smom.html \\|title\\=SMOM Plates \\|publisher\\=Targheitaliane.it \\|date\\=24 August 1994 \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719071417/http://www.targheitaliane.it/smom/smom.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} [stamps](/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"Postage stamps and postal history of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/stamps/?lang\\=en \\|title\\=Sovereign Order of Malta – Official site \\|publisher\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=17 January 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223050715/https://www.orderofmalta.int/stamps/?lang\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=23 February 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} and [coins](/wiki/Maltese_scudo%23Coins \"Maltese scudo#Coins\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/coins/ \\|title\\=The Coins of the Sovereign Order of Malta \\|publisher\\=Orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=17 January 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028145632/https://www.orderofmalta.int/coins/ \\|archive\\-date\\=28 October 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Scholarly debate", "With its unique history and unusual present circumstances, the exact status of the Order in international law has been the subject of debate. Some scholars have questioned the Order's sovereignty based on the fact that the Order has very limited geographical territories and on account of the Order's relationship with the Holy See. The connection between the Holy See and the Order of Malta was seen as so close as to call into question the actual sovereignty of the order as a separate entity. This has prompted constitutional changes on the part of the Order, which were implemented in 1997\\. Since then, the Order has been widely recognized as a sovereign subject of international law in its own right.\"On account of some arguments presented in the 1950s, to the effect that the ties with the Holy See in a constitutional and international law context were so close and frequent that the true sovereignty of the Order could be called in question, constitutional changes were made by the Order. These were established in 1997\\. While the previous constitution laid down that the Order of Malta was a \"legal entity solemnly recognised by the Holy See,\" this formulation has now been removed from the Order's constitution. The previous constitution prescribed that, after being elected, the head of state of the Order of Malta, that is to say the Grand Master, must be approved by the Pope, the new wording in the constitution only prescribes that after election the Grand Master shall inform the Pope of his election. Changes have been implemented throughout to show that the Order is independent of the Holy See from the constitutional and international law perspective.\" Bo J. Theutenberg, [The Holy See, the Order of Malta and International Law](http://www.theutenberg.se/pdf/the_holy_see_the_order_of_malta_and_international_law.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121180847/http://www.theutenberg.se/pdf/the\\_holy\\_see\\_the\\_order\\_of\\_malta\\_and\\_international\\_law.pdf\\|date\\=21 November 2015}} (2003\\), {{ISBN\\|91\\-974235\\-6\\-4}}", "Some legal experts claim that the Order's claim to sovereignty cannot be maintained. Even taking into account the Order's ambassadorial diplomatic status among many nations, some scholars reject the country's sovereign status.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1997\\-02\\-07 \\|title\\=Point de Presse Declarations du Porte\\-Parole \\|url\\=http://62\\.160\\.66\\.20/BASIS/epic/www/doc/DDW?M\\=1\\&K\\=967999489\\&W\\=DATE\\+%3D\\+%2707\\.02\\.1997%27\\+AND\\+TEXTE\\+PH\\+IS\\+%27ordre\\+de\\+malte%27\\+ORDER\\+BY\\+DATE/Descend \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060504065900/http://62\\.160\\.66\\.20/BASIS/epic/www/doc/DDW?M\\=1\\&K\\=967999489\\&W\\=DATE\\+%3D\\+%2707\\.02\\.1997%27\\+AND\\+TEXTE\\+PH\\+IS\\+%27ordre\\+de\\+malte%27\\+ORDER\\+BY\\+DATE/Descend \\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-05\\-04 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Ministère des Affaires étrangères]] \\|language\\=fr \\|quote\\=Pour le droit français, l'Ordre de Malte n'est pas un sujet de droit international. \\|trans\\-quote\\=For French law, the Order of Malta is not a subject of international law.}} Wilhelm Wengler rejects the notion that recognition of the Order by some states (for example, the Republic of San Marino in 1935 recognized SMOM as a sovereign state in its own right.{{cite book\\|last\\=Cansacchi\\|first\\=Giorgio\\|title\\=Il diritto di legazione attivo e passivo dell'Ordine de Malta\\|date\\=1940\\|page\\=65}}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Astraudo\\|first\\=A.\\|title\\=Saint\\-marin et l'Ordre de Malta\\|date\\=1935\\|journal\\=La Revue Diplomatique\\|volume\\=7}}Cox, Noel S.B., The Continuing Question of Sovereignty and the Sovereign Military Order of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (June 2008\\). Available at SSRN: [https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1140462](https://ssrn.com/abstract=1140462) or [http://dx.doi.org/10\\.2139/ssrn.1140462](http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1140462)) makes it a subject of international law.{{cite book \\|last\\=Wengler \\|first\\=Wilhelm \\|title\\=Völkerrecht \\|location\\=Berlin \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|year\\=1964 \\|edition\\= }} Ian Brownlie writes that, \"Even in the sphere of recognition and bilateral relations, the legal capacities of institutions like the Sovereign Order of Jerusalem and Malta must be limited simply because they lack the territorial and demographic characteristics of states.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Brownlie \\|first\\=Ian \\|title\\=Principles of Public International Law \\|location\\=Oxford \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=2019 \\|edition\\=9th }} Helmut Steinberger states that, \"With the historical exception of the Holy See, which maintains diplomatic relations with more than 100 States, in contemporary international law only States as distinguished from international organizations or other subjects of international law are accorded sovereignty.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Steinberger \\|first\\=Helmut \\|chapter\\=Sovereignty \\|title\\=Encyclopaedia of Public International Law \\|location\\=Amsterdam \\|publisher\\=North Holland \\|year\\=2000 \\|pages\\=IV, 512}}", "Other legal experts argue in favour of the Order's claim to sovereignty. Georg Dahm affirms that the Order is a \"subject of international law without territory\".{{cite book \\|last\\=Dahm \\|first\\=Georg \\|title\\=Völkerrecht. \\|location\\=Stuttgart \\|publisher\\=W. Kohlhammer \\|year\\=1958–1961}} Berthold Waldstein\\-Wartenberg writes that the sovereignty of the Order and its personality in international law is \"generally recognized by international law doctrine\".{{cite book \\|last\\=Waldstein\\-Wartenberg \\|first\\=Berthold \\|title\\=Rechtsgeschichte des Malteserordens \\|location\\=Wien \\|publisher\\=Verlag Herold \\|year\\=1969 \\|page\\=264}} Gerhard von Glahn affirms that \"the Order can be classified as a nonstate subject of international law, although of a somewhat peculiar nature.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Von Glahn \\|first\\=Gerhard \\|title\\=Law Among Nations: An Introduction to Public International Law \\|publisher\\=Sweet \\& Maxwell \\|year\\=1992 \\|edition\\=6th revised}} Rebecca Wallace explains that a sovereign entity does not have to be a country, and that the Order is an example of this.{{cite book \\|last\\=Wallace \\|first\\=Rebecca \\|title\\=International Law: A Student Introduction \\|publisher\\=Sweet \\& Maxwell \\|year\\=2005 \\|edition\\=5th \\|isbn\\=042188410X}}", "### Relations with the Holy See", "On 24 January 1953, the Tribunal of Cardinals appointed by [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII \"Pope Pius XII\") stated that, \"The quality of the sovereign Order of the institution is functional, that is, aimed at ensuring the achievement of the purposes of the Order itself and its development in the world.\" The Tribunal of Cardinals further stated that, \"The status of sovereign Order...consists in the enjoyment of certain prerogatives inherent to the Order itself as a Subject of international law. These prerogatives, which are proper to sovereignty{{em dash}}in accordance with the principles of international law{{em dash}}and which, following the example of the Holy See, have also been recognized by some States, do not however constitute in the Order that complex of powers and prerogatives, which it belongs to sovereign bodies in the full sense of the word.\"{{cite journal\\| url\\=https://www.vatican.va/archive/aas/documents/AAS\\-45\\-1953\\-ocr.pdf\\| journal\\=Acta Apostolicae Sedis\\| title\\=Tribunal e Cardinalizi O Costituto Con Pontificio Chirografo Del 10 Diciembre 1951 (judgment dated 24 January 1953\\)\\| volume\\=XLV\\| number\\=15\\| date\\=30 November 1953\\| pages\\=765–767\\| language\\=it\\| publisher\\=The Holy See\\| access\\-date\\=13 February 2015\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214164058/https://www.vatican.va/archive/aas/documents/AAS\\-45\\-1953\\-ocr.pdf\\| archive\\-date\\=14 February 2015\\| url\\-status\\=live\\| df\\=dmy\\-all}}", "On 24 June 1961, [Pope John XXIII](/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII \"Pope John XXIII\") approved the Constitutional Charter of the Order, which stated that \"the Order is a legal entity formally approved by the Holy See. It has the quality of a subject of international law\" (Article 1\\) and that \"the intimate connection existing between the two qualities of a religious order and a sovereign order do not oppose the autonomy of the order in the exercise of its sovereignty and prerogatives inherent to it as a subject of international law in relation to States.\" (Article 3\\)", "### Relations with Italy", "The Order has signed treaties with Italy dated 20 February 1884, 23 December 1915, 4 January 1938, and 1956\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://library.gayhomeland.org/0010/EN/EN\\_Souvereignity\\_and\\_international\\_Law\\_G\\_S\\_Sainty.htm\\#BM1 \\|title\\=The Order of Malta, Sovereignty, and International Law \\|last\\=Sainty \\|first\\=Guy Stair \\|website\\= \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2022 }}", "The [Supreme Court of Cassation](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cassation_%28Italy%29 \"Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)\") decreed on 6 June 1974 that, \"the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Malta constitutes a sovereign international subject, in all terms equal, even if without territory, to a foreign state with which Italy has normal diplomatic relations, so there is no doubt, as already this Supreme Court has warned, that it has the legal treatment of foreign states\".{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://swab.zlibcdn.com/dtoken/d9b09dd57910bda736e1e1045ece596b/23164645\\.pdf \\|title\\=Corte Suprema di Cassazione; Sezioni unite civili; sentenza 6 giugno 1974, n. 1653 \\|journal\\=Il Foro Italiano \\|volume\\=98 \\|issue\\=6 \\|date\\=June 1975 \\|pages\\=1471/1472–1475/1476 \\|access\\-date\\= 10 April 2022}}", "The two most important properties of the Order in Rome – the Palazzo Malta in Via dei Condotti 68, where the Grand Master resides and Government Bodies meet, and the Villa del Priorato di Malta on the Aventine Hill, which hosts the Grand Priory of Rome – as well as the Embassy of the Order to Holy See and the Embassy of the Order to Italy are all recognised as extraterritorial by Italy.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.maineworldnewsservice.com/caltrap/anessay.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030702021513/http://www.maineworldnewsservice.com/caltrap/anessay.htm \\|title\\=An Essay on the Order of St. John (S.M.O.M.) \\|author\\=Paul, Chevalier (pseudonym of a French knight of the SMOM) \\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=2 July 2003\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| quote\\=Minuscule as it is, the Order does also possess sovereign territory. This consists of the land in Rome on which stands the Grand Magistracy in the Via Condotti and the Villa Malta.}} As Italy recognizes, in addition to extraterritoriality, the exercise by SMOM of all the prerogatives of sovereignty in its headquarters, Italian sovereignty and SMOM sovereignty uniquely coexist without overlapping.{{cite web\\| url\\= https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B9LDb9lFYjVPUnFkaUVjVVdVUnM/view?usp\\=sharing\\| publisher\\=Analítica.com\\| location\\=Caracas, Distrito Capital, Venezuela\\| access\\-date\\=1 October 2012\\| last\\=Arocha\\|first\\=Magaly \\| title\\= La Orden de Malta y su Naturaleza Jurídica (The Order of Malta and Its Legal Nature) \\| date\\=May 1999\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150801044650/http://analitica.com/opinion/opinion\\-nacional/la\\-orden\\-de\\-malta\\-y\\-su\\-naturaleza\\-juridica/\\|archive\\-date\\= 1 August 2015\\|url\\-status\\= live}}", "By a decree of King [Victor Emmanuel III of Italy](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy \"Victor Emmanuel III of Italy\") of 28 November 1929, \"The Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta enjoys in Italy the honors due to the Cardinals, and takes place after them.\" Further, \"The representation of the Grand Magistry of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta . . . immediately follows the representations of the Foreign Diplomatic Corps.\" Finally, the decree affirms that the Bailiffs Knights Grand Cross of Justice in Italy shall be styled \"Excellency\" ({{lang\\-it\\|Eccellenza}}).{{cite news \\|last\\=Vittorio Emanuele III \\|date\\=2 December 1929 \\|title\\=Norme relative al trattamento del Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta nell'ordine delle precedenze a Corte e nelle pubbliche funzioni. \\|url\\=https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/gu/1929/12/02/280/sg/pdf \\|work\\=Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia \\|pages\\=5393–5394 \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2022}}", "The Order is one of the largest landowners in Italy; its properties are exempted from certain Italian fiscal jurisdiction.", "Diplomatic vehicles of the Order in Italy receive diplomatic license plates with the code \"XA\". Other vehicles of the Order receive Italian license plates with the prefix SMOM.", "### Relations with the Republic of Malta", "[thumb\\|Flags of Malta and the SMOM on [Fort St. Angelo](/wiki/Fort_St._Angelo \"Fort St. Angelo\")](/wiki/File:St-Angelo-Malta.jpg \"St-Angelo-Malta.jpg\")", "Two bilateral treaties have been concluded between the Order and the [Republic of Malta](/wiki/Republic_of_Malta \"Republic of Malta\"). The first treaty, dated 21 June 1991, is now no longer in force.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mfa.gov.mt/TreatyDetails.aspx?id%3D1469 \\|title\\= Agreement between the Republic of Malta and the Sovereign Military Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta for the Restoration and Utilisation of Parts of Fort St. Angelo \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119024945/http://www.mfa.gov.mt/TreatyDetails.aspx?id\\=1469 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2014 }} The second treaty was signed on 5 December 1998 and ratified on 1 November 2001\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mfa.gov.mt/TreatyDetails.aspx?id%3D464 \\|title\\= Agreement between the Government of Malta and the Government of the Sovereign Hospitalier Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta for the restoration and utilisation of parts of Fort St. Angelo \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119024832/http://www.mfa.gov.mt/TreatyDetails.aspx?id\\=464 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2014 }}", "This agreement grants the Order the use with limited extraterritoriality of the upper portion of [Fort St. Angelo](/wiki/Fort_St._Angelo \"Fort St. Angelo\") in the city of [Birgu](/wiki/Birgu \"Birgu\"). Its stated purpose is \"to give the Order the opportunity to be better enabled to carry out its humanitarian activities as Knights Hospitallers from Saint Angelo, as well as to better define the legal status of Saint Angelo subject to the sovereignty of Malta over it\".Agreement between the Government of Malta and the Government of the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (signed 5 December 1998\\), Article 3(4\\)–(5\\), Article 3(2\\)–(3\\), Article 7(4\\)", "The agreement has a duration of 99 years, but the document allows the Government of Malta to terminate it at any time after 50 years.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/2001/03/13/after\\-two\\-centuries\\-the\\-order\\-of\\-malta\\-flag\\-flies\\-over\\-fort\\-st\\-angelo\\-beside\\-the\\-maltese\\-flag/ \\|author\\=Sovereign Military Order of Malta \\|title\\=After Two Centuries, the Order of Malta Flag Flies over Fort St. Angelo beside the Maltese Flag \\|website\\=orderofmalta.int \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2014 \\|date\\=13 March 2001 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916163852/https://www.orderofmalta.int/2001/03/13/after\\-two\\-centuries\\-the\\-order\\-of\\-malta\\-flag\\-flies\\-over\\-fort\\-st\\-angelo\\-beside\\-the\\-maltese\\-flag/ \\|archive\\-date\\=16 September 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Under the terms of the agreement, the flag of Malta is to be flown together with the flag of the Order in a prominent position over Fort St. Angelo. No asylum may be granted by the Order and generally the Maltese courts have full jurisdiction and Maltese law shall apply. The second bilateral treaty mentions a number of immunities and privileges, none of which appeared in the earlier treaty.", "### Currency and postage stamps", "{{see also\\|Postage stamps and postal history of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}", "The Order's coins are appreciated more as collector's items than for use as currency.", "Some 58 countries recognize the Order's postage stamps for [franking](/wiki/Franking \"Franking\") purposes, including several such as Canada and [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\") that lack full diplomatic relations with the Order.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.orderofmalta.int/associate\\-countries/ \\|title\\=Associate Countries \\|access\\-date\\=22 January 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222225731/https://www.orderofmalta.int/associate\\-countries/ \\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2005, [Poste italiane](/wiki/Poste_italiane \"Poste italiane\"), the Italian postal service, agreed with the Order to deliver internationally most classes of mail other than registered, insured, and special\\-delivery mail. The Order began issuing [euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\")\\-denominated postage stamps in 2005, although the [scudo](/wiki/Maltese_scudo \"Maltese scudo\") remains the official currency of the Order.", "" ]
Political career ---------------- After the war, Myftiu was active in the Communist political structure and became a protégé of [Mehmet Shehu](/wiki/Mehmet_Shehu "Mehmet Shehu").{{cite book \|last\=Elsie \|first\=Robert \|date\=2013 \|title\=A Biographical Dictionary of Albanian History \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pgf6GWJxuZgC \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[I.B. Tauris]] \|page\=324 \|isbn\=978\-1\-78076\-431\-3 }} From 1947 to 1949, he served as Chair of the [People's Assembly of Albania](/wiki/People%27s_Assembly_of_Albania "People's Assembly of Albania"). He then served as Minister without portfolio from 1949 to 1950\. In November 1948, he became a member of the central committee of the [Party of Labour of Albania](/wiki/Party_of_Labour_of_Albania "Party of Labour of Albania"). He remained a member of the central committee until it was disbanded when the party transitioned into the [Socialist Party of Albania](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Albania "Socialist Party of Albania"). From May 1950 to April 1951, he served as Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs. On 4 July 1950, Myftiu was appointed President of the Control Commission.{{cite book \|last\=Pearson \|first\=Owen \|date\=2006 \|title\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\-1998 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[I.B. Tauris]] \|pages\=403–04 \|isbn\=1\-84511\-105\-2 }} He served in this position until 5 March 1951, replaced by [Mehmet Shehu](/wiki/Mehmet_Shehu "Mehmet Shehu").{{cite book \|last\=Pearson \|first\=Owen \|date\=2006 \|title\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\-1998 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[I.B. Tauris]] \|page\=422 \|isbn\=1\-84511\-105\-2 }} On 5 March 1951, Myftiu was made a [vice\-premier](/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Albania "Deputy Prime Minister of Albania") and replaced [Manol Konomi](/wiki/Manol_Konomi "Manol Konomi") as the [Minister of Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_%28Albania%29 "Ministry of Justice (Albania)") as part of a series of changes to the cabinet. He held this post until 6 September 1951, when he was dismissed and replaced by [Bilbil Klosi](/wiki/Bilbil_Klosi "Bilbil Klosi") as part of a cabinet reshuffle.{{cite book \|last\=Pearson \|first\=Owen \|date\=2006 \|title\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\-1998 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[I.B. Tauris]] \|page\=432 \|isbn\=1\-84511\-105\-2 }} On 11 April 1952, it was announced that Myftiu was dismissed as vice\-premier.{{cite book \|last\=Pearson \|first\=Owen \|date\=2006 \|title\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\-1998 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[I.B. Tauris]] \|page\=445 \|isbn\=1\-84511\-105\-2 }} On 12 July 1954, following a reorganization of the [Party of Labour of Albania](/wiki/Party_of_Labour_of_Albania "Party of Labour of Albania"), Myftiu and [Josif Pashko](/wiki/Josif_Pashko "Josif Pashko") were replaced in their party posts by [Gogo Nushi](/wiki/Gogo_Nushi "Gogo Nushi") and [Liri Belishova](/wiki/Liri_Belishova "Liri Belishova").{{cite book \|last\=Pearson \|first\=Owen \|date\=2006 \|title\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\-1998 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[I.B. Tauris]] \|page\=482 \|isbn\=1\-84511\-105\-2 }} On 20 July 1954, Myftiu became vice\-premier once again.{{cite book \|last\=Pearson \|first\=Owen \|date\=2006 \|title\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\-1998 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[I.B. Tauris]] \|page\=483 \|isbn\=1\-84511\-105\-2 }} He became a candidate member of the [Politburo](/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Party_of_Labour_of_Albania "Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania") in 1952, and a full member of the Politburo from 1956 to 1990\. From 1956 to 1958, Myftiu served as [Minister of Health](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Social_Welfare_%28Albania%29 "Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (Albania)"). From 1958 to 1965, he served as [Minister of Education](/wiki/Ministry_of_Education%2C_Sports_and_Youth_%28Albania%29 "Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth (Albania)"). From 1966 to 1976, he was First Secretary of the [Tirana](/wiki/Tirana "Tirana") District Party Committee. From 1976 to 1990, he served as deputy prime minister.
[ "Political career\n----------------", "After the war, Myftiu was active in the Communist political structure and became a protégé of [Mehmet Shehu](/wiki/Mehmet_Shehu \"Mehmet Shehu\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Elsie \\|first\\=Robert \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=A Biographical Dictionary of Albanian History \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pgf6GWJxuZgC \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[I.B. Tauris]] \\|page\\=324 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78076\\-431\\-3 }} From 1947 to 1949, he served as Chair of the [People's Assembly of Albania](/wiki/People%27s_Assembly_of_Albania \"People's Assembly of Albania\"). He then served as Minister without portfolio from 1949 to 1950\\.", "In November 1948, he became a member of the central committee of the [Party of Labour of Albania](/wiki/Party_of_Labour_of_Albania \"Party of Labour of Albania\"). He remained a member of the central committee until it was disbanded when the party transitioned into the [Socialist Party of Albania](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Albania \"Socialist Party of Albania\").", "From May 1950 to April 1951, he served as Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs.", "On 4 July 1950, Myftiu was appointed President of the Control Commission.{{cite book \\|last\\=Pearson \\|first\\=Owen \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\\-1998 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[I.B. Tauris]] \\|pages\\=403–04 \\|isbn\\=1\\-84511\\-105\\-2 }} He served in this position until 5 March 1951, replaced by [Mehmet Shehu](/wiki/Mehmet_Shehu \"Mehmet Shehu\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Pearson \\|first\\=Owen \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\\-1998 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[I.B. Tauris]] \\|page\\=422 \\|isbn\\=1\\-84511\\-105\\-2 }}", "On 5 March 1951, Myftiu was made a [vice\\-premier](/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Albania \"Deputy Prime Minister of Albania\") and replaced [Manol Konomi](/wiki/Manol_Konomi \"Manol Konomi\") as the [Minister of Justice](/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_%28Albania%29 \"Ministry of Justice (Albania)\") as part of a series of changes to the cabinet. He held this post until 6 September 1951, when he was dismissed and replaced by [Bilbil Klosi](/wiki/Bilbil_Klosi \"Bilbil Klosi\") as part of a cabinet reshuffle.{{cite book \\|last\\=Pearson \\|first\\=Owen \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\\-1998 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[I.B. Tauris]] \\|page\\=432 \\|isbn\\=1\\-84511\\-105\\-2 }}", "On 11 April 1952, it was announced that Myftiu was dismissed as vice\\-premier.{{cite book \\|last\\=Pearson \\|first\\=Owen \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\\-1998 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[I.B. Tauris]] \\|page\\=445 \\|isbn\\=1\\-84511\\-105\\-2 }} On 12 July 1954, following a reorganization of the [Party of Labour of Albania](/wiki/Party_of_Labour_of_Albania \"Party of Labour of Albania\"), Myftiu and [Josif Pashko](/wiki/Josif_Pashko \"Josif Pashko\") were replaced in their party posts by [Gogo Nushi](/wiki/Gogo_Nushi \"Gogo Nushi\") and [Liri Belishova](/wiki/Liri_Belishova \"Liri Belishova\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Pearson \\|first\\=Owen \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\\-1998 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[I.B. Tauris]] \\|page\\=482 \\|isbn\\=1\\-84511\\-105\\-2 }} On 20 July 1954, Myftiu became vice\\-premier once again.{{cite book \\|last\\=Pearson \\|first\\=Owen \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy: From Isolation to the Kosovo War, 1946\\-1998 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TBYWAQAAMAAJ \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[I.B. Tauris]] \\|page\\=483 \\|isbn\\=1\\-84511\\-105\\-2 }}", "He became a candidate member of the [Politburo](/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Party_of_Labour_of_Albania \"Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania\") in 1952, and a full member of the Politburo from 1956 to 1990\\.", "From 1956 to 1958, Myftiu served as [Minister of Health](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Social_Welfare_%28Albania%29 \"Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (Albania)\"). From 1958 to 1965, he served as [Minister of Education](/wiki/Ministry_of_Education%2C_Sports_and_Youth_%28Albania%29 \"Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth (Albania)\").", "From 1966 to 1976, he was First Secretary of the [Tirana](/wiki/Tirana \"Tirana\") District Party Committee. From 1976 to 1990, he served as deputy prime minister.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|[31128](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31 "British Rail Class 31") *Charybdis* at [Bristol Temple Meads](/wiki/Bristol_Temple_Meads_railway_station "Bristol Temple Meads railway station") in July 2004](/wiki/File:31128_%27Charybdis%27_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads.JPG "31128 'Charybdis' at Bristol Temple Meads.JPG") [thumb\|[47715](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_47 "British Rail Class 47") at the [National Railway Museum](/wiki/National_Railway_Museum "National Railway Museum"), [York](/wiki/York "York") in October 2005](/wiki/File:47715_Poseidon_British_Rail_Class_47.7a_locomotive_-_National_Railway_Museum_-_York_-_2005-10-15.jpg "47715 Poseidon British Rail Class 47.7a locomotive - National Railway Museum - York - 2005-10-15.jpg") [thumb\|[47145](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_47 "British Rail Class 47") at [Barrow Hill](/wiki/Barrow_Hill_Roundhouse "Barrow Hill Roundhouse") in July 2006](/wiki/File:47145_Barrow_Hill.JPG "47145 Barrow Hill.JPG") [thumb\|[31106](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31 "British Rail Class 31") at [Bristol Temple Meads](/wiki/Bristol_Temple_Meads_railway_station "Bristol Temple Meads railway station") in March 2009](/wiki/File:Hugh_llewelyn_31_106_%285624693144%29.jpg "Hugh llewelyn 31 106 (5624693144).jpg") ### Fragonset Railways Fragonset Railways was formed in 1997 as a [spot hire](/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Great_Britain%23Spot-hire_companies "Rail transport in Great Britain#Spot-hire companies") company when four [Class 47/7](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_47 "British Rail Class 47") locomotives were purchased from [Waterman Railways](/wiki/Waterman_Railways "Waterman Railways") with the operation initially based at the [Tyseley Locomotive Works](/wiki/Tyseley_Locomotive_Works "Tyseley Locomotive Works").{{cite magazine \|title\= Class 47 owner Fragonset to use BRM as temporary base \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1156 \|date\= August 1997 \|page\=11}} In November 1997, Fragonset commenced its first contract providing locomotives for [Virgin CrossCountry](/wiki/Virgin_CrossCountry "Virgin CrossCountry").{{cite magazine \|title\= Fragonset 47s enter service for Virgin \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1161 \|date\= January 1998 \|page\=9}} A further Class 47/7 owned by the Lear family was also managed. A permanent base was established at the [Railway Technical Centre](/wiki/Railway_Technical_Centre "Railway Technical Centre"), [Derby](/wiki/Derby "Derby"). The locomotives were repainted into a new livery of black with a broad maroon mid\-bodyside stripe.{{cite magazine \|title\= First loco emerges from Fragonset Derby plant \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1187 \|date\= March 2000 \|page\=9}} In 1998, Fragonset purchased several redundant [Class 31](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31 "British Rail Class 31") locomotives from [EWS](/wiki/DB_Cargo_UK "DB Cargo UK"). The first of these, 31452, was quickly repaired at the company's base at Tyseley Locomotive Works. A further four Class 31s quickly followed. They were initially employed on [Silverlink](/wiki/Silverlink "Silverlink") services on the [Marston Vale Line](/wiki/Marston_Vale_Line "Marston Vale Line"), operating in top and tail mode with two carriages.{{cite magazine \|title\= Bedford\-Bletchley trial is shop window for Fragonset Railways \| magazine \= \[\[Rail Magazine]] \|issue\=342 \|date\= 21 October 1998 \|page\=9}} The use of the Class 31s continued until 1999, when [Class 150/1](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_150 "British Rail Class 150") [diesel multiple units](/wiki/Diesel_multiple_unit "Diesel multiple unit") replaced them.{{cite magazine \|title\= Martston Vale 31s to end \| magazine \= \[\[Rail Magazine]] \|issue\=365 \|date\= 8 September 1999 \|page\=52}} Following this, the Class 31 fleet was employed on a variety of duties, including hire to [WAGN](/wiki/West_Anglia_Great_Northern "West Anglia Great Northern") to haul [electrical multiple units](/wiki/Electrical_multiple_unit "Electrical multiple unit") between depots for maintenance. Fragonset would go on to purchase many redundant locomotives from EWS, mainly of classes [31](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31 "British Rail Class 31"), [33](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_33 "British Rail Class 33"), [47](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_47 "British Rail Class 47") and [73](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_73 "British Rail Class 73"). By 2002 it had purchased 75\.{{cite magazine \|title\= Fragonset increases its loco fleet to 75 \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1212 \|date\= April 2001 \|page\=8}} [First Great Western](/wiki/First_Great_Western "First Great Western"), [Midland Mainline](/wiki/Midland_Mainline "Midland Mainline") and [Virgin CrossCountry](/wiki/Virgin_CrossCountry "Virgin CrossCountry") all hired Class 47s.{{cite magazine \|title\= Loco\-hauled trains return to St Pancras schedules \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1211 \|date\= March 2002 \|page\=30}}{{cite magazine \|title\= Locomotives return to London St Pancras \| magazine \= \[\[Rail Magazine]] \|issue\=430 \|date\= 6 March 2002 \|page\=12}} [Wessex Trains](/wiki/Wessex_Trains "Wessex Trains") hired Class 31s to haul passenger services from [Bristol\-Weymouth](/wiki/Heart_of_Wessex_Line "Heart of Wessex Line") and [Bristol\-Brighton](/wiki/Wessex_Main_Line "Wessex Main Line") with 31601 repainted into Wessex Trains pink livery.{{cite magazine \|title\= Locomotive Haulage…there's more than you think! \| magazine \= \[\[Rail Magazine]] \|issue\=458 \|date\= 2 April 2003 \|page\=49}} [First North Western](/wiki/First_North_Western "First North Western") hired Class 31s to work [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_North_railway_station "Blackpool North railway station")\-[Manchester](/wiki/Manchester_Piccadilly_station "Manchester Piccadilly station")\-[Chester](/wiki/Chester_railway_station "Chester railway station") services.{{cite magazine \|title\= Loco fade\-out at Blackpool \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1246 \|date\= February 2005 \|page\=11}} [Railtrack](/wiki/Railtrack "Railtrack") hired 31190 and 31601 to haul test trains. Both locomotives were repainted into Railtrack's blue and lime green livery. [Network Rail](/wiki/Network_Rail "Network Rail") (Railtrack's successor) purchased its own fleet of 31s, so no longer required the Fragonset locomotives. [First GBRf](/wiki/GB_Railfreight "GB Railfreight") hired Class 73s to supplement its own fleet. [South West Trains](/wiki/South_West_Trains "South West Trains") hired Class 33s and 73s to act as [Thunderbird](/wiki/Bank_engine "Bank engine") rescue locomotives. [West Coast Railways](/wiki/West_Coast_Railways "West Coast Railways") hired 31190, repainted into *[Royal Scotsman](/wiki/The_Royal_Scotsman "The Royal Scotsman")* maroon livery. Some locomotives, notably 47355 and 73107, were repainted into a freight livery of all\-over black with large Fragonset lettering. ### Merlin Rail Merlin received its train operating licence in July 2002\.{{cite magazine \|title\= Merlin Rail and Wessex enter charter market \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1211 \|date\= March 2002 \|page\=102}}{{cite magazine \|title\= Merlin's One Stop Shop \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1222 \|date\= February 2003 \|page\=73}}{{cite magazine \|title\= Merlin takes off at last \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1222 \|date\= February 2003 \|page\=75}} It was originally very decentralised, considering itself to be a "virtual company" operating over the internet with no central office, although the control office was initially in [Maidstone](/wiki/Maidstone "Maidstone"), Kent. As the business grew the need for a central location became apparent and offices at Wyvern House, by [Derby station](/wiki/Derby_railway_station "Derby railway station"), were rented from mid\-2003\. Merlin saw itself as an operator of specialist, individually planned trains, and felt that such trains were not the core activity for conventional train operating companies and therefore did not always enjoy the best of operational and organisational arrangements. Merlin believed that a dedicated specialist train operator in this niche market could provide a high quality total service for all potential clients requiring individually planned trains. Merlin was the first train operator to receive approval through the stringent Railway (Safety Case) Regulations, 2000, and held one of the widest [railway safety cases](/wiki/Railway_safety_case "Railway safety case"), allowing full geographic coverage of the network with all classes and types of conventional locomotives, passenger rolling stock and loaded and unloaded freight vehicles. It was specifically authorised to operate new, unusual and novel vehicles. ### FM Rail In January 2005, Fragonset and Merlin merged to form FM Rail.{{cite magazine \|title\= Fragonset Railways joins with Merlin Rail and FM Rail is born \| magazine \= \[\[Rail Express]] \|issue\=105 \|date\= February 2005 \|page\=6}}{{cite magazine \|title\= Fragonset and Merlin merge to form FM Rail \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1246 \|date\= February 2005 \|page\=11}}{{cite magazine \|title\= FM Rail is born as Fragonset and Merlin merge \| magazine \= \[\[Today's Railways UK\|Entrain]] \|issue\=39 \|date\= March 2005 \|page\=20}} In August 2005, the business of [Hertfordshire Rail Tours](/wiki/Hertfordshire_Rail_Tours "Hertfordshire Rail Tours") was purchased.{{cite magazine \|title\= FM Rail buys Hertfordshire Railtours \| magazine \= \[\[Rail Express]] \|issue\=112 \|date\= September 2005 \|page\=11}}{{cite magazine \|title\= FM Rail to take over Hertfordshire Railtours \| magazine \= \[\[Today's Railways UK\|Entrain]] \|issue\=46 \|date\= October 2005 \|page\=9}}{{cite magazine \|title\= FM Rail to buy Herfordshire Rail Tours \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1254 \|date\= October 2005 \|page\=8}} FM Rail launched its new livery in September 2005, when 47832 was repainted for a [Crewe Works](/wiki/Crewe_Works "Crewe Works") open day.{{cite magazine \|title\= New look for FM Rail \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1255 \|date\= November 2005 \|page\=67}} In January 2006, the *[Blue Pullman](/wiki/Hertfordshire_Rail_Tours%23Blue_Pullman "Hertfordshire Rail Tours#Blue Pullman")* was launched, and two Class 47 locomotives were repainted into a Nanking blue livery to match the coaching stock.{{cite magazine \|title\= Blue Pullman makes a comeback \| magazine \= \[\[Rail Express]] \|issue\=113 \|date\= October 2005 \|page\=5}}{{cite magazine \|title\= FM Rail unveils first Blue Pullman coach \| magazine \= \[\[Today's Railways UK]] \|issue\=49 \|date\= January 2006 \|page\=61}}{{cite magazine \|title\= FM turns VT Mk2s into Blue Pullmans \- Class 47s next \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1257 \|date\= January 2006 \|page\=78}} In 2006, FM Rail purchased the assets of [Pathfinder Tours](/wiki/Pathfinder_Tours "Pathfinder Tours"), another railtour operator, in conjunction with [Riviera Trains](/wiki/Riviera_Trains "Riviera Trains"). In February 2006, FM Rail operated its first freight service on behalf of [Fastline](/wiki/Fastline "Fastline") between [Doncaster](/wiki/Doncaster "Doncaster") and [York](/wiki/York "York").{{cite magazine \|title\= FM Rail's first freight train \| magazine \= \[\[The Railway Magazine]] \|issue\=1260 \|date\= April 2006 \|page\=7}} In 2006, FM Rail concluded a deal to lease the former depot site at [Coalville](/wiki/Coalville "Coalville") in Leicestershire.{{cite magazine \|title\= FM finally moves into Coalville storage depot \| magazine \= \[\[Rail Magazine]] \|issue\=542 \|date\= 21 June 2006 \|page\=15}} It was planned to move most of its withdrawn stock there to reduce costs. Other locomotives were disposed of once they had yielded spare parts.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|[31128](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31 \"British Rail Class 31\") *Charybdis* at [Bristol Temple Meads](/wiki/Bristol_Temple_Meads_railway_station \"Bristol Temple Meads railway station\") in July 2004](/wiki/File:31128_%27Charybdis%27_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads.JPG \"31128 'Charybdis' at Bristol Temple Meads.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|[47715](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_47 \"British Rail Class 47\") at the [National Railway Museum](/wiki/National_Railway_Museum \"National Railway Museum\"), [York](/wiki/York \"York\") in October 2005](/wiki/File:47715_Poseidon_British_Rail_Class_47.7a_locomotive_-_National_Railway_Museum_-_York_-_2005-10-15.jpg \"47715 Poseidon British Rail Class 47.7a locomotive - National Railway Museum - York - 2005-10-15.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[47145](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_47 \"British Rail Class 47\") at [Barrow Hill](/wiki/Barrow_Hill_Roundhouse \"Barrow Hill Roundhouse\") in July 2006](/wiki/File:47145_Barrow_Hill.JPG \"47145 Barrow Hill.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|[31106](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31 \"British Rail Class 31\") at [Bristol Temple Meads](/wiki/Bristol_Temple_Meads_railway_station \"Bristol Temple Meads railway station\") in March 2009](/wiki/File:Hugh_llewelyn_31_106_%285624693144%29.jpg \"Hugh llewelyn 31 106 (5624693144).jpg\")", "### Fragonset Railways", "Fragonset Railways was formed in 1997 as a [spot hire](/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Great_Britain%23Spot-hire_companies \"Rail transport in Great Britain#Spot-hire companies\") company when four [Class 47/7](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_47 \"British Rail Class 47\") locomotives were purchased from [Waterman Railways](/wiki/Waterman_Railways \"Waterman Railways\") with the operation initially based at the [Tyseley Locomotive Works](/wiki/Tyseley_Locomotive_Works \"Tyseley Locomotive Works\").{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Class 47 owner Fragonset to use BRM as temporary base \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1156 \\|date\\= August 1997 \\|page\\=11}} In November 1997, Fragonset commenced its first contract providing locomotives for [Virgin CrossCountry](/wiki/Virgin_CrossCountry \"Virgin CrossCountry\").{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Fragonset 47s enter service for Virgin \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1161 \\|date\\= January 1998 \\|page\\=9}} A further Class 47/7 owned by the Lear family was also managed. A permanent base was established at the [Railway Technical Centre](/wiki/Railway_Technical_Centre \"Railway Technical Centre\"), [Derby](/wiki/Derby \"Derby\"). The locomotives were repainted into a new livery of black with a broad maroon mid\\-bodyside stripe.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= First loco emerges from Fragonset Derby plant \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1187 \\|date\\= March 2000 \\|page\\=9}}", "In 1998, Fragonset purchased several redundant [Class 31](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31 \"British Rail Class 31\") locomotives from [EWS](/wiki/DB_Cargo_UK \"DB Cargo UK\"). The first of these, 31452, was quickly repaired at the company's base at Tyseley Locomotive Works. A further four Class 31s quickly followed. They were initially employed on [Silverlink](/wiki/Silverlink \"Silverlink\") services on the [Marston Vale Line](/wiki/Marston_Vale_Line \"Marston Vale Line\"), operating in top and tail mode with two carriages.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Bedford\\-Bletchley trial is shop window for Fragonset Railways \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Rail Magazine]] \\|issue\\=342 \\|date\\= 21 October 1998 \\|page\\=9}} The use of the Class 31s continued until 1999, when [Class 150/1](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_150 \"British Rail Class 150\") [diesel multiple units](/wiki/Diesel_multiple_unit \"Diesel multiple unit\") replaced them.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Martston Vale 31s to end \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Rail Magazine]] \\|issue\\=365 \\|date\\= 8 September 1999 \\|page\\=52}} Following this, the Class 31 fleet was employed on a variety of duties, including hire to [WAGN](/wiki/West_Anglia_Great_Northern \"West Anglia Great Northern\") to haul [electrical multiple units](/wiki/Electrical_multiple_unit \"Electrical multiple unit\") between depots for maintenance.", "Fragonset would go on to purchase many redundant locomotives from EWS, mainly of classes [31](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_31 \"British Rail Class 31\"), [33](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_33 \"British Rail Class 33\"), [47](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_47 \"British Rail Class 47\") and [73](/wiki/British_Rail_Class_73 \"British Rail Class 73\"). By 2002 it had purchased 75\\.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Fragonset increases its loco fleet to 75 \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1212 \\|date\\= April 2001 \\|page\\=8}}", "[First Great Western](/wiki/First_Great_Western \"First Great Western\"), [Midland Mainline](/wiki/Midland_Mainline \"Midland Mainline\") and [Virgin CrossCountry](/wiki/Virgin_CrossCountry \"Virgin CrossCountry\") all hired Class 47s.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Loco\\-hauled trains return to St Pancras schedules \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1211 \\|date\\= March 2002 \\|page\\=30}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Locomotives return to London St Pancras \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Rail Magazine]] \\|issue\\=430 \\|date\\= 6 March 2002 \\|page\\=12}} [Wessex Trains](/wiki/Wessex_Trains \"Wessex Trains\") hired Class 31s to haul passenger services from [Bristol\\-Weymouth](/wiki/Heart_of_Wessex_Line \"Heart of Wessex Line\") and [Bristol\\-Brighton](/wiki/Wessex_Main_Line \"Wessex Main Line\") with 31601 repainted into Wessex Trains pink livery.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Locomotive Haulage…there's more than you think! \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Rail Magazine]] \\|issue\\=458 \\|date\\= 2 April 2003 \\|page\\=49}} [First North Western](/wiki/First_North_Western \"First North Western\") hired Class 31s to work [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_North_railway_station \"Blackpool North railway station\")\\-[Manchester](/wiki/Manchester_Piccadilly_station \"Manchester Piccadilly station\")\\-[Chester](/wiki/Chester_railway_station \"Chester railway station\") services.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Loco fade\\-out at Blackpool \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1246 \\|date\\= February 2005 \\|page\\=11}}", "[Railtrack](/wiki/Railtrack \"Railtrack\") hired 31190 and 31601 to haul test trains. Both locomotives were repainted into Railtrack's blue and lime green livery. [Network Rail](/wiki/Network_Rail \"Network Rail\") (Railtrack's successor) purchased its own fleet of 31s, so no longer required the Fragonset locomotives. [First GBRf](/wiki/GB_Railfreight \"GB Railfreight\") hired Class 73s to supplement its own fleet.", "[South West Trains](/wiki/South_West_Trains \"South West Trains\") hired Class 33s and 73s to act as [Thunderbird](/wiki/Bank_engine \"Bank engine\") rescue locomotives. [West Coast Railways](/wiki/West_Coast_Railways \"West Coast Railways\") hired 31190, repainted into *[Royal Scotsman](/wiki/The_Royal_Scotsman \"The Royal Scotsman\")* maroon livery.", "Some locomotives, notably 47355 and 73107, were repainted into a freight livery of all\\-over black with large Fragonset lettering.", "### Merlin Rail", "Merlin received its train operating licence in July 2002\\.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Merlin Rail and Wessex enter charter market \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1211 \\|date\\= March 2002 \\|page\\=102}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Merlin's One Stop Shop \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1222 \\|date\\= February 2003 \\|page\\=73}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Merlin takes off at last \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1222 \\|date\\= February 2003 \\|page\\=75}} It was originally very decentralised, considering itself to be a \"virtual company\" operating over the internet with no central office, although the control office was initially in [Maidstone](/wiki/Maidstone \"Maidstone\"), Kent. As the business grew the need for a central location became apparent and offices at Wyvern House, by [Derby station](/wiki/Derby_railway_station \"Derby railway station\"), were rented from mid\\-2003\\.", "Merlin saw itself as an operator of specialist, individually planned trains, and felt that such trains were not the core activity for conventional train operating companies and therefore did not always enjoy the best of operational and organisational arrangements. Merlin believed that a dedicated specialist train operator in this niche market could provide a high quality total service for all potential clients requiring individually planned trains.", "Merlin was the first train operator to receive approval through the stringent Railway (Safety Case) Regulations, 2000, and held one of the widest [railway safety cases](/wiki/Railway_safety_case \"Railway safety case\"), allowing full geographic coverage of the network with all classes and types of conventional locomotives, passenger rolling stock and loaded and unloaded freight vehicles. It was specifically authorised to operate new, unusual and novel vehicles.", "### FM Rail", "In January 2005, Fragonset and Merlin merged to form FM Rail.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Fragonset Railways joins with Merlin Rail and FM Rail is born \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Rail Express]] \\|issue\\=105 \\|date\\= February 2005 \\|page\\=6}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Fragonset and Merlin merge to form FM Rail \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1246 \\|date\\= February 2005 \\|page\\=11}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= FM Rail is born as Fragonset and Merlin merge \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Today's Railways UK\\|Entrain]] \\|issue\\=39 \\|date\\= March 2005 \\|page\\=20}} In August 2005, the business of [Hertfordshire Rail Tours](/wiki/Hertfordshire_Rail_Tours \"Hertfordshire Rail Tours\") was purchased.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= FM Rail buys Hertfordshire Railtours \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Rail Express]] \\|issue\\=112 \\|date\\= September 2005 \\|page\\=11}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= FM Rail to take over Hertfordshire Railtours \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Today's Railways UK\\|Entrain]] \\|issue\\=46 \\|date\\= October 2005 \\|page\\=9}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= FM Rail to buy Herfordshire Rail Tours \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1254 \\|date\\= October 2005 \\|page\\=8}}", "FM Rail launched its new livery in September 2005, when 47832 was repainted for a [Crewe Works](/wiki/Crewe_Works \"Crewe Works\") open day.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= New look for FM Rail \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1255 \\|date\\= November 2005 \\|page\\=67}}", "In January 2006, the *[Blue Pullman](/wiki/Hertfordshire_Rail_Tours%23Blue_Pullman \"Hertfordshire Rail Tours#Blue Pullman\")* was launched, and two Class 47 locomotives were repainted into a Nanking blue livery to match the coaching stock.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= Blue Pullman makes a comeback \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Rail Express]] \\|issue\\=113 \\|date\\= October 2005 \\|page\\=5}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= FM Rail unveils first Blue Pullman coach \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Today's Railways UK]] \\|issue\\=49 \\|date\\= January 2006 \\|page\\=61}}{{cite magazine \\|title\\= FM turns VT Mk2s into Blue Pullmans \\- Class 47s next \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1257 \\|date\\= January 2006 \\|page\\=78}} In 2006, FM Rail purchased the assets of [Pathfinder Tours](/wiki/Pathfinder_Tours \"Pathfinder Tours\"), another railtour operator, in conjunction with [Riviera Trains](/wiki/Riviera_Trains \"Riviera Trains\").", "In February 2006, FM Rail operated its first freight service on behalf of [Fastline](/wiki/Fastline \"Fastline\") between [Doncaster](/wiki/Doncaster \"Doncaster\") and [York](/wiki/York \"York\").{{cite magazine \\|title\\= FM Rail's first freight train \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[The Railway Magazine]] \\|issue\\=1260 \\|date\\= April 2006 \\|page\\=7}}", "In 2006, FM Rail concluded a deal to lease the former depot site at [Coalville](/wiki/Coalville \"Coalville\") in Leicestershire.{{cite magazine \\|title\\= FM finally moves into Coalville storage depot \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Rail Magazine]] \\|issue\\=542 \\|date\\= 21 June 2006 \\|page\\=15}} It was planned to move most of its withdrawn stock there to reduce costs. Other locomotives were disposed of once they had yielded spare parts.", "" ]
History ------- [right\|thumb\|Cobbled streets in Lymington town centre](/wiki/File:Quay_Street%2C_Lymington%2C_Hampshire%2C_England.jpg "Quay Street, Lymington, Hampshire, England.jpg") [thumb\|The town quay](/wiki/File:Town_Quay%2C_Lymington%2C_Hampshire%2C_England.jpg "Town Quay, Lymington, Hampshire, England.jpg") The earliest settlement in the Lymington area was around the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") [hill fort](/wiki/Hill_fort "Hill fort") known today as [Buckland Rings](/wiki/Buckland_Rings "Buckland Rings"). The hill and ditches of the fort survive, and archaeological excavation of part of the walls was carried out in 1935\. The fort has been dated to around the 6th century BC. There is another supposed Iron Age site at nearby [Ampress Hole](/wiki/Buckland_Rings%23Ampress_Camp "Buckland Rings#Ampress Camp"). However, evidence of later settlement there (as opposed to occupation) is sparse before [Domesday](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book") (1086\). Lymington itself began as an Anglo\-Saxon village.{{Cite book \|last\=King \|first\=Edward \|title\=A Walk through Lymington \|edition\=2nd \|location\=Southampton \|publisher\=Ensign \|date\=1990 \|isbn\=185455056X}} The [Jutes](/wiki/Jutes "Jutes") arrived in the area from the Isle of Wight in the 6th century and founded a settlement called *Limentun*.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2012}} The [Old English](/wiki/Old_English "Old English") word *tun* means a farm or hamlet whilst *limen* is derived from the [Ancient British](/wiki/British_language_%28Celtic%29 "British language (Celtic)") word *\*lemanos* meaning an elm tree.{{Cite book \|first\=Richard \|last\=Coates \|title\=The Place\-Names of Hampshire \|location\=Southampton \|publisher\=Ensign \|date\=1993 \|isbn\=0713456256}} The town is recorded in Domesday as *Lentune*. About 1200, the lord of the manor, William de Redvers created the borough of New Lymington around the present quay and High Street, while Old Lymington comprised the rest of the parish. He gave the town its first charter and the right to hold a market.{{Cite book \|editor\-first\=R. \|editor\-last\=Bearman \|title\=Charters of the de Redvers Family and the Earldom of Devon, 1090–1217 \|location\=Exeter \|publisher\=Devonshire Records Society \|date\=1994}} The town became a parliamentary borough in 1585, returning two MPs until 1832, when its electoral base was expanded. Its representation was reduced to one member under the [Second Reform Act of 1867](/wiki/Reform_Act_1867 "Reform Act 1867"), and it was subsumed into the New Forest Division under the [Redistribution of Seats Act 1885](/wiki/Redistribution_of_Seats_Act_1885 "Redistribution of Seats Act 1885"). Lymington was famous for salt\-making from the Middle Ages up to the 19th century. There was an almost continuous belt of salt workings along the coast toward [Hurst Spit](/wiki/Hurst_Spit "Hurst Spit"). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Lymington possessed a military depot that included a number of foreign troops – mostly artillery but also several militia regiments. At the time of the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"), the [King's German Artillery](/wiki/King%27s_German_Legion%23Artillery_and_engineers "King's German Legion#Artillery and engineers") was based near Portchester Castle and sent sick soldiers to Lymington or Eling Hospital.{{Cite book \|first1\=Gabriele \|last1\=Eilert\-Ebke \|first2\=Hans \|last2\=Ebke \|title\=Journal der KGL\-Artillerie 1804–1808 \|date\=2014 \|isbn\=978\-3864686658}} As well as Germans and Dutch, there were French émigrés and French regiments.{{Cite book \|first\=Patrick \|last\=Huchet \|title\=1795 – Quiberon, ou le destin de la France \|location\=Rennes \|publisher\=Ouest\-France \|date\=1995 \|isbn\=2737317452}} They were raised to take part in the ill\-fated [Quiberon](/wiki/Quiberon "Quiberon") [Invasion of France](/wiki/Invasion_of_France_%281795%29 "Invasion of France (1795)"), from which few returned (contrast the [Battle of Quiberon Bay](/wiki/Battle_of_Quiberon_Bay "Battle of Quiberon Bay"), or *Bataille des Cardinaux*, a 1759 victory). From the early 19th century, Lymington had a thriving [shipbuilding](/wiki/Shipbuilding "Shipbuilding") industry, particularly associated with Thomas Inman, builder of the schooner *Alarm*, which famously raced the American yacht *America* in 1851\.{{Cite book \|first\=L. B. \|last\=Mackinnon \|title\=Atlantic and Transatlantic: Sketches Afloat and Ashore \|date\=1852 \|doi\=10\.5962/bhl.title.34074}} Much of the town centre is [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture "Victorian architecture") and [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_architecture "Georgian architecture"), with narrow cobbled streets in the area of the quay. In 1859 the Roman Catholic church of Our Lady of Mercy and Saint Joseph was built to a design by [Joseph Hansom](/wiki/Joseph_Hansom "Joseph Hansom").{{cite book \|last1\=O’Brien \|first1\=Charles\|last2\=Bailey \|first2\=Bruce\|last3\=Pevsner \|first3\=Nikolaus \|last4\=Lloyd \|first4\=David W. \|date\=2018 \|title\=The Buildings of England Hampshire: South \|publisher\=Yale University Press \|page\=365\|isbn\=9780300225037}} Lymington particularly promotes stories about its [smuggling](/wiki/Smuggling "Smuggling"). There are unproven stories of smugglers' tunnels running from the old inns and under the High Street to the town quay. Lymington was among the boroughs reformed by the [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 "Municipal Corporations Act 1835"). In 1932 it was extended to include [Milton](/wiki/New_Milton "New Milton") (previously an urban district), the parishes of [Milford on Sea](/wiki/Milford_on_Sea "Milford on Sea") and [Pennington](/wiki/Pennington%2C_Hampshire "Pennington, Hampshire"), and parts of [Lymington Rural District](/wiki/Lymington_Rural_District "Lymington Rural District"), so extending it along the coast to the edge of [Christchurch](/wiki/Christchurch%2C_Dorset "Christchurch, Dorset").{{Cite web \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20121224092155/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\_id\=10002000\&c\_id\=10001043 \|url\=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\_id\=10002000\&c\_id\=10001043 \|archive\-date\=24 December 2012 \|title\=Lymington MB \|work\=A vision of Britain Through Time \|access\-date\=11 December 2020}} The borough of Lymington was abolished on 1 April 1974 under the terms of the [Local Government Act 1972](/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972 "Local Government Act 1972"), becoming an [unparished area](/wiki/Unparished_area "Unparished area") in the district of [New Forest](/wiki/New_Forest_%28district%29 "New Forest (district)"), with [Charter Trustees](/wiki/Charter_Trustees "Charter Trustees"). The area was subsequently divided into the four parishes of [New Milton](/wiki/New_Milton "New Milton"), [Lymington and Pennington](/wiki/Lymington_and_Pennington "Lymington and Pennington"), [Milford\-on\-Sea](/wiki/Milford-on-Sea "Milford-on-Sea") and [Hordle](/wiki/Hordle "Hordle"). A new library was added in 2002\.
[ "History\n-------", "[right\\|thumb\\|Cobbled streets in Lymington town centre](/wiki/File:Quay_Street%2C_Lymington%2C_Hampshire%2C_England.jpg \"Quay Street, Lymington, Hampshire, England.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The town quay](/wiki/File:Town_Quay%2C_Lymington%2C_Hampshire%2C_England.jpg \"Town Quay, Lymington, Hampshire, England.jpg\")", "The earliest settlement in the Lymington area was around the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") [hill fort](/wiki/Hill_fort \"Hill fort\") known today as [Buckland Rings](/wiki/Buckland_Rings \"Buckland Rings\"). The hill and ditches of the fort survive, and archaeological excavation of part of the walls was carried out in 1935\\. The fort has been dated to around the 6th century BC. There is another supposed Iron Age site at nearby [Ampress Hole](/wiki/Buckland_Rings%23Ampress_Camp \"Buckland Rings#Ampress Camp\"). However, evidence of later settlement there (as opposed to occupation) is sparse before [Domesday](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") (1086\\).", "Lymington itself began as an Anglo\\-Saxon village.{{Cite book \\|last\\=King \\|first\\=Edward \\|title\\=A Walk through Lymington \\|edition\\=2nd \\|location\\=Southampton \\|publisher\\=Ensign \\|date\\=1990 \\|isbn\\=185455056X}} The [Jutes](/wiki/Jutes \"Jutes\") arrived in the area from the Isle of Wight in the 6th century and founded a settlement called *Limentun*.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2012}} The [Old English](/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\") word *tun* means a farm or hamlet whilst *limen* is derived from the [Ancient British](/wiki/British_language_%28Celtic%29 \"British language (Celtic)\") word *\\*lemanos* meaning an elm tree.{{Cite book \\|first\\=Richard \\|last\\=Coates \\|title\\=The Place\\-Names of Hampshire \\|location\\=Southampton \\|publisher\\=Ensign \\|date\\=1993 \\|isbn\\=0713456256}}", "The town is recorded in Domesday as *Lentune*. About 1200, the lord of the manor, William de Redvers created the borough of New Lymington around the present quay and High Street, while Old Lymington comprised the rest of the parish. He gave the town its first charter and the right to hold a market.{{Cite book \\|editor\\-first\\=R. \\|editor\\-last\\=Bearman \\|title\\=Charters of the de Redvers Family and the Earldom of Devon, 1090–1217 \\|location\\=Exeter \\|publisher\\=Devonshire Records Society \\|date\\=1994}} The town became a parliamentary borough in 1585, returning two MPs until 1832, when its electoral base was expanded. Its representation was reduced to one member under the [Second Reform Act of 1867](/wiki/Reform_Act_1867 \"Reform Act 1867\"), and it was subsumed into the New Forest Division under the [Redistribution of Seats Act 1885](/wiki/Redistribution_of_Seats_Act_1885 \"Redistribution of Seats Act 1885\").", "Lymington was famous for salt\\-making from the Middle Ages up to the 19th century. There was an almost continuous belt of salt workings along the coast toward [Hurst Spit](/wiki/Hurst_Spit \"Hurst Spit\").", "In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Lymington possessed a military depot that included a number of foreign troops – mostly artillery but also several militia regiments. At the time of the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"), the [King's German Artillery](/wiki/King%27s_German_Legion%23Artillery_and_engineers \"King's German Legion#Artillery and engineers\") was based near Portchester Castle and sent sick soldiers to Lymington or Eling Hospital.{{Cite book \\|first1\\=Gabriele \\|last1\\=Eilert\\-Ebke \\|first2\\=Hans \\|last2\\=Ebke \\|title\\=Journal der KGL\\-Artillerie 1804–1808 \\|date\\=2014 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3864686658}} As well as Germans and Dutch, there were French émigrés and French regiments.{{Cite book \\|first\\=Patrick \\|last\\=Huchet \\|title\\=1795 – Quiberon, ou le destin de la France \\|location\\=Rennes \\|publisher\\=Ouest\\-France \\|date\\=1995 \\|isbn\\=2737317452}} They were raised to take part in the ill\\-fated [Quiberon](/wiki/Quiberon \"Quiberon\") [Invasion of France](/wiki/Invasion_of_France_%281795%29 \"Invasion of France (1795)\"), from which few returned (contrast the [Battle of Quiberon Bay](/wiki/Battle_of_Quiberon_Bay \"Battle of Quiberon Bay\"), or *Bataille des Cardinaux*, a 1759 victory).", "From the early 19th century, Lymington had a thriving [shipbuilding](/wiki/Shipbuilding \"Shipbuilding\") industry, particularly associated with Thomas Inman, builder of the schooner *Alarm*, which famously raced the American yacht *America* in 1851\\.{{Cite book \\|first\\=L. B. \\|last\\=Mackinnon \\|title\\=Atlantic and Transatlantic: Sketches Afloat and Ashore \\|date\\=1852 \\|doi\\=10\\.5962/bhl.title.34074}} Much of the town centre is [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture \"Victorian architecture\") and [Georgian](/wiki/Georgian_architecture \"Georgian architecture\"), with narrow cobbled streets in the area of the quay. In 1859 the Roman Catholic church of Our Lady of Mercy and Saint Joseph was built to a design by [Joseph Hansom](/wiki/Joseph_Hansom \"Joseph Hansom\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=O’Brien \\|first1\\=Charles\\|last2\\=Bailey \\|first2\\=Bruce\\|last3\\=Pevsner \\|first3\\=Nikolaus \\|last4\\=Lloyd \\|first4\\=David W. \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=The Buildings of England Hampshire: South \\|publisher\\=Yale University Press \\|page\\=365\\|isbn\\=9780300225037}}", "Lymington particularly promotes stories about its [smuggling](/wiki/Smuggling \"Smuggling\"). There are unproven stories of smugglers' tunnels running from the old inns and under the High Street to the town quay.", "Lymington was among the boroughs reformed by the [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 \"Municipal Corporations Act 1835\"). In 1932 it was extended to include [Milton](/wiki/New_Milton \"New Milton\") (previously an urban district), the parishes of [Milford on Sea](/wiki/Milford_on_Sea \"Milford on Sea\") and [Pennington](/wiki/Pennington%2C_Hampshire \"Pennington, Hampshire\"), and parts of [Lymington Rural District](/wiki/Lymington_Rural_District \"Lymington Rural District\"), so extending it along the coast to the edge of [Christchurch](/wiki/Christchurch%2C_Dorset \"Christchurch, Dorset\").{{Cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20121224092155/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\\_id\\=10002000\\&c\\_id\\=10001043 \\|url\\=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\\_id\\=10002000\\&c\\_id\\=10001043 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2012 \\|title\\=Lymington MB \\|work\\=A vision of Britain Through Time \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2020}}", "The borough of Lymington was abolished on 1 April 1974 under the terms of the [Local Government Act 1972](/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972 \"Local Government Act 1972\"), becoming an [unparished area](/wiki/Unparished_area \"Unparished area\") in the district of [New Forest](/wiki/New_Forest_%28district%29 \"New Forest (district)\"), with [Charter Trustees](/wiki/Charter_Trustees \"Charter Trustees\"). The area was subsequently divided into the four parishes of [New Milton](/wiki/New_Milton \"New Milton\"), [Lymington and Pennington](/wiki/Lymington_and_Pennington \"Lymington and Pennington\"), [Milford\\-on\\-Sea](/wiki/Milford-on-Sea \"Milford-on-Sea\") and [Hordle](/wiki/Hordle \"Hordle\"). A new library was added in 2002\\.", "" ]
Capture ------- *Hirondelle* was a privateer from Marseille, originally with 180 men and 14 guns.{{sfnp\|Demerliac \|2003 \|p\=301\|loc\=no. 2492}} In the evening of 27th *Hirondelle* captured, after an action, the Government of Malta brig *King George* off [Cape Passero](/wiki/Cape_Passero "Cape Passero"). The next morning {{HMS\|Bittern\|1796\|2}}, which had been sent in search of *Hirondelle*, was eight [leagues](/wiki/League_%28unit%29 "League (unit)") from Cape Passero when she sighted *Hirondelle* capturing two brigs. At *Bittern*{{'}}s approach, the three vessels separated. *Hirondelle* apparently set off after a sloop she had sighted. Captain [Robert Corbet](/wiki/Robert_Corbet "Robert Corbet") of *Bittern* detached two boats, one for each of the brigs, and set off in pursuit of *Hirondelle*. After a chase of 36 hours, in perfect calm, *Bittern* was able to capture *Hirondelle*. To catch her, Corbett had converted the smaller spars he carried to sweeps (large oars). His crew rowed all 36 hours without a break, not even for meals, and covered some 60 miles without the assistance of any wind. During the last six hours of the chase, the two had exchanged fire from their bow and stern [chasers](/wiki/Chase_gun "Chase gun"). *Hirondelle*{{'}}s fire, aimed primarily at *Bittern*{{'}}s mast and except for one hole between wind and water, which was easily stopped, did little damage. One shot from *Bittern* caused a hole in *Hirondelle* that had her fast filling with water, forcing her to [strike](/wiki/Striking_the_colours "Striking the colours").{{efn\|Some accounts credit the capture to {{HMS\|Madras\|1795\|2}}.{{sfnp\|Demerliac\|2003\|p\=301\|loc\=no. 2492}} However, Captain Schomberg, of ''Madras'', was senior officer at Malta, and it was he who had sent Corbet out to find ''Hirondelle'', and it was Schomberg who transmitted Corbet's letter to him on to Admiral \[\[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\|Lord Nelson]], commander\-in\-chief in the Mediterranean.}} *Bittern*{{'}}s crew was able to stop this hole too. Corbet described *Hirondelle* as a "very fine cutter", fitted out at Cette and just launched. Her hull had [copper sheathing](/wiki/Copper_sheathing "Copper sheathing"), and she was armed with fourteen 12\-pounder guns. She had a complement of 80 crew, many of whom were away on prizes. From *Hirondelle* Corbet found out about the capture of *King George*. He dispatched his launch, whose crew then rowed 15 [leagues](/wiki/Leaaue_%28unit%29 "Leaaue (unit)") to try to recapture *King George* before she reached Syracuse. However, they were unable to catch up in time. When *Bittern*{{'}}s boats recaptured the two brigs, they turned out to be *Mentor*, of London, and *Catherine*, of Liverpool. They had been sailing with valuable cargoes from Messina to Malta to join a convoy.{{London Gazette\|issue\=15728\|page\=997\|date\=14 August 1804}} *[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List "Lloyd's List")* reported that *Bittern* had recaptured *Mentor* and *Catherine*, and their captor.{{cite news\|url\=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.32044050633072?urlappend\=%3Bseq\=331 \|title\=The Marine List \|work\=Lloyd's List \|issue\=4465 \|date\=26 June 1804 \|hdl\=2027/hvd.32044050633072?urlappend\=%3Bseq\=331 \|accessdate\=29 June 2021}}
[ "Capture\n-------", "*Hirondelle* was a privateer from Marseille, originally with 180 men and 14 guns.{{sfnp\\|Demerliac \\|2003 \\|p\\=301\\|loc\\=no. 2492}}", "In the evening of 27th *Hirondelle* captured, after an action, the Government of Malta brig *King George* off [Cape Passero](/wiki/Cape_Passero \"Cape Passero\").", "The next morning {{HMS\\|Bittern\\|1796\\|2}}, which had been sent in search of *Hirondelle*, was eight [leagues](/wiki/League_%28unit%29 \"League (unit)\") from Cape Passero when she sighted *Hirondelle* capturing two brigs. At *Bittern*{{'}}s approach, the three vessels separated. *Hirondelle* apparently set off after a sloop she had sighted.", "Captain [Robert Corbet](/wiki/Robert_Corbet \"Robert Corbet\") of *Bittern* detached two boats, one for each of the brigs, and set off in pursuit of *Hirondelle*. After a chase of 36 hours, in perfect calm, *Bittern* was able to capture *Hirondelle*. To catch her, Corbett had converted the smaller spars he carried to sweeps (large oars). His crew rowed all 36 hours without a break, not even for meals, and covered some 60 miles without the assistance of any wind.", "During the last six hours of the chase, the two had exchanged fire from their bow and stern [chasers](/wiki/Chase_gun \"Chase gun\"). *Hirondelle*{{'}}s fire, aimed primarily at *Bittern*{{'}}s mast and except for one hole between wind and water, which was easily stopped, did little damage. One shot from *Bittern* caused a hole in *Hirondelle* that had her fast filling with water, forcing her to [strike](/wiki/Striking_the_colours \"Striking the colours\").{{efn\\|Some accounts credit the capture to {{HMS\\|Madras\\|1795\\|2}}.{{sfnp\\|Demerliac\\|2003\\|p\\=301\\|loc\\=no. 2492}} However, Captain Schomberg, of ''Madras'', was senior officer at Malta, and it was he who had sent Corbet out to find ''Hirondelle'', and it was Schomberg who transmitted Corbet's letter to him on to Admiral \\[\\[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\\|Lord Nelson]], commander\\-in\\-chief in the Mediterranean.}} *Bittern*{{'}}s crew was able to stop this hole too.", "Corbet described *Hirondelle* as a \"very fine cutter\", fitted out at Cette and just launched. Her hull had [copper sheathing](/wiki/Copper_sheathing \"Copper sheathing\"), and she was armed with fourteen 12\\-pounder guns. She had a complement of 80 crew, many of whom were away on prizes.", "From *Hirondelle* Corbet found out about the capture of *King George*. He dispatched his launch, whose crew then rowed 15 [leagues](/wiki/Leaaue_%28unit%29 \"Leaaue (unit)\") to try to recapture *King George* before she reached Syracuse. However, they were unable to catch up in time.", "When *Bittern*{{'}}s boats recaptured the two brigs, they turned out to be *Mentor*, of London, and *Catherine*, of Liverpool. They had been sailing with valuable cargoes from Messina to Malta to join a convoy.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=15728\\|page\\=997\\|date\\=14 August 1804}} *[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List \"Lloyd's List\")* reported that *Bittern* had recaptured *Mentor* and *Catherine*, and their captor.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.32044050633072?urlappend\\=%3Bseq\\=331 \\|title\\=The Marine List \\|work\\=Lloyd's List \\|issue\\=4465 \\|date\\=26 June 1804 \\|hdl\\=2027/hvd.32044050633072?urlappend\\=%3Bseq\\=331 \\|accessdate\\=29 June 2021}}", "" ]
History ------- Historically Poitou was ruled by the [count of Poitou](/wiki/Count_of_Poitou "Count of Poitou"), a continuous line of which can be traced back to an appointment of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne") in 778\. A [marshland](/wiki/Marsh "Marsh") called the [Poitevin Marsh](/wiki/Poitevin_Marsh "Poitevin Marsh") (French *[Marais Poitevin](/wiki/Marais_Poitevin "Marais Poitevin")*) is located along the [Gulf of Poitou](/wiki/Gulf_of_Poitou "Gulf of Poitou"), on the west coast of France, just north of [La Rochelle](/wiki/La_Rochelle "La Rochelle") and west of [Niort](/wiki/Niort "Niort"). At the conclusion of the [Battle of Taillebourg](/wiki/Battle_of_Taillebourg "Battle of Taillebourg") in the [Saintonge War](/wiki/Saintonge_War "Saintonge War"), which was decisively won by the French, King Henry III of England recognized his loss of continental [Plantagenet territory](/wiki/Angevin_Empire "Angevin Empire") to France. This was ratified by the [Treaty of Paris of 1259](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281259%29 "Treaty of Paris (1259)"), by which King Louis annexed [Normandy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy "Duchy of Normandy"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine_%28province%29 "Maine (province)"), [Anjou](/wiki/Duchy_of_Anjou "Duchy of Anjou"), and Poitou). During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Poitou was a hotbed of [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot "Huguenot") (French Calvinist Protestant) activity among the nobility and bourgeoisie. The Protestants were discriminated against and brutally attacked during the [French Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion "French Wars of Religion") (1562–1598\). Under the [Edict of Nantes](/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes "Edict of Nantes"), such discrimination was temporarily suspended but this measure was repealed by the French Crown. Some of the French colonists, later known as [Acadians](/wiki/Acadian "Acadian"), who settled beginning in 1604 in eastern North America came from southern Poitou. They established settlements in what is now [Nova Scotia](/wiki/Nova_Scotia "Nova Scotia"), and later in [New Brunswick](/wiki/New_Brunswick "New Brunswick")—both of which were taken over in the later 18th century by the English, (after their 1763 victory in the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War "Seven Years' War")). After the revocation of the [Edict of Nantes](/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes "Edict of Nantes") in 1685, the French Roman [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") conducted a strong [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation") effort. In 1793, this effort had contributed to the three\-year\-long open revolt against the French Revolutionary Government in the Bas\-Poitou (Département of [Vendée](/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e "Vendée")). Similarly, during [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon")'s [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days "Hundred Days") in 1815, the Vendée stayed loyal to the Restoration Monarchy of [King Louis XVIII](/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France "Louis XVIII of France"). Napoleon dispatched 10,000 troops under [General Lamarque](/wiki/General_Lamarque "General Lamarque") to pacify the region. As noted by historian Andre Lampert: > "The persistent Huguenots of 17th Century Poitou and the fiercely Catholic rebellious Royalists of what came be the Vendée of the late 18th Century had ideologies very different, indeed diametrically opposed to each other. The common thread connecting both phenomena is a continuing assertion of a local identity and opposition to the central government in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), whatever its composition and identity. (...) In the region where [Louis XIII](/wiki/Louis_XIII "Louis XIII") and [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV") had encountered stiff resistance, the [House of Bourbon](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon "House of Bourbon") gained loyal and militant supporters exactly when it had been overthrown and when a Bourbon loyalty came to imply a local loyalty in opposition to the new central government, that of [Robespierre](/wiki/Robespierre "Robespierre")."Andre Lampert, "Centralism and Localism in European History" (cited as an example of "A Persistant \[sic] Localism" in the Introduction) {{citation needed\|date\=June 2020}}
[ "History\n-------", "Historically Poitou was ruled by the [count of Poitou](/wiki/Count_of_Poitou \"Count of Poitou\"), a continuous line of which can be traced back to an appointment of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\") in 778\\. A [marshland](/wiki/Marsh \"Marsh\") called the [Poitevin Marsh](/wiki/Poitevin_Marsh \"Poitevin Marsh\") (French *[Marais Poitevin](/wiki/Marais_Poitevin \"Marais Poitevin\")*) is located along the [Gulf of Poitou](/wiki/Gulf_of_Poitou \"Gulf of Poitou\"), on the west coast of France, just north of [La Rochelle](/wiki/La_Rochelle \"La Rochelle\") and west of [Niort](/wiki/Niort \"Niort\").", "At the conclusion of the [Battle of Taillebourg](/wiki/Battle_of_Taillebourg \"Battle of Taillebourg\") in the [Saintonge War](/wiki/Saintonge_War \"Saintonge War\"), which was decisively won by the French, King Henry III of England recognized his loss of continental [Plantagenet territory](/wiki/Angevin_Empire \"Angevin Empire\") to France. This was ratified by the [Treaty of Paris of 1259](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281259%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1259)\"), by which King Louis annexed [Normandy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy \"Duchy of Normandy\"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine_%28province%29 \"Maine (province)\"), [Anjou](/wiki/Duchy_of_Anjou \"Duchy of Anjou\"), and Poitou).", "During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Poitou was a hotbed of [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot \"Huguenot\") (French Calvinist Protestant) activity among the nobility and bourgeoisie. The Protestants were discriminated against and brutally attacked during the [French Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion \"French Wars of Religion\") (1562–1598\\). Under the [Edict of Nantes](/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes \"Edict of Nantes\"), such discrimination was temporarily suspended but this measure was repealed by the French Crown.", "Some of the French colonists, later known as [Acadians](/wiki/Acadian \"Acadian\"), who settled beginning in 1604 in eastern North America came from southern Poitou. They established settlements in what is now [Nova Scotia](/wiki/Nova_Scotia \"Nova Scotia\"), and later in [New Brunswick](/wiki/New_Brunswick \"New Brunswick\")—both of which were taken over in the later 18th century by the English, (after their 1763 victory in the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War \"Seven Years' War\")).", "After the revocation of the [Edict of Nantes](/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes \"Edict of Nantes\") in 1685, the French Roman [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") conducted a strong [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\") effort. In 1793, this effort had contributed to the three\\-year\\-long open revolt against the French Revolutionary Government in the Bas\\-Poitou (Département of [Vendée](/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e \"Vendée\")). Similarly, during [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\")'s [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days \"Hundred Days\") in 1815, the Vendée stayed loyal to the Restoration Monarchy of [King Louis XVIII](/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France \"Louis XVIII of France\"). Napoleon dispatched 10,000 troops under [General Lamarque](/wiki/General_Lamarque \"General Lamarque\") to pacify the region.", "As noted by historian Andre Lampert:", "> \"The persistent Huguenots of 17th Century Poitou and the fiercely Catholic rebellious Royalists of what came be the Vendée of the late 18th Century had ideologies very different, indeed diametrically opposed to each other. The common thread connecting both phenomena is a continuing assertion of a local identity and opposition to the central government in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), whatever its composition and identity. (...) In the region where [Louis XIII](/wiki/Louis_XIII \"Louis XIII\") and [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\") had encountered stiff resistance, the [House of Bourbon](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon \"House of Bourbon\") gained loyal and militant supporters exactly when it had been overthrown and when a Bourbon loyalty came to imply a local loyalty in opposition to the new central government, that of [Robespierre](/wiki/Robespierre \"Robespierre\").\"Andre Lampert, \"Centralism and Localism in European History\" (cited as an example of \"A Persistant \\[sic] Localism\" in the Introduction)", "{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2020}}", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Book smuggling Zaunius received only primary education and earned a living off his {{convert\|37\|ha}} farm in Rokaiten.{{efn\|name\=rokaiten}} He supported publication of Lithuanian books and [their smuggling](/wiki/Lithuanian_book_smugglers "Lithuanian book smugglers") across the Prussian–Russian border. Lithuanian\-language books printed in the [Latin alphabet](/wiki/Latin_alphabet "Latin alphabet") were banned in Lithuania which was then part of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") (see the [Lithuanian press ban](/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban "Lithuanian press ban")). His farm welcomed various Lithuanian activists who were persecuted by the Tsarist authorities for violations of the ban or other political activities, including [Vincas Kapsukas](/wiki/Vincas_Kapsukas "Vincas Kapsukas"), {{ill\|Juozas Bagdonas (doctor)\|lt\|Juozas Bagdonas (1866\)\|lt\=Juozas Bagdonas}}, and {{ill\|Petras Mikolainis\|lt}}. Linguist [Georg Sauerwein](/wiki/Georg_Sauerwein "Georg Sauerwein") lived on the farm for a year and composed the poem *[Lietuvininkai we are born](/wiki/Lietuvininkai_we_are_born "Lietuvininkai we are born")*. ### Cultural activities Between 1887 and 1903, Zaunius was elected as chairman of the [Birutė Society](/wiki/Birut%C4%97_Society "Birutė Society") several times. However, his tenure marked periods of low activity and the society came close to being liquidated in 1903\. In 1900, Zaunius and his daughter [Morta Zauniūtė](/wiki/Morta_Zauni%C5%ABt%C4%97 "Morta Zauniūtė") were entrusted with managing the budget for the Lithuanian exposition at the [world's fair in Paris](/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_%281900%29 "Exposition Universelle (1900)"). He managed the budget of the Lithuanian newspaper *[Varpas](/wiki/Varpas "Varpas")* from 1900 to 1905\. Zaunius also organized a library at his farm. It sought to collect all Lithuanian publications. Some of this collection was donated to the [Lithuanian Scientific Society](/wiki/Lithuanian_Scientific_Society "Lithuanian Scientific Society") in [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius "Vilnius"), the rest was lost during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). ### Political activities In 1890, together with [Martynas Jankus](/wiki/Martynas_Jankus "Martynas Jankus"), [Jonas Smalakys](/wiki/Jonas_Smalakys "Jonas Smalakys"), and others, Zaunius established the first of the [Lithuanian Conservative Election Societies](/wiki/Lithuanian_Conservative_Election_Societies "Lithuanian Conservative Election Societies"). The goal of such societies was to elect Prussian Lithuanians to the [German Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)") and [Prussian Landtag](/wiki/Prussian_Landtag "Prussian Landtag"). When the society broke up based on the electoral districts, Zaunius chaired the Tilsit–Elchniederung section. He unsuccessfully ran in the Reichstag elections three times. In 1892 and 1900, he was involved with the collection of signatures for petitions to the Prussian Ministers of Education asking to leave the Lithuanian language in primary schools.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Book smuggling", "Zaunius received only primary education and earned a living off his {{convert\\|37\\|ha}} farm in Rokaiten.{{efn\\|name\\=rokaiten}} He supported publication of Lithuanian books and [their smuggling](/wiki/Lithuanian_book_smugglers \"Lithuanian book smugglers\") across the Prussian–Russian border. Lithuanian\\-language books printed in the [Latin alphabet](/wiki/Latin_alphabet \"Latin alphabet\") were banned in Lithuania which was then part of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") (see the [Lithuanian press ban](/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban \"Lithuanian press ban\")).", "His farm welcomed various Lithuanian activists who were persecuted by the Tsarist authorities for violations of the ban or other political activities, including [Vincas Kapsukas](/wiki/Vincas_Kapsukas \"Vincas Kapsukas\"), {{ill\\|Juozas Bagdonas (doctor)\\|lt\\|Juozas Bagdonas (1866\\)\\|lt\\=Juozas Bagdonas}}, and {{ill\\|Petras Mikolainis\\|lt}}. Linguist [Georg Sauerwein](/wiki/Georg_Sauerwein \"Georg Sauerwein\") lived on the farm for a year and composed the poem *[Lietuvininkai we are born](/wiki/Lietuvininkai_we_are_born \"Lietuvininkai we are born\")*.", "### Cultural activities", "Between 1887 and 1903, Zaunius was elected as chairman of the [Birutė Society](/wiki/Birut%C4%97_Society \"Birutė Society\") several times. However, his tenure marked periods of low activity and the society came close to being liquidated in 1903\\. In 1900, Zaunius and his daughter [Morta Zauniūtė](/wiki/Morta_Zauni%C5%ABt%C4%97 \"Morta Zauniūtė\") were entrusted with managing the budget for the Lithuanian exposition at the [world's fair in Paris](/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_%281900%29 \"Exposition Universelle (1900)\").", "He managed the budget of the Lithuanian newspaper *[Varpas](/wiki/Varpas \"Varpas\")* from 1900 to 1905\\. Zaunius also organized a library at his farm. It sought to collect all Lithuanian publications. Some of this collection was donated to the [Lithuanian Scientific Society](/wiki/Lithuanian_Scientific_Society \"Lithuanian Scientific Society\") in [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius \"Vilnius\"), the rest was lost during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").", "### Political activities", "In 1890, together with [Martynas Jankus](/wiki/Martynas_Jankus \"Martynas Jankus\"), [Jonas Smalakys](/wiki/Jonas_Smalakys \"Jonas Smalakys\"), and others, Zaunius established the first of the [Lithuanian Conservative Election Societies](/wiki/Lithuanian_Conservative_Election_Societies \"Lithuanian Conservative Election Societies\"). The goal of such societies was to elect Prussian Lithuanians to the [German Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\") and [Prussian Landtag](/wiki/Prussian_Landtag \"Prussian Landtag\"). When the society broke up based on the electoral districts, Zaunius chaired the Tilsit–Elchniederung section. He unsuccessfully ran in the Reichstag elections three times. In 1892 and 1900, he was involved with the collection of signatures for petitions to the Prussian Ministers of Education asking to leave the Lithuanian language in primary schools.", "" ]
Voice\-over work ---------------- Dave Lamb was one of the main voice\-over artists on satirical cartoon *[2DTV](/wiki/2DTV "2DTV")* alongside [Jan Ravens](/wiki/Jan_Ravens "Jan Ravens") and [Jon Culshaw](/wiki/Jon_Culshaw "Jon Culshaw"),[Full cast and crew for "2DTV" (2001\)](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0298617/fullcredits#cast/). IMDb but he gained cult status through his sarcastic voice\-overs on dinner party show *[Come Dine with Me](/wiki/Come_Dine_with_Me "Come Dine with Me")* which began in 2005\. In an interview, he claimed that in the first series he did do quite a lot of [ad\-libbing](/wiki/Ad_libitum "Ad libitum") but that the show's writers now know how to write for his voice. He also stated that he would never take part in a celebrity edition as he wasn't famous enough to participate.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/a120974/dave\-lamb\-come\-dine\-with\-me.html\|title\=Interview – Dave Lamb ('Come Dine With Me')\|last\=Wilkes\|first\=Neil\|date\=11 August 2008\|work\=\[\[Digital Spy]]\|access\-date\=19 October 2010}} In 2008, Lamb provided a voice for one of the Spade brothers in [Lionhead Studios](/wiki/Lionhead_Studios "Lionhead Studios")' *[Fable II](/wiki/Fable_II "Fable II")*{{cite web\|title\=IMDB Fable II Cast List\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1310502/\|publisher\=IMDb}} and again in 2010 for *[Fable III](/wiki/Fable_III "Fable III")*.{{cite web\|title\=IMDB Fable III Cast List\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1495761/fullcredits?ref\_\=tt\_cl\_sm\#cast\|publisher\=IMDb}} Lamb narrated *Come Dine with Me*\-style sketches for five episodes of *[Horrible Histories](/wiki/Horrible_Histories_%282009_TV_series%29 "Horrible Histories (2009 TV series)")*, between 2010 and 2013\. In 2011 for the *[Big Brother 2011](/wiki/Big_Brother_%28British_series_12%29 "Big Brother (British series 12)")* Come Dine with Me task, Lamb took over from usual narrator [Marcus Bentley](/wiki/Marcus_Bentley "Marcus Bentley") for the feature, the first time that anyone other than Bentley had provided a voice\-over for the show.[Digitalspy.co.uk](http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/s149/big-brother/news/a243116/dave-lamb-to-guest-narrate-big-brother.html) He starred in a voice\-over part for a character in the 2011 MMORPG *[Star Wars: The Old Republic](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Old_Republic "The Old Republic")*. He also narrates *Come Dine with Me Ireland* and *Come Dine with Me South Africa*{{cite web\|last\=Nevill \|first\=Glenda \|url\=http://themediaonline.co.za/2011/10/come\-dine\-with\-me\-sa\-has\-them\-trending\-on\-twitter/ \|title\=Come Dine With Me SA has viewers eating out of its hand \|date\=26 October 2011 \|publisher\=The Media Online \|access\-date\=29 October 2011}} and provides the voice\-over on the [CBeebies](/wiki/CBeebies "CBeebies") animated shows *[Big Barn Farm](/wiki/Big_Barn_Farm "Big Barn Farm")* and *[Waybuloo](/wiki/Waybuloo "Waybuloo")*.{{cite web\|title\=Sue Terry Voices Agency – Credits\|url\=http://sueterryvoices.com/profile/dave\-lamb/\|publisher\=sueterryvoices.com}} He narrated a special section of *[Blue Peter](/wiki/Blue_Peter "Blue Peter")* on 25 October 2011\. The section was a spoof of *Come Dine with Me* at a zoo where the guests were animals.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2011}} In May 2012, he did a voice over for UK band *Jackdaw4* on their [PledgeMusic](/wiki/PledgeMusic "PledgeMusic") page, to promote their pledge campaign to record their fourth album. In November 2013, Lamb provided a voice over for [Bedford Modern School](/wiki/Bedford_Modern_School "Bedford Modern School")'s production of "The Only Way", a play commemorating 10 years of co\-education. He narrates the [2015 reboot of *Danger Mouse*](/wiki/Danger_Mouse_%282015_TV_series%29 "Danger Mouse (2015 TV series)"). He also voices Stiletto Mafiosa in the series. He also narrates the live stage show of Danger Mouse at [Butlins](/wiki/Butlins "Butlins") in 2017–2018\. In 2018 Lamb was the commentator on BBC One's Saturday evening game show *[And They're Off ... for Sport Relief](/wiki/And_They%27re_Off%21 "And They're Off!")*, presented by [Ore Oduba](/wiki/Ore_Oduba "Ore Oduba").
[ "Voice\\-over work\n----------------", "Dave Lamb was one of the main voice\\-over artists on satirical cartoon *[2DTV](/wiki/2DTV \"2DTV\")* alongside [Jan Ravens](/wiki/Jan_Ravens \"Jan Ravens\") and [Jon Culshaw](/wiki/Jon_Culshaw \"Jon Culshaw\"),[Full cast and crew for \"2DTV\" (2001\\)](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0298617/fullcredits#cast/). IMDb but he gained cult status through his sarcastic voice\\-overs on dinner party show *[Come Dine with Me](/wiki/Come_Dine_with_Me \"Come Dine with Me\")* which began in 2005\\. In an interview, he claimed that in the first series he did do quite a lot of [ad\\-libbing](/wiki/Ad_libitum \"Ad libitum\") but that the show's writers now know how to write for his voice. He also stated that he would never take part in a celebrity edition as he wasn't famous enough to participate.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/a120974/dave\\-lamb\\-come\\-dine\\-with\\-me.html\\|title\\=Interview – Dave Lamb ('Come Dine With Me')\\|last\\=Wilkes\\|first\\=Neil\\|date\\=11 August 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\\|access\\-date\\=19 October 2010}}", "In 2008, Lamb provided a voice for one of the Spade brothers in [Lionhead Studios](/wiki/Lionhead_Studios \"Lionhead Studios\")' *[Fable II](/wiki/Fable_II \"Fable II\")*{{cite web\\|title\\=IMDB Fable II Cast List\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1310502/\\|publisher\\=IMDb}} and again in 2010 for *[Fable III](/wiki/Fable_III \"Fable III\")*.{{cite web\\|title\\=IMDB Fable III Cast List\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1495761/fullcredits?ref\\_\\=tt\\_cl\\_sm\\#cast\\|publisher\\=IMDb}}", "Lamb narrated *Come Dine with Me*\\-style sketches for five episodes of *[Horrible Histories](/wiki/Horrible_Histories_%282009_TV_series%29 \"Horrible Histories (2009 TV series)\")*, between 2010 and 2013\\.", "In 2011 for the *[Big Brother 2011](/wiki/Big_Brother_%28British_series_12%29 \"Big Brother (British series 12)\")* Come Dine with Me task, Lamb took over from usual narrator [Marcus Bentley](/wiki/Marcus_Bentley \"Marcus Bentley\") for the feature, the first time that anyone other than Bentley had provided a voice\\-over for the show.[Digitalspy.co.uk](http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/s149/big-brother/news/a243116/dave-lamb-to-guest-narrate-big-brother.html)", "He starred in a voice\\-over part for a character in the 2011 MMORPG *[Star Wars: The Old Republic](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Old_Republic \"The Old Republic\")*.", "He also narrates *Come Dine with Me Ireland* and *Come Dine with Me South Africa*{{cite web\\|last\\=Nevill \\|first\\=Glenda \\|url\\=http://themediaonline.co.za/2011/10/come\\-dine\\-with\\-me\\-sa\\-has\\-them\\-trending\\-on\\-twitter/ \\|title\\=Come Dine With Me SA has viewers eating out of its hand \\|date\\=26 October 2011 \\|publisher\\=The Media Online \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2011}} and provides the voice\\-over on the [CBeebies](/wiki/CBeebies \"CBeebies\") animated shows *[Big Barn Farm](/wiki/Big_Barn_Farm \"Big Barn Farm\")* and *[Waybuloo](/wiki/Waybuloo \"Waybuloo\")*.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sue Terry Voices Agency – Credits\\|url\\=http://sueterryvoices.com/profile/dave\\-lamb/\\|publisher\\=sueterryvoices.com}} He narrated a special section of *[Blue Peter](/wiki/Blue_Peter \"Blue Peter\")* on 25 October 2011\\. The section was a spoof of *Come Dine with Me* at a zoo where the guests were animals.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2011}}", "In May 2012, he did a voice over for UK band *Jackdaw4* on their [PledgeMusic](/wiki/PledgeMusic \"PledgeMusic\") page, to promote their pledge campaign to record their fourth album.", "In November 2013, Lamb provided a voice over for [Bedford Modern School](/wiki/Bedford_Modern_School \"Bedford Modern School\")'s production of \"The Only Way\", a play commemorating 10 years of co\\-education.", "He narrates the [2015 reboot of *Danger Mouse*](/wiki/Danger_Mouse_%282015_TV_series%29 \"Danger Mouse (2015 TV series)\"). He also voices Stiletto Mafiosa in the series. He also narrates the live stage show of Danger Mouse at [Butlins](/wiki/Butlins \"Butlins\") in 2017–2018\\.", "In 2018 Lamb was the commentator on BBC One's Saturday evening game show *[And They're Off ... for Sport Relief](/wiki/And_They%27re_Off%21 \"And They're Off!\")*, presented by [Ore Oduba](/wiki/Ore_Oduba \"Ore Oduba\").", "" ]
Personal life ------------- Miguel Atwood\-Ferguson grew up in [Topanga, California](/wiki/Topanga%2C_California "Topanga, California"), an arts district in Western Los Angeles. His parents instilled in him an appreciation of cultures from around the world and an ethic of dedicated study. His father is a multi\-instrumentalist, backing people such as [Etta James](/wiki/Etta_James "Etta James"), [Screamin' Jay Hawkins](/wiki/Screamin%27_Jay_Hawkins "Screamin' Jay Hawkins"), [Ry Cooder](/wiki/Ry_Cooder "Ry Cooder"), and [Johnny Otis](/wiki/Johnny_Otis "Johnny Otis"). His mother was an educator with a passion for empowering those around her. Together his parents created a childhood environment rich in diverse sounds. As an infant when left alone in his crib, his parents put on repeat tapes with music by [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven "Beethoven"), [Chopin](/wiki/Chopin "Chopin"), [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart "Mozart"),{{cite web\|accessdate\=August 5, 2020\|title\=J Dilla: the Mozart of hip\-hop\|url\=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2011/jan/27/j\-dilla\-suite\-ma\-dukes\|date\=January 27, 2011\|website\=The Guardian}} [Bach](/wiki/Bach "Bach") and [Brahms](/wiki/Brahms "Brahms"). At age four, Atwood\-Ferguson's parents enrolled him in weekly violin lessons after he expressed interest in playing the violin upon seeing other children playing the instrument at the music institute where his brother was studying piano. Following this early exposure, he enrolled in weekly violin, chamber music, and music theory lessons, and joined the Orchestra da' Camera at the [Colburn School](/wiki/Colburn_School "Colburn School") from ages 8 to 15\. During this time he began composing for symphonic orchestra, with his first original symphonic composition, at age ten, played by the Pacific Palisades Symphony. At age twelve he switched to viola and continued focusing on classical music while an interest in the music of [Motown](/wiki/Motown "Motown"), [Jimi Hendrix](/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix "Jimi Hendrix"), and [the Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") also continued to develop. In high school he developed interests in [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") and [hip\-hop](/wiki/Hip-hop "Hip-hop") which have carried over into a lifelong passion and career.{{cite web\|last1\=Sandler\|first1\=Eric\|title\=Miguel Atwood\-Ferguson: Assembling the Ensemble\|url\=http://revive\-music.com/2011/07/06/miguel\-atwood\-ferguson\-assembling\-the\-ensemble/\|website\=Revive Music\|accessdate\=August 29, 2017}} Miguel Atwood\-Ferguson attended University of Southern California in Los Angeles, graduating with a bachelor's degree in classical viola. Atwood\-Ferguson practices [Nichiren Buddhism](/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism "Nichiren Buddhism") with the [Soka Gakkai International](/wiki/Soka_Gakkai_International "Soka Gakkai International").
[ "Personal life\n-------------", "Miguel Atwood\\-Ferguson grew up in [Topanga, California](/wiki/Topanga%2C_California \"Topanga, California\"), an arts district in Western Los Angeles. His parents instilled in him an appreciation of cultures from around the world and an ethic of dedicated study. His father is a multi\\-instrumentalist, backing people such as [Etta James](/wiki/Etta_James \"Etta James\"), [Screamin' Jay Hawkins](/wiki/Screamin%27_Jay_Hawkins \"Screamin' Jay Hawkins\"), [Ry Cooder](/wiki/Ry_Cooder \"Ry Cooder\"), and [Johnny Otis](/wiki/Johnny_Otis \"Johnny Otis\"). His mother was an educator with a passion for empowering those around her.", "Together his parents created a childhood environment rich in diverse sounds. As an infant when left alone in his crib, his parents put on repeat tapes with music by [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven \"Beethoven\"), [Chopin](/wiki/Chopin \"Chopin\"), [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart \"Mozart\"),{{cite web\\|accessdate\\=August 5, 2020\\|title\\=J Dilla: the Mozart of hip\\-hop\\|url\\=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2011/jan/27/j\\-dilla\\-suite\\-ma\\-dukes\\|date\\=January 27, 2011\\|website\\=The Guardian}} [Bach](/wiki/Bach \"Bach\") and [Brahms](/wiki/Brahms \"Brahms\"). At age four, Atwood\\-Ferguson's parents enrolled him in weekly violin lessons after he expressed interest in playing the violin upon seeing other children playing the instrument at the music institute where his brother was studying piano.", "Following this early exposure, he enrolled in weekly violin, chamber music, and music theory lessons, and joined the Orchestra da' Camera at the [Colburn School](/wiki/Colburn_School \"Colburn School\") from ages 8 to 15\\. During this time he began composing for symphonic orchestra, with his first original symphonic composition, at age ten, played by the Pacific Palisades Symphony.", "At age twelve he switched to viola and continued focusing on classical music while an interest in the music of [Motown](/wiki/Motown \"Motown\"), [Jimi Hendrix](/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix \"Jimi Hendrix\"), and [the Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles \"The Beatles\") also continued to develop. In high school he developed interests in [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") and [hip\\-hop](/wiki/Hip-hop \"Hip-hop\") which have carried over into a lifelong passion and career.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Sandler\\|first1\\=Eric\\|title\\=Miguel Atwood\\-Ferguson: Assembling the Ensemble\\|url\\=http://revive\\-music.com/2011/07/06/miguel\\-atwood\\-ferguson\\-assembling\\-the\\-ensemble/\\|website\\=Revive Music\\|accessdate\\=August 29, 2017}}", "Miguel Atwood\\-Ferguson attended University of Southern California in Los Angeles, graduating with a bachelor's degree in classical viola.", "Atwood\\-Ferguson practices [Nichiren Buddhism](/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism \"Nichiren Buddhism\") with the [Soka Gakkai International](/wiki/Soka_Gakkai_International \"Soka Gakkai International\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Born in [Donetsk](/wiki/Donetsk "Donetsk") on 26 January 1972\.{{in lang\|ru}} [Small bio](http://politrada.com/dossier/Andrey-Evgenevich-Purgin/) on Politrada In 1989 he entered the [Donetsk State Technical University](/wiki/Donetsk_State_Technical_University "Donetsk State Technical University"). From the early 1990s until the mid\-[2000s](/wiki/2000s_%28decade%29 "2000s (decade)") he held about 70 jobs, including trading companies, charitable organizations and the Donetsk circus. On 23 February 2005 ([Soviet Army and Navy Day](/wiki/Defender_of_the_Fatherland_Day "Defender of the Fatherland Day")) Purgin participated in a protest of the Union of the Born by Revolution that established a small tent city at the Lenin Square in Donetsk. The protested issued a request consisting of 12 principles that included federalization of Ukraine, official status for the Russian language and other issues promoting the rights of the Russian\-speaking population. The Donetsk District Court of Voroshilov Region ordered the tents to be removed.Kurtsanovskaya, A. *[Union of the Born by Revolution: "Pora" terrorizes Donbas \- interview](http://novosti.dn.ua/details/12176/)*. Novosti Donbassa. 24 March 2005 At the end of 2005 (6 December 2005\) Purgin already headed the newly organized movement [Donetsk Republic](/wiki/Donetsk_Republic_%28political_party%29 "Donetsk Republic (political party)") that claimed its heritage from the Soviet [puppet state](/wiki/Puppet_state "Puppet state") [Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic](/wiki/Donetsk%E2%80%93Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic "Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic"). The organization claimed to fight the "[orange](/wiki/Orange_Revolution "Orange Revolution") plague" of President [Viktor Yushchenko](/wiki/Viktor_Yushchenko "Viktor Yushchenko"). It was marginal. In the winter of 2013, together with "[titushky](/wiki/Titushky "Titushky")", Purgin dispersed supporters of [Euromaidan](/wiki/Euromaidan "Euromaidan") in Donetsk; but in the heat of battle titushky beat him. According to the [Ukrainian Ministry of Internal Affairs](/wiki/Ukrainian_Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs "Ukrainian Ministry of Internal Affairs") Purgin was arrested by the [Security Service of Ukraine](/wiki/Security_Service_of_Ukraine "Security Service of Ukraine") (SBU) on 19 March 2014, however, on 22 March 2014 he already was released.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2015}} On 19 April 2014 Purgin was listed on the SBU wanted list for terrorism.[Profile](https://web.archive.org/web/20150119210823/http://mvs.gov.ua/mvs/control/investigation/card/wantedPerson?ID=14185594777082) at the [Ministry of Internal Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_%28Ukraine%29 "Ministry of Internal Affairs (Ukraine)") website. In the interview to "Informbyuro" on May 18, 2014, Purgin stated that on March 27, 1994, there was a referendum in Donetsk and Luhansk regions where 90% of population voted for federalization of Ukraine.[Andrei Purgin: we think for the process of gaining political and economical independence of Donbas to be the least difficult](http://informburo.dn.ua/cgi-bin/iburo/start.cgi?info2=0502) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019095424/http://informburo.dn.ua/cgi\-bin/iburo/start.cgi?info2\=0502 \|date\=2017\-10\-19 }}. Informbyuro. 18 May 2014 He also acknowledged that the Donetsk Republic as organization included also [National Bolsheviks](/wiki/National_Bolshevik_Party "National Bolshevik Party") mainly in [Makiivka](/wiki/Makiivka "Makiivka"). Purgin opposed some of the key points of the February 2015 [Minsk II](/wiki/Minsk_II "Minsk II") cease\-fire agreement.[Ukrainian Separatist Leader Released By Rebels After Four\-Day Detention](http://www.rferl.mobi/a/27233740.html), [Radio Free Europe](/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe "Radio Free Europe") (9 September 2015\) [Ex\-rebel chief in eastern Ukraine: ouster due to 'intrigue'](https://news.yahoo.com/ex-rebel-chief-eastern-ukraine-ouster-due-intrigue-183122473.html), [Yahoo news](/wiki/Yahoo_news "Yahoo news") (9 September 2015\) [New Ukraine truce: rays of hope and clouds of doubt](http://www.afp.com/en/news/new-ukraine-truce-rays-hope-and-clouds-doubt'){{dead link\|date\=October 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}, [AFP news](/wiki/AFP_news "AFP news") (7 September 2015\) On 4 September 2015 Purgin was removed from the position of the Chairman of the [People's Council](/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_the_Donetsk_People%27s_Republic "People's Council of the Donetsk People's Republic") of the unrecognized Donetsk People's Republic for "an attempt to disrupt a meeting of the People's Soviet and present false inflaming information".{{cite news\|title\=Спикер народного совета ДНР Андрей Пургин отправлен в отставку\|url\=http://www.interfax.ru/world/464849\|agency\=\[\[Interfax]]\|date\=4 September 2015}} He was then detained for four days for reasons unknown to him. The new chairman of the Soviet became [Denis Pushilin](/wiki/Denis_Pushilin "Denis Pushilin"), his deputy.{{cite news\|title\=Пушилин возглавил парламент ДНР\|url\=http://www.interfax.ru/world/464848\|agency\=\[\[Interfax]]\|date\=4 September 2015}} Pushilin denied Purgin's arrest.[Pushilin denies reports of Purgin's arrest](http://www.interfax.com/newsinf.asp?id=616708) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061225/http://www.interfax.com/newsinf.asp?id\=616708 \|date\=March 4, 2016 }}, [Interfax](/wiki/Interfax "Interfax") (7 September 2015\) Observers claimed Purgin's dismissal was part of efforts of the Russian government to bring the Donetsk People's Republic to heel to observe the Minsk II agreement. ### Sanctions Sanctioned by the [UK](/wiki/UK "UK") government in 2014 in relation to [Russo\-Ukrainian War](/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War "Russo-Ukrainian War"). {{cite web \|title\=CONSOLIDATED LIST OF FINANCIAL SANCTIONS TARGETS IN THE UK \|url\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/1150217/Russia.pdf \|access\-date\=16 April 2023}}
[ "Biography\n---------", "Born in [Donetsk](/wiki/Donetsk \"Donetsk\") on 26 January 1972\\.{{in lang\\|ru}} [Small bio](http://politrada.com/dossier/Andrey-Evgenevich-Purgin/) on Politrada In 1989 he entered the [Donetsk State Technical University](/wiki/Donetsk_State_Technical_University \"Donetsk State Technical University\"). From the early 1990s until the mid\\-[2000s](/wiki/2000s_%28decade%29 \"2000s (decade)\") he held about 70 jobs, including trading companies, charitable organizations and the Donetsk circus.", "On 23 February 2005 ([Soviet Army and Navy Day](/wiki/Defender_of_the_Fatherland_Day \"Defender of the Fatherland Day\")) Purgin participated in a protest of the Union of the Born by Revolution that established a small tent city at the Lenin Square in Donetsk. The protested issued a request consisting of 12 principles that included federalization of Ukraine, official status for the Russian language and other issues promoting the rights of the Russian\\-speaking population. The Donetsk District Court of Voroshilov Region ordered the tents to be removed.Kurtsanovskaya, A. *[Union of the Born by Revolution: \"Pora\" terrorizes Donbas \\- interview](http://novosti.dn.ua/details/12176/)*. Novosti Donbassa. 24 March 2005", "At the end of 2005 (6 December 2005\\) Purgin already headed the newly organized movement [Donetsk Republic](/wiki/Donetsk_Republic_%28political_party%29 \"Donetsk Republic (political party)\") that claimed its heritage from the Soviet [puppet state](/wiki/Puppet_state \"Puppet state\") [Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic](/wiki/Donetsk%E2%80%93Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic \"Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic\"). The organization claimed to fight the \"[orange](/wiki/Orange_Revolution \"Orange Revolution\") plague\" of President [Viktor Yushchenko](/wiki/Viktor_Yushchenko \"Viktor Yushchenko\"). It was marginal.", "In the winter of 2013, together with \"[titushky](/wiki/Titushky \"Titushky\")\", Purgin dispersed supporters of [Euromaidan](/wiki/Euromaidan \"Euromaidan\") in Donetsk; but in the heat of battle titushky beat him.", "According to the [Ukrainian Ministry of Internal Affairs](/wiki/Ukrainian_Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs \"Ukrainian Ministry of Internal Affairs\") Purgin was arrested by the [Security Service of Ukraine](/wiki/Security_Service_of_Ukraine \"Security Service of Ukraine\") (SBU) on 19 March 2014, however, on 22 March 2014 he already was released.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2015}} On 19 April 2014 Purgin was listed on the SBU wanted list for terrorism.[Profile](https://web.archive.org/web/20150119210823/http://mvs.gov.ua/mvs/control/investigation/card/wantedPerson?ID=14185594777082) at the [Ministry of Internal Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_%28Ukraine%29 \"Ministry of Internal Affairs (Ukraine)\") website.", "In the interview to \"Informbyuro\" on May 18, 2014, Purgin stated that on March 27, 1994, there was a referendum in Donetsk and Luhansk regions where 90% of population voted for federalization of Ukraine.[Andrei Purgin: we think for the process of gaining political and economical independence of Donbas to be the least difficult](http://informburo.dn.ua/cgi-bin/iburo/start.cgi?info2=0502) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019095424/http://informburo.dn.ua/cgi\\-bin/iburo/start.cgi?info2\\=0502 \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-19 }}. Informbyuro. 18 May 2014 He also acknowledged that the Donetsk Republic as organization included also [National Bolsheviks](/wiki/National_Bolshevik_Party \"National Bolshevik Party\") mainly in [Makiivka](/wiki/Makiivka \"Makiivka\").", "Purgin opposed some of the key points of the February 2015 [Minsk II](/wiki/Minsk_II \"Minsk II\") cease\\-fire agreement.[Ukrainian Separatist Leader Released By Rebels After Four\\-Day Detention](http://www.rferl.mobi/a/27233740.html), [Radio Free Europe](/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe \"Radio Free Europe\") (9 September 2015\\) \n[Ex\\-rebel chief in eastern Ukraine: ouster due to 'intrigue'](https://news.yahoo.com/ex-rebel-chief-eastern-ukraine-ouster-due-intrigue-183122473.html), [Yahoo news](/wiki/Yahoo_news \"Yahoo news\") (9 September 2015\\) \n[New Ukraine truce: rays of hope and clouds of doubt](http://www.afp.com/en/news/new-ukraine-truce-rays-hope-and-clouds-doubt'){{dead link\\|date\\=October 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}, [AFP news](/wiki/AFP_news \"AFP news\") (7 September 2015\\)", "On 4 September 2015 Purgin was removed from the position of the Chairman of the [People's Council](/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_the_Donetsk_People%27s_Republic \"People's Council of the Donetsk People's Republic\") of the unrecognized Donetsk People's Republic for \"an attempt to disrupt a meeting of the People's Soviet and present false inflaming information\".{{cite news\\|title\\=Спикер народного совета ДНР Андрей Пургин отправлен в отставку\\|url\\=http://www.interfax.ru/world/464849\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Interfax]]\\|date\\=4 September 2015}} He was then detained for four days for reasons unknown to him. The new chairman of the Soviet became [Denis Pushilin](/wiki/Denis_Pushilin \"Denis Pushilin\"), his deputy.{{cite news\\|title\\=Пушилин возглавил парламент ДНР\\|url\\=http://www.interfax.ru/world/464848\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Interfax]]\\|date\\=4 September 2015}} Pushilin denied Purgin's arrest.[Pushilin denies reports of Purgin's arrest](http://www.interfax.com/newsinf.asp?id=616708) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061225/http://www.interfax.com/newsinf.asp?id\\=616708 \\|date\\=March 4, 2016 }}, [Interfax](/wiki/Interfax \"Interfax\") (7 September 2015\\) Observers claimed Purgin's dismissal was part of efforts of the Russian government to bring the Donetsk People's Republic to heel to observe the Minsk II agreement.", "### Sanctions", "Sanctioned by the [UK](/wiki/UK \"UK\") government in 2014 in relation to [Russo\\-Ukrainian War](/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War \"Russo-Ukrainian War\"). {{cite web \\|title\\=CONSOLIDATED LIST OF FINANCIAL SANCTIONS TARGETS IN THE UK \\|url\\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/1150217/Russia.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2023}}", "" ]
History ------- ### Formation (1999–2000\) Fozzy started as Fozzy Osbourne, a play on the name of the singer [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne"), and was a [cover band](/wiki/Cover_band "Cover band") assembled by Ward from whatever musicians he could find in a given week. In 1999, Jericho and Ward met in [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio "San Antonio"), after a wrestling show and Jericho was invited to play with the band. Their first show was held at the now\-defunct club "The Hangar", in the downtown square of [Marietta, Georgia](/wiki/Marietta%2C_Georgia "Marietta, Georgia"). Jericho sat in on a few sessions, but did not plan to play with them permanently. In 2000, Jericho rejoined the band and became its frontman under the persona of Moongoose McQueen, and the band went on tour. As part of the band's "gimmick", Jericho refused to acknowledge that Moongoose McQueen and Chris Jericho were the same person. When interviewed as Moongoose, he would stay in character the whole time and even feign ignorance of who Chris Jericho was. On the other side, Chris Jericho was a "huge fan" of Moongoose and Fozzy. [thumb\|alt\=Fozzy logo wordmark\|upright\|Fozzy logo wordmark](/wiki/File:Fozzy_logo.svg "Fozzy logo.svg") ### *Fozzy* and *Happenstance* (2000–2002\) The band shortened its name to Fozzy, and adopted the satirical back\-story that they had signed with a record company to move to Japan to be huge rock stars, but the company went out of business, leaving them stranded for 20 years, while all their demos were snatched and recorded by other bands.{{harvnb\|Jericho\|2011\|p\=62}} Soon afterward, Fozzy produced their first album, [self\-titled](/wiki/Fozzy_%28album%29 "Fozzy (album)") and featuring mostly covers of bands such as [Dio](/wiki/Dio_%28band%29 "Dio (band)"), [Krokus](/wiki/Krokus_%28band%29 "Krokus (band)"), [Twisted Sister](/wiki/Twisted_Sister "Twisted Sister"), [Iron Maiden](/wiki/Iron_Maiden "Iron Maiden"), [Mötley Crüe](/wiki/M%C3%B6tley_Cr%C3%BCe "Mötley Crüe") and [Judas Priest](/wiki/Judas_Priest "Judas Priest"). Also, at one time the band considered changing their name to Big City Knights. Fozzy's second album, *[Happenstance](/wiki/Happenstance_%28Fozzy_album%29 "Happenstance (Fozzy album)")*, was produced in 2002, again with mostly covers of bands such as [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath "Black Sabbath"), [Scorpions](/wiki/Scorpions_%28band%29 "Scorpions (band)"), [W.A.S.P.](/wiki/W.A.S.P._%28band%29 "W.A.S.P. (band)") and [Accept](/wiki/Accept_%28band%29 "Accept (band)"). ### *All That Remains* (2003–2006\) {{Listen \|filename\=Fozzy \- Enemy.ogg \|title\="Enemy" by Fozzy (2005\) \|description\=21 second sample from Fozzy's "\[\[Enemy (Fozzy song)\|Enemy]]". \|format\=\[\[Ogg]]}} After the Happenstance tour ended in 2003, the band dropped its back\-story and Chris Jericho's McQueen persona.{{harvnb\|Jericho\|2011\|p\=270}} \- "So we dropped the covers, the storyline, the pseudonyms, and the wigs." In January 2005, they released their third album, *[All That Remains](/wiki/All_That_Remains_%28album%29 "All That Remains (album)")*,{{harvnb\|Jericho\|2011\|p\=273}} \- "So we released our third album, *All That Remains*, in January 2005 on Ash Records." which had entirely original tracks, including the singles "[Enemy](/wiki/Enemy_%28Fozzy_song%29 "Enemy (Fozzy song)")", "It's a Lie", "Born of Anger", and "The Test". *All That Remains* included guest appearances by musicians [Zakk Wylde](/wiki/Zakk_Wylde "Zakk Wylde") ([Black Label Society](/wiki/Black_Label_Society "Black Label Society"), [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne"), [Pride \& Glory](/wiki/Pride_%26_Glory_%28band%29 "Pride & Glory (band)")), [Bone Crusher](/wiki/Bone_Crusher_%28rapper%29 "Bone Crusher (rapper)"), [Mark Tremonti](/wiki/Mark_Tremonti "Mark Tremonti") ([Creed](/wiki/Creed_%28band%29 "Creed (band)"), [Alter Bridge](/wiki/Alter_Bridge "Alter Bridge")), [Myles Kennedy](/wiki/Myles_Kennedy "Myles Kennedy") (Alter Bridge, [Slash](/wiki/Slash_%28musician%29 "Slash (musician)")), [Marty Friedman](/wiki/Marty_Friedman_%28musician%29 "Marty Friedman (musician)") ([Megadeth](/wiki/Megadeth "Megadeth")) and [Butch Walker](/wiki/Butch_Walker "Butch Walker") ([Marvelous 3](/wiki/Marvelous_3 "Marvelous 3")).{{harvnb\|Jericho\|2011\|p\=271}} \- "Any band that had an album featuring the talents of Wylde, Friedman, Tremonti, and Kennedy had to have some credibility \- and we did." The album sold over 100,000 copies.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2008}} In 2005, "Enemy" was the theme song for *[WWE No Way Out](/wiki/No_Way_Out_%282005%29 "No Way Out (2005)")* and in 2006 for a promotional video for *[TNA Bound for Glory](/wiki/TNA_Bound_for_Glory_%282006%29 "TNA Bound for Glory (2006)")*. In 2005, the band played the [Download Festival](/wiki/Download_Festival "Download Festival") at [Donington Park](/wiki/Donington_Park "Donington Park"), England. ### *Chasing the Grail* (2009–2011\) Soon after the release of *All That Remains*, a fourth album was announced. [thumb\|Chris Jericho live with Fozzy at the Kleine Klub (Saarbrücken)](/wiki/File:Chris_Jericho_Fozzy.JPG "Chris Jericho Fozzy.JPG") On March 4, 2009, MetalUnderground.com reported that Fozzy had signed a worldwide record deal with Australian\-based [Riot! Entertainment](/wiki/Riot_Entertainment "Riot Entertainment") to release their fourth album, *[Chasing the Grail](/wiki/Chasing_the_Grail "Chasing the Grail")*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\=42795\|title\=Fozzy Signs To Riot! Entertainment\|website\=MetalUnderground.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} The album's lead single, "Martyr No More", was announced as an official theme song for the WWE [Royal Rumble](/wiki/Royal_Rumble_%282010%29 "Royal Rumble (2010)") pay per view.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/overtheropes/news/fozzymartyritunes\|title\=Fozzy rocks iTunes\|website\=WWE.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} The album was released in America on January 26, 2010, followed by Australia (February) and Europe (March). On February 19, 2011, Jericho said during an interview with Active Rock radio station [WBSX](/wiki/WBSX "WBSX") in [Wilkes\-Barre, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania "Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania"), that he had completed lyrics for a brand new Fozzy album and that Ward was beginning work on writing the music.{{cite web\|url\=http://somethingtofear.blogspot.com/2011/02/breaking\-chris\-jericho\-down.html\|title\=Now Fear This: Breaking the Chris Jericho Down\|first\=Lazy\|last\=E\|date\=February 19, 2011\|website\=SomethingToFear.Blogspot.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} The band hoped to have the new album released in February 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.twitter.com/FOZZYROCK\|title\=FOZZY (@FOZZYROCK) \- Twitter\|website\=www.Twitter.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} According to Fozzy's official Facebook page, the recordings were done on May 4, 2012\. Fozzy released a brand new music video on June 7, which was shot at the Golden Gods Awards for the track "God Pounds His Nails".{{YouTube\|YihnTEpjJQw}} On July 10, Fozzy played the [Sonisphere Festival](/wiki/Sonisphere_Festival "Sonisphere Festival") at Knebworth, England.{{cite web \|url\=http://uk.sonispherefestivals.com/line\-up/fozzy/ \|title\=Fozzy : Official Sonisphere Festival UK – 2012 – Knebworth House, 6th – 8th July 2012 \|access\-date\=June 18, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718083659/http://uk.sonispherefestivals.com/line\-up/fozzy/ \|archive\-date\=July 18, 2011 }} A special, two\-CD edition of Fozzy's live album *Remains Alive* was released with Chasing the Grail on July 18\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/fozzy\-frontman\-wrestling\-to\-metal/\|title\=FOZZY Frontman: Wrestling To Metal\|last\=Blabbermouth\|date\=April 28, 2012\|website\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} The band then announced a headlining tour of the *[United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom")* for November 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rocksins.com/2011/08/fozzy\-announce\-uk\-tour\-for\-november\-2011\-final\-tour\-before\-recording\-new\-album\-11004/\|title\=Fozzy Announce November 2011 UK Headline Tour\|website\=www.RockSins.com\|date\=August 2, 2011\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} On September 9, Sean Delson announced his "retirement" from Fozzy as their bass guitar player to resume work with Agent Cooper. Fozzy announced Paul Di Leo, the bass guitarist for Adrenaline Mob, as his replacement.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\=71572\|title\=Fozzy Bassist Leaves The Band\|website\=MetalUnderground.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} ### *Sin and Bones* (2012–2013\) On January 18, 2010, it was announced that Fozzy had signed with Century Media Records,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.fozzyrock.com/century.aspx\|title\=FOZZY Signs Worldwide Deal With Century Media Records\|website\=FozzyRock.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615235314/http://www.fozzyrock.com/century.aspx\|archive\-date\=June 15, 2012}} and planned to release a new album later in the year. Jericho hinted the new album on his [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter") page, saying, 'New @FOZZYROCK album in August?!'. Jericho recently made a full\-time return to the [WWE](/wiki/WWE "WWE") on January 4,{{cite web\|url\=http://vids.wwe.com/14496/raw\-chris\-jericho\-returns\-to\-wwe\|title\=Home\|website\=WWE.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215084617/http://vids.wwe.com/14496/raw\-chris\-jericho\-returns\-to\-wwe\|archive\-date\=February 15, 2012}} but despite this, Fozzy was announced to be a part of the [Download Festival](/wiki/Download_Festival "Download Festival") in the UK, in the summer.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.downloadfestival.co.uk/news/article/22\_more\_bands\_added\_to\_the\_download\_line\_up \|title\=22 more bands added to the download line up \| Download Festival 2012 \| Official Line up and Tickets for 2012 \|access\-date\=March 2, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302191423/http://www.downloadfestival.co.uk/news/article/22\_more\_bands\_added\_to\_the\_download\_line\_up \|archive\-date\=March 2, 2012 }} On July 17, Fozzy released the first single from their fifth studio album, *[Sin and Bones](/wiki/Sin_and_Bones "Sin and Bones")*, titled "Sandpaper". The song features guest vocals by [M. Shadows](/wiki/M._Shadows "M. Shadows") from [Avenged Sevenfold](/wiki/Avenged_Sevenfold "Avenged Sevenfold") and was also the [Hell in a Cell](/wiki/Hell_in_a_Cell "Hell in a Cell") theme song.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.centurymedia.com/newsdetailed.aspx?IdNews\=11700\&IdCompany\=2\|title\=Century Media Records \- Fozzy: : New Single "Sandpaper" Now Available; Band Releases 'Evolution of Fozzy' Video\|website\=www.CenturyMedia.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} Sin and Bones was released on August 14\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.centurymedia.com/newsdetailed.aspx?IdNews\=11787\&IdCompany\=2\|title\=Century Media Records \- Fozzy: : New Album, SIN AND BONES, is Out Now!\|website\=www.CenturyMedia.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017\|archive\-date\=September 23, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202030/http://www.centurymedia.com/newsdetailed.aspx?IdNews\=11787\&IdCompany\=2\|url\-status\=dead}} Shortly after the album's release, Chris Jericho once again left the WWE with his final appearance being on *[SmackDown](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown "WWE SmackDown")*, on August 20,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2012\-08\-20/chris\-jericho\-wwe\-career\-retrospective\-26046817\|title\=Raw: Aug. 20, 2012\|website\=WWE.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2012\-08\-20/live\-raw\-results\-26046816/page\-9\|title\=Shows\|website\=WWE.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} so that he could go on tour with the band.{{cite web\|title\=Raw update \- Jericho written off TV\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/quicknews/article\_64474\.shtml}} Fozzy played on the 2012 [Uproar Festival](/wiki/Uproar_Festival "Uproar Festival") tour, headlining the Jägermeister stage. After the Uproar Festival, Fozzy scheduled an international tour with stops in Europe and Australia. Fozzy made their return to the U.S. in 2013 touring as an opener for [Saxon](/wiki/Saxon_%28band%29 "Saxon (band)") on the "Sacrifice and Sin" tour. One tour date (September 21, Joilet, Illinois) was rescheduled and became a Fozzy solo date on October 16\. ### *Do You Wanna Start a War* (2014–2015\) [thumb\|Fozzy performing at the El Paso Downtown Street Festival in 2014](/wiki/File:Fozzy_El_Paso_Downtown_Street_Festival.jpg "Fozzy El Paso Downtown Street Festival.jpg") During 2013, it was confirmed that Fozzy would begin working on a new record in 2014 and would be looking for a release date during the summer of 2014\. The band entered the studio in late January. The first single, "[Lights Go Out](/wiki/Lights_Go_Out_%28Fozzy_song%29 "Lights Go Out (Fozzy song)")", was released April 29\. "Lights Go Out" reached number 29 on the *Billboard* Mainstream Rock Songs chart, becoming their first single to make it to the charts. Following the release of the new single, the band embarked on the "Lights Go Out" tour to promote their new album, playing festivals such as Carolina Rebellion, Rock on the Range, and Download, where they performed on the main stage for the first time in the band's history. The second single, "One Crazed Anarchist", was released on May 26, 2014, and was given away to people that pre\-ordered the album. The album, *Do You Wanna Start a War*, was released on July 21 in the UK and Europe and July 22 in North America. The album also features guest appearances by Christie Cook and [Steel Panther](/wiki/Steel_Panther "Steel Panther")'s [Michael Starr](/wiki/Ralph_Saenz "Ralph Saenz"). In September 2014, the band announced that Jeff Rouse would be their new bassist, as Paul Di Leo mutually parted ways with the band in May.{{cite web\|url\=http://loudwire.com/fozzy\-new\-bassist\-jeff\-rouse\-winter\-2014\-headlining\-tour/\|title\=Fozzy Announce New Bassist \+ Winter 2014 Headlining Tour\|website\=Loudwire\|date\=September 30, 2014 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} ### *Judas* (2016–2018\) Jericho confirmed that Fozzy hoped to have their seventh studio album written by January 2016\. As of December 2015, the band had started working on the record and hoped to have a release date sometime in summer 2016\. However, Jericho said in an interview that it was unlikely to be released in 2016 and was more likely to be released in 2017; this could be due to his return as a full\-time WWE in\-ring competitor.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/no\-new\-fozzy\-album\-until\-2017/\|title\=No New FOZZY Album Until 2017\|date\=March 29, 2016\|website\=Blabbermouth.net\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} On March 18, 2017, Jericho announced that Paul Di Leo had rejoined Fozzy on his Instagram page, replacing Randy Drake as the bassist.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.instagram.com/p/BRyPfjMl7kF/ \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/BRyPfjMl7kF \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-24 \|url\-access\=limited\|title\=Instagram post by Chris Jericho • Mar 18, 2017 at 3:47pm UTC\|website\=Instagram\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}}{{cbignore}} On April 26, 2017, the band released a short snippet of their new single and music video titled "Judas", which premiered on *[Loudwire](/wiki/Loudwire "Loudwire")* on May 2\. "Judas" would later become one of the official theme songs for WWE's [NXT TakeOver: Chicago](/wiki/NXT_TakeOver:Chicago "Chicago"),{{cite web\|url\=http://loudwire.com/fozzy\-judas\-exclusive\-video\-premiere/\|title\=Fozzy, 'Judas' \- Exclusive Video Premiere\|website\=Loudwire\|date\=May 2, 2017 \|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} as well as Jericho's theme song in [New Japan Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling "New Japan Pro-Wrestling") and [All Elite Wrestling](/wiki/All_Elite_Wrestling "All Elite Wrestling"). "Judas" instantly became a hit for the band, receiving over 30 million views on YouTube, and reaching number one on various charts worldwide, including reaching number 5 on the *Billboard* Mainstream Rock Songs, their highest charting position for a single. The band embarked on a show tour in May–June 2017\. Guitarist Rich Ward revealed in an interview with Blabbermouth that the album would be released in September 2017 and is also titled *Judas*. The album release date was revealed on Jericho's official Instagram account: *Judas* was released on October 13, 2017\. After extensive touring through 2017 \- 2018, Paul Di Leo would again part ways and again be replaced with Randy Drake for the remainder of the 2018 Judas tour, including Fozzy playing at Jericho's Rock'N'Wrestling Rager at Sea.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/corey\-taylor\-joins\-fozzy\-for\-kiss\-the\-kinks\-covers\-on\-chris\-jerichos\-rock\-n\-wrestling\-rager\-at\-sea\-video/\|title\=COREY TAYLOR Joins FOZZY For KISS, THE KINKS Covers On 'Chris Jericho's Rock 'N' Wrestling Rager At Sea' (Video)\|last\=Blabbermouth\|date\=November 2, 2018\|website\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\|access\-date\=February 15, 2019}} On October 22, 2017, Fozzy played at the Aftershock Festival in Sacramento, California.{{cite web\|url\=https://aftershockconcert.com/lineup/\|title\=Lineup \- Aftershock\|website\=AftershockConcert.com\|access\-date\=November 1, 2017}} ### *Boombox* (2019–present) On April 4, 2019, Fozzy announced that they were signing with [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music"). Following this, they announced they had entered the studio to begin recording of their eighth studio album, later tentatively named as *2020*{{cite web \|last1\=WebIsJericho.com \|first1\=James RyderEditor\-in\-Chief at \|title\=Fozzy Announce Rescheduled Tour Dates And Upcoming Album Name \|url\=https://www.webisjericho.com/fozzy\-announce\-rescheduled\-tour\-dates\-and\-upcoming\-album\-name \|website\=WebIsJericho.com \|date\=24 March 2020}} due for release in 2020\. Chris Jericho debuted the album's first single, "Nowhere to Run" during a broadcast of *The Rock of Jericho* on August 23\. "[Nowhere to Run](/wiki/Nowhere_to_Run_%28Fozzy_song%29 "Nowhere to Run (Fozzy song)")" was later released on August 29, 2019\. However, in July 2020, Chris Jericho said the album's title had been scrapped, and the release was pushed to 2021\. "The original idea was to call it '2020', until we realized that we're not gonna have this thing done till November/December, so it's not as contemporary anymore to put out an album called '2020' when it's 2021\. Let's just leave it behind."{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/fozzy\-scraps\-2020\-album\-title\-pushes\-new\-lp\-back\-to\-2021/\|title \= FOZZY Scraps '2020' Album Title, Pushes New LP Back to 2021\|date \= July 8, 2020}} The album, re\-titled *Boombox*, was released on May 6, 2022\.{{cite web \| url\=https://loudwire.com/chris\-jericho\-do\-not\-take\-granted\-fozzy\-has\-gold\-record/ \| title\=Jericho \- I Don't Take It for Granted That Fozzy Has Gold Record \| website\=\[\[Loudwire]] \| date\=April 29, 2022 }}
[ "History\n-------", "### Formation (1999–2000\\)", "Fozzy started as Fozzy Osbourne, a play on the name of the singer [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\"), and was a [cover band](/wiki/Cover_band \"Cover band\") assembled by Ward from whatever musicians he could find in a given week. In 1999, Jericho and Ward met in [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\"), after a wrestling show and Jericho was invited to play with the band. Their first show was held at the now\\-defunct club \"The Hangar\", in the downtown square of [Marietta, Georgia](/wiki/Marietta%2C_Georgia \"Marietta, Georgia\"). Jericho sat in on a few sessions, but did not plan to play with them permanently. In 2000, Jericho rejoined the band and became its frontman under the persona of Moongoose McQueen, and the band went on tour. As part of the band's \"gimmick\", Jericho refused to acknowledge that Moongoose McQueen and Chris Jericho were the same person. When interviewed as Moongoose, he would stay in character the whole time and even feign ignorance of who Chris Jericho was. On the other side, Chris Jericho was a \"huge fan\" of Moongoose and Fozzy.", "[thumb\\|alt\\=Fozzy logo wordmark\\|upright\\|Fozzy logo wordmark](/wiki/File:Fozzy_logo.svg \"Fozzy logo.svg\")", "### *Fozzy* and *Happenstance* (2000–2002\\)", "The band shortened its name to Fozzy, and adopted the satirical back\\-story that they had signed with a record company to move to Japan to be huge rock stars, but the company went out of business, leaving them stranded for 20 years, while all their demos were snatched and recorded by other bands.{{harvnb\\|Jericho\\|2011\\|p\\=62}} Soon afterward, Fozzy produced their first album, [self\\-titled](/wiki/Fozzy_%28album%29 \"Fozzy (album)\") and featuring mostly covers of bands such as [Dio](/wiki/Dio_%28band%29 \"Dio (band)\"), [Krokus](/wiki/Krokus_%28band%29 \"Krokus (band)\"), [Twisted Sister](/wiki/Twisted_Sister \"Twisted Sister\"), [Iron Maiden](/wiki/Iron_Maiden \"Iron Maiden\"), [Mötley Crüe](/wiki/M%C3%B6tley_Cr%C3%BCe \"Mötley Crüe\") and [Judas Priest](/wiki/Judas_Priest \"Judas Priest\"). Also, at one time the band considered changing their name to Big City Knights.", "Fozzy's second album, *[Happenstance](/wiki/Happenstance_%28Fozzy_album%29 \"Happenstance (Fozzy album)\")*, was produced in 2002, again with mostly covers of bands such as [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath \"Black Sabbath\"), [Scorpions](/wiki/Scorpions_%28band%29 \"Scorpions (band)\"), [W.A.S.P.](/wiki/W.A.S.P._%28band%29 \"W.A.S.P. (band)\") and [Accept](/wiki/Accept_%28band%29 \"Accept (band)\").", "### *All That Remains* (2003–2006\\)", "{{Listen\n\\|filename\\=Fozzy \\- Enemy.ogg\n\\|title\\=\"Enemy\" by Fozzy (2005\\)\n\\|description\\=21 second sample from Fozzy's \"\\[\\[Enemy (Fozzy song)\\|Enemy]]\".\n\\|format\\=\\[\\[Ogg]]}}\nAfter the Happenstance tour ended in 2003, the band dropped its back\\-story and Chris Jericho's McQueen persona.{{harvnb\\|Jericho\\|2011\\|p\\=270}} \\- \"So we dropped the covers, the storyline, the pseudonyms, and the wigs.\" In January 2005, they released their third album, *[All That Remains](/wiki/All_That_Remains_%28album%29 \"All That Remains (album)\")*,{{harvnb\\|Jericho\\|2011\\|p\\=273}} \\- \"So we released our third album, *All That Remains*, in January 2005 on Ash Records.\" which had entirely original tracks, including the singles \"[Enemy](/wiki/Enemy_%28Fozzy_song%29 \"Enemy (Fozzy song)\")\", \"It's a Lie\", \"Born of Anger\", and \"The Test\". *All That Remains* included guest appearances by musicians [Zakk Wylde](/wiki/Zakk_Wylde \"Zakk Wylde\") ([Black Label Society](/wiki/Black_Label_Society \"Black Label Society\"), [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\"), [Pride \\& Glory](/wiki/Pride_%26_Glory_%28band%29 \"Pride & Glory (band)\")), [Bone Crusher](/wiki/Bone_Crusher_%28rapper%29 \"Bone Crusher (rapper)\"), [Mark Tremonti](/wiki/Mark_Tremonti \"Mark Tremonti\") ([Creed](/wiki/Creed_%28band%29 \"Creed (band)\"), [Alter Bridge](/wiki/Alter_Bridge \"Alter Bridge\")), [Myles Kennedy](/wiki/Myles_Kennedy \"Myles Kennedy\") (Alter Bridge, [Slash](/wiki/Slash_%28musician%29 \"Slash (musician)\")), [Marty Friedman](/wiki/Marty_Friedman_%28musician%29 \"Marty Friedman (musician)\") ([Megadeth](/wiki/Megadeth \"Megadeth\")) and [Butch Walker](/wiki/Butch_Walker \"Butch Walker\") ([Marvelous 3](/wiki/Marvelous_3 \"Marvelous 3\")).{{harvnb\\|Jericho\\|2011\\|p\\=271}} \\- \"Any band that had an album featuring the talents of Wylde, Friedman, Tremonti, and Kennedy had to have some credibility \\- and we did.\" The album sold over 100,000 copies.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2008}} In 2005, \"Enemy\" was the theme song for *[WWE No Way Out](/wiki/No_Way_Out_%282005%29 \"No Way Out (2005)\")* and in 2006 for a promotional video for *[TNA Bound for Glory](/wiki/TNA_Bound_for_Glory_%282006%29 \"TNA Bound for Glory (2006)\")*. In 2005, the band played the [Download Festival](/wiki/Download_Festival \"Download Festival\") at [Donington Park](/wiki/Donington_Park \"Donington Park\"), England.", "### *Chasing the Grail* (2009–2011\\)", "Soon after the release of *All That Remains*, a fourth album was announced.", "[thumb\\|Chris Jericho live with Fozzy at the Kleine Klub (Saarbrücken)](/wiki/File:Chris_Jericho_Fozzy.JPG \"Chris Jericho Fozzy.JPG\")", "On March 4, 2009, MetalUnderground.com reported that Fozzy had signed a worldwide record deal with Australian\\-based [Riot! Entertainment](/wiki/Riot_Entertainment \"Riot Entertainment\") to release their fourth album, *[Chasing the Grail](/wiki/Chasing_the_Grail \"Chasing the Grail\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\\=42795\\|title\\=Fozzy Signs To Riot! Entertainment\\|website\\=MetalUnderground.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}} The album's lead single, \"Martyr No More\", was announced as an official theme song for the WWE [Royal Rumble](/wiki/Royal_Rumble_%282010%29 \"Royal Rumble (2010)\") pay per view.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/overtheropes/news/fozzymartyritunes\\|title\\=Fozzy rocks iTunes\\|website\\=WWE.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}} The album was released in America on January 26, 2010, followed by Australia (February) and Europe (March).", "On February 19, 2011, Jericho said during an interview with Active Rock radio station [WBSX](/wiki/WBSX \"WBSX\") in [Wilkes\\-Barre, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania \"Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania\"), that he had completed lyrics for a brand new Fozzy album and that Ward was beginning work on writing the music.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://somethingtofear.blogspot.com/2011/02/breaking\\-chris\\-jericho\\-down.html\\|title\\=Now Fear This: Breaking the Chris Jericho Down\\|first\\=Lazy\\|last\\=E\\|date\\=February 19, 2011\\|website\\=SomethingToFear.Blogspot.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}} The band hoped to have the new album released in February 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.twitter.com/FOZZYROCK\\|title\\=FOZZY (@FOZZYROCK) \\- Twitter\\|website\\=www.Twitter.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}} According to Fozzy's official Facebook page, the recordings were done on May 4, 2012\\. Fozzy released a brand new music video on June 7, which was shot at the Golden Gods Awards for the track \"God Pounds His Nails\".{{YouTube\\|YihnTEpjJQw}} On July 10, Fozzy played the [Sonisphere Festival](/wiki/Sonisphere_Festival \"Sonisphere Festival\") at Knebworth, England.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://uk.sonispherefestivals.com/line\\-up/fozzy/ \\|title\\=Fozzy : Official Sonisphere Festival UK – 2012 – Knebworth House, 6th – 8th July 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718083659/http://uk.sonispherefestivals.com/line\\-up/fozzy/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 18, 2011 }} A special, two\\-CD edition of Fozzy's live album *Remains Alive* was released with Chasing the Grail on July 18\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/fozzy\\-frontman\\-wrestling\\-to\\-metal/\\|title\\=FOZZY Frontman: Wrestling To Metal\\|last\\=Blabbermouth\\|date\\=April 28, 2012\\|website\\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}} The band then announced a headlining tour of the *[United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\")* for November 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rocksins.com/2011/08/fozzy\\-announce\\-uk\\-tour\\-for\\-november\\-2011\\-final\\-tour\\-before\\-recording\\-new\\-album\\-11004/\\|title\\=Fozzy Announce November 2011 UK Headline Tour\\|website\\=www.RockSins.com\\|date\\=August 2, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}}", "On September 9, Sean Delson announced his \"retirement\" from Fozzy as their bass guitar player to resume work with Agent Cooper. Fozzy announced Paul Di Leo, the bass guitarist for Adrenaline Mob, as his replacement.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid\\=71572\\|title\\=Fozzy Bassist Leaves The Band\\|website\\=MetalUnderground.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}}", "### *Sin and Bones* (2012–2013\\)", "On January 18, 2010, it was announced that Fozzy had signed with Century Media Records,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fozzyrock.com/century.aspx\\|title\\=FOZZY Signs Worldwide Deal With Century Media Records\\|website\\=FozzyRock.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615235314/http://www.fozzyrock.com/century.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=June 15, 2012}} and planned to release a new album later in the year. Jericho hinted the new album on his [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\") page, saying, 'New @FOZZYROCK album in August?!'. Jericho recently made a full\\-time return to the [WWE](/wiki/WWE \"WWE\") on January 4,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://vids.wwe.com/14496/raw\\-chris\\-jericho\\-returns\\-to\\-wwe\\|title\\=Home\\|website\\=WWE.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215084617/http://vids.wwe.com/14496/raw\\-chris\\-jericho\\-returns\\-to\\-wwe\\|archive\\-date\\=February 15, 2012}} but despite this, Fozzy was announced to be a part of the [Download Festival](/wiki/Download_Festival \"Download Festival\") in the UK, in the summer.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.downloadfestival.co.uk/news/article/22\\_more\\_bands\\_added\\_to\\_the\\_download\\_line\\_up \\|title\\=22 more bands added to the download line up \\| Download Festival 2012 \\| Official Line up and Tickets for 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302191423/http://www.downloadfestival.co.uk/news/article/22\\_more\\_bands\\_added\\_to\\_the\\_download\\_line\\_up \\|archive\\-date\\=March 2, 2012 }} On July 17, Fozzy released the first single from their fifth studio album, *[Sin and Bones](/wiki/Sin_and_Bones \"Sin and Bones\")*, titled \"Sandpaper\". The song features guest vocals by [M. Shadows](/wiki/M._Shadows \"M. Shadows\") from [Avenged Sevenfold](/wiki/Avenged_Sevenfold \"Avenged Sevenfold\") and was also the [Hell in a Cell](/wiki/Hell_in_a_Cell \"Hell in a Cell\") theme song.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.centurymedia.com/newsdetailed.aspx?IdNews\\=11700\\&IdCompany\\=2\\|title\\=Century Media Records \\- Fozzy: : New Single \"Sandpaper\" Now Available; Band Releases 'Evolution of Fozzy' Video\\|website\\=www.CenturyMedia.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}} Sin and Bones was released on August 14\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.centurymedia.com/newsdetailed.aspx?IdNews\\=11787\\&IdCompany\\=2\\|title\\=Century Media Records \\- Fozzy: : New Album, SIN AND BONES, is Out Now!\\|website\\=www.CenturyMedia.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202030/http://www.centurymedia.com/newsdetailed.aspx?IdNews\\=11787\\&IdCompany\\=2\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Shortly after the album's release, Chris Jericho once again left the WWE with his final appearance being on *[SmackDown](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown \"WWE SmackDown\")*, on August 20,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2012\\-08\\-20/chris\\-jericho\\-wwe\\-career\\-retrospective\\-26046817\\|title\\=Raw: Aug. 20, 2012\\|website\\=WWE.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2012\\-08\\-20/live\\-raw\\-results\\-26046816/page\\-9\\|title\\=Shows\\|website\\=WWE.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}} so that he could go on tour with the band.{{cite web\\|title\\=Raw update \\- Jericho written off TV\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/quicknews/article\\_64474\\.shtml}} Fozzy played on the 2012 [Uproar Festival](/wiki/Uproar_Festival \"Uproar Festival\") tour, headlining the Jägermeister stage. After the Uproar Festival, Fozzy scheduled an international tour with stops in Europe and Australia. Fozzy made their return to the U.S. in 2013 touring as an opener for [Saxon](/wiki/Saxon_%28band%29 \"Saxon (band)\") on the \"Sacrifice and Sin\" tour. One tour date (September 21, Joilet, Illinois) was rescheduled and became a Fozzy solo date on October 16\\.", "### *Do You Wanna Start a War* (2014–2015\\)", "[thumb\\|Fozzy performing at the El Paso Downtown Street Festival in 2014](/wiki/File:Fozzy_El_Paso_Downtown_Street_Festival.jpg \"Fozzy El Paso Downtown Street Festival.jpg\")\nDuring 2013, it was confirmed that Fozzy would begin working on a new record in 2014 and would be looking for a release date during the summer of 2014\\. The band entered the studio in late January. The first single, \"[Lights Go Out](/wiki/Lights_Go_Out_%28Fozzy_song%29 \"Lights Go Out (Fozzy song)\")\", was released April 29\\. \"Lights Go Out\" reached number 29 on the *Billboard* Mainstream Rock Songs chart, becoming their first single to make it to the charts. Following the release of the new single, the band embarked on the \"Lights Go Out\" tour to promote their new album, playing festivals such as Carolina Rebellion, Rock on the Range, and Download, where they performed on the main stage for the first time in the band's history. The second single, \"One Crazed Anarchist\", was released on May 26, 2014, and was given away to people that pre\\-ordered the album. The album, *Do You Wanna Start a War*, was released on July 21 in the UK and Europe and July 22 in North America. The album also features guest appearances by Christie Cook and [Steel Panther](/wiki/Steel_Panther \"Steel Panther\")'s [Michael Starr](/wiki/Ralph_Saenz \"Ralph Saenz\"). In September 2014, the band announced that Jeff Rouse would be their new bassist, as Paul Di Leo mutually parted ways with the band in May.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://loudwire.com/fozzy\\-new\\-bassist\\-jeff\\-rouse\\-winter\\-2014\\-headlining\\-tour/\\|title\\=Fozzy Announce New Bassist \\+ Winter 2014 Headlining Tour\\|website\\=Loudwire\\|date\\=September 30, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}}", "### *Judas* (2016–2018\\)", "Jericho confirmed that Fozzy hoped to have their seventh studio album written by January 2016\\. As of December 2015, the band had started working on the record and hoped to have a release date sometime in summer 2016\\. However, Jericho said in an interview that it was unlikely to be released in 2016 and was more likely to be released in 2017; this could be due to his return as a full\\-time WWE in\\-ring competitor.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/no\\-new\\-fozzy\\-album\\-until\\-2017/\\|title\\=No New FOZZY Album Until 2017\\|date\\=March 29, 2016\\|website\\=Blabbermouth.net\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}}", "On March 18, 2017, Jericho announced that Paul Di Leo had rejoined Fozzy on his Instagram page, replacing Randy Drake as the bassist.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.instagram.com/p/BRyPfjMl7kF/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/BRyPfjMl7kF \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-24 \\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|title\\=Instagram post by Chris Jericho • Mar 18, 2017 at 3:47pm UTC\\|website\\=Instagram\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}}{{cbignore}}", "On April 26, 2017, the band released a short snippet of their new single and music video titled \"Judas\", which premiered on *[Loudwire](/wiki/Loudwire \"Loudwire\")* on May 2\\. \"Judas\" would later become one of the official theme songs for WWE's [NXT TakeOver: Chicago](/wiki/NXT_TakeOver:Chicago \"Chicago\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://loudwire.com/fozzy\\-judas\\-exclusive\\-video\\-premiere/\\|title\\=Fozzy, 'Judas' \\- Exclusive Video Premiere\\|website\\=Loudwire\\|date\\=May 2, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}} as well as Jericho's theme song in [New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling \"New Japan Pro-Wrestling\") and [All Elite Wrestling](/wiki/All_Elite_Wrestling \"All Elite Wrestling\"). \"Judas\" instantly became a hit for the band, receiving over 30 million views on YouTube, and reaching number one on various charts worldwide, including reaching number 5 on the *Billboard* Mainstream Rock Songs, their highest charting position for a single. The band embarked on a show tour in May–June 2017\\.", "Guitarist Rich Ward revealed in an interview with Blabbermouth that the album would be released in September 2017 and is also titled *Judas*. The album release date was revealed on Jericho's official Instagram account: *Judas* was released on October 13, 2017\\. After extensive touring through 2017 \\- 2018, Paul Di Leo would again part ways and again be replaced with Randy Drake for the remainder of the 2018 Judas tour, including Fozzy playing at Jericho's Rock'N'Wrestling Rager at Sea.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/corey\\-taylor\\-joins\\-fozzy\\-for\\-kiss\\-the\\-kinks\\-covers\\-on\\-chris\\-jerichos\\-rock\\-n\\-wrestling\\-rager\\-at\\-sea\\-video/\\|title\\=COREY TAYLOR Joins FOZZY For KISS, THE KINKS Covers On 'Chris Jericho's Rock 'N' Wrestling Rager At Sea' (Video)\\|last\\=Blabbermouth\\|date\\=November 2, 2018\\|website\\=BLABBERMOUTH.NET\\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2019}}\nOn October 22, 2017, Fozzy played at the Aftershock Festival in Sacramento, California.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://aftershockconcert.com/lineup/\\|title\\=Lineup \\- Aftershock\\|website\\=AftershockConcert.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2017}}", "### *Boombox* (2019–present)", "On April 4, 2019, Fozzy announced that they were signing with [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\"). Following this, they announced they had entered the studio to begin recording of their eighth studio album, later tentatively named as *2020*{{cite web \\|last1\\=WebIsJericho.com \\|first1\\=James RyderEditor\\-in\\-Chief at \\|title\\=Fozzy Announce Rescheduled Tour Dates And Upcoming Album Name \\|url\\=https://www.webisjericho.com/fozzy\\-announce\\-rescheduled\\-tour\\-dates\\-and\\-upcoming\\-album\\-name \\|website\\=WebIsJericho.com \\|date\\=24 March 2020}} due for release in 2020\\. Chris Jericho debuted the album's first single, \"Nowhere to Run\" during a broadcast of *The Rock of Jericho* on August 23\\. \"[Nowhere to Run](/wiki/Nowhere_to_Run_%28Fozzy_song%29 \"Nowhere to Run (Fozzy song)\")\" was later released on August 29, 2019\\. However, in July 2020, Chris Jericho said the album's title had been scrapped, and the release was pushed to 2021\\. \"The original idea was to call it '2020', until we realized that we're not gonna have this thing done till November/December, so it's not as contemporary anymore to put out an album called '2020' when it's 2021\\. Let's just leave it behind.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/fozzy\\-scraps\\-2020\\-album\\-title\\-pushes\\-new\\-lp\\-back\\-to\\-2021/\\|title \\= FOZZY Scraps '2020' Album Title, Pushes New LP Back to 2021\\|date \\= July 8, 2020}} The album, re\\-titled *Boombox*, was released on May 6, 2022\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://loudwire.com/chris\\-jericho\\-do\\-not\\-take\\-granted\\-fozzy\\-has\\-gold\\-record/ \\| title\\=Jericho \\- I Don't Take It for Granted That Fozzy Has Gold Record \\| website\\=\\[\\[Loudwire]] \\| date\\=April 29, 2022 }}", "" ]
Mathematician ------------- By the time Green's father died in 1829, the senior Green had become one of the [gentry](/wiki/Gentry "Gentry") due to his considerable accumulated wealth and land owned, roughly half of which he left to his son and the other half to his daughter. The young Green, now thirty\-six years old, consequently was able to use this wealth to abandon his [miller](/wiki/Miller "Miller") duties and pursue mathematical studies. ### Cambridge Members of the Nottingham Subscription Library who knew Green repeatedly insisted that he obtain a proper University education. In particular, one of the library's most prestigious subscribers was Sir Edward Bromhead, with whom Green shared many correspondences; he insisted that Green go to Cambridge. In 1832, aged nearly forty, Green was admitted as an undergraduate at [Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge](/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College%2C_Cambridge "Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge").{{acad\|id\=GRN832G\|name\=Green, George}} He was particularly insecure about his lack of knowledge of [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek "Ancient Greek") and [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin"), which were prerequisites, but it turned out not to be as hard for him to learn these as he had envisaged, as the degree of mastery required was not as high as he had expected. In the mathematics examinations, he won the first\-year mathematical prize. He graduated with a BA in 1838 as a 4th [Wrangler](/wiki/Wrangler_%28University_of_Cambridge%29 "Wrangler (University of Cambridge)") (the 4th highest scoring student in his graduating class, coming after [James Joseph Sylvester](/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester "James Joseph Sylvester") who scored 2nd). ### College fellow Following his graduation, Green was elected a fellow of the [Cambridge Philosophical Society](/wiki/Cambridge_Philosophical_Society "Cambridge Philosophical Society"). Even without his stellar academic standing, the Society had already read and made note of his Essay and three other publications, so Green was welcomed. The next two years provided an unparalleled opportunity for Green to read, write, and discuss his scientific ideas. In this short time he published an additional six publications with applications to hydrodynamics, sound, and optics.
[ "Mathematician\n-------------", "By the time Green's father died in 1829, the senior Green had become one of the [gentry](/wiki/Gentry \"Gentry\") due to his considerable accumulated wealth and land owned, roughly half of which he left to his son and the other half to his daughter. The young Green, now thirty\\-six years old, consequently was able to use this wealth to abandon his [miller](/wiki/Miller \"Miller\") duties and pursue mathematical studies.", "### Cambridge", "Members of the Nottingham Subscription Library who knew Green repeatedly insisted that he obtain a proper University education. In particular, one of the library's most prestigious subscribers was Sir Edward Bromhead, with whom Green shared many correspondences; he insisted that Green go to Cambridge.", "In 1832, aged nearly forty, Green was admitted as an undergraduate at [Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge](/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College%2C_Cambridge \"Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge\").{{acad\\|id\\=GRN832G\\|name\\=Green, George}} He was particularly insecure about his lack of knowledge of [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek \"Ancient Greek\") and [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\"), which were prerequisites, but it turned out not to be as hard for him to learn these as he had envisaged, as the degree of mastery required was not as high as he had expected. In the mathematics examinations, he won the first\\-year mathematical prize. He graduated with a BA in 1838 as a 4th [Wrangler](/wiki/Wrangler_%28University_of_Cambridge%29 \"Wrangler (University of Cambridge)\") (the 4th highest scoring student in his graduating class, coming after [James Joseph Sylvester](/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester \"James Joseph Sylvester\") who scored 2nd).", "### College fellow", "Following his graduation, Green was elected a fellow of the [Cambridge Philosophical Society](/wiki/Cambridge_Philosophical_Society \"Cambridge Philosophical Society\"). Even without his stellar academic standing, the Society had already read and made note of his Essay and three other publications, so Green was welcomed.", "The next two years provided an unparalleled opportunity for Green to read, write, and discuss his scientific ideas. In this short time he published an additional six publications with applications to hydrodynamics, sound, and optics.", "" ]
Plot ---- ### Prologue In 1906,Rooney, David. ["'Anastasia': Theater Review"](http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/anastasia-theater-review-996856) *Hollywood Reporter*, April 24, 2017 [St. Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"), [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"), [Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna](/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_%28Dagmar_of_Denmark%29 "Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)") comforts her youngest granddaughter, five\-year\-old [Grand Duchess Anastasia](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Anastasia_Nikolaevna_of_Russia "Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia"), who is saddened that her grandmother is moving away to [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), [France](/wiki/France "France"). Before departing, the Dowager Empress gives Anastasia a music box, which plays their [lullaby](/wiki/Lullaby "Lullaby"), as a parting gift ("Prologue: Once Upon a December"). Twelve years later, in 1918, a seventeen\-year\-old Anastasia is attending a [ball](/wiki/Ball_%28dance_event%29 "Ball (dance event)") with [her family](/wiki/House_of_Romanov "House of Romanov") when the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks") invade the palace. As they attempt to escape, Anastasia tries to retrieve her music box, only to be shot at and captured along with the rest of her family ("The Last Dance of the Romanovs"). The Dowager Empress later receives word in Paris that the [family had been executed](/wiki/Murder_of_the_Romanov_family "Murder of the Romanov family"). ### Act I In 1927, Gleb Vaganov, a general for the Bolsheviks, who now controls Russia, announces to the gloomy Russians that the now\-poor Saint Petersburg has been renamed [Leningrad](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg%2C_Russia "Saint Petersburg, Russia"), and he promises a bright and peaceful future. The Russians protest this change, but are then uplifted by a rumor that Anastasia may have survived and escaped the royal family's execution. Two wanted con men, the handsome young Dmitry and an ex\-member of the Imperial Court, Vlad Popov, hear the rumors and brainstorm "the biggest con in history": they will groom a naive girl to become Anastasia in order to extract money from the Dowager Empress ("A Rumor in St. Petersburg"). Dmitri and Vlad hold unsuccessful auditions for the scheme at the theater in the abandoned [Yusupov Palace](/wiki/Moika_Palace "Moika Palace"). Just as they are about to give up hope of finding a suitable impostor, a street sweeper named Anya walks in to ask Dmitry about paperwork to get tickets for Paris. Dmitry and Vlad become fascinated as Anya explains that she doesn't remember who she is due to her [amnesia](/wiki/Amnesia "Amnesia") and has very few memories of her past ("In My Dreams"). Amazed by her memory loss and resemblance to Anastasia, they select Anya as their impostor. At the capital, government workers sort through rumors and reports for any that require further action. Three bitter actresses report Anya, Dmitry, and Vlad's plot to Gleb, but he dismisses them and files a case for Anya ("The Rumors Never End"). Back at the palace, Vlad and Dmitry groom a feisty Anya to become Anastasia through history, dining, and dancing lessons ("Learn to Do It"). Gleb orders Anya's arrest, and she is brought to his office in the [Nevsky Prospect](/wiki/Nevsky_Prospect "Nevsky Prospect"). The general interrogates the girl and warns her about the consequences of pretending to be Anastasia. He tries to convince her that Anastasia is really dead. He reveals that his father was one of the soldiers who shot the Romanovs and, as a boy, Gleb heard the gunshots and the family's screams. However, Gleb notices that Anya has the "Romanov eyes" and realizes that Anya could indeed be Anastasia. As he harbors feelings for her, he lets her off with a warning ("The Neva Flows"). Anya reunites with Dmitry and they are teased and attacked by his old con partners, whom they must fight off ("The Neva Flows Reprise"). Impressed by Anya's fighting skills, Dmitry opens up to her for the first time and tells her about his childhood in the streets of St. Petersburg and how he had to take care of himself as an orphan ("My Petersburg"). Dmitry begins to trust her enough to show her a music box that he's failed to open, unaware it is the memento that it had been given to Anastasia by the Dowager Empress. Anya easily winds and opens the box and begins to vaguely remember her past, including an imperial ball many years earlier ("Once Upon a December"). After this episode, Anya is more resolute than ever in her desire to get to Paris, but Dmitry tells her that they don't have enough money to buy the train tickets. Then she gives him her most prized possession, a diamond that was found sewn to her dress when she was discovered years earlier ("A Secret She Kept"). At the [train station](/wiki/Finland_Station "Finland Station"), Count Ipolitov recognizes Anya as Anastasia and kisses her hand. As they board the train to Paris, Count Ipolitov leads everyone in a prayer of farewell to Russia ("Stay, I Pray You"). During the train ride, Anya, Dmitry, and Vlad reflect on what they hope to accomplish in Paris: Anya hoping to discover that she is actually Anastasia, Dmitry's desire for the money, and Vlad hoping to win back Countess Lily Malevsky\-Malevitch ("Sophie" in the [1997 animated film](/wiki/Anastasia_%281997_film%29 "Anastasia (1997 film)")), the Dowager Empress's lady\-in\-waiting with whom he had an affair ("We'll Go From There"). Count Ipolitov is fatally shot by the police for illegally boarding the train. The police officers then go after Anya, Dmitry, and Vlad since they are wanted criminals in Russia, but they all jump off the train, narrowly avoiding capture. As they travel across Russia by foot, Gleb receives orders to follow Anya and kill her if she is the real Anastasia ("Traveling Sequence"). Gleb agrees to the task, but he realizes that he is in love with Anya and questions his heart ("Still"). Anya, Vlad, and Dmitry finally arrive in France, and as they travel to Paris, Anya summons the courage to continue on with the hope that she will finally discover who she is ("Journey to the Past"). ### Act II Anya, Vlad, and Dmitry arrive in Paris and are swept up by the sights and sounds of the city ("Paris Holds the Key (to Your Heart)"). When Vlad and Dmitry go off on their own, Anya visits the [Pont Alexandre III](/wiki/Pont_Alexandre_III "Pont Alexandre III") bridge, named after Anastasia's grandfather, and she feels a strong connection to it ("Crossing a Bridge"). Now a bitter, elderly woman, Dowager Empress Marie Feodorovna reads the letters from various women claiming to be Anastasia and, heartbroken, gives up hope of finding Anastasia ("Close the Door"). As Gleb arrives in Paris, Lily parties at the Neva Club, where rich and noble Russians exiles reminisce about the old Russia ("Land of Yesterday"). Lily is reunited with Vlad, with whom she is angry for stealing her jewelry when they were lovers. The two rekindle their scandalous romance and Vlad convinces her to let Anya meet the Dowager Empress at the ballet the next week ("The Countess and the Common Man"). However, Vlad accidentally drops the ballet tickets and Gleb, overhearing their plans, picks up their tickets ("Land of Yesterday Reprise"). At the hotel, Anya has a nightmare about the execution of the Romanovs ("A Nightmare"). Dmitry comforts her and recounts a story of how he bowed to Anastasia at a parade as a young boy. Anya vividly remembers this, and the two realize that Anya is indeed the Grand Duchess Anastasia ("In a Crowd of Thousands"). At the ballet, Vlad suspects that Anya and Dmitry are falling in love and is heartbroken on their behalf that the two can never be together ("Meant to Be"). During the performance of *[Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake "Swan Lake")*, Anya sees the Dowager Empress and remembers her. The Dowager Empress also sees Anya and recognizes her, but clings to denial. Dmitry and Gleb (who is conflicted about whether or not to shoot Anya) reflect on their romantic feelings ("Quartet at the Ballet"). After the ballet, Lily also recognizes Anya as Anastasia and immediately takes her to the Dowager Empress. Dmitry is anxious about the meeting and realizes that he is in love with Anya, but knows he must let her go to her family ("Everything to Win"). Anya leaves the meeting enraged, having learned from the Dowager Empress that Vlad and Dmitry intended to use her in their scheme for money. As she storms off, Dmitry waits for the Dowager Empress. Marie coldly dismisses him, but Dmitry disrespectfully stops her. He begs her to see Anya, but she refuses again. Back at the hotel, Anya begins to pack, but she is interrupted by the Dowager Empress who, impressed by Dmitry's courage, has come to give her an opportunity. Anya is shocked by the Dowager Empress's cruelty, asserting that she isn't the nana that Anya remembered. The Dowager Empress angrily questions Anya about her past and the Romanov family, but Anya compels her to reflect on the person she has become over last two decades. Anya suddenly remembers the night that the Dowager Empress left her for Paris. When Anya produces the music box and sings the lullaby, the Dowager Empress finally realizes that Anya really is Anastasia and the two embrace, now reunited after twenty years ("Once Upon a December Reprise"). A press conference is held the next morning, where Vlad and Lily try to fend off the hungry reporters ("The Press Conference"). Before appearing in public, the Dowager Empress tells Anya that Dmitry did not take the reward after all and reveals her respect for him. Anya expresses misgivings about her future life as a princess and the Dowager Empress insists that no matter what she chooses, they'll always be together. Anya runs off to think; she realizes that she is in love with Dmitry, and decides that she must go after him ("Everything to Win Reprise"). As she turns to leave, Anya sees that Gleb has slipped in and locked them in the room. She realizes why he is there and Gleb says that he must kill her to complete his father's mission. Anya now clearly remembers the day her family was killed and, without fear, taunts him to kill her so that she can be with her family. Overcome with emotion and not willing to bear the shame of his father, Gleb is unable to kill Anya ("Still/The Neva Flows Reprise"). Anya comforts Gleb and they call a truce. Vlad, Lily, and the palace staff search for Anya and the Dowager Empress is joyful, knowing that Anya is now where she belongs. She and Gleb announce to their people that the rumors of Anastasia will now cease; the reward for finding her will be donated to charity. Anya discovers Dmitry at Pont Alexandre III, where they embrace. The couple leaves Paris as the spirits of the Romanovs celebrate the life that Anya and Dmitry will have together ("Finale").
[ "Plot\n----", "### Prologue", "In 1906,Rooney, David. [\"'Anastasia': Theater Review\"](http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/anastasia-theater-review-996856) *Hollywood Reporter*, April 24, 2017 [St. Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"), [Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna](/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_%28Dagmar_of_Denmark%29 \"Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)\") comforts her youngest granddaughter, five\\-year\\-old [Grand Duchess Anastasia](/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Anastasia_Nikolaevna_of_Russia \"Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia\"), who is saddened that her grandmother is moving away to [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"). Before departing, the Dowager Empress gives Anastasia a music box, which plays their [lullaby](/wiki/Lullaby \"Lullaby\"), as a parting gift (\"Prologue: Once Upon a December\"). Twelve years later, in 1918, a seventeen\\-year\\-old Anastasia is attending a [ball](/wiki/Ball_%28dance_event%29 \"Ball (dance event)\") with [her family](/wiki/House_of_Romanov \"House of Romanov\") when the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\") invade the palace. As they attempt to escape, Anastasia tries to retrieve her music box, only to be shot at and captured along with the rest of her family (\"The Last Dance of the Romanovs\"). The Dowager Empress later receives word in Paris that the [family had been executed](/wiki/Murder_of_the_Romanov_family \"Murder of the Romanov family\").", "### Act I", "In 1927, Gleb Vaganov, a general for the Bolsheviks, who now controls Russia, announces to the gloomy Russians that the now\\-poor Saint Petersburg has been renamed [Leningrad](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg%2C_Russia \"Saint Petersburg, Russia\"), and he promises a bright and peaceful future. The Russians protest this change, but are then uplifted by a rumor that Anastasia may have survived and escaped the royal family's execution. Two wanted con men, the handsome young Dmitry and an ex\\-member of the Imperial Court, Vlad Popov, hear the rumors and brainstorm \"the biggest con in history\": they will groom a naive girl to become Anastasia in order to extract money from the Dowager Empress (\"A Rumor in St. Petersburg\").", "Dmitri and Vlad hold unsuccessful auditions for the scheme at the theater in the abandoned [Yusupov Palace](/wiki/Moika_Palace \"Moika Palace\"). Just as they are about to give up hope of finding a suitable impostor, a street sweeper named Anya walks in to ask Dmitry about paperwork to get tickets for Paris. Dmitry and Vlad become fascinated as Anya explains that she doesn't remember who she is due to her [amnesia](/wiki/Amnesia \"Amnesia\") and has very few memories of her past (\"In My Dreams\"). Amazed by her memory loss and resemblance to Anastasia, they select Anya as their impostor.", "At the capital, government workers sort through rumors and reports for any that require further action. Three bitter actresses report Anya, Dmitry, and Vlad's plot to Gleb, but he dismisses them and files a case for Anya (\"The Rumors Never End\"). Back at the palace, Vlad and Dmitry groom a feisty Anya to become Anastasia through history, dining, and dancing lessons (\"Learn to Do It\").", "Gleb orders Anya's arrest, and she is brought to his office in the [Nevsky Prospect](/wiki/Nevsky_Prospect \"Nevsky Prospect\"). The general interrogates the girl and warns her about the consequences of pretending to be Anastasia. He tries to convince her that Anastasia is really dead. He reveals that his father was one of the soldiers who shot the Romanovs and, as a boy, Gleb heard the gunshots and the family's screams. However, Gleb notices that Anya has the \"Romanov eyes\" and realizes that Anya could indeed be Anastasia. As he harbors feelings for her, he lets her off with a warning (\"The Neva Flows\").", "Anya reunites with Dmitry and they are teased and attacked by his old con partners, whom they must fight off (\"The Neva Flows Reprise\"). Impressed by Anya's fighting skills, Dmitry opens up to her for the first time and tells her about his childhood in the streets of St. Petersburg and how he had to take care of himself as an orphan (\"My Petersburg\"). Dmitry begins to trust her enough to show her a music box that he's failed to open, unaware it is the memento that it had been given to Anastasia by the Dowager Empress. Anya easily winds and opens the box and begins to vaguely remember her past, including an imperial ball many years earlier (\"Once Upon a December\"). After this episode, Anya is more resolute than ever in her desire to get to Paris, but Dmitry tells her that they don't have enough money to buy the train tickets. Then she gives him her most prized possession, a diamond that was found sewn to her dress when she was discovered years earlier (\"A Secret She Kept\").", "At the [train station](/wiki/Finland_Station \"Finland Station\"), Count Ipolitov recognizes Anya as Anastasia and kisses her hand. As they board the train to Paris, Count Ipolitov leads everyone in a prayer of farewell to Russia (\"Stay, I Pray You\"). During the train ride, Anya, Dmitry, and Vlad reflect on what they hope to accomplish in Paris: Anya hoping to discover that she is actually Anastasia, Dmitry's desire for the money, and Vlad hoping to win back Countess Lily Malevsky\\-Malevitch (\"Sophie\" in the [1997 animated film](/wiki/Anastasia_%281997_film%29 \"Anastasia (1997 film)\")), the Dowager Empress's lady\\-in\\-waiting with whom he had an affair (\"We'll Go From There\"). Count Ipolitov is fatally shot by the police for illegally boarding the train. The police officers then go after Anya, Dmitry, and Vlad since they are wanted criminals in Russia, but they all jump off the train, narrowly avoiding capture.", "As they travel across Russia by foot, Gleb receives orders to follow Anya and kill her if she is the real Anastasia (\"Traveling Sequence\"). Gleb agrees to the task, but he realizes that he is in love with Anya and questions his heart (\"Still\"). Anya, Vlad, and Dmitry finally arrive in France, and as they travel to Paris, Anya summons the courage to continue on with the hope that she will finally discover who she is (\"Journey to the Past\").", "### Act II", "Anya, Vlad, and Dmitry arrive in Paris and are swept up by the sights and sounds of the city (\"Paris Holds the Key (to Your Heart)\"). When Vlad and Dmitry go off on their own, Anya visits the [Pont Alexandre III](/wiki/Pont_Alexandre_III \"Pont Alexandre III\") bridge, named after Anastasia's grandfather, and she feels a strong connection to it (\"Crossing a Bridge\").", "Now a bitter, elderly woman, Dowager Empress Marie Feodorovna reads the letters from various women claiming to be Anastasia and, heartbroken, gives up hope of finding Anastasia (\"Close the Door\"). As Gleb arrives in Paris, Lily parties at the Neva Club, where rich and noble Russians exiles reminisce about the old Russia (\"Land of Yesterday\"). Lily is reunited with Vlad, with whom she is angry for stealing her jewelry when they were lovers. The two rekindle their scandalous romance and Vlad convinces her to let Anya meet the Dowager Empress at the ballet the next week (\"The Countess and the Common Man\"). However, Vlad accidentally drops the ballet tickets and Gleb, overhearing their plans, picks up their tickets (\"Land of Yesterday Reprise\").", "At the hotel, Anya has a nightmare about the execution of the Romanovs (\"A Nightmare\"). Dmitry comforts her and recounts a story of how he bowed to Anastasia at a parade as a young boy. Anya vividly remembers this, and the two realize that Anya is indeed the Grand Duchess Anastasia (\"In a Crowd of Thousands\").", "At the ballet, Vlad suspects that Anya and Dmitry are falling in love and is heartbroken on their behalf that the two can never be together (\"Meant to Be\"). During the performance of *[Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake \"Swan Lake\")*, Anya sees the Dowager Empress and remembers her. The Dowager Empress also sees Anya and recognizes her, but clings to denial. Dmitry and Gleb (who is conflicted about whether or not to shoot Anya) reflect on their romantic feelings (\"Quartet at the Ballet\").", "After the ballet, Lily also recognizes Anya as Anastasia and immediately takes her to the Dowager Empress. Dmitry is anxious about the meeting and realizes that he is in love with Anya, but knows he must let her go to her family (\"Everything to Win\"). Anya leaves the meeting enraged, having learned from the Dowager Empress that Vlad and Dmitry intended to use her in their scheme for money. As she storms off, Dmitry waits for the Dowager Empress. Marie coldly dismisses him, but Dmitry disrespectfully stops her. He begs her to see Anya, but she refuses again.", "Back at the hotel, Anya begins to pack, but she is interrupted by the Dowager Empress who, impressed by Dmitry's courage, has come to give her an opportunity. Anya is shocked by the Dowager Empress's cruelty, asserting that she isn't the nana that Anya remembered. The Dowager Empress angrily questions Anya about her past and the Romanov family, but Anya compels her to reflect on the person she has become over last two decades. Anya suddenly remembers the night that the Dowager Empress left her for Paris. When Anya produces the music box and sings the lullaby, the Dowager Empress finally realizes that Anya really is Anastasia and the two embrace, now reunited after twenty years (\"Once Upon a December Reprise\").", "A press conference is held the next morning, where Vlad and Lily try to fend off the hungry reporters (\"The Press Conference\"). Before appearing in public, the Dowager Empress tells Anya that Dmitry did not take the reward after all and reveals her respect for him. Anya expresses misgivings about her future life as a princess and the Dowager Empress insists that no matter what she chooses, they'll always be together. Anya runs off to think; she realizes that she is in love with Dmitry, and decides that she must go after him (\"Everything to Win Reprise\"). As she turns to leave, Anya sees that Gleb has slipped in and locked them in the room. She realizes why he is there and Gleb says that he must kill her to complete his father's mission. Anya now clearly remembers the day her family was killed and, without fear, taunts him to kill her so that she can be with her family. Overcome with emotion and not willing to bear the shame of his father, Gleb is unable to kill Anya (\"Still/The Neva Flows Reprise\"). Anya comforts Gleb and they call a truce.", "Vlad, Lily, and the palace staff search for Anya and the Dowager Empress is joyful, knowing that Anya is now where she belongs. She and Gleb announce to their people that the rumors of Anastasia will now cease; the reward for finding her will be donated to charity. Anya discovers Dmitry at Pont Alexandre III, where they embrace. The couple leaves Paris as the spirits of the Romanovs celebrate the life that Anya and Dmitry will have together (\"Finale\").", "" ]